I want to work at a carbon removal startup. Here are the career pages of good ones:
https://climeworks.com/careers
Careers at Climeworks
2022-06-14
None
<div><div><div><h2>Our mission</h2><p>Climeworks empowers people to fight climate change by permanently removing CO₂ from the air with direct air capture technology. We are dedicated to purpose, we are disruptive thinkers, and we are one team. </p><p>We develop, build, and operate direct air capture (DAC) machines, which capture CO₂ directly from the air. The air-captured carbon dioxide can either be recycled and reused as a raw material or permanently removed from the air by safely storing it underground.</p><p>Founded in 2009 by engineers Christoph Gebald and Jan Wurzbacher, Climeworks was built with the vision to inspire 1 billion people to remove CO₂ from the air and is now the leader in technological carbon removal.</p><p>We're featured as a <a href="/news/climeworks-named-one-of-time100-most-influential-companies">TIME100 Influential Company 2022</a> and <a href="/news/climeworks-is-selected-for-2022-global-cleantech-100">Global Cleantech 100 Company 2022</a> and drive a revolutionary technology engineered to solve the most pressing issue of our time.</p><p>Join us and become a Climeworker now. <br /></p></div><div><p></p><h2>Our values</h2><p></p> </div><div><div><p></p> <p></p><h4>
 One team
 </h4><p></p> <p>The true value of Climeworks is its people.</p></div><div><p></p> <p></p><h4>
 Dedication to purpose
 </h4><p></p> <p>We follow our purpose without compromises.</p></div><div><p></p> <p></p><h4>
 Disruptive thinking
 </h4><p></p> <p>We encourage everyone to follow unconventional paths and to challenge existing solutions. </p></div><div><p></p> <p></p><h4>
 Excellence for scale
 </h4><p></p> <p>We're committed to building products and structures which are designed to be infinitely scalable.</p></div><div><p></p> <p></p><h4>
 Inspiring people
 </h4><p></p> <p>We’re convinced that technology can reharmonize the climate, and with this optimism, we inspire others to join our mission.</p></div></div><div><h2>Our technology</h2><p>Climeworks removes CO₂ from the air to fight global warming and protect future generations to come. We use direct air capture (DAC) technology to capture carbon dioxide directly from the air, permanently removing it from the atmosphere, so it can no longer contribute to climate change. </p></div><div><div><p></p> <h5>Machines</h5> <div><p>Our first direct air capture plant launched in 2017, and we now have 15 machines in operation, with the world’s first large-scale plant switched on in Iceland in September 2021.</p><p><a href="/roadmap/orca">View our plants</a></p></div></div> <div><p></p> <h5>Technology</h5> <div><p>Our machines consist of modular CO₂ collectors, which selectively capture carbon dioxide in a two-step process. The CO₂ captured can either be stored or reused as a raw material.</p><p><a href="/direct-air-capture">Find out how it works</a></p></div></div> <div><p></p> <h5>Storage</h5> <div><p>Once the CO₂ is captured, it can be permanently and safely turned into stone through rapid mineralization, which is a natural occurrence where the CO₂ reacts with basalt rock. </p><p><a href="/blog-co2-storage-solutions">Learn about carbon storage</a></p></div></div></div><div><h2>We are one team</h2><p>At Climeworks, diversity, equality, and inclusion are at the core of who we are. Our commitment to these values is central to our vision and our purpose. We know that in order to solve one of humankind’s greatest challenges, we need disruptive thinking and diverse perspectives. The true value of Climeworks is its people, and we believe that together, we can fight climate change.</p></div><div><h2>Why work with us?</h2><p>Since Climeworks was founded in 2009, we've been dedicated to scaling up our <a href="https://climeworks.com/orca">direct air capture</a> technology to remove legacy CO₂ from the air. Today, as the market leader in the field and backed by strong investors with our latest funding round exceeding CHF 600m (USD 650m), we're driving the development of a new, emerging industry. Climeworks operates various facilities all over Europe, including the world's first commercial-scale direct air capture and storage plant.</p><p>We’re an international team with diverse backgrounds. Located in 4 countries (Switzerland, Germany, Iceland and the US) with over 200 employees, we’re on a mission toward a better world.</p><p>Explore the future with us!</p></div><div><p></p><h2>Join our team</h2><p></p> <p>Unfortunately, we do not have a job that matches your search criteria. Try another keyword.</p> <p>Explore all jobs</p></div><div><p>Find the General Terms and Conditions for Recruitment Agencies <a href="https://climeworkscom.cdn.prismic.io/climeworkscom/9f06e89a-7ba7-40d4-8b39-1c0d203d81c6_General+Terms+and+Conditions+for+Recruitment+Agencies.pdf">here</a>.</p> </div></div>||||I|||| Act now
 What we do
 Remove CO₂
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 Our mission

 Climeworks empowers people to fight climate change by permanently removing CO₂ from the air with direct air capture technology. We are dedicated to purpose, we are disruptive thinkers, and we are one team.

 We develop, build, and operate direct air capture (DAC) machines, which capture CO₂ directly from the air. The air-captured carbon dioxide can either be recycled and reused as a raw material or permanently removed from the air by safely storing it underground.

 Founded in 2009 by engineers Christoph Gebald and Jan Wurzbacher, Climeworks was built with the vision to inspire 1 billion people to remove CO₂ from the air and is now the leader in technological carbon removal.

 We're featured as a TIME100 Influential Company 2022 and Global Cleantech 100 Company 2022 and drive a revolutionary technology engineered to solve the most pressing issue of our time.

 Join us and become a Climeworker now.

 Watch our "Life at Climeworks" video

 Our values

 One team

 The true value of Climeworks is its people.

 Dedication to purpose

 We follow our purpose without compromises.

 Disruptive thinking

 We encourage everyone to follow unconventional paths and to challenge existing solutions.

 Excellence for scale

 We're committed to building products and structures which are designed to be infinitely scalable.

 Inspiring people

 We’re convinced that technology can reharmonize the climate, and with this optimism, we inspire others to join our mission.

 Our technology

 Climeworks removes CO₂ from the air to fight global warming and protect future generations to come. We use direct air capture (DAC) technology to capture carbon dioxide directly from the air, permanently removing it from the atmosphere, so it can no longer contribute to climate change.

 Machines

 Our first direct air capture plant launched in 2017, and we now have 15 machines in operation, with the world’s first large-scale plant switched on in Iceland in September 2021.

 View our plants

 Technology

 Our machines consist of modular CO₂ collectors, which selectively capture carbon dioxide in a two-step process. The CO₂ captured can either be stored or reused as a raw material.

 Find out how it works

 Storage

 Once the CO₂ is captured, it can be permanently and safely turned into stone through rapid mineralization, which is a natural occurrence where the CO₂ reacts with basalt rock.

 Learn about carbon storage

 We are one team

 At Climeworks, diversity, equality, and inclusion are at the core of who we are. Our commitment to these values is central to our vision and our purpose. We know that in order to solve one of humankind’s greatest challenges, we need disruptive thinking and diverse perspectives. The true value of Climeworks is its people, and we believe that together, we can fight climate change.

 Get to know Climeworks
 Carlos Härtel, CTO

 How do you see the future?

 I'm excited about our journey so far and even more excited about what's to come. The growth potential is great and Climeworks is bringing together some of the best minds to make our goals a reality.

 Team Operations

 Watch video

 Team Finance & Legal

 Watch video
 Ruth Garcia, Research and Development Engineer

 Why do you love working for Climeworks?

 The most inspiring aspect of Climeworks is the people. Everyone is very motivated and passionate, which creates a good working atmosphere that allows people to tackle any challenge that comes along.

 Team Technology

 Watch video

 Team Engineering

 Watch video

 Why work with us?

 Since Climeworks was founded in 2009, we've been dedicated to scaling up our direct air capture technology to remove legacy CO₂ from the air. Today, as the market leader in the field and backed by strong investors with our latest funding round exceeding CHF 600m (USD 650m), we're driving the development of a new, emerging industry. Climeworks operates various facilities all over Europe, including the world's first commercial-scale direct air capture and storage plant.

 We’re an international team with diverse backgrounds. Located in 4 countries (Switzerland, Germany, Iceland and the US) with over 200 employees, we’re on a mission toward a better world.

 Explore the future with us!

 Join our team

 Unfortunately, we do not have a job that matches your search criteria. Try another keyword.
 Explore all jobs

 Find the General Terms and Conditions for Recruitment Agencies here.

 Learn more about us

 At Climeworks, we believe the people make all the difference. Explore more about our team, our technology, and our culture.
 Our purpose Direct air capture
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 © 2023 Climeworks Terms of use Privacy notice Login
Our mission Climeworks empowers people to fight climate change by permanently removing CO₂ from the air with direct air capture technology. We are dedicated to purpose, we are disruptive thinkers, and we are one team.  We develop, build, and operate direct air capture (DAC) machines, which capture CO₂ directly from the air. The air-captured carbon dioxide can either be recycled and reused as a raw material or permanently removed from the air by safely storing it underground. Founded in 2009 by engineers Christoph Gebald and Jan Wurzbacher, Climeworks was built with the vision to inspire 1 billion people to remove CO₂ from the air and is now the leader in technological carbon removal. We're featured as a TIME100 Influential Company 2022 and Global Cleantech 100 Company 2022 and drive a revolutionary technology engineered to solve the most pressing issue of our time. Join us and become a Climeworker now.       Our values          
 One team
    The true value of Climeworks is its people.       
 Dedication to purpose
    We follow our purpose without compromises.       
 Disruptive thinking
    We encourage everyone to follow unconventional paths and to challenge existing solutions.        
 Excellence for scale
    We're committed to building products and structures which are designed to be infinitely scalable.       
 Inspiring people
    We’re convinced that technology can reharmonize the climate, and with this optimism, we inspire others to join our mission.    Our technology Climeworks removes CO₂ from the air to fight global warming and protect future generations to come. We use direct air capture (DAC) technology to capture carbon dioxide directly from the air, permanently removing it from the atmosphere, so it can no longer contribute to climate change.       Machines  Our first direct air capture plant launched in 2017, and we now have 15 machines in operation, with the world’s first large-scale plant switched on in Iceland in September 2021.  View our plants       Technology  Our machines consist of modular CO₂ collectors, which selectively capture carbon dioxide in a two-step process. The CO₂ captured can either be stored or reused as a raw material.  Find out how it works       Storage  Once the CO₂ is captured, it can be permanently and safely turned into stone through rapid mineralization, which is a natural occurrence where the CO₂ reacts with basalt rock.   Learn about carbon storage      We are one team At Climeworks, diversity, equality, and inclusion are at the core of who we are. Our commitment to these values is central to our vision and our purpose. We know that in order to solve one of humankind’s greatest challenges, we need disruptive thinking and diverse perspectives. The true value of Climeworks is its people, and we believe that together, we can fight climate change.   Why work with us? Since Climeworks was founded in 2009, we've been dedicated to scaling up our direct air capture technology to remove legacy CO₂ from the air. Today, as the market leader in the field and backed by strong investors with our latest funding round exceeding CHF 600m (USD 650m), we're driving the development of a new, emerging industry. Climeworks operates various facilities all over Europe, including the world's first commercial-scale direct air capture and storage plant. We’re an international team with diverse backgrounds. Located in 4 countries (Switzerland, Germany, Iceland and the US) with over 200 employees, we’re on a mission toward a better world. Explore the future with us!     Join our team   Unfortunately, we do not have a job that matches your search criteria. Try another keyword. Explore all jobs   Find the General Terms and Conditions for Recruitment Agencies here.
Careers at Climeworks
https://climeworks.com/careers
https://www.carbonclean.com/careers
Carbon capture careers | Carbon Clean
2024-01-01
None
<div><div>
<h3><strong>Global workplace</strong></h3>
<p></p>
<h3><strong></strong></h3>
<p></p>
</div></div>||||I|||| Speak with an Expert
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 Careers at Carbon Clean

 Help us tackle industrial carbon emissions

 We are taking action on climate change – capturing carbon emissions from heavy industries across the globe. We all rely on these industries, but they account for up to 30% of global carbon emissions and are hard to decarbonise.
 Our carbon capture solutions make this possible and we are on a mission to deliver industrial decarbonisation on a gigatonne scale – and fast!
 We’ve been doing this since 2009 and have a brilliant and passionate team. But we need more great people to join our fight against climate change.

 Will you join us?

 View current opportunities

 Why work here?

 Benefits

 Depending on where you are located, we offer a range of rewards. From a competitive salary to support with healthcare – our benefits packages are designed to help you thrive at work and in life .

 Impact

 There’s something we all share at Carbon Clean – a deep desire to make a difference. We care about impact and it influences everything we do. Our work matters – we are delivering technologies that directly reduce carbon emissions.

 Values

 We are united in valuing innovation, agility, collaboration and excellence and our culture reflects these values. Ideas and challenge are welcomed, teamwork and communication are encouraged. Read more on our values .

 Global workplace

 Climate change is a global issue and our solutions are needed everywhere. We’re a diverse team with a global outlook, working out of offices in the UK, India and the US. We embrace diversity and take the time to get to know each other and our respective cultures.

 Equal opportunities

 As a growing business, we’ll encourage you to develop your professional and personal aspirations, enjoy new experiences, and learn from the talented people you'll be working with in an inclusive environment. It’s talent that matters to us and we encourage applications from people irrespective of their gender, race, sexual orientation, identity, religion, age, disability status or caring responsibilities.

 Life at Carbon Clean

 Aida Abdollahi
 Project Manager

 "My work here is very dynamic and different to what I’ve done for most of my working life. I come from a background in oil and gas subsea pipeline design, so understanding process design and the carbon capture process in general has been mind expanding! Given we are a fast-developing start up, I have the opportunity to get involved in decisions/tasks that are not typical for a project manager, which again is great for my development. Working at Carbon Clean has given me the mental challenge that I was looking for. It's taken me out of my comfort zone and been a great career-expanding move."

 Ramesh Kumar Ausula
 Technology Manager, India

 "I have been part of Carbon Clean from the start. The work is challenging but I'm always learning from colleagues across the world. We are helping to make the planet cleaner, greener and a better place to live. It's exciting to be developing innovative, cost-effective solutions to make carbon capture more affordable."

 Lim Beng Chong
 Sales Director (APAC)

 "There is an open culture at Carbon Clean with great dialogue between colleagues and we are encouraged to speak our minds freely. Most importantly, there are high levels of trust and collaboration between teams and, with that, comes a sense of unity. We're all pulling together to achieve great things."

 Open positions

 Ready to join our team? Select the location below to see our open roles.

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 © 2024 Carbon Clean Solutions Limited. All Rights Reserved.

Speak with an Expert
 Technology to Achieve 'Net Zero'
 * About Us
 + About Us
 + Mission & Vision
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 + Technology Licence
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 + eBooks & Reports
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 * Contact Us
 + Contact Us
 + Speak with a Specialist
 Careers at Carbon Clean
 Help us tackle industrial carbon emissions
 We are taking action on climate change – capturing carbon emissions from heavy industries across the globe. We all rely on these industries, but they account for up to 30% of global carbon emissions and are hard to decarbonise.
 Our carbon capture solutions make this possible and we are on a mission to deliver industrial decarbonisation on a gigatonne scale – and fast!
 We’ve been doing this since 2009 and have a brilliant and passionate team. But we need more great people to join our fight against climate change.
 Will you join us?
 View current opportunities
 Why work here?
 Benefits
 Depending on where you are located, we offer a range of rewards. From a competitive salary to support with healthcare – our benefits packages are designed to help you thrive at work and in life .
 Impact
 There’s something we all share at Carbon Clean – a deep desire to make a difference. We care about impact and it influences everything we do. Our work matters – we are delivering technologies that directly reduce carbon emissions.
 Values
 We are united in valuing innovation, agility, collaboration and excellence and our culture reflects these values. Ideas and challenge are welcomed, teamwork and communication are encouraged. Read more on our values .
 Global workplace
 Climate change is a global issue and our solutions are needed everywhere. We’re a diverse team with a global outlook, working out of offices in the UK, India and the US. We embrace diversity and take the time to get to know each other and our respective cultures.
 Equal opportunities
 As a growing business, we’ll encourage you to develop your professional and personal aspirations, enjoy new experiences, and learn from the talented people you'll be working with in an inclusive environment. It’s talent that matters to us and we encourage applications from people irrespective of their gender, race, sexual orientation, identity, religion, age, disability status or caring responsibilities.
 Life at Carbon Clean
 Aida Abdollahi
 Project Manager
 "My work here is very dynamic and different to what I’ve done for most of my working life. I come from a background in oil and gas subsea pipeline design, so understanding process design and the carbon capture process in general has been mind expanding! Given we are a fast-developing start up, I have the opportunity to get involved in decisions/tasks that are not typical for a project manager, which again is great for my development. Working at Carbon Clean has given me the mental challenge that I was looking for. It's taken me out of my comfort zone and been a great career-expanding move."
 Ramesh Kumar Ausula
 Technology Manager, India
 "I have been part of Carbon Clean from the start. The work is challenging but I'm always learning from colleagues across the world. We are helping to make the planet cleaner, greener and a better place to live. It's exciting to be developing innovative, cost-effective solutions to make carbon capture more affordable."
 Lim Beng Chong
 Sales Director (APAC)
 "There is an open culture at Carbon Clean with great dialogue between colleagues and we are encouraged to speak our minds freely. Most importantly, there are high levels of trust and collaboration between teams and, with that, comes a sense of unity. We're all pulling together to achieve great things."
 Open positions
 Ready to join our team? Select the location below to see our open roles.
 Quick Links
 * About Us
 * News
 * Contact Us
 * Newsletter Sign-Up
 * Privacy Policy
 * HSEQ Policy Statement
 Technology
 * Modular Systems
 * Technology Licence
 * Solvents
 * Engineering Services
 Industries
 * Cement
 * Refineries
 * Steel
 * Energy from Waste
 * Biogas
 © 2024 Carbon Clean Solutions Limited. All Rights Reserved.
Carbon capture careers | Carbon Clean
https://www.carbonclean.com/careers
https://scale.com/careers?office=All&department=All
Careers | Scale AI
2023-08-02
None
<div><div><main> <div><header><hr/></header><section><div><h2>Scale is growing.<br/>Grow with Us.</h2><p>Join us as we accelerate the development of AI applications</p></div></section><div></div><div><div><p>The age of AI is here. Generative AI has the potential to unseat incumbents, catapult new leaders, or solidify existing moats.</p><p>Every industry, from the private sector to public sector is rethinking their strategies to incorporate AI. Despite this explosion in interest, there is no blueprint for organizations to go from inception to deployment for their AI initiatives.</p></div><div><p>Our products for image annotation, semantic segmentation, 3D point cloud annotation, and LIDAR and RADAR annotation are used by industry leaders and provide world-class accuracy.</p><p>Our proprietary <a href="https://scale.com/data-engine"></a> powers the most advanced LLMs, generative models, and computer vision models with high-quality data. We then apply our experience partnering with leading AI companies building these models to help more organizations customize and <a href="https://scale.com/data-engine"></a> in their organizations.</p></div></div><div><div><p></p><h2>Our Internal Core Values</h2><p>Our credos provide a framework for us to make decisions and work effectively as a team, ensuring we are aligned in executing on our mission.</p></div><div><div><p></p><div><h3>Earn Customer Love</h3><p>We are passionate about our customers and devoted to their success. We know that customer trust and confidence is earned, not given, with every interaction, every delivery, and every time we solve a customer problem.</p></div></div><div><p></p><div><h3>Intellectual Rigor, Open Mind</h3><p>We think in clear verifiable hypotheses and continuously obtain data that validates or refutes them. We ask questions and challenge assumptions to get consistently to the truth.</p></div></div><div><p></p><div><h3>Ambition Shapes Reality</h3><p>We are extremely ambitious in what we can accomplish. We set high standards, expecting to fail in the short-term but knowing that failure guides us to learn and ultimately succeed.</p></div></div><div><p></p><div><h3>Team Flow</h3><p>We are energized by each other’s success and actively invest in others with care, candor, and focus. Ideas flow openly between us because we treat each other with trust and respect.</p></div></div><div><p></p><div><h3>Ownership Is The Job</h3><p>We think like owners. We embody expansive ownership and are big believers in our ability to drive outcomes and enact change.</p></div></div><div><p></p><div><h3>Run Through Walls</h3><p>We are undaunted by barriers and race towards overcoming them. We step outside of our comfort zone, test our ideas, and do the hard work to get to the right solution to a hard problem.</p></div></div><div><p></p><div><h3>Why Not Faster?</h3><p>We move with agility and intent, and swiftly make two-way door decisions that allow us to learn faster, adapt quickly, and ultimately do more.</p></div></div><div><p></p><div><h3>Results Speak Loudest</h3><p>We define goals with intent and evaluate our outcomes with objectivity. At the end of the day, we measure ourselves by our results.</p></div></div></div></div><div><p></p><h2>Meet Our Team</h2><p>No matter the role, everyone at Scale has a unique story to tell. Here are just some of them:</p></div><div><div><p></p><h2>Supporting You To Do Your Best Work</h2><p>At Scale, we believe your talent and achievements deserve to be met with a supportive community and flexible environment.</p></div><div><div><p></p><div><h3>Health &amp; Wellbeing</h3><p>Our holistic approach to supporting Scaliens includes comprehensive health coverage, dental and vision insurance, mental healthcare services, and more. PTO policies and accommodating schedules ensure you’ll get time off when you need it to relax and recharge. Note that our offerings may vary by region as we strive to respond to the unique needs of Scaliens around the globe.</p></div></div><div><p></p><div><h3>Personal &amp; Career Growth</h3><p>Continuously learn and grow through annual learning &amp; development stipend, attending leadership breakfasts, manager training, speaker series, and joining an ERG.</p></div></div><div><p></p><div><h3>Building Scale Community</h3><p>We welcome guests to our offices, and you can expect to see Scalien families and friends around. Join local happy hours, and accept invites to game nights, book clubs, and many other employee-led community events.</p></div></div><div><p></p><div><h3>Parental Support</h3><p>Balancing work and family is essential, and Scale understands the importance of having adequate leave policies in place to promote a healthy home and work life.</p></div></div></div></div><div><p></p><h2>Help us bring human intelligence to software</h2></div></div></main></div></div>||||I|||| Scale

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 Every industry, from the private sector to public sector is rethinking their strategies to incorporate AI. Despite this explosion in interest, there is no blueprint for organizations to go from inception to deployment for their AI initiatives.

 Our products for image annotation, semantic segmentation, 3D point cloud annotation, and LIDAR and RADAR annotation are used by industry leaders and provide world-class accuracy.

 Our proprietary Data Engine powers the most advanced LLMs, generative models, and computer vision models with high-quality data. We then apply our experience partnering with leading AI companies building these models to help more organizations customize and Apply AI in their organizations.

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 Our Internal Core Values

 Our credos provide a framework for us to make decisions and work effectively as a team, ensuring we are aligned in executing on our mission.

 Earn Customer Love

 We are passionate about our customers and devoted to their success. We know that customer trust and confidence is earned, not given, with every interaction, every delivery, and every time we solve a customer problem.

 Intellectual Rigor, Open Mind

 We think in clear verifiable hypotheses and continuously obtain data that validates or refutes them. We ask questions and challenge assumptions to get consistently to the truth.

 Ambition Shapes Reality

 We are extremely ambitious in what we can accomplish. We set high standards, expecting to fail in the short-term but knowing that failure guides us to learn and ultimately succeed.

 Team Flow

 We are energized by each other’s success and actively invest in others with care, candor, and focus. Ideas flow openly between us because we treat each other with trust and respect.

 Ownership Is The Job

 We think like owners. We embody expansive ownership and are big believers in our ability to drive outcomes and enact change.

 Run Through Walls

 We are undaunted by barriers and race towards overcoming them. We step outside of our comfort zone, test our ideas, and do the hard work to get to the right solution to a hard problem.

 Why Not Faster?

 We move with agility and intent, and swiftly make two-way door decisions that allow us to learn faster, adapt quickly, and ultimately do more.

 Results Speak Loudest

 We define goals with intent and evaluate our outcomes with objectivity. At the end of the day, we measure ourselves by our results.

 OUR TEAM

 Meet Our Team

 No matter the role, everyone at Scale has a unique story to tell. Here are just some of them:

 Arun Murthy

 Chief Product & Technology Officer

 John Brennan

 General Manager

 OUR BENEFITS

 Supporting You To Do Your Best Work

 At Scale, we believe your talent and achievements deserve to be met with a supportive community and flexible environment.

 Health & Wellbeing

 Our holistic approach to supporting Scaliens includes comprehensive health coverage, dental and vision insurance, mental healthcare services, and more. PTO policies and accommodating schedules ensure you’ll get time off when you need it to relax and recharge. Note that our offerings may vary by region as we strive to respond to the unique needs of Scaliens around the globe.

 Personal & Career Growth

 Continuously learn and grow through annual learning & development stipend, attending leadership breakfasts, manager training, speaker series, and joining an ERG.

 Building Scale Community

 We welcome guests to our offices, and you can expect to see Scalien families and friends around. Join local happy hours, and accept invites to game nights, book clubs, and many other employee-led community events.

 Parental Support

 Balancing work and family is essential, and Scale understands the importance of having adequate leave policies in place to promote a healthy home and work life.

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	Cresta is on a mission to enable everyone to be 100x as effective at work.	
	We’re a small but mighty team of experienced go-to-market experts, former PhDs, and engineers from places like Google, Facebook, OpenAI and Stanford. If you’re interested in solving hard problems, building the AI-playbook, and creating AI products that drive real measurable results, we want to hear from you!
	
		
	
	
	
	Why We Work Here	
	
	
	
	
	Mission	
	We believe in the power of AI as an enabling tool to democratize expertise.
	
	
	
	A+ Team	
	Our team consists of a majority of ex-Founders, world leading scientists and nationally competitive athletes.
	
	
	
	Weekly Lunch &amp; Learn	
	We present and discuss cutting edge AI research that directly impacts our work.
	
	
	
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	A world class mentorship board advises and mentors our team-members to capture the opportunity ahead of us.
	
	
	
	
	
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https://climeworks.com/
Journey toward net zero with Climeworks' carbon removal service
2021-08-25
None
<div><div> <div><p>Act now</p> <p>Join the fight against global warming</p> <div><div><p>
 Enterprises
 </p> <div><p>
 Enterprises
 </p> <p>Our carbon removal service for enterprises seeking high-quality carbon removal for their net zero strategy and beyond. </p></div> </div><div><p>
 SMEs
 </p> <div><p>
 SMEs
 </p> <p>Our carbon removal service for small – medium businesses who want to help the world reach net zero and support our scale-up.</p></div> </div><div><p>
 Individuals
 </p> <div><p>
 Individuals
 </p> <p>Our carbon removal service for individuals who want to reduce their impact on the planet and contribute to our scale-up.</p></div> </div></div></div> <div><div><h2>Pioneering a way forward</h2><p>The science is clear: to keep global warming below 1.5°C, we need both drastic emissions reductions <strong>and</strong> carbon dioxide removal. At Climeworks, we’ve developed an innovative technology called <strong>“direct air capture”</strong> to remove excess CO₂ from the air so it can no longer contribute to climate change. In collaboration with our high-quality CO₂ storage partners, we provide <strong>carbon dioxide removal services</strong> that are permanent, measurable, and scalable.</p></div><div><div><p></p> <h5>Permanent</h5> <div><p>We combine our direct air capture technology with <strong>permanent underground storage</strong>. In Iceland, captured CO₂ is turned into stone and stored safely for thousands of years via the Carbfix method.</p><p><a href="/direct-air-capture">Discover how it works</a></p></div></div> <div><p></p> <h5>Measurable</h5> <div><p>There’s no uncertainty about how much CO₂ we remove because we can measure exactly, and our service is <strong>third-party verified.</strong></p><p><a href="/mrv-and-integrity-in-the-carbon-removal-industry">Learn about verification</a></p></div></div> <div><p></p> <h5>Scalable</h5> <div><p>Our technology is highly scalable and location independent. There's <strong>global potential</strong> for direct air capture and storage from the Middle East to North America.</p><p><a href="/purpose">Follow our scale-up journey</a></p></div></div></div><div><h2>Many of the world’s top businesses partner with Climeworks on their journey to net zero</h2><p>Corporate and climate-action leaders trust Climeworks to remove their unavoidable and historic emissions from the air. Their <strong>long-term commitments </strong>are critical in the scale-up of the direct air capture industry and demonstrate truly inspiring<strong> climate leadership</strong>.</p></div><div><h2>Latest news and insights</h2> </div><div><p></p><h3>Featured in</h3><p></p> </div></div> </div></div>||||I|||| Act now
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 Pioneering a way forward

 The science is clear: to keep global warming below 1.5°C, we need both drastic emissions reductions and carbon dioxide removal. At Climeworks, we’ve developed an innovative technology called “direct air capture” to remove excess CO₂ from the air so it can no longer contribute to climate change. In collaboration with our high-quality CO₂ storage partners, we provide carbon dioxide removal services that are permanent, measurable, and scalable.

 Permanent

 We combine our direct air capture technology with permanent underground storage. In Iceland, captured CO₂ is turned into stone and stored safely for thousands of years via the Carbfix method.

 Discover how it works

 Measurable

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Act now Join the fight against global warming   
 Enterprises
   
 Enterprises
  Our carbon removal service for enterprises seeking high-quality carbon removal for their net zero strategy and beyond.     
 SMEs
   
 SMEs
  Our carbon removal service for small – medium businesses who want to help the world reach net zero and support our scale-up.    
 Individuals
   
 Individuals
  Our carbon removal service for individuals who want to reduce their impact on the planet and contribute to our scale-up.       Pioneering a way forward The science is clear: to keep global warming below 1.5°C, we need both drastic emissions reductions and carbon dioxide removal. At Climeworks, we’ve developed an innovative technology called “direct air capture” to remove excess CO₂ from the air so it can no longer contribute to climate change. In collaboration with our high-quality CO₂ storage partners, we provide carbon dioxide removal services that are permanent, measurable, and scalable.      Permanent  We combine our direct air capture technology with permanent underground storage. In Iceland, captured CO₂ is turned into stone and stored safely for thousands of years via the Carbfix method.  Discover how it works       Measurable  There’s no uncertainty about how much CO₂ we remove because we can measure exactly, and our service is third-party verified.   Learn about verification       Scalable  Our technology is highly scalable and location independent. There's global potential for direct air capture and storage from the Middle East to North America.  Follow our scale-up journey      Many of the world’s top businesses partner with Climeworks on their journey to net zero Corporate and climate-action leaders trust Climeworks to remove their unavoidable and historic emissions from the air. Their long-term commitments are critical in the scale-up of the direct air capture industry and demonstrate truly inspiring climate leadership.   Latest news and insights     Featured in
Journey toward net zero with Climeworks' carbon removal service
https://climeworks.com/
https://deepbranch.com/technology/
Technology
2020-07-13
None
<div><div>
<div>
<div>
<p>Our proprietary gas fermentation platform, (R)evolve, uses carbon dioxide and hydrogen as clean and renewable carbon and energy sources to create ingredients for a more sustainable food system.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p></p><p> 
</p>
</div>
</div>
<div>
<div>
<div>
<p>
<h2>How it works</h2> </p>
</div>
<div>
<p>
<h3>CO₂-to-protein</h3> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div>
<p> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div>
<div>
<p> </p>
</div>
<div>
<div>
<p>
<h3>Proton™ for Feed Producers</h3> </p>
</div>
<div>
<p>
<h2>A New Standard for Macronutrients</h2> </p>
</div>
<div>
<p></p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div>
<div>
<p>
<h3>Ecosystem</h3> </p>
</div>
<div>
<p>
<h3>CO₂-to-protein</h3> </p>
</div>
<div>
<p> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div>
<div>
<p>
<h2>Collaborative Innovation</h2> </p>
</div>
<div>
<p>Innovations like ours don’t happen in a vacuum. We’re creating new value chains to decarbonise our food systems and are ensuring a net positive outcome for all stakeholders.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div></div>||||I|||| * About Us
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 Our proprietary gas fermentation platform, (R)evolve, uses carbon dioxide and hydrogen as clean and renewable carbon and energy sources to create ingredients for a more sustainable food system.

 Play Video

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 CO₂-to-protein

 Proton™ for Feed Producers

 A New Standard for Macronutrients

 Proton™ is not just more environmentally friendly, but also provides a continuous supply of a price-stable, price-competitive, and nutritionally optimal macro ingredient. Proton™ offers a 90% saving on carbon footprint.

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 Innovations like ours don’t happen in a vacuum. We’re creating new value chains to decarbonise our food systems and are ensuring a net positive outcome for all stakeholders.

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Our proprietary gas fermentation platform, (R)evolve, uses carbon dioxide and hydrogen as clean and renewable carbon and energy sources to create ingredients for a more sustainable food system.
   
How it works 
CO₂-to-protein 
 
 
Proton™ for Feed Producers 
A New Standard for Macronutrients 
 
Ecosystem 
CO₂-to-protein 
 
Collaborative Innovation 
Innovations like ours don’t happen in a vacuum. We’re creating new value chains to decarbonise our food systems and are ensuring a net positive outcome for all stakeholders.
Technology
https://deepbranch.com/technology/
https://www.carbonclean.com/
Carbon capture and storage to reach net zero | Carbon Clean
2023-03-28
March
<div><div>
	<div>
	<p>"In alignment with the Tata group’s pioneering values, we have taken this strategic step in our journey towards decarbonisation. We will continue our quest to remain an industry leader in sustainability by setting new benchmarks for a better tomorrow. For the sustainability of the steel industry globally and particularly in a growing country like India, it is essential that we find economical solutions for capturing and use of CO<sub>2</sub> at scale. Leadership in mitigating emissions, accessing low-cost clean energy, and providing circular economy solutions will define our sector’s journey going forward. <br />The operational experience gathered from this 5 tonnes per day CO<sub>2</sub> capture plant will give us the required data and confidence to establish larger carbon capture plants in future. As the next step, we aim to establish scaled up facilities of CO<sub>2</sub> capture integrated with utilisation avenues."</p>
	<p>
	<strong>T. V. Narendran</strong>
	<br />CEO &amp; Managing Director, Tata Steel
	</p>
	
 
	</div>
	<div>
	<p>"Chevron is committed to producing affordable, reliable, and ever-cleaner energy. We invest in breakthrough technologies that both lower emissions in oil and gas and are integral to low carbon value chains. Our investment in Carbon Clean aims to help commercialize and scale carbon capture utilization and storage technologies, a key part of delivering on our commitment."</p>
	<p>
	<strong>Barbara Burger</strong>
	<br />President of Chevron Technology Ventures
	</p>
	
 
	</div>
	<div>
	<p>"Since October 2016, Tuticorin Alkali Chemicals and Fertilizers Limited, in partnership with Carbon Clean, has been operating the world’s first industrial-scale carbon capture and utilisation (CCU) plant near Chennai, India. Installed on a coal-fired boiler, the plant is designed to capture 60,000 tonnes of CO<sub>2</sub> per year. Not only does it meet cost and performance expectations, but we’re able to convert the CO<sub>2</sub> into soda ash (an ingredient found in commercial household products)."</p>
	<p>
	<strong>G. Ramachandran</strong>
	<br />Managing Director, Tuticorin Alkali Chemical and Fertilizers Ltd., Chennai, India
	</p>
	
 
	</div>
	<div>
	<p>"Compared to the standard amine we use, Carbon Clean's technology has a lower specific heat demand and allows us to operate the plant in a much smoother way. While using APBS-CARBex our plants operate very smoothly, especially during hot summer periods we see less foaming and fluctuations in biomethane production."</p>
	<p>
	<strong>Benjamin Goerges</strong>
	<br />Head of Technical Sales and Service, at Arcanum
	</p>
	
 
	</div>
	<div>
	<p>"Accomplishing CO<sub>2</sub> capture at an industrial scale and affordable cost is one of the biggest challenges that CEMEX is facing in its road to deliver net-zero CO<sub>2</sub> concrete products globally by 2050. Partnering with Carbon Clean seemed like a perfect fit for us. We believe in their technology and know that working together, we can make possible a more cost-effective carbon capture solution below the $30/tonne threshold."</p>
	<p>
	<strong>Gonzalo Galindo</strong>
	<br />Head of CEMEX Ventures
	</p>
	
 
	</div>
	</div></div>||||I|||| Speak with an Expert
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 Technology to achieve 'net zero'

 We offer cost-effective carbon capture technology to industrial emitters at gigatonne scale.

 Carbon Clean extends senior team with Chief Delivery & Supply Chain Officer

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 Carbon Clean’s new Houston headquarters signals major US expansion

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 Ørsted awards FlagshipONE carbon capture contract to Carbon Clean

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 Carbon Clean announces participation in Flue2Chem

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 Carbon capture begins at NTPC’s power plant in India

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 Carbon Clean raises record funding round

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 News

 March 28, 2023

 Carbon Clean expands senior team with Chief Delivery & Supply Chain Officer

 March 9, 2023

 Carbon Clean’s new Houston headquarters signals major US expansion

 February 16, 2023

 Carbon Clean joins launch of Cleantech for UK

 See All News

 Our impact

 Our global company is led by industry experts with over a decade’s experience designing, building, financing and operating industrial carbon capture systems.

 1085
 CO 2 Captured Today (Metric Tonnes)
 1415947
 CO 2 Captured Since 2009 (Metric Tonnes)

 "In alignment with the Tata group’s pioneering values, we have taken this strategic step in our journey towards decarbonisation. We will continue our quest to remain an industry leader in sustainability by setting new benchmarks for a better tomorrow. For the sustainability of the steel industry globally and particularly in a growing country like India, it is essential that we find economical solutions for capturing and use of CO 2 at scale. Leadership in mitigating emissions, accessing low-cost clean energy, and providing circular economy solutions will define our sector’s journey going forward.
 The operational experience gathered from this 5 tonnes per day CO 2 capture plant will give us the required data and confidence to establish larger carbon capture plants in future. As the next step, we aim to establish scaled up facilities of CO 2 capture integrated with utilisation avenues."

 T. V. Narendran
 CEO & Managing Director, Tata Steel

 "Chevron is committed to producing affordable, reliable, and ever-cleaner energy. We invest in breakthrough technologies that both lower emissions in oil and gas and are integral to low carbon value chains. Our investment in Carbon Clean aims to help commercialize and scale carbon capture utilization and storage technologies, a key part of delivering on our commitment."

 Barbara Burger
 President of Chevron Technology Ventures

 "Since October 2016, Tuticorin Alkali Chemicals and Fertilizers Limited, in partnership with Carbon Clean, has been operating the world’s first industrial-scale carbon capture and utilisation (CCU) plant near Chennai, India. Installed on a coal-fired boiler, the plant is designed to capture 60,000 tonnes of CO 2 per year. Not only does it meet cost and performance expectations, but we’re able to convert the CO 2 into soda ash (an ingredient found in commercial household products)."

 G. Ramachandran
 Managing Director, Tuticorin Alkali Chemical and Fertilizers Ltd., Chennai, India

 "Compared to the standard amine we use, Carbon Clean's technology has a lower specific heat demand and allows us to operate the plant in a much smoother way. While using APBS-CARBex our plants operate very smoothly, especially during hot summer periods we see less foaming and fluctuations in biomethane production."

 Benjamin Goerges
 Head of Technical Sales and Service, at Arcanum

 "Accomplishing CO 2 capture at an industrial scale and affordable cost is one of the biggest challenges that CEMEX is facing in its road to deliver net-zero CO 2 concrete products globally by 2050. Partnering with Carbon Clean seemed like a perfect fit for us. We believe in their technology and know that working together, we can make possible a more cost-effective carbon capture solution below the $30/tonne threshold."

 Gonzalo Galindo
 Head of CEMEX Ventures

 Learn More About Us

 Proven benefits. Increased profit.

 We help industry decarbonise and leverage the growing value of captured carbon. The opportunity to take part in the circular economy of capturing and selling carbon dioxide is predicted to be a key differentiator for long-term success. It’s the first movers that will stand to benefit the most.

 Modular Carbon Capture

 Our energy-efficient CDRMax™ process can achieve 90%+ capture rates and delivers industrial quality CO 2 for re-use or sequestration.

 Improved Bottom Line

 Our technology offers the lowest corrosion rates, highest HSE standards, an uptime rate of 98+%, and can operate for more than 200,000 hours on commercial plants.

 30% More Commercially Viable

 A leader in cost-effective modular technology set to achieve $30/tonne cost of CO 2 capture. Large emitters will be able to offset the cost of carbon capture with their carbon tax from as early as next year.

 A Multibillion-Dollar Market

 Recycled CO 2 products are now a multibillion-dollar growing market. Current estimates put the market opportunity for carbon capture at more than $1 trillion per annum.

 Explore Our Technology

 Success stories

 Purpose-Built: Technology for Industry

 In 2016, Tuticorin Alkali Chemical and Fertilizers Ltd. partnered with Carbon Clean to create the world’s first fully commercial carbon capture, storage and utilisation plant. Located near Chennai, it has been achieving over 90% carbon capture rates since it began operation.

 90 %+

 Carbon Capture Rate

 Proprietary: High-Performance Solvents

 Since 2018, Carbon Clean in collaboration with Arcanum Energy has surpassed 500,000 m3 of biogas processed per day with its APBS-CARBex® solvent in their biogas upgrading facilities in Germany. Compared to the standard amine, Carbon Clean’s technology provides several advantages that allows the plants to operate more efficiently.

 25 %

 Less Thermal Energy

 Breakthrough: Technology for Cost-Effective Carbon Capture

 In 2017, Carbon Clean announced breakthrough test results from the Technology Centre Mongstad (TCM) pilot. Corrosion testing confirmed that with APBS-CDRMax®, it is possible to construct with less expensive materials such as carbon steel rather and a lower grade of stainless steel.

 50 %

 Cost Reduction (up to)

 First-of-its-kind: CCUS for the steel industry

 We have designed and commissioned India’s first blast furnace carbon capture plant for Tata Steel in 2021. The modular skid mounted unit plant captures 5 tonne of CO2 per day and is the first-of-its-kind in the global steel industry. The captured CO2 is reused on site and there are plans for larger carbon capture plants in the future.

 49 facilities across the globe

 Minimising climate change and achieving carbon net zero is of global importance — and we understand the key challenges from an industrial perspective. We enable hard-to-abate industries — including steel, cement, refineries and energy from waste (EfW) — to navigate these new climate imperatives with technology that reduces cost, space, and execution time, with minimal on-site disruption.

 RNG upgrading / biogas

 CO2 capture

 CO2 industrial capture & utilisation (CCU)

 US DOE / NCCC
 * Location: USA
 * Phase of project: Pilot & demonstration
 * Sector of project: Research & testing
 * Project description: 10 TPD demonstration for advanced solvent capture in coal-fired conditions
 University of Kentucky Center of Applied Energy Research
 * Location: USA
 * Phase of project: Pilot & demonstration
 * Sector of project: Research & testing
 * Project description: 4 week test campaign
 University of Kentucky Center of Applied Energy Research
 * Location: USA
 * Phase of project: Pilot & demonstration
 * Sector of project: Research & testing
 * Project description: 14 TPD solvent testing in pilot plant for coal-fired flue gases
 US DOE / GTI
 * Location: USA
 * Phase of project: Pilot & demonstration
 * Sector of project: Research & testing
 * Project description: 1 TPD advanced thermal capture for coal-fired flue gases
 University of Kentucky Center of Applied Energy Research
 * Location: USA
 * Phase of project: Pilot & demonstration
 * Sector of project: Research & testing
 * Project description: 1 TPD solvent demonstration
 Tuticorin Alkali Chemicals and Fertilizers
 * Location: India
 * Phase of project: Operational
 * Sector of project: Chemicals
 * Project description: 60,000 TPY carbon capture plant
 Technology Centre Mongstad
 * Location: Norway
 * Phase of project: Testing
 * Sector of project: Research & testing
 * Project description: Testing
 PACT
 * Location: UK
 * Phase of project: Pilot & demonstration
 * Sector of project: Research & testing
 * Project description: 1 TPD solvent demonstration
 Imperial College
 * Location: UK
 * Phase of project: Lab validation
 * Sector of project: Research & testing
 * Project description: Bench scale testing and development
 5 biomethane facilities
 * Location: Switzerland
 * Phase of project: Operational biogas plants
 * Sector of project: Biogas
 * Project description: 5 plants processing 1,700 m3/hr of biogas
 38+ biomethane facilities
 * Location: Germany
 * Phase of project: Operational biogas plants
 * Sector of project: Biogas
 * Project description: 27,500 nm3/hr of CO2 removal for commercial biogas upgrading
 Chevron
 * Location: USA
 * Phase of project: Engineering phase
 * Sector of project: Oil & gas
 * Project description: Gas turbine carbon capture plant with CycloneCC
 CEMEX
 * Location: Germany
 * Phase of project: Engineering phase
 * Sector of project: Cement
 * Project description: Scaling from 100 to 2000 TPD CO2 capture
 Acorn
 * Location: UK
 * Phase of project: Engineering phase
 * Sector of project: Oil & gas
 * Project description: UK's largest industrial CO2 capture project
 Holcim
 * Location: Spain
 * Phase of project: Engineering phase
 * Sector of project: Cement
 * Project description: 200 TPD carbon capture plant
 Tata Steel
 * Location: India
 * Phase of project: Operational
 * Sector of project: Steel
 * Project description: 5 TPD carbon capture plant
 Taiheiyo Cement Corporation
 * Location: Japan
 * Phase of project: Operational
 * Sector of project: Cement
 * Project description: 10 TPD carbon capture plant
 Veolia
 * Location: UK
 * Phase of project: Engineering phase
 * Sector of project: Energy from waste
 * Project description: Demonstrate effective carbon capture technology in EfW plants

 Thought leadership

 Our experts and partners represent a global wealth of knowledge that is raising the bar on industrial carbon capture.

 Achieving Net Zero in the Industrial Sector

 The Circular Carbon Economy

 The Key To Efficient Carbon Capture

 CycloneCC: Introducing the world's smallest industrial carbon capture technology

 Explore our library of timely articles,
 eBooks and other resources.

 WEBINARS
 PODCASTS

 News & Announcements

 Carbon Clean expands senior team with Chief Delivery & Supply Chain Officer

 March 28, 2023

 Learn More

 Carbon Clean’s new Houston headquarters signals major US expansion

 March 9, 2023

 Learn More

 Carbon Clean joins launch of Cleantech for UK

 February 16, 2023

 Learn More

 Speak with an expert

 Contact us to find out more about our world-leading processes and technologies.

 Quick Links

 * About Us
 * News
 * Contact Us
 * Newsletter Sign-Up
 * Privacy Policy

 Technology

 * Modular Systems
 * Technology Licence
 * Solvents
 * Engineering Services

 Industries

 * Cement
 * Refineries
 * Steel
 * Energy from Waste
 * Biogas

 © 2023 Carbon Clean Solutions Limited. All Rights Reserved.

"In alignment with the Tata group’s pioneering values, we have taken this strategic step in our journey towards decarbonisation. We will continue our quest to remain an industry leader in sustainability by setting new benchmarks for a better tomorrow. For the sustainability of the steel industry globally and particularly in a growing country like India, it is essential that we find economical solutions for capturing and use of CO2 at scale. Leadership in mitigating emissions, accessing low-cost clean energy, and providing circular economy solutions will define our sector’s journey going forward. The operational experience gathered from this 5 tonnes per day CO2 capture plant will give us the required data and confidence to establish larger carbon capture plants in future. As the next step, we aim to establish scaled up facilities of CO2 capture integrated with utilisation avenues."
	
	T. V. Narendran
	CEO &amp; Managing Director, Tata Steel
	
	
 
	
	
	"Chevron is committed to producing affordable, reliable, and ever-cleaner energy. We invest in breakthrough technologies that both lower emissions in oil and gas and are integral to low carbon value chains. Our investment in Carbon Clean aims to help commercialize and scale carbon capture utilization and storage technologies, a key part of delivering on our commitment."
	
	Barbara Burger
	President of Chevron Technology Ventures
	
	
 
	
	
	"Since October 2016, Tuticorin Alkali Chemicals and Fertilizers Limited, in partnership with Carbon Clean, has been operating the world’s first industrial-scale carbon capture and utilisation (CCU) plant near Chennai, India. Installed on a coal-fired boiler, the plant is designed to capture 60,000 tonnes of CO2 per year. Not only does it meet cost and performance expectations, but we’re able to convert the CO2 into soda ash (an ingredient found in commercial household products)."
	
	G. Ramachandran
	Managing Director, Tuticorin Alkali Chemical and Fertilizers Ltd., Chennai, India
	
	
 
	
	
	"Compared to the standard amine we use, Carbon Clean's technology has a lower specific heat demand and allows us to operate the plant in a much smoother way. While using APBS-CARBex our plants operate very smoothly, especially during hot summer periods we see less foaming and fluctuations in biomethane production."
	
	Benjamin Goerges
	Head of Technical Sales and Service, at Arcanum
	
	
 
	
	
	"Accomplishing CO2 capture at an industrial scale and affordable cost is one of the biggest challenges that CEMEX is facing in its road to deliver net-zero CO2 concrete products globally by 2050. Partnering with Carbon Clean seemed like a perfect fit for us. We believe in their technology and know that working together, we can make possible a more cost-effective carbon capture solution below the $30/tonne threshold."
	
	Gonzalo Galindo
	Head of CEMEX Ventures
Carbon capture and storage to reach net zero | Carbon Clean
https://www.carbonclean.com/
https://www.travertinetech.com/
Travertine
2022-05-27
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 <h3>Re-engineering chemical production for Carbon Dioxide Removal</h3><p>Our proprietary electrochemical process permanently converts carbon dioxide into a mineral while simultaneously producing sulfuric acid–the world’s most produced chemical–for use in critical element extraction and fertilizer production.</p>
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<div><div>
<p>
 </p><h3>A practical approach for climate-smart critical resources</h3>
<p></p>
</div><div>
 <p>Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) is an essential part of the solution to climate change. To make it work, CDR solutions must be scaleable to gigatons per year, energy efficient, and economical. Leveraging the scale of our largest industries offers a practical path to help heal the planet and protect human health.</p><p>Travertine was founded by UC Berkeley Professor Laura Lammers, a world expert in carbonate mineralization, to reduce the environmental impact of extracting elements that are needed for the renewable energy transition.</p>
</div></div>
 
 
 
 
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 <div><p></p><h3>Permanent Carbon Dioxide Removal</h3><p></p></div>
 
 
 <div><p>Our process accelerates the Earth’s natural carbon cycle to precipitate carbonate minerals from carbon dioxide in the air, permanently storing carbon in the solid phase.</p></div>
 
 
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 <div><p></p><h3>Critical element extraction</h3><p></p></div>
 
 
 <div><p>We are partnering with mining and fertilizer companies to use our sulfuric acid for extraction of lithium, nickel, cobalt, and phosphorous – elements that are critical to the renewable energy transition and to feeding the world.</p></div>
 
 
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 <div><p></p><h3>Waste recycling</h3><p></p></div>
 
 
 <div><p>Our process recycles and reuses sulfate to eliminate a source of water and soil pollution while reducing the cost of industrial waste management.</p></div>
 
 
 </div>
 </figcaption>
 
 </figure>
 
 
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 </p><h2>Technology</h2>
<p></p>
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 </div><div>
<p>Our process enhances Earth’s natural weathering cycle to convert carbon dioxide into carbonate minerals.</p>
</div></div>
 
 
 
 
<div>
 <h2>Applications</h2><p>We are partnering with industries to reduce their environmental footprint while pushing forward the renewable energy transition. </p><p>Our aim is to help mining and fertilizer companies meet their ambitious goals for reducing carbon emissions and waste.</p>
</div>
 
 
 
 
<div>
 <h3>Carbon Dioxide Removal</h3><p>Every application of our technology combines Carbon Dioxide Removal with other environmental and industry benefits.</p>
</div>
 
 
 
 
<div>
 
 
 
<ul>
 
 
 <li>
 
 
 
 
 <div>
 
 <h2>Mining</h2>
 
 
 <p>Travertine is partnering with mining companies to produce carbon-negative sulfuric acid for use in extracting critical elements such as lithium, nickel, and cobalt. Our process can recycle and reuse sulfate waste to reduce cost and potential water contamination.</p>
 
 </div>
 
 
 
 
 
 </li>
 
 
 <li>
 
 
 
 
 <div>
 
 <h2>Fertilizer</h2>
 
 
 <p>Travertine is partnering with fertilizer producers to recycle phosphogypsum (PG) waste and make salable products including sulfuric acid, hydrogen, oxygen and carbonate minerals. Our process can reduce the cost of managing PG while upcycling gypsum for beneficial reuse.</p>
 
 </div>
 
 
 
 
 
 </li>
 
</ul>
 
 
 
 
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<div>
<p>
 </p><h2> News</h2>
<p></p>
</div>
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
<div><div>
<p>
 </p><h2>Team</h2>
<p></p>
</div><div>
 <p>We are a team of creative and positive scientists and engineers, motivated by developing a practical approach to help heal the planet. </p><p>We are based in the Climate Tech hub Boulder, CO near NREL, CU Boulder, and the mountains.</p>
</div></div>
 
 
 
 
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<ul>
 
 
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 <div>
 
 <h2>Dr. Laura Lammers</h2>
 
 
 
 
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 </li>
 
 
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 <h2>Owen Cadwalader</h2>
 
 
 
 
 </div>
 
 
 </li>
 
 
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 <h2>Dr. Roxanna Delima</h2>
 
 
 <div>
 <p>Senior Electrochemical Engineer</p><p><a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/roxanna-delima-06037a96/">LinkedIn</a></p>
 </div>
 
 </div>
 
 
 </li>
 
 
 <li>
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <div>
 
 <h2>Ben Kronholm</h2>
 
 
 <div>
 <p>Senior Process Engineer</p><p><a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/ben-kronholm-aa74aa2b/">LinkedIn</a></p>
 </div>
 
 </div>
 
 
 </li>
 
</ul>
 
 
 
 
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<section>
 <div>
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <p></p>
 
 
 </div>
 <div>
 <h2>Get in touch</h2><p>We are partnering with companies in the mining and fertilizer production industries as well as companies participating in the voluntary Carbon Dioxide Removal market. </p>
</div>
 
 
</section>
 
</article>
 
 
 
 
 
 </div></div>||||I|||| 0
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 About
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 Team

 Re-engineering chemical production for Carbon Dioxide Removal

 Our proprietary electrochemical process permanently converts carbon dioxide into a mineral while simultaneously producing sulfuric acid–the world’s most produced chemical–for use in critical element extraction and fertilizer production.

 Contact

 A practical approach for climate-smart critical resources

 Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) is an essential part of the solution to climate change. To make it work, CDR solutions must be scaleable to gigatons per year, energy efficient, and economical. Leveraging the scale of our largest industries offers a practical path to help heal the planet and protect human health.

 Travertine was founded by UC Berkeley Professor Laura Lammers, a world expert in carbonate mineralization, to reduce the environmental impact of extracting elements that are needed for the renewable energy transition.

 Permanent Carbon Dioxide Removal

 Our process accelerates the Earth’s natural carbon cycle to precipitate carbonate minerals from carbon dioxide in the air, permanently storing carbon in the solid phase.

 Critical element extraction

 We are partnering with mining and fertilizer companies to use our sulfuric acid for extraction of lithium, nickel, cobalt, and phosphorous – elements that are critical to the renewable energy transition and to feeding the world.

 Waste recycling

 Our process recycles and reuses sulfate to eliminate a source of water and soil pollution while reducing the cost of industrial waste management.

 Technology

 Our process enhances Earth’s natural weathering cycle to convert carbon dioxide into carbonate minerals.

 Applications

 We are partnering with industries to reduce their environmental footprint while pushing forward the renewable energy transition. 

 Our aim is to help mining and fertilizer companies meet their ambitious goals for reducing carbon emissions and waste.

 Carbon Dioxide Removal

 Every application of our technology combines Carbon Dioxide Removal with other environmental and industry benefits.

 * Mining

 Travertine is partnering with mining companies to produce carbon-negative sulfuric acid for use in extracting critical elements such as lithium, nickel, and cobalt. Our process can recycle and reuse sulfate waste to reduce cost and potential water contamination.

 * Fertilizer

 Travertine is partnering with fertilizer producers to recycle phosphogypsum (PG) waste and make salable products including sulfuric acid, hydrogen, oxygen and carbonate minerals. Our process can reduce the cost of managing PG while upcycling gypsum for beneficial reuse.

  News

 Partners

 * 
 * 

 Team

 We are a team of creative and positive scientists and engineers, motivated by developing a practical approach to help heal the planet. 

 We are based in the Climate Tech hub Boulder, CO near NREL, CU Boulder, and the mountains.

 * Dr. Laura Lammers

 Founder and CEO

 LinkedIn

 * Owen Cadwalader

 COO

 LinkedIn

 * Dr. Roxanna Delima

 Senior Electrochemical Engineer

 LinkedIn

 * Ben Kronholm

 Senior Process Engineer

 LinkedIn

 Get in touch

 We are partnering with companies in the mining and fertilizer production industries as well as companies participating in the voluntary Carbon Dioxide Removal market. 

 Contact

 Travertine Technologies, Inc.

 1900 55th St, Suite A-105 

 Boulder, CO 80301

 LinkedIn

 Careers

 Technology

 Applications

Re-engineering chemical production for Carbon Dioxide Removal Our proprietary electrochemical process permanently converts carbon dioxide into a mineral while simultaneously producing sulfuric acid–the world’s most produced chemical–for use in critical element extraction and fertilizer production.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  A practical approach for climate-smart critical resources
 
 
 Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) is an essential part of the solution to climate change. To make it work, CDR solutions must be scaleable to gigatons per year, energy efficient, and economical. Leveraging the scale of our largest industries offers a practical path to help heal the planet and protect human health. Travertine was founded by UC Berkeley Professor Laura Lammers, a world expert in carbonate mineralization, to reduce the environmental impact of extracting elements that are needed for the renewable energy transition.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
    Permanent Carbon Dioxide Removal   
 
 
  Our process accelerates the Earth’s natural carbon cycle to precipitate carbonate minerals from carbon dioxide in the air, permanently storing carbon in the solid phase. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
    Critical element extraction   
 
 
  We are partnering with mining and fertilizer companies to use our sulfuric acid for extraction of lithium, nickel, cobalt, and phosphorous – elements that are critical to the renewable energy transition and to feeding the world. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
    Waste recycling   
 
 
  Our process recycles and reuses sulfate to eliminate a source of water and soil pollution while reducing the cost of industrial waste management. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  Technology
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
Our process enhances Earth’s natural weathering cycle to convert carbon dioxide into carbonate minerals.
 
 
 
 
 
 Applications We are partnering with industries to reduce their environmental footprint while pushing forward the renewable energy transition.  Our aim is to help mining and fertilizer companies meet their ambitious goals for reducing carbon emissions and waste.
 
 
 
 
 Carbon Dioxide Removal Every application of our technology combines Carbon Dioxide Removal with other environmental and industry benefits.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mining
 
 
 Travertine is partnering with mining companies to produce carbon-negative sulfuric acid for use in extracting critical elements such as lithium, nickel, and cobalt. Our process can recycle and reuse sulfate waste to reduce cost and potential water contamination.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fertilizer
 
 
 Travertine is partnering with fertilizer producers to recycle phosphogypsum (PG) waste and make salable products including sulfuric acid, hydrogen, oxygen and carbonate minerals. Our process can reduce the cost of managing PG while upcycling gypsum for beneficial reuse.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
   News
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  Team
 
 
 We are a team of creative and positive scientists and engineers, motivated by developing a practical approach to help heal the planet.  We are based in the Climate Tech hub Boulder, CO near NREL, CU Boulder, and the mountains.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dr. Laura Lammers
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Owen Cadwalader
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dr. Roxanna Delima
 
 
 
 Senior Electrochemical Engineer  LinkedIn 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ben Kronholm
 
 
 
 Senior Process Engineer  LinkedIn 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 Get in touch We are partnering with companies in the mining and fertilizer production industries as well as companies participating in the voluntary Carbon Dioxide Removal market.
Travertine
https://www.travertinetech.com/
https://www.brilliantplanet.com/
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<div><div><p></p><h2>WE REMOVE CARBON FROM THE ATMOSPHERE</h2><p></p><p>Brilliant Planet is unlocking the power of algae as an affordable method of permanently and quantifiably sequestering carbon at the gigaton scale. Â The companyâs innovative process enables vast quantities of microalgae to grow in open-air pond-based systems on coastal desert land.</p><p>This is achieved without using fresh water, by harnessing a natural process that contributes to the health of oceans and air.</p><div><p>Algae have the scale to make a meaningful difference: seasonal ocean blooms can transform thousands of square kilometers in a matter of days. By replicating these blooms year-round, prime desert areas have the ability to sequester carbon at the gigaton scale.</p><p>Algae are found on every continent on earth. Â We can work on any coast, from Chile to Morocco to Namibia to Australia. We have chosen to operate at coastal deserts because these vast areas allow for maximum additionality: we create biological productivity where almost none existed before.</p></div><div><p>By operating in deserts we also bring economic opportunity to underserved areas without disrupting any other land uses. We search through thousands of strains of local algae to find the most effective strains and we never use genetic modification.</p><p>Brilliant Planet has grown from a three-square-meter experiment on the shores of St Helena, South Africa, to a thirty thousand square meter production facility with the worldâs largest algae growth pond in the coastal desert of Morocco.</p></div><div><p>Weâre different from conventional algae systems. We donât scale up an artificial test tube with artificial seawater and pumped in carbon dioxide. Â Our nature-based system scales down the ocean to use natural seawater, nutrients and COâ. This natural process deacidifies seawater, enhancing local ecosystems and also enables paradigm-shifting levels of affordability. <br /></p><p>Following eight years of pioneering R&amp;D and three years of pilot operations we are now developing a scalable production platform that can be deployed worldwide.</p></div></div></div>||||I|||| THE FUTURE = BLOOMING

 WE REMOVE CARBON FROM THE ATMOSPHERE

 Brilliant Planet is unlocking the power of algae as an affordable method of permanently and quantifiably sequestering carbon at the gigaton scale. Â The companyâs innovative process enables vast quantities of microalgae to grow in open-air pond-based systems on coastal desert land.

 This is achieved without using fresh water, by harnessing a natural process that contributes to the health of oceans and air.

 Algae have the scale to make a meaningful difference: seasonal ocean blooms can transform thousands of square kilometers in a matter of days. By replicating these blooms year-round, prime desert areas have the ability to sequester carbon at the gigaton scale.

 Algae are found on every continent on earth. Â We can work on any coast, from Chile to Morocco to Namibia to Australia. We have chosen to operate at coastal deserts because these vast areas allow for maximum additionality: we create biological productivity where almost none existed before.

 By operating in deserts we also bring economic opportunity to underserved areas without disrupting any other land uses. We search through thousands of strains of local algae to find the most effective strains and we never use genetic modification.

 Brilliant Planet has grown from a three-square-meter experiment on the shores of St Helena, South Africa, to a thirty thousand square meter production facility with the worldâs largest algae growth pond in the coastal desert of Morocco.

 Weâre different from conventional algae systems. We donât scale up an artificial test tube with artificial seawater and pumped in carbon dioxide. Â Our nature-based system scales down the ocean to use natural seawater, nutrients and COâ. This natural process deacidifies seawater, enhancing local ecosystems and also enables paradigm-shifting levels of affordability.

 Following eight years of pioneering R&D and three years of pilot operations we are now developing a scalable production platform that can be deployed worldwide.

 Weâre backed by some
 of the worldâs leading climate technology investors

 Links

 * Contact Us
 * Careers

 Contact

 Russell Building. Rothamsted Campus
 West Common, Harpenden
 Herts, AL5 2JQ Â UK

 info@brilliantplanet.com

 Sign Up To Our Newsletter

 Thank you! Your submission has been received!
 Oops! Something went wrong while submitting the form.
 Join the team
WE REMOVE CARBON FROM THE ATMOSPHERE   Brilliant Planet is unlocking the power of algae as an affordable method of permanently and quantifiably sequestering carbon at the gigaton scale. Â The companyâs innovative process enables vast quantities of microalgae to grow in open-air pond-based systems on coastal desert land. This is achieved without using fresh water, by harnessing a natural process that contributes to the health of oceans and air.  Algae have the scale to make a meaningful difference: seasonal ocean blooms can transform thousands of square kilometers in a matter of days. By replicating these blooms year-round, prime desert areas have the ability to sequester carbon at the gigaton scale. Algae are found on every continent on earth. Â We can work on any coast, from Chile to Morocco to Namibia to Australia. We have chosen to operate at coastal deserts because these vast areas allow for maximum additionality: we create biological productivity where almost none existed before.   By operating in deserts we also bring economic opportunity to underserved areas without disrupting any other land uses. We search through thousands of strains of local algae to find the most effective strains and we never use genetic modification. Brilliant Planet has grown from a three-square-meter experiment on the shores of St Helena, South Africa, to a thirty thousand square meter production facility with the worldâs largest algae growth pond in the coastal desert of Morocco.   Weâre different from conventional algae systems. We donât scale up an artificial test tube with artificial seawater and pumped in carbon dioxide. Â Our nature-based system scales down the ocean to use natural seawater, nutrients and COâ. This natural process deacidifies seawater, enhancing local ecosystems and also enables paradigm-shifting levels of affordability.   Following eight years of pioneering R&amp;D and three years of pilot operations we are now developing a scalable production platform that can be deployed worldwide.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal
Carbon dioxide removal - Wikipedia
2009-01-13
Authority control National libraries Israel United States
<div><div>
	<p>From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</p>
	</div><div>
<p>This article is about removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For technologies that remove carbon dioxide from point sources, see <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage">Carbon capture and storage</a>.</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_planting_closeup.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Planting trees is a means of carbon dioxide removal.</p></div></div>
<p><b>Carbon dioxide removal</b> (<b>CDR</b>), also known as <b>negative CO<sub>2</sub> emissions</b>, is a process in which <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> gas (CO<sub>2</sub>) is removed <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere">from the atmosphere</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration">sequestered</a> for long periods of time.<sup><a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary-1">[1]</a></sup><sup>: 2221 </sup> Similarly, <b>greenhouse gas removal</b> (<b>GGR</b>) or negative greenhouse gas emissions is the removal of <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas">greenhouse gases</a> (GHGs) from the atmosphere by deliberate human activities, i.e., in addition to the removal that would occur via natural carbon cycle or atmospheric chemistry processes.<sup><a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary-1">[1]</a></sup><sup>: 2240 </sup> In the context of net zero <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a> targets,<sup><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> CDR is increasingly integrated into climate policy, as a new element of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation">mitigation</a> strategies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> CDR and GGR methods are also known as <b>negative emissions technologies</b> (<b>NET</b>), and may be cheaper than preventing some agricultural <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:2-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p><p>CDR methods include <a href="/wiki/Afforestation">afforestation</a>, agricultural practices that sequester carbon in soils, <a href="/wiki/Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage">bio-energy with carbon capture and storage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ocean_fertilization">ocean fertilization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enhanced_weathering">enhanced weathering</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Direct_air_capture">direct air capture</a> when combined with storage.<sup><a href="#cite_note-RoyalSociety-5">[5]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Vergragt-6">[6]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Azar-7">[7]</a></sup> To assess whether net negative emissions are achieved by a particular process, comprehensive <a href="/wiki/Life_cycle_analysis">life cycle analysis</a> of the process must be performed.
</p><p>A 2019 consensus report by the US <a href="/wiki/National_Academies_of_Sciences,_Engineering,_and_Medicine">National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine</a> (NASEM) concluded that using existing CDR methods at scales that can be safely and economically deployed, there is potential to remove and sequester up to 10 gigatons of carbon dioxide per year.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:2-4">[4]</a></sup> This would offset greenhouse gas emissions at about a fifth of the rate at which they are being produced.
</p><p>All emission pathways that limit global warming to 1.5 °C or 2 °C by the year 2100 assume the use of CDR approaches in combination with emission reductions.<sup><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIPCC15Ch_2-9">[9]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Definitions[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Carbon dioxide removal (CDR) is defined as:
</p>
<blockquote><p>Anthropogenic activities removing CO<sub>2</sub> from the atmosphere and durably storing it in geological, terrestrial, or ocean reservoirs, or in products. It includes existing and potential anthropogenic enhancement of biological or geochemical sinks and direct air capture and storage, but excludes natural CO<sub>2</sub> uptake not directly caused by human activities.<sup><a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary-1">[1]</a></sup><sup>: 2221 </sup></p></blockquote>
<p>The same definition is commonly used for "net negative greenhouse gas emissions", "net zero CO2 emissions" and "net zero greenhouse gas emissions".<sup><a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary-1">[1]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-:2-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p><p>The concept of deliberately reducing the amount of CO<sub>2</sub> in the atmosphere is often mistakenly grouped with <a href="/wiki/Solar_radiation_management">solar radiation management</a> under the umbrella term "<a href="/wiki/Climate_engineering">climate engineering</a>." When CDR is framed as a form of "climate engineering", people tend to view it as intrinsically risky.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:2-4">[4]</a></sup><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability">need quotation to verify</a></i>]</sup> In fact, CDR addresses the root cause of climate change and is part of strategies to reduce net emissions and manage risks related to elevated atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> levels.<sup><a href="#cite_note-RoyalSociety-5">[5]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Concepts using similar terminology[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>CDR can be confused with <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage">carbon capture and storage</a> (CCS), a process in which carbon dioxide is collected from point-sources such as <a href="/wiki/Gas-fired_power_plant">gas-fired power plants</a>, whose smokestacks emit CO<sub>2</sub> in a concentrated stream. The CO<sub>2</sub> is then compressed and sequestered or utilized.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:0-11">[11]</a></sup> When used to sequester the carbon from a gas-fired power plant, CCS reduces emissions from continued use of the point source, but does not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere.
</p>
<h2>Potential for climate change mitigation[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>The likely need for CDR (carbon dioxide removal) as an element of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation">climate change mitigation</a> has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with <a href="/wiki/Climate_change">climate change</a> issues, including <a href="/wiki/IPCC">IPCC</a> chief Dr. <a href="/wiki/Hoesung_Lee">Hoesung Lee</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/UNFCCC">UNFCCC</a> executive secretary <a href="/wiki/Christiana_Figueres">Christiana Figueres</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/World_Watch_Institute">World Watch Institute</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the <a href="/wiki/Earth_Institute">Earth Institute, Columbia University</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup> and the Climate Decision Making Center,<sup><a href="#cite_note-CDMC-16">[16]</a></sup> an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University's Department of Engineering and Public Policy.
</p><p>Using CDR in parallel with other efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, such as deploying <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy">renewable energy</a>, is likely to be less expensive and disruptive than using other efforts alone.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:2-4">[4]</a></sup> A 2019 consensus study report by <a href="/wiki/National_Academies_of_Sciences,_Engineering,_and_Medicine">NASEM</a> assessed the potential of all forms of CDR other than <a href="/wiki/Ocean_fertilization">ocean fertilization</a> that could be deployed safely and economically using current technologies, and estimated that they could remove up to 10 gigatons of CO<sub>2</sub> per year if fully deployed worldwide.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:2-4">[4]</a></sup> This is one-fifth of the 50 gigatons of CO<sub>2</sub> emitted per year by human activities.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:2-4">[4]</a></sup> In 2018, all analyzed <a href="/wiki/Integrated_assessment_modelling">mitigation pathways</a> that would prevent more than 1.5 °C of warming included CDR measures.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:1-17">[17]</a></sup>
</p><p>Some mitigation pathways propose achieving higher rates of CDR through massive deployment of one technology, however these pathways assume that hundreds of millions of hectares of cropland are converted to growing <a href="/wiki/Biofuel">biofuel</a> crops.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:2-4">[4]</a></sup> Further research in the areas of <a href="/wiki/Direct_air_capture">direct air capture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geologic_sequestration_of_carbon_dioxide">geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_mineralization">carbon mineralization</a> could potentially yield technological advancements that make higher rates of CDR economically feasible.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:2-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p><p>Reliance on large-scale deployment of CDR was regarded in 2018 as a "major risk" to achieving the goal of less than 1.5 °C of warming, given the uncertainties in how quickly CDR can be deployed at scale.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:1-17">[17]</a></sup> Strategies for mitigating climate change that rely less on CDR and more on <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy">sustainable use of energy</a> carry less of this risk.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:1-17">[17]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup> The possibility of large-scale future CDR deployment has been described as a <a href="/wiki/Moral_hazard">moral hazard</a>, as it could lead to a reduction in near-term efforts to mitigate climate change.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIPCC15Ch._2_p._124-19">[19]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-:2-4">[4]</a></sup> The 2019 NASEM report concludes:
</p>
<blockquote><p>Any argument to delay mitigation efforts because NETs will provide a backstop drastically misrepresents their current capacities and the likely pace of research progress.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:2-4">[4]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<h2>Methods[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4">edit</a>]</h2>
<h3>Afforestation, reforestation, and forestry management[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>According to the <a href="/wiki/International_Union_for_Conservation_of_Nature">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a>: "Halting the loss and degradation of natural systems and promoting their restoration have the potential to contribute over one-third of the total climate change mitigation scientists say is required by 2030."<sup><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup>
</p><p>Forests are vital for human society, animals and plant species. This is because trees keep air clean, regulate the local climate and provide a habitat for numerous species. Trees and plants convert carbon dioxide back into oxygen, using photosynthesis. They are important for regulating CO<sub>2</sub> levels in the air, as they remove and store carbon from the air. Without them, the atmosphere would heat up quickly and destabilise the climate.<sup><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup>
</p><p>Increased use of wood in construction is being considered.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:3-22">[22]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Carbon sequestration[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6">edit</a>]</h3>
<div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a> (or carbon storage) is the process of storing carbon (in particular <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere">atmospheric carbon dioxide</a>) in a <a href="/wiki/Carbon_pool">carbon pool</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Carbon_sequestration_:6-23">[23]</a></sup><sup>: 2248 </sup> The process acts like a <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink">carbon sink</a>, meaning it removes a greenhouse gas, or a precursor of a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Carbon_sequestration_:6-23">[23]</a></sup><sup>: 2923 </sup> Carbon sequestration is a naturally occurring process but it can also be enhanced or achieved with technology, for example within <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage">carbon capture and storage</a> projects. There are two main types of carbon sequestration: geologic and biologic.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Carbon_sequestration_:8-24">[24]</a></sup>
</p><p>
Carbon dioxide (CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub>) is naturally captured from the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere">atmosphere</a> through biological, chemical, and physical processes.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Carbon_sequestration_glossary-25">[25]</a></sup> These changes can be accelerated through changes in land use and agricultural practices, such as converting crop land into land for non-crop fast growing plants.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Carbon_sequestration_SedjoSohngen-26">[26]</a></sup> Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Carbon_sequestration_glossary-25">[25]</a></sup> including large-scale, artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> using subsurface <a href="/wiki/Saline_water">saline</a> <a href="/wiki/Aquifer">aquifers</a> or aging <a href="/wiki/Oil_field">oil fields</a>. Other technologies that work with carbon sequestration include <a href="/wiki/Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage">bio-energy with carbon capture and storage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biochar">biochar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enhanced_weathering">enhanced weathering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Direct_air_capture">direct air carbon capture and sequestration</a> (DACCS).</p></div>
<h4>Biosequestration[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7">edit</a>]</h4>
<p><a href="/wiki/Biosequestration">Biosequestration</a> is the capture and storage of the atmospheric <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas">greenhouse gas</a> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> by continual or enhanced biological processes. This form of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration">carbon sequestration</a> occurs through increased rates of <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> via <a href="/wiki/Land_use">land-use</a> practices such as <a href="/wiki/Reforestation">reforestation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sustainability">sustainable</a> <a href="/wiki/Forest_management">forest management</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering">genetic engineering</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Salk_Institute_for_Biological_Studies">SALK</a> <a href="/wiki/Harnessing_Plants_Initiative">Harnessing Plants Initiative</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Joanne_Chory">Joanne Chory</a> is an example of an <a href="/wiki/Biosequestration#Enhanced_photosynthesis">enhanced photosynthesis</a> initiative<sup><a href="#cite_note-Beerling-27">[27]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup> Carbon sequestration through <a href="/wiki/Biological_processes">biological processes</a> affects the global <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle">carbon cycle</a>.
</p>
<h4>Agricultural practices[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8">edit</a>]</h4>
<div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:SRS1000_being_used_to_measure_soil_respiration_in_the_field..jpg"></a></p></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Carbon_farming">Carbon farming</a> is a name for a variety of <a href="/wiki/Agriculture">agricultural methods</a> aimed at <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration">sequestering atmospheric carbon</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Soil">soil</a> and in crop roots, wood and leaves. The aim of carbon farming is to increase the rate at which carbon is sequestered into soil and plant material with the goal of creating a net loss of carbon from the atmosphere.<sup><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup> Increasing a <a href="/wiki/Soil_organic_matter">soil's organic matter</a> content can aid plant growth, increase total carbon content, improve soil water retention capacity<sup><a href="#cite_note-Carbon_farming_:1-30">[30]</a></sup> and reduce fertilizer use.<sup><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup> As of 2016, variants of carbon farming reached hundreds of millions of hectares globally, of the nearly 5 billion hectares (1.2×10<sup>10</sup> acres) of world farmland.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Carbon_farming_:42-32">[32]</a></sup> In addition to agricultural activities, forests management is also a tool that is used in carbon farming.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Carbon_farming_:82-33">[33]</a></sup> The practice of carbon farming is often done by individual land owners who are given incentive to use and to integrate methods that will sequester carbon through policies created by governments.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Carbon_farming_:02-34">[34]</a></sup> Carbon farming methods will typically have a cost, meaning farmers and land-owners need a way to profit from the use of carbon farming, thus requiring government programs.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Carbon_farming_:02-34">[34]</a></sup>
</p><p>Land management techniques that can be combined with farming include planting/restoring forests, burying <a href="/wiki/Biochar">biochar</a> produced by <a href="/wiki/Pyrolysis">anaerobically</a> converted biomass and restoring wetlands (such as <a href="/wiki/Marshes">marshes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peatlands">peatlands</a>).<sup><a href="#cite_note-Carbon_farming_:7-35">[35]</a></sup>
</p><p>
Carbon farming is one component of <a href="/wiki/Climate-smart_agriculture">climate smart agriculture</a>.</p></div>
<h4>Wetland restoration[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9">edit</a>]</h4>
<div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Economic_value_of_blue_carbon_ecosystems_per_hectare.webp"></a></p><div><p>Estimates of the economic value of blue carbon ecosystems per hectare. Based on 2009 data from UNEP/GRID-Arendal.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Blue_carbon_Nellemann2009-36">[36]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Blue_carbon_Macreadie2019-37">[37]</a></sup></p></div></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon">Blue carbon</a> refers to organic carbon that is captured and stored by the world's <a href="/wiki/Marine_ecosystem">oceanic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marine_coastal_ecosystem">coastal ecosystems</a>, mostly by algae, <a href="/wiki/Seagrass">seagrasses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macroalgae">macroalgae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mangrove">mangroves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salt_marsh">salt marshes</a> and other plants in coastal <a href="/wiki/Wetland">wetlands</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Blue_carbon_Macreadie2019-37">[37]</a></sup> The term "blue carbon" was coined in 2009 to highlight the contribution of coastal vegetated ecosystems to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation">climate change mitigation</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup> Because oceans cover 70% of the planet, there is increasing industry interest in developing blue carbon potential.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Blue_carbon_Ricart2022-39">[39]</a></sup> Research is ongoing, and while in some cases it has been found that these types of ecosystems remove far more carbon per area than terrestrial forests, the effectiveness of blue carbon as a carbon dioxide removal solution remains highly contested.<sup><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Blue_carbon_Ricart2022-39">[39]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Blue_carbon_Boyd2022-41">[41]</a></sup></p></div>
<h4>Bioenergy with carbon capture &amp; storage[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10">edit</a>]</h4>
<h4>Biochar[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11">edit</a>]</h4>
<p><a href="/wiki/Biochar">Biochar</a> is created by the <a href="/wiki/Pyrolysis">pyrolysis</a> of <a href="/wiki/Biomass">biomass</a>, and is under investigation as a method of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration">carbon sequestration</a>.
Biochar is a charcoal that is used for agricultural purposes which also aids in <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration">carbon sequestration</a>, the capture or hold of carbon. It is created using a process called pyrolysis, which is basically the act of high temperature heating biomass in an environment with low oxygen levels. What remains is a material known as char, similar to charcoal but is made through a sustainable process, thus the use of biomass.<sup><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup> Biomass is organic matter produced by living organisms or recently living organisms, most commonly plants or plant based material.<sup><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup> A study done by the UK Biochar Research Center has stated that, on a conservative level, biochar can store 1 gigaton of carbon per year. With greater effort in marketing and acceptance of biochar, the benefit could be the storage of 5–9 gigatons per year of carbon in biochar soils.<sup><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h3>Others[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12">edit</a>]</h3>
<h4>Enhanced weathering[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13">edit</a>]</h4>
<p>Enhanced weathering is a chemical approach to remove carbon dioxide involving land- or ocean-based techniques. One example of a land-based enhanced weathering technique is in-situ carbonation of silicates. <a href="/wiki/Ultramafic_rock">Ultramafic rock</a>, for example, has the potential to store from hundreds to thousands of years' worth of CO<sub>2</sub> emissions, according to estimates.<sup><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup> Ocean-based techniques involve alkalinity enhancement, such as grinding, dispersing, and dissolving olivine, limestone, silicates, or calcium hydroxide to address ocean acidification and CO<sub>2</sub> sequestration.<sup><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup> One example of a research project on the feasibility of enhanced weathering is the <a href="/wiki/CarbFix">CarbFix</a> project in Iceland.<sup><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Direct air capture with carbon sequestration[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14">edit</a>]</h4>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:2010-_Direct_Air_Capture_-_global_-_International_Energy_Agency_(IEA)_-_bar_chart.svg"></a></p></div>
<p>Direct air capture (DAC) is the use of chemical or physical processes to extract CO<sub>2</sub> directly from the ambient air.<sup><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup> If the extracted CO<sub>2</sub> is then <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration">sequestered</a> in safe long-term storage, the overall process will achieve carbon dioxide removal. As of 2002, it has yet to be profitable because the cost of using DAC to sequester carbon dioxide is several times the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_price">carbon price</a>.
</p>
<h4>Magnesium silicate/oxide in cement[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15">edit</a>]</h4>
<p>The replacement of carbonate in cement allows for the potential absorption of carbon dioxide over concrete lifecycle.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:3-22">[22]</a></sup><sup>: 64 </sup> However, lifecycle amounts are not yet fully understood.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:3-22">[22]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Issues[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16">edit</a>]</h2>
<h3>Economic issues[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>The cost of CDR differs substantially depending on the maturity of the technology employed as well as the economics of both voluntary carbon removal markets and the physical output; for example, the pyrolysis of biomass produces biochar that has various commercial applications, including soil regeneration and wastewater treatment.<sup><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup> In 2021 DAC cost from $250 to $600 per ton, compared to $100 for biochar and less than $50 for nature-based solutions, such as reforestation and afforestation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup> The fact that biochar commands a higher price in the carbon removal market than nature-based solutions reflects the fact that it is a more durable sink with carbon being sequestered for hundreds or even thousands of years while nature-based solutions represent a more volatile form of storage, which risks related to forest fires, pests, economic pressures and changing political priorities.<sup><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></sup> The Oxford Principles for Net Zero Aligned Carbon Offsetting states that to be compatible with the Paris Agreement: "...organizations must commit to gradually increase the percentage of carbon removal offsets they procure with the view of exclusively sourcing carbon removals by mid-century."<sup><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup> These initiatives along with the development of new industry standards for engineered carbon removal, such as the Puro Standard, will help to support the growth of the carbon removal market.<sup><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup> 
</p><p>Forests can be used to create carbon credits,<sup><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup> often involving the use of <a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system">geospatial analytical systems</a> to calculate carbon offsets by conserving a forest area or a <a href="/wiki/Reforestation">reforestation</a> initiative. <a href="/wiki/REDD%2B">REDD+</a> is an example of a carbon credit initiative. Individuals and businesses can purchase carbon credits through verified retailers such as <a href="https://www.act4.io/">ACT4</a>. 
</p><p>In 2021, businessman <a href="/wiki/Elon_Musk">Elon Musk</a> announced he was donating $100m for a prize for best carbon capture technology.<sup><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup> 
</p><p>Although CDR is not covered by the <a href="/wiki/EU_Allowance">EU Allowance</a> as of 2021, the <a href="/wiki/European_Commission">European Commission</a> is preparing for carbon removal certification and considering carbon <a href="/wiki/Contract_for_difference">contracts for difference</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></sup> CDR might also in future be added to the <a href="/wiki/UK_Emissions_Trading_Scheme">UK Emissions Trading Scheme</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:3-22">[22]</a></sup> As of end 2021 carbon prices for both these cap-and-trade schemes currently based on carbon reductions, as opposed to carbon removals, remained below $100.<sup><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></sup> 
</p><p>In April 2022, a private sector alliance led by <a href="/wiki/Stripe_(company)">Stripe</a> with prominent members including <a href="/wiki/Meta_Platforms">Meta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Google">Google</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shopify">Shopify</a>, revealed a nearly $1 billion dollar fund to reward companies able to permanently capture &amp; store carbon. According to senior Stripe employee Nan Ransohoff, the new fund "is roughly 30 times the carbon-removal market that existed in 2021. But it’s still 1,000 times short of the market we need by 2050."<sup><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></sup>
</p><p>According to the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine, some of these "negative-emission technologies" are already being used on a large scale. Congress passed the 45Q tax, which gives companies a $50 credit for every ton of carbon dioxide they fix and store. So the study proposes some CO2 fixation technologies that cost between $20 and $100 per ton.
</p>
<h2>Removal of other greenhouse gases[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Although some researchers have suggested methods for removing <a href="/wiki/Methane">methane</a>, others say that <a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide">nitrous oxide</a> would be a better subject for research due to its longer lifetime in the atmosphere.<sup><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>See also[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_scrubber">Carbon dioxide scrubber</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Carbon-neutral_fuel">Carbon-neutral fuel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_scenario">Climate change scenario</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Climate_engineering">Climate engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_emerging_technologies">List of emerging technologies</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_peroxide">Lithium peroxide</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_economy">Low-carbon economy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virgin_Earth_Challenge">Virgin Earth Challenge</a></li></ul>
<h2>References[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><ol>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b> <cite>Schenuit, Felix; Colvin, Rebecca; Fridahl, Mathias; McMullin, Barry; Reisinger, Andy; Sanchez, Daniel L.; Smith, Stephen M.; Torvanger, Asbjørn; Wreford, Anita; Geden, Oliver (March 4, 2021). <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffclim.2021.638805">"Carbon Dioxide Removal Policy in the Making: Assessing Developments in 9 OECD Cases"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Climate</i>. <b>3</b>: 638805. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffclim.2021.638805">10.3389/fclim.2021.638805</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/2624-9553">2624-9553</a>.</cite>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <cite>National Academies of Sciences, Engineering (October 24, 2018). <a href="https://www.nap.edu/catalog/25259/negative-emissions-technologies-and-reliable-sequestration-a-research-agenda"><i>Negative Emissions Technologies and Reliable Sequestration: A Research Agenda</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-48452-7"><bdi>978-0-309-48452-7</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211122220642/https://www.nap.edu/read/25259/chapter/1">Archived</a> from the original on November 20, 2021. Retrieved February 22, 2020.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Vergragt_6-0">^</a></b> <cite>Vergragt, P.J.; Markusson, N.; Karlsson, H. (2011). "Carbon capture and storage, bio-energy with carbon capture and storage, and the escape from the fossil-fuel lock-in". <i>Global Environmental Change</i>. <b>21</b> (2): 282–92. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.gloenvcha.2011.01.020">10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2011.01.020</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Azar_7-0">^</a></b> <cite>Azar, C.; Lindgren, K.; Larson, E.; Möllersten, K. (2006). "Carbon Capture and Storage from Fossil Fuels and Biomass – Costs and Potential Role in Stabilizing the Atmosphere". <i>Climatic Change</i>. <b>74</b> (1–3): 47–79. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006ClCh...74...47A">2006ClCh...74...47A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10584-005-3484-7">10.1007/s10584-005-3484-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4850415">4850415</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b> <cite>Pidcock, Roz (September 15, 2015). <a href="https://www.carbonbrief.org/the-carbon-brief-interview-dr-hoesung-lee/">"The Carbon Brief Interview: Dr Hoesung Lee"</a>. <i>Carbon Brief</i>. Retrieved May 19, 2022.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b> <cite>Hollo, Tim (January 15, 2009). <a href="http://blogs.crikey.com.au/rooted/2009/01/15/negative-emissions-needed-for-a-safe-climate-world-watch-institute/">"Negative emissions needed for a safe climate"</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191215062337/https://blogs.crikey.com.au/rooted/2009/01/15/negative-emissions-needed-for-a-safe-climate-world-watch-institute/">Archived</a> from the original on December 15, 2019. Retrieved September 10, 2011.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/big-idea/13/carbon-capture">"National Geographic Magazine - NGM.com"</a>. Ngm.nationalgeographic.com. April 25, 2013. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180322090824/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/big-idea/13/carbon-capture">Archived</a> from the original on March 22, 2018. Retrieved September 22, 2013.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIPCC15Ch._2_p._124_19-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFIPCC15">IPCC15</a>, Ch. 2 p. 124.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-briefs/forests-and-climate-change">"Forests and climate change"</a>. <i>IUCN</i>. November 11, 2017. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201009000138/https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-briefs/forests-and-climate-change">Archived</a> from the original on October 9, 2020. Retrieved October 7, 2020.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://climatetransform.com/forest-protection-climate-change-why-is-it-important">"Forest Protection &amp; Climate Change: Why Is It Important?"</a>. <i>Climate Transform</i>. May 13, 2021. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210603125847/https://climatetransform.com/forest-protection-climate-change-why-is-it-important/">Archived</a> from the original on June 3, 2021. Retrieved May 31, 2021.</cite>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_22-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1026494/ggr-cfe-summary-of-responses.pdf">"Greenhouse Gas Removals: Summary of Responses to the Call for Evidence"</a> (PDF). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211020132909/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1026494/ggr-cfe-summary-of-responses.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on October 20, 2021.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Carbon_sequestration_SedjoSohngen_26-0">^</a></b> <cite>Sedjo, Roger; Sohngen, Brent (2012). "Carbon Sequestration in Forests and Soils". <i><a href="/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Resource_Economics">Annual Review of Resource Economics</a></i>. <b>4</b>: 127–144. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-resource-083110-115941">10.1146/annurev-resource-083110-115941</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Beerling_27-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/David_Beerling">Beerling, David</a> (2008). <i>The Emerald Planet: How Plants Changed Earth's History</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 194–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954814-9"><bdi>978-0-19-954814-9</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b> <cite>National Academies Of Sciences, Engineering (2019). <i>Negative Emissions Technologies and Reliable Sequestration: A Research Agenda</i>. Washington, D.C.: National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. pp. 45–136. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.17226%2F25259">10.17226/25259</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-48452-7"><bdi>978-0-309-48452-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)">PMID</a> <a href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31120708">31120708</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:134196575">134196575</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Carbon_farming_:1_30-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210521232156/https://www.carboncycle.org/carbon-farming/">"Carbon Farming | Carbon Cycle Institute"</a>. <i>www.carboncycle.org</i>. Archived from <a href="http://www.carboncycle.org/carbon-farming/">the original</a> on May 21, 2021. Retrieved April 27, 2018.</cite>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Carbon_farming_:02_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carbon_farming_:02_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Tang, Kai; Kragt, Marit E.; Hailu, Atakelty; Ma, Chunbo (May 1, 2016). <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479716300494">"Carbon farming economics: What have we learned?"</a>. <i>Journal of Environmental Management</i>. <b>172</b>: 49–57. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jenvman.2016.02.008">10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.02.008</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0301-4797">0301-4797</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)">PMID</a> <a href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26921565">26921565</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Carbon_farming_:7_35-0">^</a></b> <cite>Lehmann, Johannes; Gaunt, John; Rondon, Marco (March 1, 2006). "Bio-char Sequestration in Terrestrial Ecosystems – A Review". <i>Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change</i>. <b>11</b> (2): 403–427. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a href="//citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.183.1147">10.1.1.183.1147</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11027-005-9006-5">10.1007/s11027-005-9006-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1381-2386">1381-2386</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4696862">4696862</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.sapea.info/wp-content/uploads/CCU-report-proof3-for-23-May.pdf">"SAPEA, Science Advice for Policy by European Academies. (2018). Novel carbon capture and utilisation technologies: research and climate aspects Berlin"</a> (PDF). SAPEA. 2018. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.26356%2Fcarboncapture">10.26356/carboncapture</a>.</cite> 
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.europeanceo.com/profiles/how-finlands-puro-earth-plans-to-scale-up-carbon-removal-to-help-the-world-reach-net-zero-emissions/">"How Finland's Puro.earth plans to scale up carbon removal to help the world reach net zero emissions"</a>. <i>European CEO</i>. July 1, 2021. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210701173925/https://www.europeanceo.com/profiles/how-finlands-puro-earth-plans-to-scale-up-carbon-removal-to-help-the-world-reach-net-zero-emissions/">Archived</a> from the original on July 1, 2021.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b> <cite>Lebling, Katie; McQueen, Noah; Pisciotta, Max; Wilcox, Jennifer (January 6, 2021). <a href="https://www.wri.org/insights/direct-air-capture-resource-considerations-and-costs-carbon-removal">"Direct Air Capture: Resource Considerations and Costs for Carbon Removal"</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210513190031/https://www.wri.org/insights/direct-air-capture-resource-considerations-and-costs-carbon-removal">Archived</a> from the original on May 13, 2021. Retrieved May 13, 2021.</cite> 
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b> <cite>Brown, James (February 21, 2021). <a href="https://www.theland.com.au/story/7127811/clever-cooking-captures-valuable-carbon/?cs=4932">"New Biochar technology a game changer for carbon capture market"</a>. <i>The Land</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210221214640/https://www.theland.com.au/story/7127811/clever-cooking-captures-valuable-carbon/?cs=4932">Archived</a> from the original on February 21, 2021. Retrieved December 10, 2021.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b> <cite>Giles, Jim (February 10, 2020). <a href="https://www.greenbiz.com/article/trend-carbon-markets-get-real-removal">"Carbon markets get real on removal"</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200215111350/https://www.greenbiz.com/article/trend-carbon-markets-get-real-removal">Archived</a> from the original on February 15, 2020. Retrieved December 10, 2021.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b> <cite>@elonmusk (January 21, 2021). <a href="https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1352392678177034242">"Am donating $100M towards a prize for best carbon capture technology"</a> (Tweet) – via <a href="/wiki/Twitter">Twitter</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b> <cite>Tamme, Eve; Beck, Larissa Lee (2021). <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffclim.2021.682882">"European Carbon Dioxide Removal Policy: Current Status and Future Opportunities"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Climate</i>. <b>3</b>: 120. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffclim.2021.682882">10.3389/fclim.2021.682882</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/2624-9553">2624-9553</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b> <cite>Robinson Meyer (April 23, 2022). <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2022/04/big-tech-investment-carbon-removal/629545/">"We've Never Seen a Carbon-Removal Plan Like This Before"</a>. <i>The Atlantic</i>. Retrieved April 29, 2022.</cite>
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</li>
</ol></div>
<h3>Sources[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21">edit</a>]</h3>
<ul><li><cite><a href="/wiki/IPCC">IPCC</a>, 2018: <i>Global Warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty</i> [V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, H. O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J. B. R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M. I. Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, T. Waterfield (eds.)].</cite>
<ul><li><cite><a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/">Report website</a></cite></li></ul></li>
<li><cite>Fajardy, Mathilde; Köberle, Alexandre; Mac Dowell, Niall; Fantuzzi, Andrea (2019). <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/media/imperial-college/grantham-institute/public/publications/briefing-papers/BECCS-deployment---a-reality-check.pdf">"BECCS deployment: a reality check"</a> (PDF). Grantham Institute Imperial College London.</cite></li></ul>
<h2>External links[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li><a href="https://carbon180.org/deep-dives">Deep Dives</a> by <a href="/wiki/Carbon180">Carbon180</a>. Info about carbon removal solutions.</li></ul>
<ul><li><cite>Krupp, Fred; Keohane, Nathaniel; Pooley, Eric (September 25, 2019). <a href="https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2019-02-12/less-zero">"Less Than Zero; Can Carbon-Removal Technologies Curb Climate Change?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Foreign_Affairs">Foreign Affairs</a></i> (March/April 2019): 142–152.</cite></li>
<li><a href="https://www.roadto10gigatons.com/">The Road to Ten Gigatons - Carbon Removal Scale Up Challenge</a> Game.</li></ul>
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 * (Top)
 * 1 Definitions
 + 1.1 Concepts using similar terminology
 * 2 Potential for climate change mitigation
 * 3 Methods
 + 3.1 Afforestation, reforestation, and forestry management
 + 3.2 Carbon sequestration
 o 3.2.1 Biosequestration
 o 3.2.2 Agricultural practices
 o 3.2.3 Wetland restoration
 o 3.2.4 Bioenergy with carbon capture & storage
 o 3.2.5 Biochar
 + 3.3 Others
 o 3.3.1 Enhanced weathering
 o 3.3.2 Direct air capture with carbon sequestration
 o 3.3.3 Magnesium silicate/oxide in cement
 * 4 Issues
 + 4.1 Economic issues
 * 5 Removal of other greenhouse gases
 * 6 See also
 * 7 References
 + 7.1 Sources
 * 8 External links
 Toggle the table of contents

 Carbon dioxide removal

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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 This article is about removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For technologies that remove carbon dioxide from point sources, see Carbon capture and storage.

 Planting trees is a means of carbon dioxide removal.

 Carbon dioxide removal (CDR), also known as negative CO2 emissions, is a process in which carbon dioxide gas (CO2) is removed from the atmosphere and sequestered for long periods of time.[1] : 2221 Similarly, greenhouse gas removal (GGR) or negative greenhouse gas emissions is the removal of greenhouse gases (GHGs) from the atmosphere by deliberate human activities, i.e., in addition to the removal that would occur via natural carbon cycle or atmospheric chemistry processes.[1] : 2240 In the context of net zero greenhouse gas emissions targets,[2] CDR is increasingly integrated into climate policy, as a new element of mitigation strategies.[3] CDR and GGR methods are also known as negative emissions technologies (NET), and may be cheaper than preventing some agricultural greenhouse gas emissions.[4]

 CDR methods include afforestation, agricultural practices that sequester carbon in soils, bio-energy with carbon capture and storage, ocean fertilization, enhanced weathering, and direct air capture when combined with storage.[5][6][7] To assess whether net negative emissions are achieved by a particular process, comprehensive life cycle analysis of the process must be performed.

 A 2019 consensus report by the US National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM) concluded that using existing CDR methods at scales that can be safely and economically deployed, there is potential to remove and sequester up to 10 gigatons of carbon dioxide per year.[4] This would offset greenhouse gas emissions at about a fifth of the rate at which they are being produced.

 All emission pathways that limit global warming to 1.5 °C or 2 °C by the year 2100 assume the use of CDR approaches in combination with emission reductions.[8][9]

 Definitions [ edit ]

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 Carbon dioxide removal (CDR) is defined as:

 Anthropogenic activities removing CO2 from the atmosphere and durably storing it in geological, terrestrial, or ocean reservoirs, or in products. It includes existing and potential anthropogenic enhancement of biological or geochemical sinks and direct air capture and storage, but excludes natural CO2 uptake not directly caused by human activities.[1] : 2221

 The same definition is commonly used for "net negative greenhouse gas emissions", "net zero CO2 emissions" and "net zero greenhouse gas emissions".[1][4]

 The concept of deliberately reducing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere is often mistakenly grouped with solar radiation management under the umbrella term "climate engineering." When CDR is framed as a form of "climate engineering", people tend to view it as intrinsically risky.[4][ need quotation to verify ] In fact, CDR addresses the root cause of climate change and is part of strategies to reduce net emissions and manage risks related to elevated atmospheric CO2 levels.[5][10]

 Concepts using similar terminology [ edit ]

 CDR can be confused with carbon capture and storage (CCS), a process in which carbon dioxide is collected from point-sources such as gas-fired power plants, whose smokestacks emit CO2 in a concentrated stream. The CO2 is then compressed and sequestered or utilized.[11] When used to sequester the carbon from a gas-fired power plant, CCS reduces emissions from continued use of the point source, but does not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere.

 Potential for climate change mitigation [ edit ]

 Further information: climate change mitigation

 The likely need for CDR (carbon dioxide removal) as an element of climate change mitigation has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues, including IPCC chief Dr. Hoesung Lee,[12] the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres,[13] and the World Watch Institute.[14] Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute, Columbia University,[15] and the Climate Decision Making Center,[16] an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University's Department of Engineering and Public Policy.

 Using CDR in parallel with other efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, such as deploying renewable energy, is likely to be less expensive and disruptive than using other efforts alone.[4] A 2019 consensus study report by NASEM assessed the potential of all forms of CDR other than ocean fertilization that could be deployed safely and economically using current technologies, and estimated that they could remove up to 10 gigatons of CO2 per year if fully deployed worldwide.[4] This is one-fifth of the 50 gigatons of CO2 emitted per year by human activities.[4] In 2018, all analyzed mitigation pathways that would prevent more than 1.5 °C of warming included CDR measures.[17]

 Some mitigation pathways propose achieving higher rates of CDR through massive deployment of one technology, however these pathways assume that hundreds of millions of hectares of cropland are converted to growing biofuel crops.[4] Further research in the areas of direct air capture, geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide, and carbon mineralization could potentially yield technological advancements that make higher rates of CDR economically feasible.[4]

 Reliance on large-scale deployment of CDR was regarded in 2018 as a "major risk" to achieving the goal of less than 1.5 °C of warming, given the uncertainties in how quickly CDR can be deployed at scale.[17] Strategies for mitigating climate change that rely less on CDR and more on sustainable use of energy carry less of this risk.[17][18] The possibility of large-scale future CDR deployment has been described as a moral hazard, as it could lead to a reduction in near-term efforts to mitigate climate change.[19][4] The 2019 NASEM report concludes:

 Any argument to delay mitigation efforts because NETs will provide a backstop drastically misrepresents their current capacities and the likely pace of research progress.[4]

 Methods [ edit ]

 Afforestation, reforestation, and forestry management [ edit ]

 See also: Deforestation and climate change and Reforestation

 According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature: "Halting the loss and degradation of natural systems and promoting their restoration have the potential to contribute over one-third of the total climate change mitigation scientists say is required by 2030."[20]

 Forests are vital for human society, animals and plant species. This is because trees keep air clean, regulate the local climate and provide a habitat for numerous species. Trees and plants convert carbon dioxide back into oxygen, using photosynthesis. They are important for regulating CO2 levels in the air, as they remove and store carbon from the air. Without them, the atmosphere would heat up quickly and destabilise the climate.[21]

 Increased use of wood in construction is being considered.[22]

 Carbon sequestration [ edit ]

 This section is an excerpt from Carbon sequestration. [ edit ]

 Carbon sequestration (or carbon storage) is the process of storing carbon (in particular atmospheric carbon dioxide) in a carbon pool.[23] : 2248 The process acts like a carbon sink, meaning it removes a greenhouse gas, or a precursor of a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere.[23] : 2923 Carbon sequestration is a naturally occurring process but it can also be enhanced or achieved with technology, for example within carbon capture and storage projects. There are two main types of carbon sequestration: geologic and biologic.[24]

 Carbon dioxide ( CO
 2) is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological, chemical, and physical processes.[25] These changes can be accelerated through changes in land use and agricultural practices, such as converting crop land into land for non-crop fast growing plants.[26] Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects,[25] including large-scale, artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced CO
 2 using subsurface saline aquifers or aging oil fields. Other technologies that work with carbon sequestration include bio-energy with carbon capture and storage, biochar, enhanced weathering, direct air carbon capture and sequestration (DACCS).

 Biosequestration [ edit ]

 Main article: Biosequestration

 Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by continual or enhanced biological processes. This form of carbon sequestration occurs through increased rates of photosynthesis via land-use practices such as reforestation, sustainable forest management, and genetic engineering. The SALK Harnessing Plants Initiative led by Joanne Chory is an example of an enhanced photosynthesis initiative[27][28] Carbon sequestration through biological processes affects the global carbon cycle.

 Agricultural practices [ edit ]

 See also: Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture
 This section is an excerpt from Carbon farming. [ edit ]
 Measuring soil respiration on agricultural land

 Carbon farming is a name for a variety of agricultural methods aimed at sequestering atmospheric carbon into the soil and in crop roots, wood and leaves. The aim of carbon farming is to increase the rate at which carbon is sequestered into soil and plant material with the goal of creating a net loss of carbon from the atmosphere.[29] Increasing a soil's organic matter content can aid plant growth, increase total carbon content, improve soil water retention capacity[30] and reduce fertilizer use.[31] As of 2016, variants of carbon farming reached hundreds of millions of hectares globally, of the nearly 5 billion hectares (1.2 × 1010 acres) of world farmland.[32] In addition to agricultural activities, forests management is also a tool that is used in carbon farming.[33] The practice of carbon farming is often done by individual land owners who are given incentive to use and to integrate methods that will sequester carbon through policies created by governments.[34] Carbon farming methods will typically have a cost, meaning farmers and land-owners need a way to profit from the use of carbon farming, thus requiring government programs.[34]

 Land management techniques that can be combined with farming include planting/restoring forests, burying biochar produced by anaerobically converted biomass and restoring wetlands (such as marshes and peatlands).[35]

 Carbon farming is one component of climate smart agriculture.

 Wetland restoration [ edit ]

 This section is an excerpt from Blue carbon. [ edit ]
 Estimates of the economic value of blue carbon ecosystems per hectare. Based on 2009 data from UNEP/GRID-Arendal.[36][37]
 Blue carbon refers to organic carbon that is captured and stored by the world's oceanic and coastal ecosystems, mostly by algae, seagrasses, macroalgae, mangroves, salt marshes and other plants in coastal wetlands.[37] The term "blue carbon" was coined in 2009 to highlight the contribution of coastal vegetated ecosystems to climate change mitigation.[38] Because oceans cover 70% of the planet, there is increasing industry interest in developing blue carbon potential.[39] Research is ongoing, and while in some cases it has been found that these types of ecosystems remove far more carbon per area than terrestrial forests, the effectiveness of blue carbon as a carbon dioxide removal solution remains highly contested.[40][39][41]

 Bioenergy with carbon capture & storage [ edit ]

 This section is an excerpt from Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage. [ edit ]

 Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) is the process of extracting bioenergy from biomass and capturing and storing the carbon, thereby removing it from the atmosphere.[42] BECCS can be a "negative emissions technology" (NET).[43] The carbon in the biomass comes from the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2) which is extracted from the atmosphere by the biomass when it grows. Energy ("bioenergy") is extracted in useful forms (electricity, heat, biofuels, etc.) as the biomass is utilized through combustion, fermentation, pyrolysis or other conversion methods.

 Some of the carbon in the biomass is converted to CO2 or biochar which can then be stored by geologic sequestration or land application, respectively, enabling carbon dioxide removal (CDR). [43]

 The potential range of negative emissions from BECCS was estimated to be zero to 22 gigatonnes per year.[44] As of 2019, five facilities around the world were actively using BECCS technologies and were capturing approximately 1.5 million tonnes per year of CO2.[45] Wide deployment of BECCS is constrained by cost and availability of biomass.[46][47] : 10

 Biochar [ edit ]

 Main article: Biochar

 Biochar is created by the pyrolysis of biomass, and is under investigation as a method of carbon sequestration. Biochar is a charcoal that is used for agricultural purposes which also aids in carbon sequestration, the capture or hold of carbon. It is created using a process called pyrolysis, which is basically the act of high temperature heating biomass in an environment with low oxygen levels. What remains is a material known as char, similar to charcoal but is made through a sustainable process, thus the use of biomass.[48] Biomass is organic matter produced by living organisms or recently living organisms, most commonly plants or plant based material.[49] A study done by the UK Biochar Research Center has stated that, on a conservative level, biochar can store 1 gigaton of carbon per year. With greater effort in marketing and acceptance of biochar, the benefit could be the storage of 5–9 gigatons per year of carbon in biochar soils.[50][ better source needed ]

 Others [ edit ]

 Enhanced weathering [ edit ]

 Main article: Enhanced weathering

 Enhanced weathering is a chemical approach to remove carbon dioxide involving land- or ocean-based techniques. One example of a land-based enhanced weathering technique is in-situ carbonation of silicates. Ultramafic rock, for example, has the potential to store from hundreds to thousands of years' worth of CO2 emissions, according to estimates.[51][52] Ocean-based techniques involve alkalinity enhancement, such as grinding, dispersing, and dissolving olivine, limestone, silicates, or calcium hydroxide to address ocean acidification and CO2 sequestration.[53] One example of a research project on the feasibility of enhanced weathering is the CarbFix project in Iceland.[54][55][56]

 Direct air capture with carbon sequestration [ edit ]

 The International Energy Agency reported growth in direct air capture global operating capacity.[57]
 Main article: Direct air capture

 Direct air capture (DAC) is the use of chemical or physical processes to extract CO2 directly from the ambient air.[58] If the extracted CO2 is then sequestered in safe long-term storage, the overall process will achieve carbon dioxide removal. As of 2002, it has yet to be profitable because the cost of using DAC to sequester carbon dioxide is several times the carbon price.

 Magnesium silicate/oxide in cement [ edit ]

 The replacement of carbonate in cement allows for the potential absorption of carbon dioxide over concrete lifecycle.[22] : 64 However, lifecycle amounts are not yet fully understood.[22]

 Issues [ edit ]

 Economic issues [ edit ]

 Further information: Economics of climate change mitigation and Economics of climate change

 The cost of CDR differs substantially depending on the maturity of the technology employed as well as the economics of both voluntary carbon removal markets and the physical output; for example, the pyrolysis of biomass produces biochar that has various commercial applications, including soil regeneration and wastewater treatment.[59] In 2021 DAC cost from $250 to $600 per ton, compared to $100 for biochar and less than $50 for nature-based solutions, such as reforestation and afforestation.[60][61] The fact that biochar commands a higher price in the carbon removal market than nature-based solutions reflects the fact that it is a more durable sink with carbon being sequestered for hundreds or even thousands of years while nature-based solutions represent a more volatile form of storage, which risks related to forest fires, pests, economic pressures and changing political priorities.[62] The Oxford Principles for Net Zero Aligned Carbon Offsetting states that to be compatible with the Paris Agreement: "...organizations must commit to gradually increase the percentage of carbon removal offsets they procure with the view of exclusively sourcing carbon removals by mid-century."[63] These initiatives along with the development of new industry standards for engineered carbon removal, such as the Puro Standard, will help to support the growth of the carbon removal market.[64]

 Forests can be used to create carbon credits,[65] often involving the use of geospatial analytical systems to calculate carbon offsets by conserving a forest area or a reforestation initiative. REDD+ is an example of a carbon credit initiative. Individuals and businesses can purchase carbon credits through verified retailers such as ACT4.

 In 2021, businessman Elon Musk announced he was donating $100m for a prize for best carbon capture technology.[66]

 Although CDR is not covered by the EU Allowance as of 2021, the European Commission is preparing for carbon removal certification and considering carbon contracts for difference.[67][68] CDR might also in future be added to the UK Emissions Trading Scheme.[22] As of end 2021 carbon prices for both these cap-and-trade schemes currently based on carbon reductions, as opposed to carbon removals, remained below $100.[69][70]

 In April 2022, a private sector alliance led by Stripe with prominent members including Meta, Google and Shopify, revealed a nearly $1 billion dollar fund to reward companies able to permanently capture & store carbon. According to senior Stripe employee Nan Ransohoff, the new fund "is roughly 30 times the carbon-removal market that existed in 2021. But it’s still 1,000 times short of the market we need by 2050."[71]

 According to the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine, some of these "negative-emission technologies" are already being used on a large scale. Congress passed the 45Q tax, which gives companies a $50 credit for every ton of carbon dioxide they fix and store. So the study proposes some CO2 fixation technologies that cost between $20 and $100 per ton.

 Removal of other greenhouse gases [ edit ]

 Although some researchers have suggested methods for removing methane, others say that nitrous oxide would be a better subject for research due to its longer lifetime in the atmosphere.[72]

 See also [ edit ]

 * Climate change portal
 * Carbon dioxide scrubber
 * Carbon-neutral fuel
 * Climate change scenario
 * Climate engineering
 * List of emerging technologies
 * Lithium peroxide
 * Low-carbon economy
 * Virgin Earth Challenge

 References [ edit ]

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 48. ^ "What is biochar?". UK Biochar research center. University of Edinburgh Kings Buildings Edinburgh. Archived from the original on October 1, 2019 . Retrieved April 25, 2016 .
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 57. ^ "Direct Air Capture / A key technology for net zero" (PDF) . International Energy Agency (IEA). April 2022. p. 18. Archived (PDF) from the original on April 10, 2022.
 58. ^ "SAPEA, Science Advice for Policy by European Academies. (2018). Novel carbon capture and utilisation technologies: research and climate aspects Berlin" (PDF) . SAPEA. 2018. doi:10.26356/carboncapture. {{cite journal}} : Cite journal requires |journal= ( help )
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 61. ^ Brown, James (February 21, 2021). "New Biochar technology a game changer for carbon capture market". The Land. Archived from the original on February 21, 2021 . Retrieved December 10, 2021 .
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 71. ^ Robinson Meyer (April 23, 2022). "We've Never Seen a Carbon-Removal Plan Like This Before". The Atlantic . Retrieved April 29, 2022 .
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 Sources [ edit ]

 * IPCC, 2018: Global Warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty [V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, H. O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J. B. R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M. I. Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, T. Waterfield (eds.)].
 + Report website
 * Fajardy, Mathilde; Köberle, Alexandre; Mac Dowell, Niall; Fantuzzi, Andrea (2019). "BECCS deployment: a reality check" (PDF) . Grantham Institute Imperial College London.

 External links [ edit ]

 * Deep Dives by Carbon180. Info about carbon removal solutions.
 * Krupp, Fred; Keohane, Nathaniel; Pooley, Eric (September 25, 2019). "Less Than Zero; Can Carbon-Removal Technologies Curb Climate Change?". Foreign Affairs (March/April 2019): 142–152.
 * The Road to Ten Gigatons - Carbon Removal Scale Up Challenge Game.
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
	 
This article is about removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For technologies that remove carbon dioxide from point sources, see Carbon capture and storage.
      Planting trees is a means of carbon dioxide removal.  
 Carbon dioxide removal (CDR), also known as negative CO2 emissions, is a process in which carbon dioxide gas (CO2) is removed from the atmosphere and sequestered for long periods of time. [1]  : 2221  Similarly, greenhouse gas removal (GGR) or negative greenhouse gas emissions is the removal of greenhouse gases (GHGs) from the atmosphere by deliberate human activities, i.e., in addition to the removal that would occur via natural carbon cycle or atmospheric chemistry processes. [1]  : 2240  In the context of net zero greenhouse gas emissions targets, [2]  CDR is increasingly integrated into climate policy, as a new element of mitigation strategies. [3]  CDR and GGR methods are also known as negative emissions technologies (NET), and may be cheaper than preventing some agricultural greenhouse gas emissions. [4] 
 CDR methods include afforestation, agricultural practices that sequester carbon in soils, bio-energy with carbon capture and storage, ocean fertilization, enhanced weathering, and direct air capture when combined with storage. [5]   [6]   [7]  To assess whether net negative emissions are achieved by a particular process, comprehensive life cycle analysis of the process must be performed.
 A 2019 consensus report by the US National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM) concluded that using existing CDR methods at scales that can be safely and economically deployed, there is potential to remove and sequester up to 10 gigatons of carbon dioxide per year. [4]  This would offset greenhouse gas emissions at about a fifth of the rate at which they are being produced.
 All emission pathways that limit global warming to 1.5 °C or 2 °C by the year 2100 assume the use of CDR approaches in combination with emission reductions. [8]   [9] 
Definitions[edit]
Carbon dioxide removal (CDR) is defined as:
 Anthropogenic activities removing CO2 from the atmosphere and durably storing it in geological, terrestrial, or ocean reservoirs, or in products. It includes existing and potential anthropogenic enhancement of biological or geochemical sinks and direct air capture and storage, but excludes natural CO2 uptake not directly caused by human activities. [1]  : 2221   
The same definition is commonly used for "net negative greenhouse gas emissions", "net zero CO2 emissions" and "net zero greenhouse gas emissions". [1]   [4] 
 The concept of deliberately reducing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere is often mistakenly grouped with solar radiation management under the umbrella term "climate engineering." When CDR is framed as a form of "climate engineering", people tend to view it as intrinsically risky. [4]  [ need quotation to verify ] In fact, CDR addresses the root cause of climate change and is part of strategies to reduce net emissions and manage risks related to elevated atmospheric CO2 levels. [5]   [10] 
Concepts using similar terminology[edit]
CDR can be confused with carbon capture and storage (CCS), a process in which carbon dioxide is collected from point-sources such as gas-fired power plants, whose smokestacks emit CO2 in a concentrated stream. The CO2 is then compressed and sequestered or utilized. [11]  When used to sequester the carbon from a gas-fired power plant, CCS reduces emissions from continued use of the point source, but does not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere.
Potential for climate change mitigation[edit]
The likely need for CDR (carbon dioxide removal) as an element of climate change mitigation has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues, including IPCC chief Dr. Hoesung Lee, [12]  the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres, [13]  and the World Watch Institute. [14]  Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute, Columbia University, [15]  and the Climate Decision Making Center, [16]  an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University's Department of Engineering and Public Policy.
 Using CDR in parallel with other efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, such as deploying renewable energy, is likely to be less expensive and disruptive than using other efforts alone. [4]  A 2019 consensus study report by NASEM assessed the potential of all forms of CDR other than ocean fertilization that could be deployed safely and economically using current technologies, and estimated that they could remove up to 10 gigatons of CO2 per year if fully deployed worldwide. [4]  This is one-fifth of the 50 gigatons of CO2 emitted per year by human activities. [4]  In 2018, all analyzed mitigation pathways that would prevent more than 1.5 °C of warming included CDR measures. [17] 
 Some mitigation pathways propose achieving higher rates of CDR through massive deployment of one technology, however these pathways assume that hundreds of millions of hectares of cropland are converted to growing biofuel crops. [4]  Further research in the areas of direct air capture, geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide, and carbon mineralization could potentially yield technological advancements that make higher rates of CDR economically feasible. [4] 
 Reliance on large-scale deployment of CDR was regarded in 2018 as a "major risk" to achieving the goal of less than 1.5 °C of warming, given the uncertainties in how quickly CDR can be deployed at scale. [17]  Strategies for mitigating climate change that rely less on CDR and more on sustainable use of energy carry less of this risk. [17]   [18]  The possibility of large-scale future CDR deployment has been described as a moral hazard, as it could lead to a reduction in near-term efforts to mitigate climate change. [19]   [4]  The 2019 NASEM report concludes:
 Any argument to delay mitigation efforts because NETs will provide a backstop drastically misrepresents their current capacities and the likely pace of research progress. [4]   
Methods[edit]
Afforestation, reforestation, and forestry management[edit]
According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature: "Halting the loss and degradation of natural systems and promoting their restoration have the potential to contribute over one-third of the total climate change mitigation scientists say is required by 2030." [20] 
 Forests are vital for human society, animals and plant species. This is because trees keep air clean, regulate the local climate and provide a habitat for numerous species. Trees and plants convert carbon dioxide back into oxygen, using photosynthesis. They are important for regulating CO2 levels in the air, as they remove and store carbon from the air. Without them, the atmosphere would heat up quickly and destabilise the climate. [21] 
 Increased use of wood in construction is being considered. [22] 
Carbon sequestration[edit]
 Carbon sequestration (or carbon storage) is the process of storing carbon (in particular atmospheric carbon dioxide) in a carbon pool. [23]  : 2248  The process acts like a carbon sink, meaning it removes a greenhouse gas, or a precursor of a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere. [23]  : 2923  Carbon sequestration is a naturally occurring process but it can also be enhanced or achieved with technology, for example within carbon capture and storage projects. There are two main types of carbon sequestration: geologic and biologic. [24] 
 
Carbon dioxide (CO   2) is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological, chemical, and physical processes. [25]  These changes can be accelerated through changes in land use and agricultural practices, such as converting crop land into land for non-crop fast growing plants. [26]  Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects, [25]  including large-scale, artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced CO   2 using subsurface saline aquifers or aging oil fields. Other technologies that work with carbon sequestration include bio-energy with carbon capture and storage, biochar, enhanced weathering, direct air carbon capture and sequestration (DACCS). 
Biosequestration[edit]
 Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by continual or enhanced biological processes. This form of carbon sequestration occurs through increased rates of photosynthesis via land-use practices such as reforestation, sustainable forest management, and genetic engineering. The SALK Harnessing Plants Initiative led by Joanne Chory is an example of an enhanced photosynthesis initiative [27]   [28]  Carbon sequestration through biological processes affects the global carbon cycle.
Agricultural practices[edit]
     
 Carbon farming is a name for a variety of agricultural methods aimed at sequestering atmospheric carbon into the soil and in crop roots, wood and leaves. The aim of carbon farming is to increase the rate at which carbon is sequestered into soil and plant material with the goal of creating a net loss of carbon from the atmosphere. [29]  Increasing a soil's organic matter content can aid plant growth, increase total carbon content, improve soil water retention capacity [30]  and reduce fertilizer use. [31]  As of 2016, variants of carbon farming reached hundreds of millions of hectares globally, of the nearly 5 billion hectares (1.2×1010 acres) of world farmland. [32]  In addition to agricultural activities, forests management is also a tool that is used in carbon farming. [33]  The practice of carbon farming is often done by individual land owners who are given incentive to use and to integrate methods that will sequester carbon through policies created by governments. [34]  Carbon farming methods will typically have a cost, meaning farmers and land-owners need a way to profit from the use of carbon farming, thus requiring government programs. [34] 
 Land management techniques that can be combined with farming include planting/restoring forests, burying biochar produced by anaerobically converted biomass and restoring wetlands (such as marshes and peatlands). [35] 
 
Carbon farming is one component of climate smart agriculture. 
Wetland restoration[edit]
      Estimates of the economic value of blue carbon ecosystems per hectare. Based on 2009 data from UNEP/GRID-Arendal. [36]   [37]    
 Blue carbon refers to organic carbon that is captured and stored by the world's oceanic and coastal ecosystems, mostly by algae, seagrasses, macroalgae, mangroves, salt marshes and other plants in coastal wetlands. [37]  The term "blue carbon" was coined in 2009 to highlight the contribution of coastal vegetated ecosystems to climate change mitigation. [38]  Because oceans cover 70% of the planet, there is increasing industry interest in developing blue carbon potential. [39]  Research is ongoing, and while in some cases it has been found that these types of ecosystems remove far more carbon per area than terrestrial forests, the effectiveness of blue carbon as a carbon dioxide removal solution remains highly contested. [40]   [39]   [41]   
Bioenergy with carbon capture &amp; storage[edit]
Biochar[edit]
 Biochar is created by the pyrolysis of biomass, and is under investigation as a method of carbon sequestration.
Biochar is a charcoal that is used for agricultural purposes which also aids in carbon sequestration, the capture or hold of carbon. It is created using a process called pyrolysis, which is basically the act of high temperature heating biomass in an environment with low oxygen levels. What remains is a material known as char, similar to charcoal but is made through a sustainable process, thus the use of biomass. [48]  Biomass is organic matter produced by living organisms or recently living organisms, most commonly plants or plant based material. [49]  A study done by the UK Biochar Research Center has stated that, on a conservative level, biochar can store 1 gigaton of carbon per year. With greater effort in marketing and acceptance of biochar, the benefit could be the storage of 5–9 gigatons per year of carbon in biochar soils. [50]  [ better source needed ]
Others[edit]
Enhanced weathering[edit]
Enhanced weathering is a chemical approach to remove carbon dioxide involving land- or ocean-based techniques. One example of a land-based enhanced weathering technique is in-situ carbonation of silicates. Ultramafic rock, for example, has the potential to store from hundreds to thousands of years' worth of CO2 emissions, according to estimates. [51]   [52]  Ocean-based techniques involve alkalinity enhancement, such as grinding, dispersing, and dissolving olivine, limestone, silicates, or calcium hydroxide to address ocean acidification and CO2 sequestration. [53]  One example of a research project on the feasibility of enhanced weathering is the CarbFix project in Iceland. [54]   [55]   [56] 
Direct air capture with carbon sequestration[edit]
     
Direct air capture (DAC) is the use of chemical or physical processes to extract CO2 directly from the ambient air. [58]  If the extracted CO2 is then sequestered in safe long-term storage, the overall process will achieve carbon dioxide removal. As of 2002, it has yet to be profitable because the cost of using DAC to sequester carbon dioxide is several times the carbon price.
Magnesium silicate/oxide in cement[edit]
The replacement of carbonate in cement allows for the potential absorption of carbon dioxide over concrete lifecycle. [22]  : 64  However, lifecycle amounts are not yet fully understood. [22] 
Issues[edit]
Economic issues[edit]
The cost of CDR differs substantially depending on the maturity of the technology employed as well as the economics of both voluntary carbon removal markets and the physical output; for example, the pyrolysis of biomass produces biochar that has various commercial applications, including soil regeneration and wastewater treatment. [59]  In 2021 DAC cost from $250 to $600 per ton, compared to $100 for biochar and less than $50 for nature-based solutions, such as reforestation and afforestation. [60]   [61]  The fact that biochar commands a higher price in the carbon removal market than nature-based solutions reflects the fact that it is a more durable sink with carbon being sequestered for hundreds or even thousands of years while nature-based solutions represent a more volatile form of storage, which risks related to forest fires, pests, economic pressures and changing political priorities. [62]  The Oxford Principles for Net Zero Aligned Carbon Offsetting states that to be compatible with the Paris Agreement: "...organizations must commit to gradually increase the percentage of carbon removal offsets they procure with the view of exclusively sourcing carbon removals by mid-century." [63]  These initiatives along with the development of new industry standards for engineered carbon removal, such as the Puro Standard, will help to support the growth of the carbon removal market. [64]  
 Forests can be used to create carbon credits, [65]  often involving the use of geospatial analytical systems to calculate carbon offsets by conserving a forest area or a reforestation initiative. REDD+ is an example of a carbon credit initiative. Individuals and businesses can purchase carbon credits through verified retailers such as ACT4. 
 In 2021, businessman Elon Musk announced he was donating $100m for a prize for best carbon capture technology. [66]  
 Although CDR is not covered by the EU Allowance as of 2021, the European Commission is preparing for carbon removal certification and considering carbon contracts for difference. [67]   [68]  CDR might also in future be added to the UK Emissions Trading Scheme. [22]  As of end 2021 carbon prices for both these cap-and-trade schemes currently based on carbon reductions, as opposed to carbon removals, remained below $100. [69]   [70]  
 In April 2022, a private sector alliance led by Stripe with prominent members including Meta, Google and Shopify, revealed a nearly $1 billion dollar fund to reward companies able to permanently capture &amp; store carbon. According to senior Stripe employee Nan Ransohoff, the new fund "is roughly 30 times the carbon-removal market that existed in 2021. But it’s still 1,000 times short of the market we need by 2050." [71] 
 According to the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine, some of these "negative-emission technologies" are already being used on a large scale. Congress passed the 45Q tax, which gives companies a $50 credit for every ton of carbon dioxide they fix and store. So the study proposes some CO2 fixation technologies that cost between $20 and $100 per ton.
Removal of other greenhouse gases[edit]
Although some researchers have suggested methods for removing methane, others say that nitrous oxide would be a better subject for research due to its longer lifetime in the atmosphere. [72] 
See also[edit]
  Carbon dioxide scrubber 
 Carbon-neutral fuel 
 Climate change scenario 
 Climate engineering 
 List of emerging technologies 
 Lithium peroxide 
 Low-carbon economy 
 Virgin Earth Challenge  
References[edit]
 
^    a       b       c       d    IPCC, 2021: Annex VII: Glossary [Matthews, J.B.R., V. Möller, R. van Diemen, J.S. Fuglestvedt, V. Masson-Delmotte, C.  Méndez, S. Semenov, A. Reisinger (eds.)]. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2215–2256, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.022.
  ^  Geden, Oliver (May 2016). "An actionable climate target". Nature Geoscience. 9 (5): 340–342. Bibcode:2016NatGe...9..340G. doi:10.1038/ngeo2699. ISSN 1752-0908. Archived from the original on May 25, 2021. Retrieved March 7, 2021.
  ^  Schenuit, Felix; Colvin, Rebecca; Fridahl, Mathias; McMullin, Barry; Reisinger, Andy; Sanchez, Daniel L.; Smith, Stephen M.; Torvanger, Asbjørn; Wreford, Anita; Geden, Oliver (March 4, 2021). "Carbon Dioxide Removal Policy in the Making: Assessing Developments in 9 OECD Cases". Frontiers in Climate. 3: 638805. doi:10.3389/fclim.2021.638805. ISSN 2624-9553.
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Sources[edit]
   IPCC, 2018: Global Warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty [V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, H. O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J. B. R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M. I. Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, T. Waterfield (eds.)].
   Report website    
 Fajardy, Mathilde; Köberle, Alexandre; Mac Dowell, Niall; Fantuzzi, Andrea (2019). "BECCS deployment: a reality check" (PDF). Grantham Institute Imperial College London.  
External links[edit]
  Deep Dives by Carbon180. Info about carbon removal solutions. 
  Krupp, Fred; Keohane, Nathaniel; Pooley, Eric (September 25, 2019). "Less Than Zero; Can Carbon-Removal Technologies Curb Climate Change?".  Foreign Affairs  (March/April 2019): 142–152. 
 The Road to Ten Gigatons - Carbon Removal Scale Up Challenge Game.
Carbon dioxide removal - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_sequestration
Carbon sequestration - Wikipedia
2002-04-03
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<div><div>
<p>This article is about storing carbon for a long time so that it is not in the atmosphere. For removing carbon dioxide from point sources before it enters the atmosphere, see <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage">Carbon capture and storage</a>. For removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, see <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal">Carbon dioxide removal</a>.</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Carbon_sequestration-2009-10-07.svg"></a></p></div>
<p><b>Carbon sequestration</b> (or <b>carbon storage</b>) is the process of storing carbon (in particular <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere">atmospheric carbon dioxide</a>) in a <a href="/wiki/Carbon_pool">carbon pool</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:6-2">[2]</a></sup><sup>: 2248 </sup> The process acts like a <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink">carbon sink</a>, meaning it removes a greenhouse gas, or a precursor of a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:6-2">[2]</a></sup><sup>: 2923 </sup> Carbon sequestration is a naturally occurring process but it can also be enhanced or achieved with technology, for example within <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage">carbon capture and storage</a> projects.
</p><p>Carbon dioxide (CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub>) is naturally captured from the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere">atmosphere</a> through biological, chemical, and physical processes.<sup><a href="#cite_note-glossary-3">[3]</a></sup> These changes can be accelerated through changes in land use and agricultural practices, such as converting crop land into land for non-crop fast growing plants.<sup><a href="#cite_note-SedjoSohngen-4">[4]</a></sup> Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects,<sup><a href="#cite_note-glossary-3">[3]</a></sup> including large-scale, artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> using subsurface <a href="/wiki/Saline_water">saline</a> <a href="/wiki/Aquifer">aquifers</a> or aging <a href="/wiki/Oil_field">oil fields</a>. Other technologies that work with carbon sequestration include <a href="/wiki/Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage">bio-energy with carbon capture and storage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biochar">biochar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enhanced_weathering">enhanced weathering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Direct_air_capture">direct air carbon capture and sequestration</a> (DACCS).
</p><p>Forests, <a href="/wiki/Kelp_bed">kelp beds</a>, and other forms of plant life absorb carbon dioxide from the air as they grow, and bind it into biomass. However, these biological stores are considered volatile <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink">carbon sinks</a> as the long-term sequestration cannot be guaranteed. For example, natural events, such as <a href="/wiki/Wildfire">wildfires</a> or disease, economic pressures and changing political priorities can result in the sequestered carbon being released back into the atmosphere.<sup><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> Carbon dioxide that has been removed from the atmosphere can also be stored in the Earth's crust by <a href="/wiki/Geologic_sequestration_of_CO2">injecting it into the subsurface</a>, or in the form of <a href="/wiki/Insoluble">insoluble</a> <a href="/wiki/Carbonate">carbonate</a> salts (<a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage#Mineral_storage_/_mineral_carbonation">mineral sequestration</a>). These methods are considered non-volatile because they remove carbon from the atmosphere and sequester it indefinitely and presumably for a considerable duration (thousands to millions of years).
</p><p>To enhance carbon sequestration processes in oceans the following technologies have been proposed but none have achieved large scale application so far: <a href="/wiki/Seaweed_farming">Seaweed farming</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ocean_fertilization">ocean fertilisation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Artificial_upwelling">artificial upwelling</a>, basalt storage, mineralization and deep sea sediments, adding bases to neutralize acids. The idea of <a href="/wiki/Direct_deep-sea_carbon_dioxide_injection">direct deep-sea carbon dioxide injection</a> has been abandoned.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:0-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Description[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:20210413_Carbon_capture_and_storage_-_CCS_-_proposed_vs_implemented.svg"></a></p><div><p>Global proposed vs. implemented annual CO<sub>2</sub> sequestration. More than 75% of proposed gas processing projects have been implemented, with corresponding figures for other industrial projects and power plant projects being about 60% and 10%, respectively.<sup><a href="#cite_note-EnvRschLtrs_20201229-7">[7]</a></sup></p></div></div>
<p>Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> (CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub>)<sup><a href="#cite_note-SedjoSohngen-4">[4]</a></sup> and may refer specifically to:
</p>
<ul><li>"The process of removing carbon from the atmosphere and depositing it in a reservoir."<sup><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> When carried out deliberately, this may also be referred to as <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal">carbon dioxide removal</a>, which is a form of <a href="/wiki/Climate_engineering">geoengineering</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage">Carbon capture and storage</a>, where carbon dioxide is removed from <a href="/wiki/Flue_gases">flue gases</a> (e.g., at <a href="/wiki/Power_station">power stations</a>) before being stored in underground reservoirs.</li>
<li>Natural <a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycling">biogeochemical cycling</a> of <a href="/wiki/Carbon">carbon</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere">atmosphere</a> and reservoirs, such as by <a href="/wiki/Chemical_weathering">chemical weathering</a> of rocks.</li></ul>
<p>Carbon dioxide may be captured as a pure by-product in processes related to <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_refining">petroleum refining</a> or from flue gases from <a href="/wiki/Power_generation">power generation</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup> CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> sequestration includes the storage part of carbon capture and storage, which refers to large-scale, artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> using subsurface <a href="/wiki/Saline_water">saline</a> <a href="/wiki/Aquifers">aquifers</a>, reservoirs, <a href="/wiki/Ocean_water">ocean water</a>, aging <a href="/wiki/Oil_field">oil fields</a>, or other <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink">carbon sinks</a>.
</p><p>Carbon sequestration describes long-term storage of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> or other forms of <a href="/wiki/Carbon">carbon</a> to either <a href="/wiki/Mitigation_of_global_warming">mitigate or defer global warming</a> and <a href="/wiki/Avoiding_dangerous_climate_change">avoid dangerous climate change</a>. It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas">greenhouse gases</a>, which are released by burning <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel">fossil fuels</a> and industrial livestock production.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Hodrien-10">[10]</a></sup>
</p><p>Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological, chemical or physical processes. Some artificial sequestration techniques exploit these natural processes,<sup><a href="#cite_note-glossary-3">[3]</a></sup> while some use entirely artificial processes.
</p><p>There are three ways that this sequestration can be carried out: post-combustion capture, pre-combustion capture, and oxy-combustion.<sup><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup> A wide variety of separation techniques are being pursued, including gas phase separation, absorption into a liquid, and adsorption on a solid, as well as hybrid processes, such as adsorption/membrane systems.<sup><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup> These above processes basically capture carbon emitting from power plants, factories, fuel burning industries, and new generation livestock production facilities as they transition into restorative farming techniques to reduce carbon emissions. 
</p>
<h2>Role in climate change mitigation[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>In terms of carbon retention on forest land, it is better to avoid deforestation than to remove trees and subsequently reforest, as deforestation leads to irreversible effects e.g. <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss">biodiversity loss</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soil_degradation">soil degradation</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-auto4-13">[13]</a></sup> Additionally, the effects of af- or reforestation will be farther in the future compared to keeping existing forests intact.<sup><a href="#cite_note-auto-14">[14]</a></sup> It takes much longer − several decades − for reforested areas to return to the same carbon sequestration levels found in mature tropical forests.<sup><a href="#cite_note-auto2-15">[15]</a></sup> 
</p><p>The global annual gross loss of trees is estimated to be approximately 15 billion and the global number of trees has decreased by ca 46% since the beginning of human civilization.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:7-16">[16]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Biological processes on land[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Land-use changes that enhance natural carbon capture have the potential to capture and store large amounts of carbon dioxide each year. These include the conservation, management, and restoration of ecosystems such as forests, peatlands, wetlands, and grasslands, in addition to carbon sequestration methods in agriculture.<sup><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Biosequestration[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4">edit</a>]</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Phytoplankton_SoAtlantic_20060215.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Biosequestration">Biosequestration</a> is the capture and storage of the atmospheric <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas">greenhouse gas</a> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> by continual or enhanced biological processes. This form of carbon sequestration occurs through increased rates of <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> via <a href="/wiki/Land_use">land-use</a> practices such as <a href="/wiki/Reforestation">reforestation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sustainability">sustainable</a> <a href="/wiki/Forest_management">forest management</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Beerling-18">[18]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Peatland[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5">edit</a>]</h3>
<p><a href="/wiki/Peat_bogs">Peat bogs</a> act as a sink for carbon because they accumulate partially decayed biomass that would otherwise continue to decay completely. There is a variance on how much the peatlands act as a carbon sink or carbon source that can be linked to varying climates in different areas of the world and different times of the year.<sup><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup> By creating new bogs, or enhancing existing ones, the amount of carbon that is sequestered by bogs would increase.<sup><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Forestry[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6">edit</a>]</h3>
<p><a href="/wiki/Afforestation">Afforestation</a> is the establishment of a forest in an area where there was no previous tree cover. <a href="/wiki/Proforestation">Proforestation</a> is the practice of growing an existing <a href="/wiki/Forest">forest</a> intact toward its full ecological potential.<sup><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Reforestation">Reforestation</a> is the replanting of trees on marginal crop and <a href="/wiki/Pasture">pasture</a> lands to incorporate carbon from atmospheric CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> into <a href="/wiki/Biomass">biomass</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup> For this carbon sequestration process to succeed the carbon must not return to the atmosphere from mass burning or rotting when the trees die.<sup><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup> To this end, land allotted to the trees must not be converted to other uses and management of the frequency of disturbances might be necessary in order to avoid extreme events. Alternatively, the wood from them must itself be sequestered, e.g., via <a href="/wiki/Biochar">biochar</a>, bio-energy with carbon storage (<a href="/wiki/Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage">BECS</a>), landfill or 'stored' by use in construction. Short of growth in perpetuity, however, reforestation with long-lived trees (&gt;100 years) will sequester carbon for substantial periods and be released gradually, minimizing carbon's climate impact during the 21st century. Earth offers enough room to plant an additional 1.2 trillion trees.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:7-16">[16]</a></sup> Planting and protecting them would offset some 10 years of CO<sub>2</sub> emissions and sequester 205 billion tons of carbon.<sup><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup> This approach is supported by the <a href="/wiki/Trillion_Tree_Campaign">Trillion Tree Campaign</a>. Restoring all degraded forests world-wide would capture about 205 billion tons of carbon in total, which is about two-thirds of all carbon emissions.<sup><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup> 
</p><p>During a 30-year period to 2050 if all new construction globally utilized 90% wood products, largely via adoption of <a href="/wiki/Mass_timber">mass timber</a> in <a href="/wiki/Low_rise">low rise</a> construction, this could sequester 700 million net tons of carbon per year,<sup><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup> thus negating approximately 2% of annual carbon emissions as of 2019.<sup><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup> This is in addition to the elimination of carbon emissions from the displaced construction material such as steel or concrete, which are carbon-intense to produce.
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<h4>Urban forestry[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7">edit</a>]</h4>
<p><a href="/wiki/Urban_forestry">Urban forestry</a> increases the amount of carbon taken up in cities by adding new tree sites and the sequestration of carbon occurs over the lifetime of the tree.<sup><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup> It is generally practiced and maintained on smaller scales, like in cities. The results of urban forestry can have different results depending on the type of vegetation that is being used, so it can function as a sink but can also function as a source of emissions.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Urb_For-33">[33]</a></sup> In hot areas of the world, trees have an important cooling effect through shade and transpiration. This can save on the need for air conditioning which in turn can reduce GHG emissions.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Urb_For-33">[33]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Wetlands[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Wetland restoration involves restoring a wetland's natural biological, geological, and chemical functions through re-establishment or rehabilitation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup> It has also been proposed as a potential climate change mitigation strategy, with carbon sequestered this way being known as <a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon">blue carbon</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:4-35">[35]</a></sup> Wetland soil, particularly in coastal wetlands such as mangroves, sea grasses, and salt marshes,<sup><a href="#cite_note-:4-35">[35]</a></sup> is an important carbon reservoir; 20–30% of the world's <a href="/wiki/Soil_carbon">soil carbon</a> is found in wetlands, while only 5–8% of the world's land is composed of wetlands.<sup><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup> Studies have shown that restored wetlands can become productive <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink">CO<sub>2</sub> sinks</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup> and many restoration projects have been enacted in the US and around the world.<sup><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup> Aside from climate benefits, wetland restoration and conservation can help preserve biodiversity, improve water quality, and aid with flood control.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:5-42">[42]</a></sup>
</p><p>As with forests, for the sequestration process to succeed, the wetland must remain undisturbed. If it is disturbed somehow, the carbon stored in the plants and sediments will be released back into the atmosphere and the ecosystem will no longer function as a carbon sink.<sup><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup> Additionally, some wetlands can release non-CO<sub>2</sub> greenhouse gases, such as <a href="/wiki/Methane">methane</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide">nitrous oxide</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup> which could offset potential climate benefits. The amounts of carbon sequestered via <a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon">blue carbon</a> by wetlands can also be difficult to measure.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:5-42">[42]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Agriculture[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Compared to natural vegetation, cropland soils are depleted in soil organic carbon (SOC). When a soil is converted from natural land or semi-natural land, such as forests, woodlands, grasslands, steppes and savannas, the SOC content in the soil reduces by about 30–40%.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:3-46">[46]</a></sup> This loss is due to the removal of plant material containing carbon, in terms of harvests. When the land use changes, the carbon in the soil will either increase or decrease, this change will continue until the soil reaches a new equilibrium. Deviations from this equilibrium can also be affected by variated climate.<sup><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup> The decreasing of SOC content can be counteracted by increasing the carbon input. This can be done with several strategies, e.g. leave harvest residues on the field, use manure as fertiliser or include perennial crops in the rotation. <a href="/wiki/Perennial_crop">Perennial crops</a> have a larger below ground biomass fraction, which increases the SOC content.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:3-46">[46]</a></sup> Perennial crops reduce the need for <a href="/wiki/Tillage">tillage</a> and thus help mitigate soil erosion, and may help increase soil organic matter. Globally, soils are estimated to contain &gt;8,580 gigatons of organic carbon, about ten times the amount in the atmosphere and much more than in vegetation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup> Researchers have found that rising temperatures can lead to population booms in soil microbes, converting stored carbon into carbon dioxide. In laboratory experiments heating soil, fungi-rich soils released less carbon dioxide than other soils.<sup><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup>
</p><p>Modification of agricultural practices is a recognized method of carbon sequestration as soil can act as an effective carbon sink offsetting as much as 20% of 2010 carbon dioxide emissions annually.<sup><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup> (See <a href="/wiki/No-till_farming">No-till farming</a>). Restoration of organic farming and earthworms may entirely offset CO<sub>2</sub> annual carbon excess of 4 Gt per year and drawdown the residual atmospheric excess.<sup><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup> (See <a href="/wiki/Compost">Compost</a>).
</p><p>Carbon emission reduction methods in agriculture can be grouped into two categories: reducing and/or displacing emissions and enhancing carbon removal from the atmosphere. Some of these reductions involve increasing the efficiency of farm operations (e.g. more fuel-efficient equipment) while some involve interruptions in the natural carbon cycle. Also, some effective techniques (such as the elimination of <a href="/wiki/Stubble_burning">stubble burning</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup>) can negatively impact other environmental concerns (increased herbicide use to control weeds not destroyed by burning).
</p><p>As enforcement of forest protection may not sufficiently address the drivers behind deforestation – the largest of which being the production of beef in <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_of_the_Amazon_rainforest">the case of the Amazon rainforest</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup> – it may also need policies. These could effectively ban and/or progressively discourage deforestation-associated trade via e.g. product information requirements, satellite monitoring like the <a href="/wiki/Global_Forest_Watch">Global Forest Watch</a>, related <a href="/wiki/Eco-tariff">eco-tariffs</a>, and product certifications.<sup><a href="#cite_note-saved-54">[54]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Carbon farming[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10">edit</a>]</h3>
<div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Carbon_farming">Carbon farming</a> is a name for a variety of <a href="/wiki/Agriculture">agricultural methods</a> aimed at sequestering atmospheric carbon into the <a href="/wiki/Soil">soil</a> and in crop roots, wood and leaves. The aim of carbon farming is to increase the rate at which carbon is sequestered into soil and plant material with the goal of creating a net loss of carbon from the atmosphere.<sup><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup> Increasing a <a href="/wiki/Soil_organic_matter">soil's organic matter</a> content can aid plant growth, increase total carbon content, improve soil water retention capacity<sup><a href="#cite_note-Carbon_farming_:1-58">[58]</a></sup> and reduce fertilizer use.<sup><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup> As of 2016, variants of carbon farming reached hundreds of millions of hectares globally, of the nearly 5 billion hectares (1.2×10<sup>10</sup> acres) of world farmland.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Carbon_farming_:42-60">[60]</a></sup> In addition to agricultural activities, forests management is also a tool that is used in carbon farming.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Carbon_farming_:82-61">[61]</a></sup> The practice of carbon farming is often done by individual land owners who are given incentive to use and to integrate methods that will sequester carbon through policies created by governments.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Carbon_farming_:02-62">[62]</a></sup> Carbon farming methods will typically have a cost, meaning farmers and land-owners need a way to profit from the use of carbon farming, thus requiring government programs.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Carbon_farming_:02-62">[62]</a></sup>
</p><p>
Land management techniques that can be combined with farming include planting/restoring forests, burying <a href="/wiki/Biochar">biochar</a> produced by <a href="/wiki/Pyrolysis">anaerobically</a> converted biomass and restoring wetlands (such as <a href="/wiki/Marshes">marshes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peatlands">peatlands</a>).<sup><a href="#cite_note-Carbon_farming_:7-63">[63]</a></sup></p></div>
<h4>Bamboo farming[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11">edit</a>]</h4>
<p>Although a bamboo forest stores less total carbon than a mature forest of trees, a bamboo plantation sequesters carbon at a much faster rate than a mature forest or a tree plantation. Therefore, the farming of bamboo timber may have significant carbon sequestration potential.<sup><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Deep soil[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12">edit</a>]</h4>
<p>On a global basis it is estimated that soil contains about 2,500 gigatons of carbon. This is greater than 3-fold the carbon found in the atmosphere and 4-fold of that found in living plants and animals.<sup><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup> About 70% of the global soil organic carbon in non-permafrost areas is found in the deeper soil within the upper 1 meter and stabilized by mineral-organic associations.<sup><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Reducing emissions[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13">edit</a>]</h4>
<p>Increasing yields and efficiency generally reduces emissions as well, since more food results from the same or less effort. Techniques include more accurate use of <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer">fertilizers</a>, less soil disturbance, better <a href="/wiki/Irrigation">irrigation</a>, and crop strains bred for locally beneficial traits and increased yields.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Replacing more energy <a href="/wiki/Intensive_farming">intensive farming</a> operations can also reduce emissions. Reduced or <a href="/wiki/No-till_farming">no-till farming</a> requires less machine use and burns correspondingly less fuel per acre. However, no-till usually increases use of weed-control chemicals and the residue now left on the soil surface is more likely to release its CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> to the atmosphere as it decays, reducing the net carbon reduction.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>In practice, most farming operations that incorporate post-harvest crop residues, wastes and byproducts back into the soil provide a carbon storage benefit.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> This is particularly the case for practices such as field burning of stubble – rather than releasing almost all of the stored CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> to the atmosphere, tillage incorporates the biomass back into the soil.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h4>Enhancing carbon removal[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14">edit</a>]</h4>
<p>All crops absorb CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> during growth and release it after harvest. The goal of agricultural carbon removal is to use the crop and its relation to the carbon cycle to permanently sequester carbon within the soil. This is done by selecting farming methods that return biomass to the soil and enhance the conditions in which the carbon within the plants will be reduced to its elemental nature and stored in a stable state. Methods for accomplishing this include:
</p>
<ul><li>Use <a href="/wiki/Cover_crop">cover crops</a> such as grasses and weeds as temporary cover between planting seasons</li>
<li>Concentrate livestock in small paddocks for days at a time so they graze lightly but evenly. This encourages roots to grow deeper into the soil. Stock also till the soil with their hooves, grinding old grass and manures into the soil.<sup><a href="#cite_note-australia-67">[67]</a></sup></li>
<li>Cover bare paddocks with hay or dead vegetation. This protects soil from the sun and allows the soil to hold more water and be more attractive to carbon-capturing microbes.<sup><a href="#cite_note-australia-67">[67]</a></sup></li>
<li>Restore degraded, marginal, and abandoned land, which slows carbon release while returning the land to agriculture or other use.<sup><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></sup> Degraded land with low soil carbon pool have particularly high potential to store soil C which can be farther enhanced by proper selection of vegetation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></sup></li></ul>
<p>Agricultural sequestration practices may have positive effects on <a href="/wiki/Soil">soil</a>, air, and water quality, be beneficial to <a href="/wiki/Wildlife">wildlife</a>, and expand <a href="/wiki/Food_production">food production</a>. On degraded <a href="/wiki/Croplands">croplands</a>, an increase of 1 ton of soil carbon pool may increase crop yield by 20 to 40 kilograms per hectare of <a href="/wiki/Wheat">wheat</a>, 10 to 20 kg/ ha for maize, and 0.5 to 1 kg/ha for <a href="/wiki/Cowpeas">cowpeas</a>.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>The effects of soil sequestration can be reversed. If the soil is disrupted or intensive tillage practices are used, the soil becomes a net source of greenhouse gases. Typically after several decades of sequestration, soil becomes saturated and ceases to absorb carbon. This implies that there is a global limit to the amount of carbon that soil can hold.<sup><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></sup>
</p><p>Many factors affect the costs of carbon sequestration including soil quality, transaction costs and various externalities such as leakage and unforeseen environmental damage. Because reduction of atmospheric CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> is a long-term concern, farmers can be reluctant to adopt more expensive agricultural techniques when there is not a clear crop, soil, or economic benefit. Governments such as Australia and New Zealand are considering allowing farmers to sell carbon credits once they document that they have sufficiently increased soil carbon content.<sup><a href="#cite_note-australia-67">[67]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Geological processes and burial[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Charcoal2.jpg"></a></p></div>
<h3>Burial[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Burying biomass (such as trees)<sup><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></sup> directly, mimics the natural processes that created <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuels">fossil fuels</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Biochar burial[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17">edit</a>]</h4>
<p><a href="/wiki/Biochar">Biochar</a> is <a href="/wiki/Charcoal">charcoal</a> created by <a href="/wiki/Pyrolysis">pyrolysis</a> of <a href="/wiki/Biomass">biomass</a> waste. The resulting material is added to a <a href="/wiki/Landfill">landfill</a> or used as a soil improver to create <a href="/wiki/Terra_preta">terra preta</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a></sup> Addition of pyrogenic organic carbon (biochar) is a novel strategy to increase the soil-C stock for the long-term and to mitigate global-warming by offsetting the atmospheric C (up to 9.5 Gigatons C annually).<sup><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></sup> In the soil, the carbon is unavailable for <a href="/wiki/Oxidation">oxidation</a> to CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> and consequential atmospheric release. However concerns have been raised about biochar potentially accelerating release of the carbon already present in the soil.<sup><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></sup>.
</p>
<h3>Geological sequestration[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Geological sequestration refers to the storage of CO<sub>2</sub> underground in depleted oil and gas reservoirs, saline formations, or deep, un-minable coal beds.
</p><p>Once CO<sub>2</sub> is captured from a point source, such as a cement factory,<sup><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></sup> it would be compressed to ≈100 bar so that it would be a <a href="/wiki/Supercritical_fluid">supercritical fluid</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Supercritical_carbon_dioxide">this form</a>, the CO<sub>2</sub> would be easy to transport via pipeline to the place of storage. The CO<sub>2</sub> would then be injected deep underground, typically around 1 km, where it would be stable for hundreds to millions of years.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:0-6">[6]</a></sup> At these storage conditions, the density of supercritical CO<sub>2</sub> is 600 to 800 kg / m<sup>3</sup>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:1-84">[84]</a></sup>
</p><p>The important parameters in determining a good site for carbon storage are: rock porosity, rock permeability, absence of faults, and geometry of rock layers. The medium in which the CO<sub>2</sub> is to be stored ideally has a high porosity and permeability, such as sandstone or limestone. Sandstone can have a permeability ranging from 1 to 10<sup>−5</sup> <a href="/wiki/Darcy_(unit)">Darcy</a>, and can have a porosity as high as ≈30%. The porous rock must be capped by a layer of low permeability which acts as a seal, or caprock, for the CO<sub>2</sub>. Shale is an example of a very good caprock, with a permeability of 10<sup>−5</sup> to 10<sup>−9</sup> Darcy. Once injected, the CO<sub>2</sub> plume will rise via buoyant forces, since it is less dense than its surroundings. Once it encounters a caprock, it will spread laterally until it encounters a gap. If there are fault planes near the injection zone, there is a possibility the CO<sub>2</sub> could migrate along the fault to the surface, leaking into the atmosphere, which would be potentially dangerous to life in the surrounding area. Another danger related to carbon sequestration is induced seismicity. If the injection of CO<sub>2</sub> creates pressures that are too high underground, the formation will fracture, potentially causing an earthquake.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:2-85">[85]</a></sup>
</p><p>While trapped in a rock formation, CO<sub>2</sub> can be in the supercritical fluid phase or dissolve in groundwater/brine. It can also react with minerals in the geologic formation to precipitate carbonates. See <a href="/wiki/CarbFix">CarbFix</a>.
</p><p>Worldwide storage capacity in oil and gas reservoirs is estimated to be 675–900 Gt CO<sub>2</sub>, and in un-minable coal seams is estimated to be 15–200 Gt CO<sub>2</sub>. Deep saline formations have the largest capacity, which is estimated to be 1,000–10,000 Gt CO<sub>2</sub>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:1-84">[84]</a></sup> In the US, there is estimated to be at least 2,600 Gt and at most 22,000 Gt total CO<sub>2</sub> storage capacity.<sup><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></sup>
</p><p>There are a number of large-scale carbon capture and sequestration projects that have demonstrated the viability and safety of this method of carbon storage, which are summarized here <sup><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a></sup> by the Global CCS Institute. The dominant monitoring technique is seismic imaging, where vibrations are generated that propagate through the subsurface. The geologic structure can be imaged from the refracted/reflected waves.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:2-85">[85]</a></sup>
</p><p>The first large-scale CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> sequestration project which began in 1996 is called <a href="/wiki/Sleipner_gas_field">Sleipner</a>, and is located in the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea">North Sea</a> where Norway's <a href="/wiki/StatoilHydro">StatoilHydro</a> strips carbon dioxide from <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas">natural gas</a> with <a href="/wiki/Amine">amine</a> <a href="/wiki/Solvent">solvents</a> and disposed of this carbon dioxide in a deep <a href="/wiki/Saline_water">saline</a> <a href="/wiki/Aquifer">aquifer</a>. In 2000, a coal-fueled <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_natural_gas">synthetic natural gas</a> plant in <a href="/wiki/Beulah,_North_Dakota">Beulah, North Dakota</a>, became the world's first coal-using plant to capture and store carbon dioxide, at the <a href="/wiki/Weyburn-Midale_Carbon_Dioxide_Project">Weyburn-Midale Carbon Dioxide Project</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></sup><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items">needs update</a></i>]</sup> Several other sequestration projects have followed. The <a href="/wiki/Energy_Impact_Center">Energy Impact Center</a> launched the <a href="/wiki/OPEN100">OPEN100</a> project in February 2020, which is the world's first open-source blueprint for the design, construction and financing of a small, standard, pressurized water reactor.<sup><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a></sup> In September 2020, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy">US Department of Energy</a> awarded $72 million in federal funding to support the development and advancement of carbon capture technologies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a></sup>
</p><p>CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> has been used extensively in enhanced <a href="/wiki/Crude_oil">crude oil</a> recovery operations in the <a href="/wiki/United_States">United States</a> beginning in 1972.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Hodrien-10">[10]</a></sup> There are in excess of 10,000 wells that inject CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> in the state of <a href="/wiki/Texas">Texas</a> alone. The gas comes in part from anthropogenic sources, but is principally from large naturally occurring geologic formations of CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub>. It is transported to the oil-producing fields through a large network of over 5,000 kilometres (3,100 mi) of CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> pipelines. The use of CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> for <a href="/wiki/Enhanced_oil_recovery">enhanced oil recovery</a> (EOR) methods in heavy oil reservoirs in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Canadian_Sedimentary_Basin">Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin</a> (WCSB) has also been proposed.<sup><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></sup> However, transport cost remains an important hurdle. An extensive CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> pipeline system does not yet exist in the WCSB. <a href="/wiki/Athabasca_oil_sands">Athabasca oil sands</a> mining that produces CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> is hundreds of kilometers north of the subsurface <a href="/wiki/Heavy_crude_oil">Heavy crude oil</a> reservoirs that could most benefit from CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> injection.
</p>
<h3>Mineral sequestration[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Mineral sequestration aims to trap carbon in the form of solid <a href="/wiki/Carbonate">carbonate</a> salts. This process occurs slowly in nature and is responsible for the deposition and accumulation of <a href="/wiki/Limestone">limestone</a> over geologic time. <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_acid">Carbonic acid</a> in groundwater slowly reacts with complex <a href="/wiki/Silicate">silicates</a> to dissolve <a href="/wiki/Calcium">calcium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnesium">magnesium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alkali">alkalis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silica">silica</a> and leave a residue of <a href="/wiki/Clay_minerals">clay minerals</a>. The dissolved calcium and magnesium react with <a href="/wiki/Bicarbonate">bicarbonate</a> to precipitate calcium and magnesium carbonates, a process that organisms use to make shells. When the organisms die, their shells are deposited as sediment and eventually turn into limestone. Limestones have accumulated over billions of years of geologic time and contain much of Earth's carbon. Ongoing research aims to speed up similar reactions involving alkali carbonates.<sup><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a></sup>
</p><p>Several serpentinite deposits are being investigated as potentially large scale CO<sub>2</sub> storage sinks such as those found in NSW, Australia, where the first mineral carbonation pilot plant project is underway.<sup><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a></sup> Beneficial re-use of magnesium carbonate from this process could provide feedstock for new products developed for the built environment and agriculture without returning the carbon into the atmosphere and so acting as a carbon sink.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FrostBeard2007-94">[94]</a></sup>
</p><p>One proposed reaction is that of the olivine-rich rock <a href="/wiki/Dunite">dunite</a>, or its hydrated equivalent <a href="/wiki/Serpentinite">serpentinite</a> with carbon dioxide to form the carbonate mineral <a href="/wiki/Magnesite">magnesite</a>, plus silica and iron oxide (<a href="/wiki/Magnetite">magnetite</a>).
</p><p>Serpentinite sequestration is favored because of the non-toxic and stable nature of magnesium carbonate. The ideal reactions involve the magnesium endmember components of the <a href="/wiki/Olivine">olivine</a> (reaction 1) or <a href="/wiki/Serpentine_group">serpentine</a> (reaction 2), the latter derived from earlier olivine by hydration and silicification (reaction 3). The presence of iron in the olivine or serpentine reduces the efficiency of sequestration, since the iron components of these minerals break down to iron oxide and silica (reaction 4).
</p>
<h4>Zeolitic imidazolate frameworks[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20">edit</a>]</h4>
<p>Zeolitic imidazolate frameworks is a <a href="/wiki/Metal-organic_framework">metal-organic framework</a> carbon dioxide sink which could be used to keep industrial emissions of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> out of the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere">atmosphere</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Chemical processes[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Developed in the Netherlands, an electrocatalysis by a copper complex helps <a href="/wiki/Carbon_fixation">reduce carbon dioxide</a> to <a href="/wiki/Oxalic_acid">oxalic acid</a>;<sup><a href="#cite_note-Bouwman-96">[96]</a></sup> This conversion <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage">uses carbon dioxide as a feedstock</a> to generate oxalic acid.
</p>
<h3>Mineral carbonation[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22">edit</a>]</h3>
<table><tbody><tr><td><p></p></td><td><p>This section needs to be <b>updated</b>. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. <i>(June 2019)</i></p></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>CO<sub>2</sub> <a href="/wiki/Exothermic">exothermically</a> reacts with metal oxides, producing stable carbonates (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Calcite">calcite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnesite">magnesite</a>). This process (CO<sub>2</sub>-to-stone) occurs naturally over periods of years and is responsible for much surface <a href="/wiki/Limestone">limestone</a>. <a href="/wiki/Olivine">Olivine</a> is one such metal oxide.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Olivine_weathering2-97">[97]</a></sup><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources">self-published source?</a></i>]</sup> Rocks rich in metal oxides that react with CO<sub>2</sub>, such as <a href="/wiki/Magnesium_oxide">MgO</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calcium_oxide">CaO</a> as contained in <a href="/wiki/Basalt">basalts</a>, have been proven as a viable means to achieve carbon-dioxide mineral storage.<sup><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></sup> The reaction rate can in principle be accelerated with a <a href="/wiki/Catalyst">catalyst</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></sup> or by increasing temperatures<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Carbon_sequestration#Dubious">discuss</a></i>]</sup> and/or pressures, or by mineral pre-treatment, although this method can require additional energy. The <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change">IPCC</a> estimates that a power plant equipped with CCS using mineral storage would need 60–180% more energy than one without.<sup><a href="#cite_note-IPCC_CC2-101">[101]</a></sup> Theoretically, up to 22% of crustal mineral mass is able to form <a href="/wiki/Carbonate">carbonates</a>.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<table>
<caption>Selected metal oxides of <a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)">Earth's crust</a>
</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Earthen oxide
</th>
<th>Percent of crust
</th>
<th>Carbonate
</th>
<th><a href="/wiki/Standard_enthalpy_change_of_reaction">Enthalpy change</a> (kJ/mol)
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/CaO">CaO</a>
</td>
<td>4.90
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate">CaCO<sub>3</sub></a>
</td>
<td>−179
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/MgO">MgO</a>
</td>
<td>4.36
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Magnesium_carbonate">MgCO<sub>3</sub></a>
</td>
<td>−118
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Sodium_oxide">Na<sub>2</sub>O</a>
</td>
<td>3.55
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Sodium_carbonate">Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub></a>
</td>
<td>−322
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/FeO">FeO</a>
</td>
<td>3.52
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Iron_carbonate">FeCO<sub>3</sub></a>
</td>
<td>−85
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Potassium_oxide">K<sub>2</sub>O</a>
</td>
<td>2.80
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Potassium_carbonate">K<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub></a>
</td>
<td>−393.5
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Fe2O3">Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub></a>
</td>
<td>2.63
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Iron_carbonate">FeCO<sub>3</sub></a>
</td>
<td>112
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>All oxides
</td>
<td>21.76
</td>
<td>All carbonates
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><a href="/wiki/Ultramafic_rock">Ultramafic</a> <a href="/wiki/Mine_tailings">mine tailings</a> are a readily available source of fine-grained metal oxides that could serve this purpose.<sup><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a></sup> Accelerating passive CO<sub>2</sub> sequestration via mineral carbonation may be achieved through microbial processes that enhance mineral dissolution and carbonate precipitation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a></sup>
</p><p>Carbon, in the form of CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> can be removed from the atmosphere by chemical processes, and stored in stable <a href="/wiki/Carbonate_mineral">carbonate mineral</a> forms. This process (CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub>-to-stone) is known as "carbon sequestration by mineral <a href="/wiki/Carbonation">carbonation</a>" or mineral sequestration. The process involves reacting carbon dioxide with abundantly available metal oxides – either <a href="/wiki/Magnesium_oxide">magnesium oxide</a> (MgO) or <a href="/wiki/Calcium_oxide">calcium oxide</a> (CaO) – to form stable carbonates. These reactions are <a href="/wiki/Exothermic">exothermic</a> and occur naturally (e.g., the <a href="/wiki/Weathering">weathering</a> of rock over <a href="/wiki/Geologic_time">geologic time</a> periods).<sup><a href="#cite_note-herzog-106">[106]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-goldberg-107">[107]</a></sup>
</p>
<dl><dd>CaO + CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> → CaCO<sup></sup><br /><sub>3</sub></dd></dl>
<dl><dd>MgO + CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> → MgCO<sup></sup><br /><sub>3</sub></dd></dl>
<p>Calcium and magnesium are found in nature typically as calcium and magnesium <a href="/wiki/Silicate_minerals">silicates</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Forsterite">forsterite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Serpentinite">serpentinite</a>) and not as binary oxides. For forsterite and serpentine the reactions are:
</p>
<dl><dd>Mg<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub>SiO<sup></sup><br /><sub>4</sub> + 2 CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> → 2 MgCO<sup></sup><br /><sub>3</sub> + SiO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub></dd></dl>
<dl><dd>Mg<sup></sup><br /><sub>3</sub>Si<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub>O<sup></sup><br /><sub>5</sub>(OH)<sup></sup><br /><sub>4</sub>+ 3 CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> → 3 MgCO<sup></sup><br /><sub>3</sub> + 2 SiO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> + 2 H<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub>O</dd></dl>
<p><br />
These reactions are slightly more favorable at low temperatures.<sup><a href="#cite_note-herzog-106">[106]</a></sup> This process occurs naturally over geologic time frames and is responsible for much of the Earth's surface <a href="/wiki/Limestone">limestone</a>. The reaction rate can be made faster however, by reacting at higher temperatures and/or pressures, although this method requires some additional energy. Alternatively, the mineral could be milled to increase its surface area, and exposed to water and constant abrasion to remove the inert Silica as could be achieved naturally by dumping Olivine in the high energy surf of beaches.<sup><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a></sup> Experiments suggest the weathering process is reasonably quick (one year) given porous basaltic rocks.<sup><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Matter-110">[110]</a></sup> 
</p><p>CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> naturally reacts with <a href="/wiki/Peridotite">peridotite</a> rock in surface exposures of <a href="/wiki/Ophiolite">ophiolites</a>, notably in <a href="/wiki/Oman">Oman</a>. It has been suggested that this process can be enhanced to carry out natural <a href="/wiki/Mineralization_(geology)">mineralisation</a> of CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></sup>
</p><p>When CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> is dissolved in water and injected into hot basaltic rocks underground it has been shown that the CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> reacts with the basalt to form solid carbonate minerals.<sup><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a></sup> A test plant in Iceland started up in October 2017, extracting up to 50 tons of CO<sub>2</sub> a year from the atmosphere and storing it underground in basaltic rock.<sup><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a></sup>
</p><p>Researchers from <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia">British Columbia</a>, developed a low cost process for the production of <a href="/wiki/Magnesite">magnesite</a>, also known as <a href="/wiki/Magnesium_carbonate">magnesium carbonate</a>, which can sequester CO<sub>2</sub> from the air, or at the point of air pollution, e.g. at a power plant. The crystals are naturally occurring, but accumulation is usually very slow.<sup><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a></sup>
</p><p>Concrete is a promising destination of captured carbon dioxide. Several advantages that concrete offers include, but not limited to: a source of plenty of calcium due to its substantial production all over the world; a thermodynamically stable condition for carbon dioxide to be stored as calcium carbonates; and its long-term capability of storing carbon dioxide as a material widely used in <a href="/wiki/Infrastructure">infrastructure</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a></sup> Demolished concrete waste or recycled concrete could be also used aside from newly produced concrete.<sup><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a></sup> Studies at <a href="/wiki/HeidelbergCement">HeidelbergCement</a> show that carbon sequestration can turn those demolished and recycled concrete into a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/supplementary-cementitious-material">supplementary cementitious material</a>, which acts as a secondary binder in tandem with Portland cement, for a new butch of concrete production.<sup><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Electrochemistry[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Another method uses a liquid metal catalyst and an electrolyte liquid into which CO<sub>2</sub> is dissolved. The CO<sub>2</sub> then converts into solid flakes of carbon. This method is done at room temperature.<sup><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a></sup> In 2022, the team updated its work to operate at a lower temperature, and operate more quickly and with fewer steps.<sup><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Industrial use[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Traditional cement manufacture releases large amounts of carbon dioxide, but newly developed cement types from Novacem<sup><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a></sup> can absorb CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> from ambient air during hardening.<sup><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a></sup> A similar technique was pioneered by TecEco, which has been producing "EcoCement" since 2002.<sup><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a></sup> Canadian startup <a href="/wiki/CarbonCure_Technologies">CarbonCure Technologies</a> takes captured CO<sub>2</sub> and injects it into concrete as it is being mixed.<sup><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a></sup> Carbon Upcycling UCLA is another company that uses CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> in concrete. Their concrete product is called CO2NCRETE, a concrete that hardens faster and is more eco-friendly than traditional concrete.<sup><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a></sup>
</p><p>In Estonia, <a href="/wiki/Oil_shale">oil shale</a> <a href="/wiki/Bottom_ash">ash</a>, generated by power stations could be used as <a href="/wiki/Sorbent">sorbents</a> for CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> mineral sequestration. The amount of CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> captured averaged 60 to 65% of the carbonaceous CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> and 10 to 11% of the total CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> emissions.<sup><a href="#cite_note-uibu-130">[130]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Chemical scrubbers[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Various <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_scrubber">carbon dioxide scrubbing</a> processes have been proposed to remove CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> from the air, usually using a variant of the <a href="/wiki/Kraft_process">Kraft process</a>. Carbon dioxide scrubbing variants exist based on <a href="/wiki/Potassium_carbonate">potassium carbonate</a>, which can be used to create liquid fuels, or on <a href="/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide">sodium hydroxide</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-nytimes.com-131">[131]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a></sup> These notably include artificial trees proposed by <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Lackner">Klaus Lackner</a> to remove <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere">atmosphere</a> using chemical <a href="/wiki/Scrubber">scrubbers</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Sequestration techniques in oceans[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=26">edit</a>]</h2>
<h3>Seaweed farming[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=27">edit</a>]</h3>
<p><a href="/wiki/Seaweed">Seaweed</a> grow in shallow and coastal areas, and capture significant amounts of carbon that can be transported to the deep ocean by oceanic mechanisms; seaweed reaching the deep ocean sequester carbon and prevent it from exchanging with the atmosphere over millennia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-nature.com-136">[136]</a></sup> Growing seaweed offshore with the purpose of sinking the seaweed in the depths of the sea to sequester carbon is under research.<sup><a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a></sup> In addition, seaweed grows very fast and can theoretically be harvested and processed to generate <a href="/wiki/Biomethane">biomethane</a>, via <a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_digestion">anaerobic digestion</a> to generate electricity, via <a href="/wiki/Cogeneration">cogeneration/CHP</a> or as a replacement for <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas">natural gas</a>. One study suggested that if seaweed farms covered 9% of the ocean they could produce enough biomethane to supply Earth's equivalent demand for fossil fuel energy, remove 53 <a href="/wiki/Gigatonnes">gigatonnes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a> per year from the atmosphere and sustainably produce 200 kg per year of fish, per person, for 10 billion people.<sup><a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a></sup> Ideal species for such farming and conversion include <i><a href="/wiki/Laminaria_digitata">Laminaria digitata</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Fucus_serratus">Fucus serratus</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharina_latissima">Saccharina latissima</a></i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Ocean fertilisation[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=28">edit</a>]</h3>
<div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Ocean_fertilization">Ocean fertilization</a> or ocean nourishment is a type of technology for carbon dioxide removal from the ocean based on the purposeful introduction of plant <a href="/wiki/Nutrient">nutrients</a> to the upper <a href="/wiki/Ocean">ocean</a> to increase marine food production and to remove <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> from the atmosphere.<sup><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a></sup> Ocean nutrient fertilization, for example <a href="/wiki/Iron_fertilization">iron fertilization</a>, of the ocean could stimulate photosynthesis in <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a>. The phytoplankton would convert the ocean's dissolved carbon dioxide into <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate">carbohydrate</a> and oxygen gas, some of which would sink into the deeper ocean before oxidizing. More than a dozen open-sea experiments confirmed that adding iron to the ocean increases <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> in phytoplankton by up to 30 times.<sup><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a></sup> 
</p><p>This is one of the more well-researched carbon dioxide removal (CDR) approaches, however this approach would only sequester carbon on a timescale of 10-100 years dependent on ocean mixing times. While surface ocean acidity may decrease as a result of nutrient fertilization, when the sinking organic matter remineralizes, the deep ocean acidity will increase. A 2021 report on CDR indicates that there is medium-high confidence that the technique could be efficient and scalable at low cost, with medium environmental risks.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Ocean_fertilization_:1-143">[143]</a></sup> One of the key risks of nutrient fertilization is nutrient robbing, a process by which excess nutrients used in one location for enhanced primary productivity, as in a fertilization context, are then unavailable for normal productivity downstream. This could result in ecosystem impacts far outside the original site of fertilization.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Ocean_fertilization_:1-143">[143]</a></sup> 
</p><p>
A number of techniques, including fertilization by the micronutrient <a href="/wiki/Iron">iron</a> (called <a href="/wiki/Iron_fertilization">iron fertilization</a>) or with <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus">phosphorus</a> (both macronutrients), have been proposed. But research in the early 2020s suggested that it could only permanently sequester a small amount of carbon.<sup><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a></sup> Therefore, there is no major future in its role to sequester carbon.</p></div>
<h3>Artificial upwelling[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=29">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Artificial upwelling or downwelling is an approach that would change the mixing layers of the ocean. Encouraging various ocean layers to mix can move nutrients and dissolved gases around, offering avenues for <a href="/wiki/Climate_engineering">geoengineering</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Lovelock07-145">[145]</a></sup> Mixing may be achieved by placing large vertical pipes in the oceans to pump nutrient rich water to the surface, triggering <a href="/wiki/Algal_blooms">blooms of algae</a>, which store carbon when they grow and export carbon when they die.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Lovelock07-145">[145]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a></sup> This produces results somewhat similar to iron fertilization. One side-effect is a short-term rise in CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub>, which limits its attractiveness.<sup><a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a></sup>
</p><p>Mixing layers involve transporting the denser and colder <a href="/wiki/Deep_ocean_water">deep ocean water</a> to the surface <a href="/wiki/Mixed_layer">mixed layer</a>. As the <a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature">ocean temperature</a> decreases with depth, more <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> and other compounds are able to dissolve in the deeper layers.<sup><a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a></sup> This can be induced by reversing the <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_carbon_cycle">oceanic carbon cycle</a> through the use of large vertical pipes serving as ocean pumps,<sup><a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a></sup> or a mixer array.<sup><a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a></sup> When the nutrient rich deep ocean water is moved to the surface, <a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom">algae bloom</a> occurs, resulting in a decrease in carbon dioxide due to carbon intake from <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis">photosynthetic</a> <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote">eukaryotic</a> <a href="/wiki/Organism">organisms</a>. The transfer of heat between the layers will also cause seawater from the mixed layer to sink and absorb more carbon dioxide. This method has not gained much traction as algae bloom harms <a href="/wiki/Marine_ecosystem">marine ecosystems</a> by blocking sunlight and releasing harmful toxins into the ocean.<sup><a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a></sup> The sudden increase in carbon dioxide on the surface level will also temporarily decrease the <a href="/wiki/PH">pH</a> of the seawater, impairing the growth of <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef">coral reefs</a>. The production of <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_acid">carbonic acid</a> through the dissolution of carbon dioxide in seawater hinders <a href="/wiki/Marine_biogenic_calcification">marine biogenic calcification</a> and causes major disruptions to the oceanic <a href="/wiki/Food_chain">food chain</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Basalt storage[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=30">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Carbon dioxide sequestration in <a href="/wiki/Basalt">basalt</a> involves the injecting of CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> into deep-sea formations. The CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> first mixes with seawater and then reacts with the basalt, both of which are alkaline-rich elements. This reaction results in the release of Ca<sup>2+</sup> and Mg<sup>2+</sup> ions forming stable carbonate minerals.<sup><a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a></sup>
</p><p>Underwater basalt offers a good alternative to other forms of oceanic carbon storage because it has a number of trapping measures to ensure added protection against leakage. These measures include "geochemical, sediment, gravitational and <a href="/wiki/Hydrate">hydrate</a> formation." Because CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> hydrate is denser than CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> in seawater, the risk of leakage is minimal. Injecting the CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> at depths greater than 2,700 meters (8,900 ft) ensures that the CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> has a greater density than seawater, causing it to sink.<sup><a href="#cite_note-environmentalresearchweb.org-155">[155]</a></sup>
</p><p>One possible injection site is <a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Fuca_plate">Juan de Fuca plate</a>. Researchers at the <a href="/wiki/Lamont%E2%80%93Doherty_Earth_Observatory">Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory</a> found that this plate at the western coast of the United States has a possible storage capacity of 208 gigatons. This could cover the entire <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States">current U.S. carbon emissions</a> for over 100 years.<sup><a href="#cite_note-environmentalresearchweb.org-155">[155]</a></sup>
</p><p>This process is undergoing tests as part of the <a href="/wiki/CarbFix">CarbFix</a> project, resulting in 95% of the injected 250 tonnes of CO<sub>2</sub> to solidify into <a href="/wiki/Calcite">calcite</a> in two years, using 25 tonnes of water per tonne of CO<sub>2</sub>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Matter-110">[110]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Mineralization and deep sea sediments[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=31">edit</a>]</h4>
<p>Similar to <a href="/wiki/Mineralization_(geology)">mineralization</a> processes that take place within rocks, mineralization can also occur under the sea. The rate of dissolution of carbon dioxide from atmosphere to oceanic regions is determined by the circulation period of the ocean and buffering ability of <a href="/wiki/Subducting">subducting</a> surface water.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:62-157">[157]</a></sup> Researchers have demonstrated that the carbon dioxide marine storage at several kilometers depth could be viable for up to 500 years, but is dependent on injection site and conditions. Several studies have shown that although it may fix carbon dioxide effectively, carbon dioxide may be released back to the atmosphere over time. However, this is unlikely for at least a few more centuries. The neutralization of <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate">CaCO<sub>3</sub></a>, or balancing the concentration of CaCO<sub>3</sub> on the seafloor, land and in the ocean, can be measured on a timescale of thousands of years. More specifically, the predicted time is 1700 years for ocean and approximately 5000 to 6000 years for land.<sup><a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a></sup> Further, the dissolution time for CaCO<sub>3</sub> can be improved by injecting near or downstream of the storage site.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:52-160">[160]</a></sup>
</p><p>In addition to <a href="/wiki/Carbon_mineralization">carbon mineralization</a>, another proposal is deep sea <a href="/wiki/Sediment">sediment</a> injection. It injects liquid carbon dioxide at least 3000 m below the surface directly into ocean sediments to generate carbon dioxide hydrate. Two regions are defined for exploration: 1) the negative buoyancy zone (NBZ), which is the region between liquid carbon dioxide denser than surrounding water and where liquid carbon dioxide has neutral buoyancy, and 2) the hydrate formation zone (HFZ), which typically has low temperatures and high pressures. Several research models have shown that the optimal depth of injection requires consideration of intrinsic permeability and any changes in liquid carbon dioxide permeability for optimal storage. The formation of hydrates decreases liquid carbon dioxide permeability, and injection below HFZ is more energetically favored than within the HFZ. If the NBZ is a greater column of water than the HFZ, the injection should happen below the HFZ and directly to the NBZ. In this case, liquid carbon dioxide will sink to the NBZ and be stored below the buoyancy and hydrate cap. Carbon dioxide leakage can occur if there is dissolution into <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pore_fluid&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1">pore fluid</a> or via <a href="/wiki/Molecular_diffusion">molecular diffusion</a>. However, this occurs over thousands of years.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:52-160">[160]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Adding bases to neutralize acids[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=32">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Carbon dioxide forms <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_acid">carbonic acid</a> when dissolved in water, so <a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification">ocean acidification</a> is a significant consequence of elevated carbon dioxide levels, and limits the rate at which it can be absorbed into the ocean (the <a href="/wiki/Solubility_pump">solubility pump</a>). A variety of different <a href="/wiki/Base_(chemistry)">bases</a> have been suggested that could neutralize the acid and thus increase CO<sup></sup><br /><sub>2</sub> absorption.<sup><a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a></sup> For example, adding crushed <a href="/wiki/Limestone">limestone</a> to oceans enhances the absorption of carbon dioxide.<sup><a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a></sup> Another approach is to add <a href="/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide">sodium hydroxide</a> to oceans which is produced by <a href="/wiki/Electrolysis">electrolysis</a> of salt water or brine, while eliminating the waste <a href="/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid">hydrochloric acid</a> by reaction with a volcanic silicate rock such as <a href="/wiki/Enstatite">enstatite</a>, effectively increasing the rate of natural weathering of these rocks to restore ocean pH.<sup><a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Single-step carbon sequestration and storage[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=33">edit</a>]</h4>
<p>Single-step carbon sequestration and storage is a saline water-based mineralization technology extracting carbon dioxide from seawater and storing it in the form of solid minerals.<sup><a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Abandoned ideas[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=34">edit</a>]</h3>
<h4>Direct deep-sea carbon dioxide injection[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=35">edit</a>]</h4>
<p>It was once suggested that CO<sub>2</sub> could be stored in the oceans by direct injection into the deep ocean and storing it there for some centuries. At the time, this proposal was called "ocean storage" but more precisely it was known as "<a href="/wiki/Direct_deep-sea_carbon_dioxide_injection">direct deep-sea carbon dioxide injection</a>". However, the interest in this avenue of carbon storage has much reduced since about 2001 because of concerns about the unknown impacts on <a href="/wiki/Marine_life">marine life</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-:02-173">[173]</a></sup><a href="/wiki/Marine_life"><sup>: 279 </sup></a>, high costs and concerns about its stability or permanence.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:0-6">[6]</a></sup> The "IPCC Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage" in 2005 did include this technology as an option.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:02-173">[173]</a></sup><a href="/wiki/Marine_life"><sup>: 279 </sup></a> However, the <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Fifth_Assessment_Report">IPCC Fifth Assessment Report</a> in 2014 no longer mentioned the term "ocean storage" in its report on climate change mitigation methods.<sup><a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a></sup> The most recent <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a> in 2022 also no longer includes any mention of "ocean storage" in its "Carbon Dioxide Removal taxonomy".<sup><a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_12-175">[175]</a></sup><sup>: 12–37 </sup>
</p>
<h2>Cost[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=36">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Cost of the sequestration (not including capture and transport) varies but is below US$10 per tonne in some cases where onshore storage is available.<sup><a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a></sup> For example <a href="/wiki/Carbfix">Carbfix</a> cost is around US$25 per tonne of CO<sub>2</sub>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a></sup> A 2020 report estimated sequestration in forests (so including capture) at US$35 for small quantities to US$280 per tonne for 10% of the total required to keep to 1.5 C warming.<sup><a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a></sup> But there is risk of forest fires releasing the carbon.<sup><a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a></sup>
</p><p>
Researchers have raised the concern that the use of carbon offsets – such as by maintaining forests, reforestation or carbon capture – as well as renewable energy certificates<sup><a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a></sup> allow polluting companies a business-as-usual approach to continue releasing greenhouse gases<sup><a href="#cite_note-greenw-181">[181]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a></sup> and for being, inappropriately trusted, untried <a href="/wiki/Technological_fix">techno-fixes</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a></sup> This also includes the 2022 IPCC report on climate change criticized for containing "a lot of pipe dreams", relying on large negative emissions technologies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a></sup> A review of studies by the Stanford Solutions Project concluded that relying on Carbon capture and storage/utilization (CCS/U) is a dangerous distraction, with it (in most and large-scale cases) being expensive, increasing <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution">air pollution</a> and mining, inefficient and unlikely to be deployable at the scale required in time.<sup><a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a></sup></p><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Shennongjia_virgin_forest.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Transferring <a href="/wiki/Land_rights">land rights</a> to indigenous inhabitants is argued to efficiently conserve forests.</p></div></div>
<h2>Applications in climate change policies[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=37">edit</a>]</h2>
<h3>United States[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=38">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Starting in the mid-late 2010s, many pieces of <a href="/wiki/United_States">US</a> climate and environment policy have sought to make use of the <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation">climate change mitigation</a> potential of carbon sequestration. Many of these policies involve either conservation of carbon sink ecosystems, such as forests and wetlands, or encouraging agricultural and land use practices designed to increase carbon sequestration such as <a href="/wiki/Carbon_farming">carbon farming</a> or <a href="/wiki/Agroforestry">agroforestry</a>, often through financial incentivization for farmers and landowners.
</p><p>The <i>Executive Order on Tackling the Climate Crisis at Home and Abroad,</i> signed by president <a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden">Joe Biden</a> on January 27, 2021, includes several mentions of carbon sequestration via conservation and restoration of carbon sink ecosystems, such as wetlands and forests. These include emphasizing the importance of farmers, landowners, and coastal communities in carbon sequestration, directing the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Treasury">Treasury Department</a> to promote conservation of carbon sinks through market based mechanisms, and directing the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Interior">Department of the Interior</a> to collaborate with other agencies to create a Civilian Climate Corps to increase carbon sequestration in agriculture, among other things.<sup><a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>See also[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=39">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage">Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon">Blue carbon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_storage_in_the_North_Sea">Carbon storage in the North Sea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Oil_platform#Repurposing">Repurposing offshore drilling rigs for storing carbon</a></li></ul>
<h2>References[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=40">edit</a>]</h2>
<div>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-glossary_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-glossary_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-glossary_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100527191416/http://www.neo.ne.gov/statshtml/glossarys.htm">"Energy Terms Glossary S"</a>. Nebraska Energy Office. Archived from <a href="http://www.neo.ne.gov/statshtml/glossarys.htm">the original</a> on May 27, 2010. Retrieved May 9, 2010.</cite>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-SedjoSohngen_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SedjoSohngen_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Sedjo, Roger; Sohngen, Brent (2012). "Carbon Sequestration in Forests and Soils". <i><a href="/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Resource_Economics">Annual Review of Resource Economics</a></i>. <b>4</b>: 127–144. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-resource-083110-115941">10.1146/annurev-resource-083110-115941</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b> <cite>Myles, Allen (September 2020). <a href="https://www.smithschool.ox.ac.uk/publications/reports/Oxford-Offsetting-Principles-2020.pdf">"The Oxford Principles for Net Zero Aligned Carbon Offsetting"</a> (PDF). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201002083510/https://www.smithschool.ox.ac.uk/publications/reports/Oxford-Offsetting-Principles-2020.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on October 2, 2020. Retrieved December 10, 2021.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-EnvRschLtrs_20201229_7-0">^</a></b> <cite>Abdulla, Ahmed; Hanna, Ryan; Schell, Kristen R.; Babacan, Oytun; et al. (December 29, 2021). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2Fabd19e">"Explaining successful and failed investments in U.S. carbon capture and storage using empirical and expert assessments"</a>. <i>Environmental Research Letters</i>. <b>16</b> (1): 014036. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021ERL....16a4036A">2021ERL....16a4036A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2Fabd19e">10.1088/1748-9326/abd19e</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180330082701/http://unfccc.int/essential_background/glossary/items/3666.php#C">"Glossary of climate change acronyms"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a></i>. Archived from <a href="http://unfccc.int/essential_background/glossary/items/3666.php#C">the original</a> on March 30, 2018. Retrieved July 15, 2010.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080506083543/http://www.pointcarbon.com/article.php?articleID=3774&amp;categoryID=147">"Alberta producers rewarded for use of CO<sub>2</sub> in enhanced oil recovery"</a>. <i>PointCarbon</i>. May 25, 2004. Archived from <a href="http://www.pointcarbon.com/article.php?articleID=3774&amp;categoryID=147">the original</a> on May 6, 2008. Retrieved August 21, 2015.</cite>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hodrien_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hodrien_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Hodrien, Chris (October 24, 2008). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090531162754/http://www.claverton-energy.com/download/137/"><i>Squaring the Circle on Coal – Carbon Capture and Storage</i></a>. Claverton Energy Group Conference, Bath. Archived from <a href="http://www.claverton-energy.com/download/137/">the original</a> (PDF) on May 31, 2009. Retrieved May 9, 2010.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b> <cite>Kanniche, Mohamed; Gros-Bonnivard, René; Jaud, Philippe; Valle-Marcos, Jose; Amann, Jean-Marc; Bouallou, Chakib (January 1, 2010). <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1359431109001471">"Pre-combustion, post-combustion and oxy-combustion in thermal power plant for CO2 capture"</a>. <i>Applied Thermal Engineering</i>. Selected Papers from the 11th Conference on Process Integration, Modelling and Optimisation for Energy Saving and Pollution Reduction. <b>30</b> (1): 53–62. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.applthermaleng.2009.05.005">10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2009.05.005</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1359-4311">1359-4311</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b> <cite>Badiei, Marzieh; Asim, Nilofar; Yarmo, Mohd Ambar; Jahim, Jamaliah Md; Sopian, Kamaruzzaman (2012). <a href="http://www.actapress.com/PaperInfo.aspx?paperId=454741">"Overview of Carbon Dioxide Separation Technology"</a>. <i>Power and Energy Systems and Applications</i>. Las Vegas, USA: ACTAPRESS. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2316%2FP.2012.788-067">10.2316/P.2012.788-067</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88986-939-4"><bdi>978-0-88986-939-4</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-auto4_13-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/MEMO_08_632">"Press corner"</a>. <i>European Commission – European Commission</i>. Retrieved September 28, 2020.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-auto_14-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/why-keeping-mature-forests-intact-is-key-to-the-climate-fight">"Why Keeping Mature Forests Intact Is Key to the Climate Fight"</a>. <i>Yale E360</i>. Retrieved September 28, 2020.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-auto2_15-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://blog.ucsusa.org/elliott-negin/would-reforestation-help-counter-deforestation">"Would a Large-scale Reforestation Effort Help Counter the Global Warming Impacts of Deforestation?"</a>. <i>Union of Concerned Scientists</i>. September 1, 2012. Retrieved September 28, 2020.</cite>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Crowther, T. W.; Glick, H. B.; Covey, K. R.; Bettigole, C.; Maynard, D. S.; Thomas, S. M.; Smith, J. R.; Hintler, G.; Duguid, M. C.; Amatulli, G.; Tuanmu, M.-N.; Jetz, W.; Salas, C.; Stam, C.; Piotto, D. (September 2015). <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature14967">"Mapping tree density at a global scale"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>525</b> (7568): 201–205. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015Natur.525..201C">2015Natur.525..201C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature14967">10.1038/nature14967</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)">PMID</a> <a href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26331545">26331545</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4464317">4464317</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b> *<cite><a href="/wiki/IPCC">IPCC</a> (2022). <a href="https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6wg3/pdf/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_SummaryForPolicymakers.pdf">"Summary for Policymakers"</a> (PDF). <i>Mitigation of Climate Change</i>. Contribution of Working Group III to the <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report">Sixth Assessment Report</a> of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Beerling_18-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/David_Beerling">Beerling, David</a> (2008). <i>The Emerald Planet: How Plants Changed Earth's History</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 194–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954814-9"><bdi>978-0-19-954814-9</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b> <cite>National Academies Of Sciences, Engineering (2019). <i>Negative Emissions Technologies and Reliable Sequestration: A Research Agenda</i>. Washington, D.C.: National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. pp. 45–136. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.17226%2F25259">10.17226/25259</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-48452-7"><bdi>978-0-309-48452-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)">PMID</a> <a href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31120708">31120708</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:134196575">134196575</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://fortune.com/2021/03/06/carbon-capture-storage-rocks-net-zero-carbfix-startup-iceland/">"This startup has unlocked a novel way to capture carbon—by turning the dirty gas into rocks"</a>. <i>Fortune</i>. Retrieved December 1, 2021.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b> <cite>Woodward, Aylin. <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/carbon-capture-storage-expensive-climate-change-2021-9">"The world's biggest carbon-removal plant just opened. In a year, it'll negate just 3 seconds' worth of global emissions"</a>. <i>Business Insider</i>. Retrieved November 30, 2021.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b> <cite>Bjørn, Anders; Lloyd, Shannon M.; Brander, Matthew; Matthews, H. Damon (June 9, 2022). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41558-022-01379-5">"Renewable energy certificates threaten the integrity of corporate science-based targets"</a>. <i>Nature Climate Change</i>. <b>12</b> (6): 539–546. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022NatCC..12..539B">2022NatCC..12..539B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41558-022-01379-5">10.1038/s41558-022-01379-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1758-6798">1758-6798</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:249524667">249524667</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/apr/03/scientists-urge-end-to-fossil-fuel-use-as-landmark-ippc-report-readied">"Scientists urge end to fossil fuel use as landmark IPCC report readied"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>. April 3, 2022. Retrieved June 11, 2022.</cite>
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</ol></div>
<h2>External links[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=41">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li><a href="https://www.cslforum.org/cslf/">Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum</a> International carbon capture and storage initiative.</li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091117231051/http://www.co2storage.org.uk/">UK Carbon Capture and Storage Consortium</a> Overview of the UK academic consortium focused on researching issues related to Carbon Capture and Storage.</li>
<li><a href="https://sequestration.mit.edu/">Carbon Capture &amp; Sequestration Technologies</a> MIT program covers carbon capture and storage (CCS)</li></ul>
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 Contents

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 * (Top)
 * 1 Description
 * 2 Role in climate change mitigation
 * 3 Biological processes on land
 + 3.1 Biosequestration
 + 3.2 Peatland
 + 3.3 Forestry
 o 3.3.1 Urban forestry
 + 3.4 Wetlands
 + 3.5 Agriculture
 + 3.6 Carbon farming
 o 3.6.1 Bamboo farming
 o 3.6.2 Deep soil
 o 3.6.3 Reducing emissions
 o 3.6.4 Enhancing carbon removal
 * 4 Geological processes and burial
 + 4.1 Burial
 o 4.1.1 Biochar burial
 + 4.2 Geological sequestration
 + 4.3 Mineral sequestration
 o 4.3.1 Zeolitic imidazolate frameworks
 * 5 Chemical processes
 + 5.1 Mineral carbonation
 + 5.2 Electrochemistry
 + 5.3 Industrial use
 + 5.4 Chemical scrubbers
 * 6 Sequestration techniques in oceans
 + 6.1 Seaweed farming
 + 6.2 Ocean fertilisation
 + 6.3 Artificial upwelling
 + 6.4 Basalt storage
 o 6.4.1 Mineralization and deep sea sediments
 + 6.5 Adding bases to neutralize acids
 o 6.5.1 Single-step carbon sequestration and storage
 + 6.6 Abandoned ideas
 o 6.6.1 Direct deep-sea carbon dioxide injection
 * 7 Cost
 * 8 Applications in climate change policies
 + 8.1 United States
 * 9 See also
 * 10 References
 * 11 External links
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 Carbon sequestration

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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 This article is about storing carbon for a long time so that it is not in the atmosphere. For removing carbon dioxide from point sources before it enters the atmosphere, see Carbon capture and storage. For removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, see Carbon dioxide removal.

 Schematic showing both terrestrial and geological sequestration of carbon dioxide emissions from heavy industry, such as a chemical plant[1]
 Part of a series on the 
 Carbon cycle 
 
 By regions 
 * Terrestrial 
 * Marine 
 * Atmospheric 
 * Deep carbon 
 * Soil 
 * Permafrost 
 * Boreal forest 
 * Geochemistry 
 Carbon dioxide 
 * In the atmosphere 
 * Ocean acidification 
 * Removal 
 * Satellite measurements 
 Forms of carbon 
 * Total carbon (TC) 
 * Total organic carbon (TOC) 
 * Total inorganic carbon (TIC) 
 * Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) 
 * Dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) 
 * Particulate organic carbon (POC) 
 * Particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) 
 * Primary production 
 + marine 
 * Black carbon 
 * Blue carbon 
 * Kerogen 
 Metabolic pathways 
 * Photosynthesis 
 * Chemosynthesis 
 * Calvin cycle 
 * Reverse Krebs cycle 
 * Carbon fixation 
 + C3 
 + C4 
 Carbon respiration 
 * Ecosystem respiration 
 * Net ecosystem production 
 * Photorespiration 
 * Soil respiration 
 Carbon pumps 
 * Biological pump 
 + Martin curve 
 * Solubility pump 
 * Lipid pump 
 * Marine snow 
 * Microbial loop 
 * Viral shunt 
 * Jelly pump 
 * Whale pump 
 * Continental shelf pump 
 Carbon sequestration 
 * Biosequestration 
 * Carbon sink 
 * Soil carbon storage 
 * Marine sediment 
 + pelagic sediment 
 Methane 
 * Atmospheric methane 
 * Methanogenesis 
 * Methane emissions 
 + Arctic 
 + Wetland 
 * Aerobic production 
 * Clathrate gun hypothesis 
 * Carbon dioxide clathrate 
 Biogeochemical 
 * Marine cycles 
 * Nutrient cycle 
 * Carbonate–silicate cycle 
 * Carbonate compensation depth 
 * Great Calcite Belt 
 * Redfield ratio 
 Other 
 * Climate reconstruction proxies 
 * Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio 
 * Deep biosphere 
 * Deep Carbon Observatory 
 * Global Carbon Project 
 * Carbon capture and storage 
 * Carbon cycle re-balancing 
 * Territorialisation of carbon governance
 * Total Carbon Column Observing Network 
 * C4MIP 
 * CO2SYS 
 * Category 
 * v 
 * t 
 * e 
 

 Carbon sequestration (or carbon storage) is the process of storing carbon (in particular atmospheric carbon dioxide) in a carbon pool.[2] : 2248 The process acts like a carbon sink, meaning it removes a greenhouse gas, or a precursor of a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere.[2] : 2923 Carbon sequestration is a naturally occurring process but it can also be enhanced or achieved with technology, for example within carbon capture and storage projects.

 Carbon dioxide ( CO
 2) is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological, chemical, and physical processes.[3] These changes can be accelerated through changes in land use and agricultural practices, such as converting crop land into land for non-crop fast growing plants.[4] Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects,[3] including large-scale, artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced CO
 2 using subsurface saline aquifers or aging oil fields. Other technologies that work with carbon sequestration include bio-energy with carbon capture and storage, biochar, enhanced weathering, direct air carbon capture and sequestration (DACCS).

 Forests, kelp beds, and other forms of plant life absorb carbon dioxide from the air as they grow, and bind it into biomass. However, these biological stores are considered volatile carbon sinks as the long-term sequestration cannot be guaranteed. For example, natural events, such as wildfires or disease, economic pressures and changing political priorities can result in the sequestered carbon being released back into the atmosphere.[5] Carbon dioxide that has been removed from the atmosphere can also be stored in the Earth's crust by injecting it into the subsurface, or in the form of insoluble carbonate salts (mineral sequestration). These methods are considered non-volatile because they remove carbon from the atmosphere and sequester it indefinitely and presumably for a considerable duration (thousands to millions of years).

 To enhance carbon sequestration processes in oceans the following technologies have been proposed but none have achieved large scale application so far: Seaweed farming, ocean fertilisation, artificial upwelling, basalt storage, mineralization and deep sea sediments, adding bases to neutralize acids. The idea of direct deep-sea carbon dioxide injection has been abandoned.[6]

 Description [ edit ]

 Global proposed vs. implemented annual CO2 sequestration. More than 75% of proposed gas processing projects have been implemented, with corresponding figures for other industrial projects and power plant projects being about 60% and 10%, respectively.[7]

 Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO
 2)[4] and may refer specifically to:

 * "The process of removing carbon from the atmosphere and depositing it in a reservoir."[8] When carried out deliberately, this may also be referred to as carbon dioxide removal, which is a form of geoengineering.
 * Carbon capture and storage, where carbon dioxide is removed from flue gases (e.g., at power stations) before being stored in underground reservoirs.
 * Natural biogeochemical cycling of carbon between the atmosphere and reservoirs, such as by chemical weathering of rocks.

 Carbon dioxide may be captured as a pure by-product in processes related to petroleum refining or from flue gases from power generation.[9] CO
 2 sequestration includes the storage part of carbon capture and storage, which refers to large-scale, artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced CO
 2 using subsurface saline aquifers, reservoirs, ocean water, aging oil fields, or other carbon sinks.

 Carbon sequestration describes long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to either mitigate or defer global warming and avoid dangerous climate change. It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases, which are released by burning fossil fuels and industrial livestock production.[10]

 Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological, chemical or physical processes. Some artificial sequestration techniques exploit these natural processes,[3] while some use entirely artificial processes.

 There are three ways that this sequestration can be carried out: post-combustion capture, pre-combustion capture, and oxy-combustion.[11] A wide variety of separation techniques are being pursued, including gas phase separation, absorption into a liquid, and adsorption on a solid, as well as hybrid processes, such as adsorption/membrane systems.[12] These above processes basically capture carbon emitting from power plants, factories, fuel burning industries, and new generation livestock production facilities as they transition into restorative farming techniques to reduce carbon emissions.

 Role in climate change mitigation [ edit ]

 In terms of carbon retention on forest land, it is better to avoid deforestation than to remove trees and subsequently reforest, as deforestation leads to irreversible effects e.g. biodiversity loss and soil degradation.[13] Additionally, the effects of af- or reforestation will be farther in the future compared to keeping existing forests intact.[14] It takes much longer − several decades − for reforested areas to return to the same carbon sequestration levels found in mature tropical forests.[15]

 The global annual gross loss of trees is estimated to be approximately 15 billion and the global number of trees has decreased by ca 46% since the beginning of human civilization.[16]

 Biological processes on land [ edit ]

 Land-use changes that enhance natural carbon capture have the potential to capture and store large amounts of carbon dioxide each year. These include the conservation, management, and restoration of ecosystems such as forests, peatlands, wetlands, and grasslands, in addition to carbon sequestration methods in agriculture.[17]

 Biosequestration [ edit ]

 An oceanic phytoplankton bloom in the South Atlantic Ocean, off the coast of Argentina. Encouraging such blooms with iron fertilization could lock up carbon on the seabed.

 Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by continual or enhanced biological processes. This form of carbon sequestration occurs through increased rates of photosynthesis via land-use practices such as reforestation and sustainable forest management.[18][19]

 Peatland [ edit ]

 Peat bogs act as a sink for carbon because they accumulate partially decayed biomass that would otherwise continue to decay completely. There is a variance on how much the peatlands act as a carbon sink or carbon source that can be linked to varying climates in different areas of the world and different times of the year.[20] By creating new bogs, or enhancing existing ones, the amount of carbon that is sequestered by bogs would increase.[21]

 Forestry [ edit ]

 Afforestation is the establishment of a forest in an area where there was no previous tree cover. Proforestation is the practice of growing an existing forest intact toward its full ecological potential.[22] Reforestation is the replanting of trees on marginal crop and pasture lands to incorporate carbon from atmospheric CO
 2 into biomass.[23][24] For this carbon sequestration process to succeed the carbon must not return to the atmosphere from mass burning or rotting when the trees die.[25] To this end, land allotted to the trees must not be converted to other uses and management of the frequency of disturbances might be necessary in order to avoid extreme events. Alternatively, the wood from them must itself be sequestered, e.g., via biochar, bio-energy with carbon storage (BECS), landfill or 'stored' by use in construction. Short of growth in perpetuity, however, reforestation with long-lived trees (>100 years) will sequester carbon for substantial periods and be released gradually, minimizing carbon's climate impact during the 21st century. Earth offers enough room to plant an additional 1.2 trillion trees.[16] Planting and protecting them would offset some 10 years of CO2 emissions and sequester 205 billion tons of carbon.[26] This approach is supported by the Trillion Tree Campaign. Restoring all degraded forests world-wide would capture about 205 billion tons of carbon in total, which is about two-thirds of all carbon emissions.[27][28]

 During a 30-year period to 2050 if all new construction globally utilized 90% wood products, largely via adoption of mass timber in low rise construction, this could sequester 700 million net tons of carbon per year,[29][30] thus negating approximately 2% of annual carbon emissions as of 2019.[31] This is in addition to the elimination of carbon emissions from the displaced construction material such as steel or concrete, which are carbon-intense to produce.

 Urban forestry [ edit ]

 Urban forestry increases the amount of carbon taken up in cities by adding new tree sites and the sequestration of carbon occurs over the lifetime of the tree.[32] It is generally practiced and maintained on smaller scales, like in cities. The results of urban forestry can have different results depending on the type of vegetation that is being used, so it can function as a sink but can also function as a source of emissions.[33] In hot areas of the world, trees have an important cooling effect through shade and transpiration. This can save on the need for air conditioning which in turn can reduce GHG emissions.[33]

 Wetlands [ edit ]

 Wetland restoration involves restoring a wetland's natural biological, geological, and chemical functions through re-establishment or rehabilitation.[34] It has also been proposed as a potential climate change mitigation strategy, with carbon sequestered this way being known as blue carbon.[35] Wetland soil, particularly in coastal wetlands such as mangroves, sea grasses, and salt marshes,[35] is an important carbon reservoir; 20–30% of the world's soil carbon is found in wetlands, while only 5–8% of the world's land is composed of wetlands.[36] Studies have shown that restored wetlands can become productive CO2 sinks[37][38][39] and many restoration projects have been enacted in the US and around the world.[40][41] Aside from climate benefits, wetland restoration and conservation can help preserve biodiversity, improve water quality, and aid with flood control.[42]

 As with forests, for the sequestration process to succeed, the wetland must remain undisturbed. If it is disturbed somehow, the carbon stored in the plants and sediments will be released back into the atmosphere and the ecosystem will no longer function as a carbon sink.[43] Additionally, some wetlands can release non-CO2 greenhouse gases, such as methane[44] and nitrous oxide[45] which could offset potential climate benefits. The amounts of carbon sequestered via blue carbon by wetlands can also be difficult to measure.[42]

 Agriculture [ edit ]

 Compared to natural vegetation, cropland soils are depleted in soil organic carbon (SOC). When a soil is converted from natural land or semi-natural land, such as forests, woodlands, grasslands, steppes and savannas, the SOC content in the soil reduces by about 30–40%.[46] This loss is due to the removal of plant material containing carbon, in terms of harvests. When the land use changes, the carbon in the soil will either increase or decrease, this change will continue until the soil reaches a new equilibrium. Deviations from this equilibrium can also be affected by variated climate.[47] The decreasing of SOC content can be counteracted by increasing the carbon input. This can be done with several strategies, e.g. leave harvest residues on the field, use manure as fertiliser or include perennial crops in the rotation. Perennial crops have a larger below ground biomass fraction, which increases the SOC content.[46] Perennial crops reduce the need for tillage and thus help mitigate soil erosion, and may help increase soil organic matter. Globally, soils are estimated to contain >8,580 gigatons of organic carbon, about ten times the amount in the atmosphere and much more than in vegetation.[48] Researchers have found that rising temperatures can lead to population booms in soil microbes, converting stored carbon into carbon dioxide. In laboratory experiments heating soil, fungi-rich soils released less carbon dioxide than other soils.[49]

 Modification of agricultural practices is a recognized method of carbon sequestration as soil can act as an effective carbon sink offsetting as much as 20% of 2010 carbon dioxide emissions annually.[50] (See No-till farming). Restoration of organic farming and earthworms may entirely offset CO2 annual carbon excess of 4 Gt per year and drawdown the residual atmospheric excess.[51] (See Compost).

 Carbon emission reduction methods in agriculture can be grouped into two categories: reducing and/or displacing emissions and enhancing carbon removal from the atmosphere. Some of these reductions involve increasing the efficiency of farm operations (e.g. more fuel-efficient equipment) while some involve interruptions in the natural carbon cycle. Also, some effective techniques (such as the elimination of stubble burning[52]) can negatively impact other environmental concerns (increased herbicide use to control weeds not destroyed by burning).

 As enforcement of forest protection may not sufficiently address the drivers behind deforestation – the largest of which being the production of beef in the case of the Amazon rainforest[53] – it may also need policies. These could effectively ban and/or progressively discourage deforestation-associated trade via e.g. product information requirements, satellite monitoring like the Global Forest Watch, related eco-tariffs, and product certifications.[54][55][56]

 Carbon farming [ edit ]

 This section is an excerpt from Carbon farming. [ edit ]

 Carbon farming is a name for a variety of agricultural methods aimed at sequestering atmospheric carbon into the soil and in crop roots, wood and leaves. The aim of carbon farming is to increase the rate at which carbon is sequestered into soil and plant material with the goal of creating a net loss of carbon from the atmosphere.[57] Increasing a soil's organic matter content can aid plant growth, increase total carbon content, improve soil water retention capacity[58] and reduce fertilizer use.[59] As of 2016, variants of carbon farming reached hundreds of millions of hectares globally, of the nearly 5 billion hectares (1.2 × 1010 acres) of world farmland.[60] In addition to agricultural activities, forests management is also a tool that is used in carbon farming.[61] The practice of carbon farming is often done by individual land owners who are given incentive to use and to integrate methods that will sequester carbon through policies created by governments.[62] Carbon farming methods will typically have a cost, meaning farmers and land-owners need a way to profit from the use of carbon farming, thus requiring government programs.[62]

 Land management techniques that can be combined with farming include planting/restoring forests, burying biochar produced by anaerobically converted biomass and restoring wetlands (such as marshes and peatlands).[63]

 Bamboo farming [ edit ]

 Main article: bamboo cultivation

 Although a bamboo forest stores less total carbon than a mature forest of trees, a bamboo plantation sequesters carbon at a much faster rate than a mature forest or a tree plantation. Therefore, the farming of bamboo timber may have significant carbon sequestration potential.[64]

 Deep soil [ edit ]

 On a global basis it is estimated that soil contains about 2,500 gigatons of carbon. This is greater than 3-fold the carbon found in the atmosphere and 4-fold of that found in living plants and animals.[65] About 70% of the global soil organic carbon in non-permafrost areas is found in the deeper soil within the upper 1 meter and stabilized by mineral-organic associations.[66]

 Reducing emissions [ edit ]

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 Increasing yields and efficiency generally reduces emissions as well, since more food results from the same or less effort. Techniques include more accurate use of fertilizers, less soil disturbance, better irrigation, and crop strains bred for locally beneficial traits and increased yields.[ citation needed ]

 Replacing more energy intensive farming operations can also reduce emissions. Reduced or no-till farming requires less machine use and burns correspondingly less fuel per acre. However, no-till usually increases use of weed-control chemicals and the residue now left on the soil surface is more likely to release its CO
 2 to the atmosphere as it decays, reducing the net carbon reduction.[ citation needed ]

 In practice, most farming operations that incorporate post-harvest crop residues, wastes and byproducts back into the soil provide a carbon storage benefit.[ citation needed ] This is particularly the case for practices such as field burning of stubble – rather than releasing almost all of the stored CO
 2 to the atmosphere, tillage incorporates the biomass back into the soil.[ citation needed ]

 Enhancing carbon removal [ edit ]

 All crops absorb CO
 2 during growth and release it after harvest. The goal of agricultural carbon removal is to use the crop and its relation to the carbon cycle to permanently sequester carbon within the soil. This is done by selecting farming methods that return biomass to the soil and enhance the conditions in which the carbon within the plants will be reduced to its elemental nature and stored in a stable state. Methods for accomplishing this include:

 * Use cover crops such as grasses and weeds as temporary cover between planting seasons
 * Concentrate livestock in small paddocks for days at a time so they graze lightly but evenly. This encourages roots to grow deeper into the soil. Stock also till the soil with their hooves, grinding old grass and manures into the soil.[67]
 * Cover bare paddocks with hay or dead vegetation. This protects soil from the sun and allows the soil to hold more water and be more attractive to carbon-capturing microbes.[67]
 * Restore degraded, marginal, and abandoned land, which slows carbon release while returning the land to agriculture or other use.[68] Degraded land with low soil carbon pool have particularly high potential to store soil C which can be farther enhanced by proper selection of vegetation.[69][70]

 Agricultural sequestration practices may have positive effects on soil, air, and water quality, be beneficial to wildlife, and expand food production. On degraded croplands, an increase of 1 ton of soil carbon pool may increase crop yield by 20 to 40 kilograms per hectare of wheat, 10 to 20 kg/ ha for maize, and 0.5 to 1 kg/ha for cowpeas.[ citation needed ]

 The effects of soil sequestration can be reversed. If the soil is disrupted or intensive tillage practices are used, the soil becomes a net source of greenhouse gases. Typically after several decades of sequestration, soil becomes saturated and ceases to absorb carbon. This implies that there is a global limit to the amount of carbon that soil can hold.[71]

 Many factors affect the costs of carbon sequestration including soil quality, transaction costs and various externalities such as leakage and unforeseen environmental damage. Because reduction of atmospheric CO
 2 is a long-term concern, farmers can be reluctant to adopt more expensive agricultural techniques when there is not a clear crop, soil, or economic benefit. Governments such as Australia and New Zealand are considering allowing farmers to sell carbon credits once they document that they have sufficiently increased soil carbon content.[67][72][73][74][75][76]

 Geological processes and burial [ edit ]

 Biochar can be landfilled, used as a soil improver or burned using carbon capture and storage.

 Burial [ edit ]

 Burying biomass (such as trees)[77] directly, mimics the natural processes that created fossil fuels.[78]

 Biochar burial [ edit ]

 Main article: Biochar

 Biochar is charcoal created by pyrolysis of biomass waste. The resulting material is added to a landfill or used as a soil improver to create terra preta.[79][80] Addition of pyrogenic organic carbon (biochar) is a novel strategy to increase the soil-C stock for the long-term and to mitigate global-warming by offsetting the atmospheric C (up to 9.5 Gigatons C annually).[81] In the soil, the carbon is unavailable for oxidation to CO
 2 and consequential atmospheric release. However concerns have been raised about biochar potentially accelerating release of the carbon already present in the soil.[82].

 Geological sequestration [ edit ]

 Main article: Carbon capture and storage

 Geological sequestration refers to the storage of CO2 underground in depleted oil and gas reservoirs, saline formations, or deep, un-minable coal beds.

 Once CO2 is captured from a point source, such as a cement factory,[83] it would be compressed to ≈100 bar so that it would be a supercritical fluid. In this form, the CO2 would be easy to transport via pipeline to the place of storage. The CO2 would then be injected deep underground, typically around 1 km, where it would be stable for hundreds to millions of years.[6] At these storage conditions, the density of supercritical CO2 is 600 to 800 kg / m3.[84]

 The important parameters in determining a good site for carbon storage are: rock porosity, rock permeability, absence of faults, and geometry of rock layers. The medium in which the CO2 is to be stored ideally has a high porosity and permeability, such as sandstone or limestone. Sandstone can have a permeability ranging from 1 to 10−5 Darcy, and can have a porosity as high as ≈30%. The porous rock must be capped by a layer of low permeability which acts as a seal, or caprock, for the CO2. Shale is an example of a very good caprock, with a permeability of 10−5 to 10−9 Darcy. Once injected, the CO2 plume will rise via buoyant forces, since it is less dense than its surroundings. Once it encounters a caprock, it will spread laterally until it encounters a gap. If there are fault planes near the injection zone, there is a possibility the CO2 could migrate along the fault to the surface, leaking into the atmosphere, which would be potentially dangerous to life in the surrounding area. Another danger related to carbon sequestration is induced seismicity. If the injection of CO2 creates pressures that are too high underground, the formation will fracture, potentially causing an earthquake.[85]

 While trapped in a rock formation, CO2 can be in the supercritical fluid phase or dissolve in groundwater/brine. It can also react with minerals in the geologic formation to precipitate carbonates. See CarbFix.

 Worldwide storage capacity in oil and gas reservoirs is estimated to be 675–900 Gt CO2, and in un-minable coal seams is estimated to be 15–200 Gt CO2. Deep saline formations have the largest capacity, which is estimated to be 1,000–10,000 Gt CO2.[84] In the US, there is estimated to be at least 2,600 Gt and at most 22,000 Gt total CO2 storage capacity.[86]

 There are a number of large-scale carbon capture and sequestration projects that have demonstrated the viability and safety of this method of carbon storage, which are summarized here [87] by the Global CCS Institute. The dominant monitoring technique is seismic imaging, where vibrations are generated that propagate through the subsurface. The geologic structure can be imaged from the refracted/reflected waves.[85]

 The first large-scale CO
 2 sequestration project which began in 1996 is called Sleipner, and is located in the North Sea where Norway's StatoilHydro strips carbon dioxide from natural gas with amine solvents and disposed of this carbon dioxide in a deep saline aquifer. In 2000, a coal-fueled synthetic natural gas plant in Beulah, North Dakota, became the world's first coal-using plant to capture and store carbon dioxide, at the Weyburn-Midale Carbon Dioxide Project.[88][ needs update ] Several other sequestration projects have followed. The Energy Impact Center launched the OPEN100 project in February 2020, which is the world's first open-source blueprint for the design, construction and financing of a small, standard, pressurized water reactor.[89] In September 2020, the US Department of Energy awarded $72 million in federal funding to support the development and advancement of carbon capture technologies.[90]

 CO
 2 has been used extensively in enhanced crude oil recovery operations in the United States beginning in 1972.[10] There are in excess of 10,000 wells that inject CO
 2 in the state of Texas alone. The gas comes in part from anthropogenic sources, but is principally from large naturally occurring geologic formations of CO
 2. It is transported to the oil-producing fields through a large network of over 5,000 kilometres (3,100 mi) of CO
 2 pipelines. The use of CO
 2 for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) methods in heavy oil reservoirs in the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin (WCSB) has also been proposed.[91] However, transport cost remains an important hurdle. An extensive CO
 2 pipeline system does not yet exist in the WCSB. Athabasca oil sands mining that produces CO
 2 is hundreds of kilometers north of the subsurface Heavy crude oil reservoirs that could most benefit from CO
 2 injection.

 Mineral sequestration [ edit ]

 Mineral sequestration aims to trap carbon in the form of solid carbonate salts. This process occurs slowly in nature and is responsible for the deposition and accumulation of limestone over geologic time. Carbonic acid in groundwater slowly reacts with complex silicates to dissolve calcium, magnesium, alkalis and silica and leave a residue of clay minerals. The dissolved calcium and magnesium react with bicarbonate to precipitate calcium and magnesium carbonates, a process that organisms use to make shells. When the organisms die, their shells are deposited as sediment and eventually turn into limestone. Limestones have accumulated over billions of years of geologic time and contain much of Earth's carbon. Ongoing research aims to speed up similar reactions involving alkali carbonates.[92]

 Several serpentinite deposits are being investigated as potentially large scale CO2 storage sinks such as those found in NSW, Australia, where the first mineral carbonation pilot plant project is underway.[93] Beneficial re-use of magnesium carbonate from this process could provide feedstock for new products developed for the built environment and agriculture without returning the carbon into the atmosphere and so acting as a carbon sink.[94]

 One proposed reaction is that of the olivine-rich rock dunite, or its hydrated equivalent serpentinite with carbon dioxide to form the carbonate mineral magnesite, plus silica and iron oxide (magnetite).

 Serpentinite sequestration is favored because of the non-toxic and stable nature of magnesium carbonate. The ideal reactions involve the magnesium endmember components of the olivine (reaction 1) or serpentine (reaction 2), the latter derived from earlier olivine by hydration and silicification (reaction 3). The presence of iron in the olivine or serpentine reduces the efficiency of sequestration, since the iron components of these minerals break down to iron oxide and silica (reaction 4).

 Zeolitic imidazolate frameworks [ edit ]

 Main article: Zeolitic imidazolate frameworks

 Zeolitic imidazolate frameworks is a metal-organic framework carbon dioxide sink which could be used to keep industrial emissions of carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere.[95]

 Chemical processes [ edit ]

 Developed in the Netherlands, an electrocatalysis by a copper complex helps reduce carbon dioxide to oxalic acid;[96] This conversion uses carbon dioxide as a feedstock to generate oxalic acid.

 Mineral carbonation [ edit ]

 This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. ( June 2019 )
 

 CO2 exothermically reacts with metal oxides, producing stable carbonates (e.g. calcite, magnesite). This process (CO2-to-stone) occurs naturally over periods of years and is responsible for much surface limestone. Olivine is one such metal oxide.[97][ self-published source? ] Rocks rich in metal oxides that react with CO2, such as MgO and CaO as contained in basalts, have been proven as a viable means to achieve carbon-dioxide mineral storage.[98][99] The reaction rate can in principle be accelerated with a catalyst[100] or by increasing temperatures[ dubious – discuss] and/or pressures, or by mineral pre-treatment, although this method can require additional energy. The IPCC estimates that a power plant equipped with CCS using mineral storage would need 60–180% more energy than one without.[101] Theoretically, up to 22% of crustal mineral mass is able to form carbonates.[ citation needed ]

 Selected metal oxides of Earth's crust
 Earthen oxide Percent of crust Carbonate Enthalpy change (kJ/mol)
 CaO 4.90 CaCO3 −179 
 MgO 4.36 MgCO3 −118 
 Na2O 3.55 Na2CO3 −322 
 FeO 3.52 FeCO3 −85 
 K2O 2.80 K2CO3 −393.5 
 Fe2O3 2.63 FeCO3 112 
 All oxides 21.76 All carbonates
 

 Ultramafic mine tailings are a readily available source of fine-grained metal oxides that could serve this purpose.[102] Accelerating passive CO2 sequestration via mineral carbonation may be achieved through microbial processes that enhance mineral dissolution and carbonate precipitation.[103][104][105]

 Carbon, in the form of CO
 2 can be removed from the atmosphere by chemical processes, and stored in stable carbonate mineral forms. This process ( CO
 2-to-stone) is known as "carbon sequestration by mineral carbonation" or mineral sequestration. The process involves reacting carbon dioxide with abundantly available metal oxides – either magnesium oxide (MgO) or calcium oxide (CaO) – to form stable carbonates. These reactions are exothermic and occur naturally (e.g., the weathering of rock over geologic time periods).[106][107]

 CaO + CO
 2 → CaCO
 3 MgO + CO
 2 → MgCO
 3

 Calcium and magnesium are found in nature typically as calcium and magnesium silicates (such as forsterite and serpentinite) and not as binary oxides. For forsterite and serpentine the reactions are:

 Mg
 2 SiO
 4 + 2 CO
 2 → 2 MgCO
 3 + SiO
 2 Mg
 3 Si
 2 O
 5 (OH)
 4+ 3 CO
 2 → 3 MgCO
 3 + 2 SiO
 2 + 2 H
 2 O


 These reactions are slightly more favorable at low temperatures.[106] This process occurs naturally over geologic time frames and is responsible for much of the Earth's surface limestone. The reaction rate can be made faster however, by reacting at higher temperatures and/or pressures, although this method requires some additional energy. Alternatively, the mineral could be milled to increase its surface area, and exposed to water and constant abrasion to remove the inert Silica as could be achieved naturally by dumping Olivine in the high energy surf of beaches.[108] Experiments suggest the weathering process is reasonably quick (one year) given porous basaltic rocks.[109][110]

 CO
 2 naturally reacts with peridotite rock in surface exposures of ophiolites, notably in Oman. It has been suggested that this process can be enhanced to carry out natural mineralisation of CO
 2.[111][112]

 When CO
 2 is dissolved in water and injected into hot basaltic rocks underground it has been shown that the CO
 2 reacts with the basalt to form solid carbonate minerals.[113] A test plant in Iceland started up in October 2017, extracting up to 50 tons of CO2 a year from the atmosphere and storing it underground in basaltic rock.[114]

 Researchers from British Columbia, developed a low cost process for the production of magnesite, also known as magnesium carbonate, which can sequester CO2 from the air, or at the point of air pollution, e.g. at a power plant. The crystals are naturally occurring, but accumulation is usually very slow.[115]

 Concrete is a promising destination of captured carbon dioxide. Several advantages that concrete offers include, but not limited to: a source of plenty of calcium due to its substantial production all over the world; a thermodynamically stable condition for carbon dioxide to be stored as calcium carbonates; and its long-term capability of storing carbon dioxide as a material widely used in infrastructure.[116][117] Demolished concrete waste or recycled concrete could be also used aside from newly produced concrete.[118] Studies at HeidelbergCement show that carbon sequestration can turn those demolished and recycled concrete into a supplementary cementitious material, which acts as a secondary binder in tandem with Portland cement, for a new butch of concrete production.[119][120]

 Electrochemistry [ edit ]

 Another method uses a liquid metal catalyst and an electrolyte liquid into which CO2 is dissolved. The CO2 then converts into solid flakes of carbon. This method is done at room temperature.[121][122][123] In 2022, the team updated its work to operate at a lower temperature, and operate more quickly and with fewer steps.[124]

 Industrial use [ edit ]

 Traditional cement manufacture releases large amounts of carbon dioxide, but newly developed cement types from Novacem[125] can absorb CO
 2 from ambient air during hardening.[126] A similar technique was pioneered by TecEco, which has been producing "EcoCement" since 2002.[127] Canadian startup CarbonCure Technologies takes captured CO2 and injects it into concrete as it is being mixed.[128] Carbon Upcycling UCLA is another company that uses CO
 2 in concrete. Their concrete product is called CO2NCRETE, a concrete that hardens faster and is more eco-friendly than traditional concrete.[129]

 In Estonia, oil shale ash, generated by power stations could be used as sorbents for CO
 2 mineral sequestration. The amount of CO
 2 captured averaged 60 to 65% of the carbonaceous CO
 2 and 10 to 11% of the total CO
 2 emissions.[130]

 Chemical scrubbers [ edit ]

 Main articles: Carbon capture and storage and Carbon air capture

 Various carbon dioxide scrubbing processes have been proposed to remove CO
 2 from the air, usually using a variant of the Kraft process. Carbon dioxide scrubbing variants exist based on potassium carbonate, which can be used to create liquid fuels, or on sodium hydroxide.[131][132][133] These notably include artificial trees proposed by Klaus Lackner to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere using chemical scrubbers.[134][135]

 Sequestration techniques in oceans [ edit ]

 Seaweed farming [ edit ]

 Further information: Seaweed farming § Climate change mitigation

 Seaweed grow in shallow and coastal areas, and capture significant amounts of carbon that can be transported to the deep ocean by oceanic mechanisms; seaweed reaching the deep ocean sequester carbon and prevent it from exchanging with the atmosphere over millennia.[136] Growing seaweed offshore with the purpose of sinking the seaweed in the depths of the sea to sequester carbon is under research.[137] In addition, seaweed grows very fast and can theoretically be harvested and processed to generate biomethane, via anaerobic digestion to generate electricity, via cogeneration/CHP or as a replacement for natural gas. One study suggested that if seaweed farms covered 9% of the ocean they could produce enough biomethane to supply Earth's equivalent demand for fossil fuel energy, remove 53 gigatonnes of CO2 per year from the atmosphere and sustainably produce 200 kg per year of fish, per person, for 10 billion people.[138] Ideal species for such farming and conversion include Laminaria digitata, Fucus serratus and Saccharina latissima.[139]

 Ocean fertilisation [ edit ]

 This section is an excerpt from Ocean fertilization. [ edit ]

 Ocean fertilization or ocean nourishment is a type of technology for carbon dioxide removal from the ocean based on the purposeful introduction of plant nutrients to the upper ocean to increase marine food production and to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.[140][141] Ocean nutrient fertilization, for example iron fertilization, of the ocean could stimulate photosynthesis in phytoplankton. The phytoplankton would convert the ocean's dissolved carbon dioxide into carbohydrate and oxygen gas, some of which would sink into the deeper ocean before oxidizing. More than a dozen open-sea experiments confirmed that adding iron to the ocean increases photosynthesis in phytoplankton by up to 30 times.[142]

 This is one of the more well-researched carbon dioxide removal (CDR) approaches, however this approach would only sequester carbon on a timescale of 10-100 years dependent on ocean mixing times. While surface ocean acidity may decrease as a result of nutrient fertilization, when the sinking organic matter remineralizes, the deep ocean acidity will increase. A 2021 report on CDR indicates that there is medium-high confidence that the technique could be efficient and scalable at low cost, with medium environmental risks.[143] One of the key risks of nutrient fertilization is nutrient robbing, a process by which excess nutrients used in one location for enhanced primary productivity, as in a fertilization context, are then unavailable for normal productivity downstream. This could result in ecosystem impacts far outside the original site of fertilization.[143]

 A number of techniques, including fertilization by the micronutrient iron (called iron fertilization) or with nitrogen and phosphorus (both macronutrients), have been proposed. But research in the early 2020s suggested that it could only permanently sequester a small amount of carbon.[144] Therefore, there is no major future in its role to sequester carbon.

 Artificial upwelling [ edit ]

 Artificial upwelling or downwelling is an approach that would change the mixing layers of the ocean. Encouraging various ocean layers to mix can move nutrients and dissolved gases around, offering avenues for geoengineering.[145] Mixing may be achieved by placing large vertical pipes in the oceans to pump nutrient rich water to the surface, triggering blooms of algae, which store carbon when they grow and export carbon when they die.[145][146][147] This produces results somewhat similar to iron fertilization. One side-effect is a short-term rise in CO
 2, which limits its attractiveness.[148]

 Mixing layers involve transporting the denser and colder deep ocean water to the surface mixed layer. As the ocean temperature decreases with depth, more carbon dioxide and other compounds are able to dissolve in the deeper layers.[149] This can be induced by reversing the oceanic carbon cycle through the use of large vertical pipes serving as ocean pumps,[150] or a mixer array.[151] When the nutrient rich deep ocean water is moved to the surface, algae bloom occurs, resulting in a decrease in carbon dioxide due to carbon intake from phytoplankton and other photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. The transfer of heat between the layers will also cause seawater from the mixed layer to sink and absorb more carbon dioxide. This method has not gained much traction as algae bloom harms marine ecosystems by blocking sunlight and releasing harmful toxins into the ocean.[152] The sudden increase in carbon dioxide on the surface level will also temporarily decrease the pH of the seawater, impairing the growth of coral reefs. The production of carbonic acid through the dissolution of carbon dioxide in seawater hinders marine biogenic calcification and causes major disruptions to the oceanic food chain.[153]

 Basalt storage [ edit ]

 Carbon dioxide sequestration in basalt involves the injecting of CO
 2 into deep-sea formations. The CO
 2 first mixes with seawater and then reacts with the basalt, both of which are alkaline-rich elements. This reaction results in the release of Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ ions forming stable carbonate minerals.[154]

 Underwater basalt offers a good alternative to other forms of oceanic carbon storage because it has a number of trapping measures to ensure added protection against leakage. These measures include "geochemical, sediment, gravitational and hydrate formation." Because CO
 2 hydrate is denser than CO
 2 in seawater, the risk of leakage is minimal. Injecting the CO
 2 at depths greater than 2,700 meters (8,900 ft) ensures that the CO
 2 has a greater density than seawater, causing it to sink.[155]

 One possible injection site is Juan de Fuca plate. Researchers at the Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory found that this plate at the western coast of the United States has a possible storage capacity of 208 gigatons. This could cover the entire current U.S. carbon emissions for over 100 years.[155]

 This process is undergoing tests as part of the CarbFix project, resulting in 95% of the injected 250 tonnes of CO2 to solidify into calcite in two years, using 25 tonnes of water per tonne of CO2.[110][156]

 Mineralization and deep sea sediments [ edit ]

 See also: Pelagic sediment

 Similar to mineralization processes that take place within rocks, mineralization can also occur under the sea. The rate of dissolution of carbon dioxide from atmosphere to oceanic regions is determined by the circulation period of the ocean and buffering ability of subducting surface water.[157] Researchers have demonstrated that the carbon dioxide marine storage at several kilometers depth could be viable for up to 500 years, but is dependent on injection site and conditions. Several studies have shown that although it may fix carbon dioxide effectively, carbon dioxide may be released back to the atmosphere over time. However, this is unlikely for at least a few more centuries. The neutralization of CaCO3, or balancing the concentration of CaCO3 on the seafloor, land and in the ocean, can be measured on a timescale of thousands of years. More specifically, the predicted time is 1700 years for ocean and approximately 5000 to 6000 years for land.[158][159] Further, the dissolution time for CaCO3 can be improved by injecting near or downstream of the storage site.[160]

 In addition to carbon mineralization, another proposal is deep sea sediment injection. It injects liquid carbon dioxide at least 3000 m below the surface directly into ocean sediments to generate carbon dioxide hydrate. Two regions are defined for exploration: 1) the negative buoyancy zone (NBZ), which is the region between liquid carbon dioxide denser than surrounding water and where liquid carbon dioxide has neutral buoyancy, and 2) the hydrate formation zone (HFZ), which typically has low temperatures and high pressures. Several research models have shown that the optimal depth of injection requires consideration of intrinsic permeability and any changes in liquid carbon dioxide permeability for optimal storage. The formation of hydrates decreases liquid carbon dioxide permeability, and injection below HFZ is more energetically favored than within the HFZ. If the NBZ is a greater column of water than the HFZ, the injection should happen below the HFZ and directly to the NBZ. In this case, liquid carbon dioxide will sink to the NBZ and be stored below the buoyancy and hydrate cap. Carbon dioxide leakage can occur if there is dissolution into pore fluid or via molecular diffusion. However, this occurs over thousands of years.[160][161][162]

 Adding bases to neutralize acids [ edit ]

 Further information: Ocean acidification § Carbon removal technologies which add alkalinity

 Carbon dioxide forms carbonic acid when dissolved in water, so ocean acidification is a significant consequence of elevated carbon dioxide levels, and limits the rate at which it can be absorbed into the ocean (the solubility pump). A variety of different bases have been suggested that could neutralize the acid and thus increase CO
 2 absorption.[163][164][165][166][167] For example, adding crushed limestone to oceans enhances the absorption of carbon dioxide.[168] Another approach is to add sodium hydroxide to oceans which is produced by electrolysis of salt water or brine, while eliminating the waste hydrochloric acid by reaction with a volcanic silicate rock such as enstatite, effectively increasing the rate of natural weathering of these rocks to restore ocean pH.[169][170][171]

 Single-step carbon sequestration and storage [ edit ]

 Single-step carbon sequestration and storage is a saline water-based mineralization technology extracting carbon dioxide from seawater and storing it in the form of solid minerals.[172]

 Abandoned ideas [ edit ]

 Direct deep-sea carbon dioxide injection [ edit ]

 Main article: Direct deep-sea carbon dioxide injection

 It was once suggested that CO2 could be stored in the oceans by direct injection into the deep ocean and storing it there for some centuries. At the time, this proposal was called "ocean storage" but more precisely it was known as "direct deep-sea carbon dioxide injection". However, the interest in this avenue of carbon storage has much reduced since about 2001 because of concerns about the unknown impacts on marine life[173] : 279 , high costs and concerns about its stability or permanence.[6] The "IPCC Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage" in 2005 did include this technology as an option.[173] : 279 However, the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report in 2014 no longer mentioned the term "ocean storage" in its report on climate change mitigation methods.[174] The most recent IPCC Sixth Assessment Report in 2022 also no longer includes any mention of "ocean storage" in its "Carbon Dioxide Removal taxonomy".[175] : 12–37

 Cost [ edit ]

 Cost of the sequestration (not including capture and transport) varies but is below US$10 per tonne in some cases where onshore storage is available.[176] For example Carbfix cost is around US$25 per tonne of CO2.[177] A 2020 report estimated sequestration in forests (so including capture) at US$35 for small quantities to US$280 per tonne for 10% of the total required to keep to 1.5 C warming.[178] But there is risk of forest fires releasing the carbon.[179]

 Researchers have raised the concern that the use of carbon offsets – such as by maintaining forests, reforestation or carbon capture – as well as renewable energy certificates[180] allow polluting companies a business-as-usual approach to continue releasing greenhouse gases[181][182] and for being, inappropriately trusted, untried techno-fixes.[183] This also includes the 2022 IPCC report on climate change criticized for containing "a lot of pipe dreams", relying on large negative emissions technologies.[184] A review of studies by the Stanford Solutions Project concluded that relying on Carbon capture and storage/utilization (CCS/U) is a dangerous distraction, with it (in most and large-scale cases) being expensive, increasing air pollution and mining, inefficient and unlikely to be deployable at the scale required in time.[185]

 Transferring land rights to indigenous inhabitants is argued to efficiently conserve forests.

 Applications in climate change policies [ edit ]

 United States [ edit ]

 Further information: Climate change policy of the United States and Climate change in the United States § Mitigation

 Starting in the mid-late 2010s, many pieces of US climate and environment policy have sought to make use of the climate change mitigation potential of carbon sequestration. Many of these policies involve either conservation of carbon sink ecosystems, such as forests and wetlands, or encouraging agricultural and land use practices designed to increase carbon sequestration such as carbon farming or agroforestry, often through financial incentivization for farmers and landowners.

 The Executive Order on Tackling the Climate Crisis at Home and Abroad, signed by president Joe Biden on January 27, 2021, includes several mentions of carbon sequestration via conservation and restoration of carbon sink ecosystems, such as wetlands and forests. These include emphasizing the importance of farmers, landowners, and coastal communities in carbon sequestration, directing the Treasury Department to promote conservation of carbon sinks through market based mechanisms, and directing the Department of the Interior to collaborate with other agencies to create a Civilian Climate Corps to increase carbon sequestration in agriculture, among other things.[186]

 See also [ edit ]

 * Ecology portal
 * Global warming portal
 * Energy portal
 * Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage
 * Blue carbon
 * Carbon storage in the North Sea
 * Repurposing offshore drilling rigs for storing carbon

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 184. ^ "Climate change: IPCC scientists say it's 'now or never' to limit warming". BBC News. April 4, 2022 . Retrieved June 10, 2022 .
 185. ^ Project, Stanford Solutions (May 21, 2022). "Why not Carbon Capture?". Medium . Retrieved June 8, 2022 .
 186. ^ "Executive Order on Tackling the Climate Crisis at Home and Abroad". The White House. January 27, 2021. Archived from the original on February 17, 2021 . Retrieved April 28, 2021 .

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This article is about storing carbon for a long time so that it is not in the atmosphere. For removing carbon dioxide from point sources before it enters the atmosphere, see Carbon capture and storage. For removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, see Carbon dioxide removal.
     
 Carbon sequestration (or carbon storage) is the process of storing carbon (in particular atmospheric carbon dioxide) in a carbon pool. [2]  : 2248  The process acts like a carbon sink, meaning it removes a greenhouse gas, or a precursor of a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere. [2]  : 2923  Carbon sequestration is a naturally occurring process but it can also be enhanced or achieved with technology, for example within carbon capture and storage projects.
 Carbon dioxide (CO   2) is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological, chemical, and physical processes. [3]  These changes can be accelerated through changes in land use and agricultural practices, such as converting crop land into land for non-crop fast growing plants. [4]  Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects, [3]  including large-scale, artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced CO   2 using subsurface saline aquifers or aging oil fields. Other technologies that work with carbon sequestration include bio-energy with carbon capture and storage, biochar, enhanced weathering, direct air carbon capture and sequestration (DACCS).
 Forests, kelp beds, and other forms of plant life absorb carbon dioxide from the air as they grow, and bind it into biomass. However, these biological stores are considered volatile carbon sinks as the long-term sequestration cannot be guaranteed. For example, natural events, such as wildfires or disease, economic pressures and changing political priorities can result in the sequestered carbon being released back into the atmosphere. [5]  Carbon dioxide that has been removed from the atmosphere can also be stored in the Earth's crust by injecting it into the subsurface, or in the form of insoluble carbonate salts (mineral sequestration). These methods are considered non-volatile because they remove carbon from the atmosphere and sequester it indefinitely and presumably for a considerable duration (thousands to millions of years).
 To enhance carbon sequestration processes in oceans the following technologies have been proposed but none have achieved large scale application so far: Seaweed farming, ocean fertilisation, artificial upwelling, basalt storage, mineralization and deep sea sediments, adding bases to neutralize acids. The idea of direct deep-sea carbon dioxide injection has been abandoned. [6] 
Description[edit]
      Global proposed vs. implemented annual CO2 sequestration. More than 75% of proposed gas processing projects have been implemented, with corresponding figures for other industrial projects and power plant projects being about 60% and 10%, respectively. [7]    
Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO   2) [4]  and may refer specifically to:
 "The process of removing carbon from the atmosphere and depositing it in a reservoir." [8]  When carried out deliberately, this may also be referred to as carbon dioxide removal, which is a form of geoengineering.
 Carbon capture and storage, where carbon dioxide is removed from flue gases (e.g., at power stations) before being stored in underground reservoirs.
Natural biogeochemical cycling of carbon between the atmosphere and reservoirs, such as by chemical weathering of rocks. 
Carbon dioxide may be captured as a pure by-product in processes related to petroleum refining or from flue gases from power generation. [9]  CO   2 sequestration includes the storage part of carbon capture and storage, which refers to large-scale, artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced CO   2 using subsurface saline aquifers, reservoirs, ocean water, aging oil fields, or other carbon sinks.
 Carbon sequestration describes long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to either mitigate or defer global warming and avoid dangerous climate change. It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases, which are released by burning fossil fuels and industrial livestock production. [10] 
 Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological, chemical or physical processes. Some artificial sequestration techniques exploit these natural processes, [3]  while some use entirely artificial processes.
 There are three ways that this sequestration can be carried out: post-combustion capture, pre-combustion capture, and oxy-combustion. [11]  A wide variety of separation techniques are being pursued, including gas phase separation, absorption into a liquid, and adsorption on a solid, as well as hybrid processes, such as adsorption/membrane systems. [12]  These above processes basically capture carbon emitting from power plants, factories, fuel burning industries, and new generation livestock production facilities as they transition into restorative farming techniques to reduce carbon emissions. 
Role in climate change mitigation[edit]
In terms of carbon retention on forest land, it is better to avoid deforestation than to remove trees and subsequently reforest, as deforestation leads to irreversible effects e.g. biodiversity loss and soil degradation. [13]  Additionally, the effects of af- or reforestation will be farther in the future compared to keeping existing forests intact. [14]  It takes much longer − several decades − for reforested areas to return to the same carbon sequestration levels found in mature tropical forests. [15]  
 The global annual gross loss of trees is estimated to be approximately 15 billion and the global number of trees has decreased by ca 46% since the beginning of human civilization. [16] 
Biological processes on land[edit]
Land-use changes that enhance natural carbon capture have the potential to capture and store large amounts of carbon dioxide each year. These include the conservation, management, and restoration of ecosystems such as forests, peatlands, wetlands, and grasslands, in addition to carbon sequestration methods in agriculture. [17] 
Biosequestration[edit]
     
 Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by continual or enhanced biological processes. This form of carbon sequestration occurs through increased rates of photosynthesis via land-use practices such as reforestation and sustainable forest management. [18]   [19] 
Peatland[edit]
 Peat bogs act as a sink for carbon because they accumulate partially decayed biomass that would otherwise continue to decay completely. There is a variance on how much the peatlands act as a carbon sink or carbon source that can be linked to varying climates in different areas of the world and different times of the year. [20]  By creating new bogs, or enhancing existing ones, the amount of carbon that is sequestered by bogs would increase. [21] 
Forestry[edit]
 Afforestation is the establishment of a forest in an area where there was no previous tree cover. Proforestation is the practice of growing an existing forest intact toward its full ecological potential. [22]  Reforestation is the replanting of trees on marginal crop and pasture lands to incorporate carbon from atmospheric CO   2 into biomass. [23]   [24]  For this carbon sequestration process to succeed the carbon must not return to the atmosphere from mass burning or rotting when the trees die. [25]  To this end, land allotted to the trees must not be converted to other uses and management of the frequency of disturbances might be necessary in order to avoid extreme events. Alternatively, the wood from them must itself be sequestered, e.g., via biochar, bio-energy with carbon storage (BECS), landfill or 'stored' by use in construction. Short of growth in perpetuity, however, reforestation with long-lived trees (&gt;100 years) will sequester carbon for substantial periods and be released gradually, minimizing carbon's climate impact during the 21st century. Earth offers enough room to plant an additional 1.2 trillion trees. [16]  Planting and protecting them would offset some 10 years of CO2 emissions and sequester 205 billion tons of carbon. [26]  This approach is supported by the Trillion Tree Campaign. Restoring all degraded forests world-wide would capture about 205 billion tons of carbon in total, which is about two-thirds of all carbon emissions. [27]   [28]  
 During a 30-year period to 2050 if all new construction globally utilized 90% wood products, largely via adoption of mass timber in low rise construction, this could sequester 700 million net tons of carbon per year, [29]   [30]  thus negating approximately 2% of annual carbon emissions as of 2019. [31]  This is in addition to the elimination of carbon emissions from the displaced construction material such as steel or concrete, which are carbon-intense to produce.
Urban forestry[edit]
 Urban forestry increases the amount of carbon taken up in cities by adding new tree sites and the sequestration of carbon occurs over the lifetime of the tree. [32]  It is generally practiced and maintained on smaller scales, like in cities. The results of urban forestry can have different results depending on the type of vegetation that is being used, so it can function as a sink but can also function as a source of emissions. [33]  In hot areas of the world, trees have an important cooling effect through shade and transpiration. This can save on the need for air conditioning which in turn can reduce GHG emissions. [33] 
Wetlands[edit]
Wetland restoration involves restoring a wetland's natural biological, geological, and chemical functions through re-establishment or rehabilitation. [34]  It has also been proposed as a potential climate change mitigation strategy, with carbon sequestered this way being known as blue carbon. [35]  Wetland soil, particularly in coastal wetlands such as mangroves, sea grasses, and salt marshes, [35]  is an important carbon reservoir; 20–30% of the world's soil carbon is found in wetlands, while only 5–8% of the world's land is composed of wetlands. [36]  Studies have shown that restored wetlands can become productive CO2 sinks  [37]   [38]   [39]  and many restoration projects have been enacted in the US and around the world. [40]   [41]  Aside from climate benefits, wetland restoration and conservation can help preserve biodiversity, improve water quality, and aid with flood control. [42] 
 As with forests, for the sequestration process to succeed, the wetland must remain undisturbed. If it is disturbed somehow, the carbon stored in the plants and sediments will be released back into the atmosphere and the ecosystem will no longer function as a carbon sink. [43]  Additionally, some wetlands can release non-CO2 greenhouse gases, such as methane  [44]  and nitrous oxide  [45]  which could offset potential climate benefits. The amounts of carbon sequestered via blue carbon by wetlands can also be difficult to measure. [42] 
Agriculture[edit]
Compared to natural vegetation, cropland soils are depleted in soil organic carbon (SOC). When a soil is converted from natural land or semi-natural land, such as forests, woodlands, grasslands, steppes and savannas, the SOC content in the soil reduces by about 30–40%. [46]  This loss is due to the removal of plant material containing carbon, in terms of harvests. When the land use changes, the carbon in the soil will either increase or decrease, this change will continue until the soil reaches a new equilibrium. Deviations from this equilibrium can also be affected by variated climate. [47]  The decreasing of SOC content can be counteracted by increasing the carbon input. This can be done with several strategies, e.g. leave harvest residues on the field, use manure as fertiliser or include perennial crops in the rotation. Perennial crops have a larger below ground biomass fraction, which increases the SOC content. [46]  Perennial crops reduce the need for tillage and thus help mitigate soil erosion, and may help increase soil organic matter. Globally, soils are estimated to contain &gt;8,580 gigatons of organic carbon, about ten times the amount in the atmosphere and much more than in vegetation. [48]  Researchers have found that rising temperatures can lead to population booms in soil microbes, converting stored carbon into carbon dioxide. In laboratory experiments heating soil, fungi-rich soils released less carbon dioxide than other soils. [49] 
 Modification of agricultural practices is a recognized method of carbon sequestration as soil can act as an effective carbon sink offsetting as much as 20% of 2010 carbon dioxide emissions annually. [50]  (See No-till farming). Restoration of organic farming and earthworms may entirely offset CO2 annual carbon excess of 4 Gt per year and drawdown the residual atmospheric excess. [51]  (See Compost).
 Carbon emission reduction methods in agriculture can be grouped into two categories: reducing and/or displacing emissions and enhancing carbon removal from the atmosphere. Some of these reductions involve increasing the efficiency of farm operations (e.g. more fuel-efficient equipment) while some involve interruptions in the natural carbon cycle. Also, some effective techniques (such as the elimination of stubble burning  [52] ) can negatively impact other environmental concerns (increased herbicide use to control weeds not destroyed by burning).
 As enforcement of forest protection may not sufficiently address the drivers behind deforestation – the largest of which being the production of beef in the case of the Amazon rainforest  [53]  – it may also need policies. These could effectively ban and/or progressively discourage deforestation-associated trade via e.g. product information requirements, satellite monitoring like the Global Forest Watch, related eco-tariffs, and product certifications. [54]   [55]   [56] 
Carbon farming[edit]
 Carbon farming is a name for a variety of agricultural methods aimed at sequestering atmospheric carbon into the soil and in crop roots, wood and leaves. The aim of carbon farming is to increase the rate at which carbon is sequestered into soil and plant material with the goal of creating a net loss of carbon from the atmosphere. [57]  Increasing a soil's organic matter content can aid plant growth, increase total carbon content, improve soil water retention capacity [58]  and reduce fertilizer use. [59]  As of 2016, variants of carbon farming reached hundreds of millions of hectares globally, of the nearly 5 billion hectares (1.2×1010 acres) of world farmland. [60]  In addition to agricultural activities, forests management is also a tool that is used in carbon farming. [61]  The practice of carbon farming is often done by individual land owners who are given incentive to use and to integrate methods that will sequester carbon through policies created by governments. [62]  Carbon farming methods will typically have a cost, meaning farmers and land-owners need a way to profit from the use of carbon farming, thus requiring government programs. [62] 
 
Land management techniques that can be combined with farming include planting/restoring forests, burying biochar produced by anaerobically converted biomass and restoring wetlands (such as marshes and peatlands). [63]   
Bamboo farming[edit]
Although a bamboo forest stores less total carbon than a mature forest of trees, a bamboo plantation sequesters carbon at a much faster rate than a mature forest or a tree plantation. Therefore, the farming of bamboo timber may have significant carbon sequestration potential. [64] 
Deep soil[edit]
On a global basis it is estimated that soil contains about 2,500 gigatons of carbon. This is greater than 3-fold the carbon found in the atmosphere and 4-fold of that found in living plants and animals. [65]  About 70% of the global soil organic carbon in non-permafrost areas is found in the deeper soil within the upper 1 meter and stabilized by mineral-organic associations. [66] 
Reducing emissions[edit]
Increasing yields and efficiency generally reduces emissions as well, since more food results from the same or less effort. Techniques include more accurate use of fertilizers, less soil disturbance, better irrigation, and crop strains bred for locally beneficial traits and increased yields.[ citation needed ]
 Replacing more energy intensive farming operations can also reduce emissions. Reduced or no-till farming requires less machine use and burns correspondingly less fuel per acre. However, no-till usually increases use of weed-control chemicals and the residue now left on the soil surface is more likely to release its CO   2 to the atmosphere as it decays, reducing the net carbon reduction.[ citation needed ]
 In practice, most farming operations that incorporate post-harvest crop residues, wastes and byproducts back into the soil provide a carbon storage benefit.[ citation needed ] This is particularly the case for practices such as field burning of stubble – rather than releasing almost all of the stored CO   2 to the atmosphere, tillage incorporates the biomass back into the soil.[ citation needed ]
Enhancing carbon removal[edit]
All crops absorb CO   2 during growth and release it after harvest. The goal of agricultural carbon removal is to use the crop and its relation to the carbon cycle to permanently sequester carbon within the soil. This is done by selecting farming methods that return biomass to the soil and enhance the conditions in which the carbon within the plants will be reduced to its elemental nature and stored in a stable state. Methods for accomplishing this include:
 Use cover crops such as grasses and weeds as temporary cover between planting seasons
Concentrate livestock in small paddocks for days at a time so they graze lightly but evenly. This encourages roots to grow deeper into the soil. Stock also till the soil with their hooves, grinding old grass and manures into the soil. [67]  
Cover bare paddocks with hay or dead vegetation. This protects soil from the sun and allows the soil to hold more water and be more attractive to carbon-capturing microbes. [67]  
Restore degraded, marginal, and abandoned land, which slows carbon release while returning the land to agriculture or other use. [68]  Degraded land with low soil carbon pool have particularly high potential to store soil C which can be farther enhanced by proper selection of vegetation. [69]   [70]   
Agricultural sequestration practices may have positive effects on soil, air, and water quality, be beneficial to wildlife, and expand food production. On degraded croplands, an increase of 1 ton of soil carbon pool may increase crop yield by 20 to 40 kilograms per hectare of wheat, 10 to 20 kg/ ha for maize, and 0.5 to 1 kg/ha for cowpeas.[ citation needed ]
 The effects of soil sequestration can be reversed. If the soil is disrupted or intensive tillage practices are used, the soil becomes a net source of greenhouse gases. Typically after several decades of sequestration, soil becomes saturated and ceases to absorb carbon. This implies that there is a global limit to the amount of carbon that soil can hold. [71] 
 Many factors affect the costs of carbon sequestration including soil quality, transaction costs and various externalities such as leakage and unforeseen environmental damage. Because reduction of atmospheric CO   2 is a long-term concern, farmers can be reluctant to adopt more expensive agricultural techniques when there is not a clear crop, soil, or economic benefit. Governments such as Australia and New Zealand are considering allowing farmers to sell carbon credits once they document that they have sufficiently increased soil carbon content. [67]   [72]   [73]   [74]   [75]   [76] 
Geological processes and burial[edit]
     
Burial[edit]
Burying biomass (such as trees) [77]  directly, mimics the natural processes that created fossil fuels. [78] 
Biochar burial[edit]
 Biochar is charcoal created by pyrolysis of biomass waste. The resulting material is added to a landfill or used as a soil improver to create terra preta. [79]   [80]  Addition of pyrogenic organic carbon (biochar) is a novel strategy to increase the soil-C stock for the long-term and to mitigate global-warming by offsetting the atmospheric C (up to 9.5 Gigatons C annually). [81]  In the soil, the carbon is unavailable for oxidation to CO   2 and consequential atmospheric release. However concerns have been raised about biochar potentially accelerating release of the carbon already present in the soil. [82] .
Geological sequestration[edit]
Geological sequestration refers to the storage of CO2 underground in depleted oil and gas reservoirs, saline formations, or deep, un-minable coal beds.
 Once CO2 is captured from a point source, such as a cement factory, [83]  it would be compressed to ≈100 bar so that it would be a supercritical fluid. In this form, the CO2 would be easy to transport via pipeline to the place of storage. The CO2 would then be injected deep underground, typically around 1 km, where it would be stable for hundreds to millions of years. [6]  At these storage conditions, the density of supercritical CO2 is 600 to 800 kg / m3. [84] 
 The important parameters in determining a good site for carbon storage are: rock porosity, rock permeability, absence of faults, and geometry of rock layers. The medium in which the CO2 is to be stored ideally has a high porosity and permeability, such as sandstone or limestone. Sandstone can have a permeability ranging from 1 to 10−5 Darcy, and can have a porosity as high as ≈30%. The porous rock must be capped by a layer of low permeability which acts as a seal, or caprock, for the CO2. Shale is an example of a very good caprock, with a permeability of 10−5 to 10−9 Darcy. Once injected, the CO2 plume will rise via buoyant forces, since it is less dense than its surroundings. Once it encounters a caprock, it will spread laterally until it encounters a gap. If there are fault planes near the injection zone, there is a possibility the CO2 could migrate along the fault to the surface, leaking into the atmosphere, which would be potentially dangerous to life in the surrounding area. Another danger related to carbon sequestration is induced seismicity. If the injection of CO2 creates pressures that are too high underground, the formation will fracture, potentially causing an earthquake. [85] 
 While trapped in a rock formation, CO2 can be in the supercritical fluid phase or dissolve in groundwater/brine. It can also react with minerals in the geologic formation to precipitate carbonates. See CarbFix.
 Worldwide storage capacity in oil and gas reservoirs is estimated to be 675–900 Gt CO2, and in un-minable coal seams is estimated to be 15–200 Gt CO2. Deep saline formations have the largest capacity, which is estimated to be 1,000–10,000 Gt CO2. [84]  In the US, there is estimated to be at least 2,600 Gt and at most 22,000 Gt total CO2 storage capacity. [86] 
 There are a number of large-scale carbon capture and sequestration projects that have demonstrated the viability and safety of this method of carbon storage, which are summarized here  [87]  by the Global CCS Institute. The dominant monitoring technique is seismic imaging, where vibrations are generated that propagate through the subsurface. The geologic structure can be imaged from the refracted/reflected waves. [85] 
 The first large-scale CO   2 sequestration project which began in 1996 is called Sleipner, and is located in the North Sea where Norway's StatoilHydro strips carbon dioxide from natural gas with amine solvents and disposed of this carbon dioxide in a deep saline aquifer. In 2000, a coal-fueled synthetic natural gas plant in Beulah, North Dakota, became the world's first coal-using plant to capture and store carbon dioxide, at the Weyburn-Midale Carbon Dioxide Project. [88]  [ needs update ] Several other sequestration projects have followed. The Energy Impact Center launched the OPEN100 project in February 2020, which is the world's first open-source blueprint for the design, construction and financing of a small, standard, pressurized water reactor. [89]  In September 2020, the US Department of Energy awarded $72 million in federal funding to support the development and advancement of carbon capture technologies. [90] 
 CO   2 has been used extensively in enhanced crude oil recovery operations in the United States beginning in 1972. [10]  There are in excess of 10,000 wells that inject CO   2 in the state of Texas alone. The gas comes in part from anthropogenic sources, but is principally from large naturally occurring geologic formations of CO   2. It is transported to the oil-producing fields through a large network of over 5,000 kilometres (3,100 mi) of CO   2 pipelines. The use of CO   2 for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) methods in heavy oil reservoirs in the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin (WCSB) has also been proposed. [91]  However, transport cost remains an important hurdle. An extensive CO   2 pipeline system does not yet exist in the WCSB. Athabasca oil sands mining that produces CO   2 is hundreds of kilometers north of the subsurface Heavy crude oil reservoirs that could most benefit from CO   2 injection.
Mineral sequestration[edit]
Mineral sequestration aims to trap carbon in the form of solid carbonate salts. This process occurs slowly in nature and is responsible for the deposition and accumulation of limestone over geologic time. Carbonic acid in groundwater slowly reacts with complex silicates to dissolve calcium, magnesium, alkalis and silica and leave a residue of clay minerals. The dissolved calcium and magnesium react with bicarbonate to precipitate calcium and magnesium carbonates, a process that organisms use to make shells. When the organisms die, their shells are deposited as sediment and eventually turn into limestone. Limestones have accumulated over billions of years of geologic time and contain much of Earth's carbon. Ongoing research aims to speed up similar reactions involving alkali carbonates. [92] 
 Several serpentinite deposits are being investigated as potentially large scale CO2 storage sinks such as those found in NSW, Australia, where the first mineral carbonation pilot plant project is underway. [93]  Beneficial re-use of magnesium carbonate from this process could provide feedstock for new products developed for the built environment and agriculture without returning the carbon into the atmosphere and so acting as a carbon sink. [94] 
 One proposed reaction is that of the olivine-rich rock dunite, or its hydrated equivalent serpentinite with carbon dioxide to form the carbonate mineral magnesite, plus silica and iron oxide (magnetite).
 Serpentinite sequestration is favored because of the non-toxic and stable nature of magnesium carbonate. The ideal reactions involve the magnesium endmember components of the olivine (reaction 1) or serpentine (reaction 2), the latter derived from earlier olivine by hydration and silicification (reaction 3). The presence of iron in the olivine or serpentine reduces the efficiency of sequestration, since the iron components of these minerals break down to iron oxide and silica (reaction 4).
Zeolitic imidazolate frameworks[edit]
Zeolitic imidazolate frameworks is a metal-organic framework carbon dioxide sink which could be used to keep industrial emissions of carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere. [95] 
Chemical processes[edit]
Developed in the Netherlands, an electrocatalysis by a copper complex helps reduce carbon dioxide to oxalic acid; [96]  This conversion uses carbon dioxide as a feedstock to generate oxalic acid.
Mineral carbonation[edit]
        This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (June 2019)     
CO2 exothermically reacts with metal oxides, producing stable carbonates (e.g. calcite, magnesite). This process (CO2-to-stone) occurs naturally over periods of years and is responsible for much surface limestone. Olivine is one such metal oxide. [97]  [ self-published source? ] Rocks rich in metal oxides that react with CO2, such as MgO and CaO as contained in basalts, have been proven as a viable means to achieve carbon-dioxide mineral storage. [98]   [99]  The reaction rate can in principle be accelerated with a catalyst  [100]  or by increasing temperatures[ dubious – discuss ] and/or pressures, or by mineral pre-treatment, although this method can require additional energy. The IPCC estimates that a power plant equipped with CCS using mineral storage would need 60–180% more energy than one without. [101]  Theoretically, up to 22% of crustal mineral mass is able to form carbonates.[ citation needed ]
Selected metal oxides of Earth's crust
 
Earthen oxide
Percent of crust
Carbonate
 Enthalpy change (kJ/mol)
 
 CaO
4.90
 CaCO3 
−179
 
 MgO
4.36
 MgCO3 
−118
 
 Na2O
3.55
 Na2CO3 
−322
 
 FeO
3.52
 FeCO3 
−85
 
 K2O
2.80
 K2CO3 
−393.5
 
 Fe2O3 
2.63
 FeCO3 
112
 
All oxides
21.76
All carbonates
   
 Ultramafic mine tailings are a readily available source of fine-grained metal oxides that could serve this purpose. [102]  Accelerating passive CO2 sequestration via mineral carbonation may be achieved through microbial processes that enhance mineral dissolution and carbonate precipitation. [103]   [104]   [105] 
 Carbon, in the form of CO   2 can be removed from the atmosphere by chemical processes, and stored in stable carbonate mineral forms. This process (CO   2-to-stone) is known as "carbon sequestration by mineral carbonation" or mineral sequestration. The process involves reacting carbon dioxide with abundantly available metal oxides – either magnesium oxide (MgO) or calcium oxide (CaO) – to form stable carbonates. These reactions are exothermic and occur naturally (e.g., the weathering of rock over geologic time periods). [106]   [107] 
 CaO + CO   2 → CaCO   3  
 MgO + CO   2 → MgCO   3  
Calcium and magnesium are found in nature typically as calcium and magnesium silicates (such as forsterite and serpentinite) and not as binary oxides. For forsterite and serpentine the reactions are:
 Mg   2SiO   4 + 2 CO   2 → 2 MgCO   3 + SiO   2  
 Mg   3Si   2O   5(OH)   4+ 3 CO   2 → 3 MgCO   3 + 2 SiO   2 + 2 H   2O 
 
These reactions are slightly more favorable at low temperatures. [106]  This process occurs naturally over geologic time frames and is responsible for much of the Earth's surface limestone. The reaction rate can be made faster however, by reacting at higher temperatures and/or pressures, although this method requires some additional energy. Alternatively, the mineral could be milled to increase its surface area, and exposed to water and constant abrasion to remove the inert Silica as could be achieved naturally by dumping Olivine in the high energy surf of beaches. [108]  Experiments suggest the weathering process is reasonably quick (one year) given porous basaltic rocks. [109]   [110]  
 CO   2 naturally reacts with peridotite rock in surface exposures of ophiolites, notably in Oman. It has been suggested that this process can be enhanced to carry out natural mineralisation of CO   2. [111]   [112] 
 When CO   2 is dissolved in water and injected into hot basaltic rocks underground it has been shown that the CO   2 reacts with the basalt to form solid carbonate minerals. [113]  A test plant in Iceland started up in October 2017, extracting up to 50 tons of CO2 a year from the atmosphere and storing it underground in basaltic rock. [114] 
 Researchers from British Columbia, developed a low cost process for the production of magnesite, also known as magnesium carbonate, which can sequester CO2 from the air, or at the point of air pollution, e.g. at a power plant. The crystals are naturally occurring, but accumulation is usually very slow. [115] 
 Concrete is a promising destination of captured carbon dioxide. Several advantages that concrete offers include, but not limited to: a source of plenty of calcium due to its substantial production all over the world; a thermodynamically stable condition for carbon dioxide to be stored as calcium carbonates; and its long-term capability of storing carbon dioxide as a material widely used in infrastructure. [116]   [117]  Demolished concrete waste or recycled concrete could be also used aside from newly produced concrete. [118]  Studies at HeidelbergCement show that carbon sequestration can turn those demolished and recycled concrete into a supplementary cementitious material, which acts as a secondary binder in tandem with Portland cement, for a new butch of concrete production. [119]   [120] 
Electrochemistry[edit]
Another method uses a liquid metal catalyst and an electrolyte liquid into which CO2 is dissolved. The CO2 then converts into solid flakes of carbon. This method is done at room temperature. [121]   [122]   [123]  In 2022, the team updated its work to operate at a lower temperature, and operate more quickly and with fewer steps. [124] 
Industrial use[edit]
Traditional cement manufacture releases large amounts of carbon dioxide, but newly developed cement types from Novacem [125]  can absorb CO   2 from ambient air during hardening. [126]  A similar technique was pioneered by TecEco, which has been producing "EcoCement" since 2002. [127]  Canadian startup CarbonCure Technologies takes captured CO2 and injects it into concrete as it is being mixed. [128]  Carbon Upcycling UCLA is another company that uses CO   2 in concrete. Their concrete product is called CO2NCRETE, a concrete that hardens faster and is more eco-friendly than traditional concrete. [129] 
 In Estonia, oil shale ash, generated by power stations could be used as sorbents for CO   2 mineral sequestration. The amount of CO   2 captured averaged 60 to 65% of the carbonaceous CO   2 and 10 to 11% of the total CO   2 emissions. [130] 
Chemical scrubbers[edit]
Various carbon dioxide scrubbing processes have been proposed to remove CO   2 from the air, usually using a variant of the Kraft process. Carbon dioxide scrubbing variants exist based on potassium carbonate, which can be used to create liquid fuels, or on sodium hydroxide. [131]   [132]   [133]  These notably include artificial trees proposed by Klaus Lackner to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere using chemical scrubbers. [134]   [135] 
Sequestration techniques in oceans[edit]
Seaweed farming[edit]
 Seaweed grow in shallow and coastal areas, and capture significant amounts of carbon that can be transported to the deep ocean by oceanic mechanisms; seaweed reaching the deep ocean sequester carbon and prevent it from exchanging with the atmosphere over millennia. [136]  Growing seaweed offshore with the purpose of sinking the seaweed in the depths of the sea to sequester carbon is under research. [137]  In addition, seaweed grows very fast and can theoretically be harvested and processed to generate biomethane, via anaerobic digestion to generate electricity, via cogeneration/CHP or as a replacement for natural gas. One study suggested that if seaweed farms covered 9% of the ocean they could produce enough biomethane to supply Earth's equivalent demand for fossil fuel energy, remove 53 gigatonnes of CO2  per year from the atmosphere and sustainably produce 200 kg per year of fish, per person, for 10 billion people. [138]  Ideal species for such farming and conversion include  Laminaria digitata ,  Fucus serratus  and  Saccharina latissima . [139] 
Ocean fertilisation[edit]
 Ocean fertilization or ocean nourishment is a type of technology for carbon dioxide removal from the ocean based on the purposeful introduction of plant nutrients to the upper ocean to increase marine food production and to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. [140]   [141]  Ocean nutrient fertilization, for example iron fertilization, of the ocean could stimulate photosynthesis in phytoplankton. The phytoplankton would convert the ocean's dissolved carbon dioxide into carbohydrate and oxygen gas, some of which would sink into the deeper ocean before oxidizing. More than a dozen open-sea experiments confirmed that adding iron to the ocean increases photosynthesis in phytoplankton by up to 30 times. [142]  
 This is one of the more well-researched carbon dioxide removal (CDR) approaches, however this approach would only sequester carbon on a timescale of 10-100 years dependent on ocean mixing times. While surface ocean acidity may decrease as a result of nutrient fertilization, when the sinking organic matter remineralizes, the deep ocean acidity will increase. A 2021 report on CDR indicates that there is medium-high confidence that the technique could be efficient and scalable at low cost, with medium environmental risks. [143]  One of the key risks of nutrient fertilization is nutrient robbing, a process by which excess nutrients used in one location for enhanced primary productivity, as in a fertilization context, are then unavailable for normal productivity downstream. This could result in ecosystem impacts far outside the original site of fertilization. [143]  
 
A number of techniques, including fertilization by the micronutrient iron (called iron fertilization) or with nitrogen and phosphorus (both macronutrients), have been proposed. But research in the early 2020s suggested that it could only permanently sequester a small amount of carbon. [144]  Therefore, there is no major future in its role to sequester carbon. 
Artificial upwelling[edit]
Artificial upwelling or downwelling is an approach that would change the mixing layers of the ocean. Encouraging various ocean layers to mix can move nutrients and dissolved gases around, offering avenues for geoengineering. [145]  Mixing may be achieved by placing large vertical pipes in the oceans to pump nutrient rich water to the surface, triggering blooms of algae, which store carbon when they grow and export carbon when they die. [145]   [146]   [147]  This produces results somewhat similar to iron fertilization. One side-effect is a short-term rise in CO   2, which limits its attractiveness. [148] 
 Mixing layers involve transporting the denser and colder deep ocean water to the surface mixed layer. As the ocean temperature decreases with depth, more carbon dioxide and other compounds are able to dissolve in the deeper layers. [149]  This can be induced by reversing the oceanic carbon cycle through the use of large vertical pipes serving as ocean pumps, [150]  or a mixer array. [151]  When the nutrient rich deep ocean water is moved to the surface, algae bloom occurs, resulting in a decrease in carbon dioxide due to carbon intake from phytoplankton and other photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. The transfer of heat between the layers will also cause seawater from the mixed layer to sink and absorb more carbon dioxide. This method has not gained much traction as algae bloom harms marine ecosystems by blocking sunlight and releasing harmful toxins into the ocean. [152]  The sudden increase in carbon dioxide on the surface level will also temporarily decrease the pH of the seawater, impairing the growth of coral reefs. The production of carbonic acid through the dissolution of carbon dioxide in seawater hinders marine biogenic calcification and causes major disruptions to the oceanic food chain. [153] 
Basalt storage[edit]
Carbon dioxide sequestration in basalt involves the injecting of CO   2 into deep-sea formations. The CO   2 first mixes with seawater and then reacts with the basalt, both of which are alkaline-rich elements. This reaction results in the release of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions forming stable carbonate minerals. [154] 
 Underwater basalt offers a good alternative to other forms of oceanic carbon storage because it has a number of trapping measures to ensure added protection against leakage. These measures include "geochemical, sediment, gravitational and hydrate formation." Because CO   2 hydrate is denser than CO   2 in seawater, the risk of leakage is minimal. Injecting the CO   2 at depths greater than 2,700 meters (8,900 ft) ensures that the CO   2 has a greater density than seawater, causing it to sink. [155] 
 One possible injection site is Juan de Fuca plate. Researchers at the Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory found that this plate at the western coast of the United States has a possible storage capacity of 208 gigatons. This could cover the entire current U.S. carbon emissions for over 100 years. [155] 
 This process is undergoing tests as part of the CarbFix project, resulting in 95% of the injected 250 tonnes of CO2 to solidify into calcite in two years, using 25 tonnes of water per tonne of CO2. [110]   [156] 
Mineralization and deep sea sediments[edit]
Similar to mineralization processes that take place within rocks, mineralization can also occur under the sea. The rate of dissolution of carbon dioxide from atmosphere to oceanic regions is determined by the circulation period of the ocean and buffering ability of subducting surface water. [157]  Researchers have demonstrated that the carbon dioxide marine storage at several kilometers depth could be viable for up to 500 years, but is dependent on injection site and conditions. Several studies have shown that although it may fix carbon dioxide effectively, carbon dioxide may be released back to the atmosphere over time. However, this is unlikely for at least a few more centuries. The neutralization of CaCO3 , or balancing the concentration of CaCO3 on the seafloor, land and in the ocean, can be measured on a timescale of thousands of years. More specifically, the predicted time is 1700 years for ocean and approximately 5000 to 6000 years for land. [158]   [159]  Further, the dissolution time for CaCO3 can be improved by injecting near or downstream of the storage site. [160] 
 In addition to carbon mineralization, another proposal is deep sea sediment injection. It injects liquid carbon dioxide at least 3000 m below the surface directly into ocean sediments to generate carbon dioxide hydrate. Two regions are defined for exploration: 1) the negative buoyancy zone (NBZ), which is the region between liquid carbon dioxide denser than surrounding water and where liquid carbon dioxide has neutral buoyancy, and 2) the hydrate formation zone (HFZ), which typically has low temperatures and high pressures. Several research models have shown that the optimal depth of injection requires consideration of intrinsic permeability and any changes in liquid carbon dioxide permeability for optimal storage. The formation of hydrates decreases liquid carbon dioxide permeability, and injection below HFZ is more energetically favored than within the HFZ. If the NBZ is a greater column of water than the HFZ, the injection should happen below the HFZ and directly to the NBZ. In this case, liquid carbon dioxide will sink to the NBZ and be stored below the buoyancy and hydrate cap. Carbon dioxide leakage can occur if there is dissolution into pore fluid or via molecular diffusion. However, this occurs over thousands of years. [160]   [161]   [162] 
Adding bases to neutralize acids[edit]
Carbon dioxide forms carbonic acid when dissolved in water, so ocean acidification is a significant consequence of elevated carbon dioxide levels, and limits the rate at which it can be absorbed into the ocean (the solubility pump). A variety of different bases have been suggested that could neutralize the acid and thus increase CO   2 absorption. [163]   [164]   [165]   [166]   [167]  For example, adding crushed limestone to oceans enhances the absorption of carbon dioxide. [168]  Another approach is to add sodium hydroxide to oceans which is produced by electrolysis of salt water or brine, while eliminating the waste hydrochloric acid by reaction with a volcanic silicate rock such as enstatite, effectively increasing the rate of natural weathering of these rocks to restore ocean pH. [169]   [170]   [171] 
Single-step carbon sequestration and storage[edit]
Single-step carbon sequestration and storage is a saline water-based mineralization technology extracting carbon dioxide from seawater and storing it in the form of solid minerals. [172] 
Abandoned ideas[edit]
Direct deep-sea carbon dioxide injection[edit]
It was once suggested that CO2 could be stored in the oceans by direct injection into the deep ocean and storing it there for some centuries. At the time, this proposal was called "ocean storage" but more precisely it was known as "direct deep-sea carbon dioxide injection". However, the interest in this avenue of carbon storage has much reduced since about 2001 because of concerns about the unknown impacts on marine life  [173]   : 279  , high costs and concerns about its stability or permanence. [6]  The "IPCC Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage" in 2005 did include this technology as an option. [173]   : 279   However, the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report in 2014 no longer mentioned the term "ocean storage" in its report on climate change mitigation methods. [174]  The most recent IPCC Sixth Assessment Report in 2022 also no longer includes any mention of "ocean storage" in its "Carbon Dioxide Removal taxonomy". [175]  : 12–37 
Cost[edit]
Cost of the sequestration (not including capture and transport) varies but is below US$10 per tonne in some cases where onshore storage is available. [176]  For example Carbfix cost is around US$25 per tonne of CO2. [177]  A 2020 report estimated sequestration in forests (so including capture) at US$35 for small quantities to US$280 per tonne for 10% of the total required to keep to 1.5 C warming. [178]  But there is risk of forest fires releasing the carbon. [179] 
 
Researchers have raised the concern that the use of carbon offsets – such as by maintaining forests, reforestation or carbon capture – as well as renewable energy certificates [180]  allow polluting companies a business-as-usual approach to continue releasing greenhouse gases [181]   [182]  and for being, inappropriately trusted, untried techno-fixes. [183]  This also includes the 2022 IPCC report on climate change criticized for containing "a lot of pipe dreams", relying on large negative emissions technologies. [184]  A review of studies by the Stanford Solutions Project concluded that relying on Carbon capture and storage/utilization (CCS/U) is a dangerous distraction, with it (in most and large-scale cases) being expensive, increasing air pollution and mining, inefficient and unlikely to be deployable at the scale required in time. [185]         Transferring land rights to indigenous inhabitants is argued to efficiently conserve forests.  
Applications in climate change policies[edit]
United States[edit]
Starting in the mid-late 2010s, many pieces of US climate and environment policy have sought to make use of the climate change mitigation potential of carbon sequestration. Many of these policies involve either conservation of carbon sink ecosystems, such as forests and wetlands, or encouraging agricultural and land use practices designed to increase carbon sequestration such as carbon farming or agroforestry, often through financial incentivization for farmers and landowners.
 The Executive Order on Tackling the Climate Crisis at Home and Abroad, signed by president Joe Biden on January 27, 2021, includes several mentions of carbon sequestration via conservation and restoration of carbon sink ecosystems, such as wetlands and forests. These include emphasizing the importance of farmers, landowners, and coastal communities in carbon sequestration, directing the Treasury Department to promote conservation of carbon sinks through market based mechanisms, and directing the Department of the Interior to collaborate with other agencies to create a Civilian Climate Corps to increase carbon sequestration in agriculture, among other things. [186] 
See also[edit]
  Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage 
 Blue carbon 
 Carbon storage in the North Sea 
 Repurposing offshore drilling rigs for storing carbon  
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External links[edit]
  Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum International carbon capture and storage initiative.
 UK Carbon Capture and Storage Consortium Overview of the UK academic consortium focused on researching issues related to Carbon Capture and Storage.
 Carbon Capture &amp; Sequestration Technologies MIT program covers carbon capture and storage (CCS)
Carbon sequestration - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_sequestration
https://techcrunch.com/2022/05/14/can-carbon-capture-startup-carbon-clean-deliver-on-its-cost-claims/
Can carbon capture startup Carbon Clean deliver on its cost claims?
2022-05-14
Tim De Chant
<div><div>
<p>Startup Carbon Clean <a href="https://techcrunch.com/2022/05/11/my-competition-is-climate-change-carbon-clean-raises-150m-led-by-chevron/">announced</a> earlier this week that it raised $150 million in a Series C that provides it with a sizable war chest to continue the development of its modular carbon capture system.</p>
<p><em>Update: This article has been updated to reflect which industries Carbon Cure’s cost forecasts include.</em></p>
<p>Carbon Clean has won its share of admirers, most recently Chevron, which led the round, and BloombergNEF, which <a href="https://about.bnef.com/bnefpioneers/">named</a> it a BNEF Pioneer last month in part because of the startup’s small-scale approach to carbon capture and sequestration (CCS).</p>
<p>Typically, the technology is a large-scale affair. After all, the world needs to eliminate emissions on a vast scale, and the technology benefits from a certain amount of scale. That’s why CCS is usually envisioned attached to massive coal- or gas-fired power plants.</p>
<p>But there are still many smaller sites, from cement kilns to chemical plants, that are currently wedded to fossil fuels but still need to be decarbonized. These are the sorts of companies that Carbon Clean pitches itself to, and the startup says that its modular approach can help polluters deal with their carbon emissions incrementally as regulations ratchet up.</p>
<p>Fundamentally, Carbon Clean relies on a tried-and-true process to strip carbon dioxide from exhaust streams. Exhaust containing carbon dioxide is sent through a filter that is wetted with an amine-based solvent. At lower temperatures (around 50 degrees Celsius, or 122 degrees Fahrenheit), carbon dioxide will bind to the amines. The CO<sub>2</sub>-laden solvent is then pumped to another container, where it’s heated to 110 to 120 degrees C (230 to 248 degrees F) to release the gas, which is then compressed and sent elsewhere to be used or stored. Each company has its own amine solvent with different properties, and the details of the process may vary, but that’s the gist of it.</p>
<p>Carbon Clean CEO Aniruddha Sharma said his company’s amine solvents can reduce costs compared with a commonly used amine by requiring less energy to heat and by reducing corrosion in the system. Until the company releases more data, such claims will be hard to judge. But based on the <a href="https://patents.google.com/patent/EP2618914A1/en">general type of amine it’s using</a>, Carbon Clean is likely to see <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40789-016-0149-7">at least a small improvement</a> in energy use.</p>
<p>Sharma said that by coupling the proprietary amine solvent with mass-produced modular units, his company can bring carbon capture costs down to $30 per metric ton by 2025. (<strong>Update:</strong> Carbon Clean confirmed for TechCrunch that that figure would be an average across all industries and that it was derived by “a cost analysis undertaken by an independent third party.”) If that’s an average across all industries the company is targeting, it would be an impressive achievement. (Carbon Clean wouldn’t confirm.) CCS costs <a href="https://www.belfercenter.org/publication/carbon-capture-utilization-and-storage-technologies-and-costs-us-context">vary widely</a>, but in many cases, they’re higher: Steel mills, for example, may capture carbon anywhere between $8 and $133 per metric ton, ammonia plants might do it at $22 to $32 per metric ton and cement kilns between $19 and $205 per metric ton.</p>
<p>The U.S. government provides tax credits for CCS, which today are $24 or $36 per metric ton, respectively depending on whether it’s used to make oil fields more productive or simply stored below ground. By 2026, those numbers will rise to $35 and $50 per metric ton — and even higher if pending legislation is passed. If Carbon Clean can deliver on its promises, then CCS would no longer cost companies money, but become a potential profit center.</p>
<p>Based on data released by Carbon Clean, its carbon capture costs aren’t bad, but they’re also not below the norm. “[C]ommercial references such as Tuticorin Alkali Chemicals and Fertilizers Limited (TFL) have proven commercially viable operations with a consistent cost of $40 per metric tonne of CO<sub>2</sub> captured,” the company said on its website, a figure that Sharma confirmed for TechCrunch. That’s a decent number, but not quite a breakthrough — <a href="https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/levelised-cost-of-co2-capture-by-sector-and-initial-co2-concentration-2019">according to</a> the International Energy Agency, fertilizer plants were capturing carbon dioxide at a cost of $25 to $35 per metric ton in 2019.</p>
<p>Of course, that figure may drop as the company begins to mass produce its modular CCS equipment. Carbon Clean’s CycloneCC units can fit in the space of a shipping container, making transportation and installation relatively easy. Sharma also said that the rotating discs at the heart of Carbon Clean’s units have “exactly the same amount of power and efficiency as 35 meter tall towers” used at Petra Nova, what was once the world’s largest commercial CCS facility.</p>
<p>Many CCS installations like Petra Nova are large, bespoke efforts, which are, of course, expensive. Yet that same scale can also bring down the cost per metric ton. For example, a big installation only needs one sizable pipe to transport the CO<sub>2</sub> for use or storage, which is cheaper than building dozens of small ones or operating a fleet of trucks. In other words, what might be lost due to a lack of modularity can probably be offset by other economies of scale.</p>
<p>Carbon Clean appears to be occupying the other side of that equation. Its customers will have to figure out what to do with the carbon once captured, but they’ll at least benefit from efficiencies wrought by mass production. Whether Carbon Clean can hit its $30 per metric ton target across a range of diverse industries remains to be seen. Yet even if it doesn’t, the company may still have an opening.</p>
<p>“Most of my customers, if you go to our cement site or industrial site or a chemical plant and you say, ‘Who’s your decarbonization team?’ They say, ‘Well, [our] energy efficiency manager,'” Sharma said. “OK, so you’ve got one guy responsible for selecting the strategy, selecting the technology, selecting the [engineering, procurement and construction company], building it and ensuring someone who works with the board to raise the finance then operating it as well liaising with the government? Not going to happen.”</p>
<p>Part of Carbon Clean’s pitch is its simplicity, Sharma said. “We’ll bring the technology, we have partnerships with [engineering, procurement and construction companies] … and then we will operate it over a period of time.”</p>
<p>If regulators start to pressure smaller operations to reduce their carbon emissions, then a set-it-and-forget-it approach may find buyers, even if it’s at a slightly higher price.</p>
</div></div>||||I|||| Can carbon capture startup Carbon Clean deliver on its cost claims?

 Tim De Chant 2 years

 Startup Carbon Clean announced earlier this week that it raised $150 million in a Series C that provides it with a sizable war chest to continue the development of its modular carbon capture system.

 Update: This article has been updated to reflect which industries Carbon Cure’s cost forecasts include.

 Carbon Clean has won its share of admirers, most recently Chevron, which led the round, and BloombergNEF, which named it a BNEF Pioneer last month in part because of the startup’s small-scale approach to carbon capture and sequestration (CCS).

 Typically, the technology is a large-scale affair. After all, the world needs to eliminate emissions on a vast scale, and the technology benefits from a certain amount of scale. That’s why CCS is usually envisioned attached to massive coal- or gas-fired power plants.

 But there are still many smaller sites, from cement kilns to chemical plants, that are currently wedded to fossil fuels but still need to be decarbonized. These are the sorts of companies that Carbon Clean pitches itself to, and the startup says that its modular approach can help polluters deal with their carbon emissions incrementally as regulations ratchet up.

 Fundamentally, Carbon Clean relies on a tried-and-true process to strip carbon dioxide from exhaust streams. Exhaust containing carbon dioxide is sent through a filter that is wetted with an amine-based solvent. At lower temperatures (around 50 degrees Celsius, or 122 degrees Fahrenheit), carbon dioxide will bind to the amines. The CO2-laden solvent is then pumped to another container, where it’s heated to 110 to 120 degrees C (230 to 248 degrees F) to release the gas, which is then compressed and sent elsewhere to be used or stored. Each company has its own amine solvent with different properties, and the details of the process may vary, but that’s the gist of it.

 Carbon Clean CEO Aniruddha Sharma said his company’s amine solvents can reduce costs compared with a commonly used amine by requiring less energy to heat and by reducing corrosion in the system. Until the company releases more data, such claims will be hard to judge. But based on the general type of amine it’s using, Carbon Clean is likely to see at least a small improvement in energy use.

 Sharma said that by coupling the proprietary amine solvent with mass-produced modular units, his company can bring carbon capture costs down to $30 per metric ton by 2025. (Update: Carbon Clean confirmed for TechCrunch that that figure would be an average across all industries and that it was derived by “a cost analysis undertaken by an independent third party.”) If that’s an average across all industries the company is targeting, it would be an impressive achievement. (Carbon Clean wouldn’t confirm.) CCS costs vary widely, but in many cases, they’re higher: Steel mills, for example, may capture carbon anywhere between $8 and $133 per metric ton, ammonia plants might do it at $22 to $32 per metric ton and cement kilns between $19 and $205 per metric ton.

 The U.S. government provides tax credits for CCS, which today are $24 or $36 per metric ton, respectively depending on whether it’s used to make oil fields more productive or simply stored below ground. By 2026, those numbers will rise to $35 and $50 per metric ton — and even higher if pending legislation is passed. If Carbon Clean can deliver on its promises, then CCS would no longer cost companies money, but become a potential profit center.

 Based on data released by Carbon Clean, its carbon capture costs aren’t bad, but they’re also not below the norm. “[C]ommercial references such as Tuticorin Alkali Chemicals and Fertilizers Limited (TFL) have proven commercially viable operations with a consistent cost of $40 per metric tonne of CO2 captured,” the company said on its website, a figure that Sharma confirmed for TechCrunch. That’s a decent number, but not quite a breakthrough — according to the International Energy Agency, fertilizer plants were capturing carbon dioxide at a cost of $25 to $35 per metric ton in 2019.

 Of course, that figure may drop as the company begins to mass produce its modular CCS equipment. Carbon Clean’s CycloneCC units can fit in the space of a shipping container, making transportation and installation relatively easy. Sharma also said that the rotating discs at the heart of Carbon Clean’s units have “exactly the same amount of power and efficiency as 35 meter tall towers” used at Petra Nova, what was once the world’s largest commercial CCS facility.

 Many CCS installations like Petra Nova are large, bespoke efforts, which are, of course, expensive. Yet that same scale can also bring down the cost per metric ton. For example, a big installation only needs one sizable pipe to transport the CO2 for use or storage, which is cheaper than building dozens of small ones or operating a fleet of trucks. In other words, what might be lost due to a lack of modularity can probably be offset by other economies of scale.

 Carbon Clean appears to be occupying the other side of that equation. Its customers will have to figure out what to do with the carbon once captured, but they’ll at least benefit from efficiencies wrought by mass production. Whether Carbon Clean can hit its $30 per metric ton target across a range of diverse industries remains to be seen. Yet even if it doesn’t, the company may still have an opening.

 “Most of my customers, if you go to our cement site or industrial site or a chemical plant and you say, ‘Who’s your decarbonization team?’ They say, ‘Well, [our] energy efficiency manager,'” Sharma said. “OK, so you’ve got one guy responsible for selecting the strategy, selecting the technology, selecting the [engineering, procurement and construction company], building it and ensuring someone who works with the board to raise the finance then operating it as well liaising with the government? Not going to happen.”

 Part of Carbon Clean’s pitch is its simplicity, Sharma said. “We’ll bring the technology, we have partnerships with [engineering, procurement and construction companies] … and then we will operate it over a period of time.”

 If regulators start to pressure smaller operations to reduce their carbon emissions, then a set-it-and-forget-it approach may find buyers, even if it’s at a slightly higher price.

Startup Carbon Clean announced earlier this week that it raised $150 million in a Series C that provides it with a sizable war chest to continue the development of its modular carbon capture system.
 Update: This article has been updated to reflect which industries Carbon Cure’s cost forecasts include. 
Carbon Clean has won its share of admirers, most recently Chevron, which led the round, and BloombergNEF, which named it a BNEF Pioneer last month in part because of the startup’s small-scale approach to carbon capture and sequestration (CCS).
Typically, the technology is a large-scale affair. After all, the world needs to eliminate emissions on a vast scale, and the technology benefits from a certain amount of scale. That’s why CCS is usually envisioned attached to massive coal- or gas-fired power plants.
But there are still many smaller sites, from cement kilns to chemical plants, that are currently wedded to fossil fuels but still need to be decarbonized. These are the sorts of companies that Carbon Clean pitches itself to, and the startup says that its modular approach can help polluters deal with their carbon emissions incrementally as regulations ratchet up.
Fundamentally, Carbon Clean relies on a tried-and-true process to strip carbon dioxide from exhaust streams. Exhaust containing carbon dioxide is sent through a filter that is wetted with an amine-based solvent. At lower temperatures (around 50 degrees Celsius, or 122 degrees Fahrenheit), carbon dioxide will bind to the amines. The CO2-laden solvent is then pumped to another container, where it’s heated to 110 to 120 degrees C (230 to 248 degrees F) to release the gas, which is then compressed and sent elsewhere to be used or stored. Each company has its own amine solvent with different properties, and the details of the process may vary, but that’s the gist of it.
Carbon Clean CEO Aniruddha Sharma said his company’s amine solvents can reduce costs compared with a commonly used amine by requiring less energy to heat and by reducing corrosion in the system. Until the company releases more data, such claims will be hard to judge. But based on the general type of amine it’s using, Carbon Clean is likely to see at least a small improvement in energy use.
Sharma said that by coupling the proprietary amine solvent with mass-produced modular units, his company can bring carbon capture costs down to $30 per metric ton by 2025. (Update: Carbon Clean confirmed for TechCrunch that that figure would be an average across all industries and that it was derived by “a cost analysis undertaken by an independent third party.”) If that’s an average across all industries the company is targeting, it would be an impressive achievement. (Carbon Clean wouldn’t confirm.) CCS costs vary widely, but in many cases, they’re higher: Steel mills, for example, may capture carbon anywhere between $8 and $133 per metric ton, ammonia plants might do it at $22 to $32 per metric ton and cement kilns between $19 and $205 per metric ton.
The U.S. government provides tax credits for CCS, which today are $24 or $36 per metric ton, respectively depending on whether it’s used to make oil fields more productive or simply stored below ground. By 2026, those numbers will rise to $35 and $50 per metric ton — and even higher if pending legislation is passed. If Carbon Clean can deliver on its promises, then CCS would no longer cost companies money, but become a potential profit center.
Based on data released by Carbon Clean, its carbon capture costs aren’t bad, but they’re also not below the norm. “[C]ommercial references such as Tuticorin Alkali Chemicals and Fertilizers Limited (TFL) have proven commercially viable operations with a consistent cost of $40 per metric tonne of CO2 captured,” the company said on its website, a figure that Sharma confirmed for TechCrunch. That’s a decent number, but not quite a breakthrough — according to the International Energy Agency, fertilizer plants were capturing carbon dioxide at a cost of $25 to $35 per metric ton in 2019.
Of course, that figure may drop as the company begins to mass produce its modular CCS equipment. Carbon Clean’s CycloneCC units can fit in the space of a shipping container, making transportation and installation relatively easy. Sharma also said that the rotating discs at the heart of Carbon Clean’s units have “exactly the same amount of power and efficiency as 35 meter tall towers” used at Petra Nova, what was once the world’s largest commercial CCS facility.
Many CCS installations like Petra Nova are large, bespoke efforts, which are, of course, expensive. Yet that same scale can also bring down the cost per metric ton. For example, a big installation only needs one sizable pipe to transport the CO2 for use or storage, which is cheaper than building dozens of small ones or operating a fleet of trucks. In other words, what might be lost due to a lack of modularity can probably be offset by other economies of scale.
Carbon Clean appears to be occupying the other side of that equation. Its customers will have to figure out what to do with the carbon once captured, but they’ll at least benefit from efficiencies wrought by mass production. Whether Carbon Clean can hit its $30 per metric ton target across a range of diverse industries remains to be seen. Yet even if it doesn’t, the company may still have an opening.
“Most of my customers, if you go to our cement site or industrial site or a chemical plant and you say, ‘Who’s your decarbonization team?’ They say, ‘Well, [our] energy efficiency manager,'” Sharma said. “OK, so you’ve got one guy responsible for selecting the strategy, selecting the technology, selecting the [engineering, procurement and construction company], building it and ensuring someone who works with the board to raise the finance then operating it as well liaising with the government? Not going to happen.”
Part of Carbon Clean’s pitch is its simplicity, Sharma said. “We’ll bring the technology, we have partnerships with [engineering, procurement and construction companies] … and then we will operate it over a period of time.”
If regulators start to pressure smaller operations to reduce their carbon emissions, then a set-it-and-forget-it approach may find buyers, even if it’s at a slightly higher price.
Can carbon capture startup Carbon Clean deliver on its cost claims?
https://techcrunch.com/2022/05/14/can-carbon-capture-startup-carbon-clean-deliver-on-its-cost-claims/