Making it rain meaning in music lyrics
https://www.dictionary.com/e/slang/make-it-rain/
make it rain Meaning & Origin | Slang by Dictionary.com
2018-03-01
Dictionary com; Leila Tudury
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 <a href="https://www.dictionary.com/e/slang/">
 Slang dictionary </a>
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 <h4>What does <i><a>make it rain</a></i> mean?</h4>
 
 <p>To <i>make it rain </i>is to freely give out cash or other items, make a lot of money, or become a big success.</p>
 </div>
 </div>
 
 <div>
 <h2>
 Where does make it rain come from? </h2>
 
 <div>
 <div>
	<p>
	</p>
	<p>
	Gifimage.net	</p>
	</div>
<p><i>Make it rain</i> originates as a slang term for throwing out lots of cash to dancers in strip clubs, as if money is raining down on them.</p>
<p>The phrase, with its imagery of showering an abundance of cash, draws from its roots in the term <i>rainmaker</i>. Recorded in the late 18th-century, a <i>rainmaker</i> is an individual in Native American culture believed to have the power to make it rain (and so aid agricultural bounty). By the end of the following century, <i>rainmaker</i> was applied to professionals would could successfully bring in business.</p>
<p>While Urban Dictionary’s first entry for <i>make it rain</i> was in 2005, the term was popularized by “Make It Rain,” a hit 2006 single by rapper Fat Joe, featuring fellow artist Lil Wayne. This song is about <i>making it rain</i> in a strip club. In the video, Lil Wayne swipes off bills from a stack of cash resting on his palm, an imitation of which is often accompanied by the use of <i>make it rain</i> in conversation.</p>
<p>Other hip-hop tracks, such as Lil Jon’s 2010 “Act A Fool”<i> </i>and Travis Porter’s “Make It Rain,” released in the same year helped further spread the expression. As <i>making it rain</i> in a strip club is seen as a way of showing off how much money one has to spend indulgently, the expression has become a metaphor for wealth and prosperity. <i>To make it rain</i>, then, has come to mean popularly “to earn lots of money” or “to make something very successful.” <i> </i></p>
 </div>
</div>
 
 
 <div>
 <h2>
 Examples of make it rain </h2>
 
 <div>
 <div>
	<p>“This tells me everything re: timing of Comey's firing.
Make it RAIN subpoenas!”
	</p>
	<p>
	@AZFerrer77 <i>Twitter</i> (May 9, 2017)	</p>
	</div>
<div>
	<p>“Meanwhile, the woodwinds, begin to chant ‘TAKE IT ALL OFF’. Then my section, percussion, stands up and begin to make motions with our hands suggesting that we are making it rain dollar bills all over him.”
	</p>
	<p>
	greyblob <i>Tumblr</i> (December 10, 2013)	</p>
	</div>
<div>
	<p>“Minaj said she’d wire the promised money through on Sunday and make it rain for more scholars in a month or two.”
	</p>
	<p>
	Ruth Brown, “Nicki Minaj pays college expenses for lucky fans,” <i>Page Six</i> (May 7, 2017)	</p>
	</div>
 </div>
 
 </div>
 
 <div>
 <h2>
 Who uses make it rain? </h2>
 
 <div>
 <p>The image of money, in the form of bills, “raining” down in a strip club can be extended to refer to an abundance of any sort of object falling (literally or metaphorically) in various scenarios.</p>
<p>Beyond cash, <i>make it rain</i> can be applied to an assortment of items, e.g., business cards, if a person passes them out willy-nilly, university degrees, if an institution is seen to too easily confer them, or even non-paper items like cookies, if someone really values baked goods or just made a batch.</p>
 </div>
 </div>
 
 
 
 
 <div>
 <h2>Note</h2>
 <p>
 This is not meant to be a formal definition of make it rain like most terms we define on Dictionary.com, but is
 rather an informal word summary that hopefully touches upon the key aspects of the meaning and usage of make it rain
 that will help our users expand their word mastery. </p>
</div>
 </article>
 
 
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 Slang dictionary

 make it rain

 What does make it rain mean?

 To make it rain is to freely give out cash or other items, make a lot of money, or become a big success.

 o 
 o 

 Where does make it rain come from?

  Gifimage.net

 Make it rain originates as a slang term for throwing out lots of cash to dancers in strip clubs, as if money is raining down on them.

 The phrase, with its imagery of showering an abundance of cash, draws from its roots in the term rainmaker. Recorded in the late 18th-century, a rainmaker is an individual in Native American culture believed to have the power to make it rain (and so aid agricultural bounty). By the end of the following century, rainmaker was applied to professionals would could successfully bring in business.

 While Urban Dictionary’s first entry for make it rain was in 2005, the term was popularized by “Make It Rain,” a hit 2006 single by rapper Fat Joe, featuring fellow artist Lil Wayne. This song is about making it rain in a strip club. In the video, Lil Wayne swipes off bills from a stack of cash resting on his palm, an imitation of which is often accompanied by the use of make it rain in conversation.

 Other hip-hop tracks, such as Lil Jon’s 2010 “Act A Fool” and Travis Porter’s “Make It Rain,” released in the same year helped further spread the expression. As making it rain in a strip club is seen as a way of showing off how much money one has to spend indulgently, the expression has become a metaphor for wealth and prosperity. To make it rain, then, has come to mean popularly “to earn lots of money” or “to make something very successful.”

 Examples of make it rain

  “This tells me everything re: timing of Comey's firing. Make it RAIN subpoenas!”
  @AZFerrer77 Twitter (May 9, 2017)
  “Meanwhile, the woodwinds, begin to chant ‘TAKE IT ALL OFF’. Then my section, percussion, stands up and begin to make motions with our hands suggesting that we are making it rain dollar bills all over him.”
  greyblob Tumblr (December 10, 2013)
  “Minaj said she’d wire the promised money through on Sunday and make it rain for more scholars in a month or two.”
  Ruth Brown, “Nicki Minaj pays college expenses for lucky fans,” Page Six (May 7, 2017)
 SEE MORE EXAMPLES

 Who uses make it rain?

 The image of money, in the form of bills, “raining” down in a strip club can be extended to refer to an abundance of any sort of object falling (literally or metaphorically) in various scenarios.

 Beyond cash, make it rain can be applied to an assortment of items, e.g., business cards, if a person passes them out willy-nilly, university degrees, if an institution is seen to too easily confer them, or even non-paper items like cookies, if someone really values baked goods or just made a batch.

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 soft life, clean girl aesthetic, Lunar New Year, nepo baby, tripledemic

 Note

 This is not meant to be a formal definition of make it rain like most terms we define on Dictionary.com, but is rather an informal word summary that hopefully touches upon the key aspects of the meaning and usage of make it rain that will help our users expand their word mastery.

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Examples 
 
 
 
 
 Origin 
 
 
 
 
 Usage 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Slang dictionary 
 
 
 
 
 What does  make it rain  mean?
 
 To make it rain is to freely give out cash or other items, make a lot of money, or become a big success.
 
 
 
 
 
 Where does make it rain come from? 
 
 
 
	
	
	
	Gifimage.net	
	
 Make it rain originates as a slang term for throwing out lots of cash to dancers in strip clubs, as if money is raining down on them.
The phrase, with its imagery of showering an abundance of cash, draws from its roots in the term rainmaker. Recorded in the late 18th-century, a rainmaker is an individual in Native American culture believed to have the power to make it rain (and so aid agricultural bounty). By the end of the following century, rainmaker was applied to professionals would could successfully bring in business.
While Urban Dictionary’s first entry for make it rain was in 2005, the term was popularized by “Make It Rain,” a hit 2006 single by rapper Fat Joe, featuring fellow artist Lil Wayne. This song is about making it rain in a strip club. In the video, Lil Wayne swipes off bills from a stack of cash resting on his palm, an imitation of which is often accompanied by the use of make it rain in conversation.
Other hip-hop tracks, such as Lil Jon’s 2010 “Act A Fool” and Travis Porter’s “Make It Rain,” released in the same year helped further spread the expression. As making it rain in a strip club is seen as a way of showing off how much money one has to spend indulgently, the expression has become a metaphor for wealth and prosperity. To make it rain, then, has come to mean popularly “to earn lots of money” or “to make something very successful.”   
 
 
 
 
 
 Examples of make it rain 
 
 
 
	“This tells me everything re: timing of Comey's firing.
Make it RAIN subpoenas!”
	
	
	@AZFerrer77 Twitter (May 9, 2017)	
	
	“Meanwhile, the woodwinds, begin to chant ‘TAKE IT ALL OFF’. Then my section, percussion, stands up and begin to make motions with our hands suggesting that we are making it rain dollar bills all over him.”
	
	
	greyblob Tumblr (December 10, 2013)	
	
	“Minaj said she’d wire the promised money through on Sunday and make it rain for more scholars in a month or two.”
	
	
	Ruth Brown, “Nicki Minaj pays college expenses for lucky fans,” Page Six (May 7, 2017)	
	
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Who uses make it rain? 
 
 
 The image of money, in the form of bills, “raining” down in a strip club can be extended to refer to an abundance of any sort of object falling (literally or metaphorically) in various scenarios.
Beyond cash, make it rain can be applied to an assortment of items, e.g., business cards, if a person passes them out willy-nilly, university degrees, if an institution is seen to too easily confer them, or even non-paper items like cookies, if someone really values baked goods or just made a batch.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Note
 
 This is not meant to be a formal definition of make it rain like most terms we define on Dictionary.com, but is
 rather an informal word summary that hopefully touches upon the key aspects of the meaning and usage of make it rain
 that will help our users expand their word mastery.
make it rain Meaning & Origin | Slang by Dictionary.com
https://www.dictionary.com/e/slang/make-it-rain/
https://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=make%20it%20rain
Urban Dictionary: make it rain
2005-09-15
None
<div><section><div><div><div><ul><li><a href="https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?text=http%3A%2F%2Fmake-it-rain.urbanup.com%2F1444380"></a></li><li><a href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer/sharer.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fmake-it-rain.urbanup.com%2F1444380"></a></li></ul></div><p>When you're in <a href="/define.php?term=da%20club">da club</a> with a stack, and you throw the money <a href="/define.php?term=up%20in%20the%20air">up in the air</a> at the <a href="/define.php?term=strippers">strippers</a>. The effect is that it seems to be raining money.</p><p>After <a href="/define.php?term=Leroy">Leroy</a> finished <a href="/define.php?term=trapping">trapping</a> for the night, he went to the strip club, got 10 <a href="/define.php?term=stacks">stacks</a>, and made it rain inside the club the whole night.</p><p>by <a href="/author.php?author=bert2">bert2</a> September 15, 2005</p><div><a href="/remove.form.php?reconsider%5Bdefid_to_remove%5D=1444380">Flag</a></div></div><p><a href="https://urbandictionary.store/products/mug?defid=1444380">Get the make it rain mug.</a></p></div><p><a href="https://urbandictionary.wufoo.com/forms/?formname=zqjq6ng0t3f0hn&amp;field9=make+it+rain">Advertise here for $5/day</a></p><div><div><div><h2><a href="/define.php?term=make+it+rain">make it rain</a></h2><div><ul><li><a href="https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?text=http%3A%2F%2Fmake-it-rain.urbanup.com%2F2209123"></a></li><li><a href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer/sharer.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fmake-it-rain.urbanup.com%2F2209123"></a></li></ul></div></div><p>When you have a wad of <a href="/define.php?term=cash%20and">cash and</a> <a href="/define.php?term=throw%20it%20in">throw it in</a> the air in a strip club, ''making it rain'' It's also a song by <a href="/define.php?term=Fat%20Joe">Fat Joe</a></p><div><p><a href="/define.php?term=I%20make%20it%20rain">I make it rain</a> on <a href="/define.php?term=dem%20hoes">dem hoes</a></p></div><div><p>by <a href="/author.php?author=DizzyLizzy">DizzyLizzy</a> January 21, 2007</p></div><div><a href="/remove.form.php?reconsider%5Bdefid_to_remove%5D=2209123">Flag</a></div></div><p><a href="https://urbandictionary.store/products/mug?defid=2209123">Get the make it rain mug.</a></p></div><div><div><div><h2><a href="/define.php?term=make+it+rain">make it rain</a></h2><div><ul><li><a href="https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?text=http%3A%2F%2Fmake-it-rain.urbanup.com%2F6957976"></a></li><li><a href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer/sharer.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fmake-it-rain.urbanup.com%2F6957976"></a></li></ul></div></div><div><p>1. this usually refers to throwing <a href="/define.php?term=fat%20stacks">fat stacks</a> of <a href="/define.php?term=cash%20in">cash in</a> the air at a strip club</p><p>2. in the <a href="/define.php?term=R%20Kelly">R Kelly</a> remix he is referring to peeing on young girls</p></div><div><p>1.after work on Friday, Joe <a href="/define.php?term=cashed">cashed</a> his paycheck in ones and made it rain on the bootyluicious hoes at the strip club all night, unfortunately he woke up broke with a hangover.</p><p>2. you make my life complete when i turn your face into a <a href="/define.php?term=toilet%20seat">toilet seat</a>. "make it rain on <a href="/define.php?term=these%20hoes">these hoes</a>"</p></div><div><p>by <a href="/author.php?author=beelzebubbles">beelzebubbles</a> February 21, 2013</p></div><div><a href="/remove.form.php?reconsider%5Bdefid_to_remove%5D=6957976">Flag</a></div></div><p><a href="https://urbandictionary.store/products/mug?defid=6957976">Get the make it rain mug.</a></p></div><p><a href="https://urbandictionary.wufoo.com/forms/?formname=zqjq6ng0t3f0hn&amp;field9=make+it+rain">Advertise here for $5/day</a></p><div><div><div><h2><a href="/define.php?term=make+it+rain">make it rain</a></h2><div><ul><li><a href="https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?text=http%3A%2F%2Fmake-it-rain.urbanup.com%2F2890046"></a></li><li><a href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer/sharer.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fmake-it-rain.urbanup.com%2F2890046"></a></li></ul></div></div><p>at clubs <a href="/define.php?term=ballers">ballers</a> take a wad of $1 bills and throw them in the air. hence "<a href="/define.php?term=making%20it%20rain">making it rain</a>"
<br />LA is where this term originated from. <a href="/define.php?term=Fat%20Joe%27s">Fat Joe's</a> single make it rain sprung this trend of throwing money in the air. It is pretty entertaining to watch non ballers attempt these feet.
<br />- Ali S., Founder www.prapta.com
<br /></p><div><p>"<a href="/define.php?term=I%20make%20it%20rain">I make it rain</a> on <a href="/define.php?term=these%20hoes">these hoes</a>" with <a href="/define.php?term=money">money</a></p></div><p>by <a href="/author.php?author=Ali17">Ali17</a> February 29, 2008</p><div><a href="/remove.form.php?reconsider%5Bdefid_to_remove%5D=2890046">Flag</a></div></div><p><a href="https://urbandictionary.store/products/mug?defid=2890046">Get the make it rain mug.</a></p></div><div><div><div><h2><a href="/define.php?term=make+it+rain">make it rain</a></h2><div><ul><li><a href="https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?text=http%3A%2F%2Fmake-it-rain.urbanup.com%2F2317877"></a></li><li><a href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer/sharer.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fmake-it-rain.urbanup.com%2F2317877"></a></li></ul></div></div><p>Is when a <a href="/define.php?term=Baller">Baller</a> in a <a href="/define.php?term=strip%20club">strip club</a> throw alot of money in the air over a stripper on <a href="/define.php?term=the%20stage">the stage</a>.make it rain </p><div><p>That Baller at <a href="/define.php?term=Magic%20City">Magic City</a> <a href="/define.php?term=make%20it%20rain">make it rain</a> for hours at the club. <a href="/define.php?term=Make%20it%20rain">Make it rain</a> <a href="/define.php?term=in%20this%20bitch">in this bitch</a> all baller call.</p></div><div><p>by <a href="/author.php?author=rltipster">rltipster</a> March 20, 2007</p></div><div><a href="/remove.form.php?reconsider%5Bdefid_to_remove%5D=2317877">Flag</a></div></div><p><a href="https://urbandictionary.store/products/mug?defid=2317877">Get the make it rain mug.</a></p></div><p><a href="https://urbandictionary.wufoo.com/forms/?formname=zqjq6ng0t3f0hn&amp;field9=make+it+rain">Advertise here for $5/day</a></p><div><div><div><h2><a href="/define.php?term=make+it+rain">make it rain</a></h2><div><ul><li><a href="https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?text=http%3A%2F%2Fmake-it-rain.urbanup.com%2F2115790"></a></li><li><a href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer/sharer.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fmake-it-rain.urbanup.com%2F2115790"></a></li></ul></div></div><div><p>to <a href="/define.php?term=cum">cum</a> <a href="/define.php?term=all%20over">all over</a> <a href="/define.php?term=someone">someone</a></p></div><div><p><a href="/define.php?term=I%20make%20it%20rain">I make it rain</a> on <a href="/define.php?term=these%20hoes">these hoes</a>.</p></div><div><p>by <a href="/author.php?author=Rick%20Thatcher">Rick Thatcher</a> November 28, 2006</p></div><div><a href="/remove.form.php?reconsider%5Bdefid_to_remove%5D=2115790">Flag</a></div></div><p><a href="https://urbandictionary.store/products/mug?defid=2115790">Get the make it rain mug.</a></p></div><div><div><div><h2><a href="/define.php?term=make+it+rain">make it rain</a></h2><div><ul><li><a href="https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?text=http%3A%2F%2Fmake-it-rain.urbanup.com%2F2624424"></a></li><li><a href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer/sharer.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fmake-it-rain.urbanup.com%2F2624424"></a></li></ul></div></div><p>Throwing money at strippers; a song by <a href="/define.php?term=Fat%20Joe">Fat Joe</a> and Lil Wayne; also what <a href="/define.php?term=Rob%20and%20Big">Rob and Big</a> did to people in Tampa, they threw $5000 in $1 bills to all the people from the top of a <a href="/define.php?term=half%20pipe">half pipe</a>, they made it rain! Lets make it rain.</p><div><p>"<a href="/define.php?term=What%27s%20the%20forecast">What's the forecast</a> look like today?" "It's gonna be perfect weather, with a 100% chance of rain!" "<a href="/define.php?term=I%20make%20it%20rain">I make it rain</a> on <a href="/define.php?term=dem%20hoes">dem hoes</a>!"</p></div><p>by <a href="/author.php?author=TiMJLD">TiMJLD</a> October 10, 2007</p><div><a href="/remove.form.php?reconsider%5Bdefid_to_remove%5D=2624424">Flag</a></div></div><p><a href="https://urbandictionary.store/products/mug?defid=2624424">Get the make it rain mug.</a></p></div><div><ul><li>1</li><li><a href="/define.php?term=make%20it%20rain&amp;page=2">2</a></li><li><a href="/define.php?term=make%20it%20rain&amp;page=3">3</a></li><li><a href="/define.php?term=make%20it%20rain&amp;page=4">4</a></li><li><a href="/define.php?term=make%20it%20rain&amp;page=5">5</a></li></ul><ul><li><a href="/define.php?term=make%20it%20rain&amp;page=2">Next ›</a></li><li><a href="/define.php?term=make%20it%20rain&amp;page=8">Last »</a></li></ul></div><div><p><a href="/random.php">More random definitions</a></p></div></section>||||I|||| * 
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 make it rain

 * 
 * 
 When you're in da club with a stack, and you throw the money up in the air at the strippers. The effect is that it seems to be raining money.
 After Leroy finished trapping for the night, he went to the strip club, got 10 stacks, and made it rain inside the club the whole night.
 by bert2 September 15, 2005
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 make it rain

 * 
 * 
 When you have a wad of cash and throw it in the air in a strip club, ''making it rain'' It's also a song by Fat Joe
 I make it rain on dem hoes
 by DizzyLizzy January 21, 2007
 Flag
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 make it rain

 * 
 * 
 1. this usually refers to throwing fat stacks of cash in the air at a strip club

 2. in the R Kelly remix he is referring to peeing on young girls
 1.after work on Friday, Joe cashed his paycheck in ones and made it rain on the bootyluicious hoes at the strip club all night, unfortunately he woke up broke with a hangover.

 2. you make my life complete when i turn your face into a toilet seat. "make it rain on these hoes"
 by beelzebubbles February 21, 2013
 Flag
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 make it rain

 * 
 * 
 at clubs ballers take a wad of $1 bills and throw them in the air. hence "making it rain"
 LA is where this term originated from. Fat Joe's single make it rain sprung this trend of throwing money in the air. It is pretty entertaining to watch non ballers attempt these feet.
 - Ali S., Founder www.prapta.com
 "I make it rain on these hoes" with money
 by Ali17 February 29, 2008
 Flag
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 make it rain

 * 
 * 
 Is when a Baller in a strip club throw alot of money in the air over a stripper on the stage.make it rain
 That Baller at Magic City make it rain for hours at the club. Make it rain in this bitch all baller call.
 by rltipster March 20, 2007
 Flag
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 make it rain

 * 
 * 
 to cum all over someone
 I make it rain on these hoes.
 by Rick Thatcher November 28, 2006
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 make it rain

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 Throwing money at strippers; a song by Fat Joe and Lil Wayne; also what Rob and Big did to people in Tampa, they threw $5000 in $1 bills to all the people from the top of a half pipe, they made it rain! Lets make it rain.
 "What's the forecast look like today?" "It's gonna be perfect weather, with a 100% chance of rain!" "I make it rain on dem hoes!"
 by TiMJLD October 10, 2007
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When you're in da club with a stack, and you throw the money up in the air at the strippers. The effect is that it seems to be raining money. After Leroy finished trapping for the night, he went to the strip club, got 10 stacks, and made it rain inside the club the whole night. by bert2 September 15, 2005  Flag    Get the make it rain mug.    Advertise here for $5/day      make it rain               When you have a wad of cash and throw it in the air in a strip club, ''making it rain'' It's also a song by Fat Joe    I make it rain on dem hoes    by DizzyLizzy January 21, 2007   Flag    Get the make it rain mug.       make it rain                1. this usually refers to throwing fat stacks of cash in the air at a strip club 2. in the R Kelly remix he is referring to peeing on young girls   1.after work on Friday, Joe cashed his paycheck in ones and made it rain on the bootyluicious hoes at the strip club all night, unfortunately he woke up broke with a hangover. 2. you make my life complete when i turn your face into a toilet seat. "make it rain on these hoes"   by beelzebubbles February 21, 2013   Flag    Get the make it rain mug.    Advertise here for $5/day      make it rain               at clubs ballers take a wad of $1 bills and throw them in the air. hence "making it rain"
LA is where this term originated from. Fat Joe's single make it rain sprung this trend of throwing money in the air. It is pretty entertaining to watch non ballers attempt these feet.
- Ali S., Founder www.prapta.com
   "I make it rain on these hoes" with money   by Ali17 February 29, 2008  Flag    Get the make it rain mug.       make it rain               Is when a Baller in a strip club throw alot of money in the air over a stripper on the stage.make it rain   That Baller at Magic City make it rain for hours at the club. Make it rain in this bitch all baller call.   by rltipster March 20, 2007   Flag    Get the make it rain mug.    Advertise here for $5/day      make it rain                to cum all over someone     I make it rain on these hoes.   by Rick Thatcher November 28, 2006   Flag    Get the make it rain mug.       make it rain               Throwing money at strippers; a song by Fat Joe and Lil Wayne; also what Rob and Big did to people in Tampa, they threw $5000 in $1 bills to all the people from the top of a half pipe, they made it rain! Lets make it rain.  "What's the forecast look like today?" "It's gonna be perfect weather, with a 100% chance of rain!" "I make it rain on dem hoes!"  by TiMJLD October 10, 2007  Flag    Get the make it rain mug.     1  2   3   4   5     Next ›   Last »      More random definitions
Urban Dictionary: make it rain
https://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=make%20it%20rain
https://now.northropgrumman.com/making-rain-science-weather-manipulation/
Making it Rain: The Science of Weather Manipulation
2020-08-14
Kelly McSweeney
<div><article>
	<p> Farmers have long wished they could control the rain, and now weather manipulation can do just that. <a href="http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hrd_sub/cseed.html%20,%20https://public.wmo.int/en/resources/bulletin/seeding-change-weather-modification-globally">Cloud seeding</a>, the most common way to modify weather, involves shooting silver iodide or other chemicals into clouds to encourage precipitation. In other words, a silver bullet can make it rain.</p>
<p> This technique is not perfect, and it can’t solve chronic drought, but it’s relatively inexpensive and many communities around the world are desperate for water. Scientists use weather modification to enhance rainfall and increase water supplies, to disperse fog and to minimize hail during storms. Private companies and state-sponsored groups have even used cloud seeding to drop fresh snow on ski mountains and to squeeze out the rain before major events such as the 2008 Beijing Olympics.</p>
<h2> What is Cloud Seeding?</h2>
<p> The idea is not to create clouds out of thin air, but to squeeze every last drop of rain from naturally occurring clouds. So, what is cloud seeding?</p>
<p>Cloud seeding adds substances to clouds by shooting them from the ground or dropping them from planes. Air already contains water vapor, but cloud seeding can encourage the water to condense until it falls from the sky. Normally, when air rises into the atmosphere, it cools and forms particles called ice nuclei, which clump together to form clouds. When enough of these cloud droplets combine, they grow bigger until they are heavy enough that they fall to the ground in some form of precipitation, determined by the temperature and other conditions. Adding a “seed” gives clouds a boost by creating ice nuclei that grow faster and bigger than normal.</p>
<p> Glaciogenic seeding is a technique for squeezing water from cold clouds. Back in 1946, Bernard Vonnegut (author Kurt’s brother) was one of the researchers at General Electric who discovered that silver iodide could help clouds form ice crystals. Scientists still aren’t exactly sure how it works, but it’s possible that ice easily bonds with silver iodide because they both have similar structures at the molecular level. When more particles collide, ice crystals are formed, and soon the cloud is full of heavy water droplets that become rain. Similarly, hygroscopic seeding is a technique for warm clouds, wherein a simple salt helps encourage water droplets to collide and produce rain.</p>
<p> Other weather manipulation techniques that have been considered over the years include: blowing storms away from land with windmills, cooling the ocean with cryogenic material or icebergs, delaying surface evaporation with monomolecular films, blowing a hurricane apart with hydrogen bombs or laser beams and injecting air into the center of a storm. Cloud seeding has prevailed because it is the simplest and most cost-effective way to change the weather.</p>
<h2> Who is Manipulating the Weather?</h2>
<p> Although weather manipulation lingers on the fringes of the scientific community, it is practiced more widely than one might expect. More than 50 countries around the world currently have weather modification programs and the World Meteorological Organization just hosted an expert team meeting on weather modification in Geneva in June 2017.</p>
<p> The reasons for modifying weather vary, depending on where the operation takes place. Russia has removed cloud cover for a national holiday, while India has focused on encouraging rain to fall in drought conditions.</p>
<p> China made headlines when authorities said they had cleared the skies by shooting salt-filled bullets into clouds ahead of the 2008 Beijing Olympics. Then, in 2016, the Chinese government announced it had allocated 199 million yuan ($29.76 million) to spend on its weather modification program to combat drought and reduce the impact of natural disasters.</p>
<div><p></p></div>
<p> In 2015 the United Arab Emirates (UAE) launched a $5-million research program for “rain enhancement science.” Groundwater supplies were running low and demand for water is projected to double in the next 15 years as the country continues to grow. In 2016, the UAE carried out 177 cloud seeding operations — primarily hygroscopic seeding in the mountains to add water to aquifers and reservoirs.</p>
<p> The United States is no stranger to weather manipulation, either. From the mid-1960s through the early 1980s, NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) actively pursued <a href="http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hrd_sub/sfury.html">Project STORMFURY</a>, a program for experimental hurricane modification. Cloud seeding has especially been used in the Great Plains and western states to combat drought.</p>
<p> Wyoming just completed a $15-million study over 10 years that concluded that cloud seeding can add, on average, 10 percent more snow to an existing storm. In Idaho this year, the National Science Foundation partially funded a research project to test seeding clouds to increase snowfall near communities where it can be used for crop irrigation and hydropower.</p>
<p> “Idaho Power is interested in putting more snow on the ground in the mountains, which leads to more water in rivers from snowmelt,” said atmospheric scientist Jeff French of the University of Wyoming, in a <a href="https://phys.org/news/2017-01-atmospheric-scientists-cloud-seeding.html">statement</a>. “In turn, that leads to more power generation capability throughout the year.”</p>
<h2> Weighing the Costs and Benefits</h2>
<p> Messing with the weather is a tricky science, and more research is needed to explain exactly how it works. There has been healthy skepticism that challenges whether cloud seeding and other techniques are effective. Since weather systems are complex and impossible to duplicate, it’s hard to prove how much rain has been added to a cloud.</p>
<p> Aside from proving the efficacy, there are also risks involved with modifying nature. Introducing salt or other chemicals into the rain could alter microclimates and possibly interfere with nearby crop growth, which would defeat the whole purpose. There is also a potential to abuse the science by using it as a military tactic to force storms on enemies or sabotage crops, though this practice is banned by the United Nations.</p>
<p> Nevertheless, weather manipulation is worth exploring, since when used properly it has so much potential to work for the greater good. It can reduce fog at airports, minimize air pollution in large cities and be used for hydropower. It is mostly used to add water to areas with chronic drought, and even a small percentage increase could go a long way toward creating better agricultural conditions.</p>
<p> It can also prevent or reduce damaging weather, such as hail, hurricanes and tornadoes. In the Canadian province of Alberta, in 2012, scientists attempted to use cloud seeding to mitigate a hail storm. They hypothesized that seeding the clouds would redistribute the water vapor in the clouds to form smaller hailstones rather than the golf ball-sized hail that was predicted. <a href="http://cen.acs.org/articles/94/i22/Does-cloud-seeding-really-work.html">Radar data</a> collected afterward showed that the storm was 27 percent milder than the original forecast. It’s hard to prove cause and effect, but meteorologists involved in the project say it saved up to CAD$100 million in property damage. In places that are prone to severe storms, even a slight reduction in hail intensity could save millions and easily offset the cost of a weather manipulation program.</p>
<p> Cloud seeding is still an imperfect science with room for progress, but one with potential to positively alter the way weather affects our lives.</p>
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 Kelly McSweeney

 Aug 14th 2020

 Making it Rain: The Science of Weather Manipulation

 engineering planet-earth weather

 Farmers have long wished they could control the rain, and now weather manipulation can do just that. Cloud seeding, the most common way to modify weather, involves shooting silver iodide or other chemicals into clouds to encourage precipitation. In other words, a silver bullet can make it rain.

 This technique is not perfect, and it can’t solve chronic drought, but it’s relatively inexpensive and many communities around the world are desperate for water. Scientists use weather modification to enhance rainfall and increase water supplies, to disperse fog and to minimize hail during storms. Private companies and state-sponsored groups have even used cloud seeding to drop fresh snow on ski mountains and to squeeze out the rain before major events such as the 2008 Beijing Olympics.

 What is Cloud Seeding?

 The idea is not to create clouds out of thin air, but to squeeze every last drop of rain from naturally occurring clouds. So, what is cloud seeding?

 Cloud seeding adds substances to clouds by shooting them from the ground or dropping them from planes. Air already contains water vapor, but cloud seeding can encourage the water to condense until it falls from the sky. Normally, when air rises into the atmosphere, it cools and forms particles called ice nuclei, which clump together to form clouds. When enough of these cloud droplets combine, they grow bigger until they are heavy enough that they fall to the ground in some form of precipitation, determined by the temperature and other conditions. Adding a “seed” gives clouds a boost by creating ice nuclei that grow faster and bigger than normal.

 Glaciogenic seeding is a technique for squeezing water from cold clouds. Back in 1946, Bernard Vonnegut (author Kurt’s brother) was one of the researchers at General Electric who discovered that silver iodide could help clouds form ice crystals. Scientists still aren’t exactly sure how it works, but it’s possible that ice easily bonds with silver iodide because they both have similar structures at the molecular level. When more particles collide, ice crystals are formed, and soon the cloud is full of heavy water droplets that become rain. Similarly, hygroscopic seeding is a technique for warm clouds, wherein a simple salt helps encourage water droplets to collide and produce rain.

 Other weather manipulation techniques that have been considered over the years include: blowing storms away from land with windmills, cooling the ocean with cryogenic material or icebergs, delaying surface evaporation with monomolecular films, blowing a hurricane apart with hydrogen bombs or laser beams and injecting air into the center of a storm. Cloud seeding has prevailed because it is the simplest and most cost-effective way to change the weather.

 Who is Manipulating the Weather?

 Although weather manipulation lingers on the fringes of the scientific community, it is practiced more widely than one might expect. More than 50 countries around the world currently have weather modification programs and the World Meteorological Organization just hosted an expert team meeting on weather modification in Geneva in June 2017.

 The reasons for modifying weather vary, depending on where the operation takes place. Russia has removed cloud cover for a national holiday, while India has focused on encouraging rain to fall in drought conditions.

 China made headlines when authorities said they had cleared the skies by shooting salt-filled bullets into clouds ahead of the 2008 Beijing Olympics. Then, in 2016, the Chinese government announced it had allocated 199 million yuan ($29.76 million) to spend on its weather modification program to combat drought and reduce the impact of natural disasters.

 In 2015 the United Arab Emirates (UAE) launched a $5-million research program for “rain enhancement science.” Groundwater supplies were running low and demand for water is projected to double in the next 15 years as the country continues to grow. In 2016, the UAE carried out 177 cloud seeding operations — primarily hygroscopic seeding in the mountains to add water to aquifers and reservoirs.

 The United States is no stranger to weather manipulation, either. From the mid-1960s through the early 1980s, NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) actively pursued Project STORMFURY, a program for experimental hurricane modification. Cloud seeding has especially been used in the Great Plains and western states to combat drought.

 Wyoming just completed a $15-million study over 10 years that concluded that cloud seeding can add, on average, 10 percent more snow to an existing storm. In Idaho this year, the National Science Foundation partially funded a research project to test seeding clouds to increase snowfall near communities where it can be used for crop irrigation and hydropower.

 “Idaho Power is interested in putting more snow on the ground in the mountains, which leads to more water in rivers from snowmelt,” said atmospheric scientist Jeff French of the University of Wyoming, in a statement. “In turn, that leads to more power generation capability throughout the year.”

 Weighing the Costs and Benefits

 Messing with the weather is a tricky science, and more research is needed to explain exactly how it works. There has been healthy skepticism that challenges whether cloud seeding and other techniques are effective. Since weather systems are complex and impossible to duplicate, it’s hard to prove how much rain has been added to a cloud.

 Aside from proving the efficacy, there are also risks involved with modifying nature. Introducing salt or other chemicals into the rain could alter microclimates and possibly interfere with nearby crop growth, which would defeat the whole purpose. There is also a potential to abuse the science by using it as a military tactic to force storms on enemies or sabotage crops, though this practice is banned by the United Nations.

 Nevertheless, weather manipulation is worth exploring, since when used properly it has so much potential to work for the greater good. It can reduce fog at airports, minimize air pollution in large cities and be used for hydropower. It is mostly used to add water to areas with chronic drought, and even a small percentage increase could go a long way toward creating better agricultural conditions.

 It can also prevent or reduce damaging weather, such as hail, hurricanes and tornadoes. In the Canadian province of Alberta, in 2012, scientists attempted to use cloud seeding to mitigate a hail storm. They hypothesized that seeding the clouds would redistribute the water vapor in the clouds to form smaller hailstones rather than the golf ball-sized hail that was predicted. Radar data collected afterward showed that the storm was 27 percent milder than the original forecast. It’s hard to prove cause and effect, but meteorologists involved in the project say it saved up to CAD$100 million in property damage. In places that are prone to severe storms, even a slight reduction in hail intensity could save millions and easily offset the cost of a weather manipulation program.

 Cloud seeding is still an imperfect science with room for progress, but one with potential to positively alter the way weather affects our lives.

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Farmers have long wished they could control the rain, and now weather manipulation can do just that. Cloud seeding, the most common way to modify weather, involves shooting silver iodide or other chemicals into clouds to encourage precipitation. In other words, a silver bullet can make it rain.
 This technique is not perfect, and it can’t solve chronic drought, but it’s relatively inexpensive and many communities around the world are desperate for water. Scientists use weather modification to enhance rainfall and increase water supplies, to disperse fog and to minimize hail during storms. Private companies and state-sponsored groups have even used cloud seeding to drop fresh snow on ski mountains and to squeeze out the rain before major events such as the 2008 Beijing Olympics.
 What is Cloud Seeding?
 The idea is not to create clouds out of thin air, but to squeeze every last drop of rain from naturally occurring clouds. So, what is cloud seeding?
Cloud seeding adds substances to clouds by shooting them from the ground or dropping them from planes. Air already contains water vapor, but cloud seeding can encourage the water to condense until it falls from the sky. Normally, when air rises into the atmosphere, it cools and forms particles called ice nuclei, which clump together to form clouds. When enough of these cloud droplets combine, they grow bigger until they are heavy enough that they fall to the ground in some form of precipitation, determined by the temperature and other conditions. Adding a “seed” gives clouds a boost by creating ice nuclei that grow faster and bigger than normal.
 Glaciogenic seeding is a technique for squeezing water from cold clouds. Back in 1946, Bernard Vonnegut (author Kurt’s brother) was one of the researchers at General Electric who discovered that silver iodide could help clouds form ice crystals. Scientists still aren’t exactly sure how it works, but it’s possible that ice easily bonds with silver iodide because they both have similar structures at the molecular level. When more particles collide, ice crystals are formed, and soon the cloud is full of heavy water droplets that become rain. Similarly, hygroscopic seeding is a technique for warm clouds, wherein a simple salt helps encourage water droplets to collide and produce rain.
 Other weather manipulation techniques that have been considered over the years include: blowing storms away from land with windmills, cooling the ocean with cryogenic material or icebergs, delaying surface evaporation with monomolecular films, blowing a hurricane apart with hydrogen bombs or laser beams and injecting air into the center of a storm. Cloud seeding has prevailed because it is the simplest and most cost-effective way to change the weather.
 Who is Manipulating the Weather?
 Although weather manipulation lingers on the fringes of the scientific community, it is practiced more widely than one might expect. More than 50 countries around the world currently have weather modification programs and the World Meteorological Organization just hosted an expert team meeting on weather modification in Geneva in June 2017.
 The reasons for modifying weather vary, depending on where the operation takes place. Russia has removed cloud cover for a national holiday, while India has focused on encouraging rain to fall in drought conditions.
 China made headlines when authorities said they had cleared the skies by shooting salt-filled bullets into clouds ahead of the 2008 Beijing Olympics. Then, in 2016, the Chinese government announced it had allocated 199 million yuan ($29.76 million) to spend on its weather modification program to combat drought and reduce the impact of natural disasters.
   
 In 2015 the United Arab Emirates (UAE) launched a $5-million research program for “rain enhancement science.” Groundwater supplies were running low and demand for water is projected to double in the next 15 years as the country continues to grow. In 2016, the UAE carried out 177 cloud seeding operations — primarily hygroscopic seeding in the mountains to add water to aquifers and reservoirs.
 The United States is no stranger to weather manipulation, either. From the mid-1960s through the early 1980s, NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) actively pursued Project STORMFURY, a program for experimental hurricane modification. Cloud seeding has especially been used in the Great Plains and western states to combat drought.
 Wyoming just completed a $15-million study over 10 years that concluded that cloud seeding can add, on average, 10 percent more snow to an existing storm. In Idaho this year, the National Science Foundation partially funded a research project to test seeding clouds to increase snowfall near communities where it can be used for crop irrigation and hydropower.
 “Idaho Power is interested in putting more snow on the ground in the mountains, which leads to more water in rivers from snowmelt,” said atmospheric scientist Jeff French of the University of Wyoming, in a statement. “In turn, that leads to more power generation capability throughout the year.”
 Weighing the Costs and Benefits
 Messing with the weather is a tricky science, and more research is needed to explain exactly how it works. There has been healthy skepticism that challenges whether cloud seeding and other techniques are effective. Since weather systems are complex and impossible to duplicate, it’s hard to prove how much rain has been added to a cloud.
 Aside from proving the efficacy, there are also risks involved with modifying nature. Introducing salt or other chemicals into the rain could alter microclimates and possibly interfere with nearby crop growth, which would defeat the whole purpose. There is also a potential to abuse the science by using it as a military tactic to force storms on enemies or sabotage crops, though this practice is banned by the United Nations.
 Nevertheless, weather manipulation is worth exploring, since when used properly it has so much potential to work for the greater good. It can reduce fog at airports, minimize air pollution in large cities and be used for hydropower. It is mostly used to add water to areas with chronic drought, and even a small percentage increase could go a long way toward creating better agricultural conditions.
 It can also prevent or reduce damaging weather, such as hail, hurricanes and tornadoes. In the Canadian province of Alberta, in 2012, scientists attempted to use cloud seeding to mitigate a hail storm. They hypothesized that seeding the clouds would redistribute the water vapor in the clouds to form smaller hailstones rather than the golf ball-sized hail that was predicted. Radar data collected afterward showed that the storm was 27 percent milder than the original forecast. It’s hard to prove cause and effect, but meteorologists involved in the project say it saved up to CAD$100 million in property damage. In places that are prone to severe storms, even a slight reduction in hail intensity could save millions and easily offset the cost of a weather manipulation program.
 Cloud seeding is still an imperfect science with room for progress, but one with potential to positively alter the way weather affects our lives.
Making it Rain: The Science of Weather Manipulation
https://now.northropgrumman.com/making-rain-science-weather-manipulation/
https://nypost.com/2021/07/21/dubai-making-its-own-rain-to-beat-120-degree-heat/
Dubai making its own rain to beat 120-degree heat
2021-07-21
Jackie Salo
<div><div>
<p>That’s one way to beat the heat!</p>
<p>Officials in Dubai are using drones to artificially increase rainfall as the city grapples with oppressive heat, video this week shows.</p>
<p>The rainmaking technology, known as “cloud seeding,” was put into use as summer temperatures have surged past 120 degrees Fahrenheit in the United Arab Emirates city, <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/dubai-fake-rain-heat-b1887596.html">the Independent reported</a>.</p>
<p>Experts have said the technology aims to make rain form more efficiently inside clouds and in doing so, make more water come down.</p>
<p>Drones are used to shoot electrical charges into clouds, causing them to clump together and trigger more rainfall.</p>
<p>Footage shared on Sunday by the UAE’s National Center of Meteorology showed the intense showers flooding roads in addition to flashes of lightning.</p>
<figure><div><p><a href="#"></a></p></div><figcaption>The technology works by having drones shoot electrical charges into clouds. </figcaption></figure>
<p>Rainmaking has become common in dry countries such as the United Arab Emirates, which typically only records four inches of rain a year, the Independent reported.</p>
<p>“The global water shortage is worsening in many parts of the world, so the demand for fresh water is increasing,” said Linda Zou, a professor at the UAE’s Khalifa University of Science and Technology.</p>
<figure><div><p><a href="#"></a></p></div><figcaption>Rainmaking has become common in dry countries such as the United Arab Emirates. </figcaption></figure>
<p>“Cloud seeding could be one of the methods that can contribute to alleviating the water problem.”</p>
<p><em>With Post wires</em></p>
<figure><div><p><a href="#"></a></p></div><figcaption>A pilot and a United Arab Emirates (UAE) official from the national center for meteorology and seismology check salt flares attached to a plane that is fired into a promising cloud to increase condensation and hopefully trigger rainfall. </figcaption></figure>
<figure><div><p><a href="#"></a></p></div><figcaption>An explanation of how the “cloud seeding” process works. </figcaption></figure>
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 Dubai making its own rain to beat 120-degree heat

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 Back to Reading
 Published July 21, 2021
 Updated Aug. 8, 2021, 1:02 p.m. ET

 Explore More

 * Stranded travelers in flooded airport panicking, say they are ‘running out of food’

 * Historic UAE storm may have been self-inflicted by cloud seeding, meteorologists claim

 * Boeing 737 pushes through biblical flash floods at Dubai Airport

 That’s one way to beat the heat!

 Officials in Dubai are using drones to artificially increase rainfall as the city grapples with oppressive heat, video this week shows.

 The rainmaking technology, known as “cloud seeding,” was put into use as summer temperatures have surged past 120 degrees Fahrenheit in the United Arab Emirates city, the Independent reported.

 Experts have said the technology aims to make rain form more efficiently inside clouds and in doing so, make more water come down.

 Drones are used to shoot electrical charges into clouds, causing them to clump together and trigger more rainfall.

 Footage shared on Sunday by the UAE’s National Center of Meteorology showed the intense showers flooding roads in addition to flashes of lightning.

 4

 The technology works by having drones shoot electrical charges into clouds. University of Bath

 Rainmaking has become common in dry countries such as the United Arab Emirates, which typically only records four inches of rain a year, the Independent reported.

 “The global water shortage is worsening in many parts of the world, so the demand for fresh water is increasing,” said Linda Zou, a professor at the UAE’s Khalifa University of Science and Technology.

 4

 Rainmaking has become common in dry countries such as the United Arab Emirates. National Center of Meteorology

 “Cloud seeding could be one of the methods that can contribute to alleviating the water problem.”

 With Post wires

 4

 A pilot and a United Arab Emirates (UAE) official from the national center for meteorology and seismology check salt flares attached to a plane that is fired into a promising cloud to increase condensation and hopefully trigger rainfall. AFP via Getty Images

 4

 An explanation of how the “cloud seeding” process works. Journal of Atmospheric and Ocean

 Filed under
 * dubai
 * extreme weather
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 The technology works by having drones shoot electrical charges into clouds.
 Rainmaking has become common in dry countries such as the United Arab Emirates.
 A pilot and a United Arab Emirates (UAE) official from the national center for meteorology and seismology check salt flares attached to a plane that is fired into a promising cloud to increase condensation and hopefully trigger rainfall.
 An explanation of how the "cloud seeding" process works.
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That’s one way to beat the heat!
Officials in Dubai are using drones to artificially increase rainfall as the city grapples with oppressive heat, video this week shows.
The rainmaking technology, known as “cloud seeding,” was put into use as summer temperatures have surged past 120 degrees Fahrenheit in the United Arab Emirates city, the Independent reported.
Experts have said the technology aims to make rain form more efficiently inside clouds and in doing so, make more water come down.
Drones are used to shoot electrical charges into clouds, causing them to clump together and trigger more rainfall.
Footage shared on Sunday by the UAE’s National Center of Meteorology showed the intense showers flooding roads in addition to flashes of lightning.
       The technology works by having drones shoot electrical charges into clouds.  
Rainmaking has become common in dry countries such as the United Arab Emirates, which typically only records four inches of rain a year, the Independent reported.
“The global water shortage is worsening in many parts of the world, so the demand for fresh water is increasing,” said Linda Zou, a professor at the UAE’s Khalifa University of Science and Technology.
       Rainmaking has become common in dry countries such as the United Arab Emirates.  
“Cloud seeding could be one of the methods that can contribute to alleviating the water problem.”
 With Post wires 
       A pilot and a United Arab Emirates (UAE) official from the national center for meteorology and seismology check salt flares attached to a plane that is fired into a promising cloud to increase condensation and hopefully trigger rainfall.  
       An explanation of how the “cloud seeding” process works.
Dubai making its own rain to beat 120-degree heat
https://nypost.com/2021/07/21/dubai-making-its-own-rain-to-beat-120-degree-heat/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rain
Rain - Wikipedia
2002-01-20
Authority control National libraries Spain France Ukraine Germany Israel United States Japan Czech Republic
<div><div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Hard_rain_on_a_roof.jpg"></a></p></div>
<div><p></p></div>
<p><b>Rain</b> is water <a href="/wiki/Drop_(liquid)">droplets</a> that have <a href="/wiki/Condensation">condensed</a> from <a href="/wiki/Water_vapor#In_Earth's_atmosphere">atmospheric water vapor</a> and then <a href="/wiki/Precipitation">fall under gravity</a>. Rain is a major component of the <a href="/wiki/Water_cycle">water cycle</a> and is responsible for depositing most of the <a href="/wiki/Fresh_water">fresh water</a> on the Earth. It provides water for <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity">hydroelectric power plants</a>, crop <a href="/wiki/Irrigation">irrigation</a>, and suitable conditions for many types of <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem">ecosystems</a>.
</p><p>The major cause of rain production is moisture moving along three-dimensional zones of temperature and moisture contrasts known as <a href="/wiki/Weather_fronts">weather fronts</a>. If enough moisture and upward motion is present, precipitation falls from <a href="/wiki/Convection">convective</a> clouds (those with strong upward vertical motion) such as <a href="/wiki/Cumulonimbus">cumulonimbus</a> (thunder clouds) which can organize into narrow <a href="/wiki/Rainbands">rainbands</a>. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where <a href="/wiki/Upslope_flow">upslope flow</a> is maximized within <a href="/wiki/Windward">windward</a> sides of the <a href="/wiki/Terrain">terrain</a> at elevation which forces moist air to condense and fall out as rainfall along the sides of mountains. On the <a href="/wiki/Leeward">leeward</a> side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by downslope flow which causes heating and drying of the <a href="/wiki/Air_mass">air mass</a>. The movement of the <a href="/wiki/Monsoon_trough">monsoon trough</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Intertropical_convergence_zone">intertropical convergence zone</a>, brings <a href="/wiki/Wet_season">rainy seasons</a> to <a href="/wiki/Savannah">savannah</a> <a href="/wiki/Clime">climes</a>.
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island">urban heat island</a> effect leads to increased rainfall, both in amounts and intensity, downwind of cities. <a href="/wiki/Global_warming">Global warming</a> is also causing changes in the precipitation pattern globally, including wetter conditions across eastern North America and drier conditions in the tropics. Antarctica is the driest continent. The globally averaged annual precipitation over land is 715 mm (28.1 in), but over the whole Earth it is much higher at 990 mm (39 in).<sup><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Climate_classification">Climate classification</a> systems such as the <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification">Köppen classification</a> system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Rainfall is measured using <a href="/wiki/Rain_gauge">rain gauges</a>. Rainfall amounts can be estimated by <a href="/wiki/Weather_radar">weather radar</a>.
</p><p>Rain is also known or suspected on other planets, where it may be composed of <a href="/wiki/Methane">methane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neon">neon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid">sulfuric acid</a>, or even <a href="/wiki/Iron">iron</a> rather than water.
</p>
<h2>Formation</h2>
<h3>Water-saturated air</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Vihm_Osula_k%C3%BCla_talivilja_p%C3%B5llul.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Rain falling on a field, in southern <a href="/wiki/Estonia">Estonia</a></p></div></div>
<p>Air contains water vapor, and the amount of water in a given mass of dry air, known as the <i>mixing ratio</i>, is measured in grams of water per kilogram of dry air (g/kg).<sup><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> The amount of moisture in air is also commonly reported as <a href="/wiki/Relative_humidity">relative humidity</a>; which is the percentage of the total water vapor air can hold at a particular air temperature.<sup><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> How much water vapor a parcel of air can contain before it becomes saturated (100% relative humidity) and forms into a <a href="/wiki/Cloud">cloud</a> (a group of visible and tiny water and ice <a href="/wiki/Particle">particles</a> suspended above the Earth's surface)<sup><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> depends on its temperature. Warmer air can contain more water vapor than cooler air before becoming saturated. Therefore, one way to saturate a parcel of air is to cool it. The <a href="/wiki/Dew_point">dew point</a> is the temperature to which a parcel must be cooled in order to become saturated.<sup><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Raining_street_in_the_night_-_panoramio.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>There are four main mechanisms for cooling the air to its dew point: adiabatic cooling, conductive cooling, radiational cooling, and evaporative cooling. <a href="/wiki/Adiabatic_lapse_rate#Dry_adiabatic_lapse_rate">Adiabatic cooling</a> occurs when air rises and expands.<sup><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> The air can rise due to <a href="/wiki/Convection">convection</a>, large-scale atmospheric motions, or a physical barrier such as a mountain (<a href="/wiki/Orographic_lift">orographic lift</a>). Conductive cooling occurs when the air comes into contact with a colder surface,<sup><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> usually by being blown from one surface to another, for example from a liquid water surface to colder land. Radiational cooling occurs due to the emission of <a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation">infrared radiation</a>, either by the air or by the surface underneath.<sup><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup> Evaporative cooling occurs when moisture is added to the air through evaporation, which forces the air temperature to cool to its <a href="/wiki/Wet-bulb_temperature">wet-bulb temperature</a>, or until it reaches saturation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup>
</p><p>The main ways water vapor is added to the air are: wind convergence into areas of upward motion,<sup><a href="#cite_note-convection-11">[11]</a></sup> precipitation or virga falling from above,<sup><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup> daytime heating evaporating water from the surface of oceans, water bodies or wet land,<sup><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup> transpiration from plants,<sup><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> cool or dry air moving over warmer water,<sup><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup> and lifting air over mountains.<sup><a href="#cite_note-MT-16">[16]</a></sup> Water vapor normally begins to condense on <a href="/wiki/Cloud_condensation_nuclei">condensation nuclei</a> such as dust, ice, and salt in order to form clouds. Elevated portions of weather fronts (which are three-dimensional in nature)<sup><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup> force broad areas of upward motion within the Earth's atmosphere which form clouds decks such as <a href="/wiki/Altostratus">altostratus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cirrostratus">cirrostratus</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-DR-18">[18]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Stratus_cloud">Stratus</a> is a stable cloud deck which tends to form when a cool, stable air mass is trapped underneath a warm air mass. It can also form due to the lifting of <a href="/wiki/Radiation_fog">advection fog</a> during breezy conditions.<sup><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Coalescence and fragmentation</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Raindrops_sizes.svg"></a></p><div><p>The shape of rain drops depending upon their size</p></div></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Coalescence_(meteorology)">Coalescence</a> occurs when water droplets fuse to create larger water droplets. Air resistance typically causes the water droplets in a cloud to remain stationary. When air turbulence occurs, water droplets collide, producing larger droplets.
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Black_Rain_Clouds.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>As these larger water droplets descend, coalescence continues, so that drops become heavy enough to overcome air resistance and fall as rain. Coalescence generally happens most often in clouds above freezing, and is also known as the warm rain process.<sup><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup> In clouds below freezing, when ice crystals gain enough mass they begin to fall. This generally requires more mass than coalescence when occurring between the crystal and neighboring water droplets. This process is temperature dependent, as supercooled water droplets only exist in a cloud that is below freezing. In addition, because of the great temperature difference between cloud and ground level, these ice crystals may melt as they fall and become rain.<sup><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup>
</p><p>Raindrops have sizes ranging from 0.1 to 9 mm (0.0039 to 0.3543 in) mean diameter but develop a tendency to break up at larger sizes. Smaller drops are called cloud droplets, and their shape is spherical. As a raindrop increases in size, its shape becomes more oblate, with its largest cross-section facing the oncoming airflow. Large rain drops become increasingly flattened on the bottom, like <a href="/wiki/Hamburger">hamburger</a> buns; very large ones are shaped like <a href="/wiki/Parachute">parachutes</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Villermaux-23">[23]</a></sup> Contrary to popular belief, their shape does not resemble a teardrop.<sup><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup> The biggest raindrops on Earth were recorded over Brazil and the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands">Marshall Islands</a> in 2004 — some of them were as large as 10 mm (0.39 in). The large size is explained by condensation on large <a href="/wiki/Smoke">smoke</a> particles or by collisions between drops in small regions with particularly high content of liquid water.<sup><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup>
</p><p>Rain drops associated with melting hail tend to be larger than other rain drops.<sup><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Water_Drop_on_rose_leaf.JPG"></a></p></div>
<p>Intensity and duration of rainfall are usually inversely related, i.e., high intensity storms are likely to be of short duration and low intensity storms can have a long duration.<sup><a href="#cite_note-JS-27">[27]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Droplet size distribution</h3>
<p>The final droplet size distribution is an <a href="/wiki/Exponential_distribution">exponential distribution</a>. The number of droplets with diameter between and per unit volume of space is . This is commonly referred to as the Marshall–Palmer law after the researchers who first characterized it.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Villermaux-23">[23]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup> The parameters are somewhat temperature-dependent,<sup><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup> and the slope also scales with the rate of rainfall (d in centimeters and R in millimeters per hour).<sup><a href="#cite_note-Villermaux-23">[23]</a></sup>
</p><p>Deviations can occur for small droplets and during different rainfall conditions. The distribution tends to fit averaged rainfall, while instantaneous size spectra often deviate and have been modeled as <a href="/wiki/Gamma_distribution">gamma distributions</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup> The distribution has an upper limit due to droplet fragmentation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Villermaux-23">[23]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Raindrop impacts</h3>
<p>Raindrops impact at their <a href="/wiki/Terminal_velocity">terminal velocity</a>, which is greater for larger drops due to their larger mass to drag ratio. At sea level and without wind, 0.5 mm (0.020 in) <a href="/wiki/Drizzle">drizzle</a> impacts at 2 m/s (6.6 ft/s) or 7.2 km/h (4.5 mph), while large 5 mm (0.20 in) drops impact at around 9 m/s (30 ft/s) or 32 km/h (20 mph).<sup><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup>
</p><p>Rain falling on loosely packed material such as newly fallen ash can produce dimples that can be fossilized, called <a href="/wiki/Raindrop_impressions">raindrop impressions</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup> The air density dependence of the maximum raindrop diameter together with fossil raindrop imprints has been used to constrain the density of the air 2.7 billion years ago.<sup><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Droplet#Sound">sound of raindrops</a> hitting water is caused by bubbles of air <a href="/wiki/Minnaert_resonance">oscillating underwater</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/METAR">METAR</a> code for rain is RA, while the coding for rain showers is SHRA.<sup><a href="#cite_note-METAR-37">[37]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Virga</h3>
<p>In certain conditions precipitation may fall from a cloud but then evaporate or <a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(phase_transition)">sublime</a> before reaching the ground. This is termed <a href="/wiki/Virga">virga</a> and is more often seen in hot and dry climates.
</p>
<h2>Causes</h2>
<h3>Frontal activity</h3>
<p>Stratiform (a broad shield of precipitation with a relatively similar intensity) and dynamic precipitation (convective precipitation which is showery in nature with large changes in intensity over short distances) occur as a consequence of slow ascent of air in <a href="/wiki/Synoptic_scale_meteorology">synoptic systems</a> (on the order of cm/s), such as in the vicinity of <a href="/wiki/Cold_front">cold fronts</a> and near and poleward of surface <a href="/wiki/Warm_front">warm fronts</a>. Similar ascent is seen around <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone">tropical cyclones</a> outside the <a href="/wiki/Eye_(cyclone)">eyewall</a>, and in comma-head precipitation patterns around <a href="/wiki/Mid-latitude_cyclone">mid-latitude cyclones</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Geerts-38">[38]</a></sup> A wide variety of weather can be found along an occluded front, with thunderstorms possible, but usually their passage is associated with a drying of the air mass. Occluded fronts usually form around mature low-pressure areas.<sup><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-39">[39]</a></sup> What separates rainfall from other precipitation types, such as <a href="/wiki/Ice_pellets">ice pellets</a> and snow, is the presence of a thick layer of air aloft which is above the melting point of water, which melts the frozen precipitation well before it reaches the ground. If there is a shallow near surface layer that is below freezing, freezing rain (rain which freezes on contact with surfaces in subfreezing environments) will result.<sup><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hail">Hail</a> becomes an increasingly infrequent occurrence when the freezing level within the atmosphere exceeds 3,400 m (11,000 ft) above ground level.<sup><a href="#cite_note-mesoanal-41">[41]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Convection</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Konvektionsregen.jpg"></a></p></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Steigungsregen.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Convection_rain">Convective rain</a>, or showery precipitation, occurs from convective clouds (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Cumulonimbus">cumulonimbus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cumulus_congestus">cumulus congestus</a>). It falls as showers with rapidly changing intensity. Convective precipitation falls over a certain area for a relatively short time, as convective clouds have limited horizontal extent. Most precipitation in the <a href="/wiki/Tropics">tropics</a> appears to be convective; however, it has been suggested that stratiform precipitation also occurs.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Geerts-38">[38]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Graupel">Graupel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hail">hail</a> indicate convection.<sup><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup> In mid-latitudes, convective precipitation is intermittent and often associated with baroclinic boundaries such as <a href="/wiki/Cold_front">cold fronts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Squall_line">squall lines</a>, and warm fronts.<sup><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Orographic effects</h3>
<p>Orographic precipitation occurs on the <a href="/wiki/Windward">windward</a> side of mountains and is caused by the rising air motion of a large-scale flow of moist air across the mountain ridge, resulting in <a href="/wiki/Adiabatic_lapse_rate">adiabatic</a> cooling and condensation. In mountainous parts of the world subjected to relatively consistent winds (for example, the <a href="/wiki/Trade_wind">trade winds</a>), a more moist <a href="/wiki/Climate">climate</a> usually prevails on the windward side of a mountain than on the <a href="/wiki/Leeward">leeward</a> or downwind side. Moisture is removed by orographic lift, leaving drier air (see <a href="/wiki/Katabatic_wind">katabatic wind</a>) on the descending and generally warming, leeward side where a <a href="/wiki/Rain_shadow">rain shadow</a> is observed.<sup><a href="#cite_note-MT-16">[16]</a></sup>
</p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Hawaii">Hawaii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mount_Wai%CA%BBale%CA%BBale">Mount Waiʻaleʻale</a>, on the island of Kauai, is notable for its extreme rainfall, as it is amongst the places in the world with the highest levels of rainfall, with 9,500 mm (373 in).<sup><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup> Systems known as <a href="/wiki/Kona_storm">Kona storms</a> affect the state with heavy rains between October and April.<sup><a href="#cite_note-BIRCH-46">[46]</a></sup> Local climates vary considerably on each island due to their topography, divisible into windward (<i>Koʻolau</i>) and leeward (<i>Kona</i>) regions based upon location relative to the higher mountains. Windward sides face the east to northeast <a href="/wiki/Trade_winds">trade winds</a> and receive much more rainfall; leeward sides are drier and sunnier, with less rain and less cloud cover.<sup><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup>
</p><p>In South America, the <a href="/wiki/Andes">Andes</a> mountain range blocks Pacific moisture that arrives in that continent, resulting in a desertlike climate just downwind across western Argentina.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Andes-48">[48]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Nevada_(U.S.)">Sierra Nevada</a> range creates the same effect in North America forming the <a href="/wiki/Great_Basin">Great Basin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mojave_Desert">Mojave Deserts</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Within the tropics</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Cairns_climate.svg"></a></p><div><p>Rainfall distribution by month in <a href="/wiki/Cairns">Cairns</a> showing the extent of the wet season at that location</p></div></div>
<p>The wet, or rainy, season is the time of year, covering one or more months, when most of the average annual rainfall in a region falls.<sup><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup> The term <i>green season</i> is also sometimes used as a <a href="/wiki/Euphemism">euphemism</a> by tourist authorities.<sup><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup> Areas with wet seasons are dispersed across portions of the <a href="/wiki/Tropics">tropics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subtropics">subtropics</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Savanna">Savanna</a> climates and areas with <a href="/wiki/Monsoon">monsoon</a> regimes have wet summers and dry winters. Tropical rainforests technically do not have dry or wet seasons, since their rainfall is equally distributed through the year.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Hyde-54">[54]</a></sup> Some areas with pronounced rainy seasons will see a break in rainfall mid-season when the <a href="/wiki/Intertropical_convergence_zone">intertropical convergence zone</a> or <a href="/wiki/Monsoon_trough">monsoon trough</a> move poleward of their location during the middle of the warm season.<sup><a href="#cite_note-JS-27">[27]</a></sup> When the wet season occurs during the warm season, or <a href="/wiki/Summer">summer</a>, rain falls mainly during the late afternoon and early evening hours. The wet season is a time when <a href="/wiki/Air_quality">air quality</a> improves,<sup><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Freshwater">freshwater</a> quality improves,<sup><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup> and vegetation grows significantly.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone">Tropical cyclones</a>, a source of very heavy rainfall, consist of large air masses several hundred miles across with low pressure at the centre and with winds blowing inward towards the centre in either a clockwise direction (southern hemisphere) or counter clockwise (northern hemisphere).<sup><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup> Although <a href="/wiki/Cyclone">cyclones</a> can take an enormous toll in lives and personal property, they may be important factors in the precipitation regimes of places they impact, as they may bring much-needed precipitation to otherwise dry regions.<sup><a href="#cite_note-2005_EPac_outlook-59">[59]</a></sup> Areas in their path can receive a year's worth of rainfall from a tropical cyclone passage.<sup><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Human influence</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Atlanta_thermal.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Image of <a href="/wiki/Atlanta">Atlanta</a>, US showing temperature distribution, with blue showing cool temperatures, red warm, and hot areas appearing white.</p></div></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Change_in_Average_Temperature_With_Fahrenheit.svg"></a></p><div><p>Average surface air temperatures from 2011 to 2020 compared to the 1951–1980 average. Source: <a href="/wiki/Goddard_Institute_for_Space_Studies">NASA</a></p></div></div>
<p>The fine particulate matter produced by car exhaust and other human sources of pollution forms <a href="/wiki/Cloud_condensation_nuclei">cloud condensation nuclei</a>, leads to the production of clouds and increases the likelihood of rain. As commuters and commercial traffic cause pollution to build up over the course of the week, the likelihood of rain increases: it peaks by Saturday, after five days of weekday pollution has been built up. In heavily populated areas that are near the coast, such as the United States' <a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States">Eastern Seaboard</a>, the effect can be dramatic: there is a 22% higher chance of rain on Saturdays than on Mondays.<sup><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup> The urban heat island effect warms cities 0.6 to 5.6 °C (1.1 to 10.1 °F) above surrounding suburbs and rural areas. This extra heat leads to greater upward motion, which can induce additional shower and thunderstorm activity. Rainfall rates downwind of cities are increased between 48% and 116%. Partly as a result of this warming, monthly rainfall is about 28% greater between 32 to 64 km (20 to 40 mi) downwind of cities, compared with upwind.<sup><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></sup> Some cities induce a total precipitation increase of 51%.<sup><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup>
</p><p>Increasing temperatures tend to increase evaporation which can lead to more precipitation. Precipitation generally increased over land north of 30°N from 1900 through 2005 but has declined over the tropics since the 1970s. Globally there has been no statistically significant overall trend in precipitation over the past century, although trends have varied widely by region and over time. Eastern portions of North and South America, northern Europe, and northern and central Asia have become wetter. The Sahel, the Mediterranean, southern Africa and parts of southern Asia have become drier. There has been an increase in the number of heavy precipitation events over many areas during the past century, as well as an increase since the 1970s in the prevalence of droughts—especially in the tropics and subtropics. Changes in precipitation and evaporation over the oceans are suggested by the decreased salinity of mid- and high-latitude waters (implying more precipitation), along with increased salinity in lower latitudes (implying less precipitation and/or more evaporation). Over the contiguous United States, total annual precipitation increased at an average rate of 6.1 percent since 1900, with the greatest increases within the East North Central climate region (11.6 percent per century) and the South (11.1 percent). Hawaii was the only region to show a decrease (−9.25 percent).<sup><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup>
</p><p>Analysis of 65 years of United States of America rainfall records show the lower 48 states have an increase in heavy downpours since 1950. The largest increases are in the Northeast and Midwest, which in the past decade, have seen 31 and 16 percent more heavy downpours compared to the 1950s. <a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island">Rhode Island</a> is the state with the largest increase, 104%. <a href="/wiki/McAllen,_Texas">McAllen, Texas</a> is the city with the largest increase, 700%. Heavy downpour in the analysis are the days where total precipitation exceeded the top one percent of all rain and snow days during the years 1950–2014.<sup><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup>
</p><p>The most successful attempts at influencing weather involve <a href="/wiki/Cloud_seeding">cloud seeding</a>, which include techniques used to increase <a href="/wiki/Snow">winter precipitation</a> over mountains and suppress <a href="/wiki/Hail">hail</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-AMSmod-67">[67]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Characteristics</h2>
<h3>Patterns</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Sturmfront_auf_Doppler-Radar-Schirm.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Rainband">Rainbands</a> are cloud and precipitation areas which are significantly elongated. Rainbands can be <a href="/wiki/Stratus_cloud">stratiform</a> or <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_convection">convective</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></sup> and are generated by differences in temperature. When noted on <a href="/wiki/Weather_radar">weather radar</a> imagery, this precipitation elongation is referred to as banded structure.<sup><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></sup> Rainbands in advance of warm <a href="/wiki/Occluded_front">occluded fronts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Warm_front">warm fronts</a> are associated with weak upward motion,<sup><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></sup> and tend to be wide and stratiform in nature.<sup><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></sup>
</p><p>Rainbands spawned near and ahead of <a href="/wiki/Cold_front">cold fronts</a> can be <a href="/wiki/Squall_line">squall lines</a> which are able to produce <a href="/wiki/Tornado">tornadoes</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></sup> Rainbands associated with cold fronts can be warped by mountain barriers perpendicular to the front's orientation due to the formation of a low-level <a href="/wiki/Barrier_jet">barrier jet</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></sup> Bands of thunderstorms can form with <a href="/wiki/Sea_breeze">sea breeze</a> and <a href="/wiki/Land_breeze">land breeze</a> boundaries, if enough moisture is present. If sea breeze rainbands become active enough just ahead of a cold front, they can mask the location of the cold front itself.<sup><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></sup>
</p><p>Once a cyclone occludes an <a href="/wiki/Occluded_front">occluded front</a> (a trough of warm air aloft) will be caused by strong southerly winds on its eastern periphery rotating aloft around its northeast, and ultimately northwestern, periphery (also termed the warm conveyor belt), forcing a surface trough to continue into the cold sector on a similar curve to the occluded front. The front creates the portion of an occluded cyclone known as its <i>comma head</i>, due to the <a href="/wiki/Comma_(punctuation)">comma</a>-like shape of the mid-tropospheric cloudiness that accompanies the feature. It can also be the focus of locally heavy precipitation, with thunderstorms possible if the atmosphere along the front is unstable enough for convection.<sup><a href="#cite_note-TROW-75">[75]</a></sup> Banding within the comma head precipitation pattern of an <a href="/wiki/Extratropical_cyclone">extratropical cyclone</a> can yield significant amounts of rain.<sup><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></sup> Behind extratropical cyclones during fall and winter, rainbands can form downwind of relative warm bodies of water such as the <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes">Great Lakes</a>. Downwind of islands, bands of showers and thunderstorms can develop due to low level wind convergence downwind of the island edges. Offshore <a href="/wiki/California">California</a>, this has been noted in the wake of cold fronts.<sup><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></sup>
</p><p>Rainbands within tropical cyclones are curved in orientation. Tropical cyclone rainbands contain showers and thunderstorms that, together with the eyewall and the eye, constitute a <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone">hurricane or tropical storm</a>. The extent of rainbands around a tropical cyclone can help determine the cyclone's intensity.<sup><a href="#cite_note-ODT-78">[78]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Acidity</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Origins_of_acid_rain.svg"></a></p></div>
<p>The phrase <i>acid rain</i> was first used by Scottish chemist Robert Augus Smith in 1852.<sup><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/PH">pH</a> of rain varies, especially due to its origin. On America's East Coast, rain that is derived from the Atlantic Ocean typically has a pH of 5.0–5.6; rain that comes across the continental from the west has a pH of 3.8–4.8; and local thunderstorms can have a pH as low as 2.0.<sup><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a></sup> Rain becomes acidic primarily due to the presence of two strong acids, <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid">sulfuric acid</a> (H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>) and <a href="/wiki/Nitric_acid">nitric acid</a> (HNO<sub>3</sub>). Sulfuric acid is derived from natural sources such as volcanoes, and wetlands (sulfate reducing bacteria); and anthropogenic sources such as the combustion of fossil fuels, and mining where H<sub>2</sub>S is present. Nitric acid is produced by natural sources such as lightning, soil bacteria, and natural fires; while also produced anthropogenically by the combustion of fossil fuels and from power plants. In the past 20 years the concentrations of nitric and sulfuric acid has decreased in presence of rainwater, which may be due to the significant increase in ammonium (most likely as ammonia from livestock production), which acts as a <a href="/wiki/Buffer_solution">buffer</a> in acid rain and raises the pH.<sup><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Köppen climate classification</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:World_K%C3%B6ppen_Classification_(with_authors).svg"></a></p></div>
<p>The Köppen classification depends on average monthly values of temperature and precipitation. The most commonly used form of the Köppen classification has five primary types labeled A through E. Specifically, the primary types are A, tropical; B, dry; C, mild mid-latitude; D, cold mid-latitude; and E, polar. The five primary classifications can be further divided into secondary classifications such as <a href="/wiki/Rain_forest">rain forest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monsoon">monsoon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tropical_savanna">tropical savanna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Humid_subtropical">humid subtropical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Humid_continental">humid continental</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_climate">oceanic climate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_climate">Mediterranean climate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steppe">steppe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Subarctic_climate">subarctic climate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tundra">tundra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polar_ice_cap">polar ice cap</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Desert">desert</a>.
</p><p>Rain forests are characterized by high rainfall, with definitions setting minimum normal annual rainfall between 1,750 and 2,000 mm (69 and 79 in).<sup><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></sup> A tropical savanna is a <a href="/wiki/Grassland">grassland</a> <a href="/wiki/Biome">biome</a> located in <a href="/wiki/Semi-arid">semi-arid</a> to <a href="/wiki/Humid">semi-humid</a> climate regions of <a href="/wiki/Subtropical">subtropical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tropical">tropical</a> <a href="/wiki/Latitudes">latitudes</a>, with rainfall between 750 and 1,270 mm (30 and 50 in) a year. They are widespread on Africa, and are also found in India, the northern parts of South America, <a href="/wiki/Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, and Australia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-SAVWOOD-84">[84]</a></sup> The humid subtropical climate zone is where winter rainfall is associated with large <a href="/wiki/Storm">storms</a> that the <a href="/wiki/Westerlies">westerlies</a> steer from west to east. Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms and from occasional tropical cyclones.<sup><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></sup> Humid subtropical climates lie on the east side continents, roughly between <a href="/wiki/Latitude">latitudes</a> 20° and 40° degrees away from the equator.<sup><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></sup>
</p><p>An oceanic (or maritime) climate is typically found along the west coasts at the middle latitudes of all the world's continents, bordering cool oceans, as well as southeastern Australia, and is accompanied by plentiful precipitation year-round.<sup><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a></sup> The Mediterranean climate regime resembles the climate of the lands in the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Basin">Mediterranean Basin</a>, parts of western North America, parts of <a href="/wiki/Western_Australia">Western</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Australia">South Australia</a>, in southwestern <a href="/wiki/South_Africa">South Africa</a> and in parts of central <a href="/wiki/Chile">Chile</a>. The climate is characterized by hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters.<sup><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></sup> A steppe is a dry <a href="/wiki/Grassland">grassland</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a></sup> Subarctic climates are cold with continuous <a href="/wiki/Permafrost">permafrost</a> and little precipitation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-subritter-90">[90]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Pollution</h3>
<table><tbody><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg"></a></td><td><p>This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rain&amp;action=edit&amp;section=">adding to it</a>. <i>(October 2022)</i></p></td></tr></tbody></table>
<div><p>
In 2022 it was found that levels of at least four perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) in <a href="/wiki/Rainwater">rainwater</a> worldwide ubiquitously, and often greatly, exceeded the EPA's lifetime drinking water health advisories as well as comparable Danish, Dutch, and <a href="/wiki/European_Union">European Union</a> safety standards, leading researchers to conclude that "the global spread of these four PFAAs in the atmosphere has led to the <a href="/wiki/Planetary_boundary">planetary boundary</a> for chemical pollution being exceeded".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Per-_and_polyfluoroalkyl_substances_Cousins_Johansson_Salter_Sha_Scheringer-91">[91]</a></sup> There are some moves to restrict and replace their use.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Per-_and_polyfluoroalkyl_substances_bbc62391069-92">[92]</a></sup></p></div>
<h2>Measurement</h2>
<h3>Gauges</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:250mm_Rain_Gauge.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Rain is measured in units of length per unit time, typically in millimeters per hour,<sup><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a></sup> or in countries where <a href="/wiki/Imperial_units">imperial units</a> are more common, inches per hour.<sup><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a></sup> The "length", or more accurately, "depth" being measured is the depth of rain water that would accumulate on a flat, horizontal and impermeable surface during a given amount of time, typically an hour.<sup><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a></sup> One millimeter of rainfall is the equivalent of one liter of water per square meter.<sup><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a></sup>
</p><p>The standard way of measuring rainfall or snowfall is the standard rain gauge, which can be found in 100-mm (4-in) plastic and 200-mm (8-in) metal varieties.<sup><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></sup> The inner cylinder is filled by 25 mm (0.98 in) of rain, with overflow flowing into the outer cylinder. Plastic gauges have markings on the inner cylinder down to 0.25 mm (0.0098 in) resolution, while metal gauges require use of a stick designed with the appropriate 0.25 mm (0.0098 in) markings. After the inner cylinder is filled, the amount inside it is discarded, then filled with the remaining rainfall in the outer cylinder until all the fluid in the outer cylinder is gone, adding to the overall total until the outer cylinder is empty.<sup><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></sup> Other types of gauges include the popular wedge gauge (the cheapest rain gauge and most fragile), the tipping bucket rain gauge, and the weighing rain gauge.<sup><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></sup> For those looking to measure rainfall the most inexpensively, a can that is cylindrical with straight sides will act as a rain gauge if left out in the open, but its accuracy will depend on what ruler is used to measure the rain with. Any of the above rain gauges can be made at home, with enough know-how.<sup><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></sup>
</p><p>When a precipitation measurement is made, various networks exist across the United States and elsewhere where rainfall measurements can be submitted through the Internet, such as <a href="/wiki/Community_Collaborative_Rain,_Hail_and_Snow_network">CoCoRAHS</a> or GLOBE.<sup><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a></sup> If a network is not available in the area where one lives, the nearest local weather or met office will likely be interested in the measurement.<sup><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Remote sensing</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Radar-accumulations_eng.png"></a></p><div><p>Twenty-four-hour rainfall accumulation on the Val d'Irène radar in Eastern Canada. Zones without data in the east and southwest are caused by beam blocking from mountains. (Source: Environment Canada)</p></div></div>
<p>One of the main uses of weather radar is to be able to assess the amount of precipitations fallen over large basins for <a href="/wiki/Hydrology">hydrological</a> purposes.<sup><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></sup> For instance, river <a href="/wiki/Flood_control">flood control</a>, sewer management and dam construction are all areas where planners use rainfall accumulation data. Radar-derived rainfall estimates complement surface station data which can be used for calibration. To produce radar accumulations, rain rates over a point are estimated by using the value of reflectivity data at individual grid points. A radar equation is then used, which is
</p><div><p></p></div><p>
where Z represents the radar reflectivity, R represents the rainfall rate, and A and b are constants.<sup><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a></sup> 
Satellite derived rainfall estimates use passive <a href="/wiki/Microwave">microwave</a> instruments aboard <a href="/wiki/Polar_orbit">polar orbiting</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Geostationary_orbit">geostationary</a> <a href="/wiki/Weather_satellite">weather satellites</a> to indirectly measure rainfall rates.<sup><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></sup> If one wants an accumulated rainfall over a time period, one has to add up all the accumulations from each grid box within the images during that time.
</p>
<div><p>1988 rain in the U.S. The heaviest rain is seen in reds and yellows.</p></div>
<h3>Intensity</h3>
<div>
<div><p></p></div>
<div>
<p>The sound of a heavy rain fall in suburban neighborhood</p></div></div>
<p>Rainfall intensity is classified according to the rate of precipitation, which depends on the considered time.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Monjo1-107">[107]</a></sup> The following categories are used to classify rainfall intensity:
</p>
<ul><li>Light rain — when the precipitation rate is &lt; 2.5 mm (0.098 in) per hour</li>
<li>Moderate rain — when the precipitation rate is between 2.5 mm (0.098 in) – 7.6 mm (0.30 in) or 10 mm (0.39 in) per hour<sup><a href="#cite_note-rainint-108">[108]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-UKint-109">[109]</a></sup></li>
<li>Heavy rain — when the precipitation rate is &gt; 7.6 mm (0.30 in) per hour,<sup><a href="#cite_note-rainint-108">[108]</a></sup> or between 10 mm (0.39 in) and 50 mm (2.0 in) per hour<sup><a href="#cite_note-UKint-109">[109]</a></sup></li>
<li>Violent rain — when the precipitation rate is &gt; 50 mm (2.0 in) per hour<sup><a href="#cite_note-UKint-109">[109]</a></sup></li></ul>
<p>Euphemisms for a heavy or violent rain include gully washer, trash-mover and toad-strangler.<sup><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a></sup>
The intensity can also be expressed by rainfall erosivity <i>R-factor</i><sup><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></sup> or in terms of the rainfall time-structure <i>n-index</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Monjo1-107">[107]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Return period</h3>
<p>The average time between occurrences of an event with a specified intensity and duration is called the <a href="/wiki/Return_period">return period</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-glossary-112">[112]</a></sup> The intensity of a storm can be predicted for any return period and storm duration, from charts based on historic data for the location.<sup><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a></sup> The return period is often expressed as an <i>n</i>-year event. For instance, a 10-year storm describes a rare rainfall event occurring on average once every 10 years. The rainfall will be greater and the flooding will be worse than the worst storm expected in any single year. A 100-year storm describes an extremely rare rainfall event occurring on average once in a century. The rainfall will be extreme and flooding worse than a 10-year event. The probability of an event in any year is the inverse of the return period (assuming the probability remains the same for each year).<sup><a href="#cite_note-glossary-112">[112]</a></sup> For instance a 10-year storm has a probability of occurring of 10 percent in any given year, and a 100-year storm occurs with a 1 percent probability in a year. As with all probability events, it is possible, though improbable, to have multiple 100-year storms in a single year.<sup><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Forecasting</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rita5dayqpf.png"></a></p></div>
<p>The Quantitative Precipitation Forecast (abbreviated QPF) is the expected amount of liquid precipitation accumulated over a specified time period over a specified area.<sup><a href="#cite_note-SERFC-115">[115]</a></sup> A QPF will be specified when a measurable precipitation type reaching a minimum threshold is forecast for any hour during a QPF valid period. Precipitation forecasts tend to be bound by synoptic hours such as 0000, 0600, 1200 and 1800 <a href="/wiki/GMT">GMT</a>. Terrain is considered in QPFs by use of topography or based upon climatological precipitation patterns from observations with fine detail.<sup><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a></sup> Starting in the mid to late 1990s, QPFs were used within hydrologic forecast models to simulate impact to rivers throughout the United States.<sup><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a></sup> 
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Numerical_weather_prediction">Forecast models</a> show significant sensitivity to humidity levels within the <a href="/wiki/Planetary_boundary_layer">planetary boundary layer</a>, or in the lowest levels of the atmosphere, which decreases with height.<sup><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a></sup> QPF can be generated on a quantitative, forecasting amounts, or a qualitative, forecasting the probability of a specific amount, basis.<sup><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a></sup> Radar imagery forecasting techniques show higher <a href="/wiki/Forecast_skill">skill</a> than model forecasts within 6 to 7 hours of the time of the radar image. The forecasts can be verified through use of rain gauge measurements, weather radar estimates, or a combination of both. Various skill scores can be determined to measure the value of the rainfall forecast.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Canada-120">[120]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Impact</h2>
<h3>Agricultural</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Heavy_Rains_in_Southern_Japan.gif"></a></p><div><p>Rainfall estimates for southern Japan and the surrounding region from 20–27 July 2009.</p></div></div>
<p>Precipitation, especially rain, has a dramatic effect on agriculture. All plants need at least some water to survive, therefore rain (being the most effective means of watering) is important to agriculture. While a regular rain pattern is usually vital to healthy plants, too much or too little rainfall can be harmful, even devastating to crops. <a href="/wiki/Drought">Drought</a> can kill crops and increase erosion,<sup><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a></sup> while overly wet weather can cause harmful <a href="/wiki/Fungus">fungus</a> growth.<sup><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a></sup> Plants need varying amounts of rainfall to survive. For example, certain <a href="/wiki/Cactus">cacti</a> require small amounts of water,<sup><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a></sup> while tropical plants may need up to hundreds of inches of rain per year to survive.
</p><p>In areas with wet and dry seasons, <a href="/wiki/Soil">soil</a> nutrients diminish and erosion increases during the wet season.<sup><a href="#cite_note-JS-27">[27]</a></sup> Animals have adaptation and survival strategies for the wetter regime. The previous dry season leads to food shortages into the wet season, as the crops have yet to mature.<sup><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a></sup> Developing countries have noted that their populations show seasonal weight fluctuations due to food shortages seen before the first harvest, which occurs late in the wet season.<sup><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a></sup> Rain may be <a href="/wiki/Rainwater_harvesting">harvested</a> through the use of <a href="/wiki/Rainwater_tank">rainwater tanks</a>; treated to potable use or for non-potable use indoors or for irrigation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a></sup> Excessive rain during short periods of time can cause <a href="/wiki/Flash_flood">flash floods</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Culture and religion</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Harar_Dance.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Cultural attitudes towards rain differ across the world. In <a href="/wiki/Temperate_climate">temperate climates</a>, people tend to be more stressed when the weather is unstable or cloudy, with its impact greater on men than women.<sup><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a></sup> Rain can also bring joy, as some consider it to be soothing or enjoy the aesthetic appeal of it. In dry places, such as India,<sup><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a></sup> or during periods of <a href="/wiki/Drought">drought</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a></sup> rain lifts people's moods. In <a href="/wiki/Botswana">Botswana</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Setswana">Setswana</a> word for rain, <i>pula</i>, is used as <a href="/wiki/Botswana_pula">the name of the national currency</a>, in recognition of the economic importance of rain in its country, since it has a desert climate.<sup><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a></sup> Several cultures have developed means of dealing with rain and have developed numerous protection devices such as <a href="/wiki/Umbrella">umbrellas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Raincoat">raincoats</a>, and diversion devices such as <a href="/wiki/Rain_gutter">gutters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Storm_drain">storm drains</a> that lead rains to sewers.<sup><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a></sup> Many people find the scent during and immediately after rain pleasant or distinctive. The source of this scent is <a href="/wiki/Petrichor">petrichor</a>, an oil produced by plants, then absorbed by rocks and soil, and later released into the air during rainfall.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Bear1964-133">[133]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Nuremberg_Chronicle_f_029r_2.png"></a></p></div>
<p>Rain holds an important religious significance in many cultures.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Mersereau-134">[134]</a></sup> The ancient <a href="/wiki/Sumer">Sumerians</a> believed that rain was the <a href="/wiki/Semen">semen</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Sky_deity">sky-god</a> <a href="/wiki/Anu">An</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-NemetNajat1996-135">[135]</a></sup> which fell from the heavens to inseminate his consort, the <a href="/wiki/Earth_goddess">earth-goddess</a> <a href="/wiki/Ki_(goddess)">Ki</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-NemetNajat1996-135">[135]</a></sup> causing her to give birth to all the plants of the earth.<sup><a href="#cite_note-NemetNajat1996-135">[135]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire">Akkadians</a> believed that the clouds were the breasts of Anu's consort <a href="/wiki/Antu_(goddess)">Antu</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-NemetNajat1996-135">[135]</a></sup> and that rain was milk from her breasts.<sup><a href="#cite_note-NemetNajat1996-135">[135]</a></sup> According to Jewish tradition, in the first century BC, the Jewish miracle-worker <a href="/wiki/Honi_ha-M%27agel">Honi ha-M'agel</a> ended a three-year drought in <a href="/wiki/Judea_(Roman_province)">Judaea</a> by drawing a circle in the sand and praying for rain, refusing to leave the circle until his prayer was granted.<sup><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a></sup> In his <i><a href="/wiki/Meditations">Meditations</a></i>, the Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a> preserves a prayer for rain made by the <a href="/wiki/Athens">Athenians</a> to the Greek sky-god <a href="/wiki/Zeus">Zeus</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Mersereau-134">[134]</a></sup> Various <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas">Native American</a> tribes are known to have historically conducted <a href="/wiki/Rainmaking_(ritual)">rain dances</a> in effort to encourage rainfall.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Mersereau-134">[134]</a></sup> Rainmaking rituals are also important in many African cultures.<sup><a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a></sup> In the present-day United States, various <a href="/wiki/Governor_(United_States)">state governors</a> have held <a href="/wiki/Day_of_Prayer">Days of Prayer</a> for rain, including the <a href="/wiki/Days_of_Prayer_for_Rain_in_the_State_of_Texas">Days of Prayer for Rain in the State of Texas</a> in 2011.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Mersereau-134">[134]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Global climatology</h2>
<p>Approximately 505,000 km<sup>3</sup> (121,000 cu mi) of water falls as precipitation each year across the globe with 398,000 km<sup>3</sup> (95,000 cu mi) of it over the oceans.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chow-138">[138]</a></sup> Given the Earth's surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 mm (39 in). Deserts are defined as areas with an average annual precipitation of less than 250 mm (10 in) per year,<sup><a href="#cite_note-usgsdesert-139">[139]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a></sup> or as areas where more water is lost by <a href="/wiki/Evapotranspiration">evapotranspiration</a> than falls as precipitation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-brittanica-141">[141]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Deserts</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Deserts.png"></a></p></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Towering_Verticle_Thunderhead.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Isolated towering vertical desert shower</p></div></div>
<p>The northern half of Africa is dominated by the world's most extensive hot, dry region, the <a href="/wiki/Sahara_Desert">Sahara Desert</a>. Some deserts also occupy much of southern Africa: the <a href="/wiki/Namib">Namib</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kalahari">Kalahari</a>. Across Asia, a large annual rainfall minimum, composed primarily of deserts, stretches from the <a href="/wiki/Gobi_Desert">Gobi Desert</a> in Mongolia west-southwest through western Pakistan (<a href="/wiki/Balochistan">Balochistan</a>) and Iran into the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Desert">Arabian Desert</a> in Saudi Arabia. Most of Australia is semi-arid or desert,<sup><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a></sup> making it the world's driest inhabited continent. In South America, the <a href="/wiki/Andes">Andes</a> mountain range blocks Pacific moisture that arrives in that continent, resulting in a desertlike climate just downwind across western Argentina.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Andes-48">[48]</a></sup> The drier areas of the United States are regions where the <a href="/wiki/Sonoran_Desert">Sonoran Desert</a> overspreads the Desert Southwest, the Great Basin and central Wyoming.<sup><a href="#cite_note-USatl-143">[143]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Polar deserts</h3>
<p>Since rain only falls as liquid, it rarely falls when surface temperatures are below freezing, unless there is a layer of warm air aloft, in which case it becomes <a href="/wiki/Freezing_rain">freezing rain</a>. Due to the entire atmosphere being below freezing most of the time, very cold climates see very little rainfall and are often known as <a href="/wiki/Polar_desert">polar deserts</a>. A common biome in this area is the <a href="/wiki/Tundra">tundra</a> which has a short summer thaw and a long frozen winter. <a href="/wiki/Ice_caps">Ice caps</a> see no rain at all, making <a href="/wiki/Antarctica">Antarctica</a> the world's driest continent.
</p>
<h3>Rainforests</h3>
<p>Rainforests are areas of the world with very high rainfall. Both <a href="/wiki/Tropical_rainforest">tropical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Temperate_rainforest">temperate</a> rainforests exist. Tropical rainforests occupy a large band of the planet mostly along the <a href="/wiki/Equator">equator</a>. Most temperate rainforests are located on mountainous west coasts between 45 and 55 degrees latitude, but they are often found in other areas.
</p><p>Around 40–75% of all biotic life is found in rainforests. Rainforests are also responsible for 28% of the world's oxygen turnover.
</p>
<h3>Monsoons</h3>
<p>The equatorial region near the <a href="/wiki/Intertropical_Convergence_Zone">Intertropical Convergence Zone</a> (ITCZ), or monsoon trough, is the wettest portion of the world's continents. Annually, the rain belt within the tropics marches northward by August, then moves back southward into the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere">Southern Hemisphere</a> by February and March.<sup><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a></sup> Within Asia, rainfall is favored across its southern portion from India east and northeast across the Philippines and southern China into Japan due to the monsoon advecting moisture primarily from the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> into the region.<sup><a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a></sup> The monsoon trough can reach as far north as the <a href="/wiki/40th_parallel_north">40th parallel</a> in East Asia during August before moving southward thereafter. Its poleward progression is accelerated by the onset of the summer monsoon which is characterized by the development of lower air pressure (a <a href="/wiki/Thermal_low">thermal low</a>) over the warmest part of Asia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-NCFMRF-146">[146]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a></sup> Similar, but weaker, monsoon circulations are present over North America and Australia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a></sup> During the summer, the Southwest monsoon combined with <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_California">Gulf of California</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a> moisture moving around the <a href="/wiki/Subtropical_ridge">subtropical ridge</a> in the Atlantic Ocean bring the promise of afternoon and evening thunderstorms to the southern tier of the United States as well as the <a href="/wiki/Great_Plains">Great Plains</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-JHorel-150">[150]</a></sup> The eastern half of the contiguous United States east of the <a href="/wiki/98th_meridian_west">98th meridian</a>, the mountains of the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest">Pacific Northwest</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Nevada_(U.S.)">Sierra Nevada</a> range are the wetter portions of the nation, with average rainfall exceeding 760 mm (30 in) per year.<sup><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-151">[151]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone">Tropical cyclones</a> enhance precipitation across southern sections of the United States,<sup><a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a></sup> as well as <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico">Puerto Rico</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Virgin_Islands">United States Virgin Islands</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Mariana_Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Guam">Guam</a>, and <a href="/wiki/American_Samoa">American Samoa</a>.
</p>
<h3>Impact of the Westerlies</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:MeanMonthlyP.gif"></a></p><div><p>Long-term mean precipitation by month</p></div></div>
<p>Westerly flow from the mild north Atlantic leads to wetness across western Europe, in particular Ireland and the United Kingdom, where the western coasts can receive between 1,000 mm (39 in), at sea level and 2,500 mm (98 in), on the mountains of rain per year. <a href="/wiki/Bergen">Bergen</a>, Norway is one of the more famous European rain-cities with its yearly precipitation of 2,250 mm (89 in) on average. During the fall, winter, and spring, Pacific storm systems bring most of <a href="/wiki/Hawaii">Hawaii</a> and the western United States much of their precipitation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-JHorel-150">[150]</a></sup> Over the top of the ridge, the jet stream brings a summer precipitation maximum to the <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes">Great Lakes</a>. Large thunderstorm areas known as <a href="/wiki/Mesoscale_convective_complex">mesoscale convective complexes</a> move through the Plains, Midwest, and Great Lakes during the warm season, contributing up to 10% of the annual precipitation to the region.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Walker-155">[155]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o-Southern_Oscillation">El Niño-Southern Oscillation</a> affects the precipitation distribution, by altering rainfall patterns across the western United States,<sup><a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a></sup> Midwest,<sup><a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a></sup> the Southeast,<sup><a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a></sup> and throughout the tropics. There is also evidence that <a href="/wiki/Global_warming">global warming</a> is leading to increased precipitation to the eastern portions of North America, while droughts are becoming more frequent in the tropics and subtropics.
</p>
<h3>Wettest known locations</h3>
<p><a href="/wiki/Cherrapunji">Cherrapunji</a>, situated on the southern slopes of the <a href="/wiki/Himalaya">Eastern Himalaya</a> in <a href="/wiki/Shillong">Shillong</a>, India is the confirmed wettest place on Earth, with an average annual rainfall of 11,430 mm (450 in). The highest recorded rainfall in a single year was 22,987 mm (905.0 in) in 1861. The 38-year average at nearby <a href="/wiki/Mawsynram">Mawsynram</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meghalaya">Meghalaya</a>, India is 11,873 mm (467.4 in).<sup><a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a></sup> The wettest spot in Australia is <a href="/wiki/Mount_Bellenden_Ker">Mount Bellenden Ker</a> in the north-east of the country which records an average of 8,000 mm (310 in) per year, with over 12,200 mm (480.3 in) of rain recorded during 2000.<sup><a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Big_Bog,_Maui">Big Bog</a> on the island of <a href="/wiki/Maui">Maui</a> has the highest average annual rainfall in the Hawaiian Islands, at 10,300 mm (404 in).<sup><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mount_Waialeale">Mount Waiʻaleʻale</a> on the island of <a href="/wiki/Kaua%CA%BBi">Kauaʻi</a> achieves similar torrential rains, while slightly lower than that of the Big Bog, at 9,500 mm (373 in)<sup><a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a></sup> of rain per year over the last 32 years, with a record 17,340 mm (683 in) in 1982. Its summit is considered one of the rainiest spots on earth, with a reported 350 days of rain per year. <br />
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Llor%C3%B3">Lloró</a>, a town situated in <a href="/wiki/Choc%C3%B3_Department">Chocó</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colombia">Colombia</a>, is probably the place with the largest rainfall in the world, averaging 13,300 mm (523.6 in) per year.<sup><a href="#cite_note-NCDCxrain-164">[164]</a></sup> The Department of Chocó is extraordinarily humid. Tutunendaó, a small town situated in the same department, is one of the wettest estimated places on Earth, averaging 11,394 mm (448.6 in) per year; in 1974 the town received 26,303 mm (86 ft 3.6 in), the largest annual rainfall measured in Colombia. Unlike Cherrapunji, which receives most of its rainfall between April and September, Tutunendaó receives rain almost uniformly distributed throughout the year.<sup><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Quibd%C3%B3">Quibdó</a>, the capital of Chocó, receives the most rain in the world among cities with over 100,000 inhabitants: 9,000 mm (354 in) per year.<sup><a href="#cite_note-NCDCxrain-164">[164]</a></sup> Storms in Chocó can drop 500 mm (20 in) of rainfall in a day. This amount is more than what falls in many cities in a year's time.
</p>
<table>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Continent
</th>
<th>Highest average
</th>
<th>Place
</th>
<th>Elevation
</th>
<th>Years of record
</th></tr>
<tr>
<th>in</th>
<th>mm
</th>
<th>ft</th>
<th>m
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td> South America 
</td>
<td>523.6
</td>
<td>13,299 
</td>
<td> <a href="/wiki/Llor%C3%B3">Lloró</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colombia">Colombia</a> (estimated)<sup><a href="#endnote_aa">[a]</a></sup><sup><a href="#endnote_bnone">[b]</a></sup> 
</td>
<td>520
</td>
<td>158<sup><a href="#endnote_cnone">[c]</a></sup> 
</td>
<td> 29 
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td> Asia 
</td>
<td>467.4
</td>
<td>11,872 
</td>
<td> <a href="/wiki/Mawsynram">Mawsynram</a>, India<sup><a href="#endnote_ab">[a]</a></sup><sup><a href="#endnote_dnone">[d]</a></sup> 
</td>
<td>4,597
</td>
<td>1,401 </td>
<td> 39 
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td> Africa 
</td>
<td>405.0
</td>
<td>10,287 
</td>
<td> <a href="/wiki/Debundscha">Debundscha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cameroon">Cameroon</a> 
</td>
<td>30
</td>
<td>9.1 </td>
<td> 32 
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td> <a href="/wiki/Oceania">Oceania</a> 
</td>
<td>404.3
</td>
<td>10,269 
</td>
<td> <a href="/wiki/Big_Bog,_Maui">Big Bog, Maui</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hawaii_Islands">Hawaii (USA)</a><sup><a href="#endnote_ac">[a]</a></sup> 
</td>
<td>5,148
</td>
<td>1,569 
</td>
<td> 30 
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td> South America 
</td>
<td>354.0
</td>
<td>8,992 
</td>
<td> <a href="/wiki/Quibdo">Quibdo</a>, Colombia 
</td>
<td>120
</td>
<td>36.6 
</td>
<td> 16 
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td> <a href="/wiki/Australia_(continent)">Australia</a> 
</td>
<td>340.0
</td>
<td>8,636 
</td>
<td> <a href="/wiki/Mount_Bellenden_Ker">Mount Bellenden Ker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Queensland">Queensland</a> 
</td>
<td>5,102
</td>
<td>1,555 
</td>
<td> 9 
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td> North America 
</td>
<td>256.0
</td>
<td>6,502 
</td>
<td> <a href="/wiki/Hucuktlis_Lake">Hucuktlis Lake</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia">British Columbia</a> 
</td>
<td>12
</td>
<td>3.66 
</td>
<td> 14 
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td> <a href="/wiki/Europe">Europe</a> 
</td>
<td>183.0
</td>
<td>4,648 
</td>
<td> <a href="/wiki/Crkvice">Crkvice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Montenegro">Montenegro</a> 
</td>
<td>3,337
</td>
<td>1,017 
</td>
<td> 22 
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Source</b> (without conversions): <i>Global Measured Extremes of Temperature and Precipitation</i>, <a href="/wiki/National_Climatic_Data_Center">National Climatic Data Center</a>. 9 August 2004.<sup><a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a></sup>
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table>
<tbody><tr>
<th>
</th>
<th>Continent
</th>
<th>Place
</th>
<th>Highest rainfall
</th></tr>
<tr>
<th>in</th>
<th>mm
</th></tr>
<tr>
<th>Highest average annual rainfall<sup><a href="#cite_note-Global_extremes-167">[167]</a></sup>
</th>
<td> Asia
</td>
<td> <a href="/wiki/Mawsynram,_India">Mawsynram, India</a>
</td>
<td>467.4
</td>
<td>11,870 
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th>Highest in one year<sup><a href="#cite_note-Global_extremes-167">[167]</a></sup>
</th>
<td> Asia
</td>
<td> <a href="/wiki/Cherrapunji,_India">Cherrapunji, India</a>
</td>
<td>1,042
</td>
<td>26,470 
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th>Highest in one calendar month<sup><a href="#cite_note-extremes-168">[168]</a></sup>
</th>
<td> Asia
</td>
<td> Cherrapunji, India
</td>
<td>366
</td>
<td>9,296
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th>Highest in 24 hours<sup><a href="#cite_note-Global_extremes-167">[167]</a></sup>
</th>
<td> <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>
</td>
<td> Foc Foc, <a href="/wiki/La_R%C3%A9union">La Réunion</a>
</td>
<td>71.8
</td>
<td>1,820
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th>Highest in 12 hours<sup><a href="#cite_note-Global_extremes-167">[167]</a></sup>
</th>
<td> Indian Ocean
</td>
<td> Foc Foc, La Réunion
</td>
<td>45.0
</td>
<td>1,140
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th>Highest in one minute<sup><a href="#cite_note-Global_extremes-167">[167]</a></sup>
</th>
<td> North America
</td>
<td> <a href="/wiki/Unionville,_Talbot_County,_Maryland">Unionville, Maryland</a>, USA
</td>
<td>1.23
</td>
<td>31.2
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h2>Outside Earth</h2>
<p><a href="/wiki/Diamond_rain">Rainfalls of diamonds</a> have been suggested to occur on the <a href="/wiki/Gas_giant">gas giant planets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jupiter">Jupiter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saturn">Saturn</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-SC-20131009-169">[169]</a></sup> as well as on the <a href="/wiki/Ice_giant">ice giant planets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uranus">Uranus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neptune">Neptune</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-WP-20170825-170">[170]</a></sup> There is likely to be rain of various compositions in the upper atmospheres of the gas giants, as well as precipitation of liquid <a href="/wiki/Neon">neon</a> in the deep atmospheres.<sup><a href="#cite_note-galileo_ms-171">[171]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a></sup> On <a href="/wiki/Titan_(moon)">Titan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saturn">Saturn</a>'s largest natural satellite, infrequent <a href="/wiki/Methane">methane</a> rain is thought to carve the moon's numerous surface channels.<sup><a href="#cite_note-planetary-Arizona_Icebox-173">[173]</a></sup> On <a href="/wiki/Venus">Venus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid">sulfuric acid</a> <a href="/wiki/Virga">virga</a> evaporates 25 km (16 mi) from the surface.<sup><a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a></sup> Extrasolar planet <a href="/wiki/OGLE-TR-56b">OGLE-TR-56b</a> in the constellation <a href="/wiki/Sagittarius_(constellation)">Sagittarius</a> is hypothesized to have <a href="/wiki/Iron">iron</a> rain.<sup><a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a></sup> Accordingly, research carried out by the <a href="/wiki/European_Southern_Observatory">European Southern Observatory</a> shows that <a href="/wiki/WASP-76b">WASP-76b</a> can produce showers of burning liquid iron droplets once temperature decreases during the planet's night hours.<sup><a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a></sup> There is evidence from samples of <a href="/wiki/Basalt">basalt</a> brought back by the <a href="/wiki/Apollo_program">Apollo missions</a> that the <a href="/wiki/Moon">Moon</a> has been subject to <a href="/wiki/Lava">lava</a> rain.<sup><a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>See also</h2>
<div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_river">Atmospheric river</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower">Hydropower</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intensity-duration-frequency_curve">Intensity-duration-frequency curve</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Precipitation_types">Precipitation types</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rain_dust">Rain dust</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rain_sensor">Rain sensor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rain_water_harvesting">Rain water harvesting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rainbow">Rainbow</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Raining_animals">Raining animals</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Red_rain_in_Kerala">Red rain in Kerala</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Petrichor">Petrichor</a> – the cause of the scent during and after rain</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer_overflow">Sanitary sewer overflow</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sediment_precipitation">Sediment precipitation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources">Water resources</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Weather">Weather</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rainmaking_(ritual)">Rainmaking</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Johad">Johad</a></li></ul>
</div>
<h2>Notes</h2>
<ul><li><a href="#ref_aa"><b><sup>a</sup></b></a> <a href="#ref_ab"><b><sup>b</sup></b></a> <a href="#ref_ac"><b><sup>c</sup></b></a> The value given is the continent's highest, and <i>possibly</i> the world's, depending on measurement practices, procedures and period of record variations.</li>
<li><a href="#ref_bnone"><b><sup>^</sup></b></a> The official greatest average annual precipitation for South America is 900 cm (354 in) at Quibdó, Colombia. The 1,330 cm (523.6 in) average at Lloró [23 km (14 mi) SE and at a higher elevation than Quibdó] is an estimated amount.</li>
<li><a href="#ref_cnone"><b><sup>^</sup></b></a> Approximate elevation.</li>
<li><a href="#ref_dnone"><b><sup>^</sup></b></a> Recognized as "The Wettest place on Earth" by the <i><a href="/wiki/Guinness_Book_of_World_Records">Guinness Book of World Records</a></i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-wett-178">[178]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="#ref_enone"><b><sup>^</sup></b></a> This is the highest figure for which records are available. The summit of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Snowdon">Mount Snowdon</a>, about 500 yards (460 m) from Glaslyn, is estimated to have at least 200.0 inches (5,080 mm) per year.</li></ul>
<h2>References</h2>
<div>
<ol>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-extremes_168-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://members.iinet.net.au/~jacob/worldrf.html">"World Rainfall Extremes"</a>. Members.iinet.net.au. 2 March 2004. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120103161544/http://members.iinet.net.au/~jacob/worldrf.html">Archived</a> from the original on 3 January 2012. Retrieved 26 December 2011.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-SC-20131009_169-0">^</a></b> <cite>Kramer, Miriam (9 October 2013). <a href="https://www.space.com/23135-diamond-rain-jupiter-saturn.html">"Diamond Rain May Fill Skies of Jupiter and Saturn"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Space.com">Space.com</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170827171415/https://www.space.com/23135-diamond-rain-jupiter-saturn.html">Archived</a> from the original on 27 August 2017. Retrieved 27 August 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-WP-20170825_170-0">^</a></b> <cite>Kaplan, Sarah (25 August 2017). <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2017/08/25/it-rains-solid-diamonds-on-uranus-and-neptune/">"It rains solid diamonds on Uranus and Neptune"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Washington_Post">Washington Post</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170827011901/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2017/08/25/it-rains-solid-diamonds-on-uranus-and-neptune/">Archived</a> from the original on 27 August 2017. Retrieved 27 August 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-galileo_ms_171-0">^</a></b> <cite>Paul Mahaffy. <a href="http://science.gsfc.nasa.gov/sed/index.cfm?fuseAction=home.main&amp;&amp;navOrgCode=699">"Highlights of the Galileo Probe Mass Spectrometer Investigation"</a>. NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Atmospheric Experiments Laboratory. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120623011722/http://science.gsfc.nasa.gov/sed/index.cfm?fuseAction=home.main&amp;&amp;navOrgCode=699">Archived</a> from the original on 23 June 2012. Retrieved 6 June 2007.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Katharina_Lodders">Katharina Lodders</a> (2004). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F421970">"Jupiter Formed with More Tar than Ice"</a>. <i>The Astrophysical Journal</i>. <b>611</b> (1): 587–597. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004ApJ...611..587L">2004ApJ...611..587L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F421970">10.1086/421970</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-planetary-Arizona_Icebox_173-0">^</a></b> <cite>Emily Lakdawalla (21 January 2004). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050124004404/http://www.planetary.org/news/2005/huygens_science-results_0121.html">"Titan: Arizona in an Icebox?"</a>. The Planetary Society. Archived from <a href="http://www.planetary.org/news/2005/huygens_science-results_0121.html">the original</a> on 24 January 2005. Retrieved 28 March 2005.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b> <cite>Paul Rincon (7 November 2005). <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4335628.stm">"Planet Venus: Earth's 'evil twin'"</a>. BBC News. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090718082154/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4335628.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 18 July 2009. Retrieved 25 January 2010.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Harvard_University">Harvard University</a> and <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution">Smithsonian Institution</a> (8 January 2003). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100110135215/http://www.astrobio.net/pressrelease/352/new-world-of-iron-rain">"New World of Iron Rain"</a>. <i>Astrobiology Magazine</i>. Archived from the original on 10 January 2010. Retrieved 25 January 2010.</cite><code>{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL">link</a>)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/science/space/faraway-planet-it-s-cloudy-chance-liquid-iron-rain-n1156016">"On a Faraway Planet, it's Cloudy With a Chance of Liquid Iron Rain"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/NBC">NBC News</a></i>. Retrieved 4 May 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b> Taylor, G. Jeffrey, <a href="http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/April06/basaltFragments.html">"Finding distant chips from distant maria"</a>, pp. 8–9, <i>Planetary Science Research Discoveries</i>, 30 April 2006.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-wett_178-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.webcitation.org/5nAoRHbtP?url=http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/jsouthwo/web/6-per-page-Wettest-Mawsynram-in-India.pdf">"UFL – Dispute between Mawsynram and Cherrapunji for the rainiest place in the world"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a href="http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/jsouthwo/web/6-per-page-Wettest-Mawsynram-in-India.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 30 January 2010. Retrieved 5 January 2010.</cite>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2>External links</h2>
<div>
<p></p>
<p>Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Rain">Rain</a></b></i>.</p></div>
<div>
<p></p>
<p>Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Rain">Rain</a>.</p></div>
<ul><li><a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/sci/tech/146120.stm">BBC article on the weekend rain effect</a></li>
<li><a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3893671.stm">BBC article on rain-making</a></li>
<li><a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/4562132.stm">BBC article on the mathematics of running in the rain</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.geography-site.co.uk/pages/physical/climate/why%20does%20it%20rain.html">What are clouds, and why does it rain?</a></li></ul>
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 Contents

 move to sidebar hide
 * (Top)
 * 1 Formation
 Toggle Formation subsection
 + 1.1 Water-saturated air
 + 1.2 Coalescence and fragmentation
 + 1.3 Droplet size distribution
 + 1.4 Raindrop impacts
 + 1.5 Virga
 * 2 Causes
 Toggle Causes subsection
 + 2.1 Frontal activity
 + 2.2 Convection
 + 2.3 Orographic effects
 + 2.4 Within the tropics
 + 2.5 Human influence
 * 3 Characteristics
 Toggle Characteristics subsection
 + 3.1 Patterns
 + 3.2 Acidity
 + 3.3 Köppen climate classification
 + 3.4 Pollution
 * 4 Measurement
 Toggle Measurement subsection
 + 4.1 Gauges
 + 4.2 Remote sensing
 + 4.3 Intensity
 + 4.4 Return period
 * 5 Forecasting
 * 6 Impact
 Toggle Impact subsection
 + 6.1 Agricultural
 + 6.2 Culture and religion
 * 7 Global climatology
 Toggle Global climatology subsection
 + 7.1 Deserts
 + 7.2 Polar deserts
 + 7.3 Rainforests
 + 7.4 Monsoons
 + 7.5 Impact of the Westerlies
 + 7.6 Wettest known locations
 * 8 Outside Earth
 * 9 See also
 * 10 Notes
 * 11 References
 * 12 External links
 Toggle the table of contents
 Toggle the table of contents

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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see Rain (disambiguation), Rainy (disambiguation), Rainfall (disambiguation) and Rainwater (disambiguation).

 Heavy rainfall on a roof
 Rain
 Typical sound of rain with thunder
 Problems playing this file? See media help.
 Part of a series on 
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 Rain falling on a road

 Rain is water droplets that have condensed from atmospheric water vapor and then fall under gravity. Rain is a major component of the water cycle and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the Earth. It provides water for hydroelectric power plants, crop irrigation, and suitable conditions for many types of ecosystems.

 The major cause of rain production is moisture moving along three-dimensional zones of temperature and moisture contrasts known as weather fronts. If enough moisture and upward motion is present, precipitation falls from convective clouds (those with strong upward vertical motion) such as cumulonimbus (thunder clouds) which can organize into narrow rainbands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation which forces moist air to condense and fall out as rainfall along the sides of mountains. On the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by downslope flow which causes heating and drying of the air mass. The movement of the monsoon trough, or intertropical convergence zone, brings rainy seasons to savannah climes.

 The urban heat island effect leads to increased rainfall, both in amounts and intensity, downwind of cities. Global warming is also causing changes in the precipitation pattern globally, including wetter conditions across eastern North America and drier conditions in the tropics. Antarctica is the driest continent. The globally averaged annual precipitation over land is 715 mm (28.1 in), but over the whole Earth it is much higher at 990 mm (39 in).[1] Climate classification systems such as the Köppen classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Rainfall is measured using rain gauges. Rainfall amounts can be estimated by weather radar.

 Rain is also known or suspected on other planets, where it may be composed of methane, neon, sulfuric acid, or even iron rather than water.

 Formation

 Water-saturated air

 Rain falling on a field, in southern Estonia

 Air contains water vapor, and the amount of water in a given mass of dry air, known as the mixing ratio, is measured in grams of water per kilogram of dry air (g/kg).[2][3] The amount of moisture in air is also commonly reported as relative humidity; which is the percentage of the total water vapor air can hold at a particular air temperature.[4] How much water vapor a parcel of air can contain before it becomes saturated (100% relative humidity) and forms into a cloud (a group of visible and tiny water and ice particles suspended above the Earth's surface)[5] depends on its temperature. Warmer air can contain more water vapor than cooler air before becoming saturated. Therefore, one way to saturate a parcel of air is to cool it. The dew point is the temperature to which a parcel must be cooled in order to become saturated.[6]

 Streets in Tampere, Finland watered by night rain.

 There are four main mechanisms for cooling the air to its dew point: adiabatic cooling, conductive cooling, radiational cooling, and evaporative cooling. Adiabatic cooling occurs when air rises and expands.[7] The air can rise due to convection, large-scale atmospheric motions, or a physical barrier such as a mountain (orographic lift). Conductive cooling occurs when the air comes into contact with a colder surface,[8] usually by being blown from one surface to another, for example from a liquid water surface to colder land. Radiational cooling occurs due to the emission of infrared radiation, either by the air or by the surface underneath.[9] Evaporative cooling occurs when moisture is added to the air through evaporation, which forces the air temperature to cool to its wet-bulb temperature, or until it reaches saturation.[10]

 The main ways water vapor is added to the air are: wind convergence into areas of upward motion,[11] precipitation or virga falling from above,[12] daytime heating evaporating water from the surface of oceans, water bodies or wet land,[13] transpiration from plants,[14] cool or dry air moving over warmer water,[15] and lifting air over mountains.[16] Water vapor normally begins to condense on condensation nuclei such as dust, ice, and salt in order to form clouds. Elevated portions of weather fronts (which are three-dimensional in nature)[17] force broad areas of upward motion within the Earth's atmosphere which form clouds decks such as altostratus or cirrostratus.[18] Stratus is a stable cloud deck which tends to form when a cool, stable air mass is trapped underneath a warm air mass. It can also form due to the lifting of advection fog during breezy conditions.[19]

 Coalescence and fragmentation

 The shape of rain drops depending upon their size

 Coalescence occurs when water droplets fuse to create larger water droplets. Air resistance typically causes the water droplets in a cloud to remain stationary. When air turbulence occurs, water droplets collide, producing larger droplets.

 Black Rain Clouds

 As these larger water droplets descend, coalescence continues, so that drops become heavy enough to overcome air resistance and fall as rain. Coalescence generally happens most often in clouds above freezing, and is also known as the warm rain process.[20] In clouds below freezing, when ice crystals gain enough mass they begin to fall. This generally requires more mass than coalescence when occurring between the crystal and neighboring water droplets. This process is temperature dependent, as supercooled water droplets only exist in a cloud that is below freezing. In addition, because of the great temperature difference between cloud and ground level, these ice crystals may melt as they fall and become rain.[21]

 Raindrops have sizes ranging from 0.1 to 9 mm (0.0039 to 0.3543 in) mean diameter but develop a tendency to break up at larger sizes. Smaller drops are called cloud droplets, and their shape is spherical. As a raindrop increases in size, its shape becomes more oblate, with its largest cross-section facing the oncoming airflow. Large rain drops become increasingly flattened on the bottom, like hamburger buns; very large ones are shaped like parachutes.[22][23] Contrary to popular belief, their shape does not resemble a teardrop.[24] The biggest raindrops on Earth were recorded over Brazil and the Marshall Islands in 2004 — some of them were as large as 10 mm (0.39 in). The large size is explained by condensation on large smoke particles or by collisions between drops in small regions with particularly high content of liquid water.[25]

 Rain drops associated with melting hail tend to be larger than other rain drops.[26]

 A raindrop on a leaf

 Intensity and duration of rainfall are usually inversely related, i.e., high intensity storms are likely to be of short duration and low intensity storms can have a long duration.[27][28]

 Droplet size distribution

 Main article: Raindrop size distribution

 The final droplet size distribution is an exponential distribution. The number of droplets with diameter between and per unit volume of space is . This is commonly referred to as the Marshall–Palmer law after the researchers who first characterized it.[23][29] The parameters are somewhat temperature-dependent,[30] and the slope also scales with the rate of rainfall (d in centimeters and R in millimeters per hour).[23]

 Deviations can occur for small droplets and during different rainfall conditions. The distribution tends to fit averaged rainfall, while instantaneous size spectra often deviate and have been modeled as gamma distributions.[31] The distribution has an upper limit due to droplet fragmentation.[23]

 Raindrop impacts

 Raindrops impact at their terminal velocity, which is greater for larger drops due to their larger mass to drag ratio. At sea level and without wind, 0.5 mm (0.020 in) drizzle impacts at 2 m/s (6.6 ft/s) or 7.2 km/h (4.5 mph), while large 5 mm (0.20 in) drops impact at around 9 m/s (30 ft/s) or 32 km/h (20 mph).[32]

 Rain falling on loosely packed material such as newly fallen ash can produce dimples that can be fossilized, called raindrop impressions.[33] The air density dependence of the maximum raindrop diameter together with fossil raindrop imprints has been used to constrain the density of the air 2.7 billion years ago.[34]

 The sound of raindrops hitting water is caused by bubbles of air oscillating underwater.[35][36]

 The METAR code for rain is RA, while the coding for rain showers is SHRA.[37]

 Virga

 Main article: Virga

 In certain conditions precipitation may fall from a cloud but then evaporate or sublime before reaching the ground. This is termed virga and is more often seen in hot and dry climates.

 Causes

 Frontal activity

 Main article: Weather fronts

 Stratiform (a broad shield of precipitation with a relatively similar intensity) and dynamic precipitation (convective precipitation which is showery in nature with large changes in intensity over short distances) occur as a consequence of slow ascent of air in synoptic systems (on the order of cm/s), such as in the vicinity of cold fronts and near and poleward of surface warm fronts. Similar ascent is seen around tropical cyclones outside the eyewall, and in comma-head precipitation patterns around mid-latitude cyclones.[38] A wide variety of weather can be found along an occluded front, with thunderstorms possible, but usually their passage is associated with a drying of the air mass. Occluded fronts usually form around mature low-pressure areas.[39] What separates rainfall from other precipitation types, such as ice pellets and snow, is the presence of a thick layer of air aloft which is above the melting point of water, which melts the frozen precipitation well before it reaches the ground. If there is a shallow near surface layer that is below freezing, freezing rain (rain which freezes on contact with surfaces in subfreezing environments) will result.[40] Hail becomes an increasingly infrequent occurrence when the freezing level within the atmosphere exceeds 3,400 m (11,000 ft) above ground level.[41]

 Convection

 Convective precipitation
 Orographic precipitation

 Convective rain, or showery precipitation, occurs from convective clouds (e.g., cumulonimbus or cumulus congestus). It falls as showers with rapidly changing intensity. Convective precipitation falls over a certain area for a relatively short time, as convective clouds have limited horizontal extent. Most precipitation in the tropics appears to be convective; however, it has been suggested that stratiform precipitation also occurs.[38][42] Graupel and hail indicate convection.[43] In mid-latitudes, convective precipitation is intermittent and often associated with baroclinic boundaries such as cold fronts, squall lines, and warm fronts.[44]

 Orographic effects

 Main articles: Orographic lift, Precipitation types (meteorology), and United States rainfall climatology

 Orographic precipitation occurs on the windward side of mountains and is caused by the rising air motion of a large-scale flow of moist air across the mountain ridge, resulting in adiabatic cooling and condensation. In mountainous parts of the world subjected to relatively consistent winds (for example, the trade winds), a more moist climate usually prevails on the windward side of a mountain than on the leeward or downwind side. Moisture is removed by orographic lift, leaving drier air (see katabatic wind) on the descending and generally warming, leeward side where a rain shadow is observed.[16]

 In Hawaii, Mount Waiʻaleʻale, on the island of Kauai, is notable for its extreme rainfall, as it is amongst the places in the world with the highest levels of rainfall, with 9,500 mm (373 in).[45] Systems known as Kona storms affect the state with heavy rains between October and April.[46] Local climates vary considerably on each island due to their topography, divisible into windward (Koʻolau) and leeward (Kona) regions based upon location relative to the higher mountains. Windward sides face the east to northeast trade winds and receive much more rainfall; leeward sides are drier and sunnier, with less rain and less cloud cover.[47]

 In South America, the Andes mountain range blocks Pacific moisture that arrives in that continent, resulting in a desertlike climate just downwind across western Argentina.[48] The Sierra Nevada range creates the same effect in North America forming the Great Basin and Mojave Deserts.[49][50]

 Within the tropics

 Rainfall distribution by month in Cairns showing the extent of the wet season at that location
 See also: Monsoon and Tropical cyclone
 Main article: Wet season

 The wet, or rainy, season is the time of year, covering one or more months, when most of the average annual rainfall in a region falls.[51] The term green season is also sometimes used as a euphemism by tourist authorities.[52] Areas with wet seasons are dispersed across portions of the tropics and subtropics.[53] Savanna climates and areas with monsoon regimes have wet summers and dry winters. Tropical rainforests technically do not have dry or wet seasons, since their rainfall is equally distributed through the year.[54] Some areas with pronounced rainy seasons will see a break in rainfall mid-season when the intertropical convergence zone or monsoon trough move poleward of their location during the middle of the warm season.[27] When the wet season occurs during the warm season, or summer, rain falls mainly during the late afternoon and early evening hours. The wet season is a time when air quality improves,[55] freshwater quality improves,[56][57] and vegetation grows significantly.

 Tropical cyclones, a source of very heavy rainfall, consist of large air masses several hundred miles across with low pressure at the centre and with winds blowing inward towards the centre in either a clockwise direction (southern hemisphere) or counter clockwise (northern hemisphere).[58] Although cyclones can take an enormous toll in lives and personal property, they may be important factors in the precipitation regimes of places they impact, as they may bring much-needed precipitation to otherwise dry regions.[59] Areas in their path can receive a year's worth of rainfall from a tropical cyclone passage.[60]

 Human influence

 Image of Atlanta, US showing temperature distribution, with blue showing cool temperatures, red warm, and hot areas appearing white.
 Average surface air temperatures from 2011 to 2020 compared to the 1951–1980 average. Source: NASA
 See also: Global warming and Urban heat island

 The fine particulate matter produced by car exhaust and other human sources of pollution forms cloud condensation nuclei, leads to the production of clouds and increases the likelihood of rain. As commuters and commercial traffic cause pollution to build up over the course of the week, the likelihood of rain increases: it peaks by Saturday, after five days of weekday pollution has been built up. In heavily populated areas that are near the coast, such as the United States' Eastern Seaboard, the effect can be dramatic: there is a 22% higher chance of rain on Saturdays than on Mondays.[61] The urban heat island effect warms cities 0.6 to 5.6 °C (1.1 to 10.1 °F) above surrounding suburbs and rural areas. This extra heat leads to greater upward motion, which can induce additional shower and thunderstorm activity. Rainfall rates downwind of cities are increased between 48% and 116%. Partly as a result of this warming, monthly rainfall is about 28% greater between 32 to 64 km (20 to 40 mi) downwind of cities, compared with upwind.[62] Some cities induce a total precipitation increase of 51%.[63]

 Increasing temperatures tend to increase evaporation which can lead to more precipitation. Precipitation generally increased over land north of 30°N from 1900 through 2005 but has declined over the tropics since the 1970s. Globally there has been no statistically significant overall trend in precipitation over the past century, although trends have varied widely by region and over time. Eastern portions of North and South America, northern Europe, and northern and central Asia have become wetter. The Sahel, the Mediterranean, southern Africa and parts of southern Asia have become drier. There has been an increase in the number of heavy precipitation events over many areas during the past century, as well as an increase since the 1970s in the prevalence of droughts—especially in the tropics and subtropics. Changes in precipitation and evaporation over the oceans are suggested by the decreased salinity of mid- and high-latitude waters (implying more precipitation), along with increased salinity in lower latitudes (implying less precipitation and/or more evaporation). Over the contiguous United States, total annual precipitation increased at an average rate of 6.1 percent since 1900, with the greatest increases within the East North Central climate region (11.6 percent per century) and the South (11.1 percent). Hawaii was the only region to show a decrease (−9.25 percent).[64]

 Analysis of 65 years of United States of America rainfall records show the lower 48 states have an increase in heavy downpours since 1950. The largest increases are in the Northeast and Midwest, which in the past decade, have seen 31 and 16 percent more heavy downpours compared to the 1950s. Rhode Island is the state with the largest increase, 104%. McAllen, Texas is the city with the largest increase, 700%. Heavy downpour in the analysis are the days where total precipitation exceeded the top one percent of all rain and snow days during the years 1950–2014.[65][66]

 The most successful attempts at influencing weather involve cloud seeding, which include techniques used to increase winter precipitation over mountains and suppress hail.[67]

 Characteristics

 Patterns

 Band of thunderstorms seen on a weather radar display
 Main article: Rainband

 Rainbands are cloud and precipitation areas which are significantly elongated. Rainbands can be stratiform or convective,[68] and are generated by differences in temperature. When noted on weather radar imagery, this precipitation elongation is referred to as banded structure.[69] Rainbands in advance of warm occluded fronts and warm fronts are associated with weak upward motion,[70] and tend to be wide and stratiform in nature.[71]

 Rainbands spawned near and ahead of cold fronts can be squall lines which are able to produce tornadoes.[72] Rainbands associated with cold fronts can be warped by mountain barriers perpendicular to the front's orientation due to the formation of a low-level barrier jet.[73] Bands of thunderstorms can form with sea breeze and land breeze boundaries, if enough moisture is present. If sea breeze rainbands become active enough just ahead of a cold front, they can mask the location of the cold front itself.[74]

 Once a cyclone occludes an occluded front (a trough of warm air aloft) will be caused by strong southerly winds on its eastern periphery rotating aloft around its northeast, and ultimately northwestern, periphery (also termed the warm conveyor belt), forcing a surface trough to continue into the cold sector on a similar curve to the occluded front. The front creates the portion of an occluded cyclone known as its comma head, due to the comma-like shape of the mid-tropospheric cloudiness that accompanies the feature. It can also be the focus of locally heavy precipitation, with thunderstorms possible if the atmosphere along the front is unstable enough for convection.[75] Banding within the comma head precipitation pattern of an extratropical cyclone can yield significant amounts of rain.[76] Behind extratropical cyclones during fall and winter, rainbands can form downwind of relative warm bodies of water such as the Great Lakes. Downwind of islands, bands of showers and thunderstorms can develop due to low level wind convergence downwind of the island edges. Offshore California, this has been noted in the wake of cold fronts.[77]

 Rainbands within tropical cyclones are curved in orientation. Tropical cyclone rainbands contain showers and thunderstorms that, together with the eyewall and the eye, constitute a hurricane or tropical storm. The extent of rainbands around a tropical cyclone can help determine the cyclone's intensity.[78]

 Acidity

 Sources of acid rain
 See also: Acid rain

 The phrase acid rain was first used by Scottish chemist Robert Augus Smith in 1852.[79] The pH of rain varies, especially due to its origin. On America's East Coast, rain that is derived from the Atlantic Ocean typically has a pH of 5.0–5.6; rain that comes across the continental from the west has a pH of 3.8–4.8; and local thunderstorms can have a pH as low as 2.0.[80] Rain becomes acidic primarily due to the presence of two strong acids, sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3). Sulfuric acid is derived from natural sources such as volcanoes, and wetlands (sulfate reducing bacteria); and anthropogenic sources such as the combustion of fossil fuels, and mining where H2S is present. Nitric acid is produced by natural sources such as lightning, soil bacteria, and natural fires; while also produced anthropogenically by the combustion of fossil fuels and from power plants. In the past 20 years the concentrations of nitric and sulfuric acid has decreased in presence of rainwater, which may be due to the significant increase in ammonium (most likely as ammonia from livestock production), which acts as a buffer in acid rain and raises the pH.[81]

 Köppen climate classification

 Updated Köppen–Geiger climate map[82]
 Af BWh Cfa Dsa Dwa Dfa 
 Am BWk Csa Cwa Cfb Dsb Dwb Dfb ET
 Aw BSh Csb Cwb Cfc Dsc Dwc Dfc EF
 BSk Dsd Dwd Dfd 
 
 Main article: Köppen climate classification

 The Köppen classification depends on average monthly values of temperature and precipitation. The most commonly used form of the Köppen classification has five primary types labeled A through E. Specifically, the primary types are A, tropical; B, dry; C, mild mid-latitude; D, cold mid-latitude; and E, polar. The five primary classifications can be further divided into secondary classifications such as rain forest, monsoon, tropical savanna, humid subtropical, humid continental, oceanic climate, Mediterranean climate, steppe, subarctic climate, tundra, polar ice cap, and desert.

 Rain forests are characterized by high rainfall, with definitions setting minimum normal annual rainfall between 1,750 and 2,000 mm (69 and 79 in).[83] A tropical savanna is a grassland biome located in semi-arid to semi-humid climate regions of subtropical and tropical latitudes, with rainfall between 750 and 1,270 mm (30 and 50 in) a year. They are widespread on Africa, and are also found in India, the northern parts of South America, Malaysia, and Australia.[84] The humid subtropical climate zone is where winter rainfall is associated with large storms that the westerlies steer from west to east. Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms and from occasional tropical cyclones.[85] Humid subtropical climates lie on the east side continents, roughly between latitudes 20° and 40° degrees away from the equator.[86]

 An oceanic (or maritime) climate is typically found along the west coasts at the middle latitudes of all the world's continents, bordering cool oceans, as well as southeastern Australia, and is accompanied by plentiful precipitation year-round.[87] The Mediterranean climate regime resembles the climate of the lands in the Mediterranean Basin, parts of western North America, parts of Western and South Australia, in southwestern South Africa and in parts of central Chile. The climate is characterized by hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters.[88] A steppe is a dry grassland.[89] Subarctic climates are cold with continuous permafrost and little precipitation.[90]

 Pollution

 This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. ( October 2022 )
 
 This section is an excerpt from Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances § Prevalence in rainwater. [ edit ]
 In 2022 it was found that levels of at least four perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) in rainwater worldwide ubiquitously, and often greatly, exceeded the EPA's lifetime drinking water health advisories as well as comparable Danish, Dutch, and European Union safety standards, leading researchers to conclude that "the global spread of these four PFAAs in the atmosphere has led to the planetary boundary for chemical pollution being exceeded".[91] There are some moves to restrict and replace their use.[92]

 Measurement

 See also: Precipitation § Rate

 Gauges

 See also: Rain gauge, Disdrometer, and Snow gauge
 Standard rain gauge

 Rain is measured in units of length per unit time, typically in millimeters per hour,[93] or in countries where imperial units are more common, inches per hour.[94] The "length", or more accurately, "depth" being measured is the depth of rain water that would accumulate on a flat, horizontal and impermeable surface during a given amount of time, typically an hour.[95] One millimeter of rainfall is the equivalent of one liter of water per square meter.[96]

 The standard way of measuring rainfall or snowfall is the standard rain gauge, which can be found in 100-mm (4-in) plastic and 200-mm (8-in) metal varieties.[97] The inner cylinder is filled by 25 mm (0.98 in) of rain, with overflow flowing into the outer cylinder. Plastic gauges have markings on the inner cylinder down to 0.25 mm (0.0098 in) resolution, while metal gauges require use of a stick designed with the appropriate 0.25 mm (0.0098 in) markings. After the inner cylinder is filled, the amount inside it is discarded, then filled with the remaining rainfall in the outer cylinder until all the fluid in the outer cylinder is gone, adding to the overall total until the outer cylinder is empty.[98] Other types of gauges include the popular wedge gauge (the cheapest rain gauge and most fragile), the tipping bucket rain gauge, and the weighing rain gauge.[99] For those looking to measure rainfall the most inexpensively, a can that is cylindrical with straight sides will act as a rain gauge if left out in the open, but its accuracy will depend on what ruler is used to measure the rain with. Any of the above rain gauges can be made at home, with enough know-how.[100]

 When a precipitation measurement is made, various networks exist across the United States and elsewhere where rainfall measurements can be submitted through the Internet, such as CoCoRAHS or GLOBE.[101][102] If a network is not available in the area where one lives, the nearest local weather or met office will likely be interested in the measurement.[103]

 Remote sensing

 See also: Weather radar
 Twenty-four-hour rainfall accumulation on the Val d'Irène radar in Eastern Canada. Zones without data in the east and southwest are caused by beam blocking from mountains. (Source: Environment Canada)

 One of the main uses of weather radar is to be able to assess the amount of precipitations fallen over large basins for hydrological purposes.[104] For instance, river flood control, sewer management and dam construction are all areas where planners use rainfall accumulation data. Radar-derived rainfall estimates complement surface station data which can be used for calibration. To produce radar accumulations, rain rates over a point are estimated by using the value of reflectivity data at individual grid points. A radar equation is then used, which is

 where Z represents the radar reflectivity, R represents the rainfall rate, and A and b are constants.[105] Satellite derived rainfall estimates use passive microwave instruments aboard polar orbiting as well as geostationary weather satellites to indirectly measure rainfall rates.[106] If one wants an accumulated rainfall over a time period, one has to add up all the accumulations from each grid box within the images during that time.
 1988 rain in the U.S. The heaviest rain is seen in reds and yellows.
 1993 rain in the U.S.

 Intensity

 Heavy rain in Zapopan
 Heavy rain in Glenshaw, Pennsylvania
 The sound of a heavy rain fall in suburban neighborhood
 Problems playing this file? See media help.

 Rainfall intensity is classified according to the rate of precipitation, which depends on the considered time.[107] The following categories are used to classify rainfall intensity:

 * Light rain — when the precipitation rate is < 2.5 mm (0.098 in) per hour
 * Moderate rain — when the precipitation rate is between 2.5 mm (0.098 in) – 7.6 mm (0.30 in) or 10 mm (0.39 in) per hour[108][109]
 * Heavy rain — when the precipitation rate is > 7.6 mm (0.30 in) per hour,[108] or between 10 mm (0.39 in) and 50 mm (2.0 in) per hour[109]
 * Violent rain — when the precipitation rate is > 50 mm (2.0 in) per hour[109]

 Euphemisms for a heavy or violent rain include gully washer, trash-mover and toad-strangler.[110] The intensity can also be expressed by rainfall erosivity R-factor[111] or in terms of the rainfall time-structure n-index.[107]

 Return period

 See also: 100-year flood

 The average time between occurrences of an event with a specified intensity and duration is called the return period.[112] The intensity of a storm can be predicted for any return period and storm duration, from charts based on historic data for the location.[113] The return period is often expressed as an n-year event. For instance, a 10-year storm describes a rare rainfall event occurring on average once every 10 years. The rainfall will be greater and the flooding will be worse than the worst storm expected in any single year. A 100-year storm describes an extremely rare rainfall event occurring on average once in a century. The rainfall will be extreme and flooding worse than a 10-year event. The probability of an event in any year is the inverse of the return period (assuming the probability remains the same for each year).[112] For instance a 10-year storm has a probability of occurring of 10 percent in any given year, and a 100-year storm occurs with a 1 percent probability in a year. As with all probability events, it is possible, though improbable, to have multiple 100-year storms in a single year.[114]

 Forecasting

 Main article: Quantitative precipitation forecast
 Example of a five-day rainfall forecast from the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center

 The Quantitative Precipitation Forecast (abbreviated QPF) is the expected amount of liquid precipitation accumulated over a specified time period over a specified area.[115] A QPF will be specified when a measurable precipitation type reaching a minimum threshold is forecast for any hour during a QPF valid period. Precipitation forecasts tend to be bound by synoptic hours such as 0000, 0600, 1200 and 1800 GMT. Terrain is considered in QPFs by use of topography or based upon climatological precipitation patterns from observations with fine detail.[116] Starting in the mid to late 1990s, QPFs were used within hydrologic forecast models to simulate impact to rivers throughout the United States.[117]

 Forecast models show significant sensitivity to humidity levels within the planetary boundary layer, or in the lowest levels of the atmosphere, which decreases with height.[118] QPF can be generated on a quantitative, forecasting amounts, or a qualitative, forecasting the probability of a specific amount, basis.[119] Radar imagery forecasting techniques show higher skill than model forecasts within 6 to 7 hours of the time of the radar image. The forecasts can be verified through use of rain gauge measurements, weather radar estimates, or a combination of both. Various skill scores can be determined to measure the value of the rainfall forecast.[120]

 Impact

 Agricultural

 Rainfall estimates for southern Japan and the surrounding region from 20–27 July 2009.

 Precipitation, especially rain, has a dramatic effect on agriculture. All plants need at least some water to survive, therefore rain (being the most effective means of watering) is important to agriculture. While a regular rain pattern is usually vital to healthy plants, too much or too little rainfall can be harmful, even devastating to crops. Drought can kill crops and increase erosion,[121] while overly wet weather can cause harmful fungus growth.[122] Plants need varying amounts of rainfall to survive. For example, certain cacti require small amounts of water,[123] while tropical plants may need up to hundreds of inches of rain per year to survive.

 In areas with wet and dry seasons, soil nutrients diminish and erosion increases during the wet season.[27] Animals have adaptation and survival strategies for the wetter regime. The previous dry season leads to food shortages into the wet season, as the crops have yet to mature.[124] Developing countries have noted that their populations show seasonal weight fluctuations due to food shortages seen before the first harvest, which occurs late in the wet season.[125] Rain may be harvested through the use of rainwater tanks; treated to potable use or for non-potable use indoors or for irrigation.[126] Excessive rain during short periods of time can cause flash floods.[127]

 Culture and religion

 See also: List of rain deities
 A rain dance being performed in Harar, Ethiopia

 Cultural attitudes towards rain differ across the world. In temperate climates, people tend to be more stressed when the weather is unstable or cloudy, with its impact greater on men than women.[128] Rain can also bring joy, as some consider it to be soothing or enjoy the aesthetic appeal of it. In dry places, such as India,[129] or during periods of drought,[130] rain lifts people's moods. In Botswana, the Setswana word for rain, pula, is used as the name of the national currency, in recognition of the economic importance of rain in its country, since it has a desert climate.[131] Several cultures have developed means of dealing with rain and have developed numerous protection devices such as umbrellas and raincoats, and diversion devices such as gutters and storm drains that lead rains to sewers.[132] Many people find the scent during and immediately after rain pleasant or distinctive. The source of this scent is petrichor, an oil produced by plants, then absorbed by rocks and soil, and later released into the air during rainfall.[133]

 Rain, depicted in the 1493 Nuremberg Chronicle

 Rain holds an important religious significance in many cultures.[134] The ancient Sumerians believed that rain was the semen of the sky-god An,[135] which fell from the heavens to inseminate his consort, the earth-goddess Ki,[135] causing her to give birth to all the plants of the earth.[135] The Akkadians believed that the clouds were the breasts of Anu's consort Antu[135] and that rain was milk from her breasts.[135] According to Jewish tradition, in the first century BC, the Jewish miracle-worker Honi ha-M'agel ended a three-year drought in Judaea by drawing a circle in the sand and praying for rain, refusing to leave the circle until his prayer was granted.[136] In his Meditations, the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius preserves a prayer for rain made by the Athenians to the Greek sky-god Zeus.[134] Various Native American tribes are known to have historically conducted rain dances in effort to encourage rainfall.[134] Rainmaking rituals are also important in many African cultures.[137] In the present-day United States, various state governors have held Days of Prayer for rain, including the Days of Prayer for Rain in the State of Texas in 2011.[134]

 Global climatology

 See also: Earth rainfall climatology

 Approximately 505,000 km3 (121,000 cu mi) of water falls as precipitation each year across the globe with 398,000 km3 (95,000 cu mi) of it over the oceans.[138] Given the Earth's surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 mm (39 in). Deserts are defined as areas with an average annual precipitation of less than 250 mm (10 in) per year,[139][140] or as areas where more water is lost by evapotranspiration than falls as precipitation.[141]

 Deserts

 Main article: Desert
 Largest deserts
 Isolated towering vertical desert shower

 The northern half of Africa is dominated by the world's most extensive hot, dry region, the Sahara Desert. Some deserts also occupy much of southern Africa: the Namib and the Kalahari. Across Asia, a large annual rainfall minimum, composed primarily of deserts, stretches from the Gobi Desert in Mongolia west-southwest through western Pakistan (Balochistan) and Iran into the Arabian Desert in Saudi Arabia. Most of Australia is semi-arid or desert,[142] making it the world's driest inhabited continent. In South America, the Andes mountain range blocks Pacific moisture that arrives in that continent, resulting in a desertlike climate just downwind across western Argentina.[48] The drier areas of the United States are regions where the Sonoran Desert overspreads the Desert Southwest, the Great Basin and central Wyoming.[143]

 Polar deserts

 Main articles: Polar desert and Polar climate

 Since rain only falls as liquid, it rarely falls when surface temperatures are below freezing, unless there is a layer of warm air aloft, in which case it becomes freezing rain. Due to the entire atmosphere being below freezing most of the time, very cold climates see very little rainfall and are often known as polar deserts. A common biome in this area is the tundra which has a short summer thaw and a long frozen winter. Ice caps see no rain at all, making Antarctica the world's driest continent.

 Rainforests

 See also: Rainforest

 Rainforests are areas of the world with very high rainfall. Both tropical and temperate rainforests exist. Tropical rainforests occupy a large band of the planet mostly along the equator. Most temperate rainforests are located on mountainous west coasts between 45 and 55 degrees latitude, but they are often found in other areas.

 Around 40–75% of all biotic life is found in rainforests. Rainforests are also responsible for 28% of the world's oxygen turnover.

 Monsoons

 See also: Monsoon and Monsoon trough

 The equatorial region near the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), or monsoon trough, is the wettest portion of the world's continents. Annually, the rain belt within the tropics marches northward by August, then moves back southward into the Southern Hemisphere by February and March.[144] Within Asia, rainfall is favored across its southern portion from India east and northeast across the Philippines and southern China into Japan due to the monsoon advecting moisture primarily from the Indian Ocean into the region.[145] The monsoon trough can reach as far north as the 40th parallel in East Asia during August before moving southward thereafter. Its poleward progression is accelerated by the onset of the summer monsoon which is characterized by the development of lower air pressure (a thermal low) over the warmest part of Asia.[146][147] Similar, but weaker, monsoon circulations are present over North America and Australia.[148][149] During the summer, the Southwest monsoon combined with Gulf of California and Gulf of Mexico moisture moving around the subtropical ridge in the Atlantic Ocean bring the promise of afternoon and evening thunderstorms to the southern tier of the United States as well as the Great Plains.[150] The eastern half of the contiguous United States east of the 98th meridian, the mountains of the Pacific Northwest, and the Sierra Nevada range are the wetter portions of the nation, with average rainfall exceeding 760 mm (30 in) per year.[151] Tropical cyclones enhance precipitation across southern sections of the United States,[152] as well as Puerto Rico, the United States Virgin Islands,[153] the Northern Mariana Islands,[154] Guam, and American Samoa.

 Impact of the Westerlies

 See also: Westerlies
 Long-term mean precipitation by month

 Westerly flow from the mild north Atlantic leads to wetness across western Europe, in particular Ireland and the United Kingdom, where the western coasts can receive between 1,000 mm (39 in), at sea level and 2,500 mm (98 in), on the mountains of rain per year. Bergen, Norway is one of the more famous European rain-cities with its yearly precipitation of 2,250 mm (89 in) on average. During the fall, winter, and spring, Pacific storm systems bring most of Hawaii and the western United States much of their precipitation.[150] Over the top of the ridge, the jet stream brings a summer precipitation maximum to the Great Lakes. Large thunderstorm areas known as mesoscale convective complexes move through the Plains, Midwest, and Great Lakes during the warm season, contributing up to 10% of the annual precipitation to the region.[155]

 The El Niño-Southern Oscillation affects the precipitation distribution, by altering rainfall patterns across the western United States,[156] Midwest,[157][158] the Southeast,[159] and throughout the tropics. There is also evidence that global warming is leading to increased precipitation to the eastern portions of North America, while droughts are becoming more frequent in the tropics and subtropics.

 Wettest known locations

 Cherrapunji, situated on the southern slopes of the Eastern Himalaya in Shillong, India is the confirmed wettest place on Earth, with an average annual rainfall of 11,430 mm (450 in). The highest recorded rainfall in a single year was 22,987 mm (905.0 in) in 1861. The 38-year average at nearby Mawsynram, Meghalaya, India is 11,873 mm (467.4 in).[160] The wettest spot in Australia is Mount Bellenden Ker in the north-east of the country which records an average of 8,000 mm (310 in) per year, with over 12,200 mm (480.3 in) of rain recorded during 2000.[161] The Big Bog on the island of Maui has the highest average annual rainfall in the Hawaiian Islands, at 10,300 mm (404 in).[162] Mount Waiʻaleʻale on the island of Kauaʻi achieves similar torrential rains, while slightly lower than that of the Big Bog, at 9,500 mm (373 in)[163] of rain per year over the last 32 years, with a record 17,340 mm (683 in) in 1982. Its summit is considered one of the rainiest spots on earth, with a reported 350 days of rain per year.

 Lloró, a town situated in Chocó, Colombia, is probably the place with the largest rainfall in the world, averaging 13,300 mm (523.6 in) per year.[164] The Department of Chocó is extraordinarily humid. Tutunendaó, a small town situated in the same department, is one of the wettest estimated places on Earth, averaging 11,394 mm (448.6 in) per year; in 1974 the town received 26,303 mm (86 ft 3.6 in), the largest annual rainfall measured in Colombia. Unlike Cherrapunji, which receives most of its rainfall between April and September, Tutunendaó receives rain almost uniformly distributed throughout the year.[165] Quibdó, the capital of Chocó, receives the most rain in the world among cities with over 100,000 inhabitants: 9,000 mm (354 in) per year.[164] Storms in Chocó can drop 500 mm (20 in) of rainfall in a day. This amount is more than what falls in many cities in a year's time.

 Continent   Highest average Place Elevation Years of record
 in   mm ft m 
 South America  523.6 13,299 Lloró, Colombia (estimated)[a][b] 520 158[c] 29
 Asia   467.4 11,872 Mawsynram, India[a][d] 4,597 1,401 39
 Africa   405.0 10,287 Debundscha, Cameroon 30 9.1 32
 Oceania   404.3 10,269 Big Bog, Maui, Hawaii (USA)[a] 5,148 1,569 30
 South America  354.0 8,992 Quibdo, Colombia 120 36.6 16
 Australia   340.0 8,636 Mount Bellenden Ker, Queensland 5,102 1,555 9 
 North America  256.0 6,502 Hucuktlis Lake, British Columbia 12 3.66 14
 Europe   183.0 4,648 Crkvice, Montenegro 3,337 1,017 22
 Source (without conversions): Global Measured Extremes of Temperature and Precipitation, National Climatic Data Center. 9 August 2004.[166]
 
 Continent Place Highest rainfall
 in mm 
 Highest average annual rainfall[167] Asia Mawsynram, India 467.4 11,870
 Highest in one year[167] Asia Cherrapunji, India 1,042 26,470
 Highest in one calendar month[168] Asia Cherrapunji, India 366 9,296 
 Highest in 24 hours[167] Indian Ocean Foc Foc, La Réunion 71.8 1,820 
 Highest in 12 hours[167] Indian Ocean Foc Foc, La Réunion 45.0 1,140 
 Highest in one minute[167] North America Unionville, Maryland, USA 1.23 31.2 
 

 Outside Earth

 Rainfalls of diamonds have been suggested to occur on the gas giant planets, Jupiter and Saturn,[169] as well as on the ice giant planets, Uranus and Neptune.[170] There is likely to be rain of various compositions in the upper atmospheres of the gas giants, as well as precipitation of liquid neon in the deep atmospheres.[171][172] On Titan, Saturn's largest natural satellite, infrequent methane rain is thought to carve the moon's numerous surface channels.[173] On Venus, sulfuric acid virga evaporates 25 km (16 mi) from the surface.[174] Extrasolar planet OGLE-TR-56b in the constellation Sagittarius is hypothesized to have iron rain.[175] Accordingly, research carried out by the European Southern Observatory shows that WASP-76b can produce showers of burning liquid iron droplets once temperature decreases during the planet's night hours.[176] There is evidence from samples of basalt brought back by the Apollo missions that the Moon has been subject to lava rain.[177]

 See also

 * Ecology portal
 * Environment portal
 * Water portal
 * Weather portal
 * Atmospheric river
 * Hydropower
 * Intensity-duration-frequency curve
 * Precipitation types
 * Rain dust
 * Rain sensor
 * Rain water harvesting
 * Rainbow
 * Raining animals
 * Red rain in Kerala
 * Petrichor – the cause of the scent during and after rain
 * Sanitary sewer overflow
 * Sediment precipitation
 * Water resources
 * Weather
 * Rainmaking
 * Johad

 Notes

 * a b c The value given is the continent's highest, and possibly the world's, depending on measurement practices, procedures and period of record variations.
 * ^ The official greatest average annual precipitation for South America is 900 cm (354 in) at Quibdó, Colombia. The 1,330 cm (523.6 in) average at Lloró [23 km (14 mi) SE and at a higher elevation than Quibdó] is an estimated amount.
 * ^ Approximate elevation.
 * ^ Recognized as "The Wettest place on Earth" by the Guinness Book of World Records.[178]
 * ^ This is the highest figure for which records are available. The summit of Mount Snowdon, about 500 yards (460 m) from Glaslyn, is estimated to have at least 200.0 inches (5,080 mm) per year.

 References

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Rain is water droplets that have condensed from atmospheric water vapor and then fall under gravity. Rain is a major component of the water cycle and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the Earth. It provides water for hydroelectric power plants, crop irrigation, and suitable conditions for many types of ecosystems.
 The major cause of rain production is moisture moving along three-dimensional zones of temperature and moisture contrasts known as weather fronts. If enough moisture and upward motion is present, precipitation falls from convective clouds (those with strong upward vertical motion) such as cumulonimbus (thunder clouds) which can organize into narrow rainbands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation which forces moist air to condense and fall out as rainfall along the sides of mountains. On the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by downslope flow which causes heating and drying of the air mass. The movement of the monsoon trough, or intertropical convergence zone, brings rainy seasons to savannah climes.
 The urban heat island effect leads to increased rainfall, both in amounts and intensity, downwind of cities. Global warming is also causing changes in the precipitation pattern globally, including wetter conditions across eastern North America and drier conditions in the tropics. Antarctica is the driest continent. The globally averaged annual precipitation over land is 715 mm (28.1 in), but over the whole Earth it is much higher at 990 mm (39 in). [1]  Climate classification systems such as the Köppen classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Rainfall is measured using rain gauges. Rainfall amounts can be estimated by weather radar.
 Rain is also known or suspected on other planets, where it may be composed of methane, neon, sulfuric acid, or even iron rather than water.
Formation
Water-saturated air
      Rain falling on a field, in southern Estonia   
Air contains water vapor, and the amount of water in a given mass of dry air, known as the mixing ratio, is measured in grams of water per kilogram of dry air (g/kg). [2]   [3]  The amount of moisture in air is also commonly reported as relative humidity; which is the percentage of the total water vapor air can hold at a particular air temperature. [4]  How much water vapor a parcel of air can contain before it becomes saturated (100% relative humidity) and forms into a cloud (a group of visible and tiny water and ice particles suspended above the Earth's surface) [5]  depends on its temperature. Warmer air can contain more water vapor than cooler air before becoming saturated. Therefore, one way to saturate a parcel of air is to cool it. The dew point is the temperature to which a parcel must be cooled in order to become saturated. [6] 
     
There are four main mechanisms for cooling the air to its dew point: adiabatic cooling, conductive cooling, radiational cooling, and evaporative cooling. Adiabatic cooling occurs when air rises and expands. [7]  The air can rise due to convection, large-scale atmospheric motions, or a physical barrier such as a mountain (orographic lift). Conductive cooling occurs when the air comes into contact with a colder surface, [8]  usually by being blown from one surface to another, for example from a liquid water surface to colder land. Radiational cooling occurs due to the emission of infrared radiation, either by the air or by the surface underneath. [9]  Evaporative cooling occurs when moisture is added to the air through evaporation, which forces the air temperature to cool to its wet-bulb temperature, or until it reaches saturation. [10] 
 The main ways water vapor is added to the air are: wind convergence into areas of upward motion, [11]  precipitation or virga falling from above, [12]  daytime heating evaporating water from the surface of oceans, water bodies or wet land, [13]  transpiration from plants, [14]  cool or dry air moving over warmer water, [15]  and lifting air over mountains. [16]  Water vapor normally begins to condense on condensation nuclei such as dust, ice, and salt in order to form clouds. Elevated portions of weather fronts (which are three-dimensional in nature) [17]  force broad areas of upward motion within the Earth's atmosphere which form clouds decks such as altostratus or cirrostratus. [18]  Stratus is a stable cloud deck which tends to form when a cool, stable air mass is trapped underneath a warm air mass. It can also form due to the lifting of advection fog during breezy conditions. [19] 
Coalescence and fragmentation
      The shape of rain drops depending upon their size  
 Coalescence occurs when water droplets fuse to create larger water droplets. Air resistance typically causes the water droplets in a cloud to remain stationary. When air turbulence occurs, water droplets collide, producing larger droplets.
     
As these larger water droplets descend, coalescence continues, so that drops become heavy enough to overcome air resistance and fall as rain. Coalescence generally happens most often in clouds above freezing, and is also known as the warm rain process. [20]  In clouds below freezing, when ice crystals gain enough mass they begin to fall. This generally requires more mass than coalescence when occurring between the crystal and neighboring water droplets. This process is temperature dependent, as supercooled water droplets only exist in a cloud that is below freezing. In addition, because of the great temperature difference between cloud and ground level, these ice crystals may melt as they fall and become rain. [21] 
 Raindrops have sizes ranging from 0.1 to 9 mm (0.0039 to 0.3543 in) mean diameter but develop a tendency to break up at larger sizes. Smaller drops are called cloud droplets, and their shape is spherical. As a raindrop increases in size, its shape becomes more oblate, with its largest cross-section facing the oncoming airflow. Large rain drops become increasingly flattened on the bottom, like hamburger buns; very large ones are shaped like parachutes. [22]   [23]  Contrary to popular belief, their shape does not resemble a teardrop. [24]  The biggest raindrops on Earth were recorded over Brazil and the Marshall Islands in 2004 — some of them were as large as 10 mm (0.39 in). The large size is explained by condensation on large smoke particles or by collisions between drops in small regions with particularly high content of liquid water. [25] 
 Rain drops associated with melting hail tend to be larger than other rain drops. [26] 
     
Intensity and duration of rainfall are usually inversely related, i.e., high intensity storms are likely to be of short duration and low intensity storms can have a long duration. [27]   [28] 
Droplet size distribution
The final droplet size distribution is an exponential distribution. The number of droplets with diameter between and per unit volume of space is . This is commonly referred to as the Marshall–Palmer law after the researchers who first characterized it. [23]   [29]  The parameters are somewhat temperature-dependent, [30]  and the slope also scales with the rate of rainfall (d in centimeters and R in millimeters per hour). [23] 
 Deviations can occur for small droplets and during different rainfall conditions. The distribution tends to fit averaged rainfall, while instantaneous size spectra often deviate and have been modeled as gamma distributions. [31]  The distribution has an upper limit due to droplet fragmentation. [23] 
Raindrop impacts
Raindrops impact at their terminal velocity, which is greater for larger drops due to their larger mass to drag ratio. At sea level and without wind, 0.5 mm (0.020 in) drizzle impacts at 2 m/s (6.6 ft/s) or 7.2 km/h (4.5 mph), while large 5 mm (0.20 in) drops impact at around 9 m/s (30 ft/s) or 32 km/h (20 mph). [32] 
 Rain falling on loosely packed material such as newly fallen ash can produce dimples that can be fossilized, called raindrop impressions. [33]  The air density dependence of the maximum raindrop diameter together with fossil raindrop imprints has been used to constrain the density of the air 2.7 billion years ago. [34] 
 The sound of raindrops hitting water is caused by bubbles of air oscillating underwater. [35]   [36] 
 The METAR code for rain is RA, while the coding for rain showers is SHRA. [37] 
Virga
In certain conditions precipitation may fall from a cloud but then evaporate or sublime before reaching the ground. This is termed virga and is more often seen in hot and dry climates.
Causes
Frontal activity
Stratiform (a broad shield of precipitation with a relatively similar intensity) and dynamic precipitation (convective precipitation which is showery in nature with large changes in intensity over short distances) occur as a consequence of slow ascent of air in synoptic systems (on the order of cm/s), such as in the vicinity of cold fronts and near and poleward of surface warm fronts. Similar ascent is seen around tropical cyclones outside the eyewall, and in comma-head precipitation patterns around mid-latitude cyclones. [38]  A wide variety of weather can be found along an occluded front, with thunderstorms possible, but usually their passage is associated with a drying of the air mass. Occluded fronts usually form around mature low-pressure areas. [39]  What separates rainfall from other precipitation types, such as ice pellets and snow, is the presence of a thick layer of air aloft which is above the melting point of water, which melts the frozen precipitation well before it reaches the ground. If there is a shallow near surface layer that is below freezing, freezing rain (rain which freezes on contact with surfaces in subfreezing environments) will result. [40]  Hail becomes an increasingly infrequent occurrence when the freezing level within the atmosphere exceeds 3,400 m (11,000 ft) above ground level. [41] 
Convection
     
     
 Convective rain, or showery precipitation, occurs from convective clouds (e.g., cumulonimbus or cumulus congestus). It falls as showers with rapidly changing intensity. Convective precipitation falls over a certain area for a relatively short time, as convective clouds have limited horizontal extent. Most precipitation in the tropics appears to be convective; however, it has been suggested that stratiform precipitation also occurs. [38]   [42]  Graupel and hail indicate convection. [43]  In mid-latitudes, convective precipitation is intermittent and often associated with baroclinic boundaries such as cold fronts, squall lines, and warm fronts. [44] 
Orographic effects
Orographic precipitation occurs on the windward side of mountains and is caused by the rising air motion of a large-scale flow of moist air across the mountain ridge, resulting in adiabatic cooling and condensation. In mountainous parts of the world subjected to relatively consistent winds (for example, the trade winds), a more moist climate usually prevails on the windward side of a mountain than on the leeward or downwind side. Moisture is removed by orographic lift, leaving drier air (see katabatic wind) on the descending and generally warming, leeward side where a rain shadow is observed. [16] 
 In Hawaii, Mount Waiʻaleʻale, on the island of Kauai, is notable for its extreme rainfall, as it is amongst the places in the world with the highest levels of rainfall, with 9,500 mm (373 in). [45]  Systems known as Kona storms affect the state with heavy rains between October and April. [46]  Local climates vary considerably on each island due to their topography, divisible into windward (Koʻolau) and leeward (Kona) regions based upon location relative to the higher mountains. Windward sides face the east to northeast trade winds and receive much more rainfall; leeward sides are drier and sunnier, with less rain and less cloud cover. [47] 
 In South America, the Andes mountain range blocks Pacific moisture that arrives in that continent, resulting in a desertlike climate just downwind across western Argentina. [48]  The Sierra Nevada range creates the same effect in North America forming the Great Basin and Mojave Deserts. [49]   [50] 
Within the tropics
      Rainfall distribution by month in Cairns showing the extent of the wet season at that location  
The wet, or rainy, season is the time of year, covering one or more months, when most of the average annual rainfall in a region falls. [51]  The term green season is also sometimes used as a euphemism by tourist authorities. [52]  Areas with wet seasons are dispersed across portions of the tropics and subtropics. [53]  Savanna climates and areas with monsoon regimes have wet summers and dry winters. Tropical rainforests technically do not have dry or wet seasons, since their rainfall is equally distributed through the year. [54]  Some areas with pronounced rainy seasons will see a break in rainfall mid-season when the intertropical convergence zone or monsoon trough move poleward of their location during the middle of the warm season. [27]  When the wet season occurs during the warm season, or summer, rain falls mainly during the late afternoon and early evening hours. The wet season is a time when air quality improves, [55]  freshwater quality improves, [56]   [57]  and vegetation grows significantly.
  Tropical cyclones, a source of very heavy rainfall, consist of large air masses several hundred miles across with low pressure at the centre and with winds blowing inward towards the centre in either a clockwise direction (southern hemisphere) or counter clockwise (northern hemisphere). [58]  Although cyclones can take an enormous toll in lives and personal property, they may be important factors in the precipitation regimes of places they impact, as they may bring much-needed precipitation to otherwise dry regions. [59]  Areas in their path can receive a year's worth of rainfall from a tropical cyclone passage. [60] 
Human influence
      Image of Atlanta, US showing temperature distribution, with blue showing cool temperatures, red warm, and hot areas appearing white.  
      Average surface air temperatures from 2011 to 2020 compared to the 1951–1980 average. Source: NASA   
The fine particulate matter produced by car exhaust and other human sources of pollution forms cloud condensation nuclei, leads to the production of clouds and increases the likelihood of rain. As commuters and commercial traffic cause pollution to build up over the course of the week, the likelihood of rain increases: it peaks by Saturday, after five days of weekday pollution has been built up. In heavily populated areas that are near the coast, such as the United States' Eastern Seaboard, the effect can be dramatic: there is a 22% higher chance of rain on Saturdays than on Mondays. [61]  The urban heat island effect warms cities 0.6 to 5.6 °C (1.1 to 10.1 °F) above surrounding suburbs and rural areas. This extra heat leads to greater upward motion, which can induce additional shower and thunderstorm activity. Rainfall rates downwind of cities are increased between 48% and 116%. Partly as a result of this warming, monthly rainfall is about 28% greater between 32 to 64 km (20 to 40 mi) downwind of cities, compared with upwind. [62]  Some cities induce a total precipitation increase of 51%. [63] 
 Increasing temperatures tend to increase evaporation which can lead to more precipitation. Precipitation generally increased over land north of 30°N from 1900 through 2005 but has declined over the tropics since the 1970s. Globally there has been no statistically significant overall trend in precipitation over the past century, although trends have varied widely by region and over time. Eastern portions of North and South America, northern Europe, and northern and central Asia have become wetter. The Sahel, the Mediterranean, southern Africa and parts of southern Asia have become drier. There has been an increase in the number of heavy precipitation events over many areas during the past century, as well as an increase since the 1970s in the prevalence of droughts—especially in the tropics and subtropics. Changes in precipitation and evaporation over the oceans are suggested by the decreased salinity of mid- and high-latitude waters (implying more precipitation), along with increased salinity in lower latitudes (implying less precipitation and/or more evaporation). Over the contiguous United States, total annual precipitation increased at an average rate of 6.1 percent since 1900, with the greatest increases within the East North Central climate region (11.6 percent per century) and the South (11.1 percent). Hawaii was the only region to show a decrease (−9.25 percent). [64] 
 Analysis of 65 years of United States of America rainfall records show the lower 48 states have an increase in heavy downpours since 1950. The largest increases are in the Northeast and Midwest, which in the past decade, have seen 31 and 16 percent more heavy downpours compared to the 1950s. Rhode Island is the state with the largest increase, 104%. McAllen, Texas is the city with the largest increase, 700%. Heavy downpour in the analysis are the days where total precipitation exceeded the top one percent of all rain and snow days during the years 1950–2014. [65]   [66] 
 The most successful attempts at influencing weather involve cloud seeding, which include techniques used to increase winter precipitation over mountains and suppress hail. [67] 
Characteristics
Patterns
     
 Rainbands are cloud and precipitation areas which are significantly elongated. Rainbands can be stratiform or convective, [68]  and are generated by differences in temperature. When noted on weather radar imagery, this precipitation elongation is referred to as banded structure. [69]  Rainbands in advance of warm occluded fronts and warm fronts are associated with weak upward motion, [70]  and tend to be wide and stratiform in nature. [71] 
 Rainbands spawned near and ahead of cold fronts can be squall lines which are able to produce tornadoes. [72]  Rainbands associated with cold fronts can be warped by mountain barriers perpendicular to the front's orientation due to the formation of a low-level barrier jet. [73]  Bands of thunderstorms can form with sea breeze and land breeze boundaries, if enough moisture is present. If sea breeze rainbands become active enough just ahead of a cold front, they can mask the location of the cold front itself. [74] 
 Once a cyclone occludes an occluded front (a trough of warm air aloft) will be caused by strong southerly winds on its eastern periphery rotating aloft around its northeast, and ultimately northwestern, periphery (also termed the warm conveyor belt), forcing a surface trough to continue into the cold sector on a similar curve to the occluded front. The front creates the portion of an occluded cyclone known as its comma head, due to the comma-like shape of the mid-tropospheric cloudiness that accompanies the feature. It can also be the focus of locally heavy precipitation, with thunderstorms possible if the atmosphere along the front is unstable enough for convection. [75]  Banding within the comma head precipitation pattern of an extratropical cyclone can yield significant amounts of rain. [76]  Behind extratropical cyclones during fall and winter, rainbands can form downwind of relative warm bodies of water such as the Great Lakes. Downwind of islands, bands of showers and thunderstorms can develop due to low level wind convergence downwind of the island edges. Offshore California, this has been noted in the wake of cold fronts. [77] 
 Rainbands within tropical cyclones are curved in orientation. Tropical cyclone rainbands contain showers and thunderstorms that, together with the eyewall and the eye, constitute a hurricane or tropical storm. The extent of rainbands around a tropical cyclone can help determine the cyclone's intensity. [78] 
Acidity
     
The phrase acid rain was first used by Scottish chemist Robert Augus Smith in 1852. [79]  The pH of rain varies, especially due to its origin. On America's East Coast, rain that is derived from the Atlantic Ocean typically has a pH of 5.0–5.6; rain that comes across the continental from the west has a pH of 3.8–4.8; and local thunderstorms can have a pH as low as 2.0. [80]  Rain becomes acidic primarily due to the presence of two strong acids, sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3). Sulfuric acid is derived from natural sources such as volcanoes, and wetlands (sulfate reducing bacteria); and anthropogenic sources such as the combustion of fossil fuels, and mining where H2S is present. Nitric acid is produced by natural sources such as lightning, soil bacteria, and natural fires; while also produced anthropogenically by the combustion of fossil fuels and from power plants. In the past 20 years the concentrations of nitric and sulfuric acid has decreased in presence of rainwater, which may be due to the significant increase in ammonium (most likely as ammonia from livestock production), which acts as a buffer in acid rain and raises the pH. [81] 
Köppen climate classification
     
The Köppen classification depends on average monthly values of temperature and precipitation. The most commonly used form of the Köppen classification has five primary types labeled A through E. Specifically, the primary types are A, tropical; B, dry; C, mild mid-latitude; D, cold mid-latitude; and E, polar. The five primary classifications can be further divided into secondary classifications such as rain forest, monsoon, tropical savanna, humid subtropical, humid continental, oceanic climate, Mediterranean climate, steppe, subarctic climate, tundra, polar ice cap, and desert.
 Rain forests are characterized by high rainfall, with definitions setting minimum normal annual rainfall between 1,750 and 2,000 mm (69 and 79 in). [83]  A tropical savanna is a grassland biome located in semi-arid to semi-humid climate regions of subtropical and tropical latitudes, with rainfall between 750 and 1,270 mm (30 and 50 in) a year. They are widespread on Africa, and are also found in India, the northern parts of South America, Malaysia, and Australia. [84]  The humid subtropical climate zone is where winter rainfall is associated with large storms that the westerlies steer from west to east. Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms and from occasional tropical cyclones. [85]  Humid subtropical climates lie on the east side continents, roughly between latitudes 20° and 40° degrees away from the equator. [86] 
 An oceanic (or maritime) climate is typically found along the west coasts at the middle latitudes of all the world's continents, bordering cool oceans, as well as southeastern Australia, and is accompanied by plentiful precipitation year-round. [87]  The Mediterranean climate regime resembles the climate of the lands in the Mediterranean Basin, parts of western North America, parts of Western and South Australia, in southwestern South Africa and in parts of central Chile. The climate is characterized by hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters. [88]  A steppe is a dry grassland. [89]  Subarctic climates are cold with continuous permafrost and little precipitation. [90] 
Pollution
        This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2022)     
 
In 2022 it was found that levels of at least four perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) in rainwater worldwide ubiquitously, and often greatly, exceeded the EPA's lifetime drinking water health advisories as well as comparable Danish, Dutch, and European Union safety standards, leading researchers to conclude that "the global spread of these four PFAAs in the atmosphere has led to the planetary boundary for chemical pollution being exceeded". [91]  There are some moves to restrict and replace their use. [92]   
Measurement
Gauges
     
Rain is measured in units of length per unit time, typically in millimeters per hour, [93]  or in countries where imperial units are more common, inches per hour. [94]  The "length", or more accurately, "depth" being measured is the depth of rain water that would accumulate on a flat, horizontal and impermeable surface during a given amount of time, typically an hour. [95]  One millimeter of rainfall is the equivalent of one liter of water per square meter. [96] 
 The standard way of measuring rainfall or snowfall is the standard rain gauge, which can be found in 100-mm (4-in) plastic and 200-mm (8-in) metal varieties. [97]  The inner cylinder is filled by 25 mm (0.98 in) of rain, with overflow flowing into the outer cylinder. Plastic gauges have markings on the inner cylinder down to 0.25 mm (0.0098 in) resolution, while metal gauges require use of a stick designed with the appropriate 0.25 mm (0.0098 in) markings. After the inner cylinder is filled, the amount inside it is discarded, then filled with the remaining rainfall in the outer cylinder until all the fluid in the outer cylinder is gone, adding to the overall total until the outer cylinder is empty. [98]  Other types of gauges include the popular wedge gauge (the cheapest rain gauge and most fragile), the tipping bucket rain gauge, and the weighing rain gauge. [99]  For those looking to measure rainfall the most inexpensively, a can that is cylindrical with straight sides will act as a rain gauge if left out in the open, but its accuracy will depend on what ruler is used to measure the rain with. Any of the above rain gauges can be made at home, with enough know-how. [100] 
 When a precipitation measurement is made, various networks exist across the United States and elsewhere where rainfall measurements can be submitted through the Internet, such as CoCoRAHS or GLOBE. [101]   [102]  If a network is not available in the area where one lives, the nearest local weather or met office will likely be interested in the measurement. [103] 
Remote sensing
      Twenty-four-hour rainfall accumulation on the Val d'Irène radar in Eastern Canada. Zones without data in the east and southwest are caused by beam blocking from mountains. (Source: Environment Canada)  
One of the main uses of weather radar is to be able to assess the amount of precipitations fallen over large basins for hydrological purposes. [104]  For instance, river flood control, sewer management and dam construction are all areas where planners use rainfall accumulation data. Radar-derived rainfall estimates complement surface station data which can be used for calibration. To produce radar accumulations, rain rates over a point are estimated by using the value of reflectivity data at individual grid points. A radar equation is then used, which is
     
where Z represents the radar reflectivity, R represents the rainfall rate, and A and b are constants. [105]  
Satellite derived rainfall estimates use passive microwave instruments aboard polar orbiting as well as geostationary weather satellites to indirectly measure rainfall rates. [106]  If one wants an accumulated rainfall over a time period, one has to add up all the accumulations from each grid box within the images during that time.
 1988 rain in the U.S. The heaviest rain is seen in reds and yellows. 
Intensity
   
The sound of a heavy rain fall in suburban neighborhood  
Rainfall intensity is classified according to the rate of precipitation, which depends on the considered time. [107]  The following categories are used to classify rainfall intensity:
 Light rain — when the precipitation rate is &lt; 2.5 mm (0.098 in) per hour
Moderate rain — when the precipitation rate is between 2.5 mm (0.098 in) – 7.6 mm (0.30 in) or 10 mm (0.39 in) per hour [108]   [109]  
Heavy rain — when the precipitation rate is &gt; 7.6 mm (0.30 in) per hour, [108]  or between 10 mm (0.39 in) and 50 mm (2.0 in) per hour [109]  
Violent rain — when the precipitation rate is &gt; 50 mm (2.0 in) per hour [109]   
Euphemisms for a heavy or violent rain include gully washer, trash-mover and toad-strangler. [110] 
The intensity can also be expressed by rainfall erosivity R-factor  [111]  or in terms of the rainfall time-structure n-index. [107] 
Return period
The average time between occurrences of an event with a specified intensity and duration is called the return period. [112]  The intensity of a storm can be predicted for any return period and storm duration, from charts based on historic data for the location. [113]  The return period is often expressed as an n-year event. For instance, a 10-year storm describes a rare rainfall event occurring on average once every 10 years. The rainfall will be greater and the flooding will be worse than the worst storm expected in any single year. A 100-year storm describes an extremely rare rainfall event occurring on average once in a century. The rainfall will be extreme and flooding worse than a 10-year event. The probability of an event in any year is the inverse of the return period (assuming the probability remains the same for each year). [112]  For instance a 10-year storm has a probability of occurring of 10 percent in any given year, and a 100-year storm occurs with a 1 percent probability in a year. As with all probability events, it is possible, though improbable, to have multiple 100-year storms in a single year. [114] 
Forecasting
     
The Quantitative Precipitation Forecast (abbreviated QPF) is the expected amount of liquid precipitation accumulated over a specified time period over a specified area. [115]  A QPF will be specified when a measurable precipitation type reaching a minimum threshold is forecast for any hour during a QPF valid period. Precipitation forecasts tend to be bound by synoptic hours such as 0000, 0600, 1200 and 1800 GMT. Terrain is considered in QPFs by use of topography or based upon climatological precipitation patterns from observations with fine detail. [116]  Starting in the mid to late 1990s, QPFs were used within hydrologic forecast models to simulate impact to rivers throughout the United States. [117]  
  Forecast models show significant sensitivity to humidity levels within the planetary boundary layer, or in the lowest levels of the atmosphere, which decreases with height. [118]  QPF can be generated on a quantitative, forecasting amounts, or a qualitative, forecasting the probability of a specific amount, basis. [119]  Radar imagery forecasting techniques show higher skill than model forecasts within 6 to 7 hours of the time of the radar image. The forecasts can be verified through use of rain gauge measurements, weather radar estimates, or a combination of both. Various skill scores can be determined to measure the value of the rainfall forecast. [120] 
Impact
Agricultural
      Rainfall estimates for southern Japan and the surrounding region from 20–27 July 2009.  
Precipitation, especially rain, has a dramatic effect on agriculture. All plants need at least some water to survive, therefore rain (being the most effective means of watering) is important to agriculture. While a regular rain pattern is usually vital to healthy plants, too much or too little rainfall can be harmful, even devastating to crops. Drought can kill crops and increase erosion, [121]  while overly wet weather can cause harmful fungus growth. [122]  Plants need varying amounts of rainfall to survive. For example, certain cacti require small amounts of water, [123]  while tropical plants may need up to hundreds of inches of rain per year to survive.
 In areas with wet and dry seasons, soil nutrients diminish and erosion increases during the wet season. [27]  Animals have adaptation and survival strategies for the wetter regime. The previous dry season leads to food shortages into the wet season, as the crops have yet to mature. [124]  Developing countries have noted that their populations show seasonal weight fluctuations due to food shortages seen before the first harvest, which occurs late in the wet season. [125]  Rain may be harvested through the use of rainwater tanks; treated to potable use or for non-potable use indoors or for irrigation. [126]  Excessive rain during short periods of time can cause flash floods. [127] 
Culture and religion
     
Cultural attitudes towards rain differ across the world. In temperate climates, people tend to be more stressed when the weather is unstable or cloudy, with its impact greater on men than women. [128]  Rain can also bring joy, as some consider it to be soothing or enjoy the aesthetic appeal of it. In dry places, such as India, [129]  or during periods of drought, [130]  rain lifts people's moods. In Botswana, the Setswana word for rain, pula, is used as the name of the national currency, in recognition of the economic importance of rain in its country, since it has a desert climate. [131]  Several cultures have developed means of dealing with rain and have developed numerous protection devices such as umbrellas and raincoats, and diversion devices such as gutters and storm drains that lead rains to sewers. [132]  Many people find the scent during and immediately after rain pleasant or distinctive. The source of this scent is petrichor, an oil produced by plants, then absorbed by rocks and soil, and later released into the air during rainfall. [133] 
     
Rain holds an important religious significance in many cultures. [134]  The ancient Sumerians believed that rain was the semen of the sky-god An, [135]  which fell from the heavens to inseminate his consort, the earth-goddess Ki, [135]  causing her to give birth to all the plants of the earth. [135]  The Akkadians believed that the clouds were the breasts of Anu's consort Antu  [135]  and that rain was milk from her breasts. [135]  According to Jewish tradition, in the first century BC, the Jewish miracle-worker Honi ha-M'agel ended a three-year drought in Judaea by drawing a circle in the sand and praying for rain, refusing to leave the circle until his prayer was granted. [136]  In his  Meditations , the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius preserves a prayer for rain made by the Athenians to the Greek sky-god Zeus. [134]  Various Native American tribes are known to have historically conducted rain dances in effort to encourage rainfall. [134]  Rainmaking rituals are also important in many African cultures. [137]  In the present-day United States, various state governors have held Days of Prayer for rain, including the Days of Prayer for Rain in the State of Texas in 2011. [134] 
Global climatology
Approximately 505,000 km3 (121,000 cu mi) of water falls as precipitation each year across the globe with 398,000 km3 (95,000 cu mi) of it over the oceans. [138]  Given the Earth's surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 mm (39 in). Deserts are defined as areas with an average annual precipitation of less than 250 mm (10 in) per year, [139]   [140]  or as areas where more water is lost by evapotranspiration than falls as precipitation. [141] 
Deserts
     
      Isolated towering vertical desert shower  
The northern half of Africa is dominated by the world's most extensive hot, dry region, the Sahara Desert. Some deserts also occupy much of southern Africa: the Namib and the Kalahari. Across Asia, a large annual rainfall minimum, composed primarily of deserts, stretches from the Gobi Desert in Mongolia west-southwest through western Pakistan (Balochistan) and Iran into the Arabian Desert in Saudi Arabia. Most of Australia is semi-arid or desert, [142]  making it the world's driest inhabited continent. In South America, the Andes mountain range blocks Pacific moisture that arrives in that continent, resulting in a desertlike climate just downwind across western Argentina. [48]  The drier areas of the United States are regions where the Sonoran Desert overspreads the Desert Southwest, the Great Basin and central Wyoming. [143] 
Polar deserts
Since rain only falls as liquid, it rarely falls when surface temperatures are below freezing, unless there is a layer of warm air aloft, in which case it becomes freezing rain. Due to the entire atmosphere being below freezing most of the time, very cold climates see very little rainfall and are often known as polar deserts. A common biome in this area is the tundra which has a short summer thaw and a long frozen winter. Ice caps see no rain at all, making Antarctica the world's driest continent.
Rainforests
Rainforests are areas of the world with very high rainfall. Both tropical and temperate rainforests exist. Tropical rainforests occupy a large band of the planet mostly along the equator. Most temperate rainforests are located on mountainous west coasts between 45 and 55 degrees latitude, but they are often found in other areas.
 Around 40–75% of all biotic life is found in rainforests. Rainforests are also responsible for 28% of the world's oxygen turnover.
Monsoons
The equatorial region near the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), or monsoon trough, is the wettest portion of the world's continents. Annually, the rain belt within the tropics marches northward by August, then moves back southward into the Southern Hemisphere by February and March. [144]  Within Asia, rainfall is favored across its southern portion from India east and northeast across the Philippines and southern China into Japan due to the monsoon advecting moisture primarily from the Indian Ocean into the region. [145]  The monsoon trough can reach as far north as the 40th parallel in East Asia during August before moving southward thereafter. Its poleward progression is accelerated by the onset of the summer monsoon which is characterized by the development of lower air pressure (a thermal low) over the warmest part of Asia. [146]   [147]  Similar, but weaker, monsoon circulations are present over North America and Australia. [148]   [149]  During the summer, the Southwest monsoon combined with Gulf of California and Gulf of Mexico moisture moving around the subtropical ridge in the Atlantic Ocean bring the promise of afternoon and evening thunderstorms to the southern tier of the United States as well as the Great Plains. [150]  The eastern half of the contiguous United States east of the 98th meridian, the mountains of the Pacific Northwest, and the Sierra Nevada range are the wetter portions of the nation, with average rainfall exceeding 760 mm (30 in) per year. [151]  Tropical cyclones enhance precipitation across southern sections of the United States, [152]  as well as Puerto Rico, the United States Virgin Islands, [153]  the Northern Mariana Islands, [154]  Guam, and American Samoa.
Impact of the Westerlies
      Long-term mean precipitation by month  
Westerly flow from the mild north Atlantic leads to wetness across western Europe, in particular Ireland and the United Kingdom, where the western coasts can receive between 1,000 mm (39 in), at sea level and 2,500 mm (98 in), on the mountains of rain per year. Bergen, Norway is one of the more famous European rain-cities with its yearly precipitation of 2,250 mm (89 in) on average. During the fall, winter, and spring, Pacific storm systems bring most of Hawaii and the western United States much of their precipitation. [150]  Over the top of the ridge, the jet stream brings a summer precipitation maximum to the Great Lakes. Large thunderstorm areas known as mesoscale convective complexes move through the Plains, Midwest, and Great Lakes during the warm season, contributing up to 10% of the annual precipitation to the region. [155] 
 The El Niño-Southern Oscillation affects the precipitation distribution, by altering rainfall patterns across the western United States, [156]  Midwest, [157]   [158]  the Southeast, [159]  and throughout the tropics. There is also evidence that global warming is leading to increased precipitation to the eastern portions of North America, while droughts are becoming more frequent in the tropics and subtropics.
Wettest known locations
 Cherrapunji, situated on the southern slopes of the Eastern Himalaya in Shillong, India is the confirmed wettest place on Earth, with an average annual rainfall of 11,430 mm (450 in). The highest recorded rainfall in a single year was 22,987 mm (905.0 in) in 1861. The 38-year average at nearby Mawsynram, Meghalaya, India is 11,873 mm (467.4 in). [160]  The wettest spot in Australia is Mount Bellenden Ker in the north-east of the country which records an average of 8,000 mm (310 in) per year, with over 12,200 mm (480.3 in) of rain recorded during 2000. [161]  The Big Bog on the island of Maui has the highest average annual rainfall in the Hawaiian Islands, at 10,300 mm (404 in). [162]  Mount Waiʻaleʻale on the island of Kauaʻi achieves similar torrential rains, while slightly lower than that of the Big Bog, at 9,500 mm (373 in) [163]  of rain per year over the last 32 years, with a record 17,340 mm (683 in) in 1982. Its summit is considered one of the rainiest spots on earth, with a reported 350 days of rain per year. 
  Lloró, a town situated in Chocó, Colombia, is probably the place with the largest rainfall in the world, averaging 13,300 mm (523.6 in) per year. [164]  The Department of Chocó is extraordinarily humid. Tutunendaó, a small town situated in the same department, is one of the wettest estimated places on Earth, averaging 11,394 mm (448.6 in) per year; in 1974 the town received 26,303 mm (86 ft 3.6 in), the largest annual rainfall measured in Colombia. Unlike Cherrapunji, which receives most of its rainfall between April and September, Tutunendaó receives rain almost uniformly distributed throughout the year. [165]  Quibdó, the capital of Chocó, receives the most rain in the world among cities with over 100,000 inhabitants: 9,000 mm (354 in) per year. [164]  Storms in Chocó can drop 500 mm (20 in) of rainfall in a day. This amount is more than what falls in many cities in a year's time.
 
Continent
Highest average
Place
Elevation
Years of record
 
in
mm
ft
m
 
 South America 
523.6
13,299 
 Lloró, Colombia (estimated) [a]   [b]  
520
158 [c]  
 29 
 
 Asia 
467.4
11,872 
 Mawsynram, India [a]   [d]  
4,597
1,401 
 39 
 
 Africa 
405.0
10,287 
 Debundscha, Cameroon 
30
9.1 
 32 
 
 Oceania 
404.3
10,269 
 Big Bog, Maui, Hawaii (USA)  [a]  
5,148
1,569 
 30 
 
 South America 
354.0
8,992 
 Quibdo, Colombia 
120
36.6 
 16 
 
 Australia 
340.0
8,636 
 Mount Bellenden Ker, Queensland 
5,102
1,555 
 9 
 
 North America 
256.0
6,502 
 Hucuktlis Lake, British Columbia 
12
3.66 
 14 
 
 Europe 
183.0
4,648 
 Crkvice, Montenegro 
3,337
1,017 
 22 
 
 Source (without conversions): Global Measured Extremes of Temperature and Precipitation, National Climatic Data Center. 9 August 2004. [166] 
   
 
Continent
Place
Highest rainfall
 
in
mm
 
Highest average annual rainfall [167] 
 Asia
 Mawsynram, India
467.4
11,870 
 
Highest in one year [167] 
 Asia
 Cherrapunji, India
1,042
26,470 
 
Highest in one calendar month [168] 
 Asia
 Cherrapunji, India
366
9,296
 
Highest in 24 hours [167] 
 Indian Ocean
 Foc Foc, La Réunion
71.8
1,820
 
Highest in 12 hours [167] 
 Indian Ocean
 Foc Foc, La Réunion
45.0
1,140
 
Highest in one minute [167] 
 North America
 Unionville, Maryland, USA
1.23
31.2
   
Outside Earth
 Rainfalls of diamonds have been suggested to occur on the gas giant planets, Jupiter and Saturn, [169]  as well as on the ice giant planets, Uranus and Neptune. [170]  There is likely to be rain of various compositions in the upper atmospheres of the gas giants, as well as precipitation of liquid neon in the deep atmospheres. [171]   [172]  On Titan, Saturn's largest natural satellite, infrequent methane rain is thought to carve the moon's numerous surface channels. [173]  On Venus, sulfuric acid virga evaporates 25 km (16 mi) from the surface. [174]  Extrasolar planet OGLE-TR-56b in the constellation Sagittarius is hypothesized to have iron rain. [175]  Accordingly, research carried out by the European Southern Observatory shows that WASP-76b can produce showers of burning liquid iron droplets once temperature decreases during the planet's night hours. [176]  There is evidence from samples of basalt brought back by the Apollo missions that the Moon has been subject to lava rain. [177] 
See also
  Atmospheric river 
 Hydropower 
 Intensity-duration-frequency curve 
 Precipitation types 
 Rain dust 
 Rain sensor 
 Rain water harvesting 
 Rainbow 
 Raining animals 
 Red rain in Kerala 
 Petrichor – the cause of the scent during and after rain
 Sanitary sewer overflow 
 Sediment precipitation 
 Water resources 
 Weather 
 Rainmaking 
 Johad  
Notes
    a     b     c   The value given is the continent's highest, and possibly the world's, depending on measurement practices, procedures and period of record variations.
   ^   The official greatest average annual precipitation for South America is 900 cm (354 in) at Quibdó, Colombia. The 1,330 cm (523.6 in) average at Lloró [23 km (14 mi) SE and at a higher elevation than Quibdó] is an estimated amount.
   ^   Approximate elevation.
   ^   Recognized as "The Wettest place on Earth" by the  Guinness Book of World Records . [178]  
   ^   This is the highest figure for which records are available. The summit of Mount Snowdon, about 500 yards (460 m) from Glaslyn, is estimated to have at least 200.0 inches (5,080 mm) per year. 
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External links
 
Wikiquote has quotations related to   Rain  . 
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rain. 
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 BBC article on rain-making 
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 What are clouds, and why does it rain?
Rain - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rain