wikipedia page Albert Einstein:
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Albert Einstein - Wikipedia
2001-11-05
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<table><tbody><tr><th><p>Albert Einstein</p></th></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer_-_restoration.jpg"></a><div><p>Portrait by <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Schmutzer">Ferdinand Schmutzer</a>, 1921</p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Born</th><td>14 March 1879<br /><div><p><a href="/wiki/Ulm">Ulm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg">Kingdom of Württemberg</a>, German Empire</p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Died</th><td>18 April 1955 (aged 76)<br /><div><p><a href="/wiki/Princeton,_New_Jersey">Princeton, New Jersey</a>, US</p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Citizenship</th><td><div>
<div><p><i>Full list</i></p></div>
<ul><li><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg">Kingdom of Württemberg</a>, part of the German Empire (until 1896)<sup><a href="#cite_note-GEcitizen-1">[note 1]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Statelessness">Stateless</a> (1896–1901)</li>
<li>Switzerland (1901–1955)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cisleithania">Austria</a>, part of the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Empire">Austro-Hungarian Empire</a> (1911–1912)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a>, part of the German Empire (1914–1918)<sup><a href="#cite_note-GEcitizen-1">[note 1]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia">Free State of Prussia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic">Weimar Republic</a>, 1918–1933)</li>
<li>United States (from 1940)</li></ul>
</div>
</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th>Education</th><td><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/ETH_Zurich">Federal polytechnic school</a> in Zurich (Federal teaching diploma, 1900)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Zurich">University of Zurich</a> (PhD, 1905)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th>Known for</th><td><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_relativity">General relativity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Special_relativity">Special relativity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect">Photoelectric effect</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence"><i>E</i>=<i>mc</i><sup>2</sup> (mass–energy equivalence)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Planck%E2%80%93Einstein_relation"><i>E</i>=<i>hf</i> (Planck–Einstein relation)</a></li>
<li>Theory of <a href="/wiki/Brownian_motion">Brownian motion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Einstein_field_equations">Einstein field equations</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_statistics">Bose–Einstein statistics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_condensate">Bose–Einstein condensate</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave">Gravitational wave</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_constant">Cosmological constant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unified_field_theory">Unified field theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/EPR_paradox">EPR paradox</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ensemble_interpretation">Ensemble interpretation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Albert_Einstein">List of other concepts</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th>Spouses</th><td><div>
<ul><li></li></ul>
<div><div><p><a href="/wiki/Mileva_Mari%C4%87">Mileva Marić</a></p></div>
 <p>​</p> <p>​</p><p>(<abbr>m.</abbr> 1903; <abbr>div.</abbr> 1919)<wbr></wbr>​</p></div>
<ul><li></li></ul>
<div><div><p><a href="/wiki/Elsa_L%C3%B6wenthal">Elsa Löwenthal</a></p></div>
 <p>​</p> <p>​</p><p>(<abbr>m.</abbr> 1919; died 1936)<wbr></wbr>​</p></div>
</div></td></tr><tr><th>Children</th><td><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lieserl_Einstein">Lieserl</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Albert_Einstein">Hans Albert</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Einstein_family#Eduard_&quot;Tete&quot;_Einstein_(Albert's_second_son)">Eduard "Tete"</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th>Awards</th><td><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barnard_Medal_for_Meritorious_Service_to_Science">Barnard Medal</a> (1920)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> (1921)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Matteucci_Medal">Matteucci Medal</a> (1921)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/ForMemRS">ForMemRS</a> (1921)<sup><a href="#cite_note-frs-2">[1]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal">Copley Medal</a> (1925)<sup><a href="#cite_note-frs-2">[1]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Medal_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society">Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society</a> (1926)<sup><a href="#cite_note-3">[2]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Medal">Max Planck Medal</a> (1929)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Member_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences">Member of the National Academy of Sciences</a> (1942)<sup><a href="#cite_note-4">[3]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_Century"><i>Time</i> Person of the Century</a> (1999)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th>Fields</th><td><a href="/wiki/Physics">Physics</a>, philosophy</td></tr><tr><th>Institutions</th><td><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Patent_Office">Swiss Patent Office</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bern">Bern</a>) (1902–1909)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Bern">University of Bern</a> (1908–1909)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Zurich">University of Zurich</a> (1909–1911)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_University_in_Prague">Charles University in Prague</a> (1911–1912)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/ETH_Zurich">ETH Zurich</a> (1912–1914)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Prussian_Academy_of_Sciences">Prussian Academy of Sciences</a> (1914–1933)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin">Humboldt University of Berlin</a> (1914–1933)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kaiser_Wilhelm_Institute">Kaiser Wilhelm Institute</a> (director, 1917–1933)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/German_Physical_Society">German Physical Society</a> (president, 1916–1918)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Leiden_University">Leiden University</a> (visits, 1920)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Advanced_Study">Institute for Advanced Study</a>, <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University">Princeton University</a> (1933–1955)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology">California Institute of Technology</a> (visits, 1931–1933)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford">University of Oxford</a> (visits, 1931–1933)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Brandeis_University">Brandeis University</a> (director, 1946–1947)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/Thesis">Thesis</a></th><td><a href="http://e-collection.library.ethz.ch/eserv/eth:30378/eth-30378-01.pdf"><i><i>Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen</i> (A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions)</i></a> (1905)</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/Doctoral_advisor">Doctoral advisor</a></th><td><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Kleiner">Alfred Kleiner</a></td></tr><tr><th>Other academic advisors</th><td><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Friedrich_Weber">Heinrich Friedrich Weber</a></td></tr><tr><th>Influences</th><td><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz">Hendrik Lorentz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Minkowski">Hermann Minkowski</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th>Influenced</th><td><div>
<ul><li>Virtually all <a href="/wiki/Modern_physics">modern physicists</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th>Signature</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:Albert_Einstein_signature_1934.svg"></a></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Albert Einstein</b> ( <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key"><i>EYEN-styne</i></a>;<sup><a href="#cite_note-NDxay-5">[4]</a></sup> <small>German: </small><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German">[ˈalbɛʁt ˈʔaɪnʃtaɪn]</a> (<a href="/wiki/File:Albert_Einstein_german.ogg"></a><a href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/De-Albert_Einstein.oga">listen</a>); 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics">theoretical physicist</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Bio-6">[5]</a></sup> widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest and most influential physicists of all time. Best known for developing the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity">theory of relativity</a>, he also made important contributions to the development of the theory of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>. Relativity and quantum mechanics are the two pillars of <a href="/wiki/Modern_physics">modern physics</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-frs-2">[1]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-YangHamilton2010-7">[6]</a></sup> His <a href="/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence">mass–energy equivalence</a> formula <a href="/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence#Mass–velocity_relationship"><i>E</i> = <i>mc</i><sup>2</sup></a>, which arises from relativity theory, has been dubbed "the world's most famous equation".<sup><a href="#cite_note-LnLVo-8">[7]</a></sup> His work is also known for its influence on the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science">philosophy of science</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-xZQWt-9">[8]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-3UiiT-10">[9]</a></sup> He received the 1921 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect">photoelectric effect</a>",<sup><a href="#cite_note-Nobel_Prize-11">[10]</a></sup> a pivotal step in the development of quantum theory. His intellectual achievements and originality resulted in "Einstein" becoming synonymous with "genius".<sup><a href="#cite_note-wordnetweb.princeton.edu-12">[11]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Einsteinium">Einsteinium</a>, one of the synthetic elements in the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table">periodic table</a>, was named in his honor.<sup><a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1905, a year sometimes described as his <i><a href="/wiki/Annus_mirabilis">annus mirabilis</a></i> ('miracle year'), Einstein published <a href="/wiki/Annus_mirabilis_papers">four groundbreaking papers</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalison2000377-14">[13]</a></sup> These outlined the theory of the photoelectric effect, explained <a href="/wiki/Brownian_motion">Brownian motion</a>, introduced <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity">special relativity</a>, and demonstrated mass–energy equivalence. He thought that the laws of <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics">classical mechanics</a> could no longer be reconciled with those of the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_field">electromagnetic field</a>, which led him to develop his special theory of relativity. He then extended the theory to gravitational fields; he published a paper on <a href="/wiki/General_relativity">general relativity</a> in 1916, introducing his theory of gravitation. In 1917, he applied the general theory of relativity to model the structure of the <a href="/wiki/Universe">universe</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Nobel-15">[14]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20151124-16">[15]</a></sup> He continued to deal with problems of <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics">statistical mechanics</a> and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the <a href="/wiki/Brownian_motion">motion of molecules</a>. He also investigated the thermal properties of light and the quantum theory of <a href="/wiki/Radiation">radiation</a>, which laid the foundation of the <a href="/wiki/Photon">photon</a> theory of light.
</p><p>However, for much of the later part of his career, he worked on two ultimately unsuccessful endeavors. First, despite his great contributions to quantum mechanics, he opposed what it evolved into, objecting that "God does not play dice".<sup><a href="#cite_note-17">[16]</a></sup> Second, he attempted to devise a <a href="/wiki/Unified_field_theory">unified field theory</a> by generalizing his geometric theory of <a href="/wiki/Gravitation">gravitation</a> to include <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a>. As a result, he became increasingly isolated from the mainstream of <a href="/wiki/Modern_physics">modern physics</a>.
</p><p>Einstein was born in the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire">German Empire</a>, but moved to Switzerland in 1895, forsaking his German citizenship (as a subject of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg">Kingdom of Württemberg</a>)<sup><a href="#cite_note-GEcitizen-1">[note 1]</a></sup> the following year. In 1897, at the age of 17, he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swiss <a href="/wiki/ETH_Zurich">Federal polytechnic school</a> in <a href="/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich">Zürich</a>, graduating in 1900. In 1901, he acquired Swiss citizenship, which he kept for the rest of his life, and in 1903, he secured a permanent position at the <a href="/wiki/Swiss_Federal_Institute_of_Intellectual_Property">Swiss Patent Office</a> in Bern. In 1905, he was awarded a PhD by the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Zurich">University of Zurich</a>. In 1914, he moved to <a href="/wiki/Berlin">Berlin</a> in order to join the <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Academy_of_Sciences">Prussian Academy of Sciences</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin">Humboldt University of Berlin</a>. In 1917, he became director of the <a href="/wiki/Kaiser_Wilhelm_Institute_for_Physics">Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics</a>; he also became a German citizen again, this time <a href="/wiki/Prussia">Prussian</a>.
</p><p>In 1933, while he was visiting the United States, <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler%27s_rise_to_power">Adolf Hitler came to power</a> in Germany. Einstein objected to the policies of the newly elected <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany">Nazi government</a>;<sup><a href="#cite_note-zE9Bz-18">[17]</a></sup> he settled in the United States and became an <a href="/wiki/American_citizen">American citizen</a> in 1940.<sup><a href="#cite_note-BoyerDubofsky2001-19">[18]</a></sup> On the eve of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II">World War II</a>, he endorsed <a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Szilard_letter">a letter</a> to President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> alerting him to the potential <a href="/wiki/German_nuclear_weapons_program">German nuclear weapons program</a> and recommending that the US begin <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project">similar research</a>. Einstein supported the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II">Allies</a> but generally denounced the idea of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon">nuclear weapons</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Life and career</h2>
<h3>Early life and education</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Albert_Einstein_at_the_age_of_three_(1882).jpg"></a></p><div><p>Einstein at the age of three in 1882</p></div></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Albert_Einstein_as_a_child.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Albert Einstein was born in <a href="/wiki/Ulm">Ulm</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Bio-6">[5]</a></sup> in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg">Kingdom of Württemberg</a> in the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire">German Empire</a>, on 14 March 1879 into a family of secular <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews">Ashkenazi Jews</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a></sup> His parents were <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Einstein">Hermann Einstein</a>, a salesman and engineer, and <a href="/wiki/Pauline_Koch">Pauline Koch</a>. In 1880, the family moved to <a href="/wiki/Munich">Munich</a>, where Einstein's father and his uncle Jakob founded <i>Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein &amp; Cie</i>, a company that manufactured electrical equipment based on <a href="/wiki/Direct_current">direct current</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Bio-6">[5]</a></sup>
</p><p>Albert attended a <a href="/wiki/Catholic_school">Catholic elementary school</a> in Munich, from the age of five, for three years. At the age of eight, he was transferred to the Luitpold-Gymnasium (now known as the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Albert-Einstein-Gymnasium&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1">Albert-Einstein-Gymnasium</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert-Einstein-Gymnasium_M%C3%BCnchen">de</a>]), where he received advanced primary and secondary school education until he left the German Empire seven years later.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStachel2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidOAsQ_hFjhrACpgPA59_59–61]-23">[22]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1894, Hermann and Jakob's company lost a bid to supply the city of Munich with electrical lighting because they lacked the capital to convert their equipment from the <a href="/wiki/Direct_current">direct current</a> (DC) standard to the more efficient <a href="/wiki/Alternating_current">alternating current</a> (AC) standard.<sup><a href="#cite_note-EQyag-24">[23]</a></sup> The loss forced the sale of the Munich factory. In search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to <a href="/wiki/Milan">Milan</a> and a few months later to <a href="/wiki/Pavia">Pavia</a>. In Pavia, the Einsteins settled in <a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Cornazzani">Palazzo Cornazzani</a>, a medieval building where, at different times, <a href="/wiki/Ugo_Foscolo">Ugo Foscolo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Contardo_Ferrini">Contardo Ferrini</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ada_Negri">Ada Negri</a> lived.<sup><a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a></sup> When the family moved to Pavia, Einstein, then 15, stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium. His father intended for him to pursue <a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering">electrical engineering</a>, but Einstein clashed with the authorities and resented the school's regimen and teaching method. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought was lost in strict <a href="/wiki/Rote_learning">rote learning</a>. At the end of December 1894, he traveled to Italy to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctor's note.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFölsing199730–31-26">[25]</a></sup> During his time in Italy, he wrote a short essay with the title "On the Investigation of the State of the <a href="/wiki/Aether_(classical_element)">Ether</a> in a Magnetic Field".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStachel_et_al.2008vol._1_(1987),_doc._5-27">[26]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-1RgTv-28">[27]</a></sup>
</p><p>Einstein excelled at math and physics from a young age, reaching a mathematical level years ahead of his peers. The 12-year-old Einstein taught himself algebra and <a href="/wiki/Euclidean_geometry">Euclidean geometry</a> over a single summer.<sup><a href="#cite_note-29">[28]</a></sup> Einstein also independently discovered his own original proof of the <a href="/wiki/Pythagorean_theorem">Pythagorean theorem</a> aged 12.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FVfDU-30">[29]</a></sup> A family tutor <a href="/wiki/Max_Talmud">Max Talmud</a> says that only a short time after he had given the 12-year-old Einstein a geometry textbook, "[Einstein] had worked through the whole book. He thereupon devoted himself to higher mathematics ... Soon the flight of his mathematical genius was so high I could not follow."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson200717-31">[30]</a></sup> His passion for geometry and algebra led the 12-year-old to become convinced that nature could be understood as a "mathematical structure".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson200717-31">[30]</a></sup> Einstein started teaching himself calculus at 12, and as a 14-year-old he says he had "mastered <a href="/wiki/Integral_calculus">integral</a> and <a href="/wiki/Differential_calculus">differential calculus</a>".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson200716-32">[31]</a></sup>
</p><p>At the age of 13, when he had become more seriously interested in philosophy (and music),<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalapriceLipscombe20058-33">[32]</a></sup> Einstein was introduced to <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant">Kant</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i>. Kant became his favorite philosopher, his tutor stating: "At the time he was still a child, only thirteen years old, yet Kant's works, incomprehensible to ordinary mortals, seemed to be clear to him."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson200717-31">[30]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Albert_Einstein%27s_exam_of_maturity_grades_(color2).jpg"></a></p><div><p>Einstein's <i><a href="/wiki/Matura">Matura</a></i> certificate, 1896<sup><a href="#cite_note-MaturaScore-34">[note 2]</a></sup></p></div></div>
<p>In 1895, at the age of 16, Einstein took the entrance examinations for the Swiss <a href="/wiki/ETH_Zurich">Federal polytechnic school</a> in <a href="/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich">Zürich</a> (later the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, ETH). He failed to reach the required standard in the general part of the examination,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStachel_et_al.2008vol._1_(1987),_p._11-35">[33]</a></sup> but obtained exceptional grades in physics and mathematics.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFölsing199736–37-36">[34]</a></sup> On the advice of the principal of the polytechnic school, he attended the <a href="/wiki/Old_Cantonal_School_Aarau">Argovian cantonal school</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gymnasium_(school)"><i>gymnasium</i></a>) in <a href="/wiki/Aarau">Aarau</a>, Switzerland, in 1895 and 1896 to complete his secondary schooling. While lodging with the family of <a href="/wiki/Jost_Winteler">Jost Winteler</a>, he fell in love with Winteler's daughter, Marie. Einstein's sister <a href="/wiki/Maja_Einstein">Maja</a> later married Winteler's son Paul.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHighfieldCarter199321,_31,_56–57-37">[35]</a></sup> In January 1896, with his father's approval, Einstein renounced his <a href="/wiki/German_citizenship">citizenship in the German Kingdom of Württemberg</a> to avoid <a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Germany">military service</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFölsing199740-38">[36]</a></sup> In September 1896, he passed the Swiss <i><a href="/wiki/Matura">Matura</a></i> with mostly good grades, including a top grade of 6 in physics and mathematical subjects, on <a href="/wiki/Grading_systems_by_country#Switzerland">a scale of 1–6</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStachel_et_al.2008vol._1_(1987),_docs._21–27-39">[37]</a></sup> At 17, he enrolled in the four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Federal polytechnic school. Marie Winteler, who was a year older, moved to <a href="/wiki/Olsberg,_Aargau">Olsberg</a>, Switzerland, for a teaching post.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHighfieldCarter199321,_31,_56–57-37">[35]</a></sup>
</p><p>Einstein's future wife, a 20-year-old <a href="/wiki/Serbs">Serbian</a> named <a href="/wiki/Mileva_Mari%C4%87">Mileva Marić</a>, also enrolled at the polytechnic school that year. She was the only woman among the six students in the mathematics and physics section of the teaching diploma course. Over the next few years, Einstein's and Marić's friendship developed into a romance, and they spent countless hours debating and reading books together on extra-curricular physics in which they were both interested. Einstein wrote in his letters to Marić that he preferred studying alongside her.<sup><a href="#cite_note-mileva-40">[38]</a></sup> In 1900, Einstein passed the exams in Maths and Physics and was awarded a Federal teaching diploma.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStachel_et_al.2008vol._1_(1987),_doc._67-41">[39]</a></sup> There is eyewitness evidence and several letters over many years that indicate Marić might have collaborated with Einstein prior to his landmark 1905 papers,<sup><a href="#cite_note-mileva-40">[38]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-7HA7H-42">[40]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-1zJdH-43">[41]</a></sup> known as the <a href="/wiki/Annus_mirabilis_papers"><i>Annus Mirabilis</i> papers</a>, and that they developed some of the concepts together during their studies, although some historians of physics who have studied the issue disagree that she made any substantive contributions.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPais19941–29-44">[42]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-xKrMG-45">[43]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStachel2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidOAsQ_hFjhrACpgPA49_49–56]-46">[44]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-dUxMl-47">[45]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Marriages and children</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Albert_Einstein_and_his_wife_Mileva_Maric.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Early correspondence between Einstein and Marić was discovered and published in 1987 which revealed that the couple had a daughter named <a href="/wiki/Lieserl_Einstein">"Lieserl"</a>, born in early 1902 in <a href="/wiki/Novi_Sad">Novi Sad</a> where Marić was staying with her parents. Marić returned to Switzerland without the child, whose real name and fate are unknown. The contents of Einstein's letter in September 1903 suggest that the girl was either given up for adoption or died of <a href="/wiki/Scarlet_fever">scarlet fever</a> in infancy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-HBMes-48">[46]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalapriceLipscombe200522–23-49">[47]</a></sup>
</p><p>Einstein and Marić married in January 1903. In May 1904, their son <a href="/wiki/Hans_Albert_Einstein">Hans Albert Einstein</a> was born in <a href="/wiki/Bern">Bern</a>, Switzerland. Their son <a href="/wiki/Einstein_family#Eduard_&quot;Tete&quot;_Einstein_(Albert's_second_son)">Eduard</a> was born in Zürich in July 1910. The couple moved to Berlin in April 1914, but Marić returned to Zürich with their sons after learning that, despite their close relationship before,<sup><a href="#cite_note-mileva-40">[38]</a></sup> Einstein's chief romantic attraction was now his cousin <a href="/wiki/Elsa_Einstein">Elsa Löwenthal</a>;<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStachel1966-50">[48]</a></sup> she was his first cousin maternally and second cousin paternally.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalapriceLipscombe2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5eWh2O_3OAQCpgPA50_50]-51">[49]</a></sup> Einstein and Marić divorced on 14 February 1919, having lived apart for five years.<sup><a href="#cite_note-52">[50]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStachel2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidOAsQ_hFjhrACpgPA50_50]-53">[51]</a></sup> As part of the divorce settlement, Einstein agreed to give Marić any future (in the event, 1921) Nobel Prize money.<sup><a href="#cite_note-54">[52]</a></sup>
</p><p>In letters revealed in 2015, Einstein wrote to his early love Marie Winteler about his marriage and his strong feelings for her. He wrote in 1910, while his wife was pregnant with their second child: "I think of you in heartfelt love every spare minute and am so unhappy as only a man can be." He spoke about a "misguided love" and a "missed life" regarding his love for Marie.<sup><a href="#cite_note-MlQLY-55">[53]</a></sup>
</p><p>Einstein married Löwenthal in 1919,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2020]]&lt;sup_class=&quot;noprint_Inline-Template_&quot;_style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;&amp;#91;&lt;i&gt;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|&lt;span_title=&quot;This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&amp;#32;(November_2020)&quot;&gt;page&amp;nbsp;needed&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/i&gt;&amp;#93;&lt;/sup&gt;-56">[54]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalapriceKennefickSchulmann201562-57">[55]</a></sup> after having had a relationship with her since 1912.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalapriceLipscombe2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5eWh2O_3OAQCpgPA50_50]-51">[49]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-dh-58">[56]</a></sup> They emigrated to the United States in 1933. Elsa was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems in 1935 and died in December 1936.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHighfieldCarter1993216-59">[57]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1923, Einstein fell in love with a secretary named Betty Neumann, the niece of a close friend, Hans Mühsam.<sup><a href="#cite_note-60">[58]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-61">[59]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-62">[60]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-63">[61]</a></sup> In a volume of letters released by <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_University_of_Jerusalem">Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a> in 2006,<sup><a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a></sup> Einstein described about six women, including Margarete Lebach (a blonde Austrian), Estella Katzenellenbogen (the rich owner of a florist business), Toni Mendel (a wealthy Jewish widow) and Ethel Michanowski (a Berlin socialite), with whom he spent time and from whom he received gifts while being married to Elsa.<sup><a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-66">[64]</a></sup> Later, after the death of his second wife Elsa, Einstein was briefly in a relationship with Margarita Konenkova. Konenkova was a Russian spy who was married to the Russian sculptor <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Konenkov">Sergei Konenkov</a> (who created the bronze bust of Einstein at the <a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Advanced_Study">Institute for Advanced Study</a> at Princeton).<sup><a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a></sup><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Einstein's son Eduard had a breakdown at about age 20 and was diagnosed with <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Robinson2015a-69">[67]</a></sup> His mother cared for him and he was also committed to asylums for several periods, finally, after her death, being committed permanently to <a href="/wiki/Burgh%C3%B6lzli">Burghölzli</a>, the Psychiatric University Hospital in Zürich.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeffe2007[httpsarchiveorgdetailseinsteinbiograph00neffpage203_203]-70">[68]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Patent office</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Einstein_patentoffice.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>After graduating in 1900, Einstein spent almost two years searching for a teaching post. He acquired Swiss citizenship in February 1901,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFölsing199782-71">[69]</a></sup> but was not <a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Switzerland">conscripted</a> for medical reasons. With the help of <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Grossmann">Marcel Grossmann</a>'s father, he secured a job in <a href="/wiki/Bern">Bern</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Swiss_Federal_Institute_of_Intellectual_Property">Swiss Patent Office</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-ODY5p-72">[70]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson200763-73">[71]</a></sup> as an <a href="/wiki/Patent_examiner">assistant examiner – level III</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-MeZPN-74">[72]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-IGEFAQ-75">[73]</a></sup>
</p><p>There, he evaluated <a href="/wiki/Patent_application">patent applications</a> for a variety of devices including a gravel sorter and an electromechanical typewriter.<sup><a href="#cite_note-IGEFAQ-75">[73]</a></sup> In 1903, his position at the patent office became permanent, although he was passed over for promotion until he "fully mastered machine technology".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalison2000370-76">[74]</a></sup> Much of his work was related to questions about transmission of electric signals and electrical-mechanical synchronization of time, two technical problems that show up conspicuously in the <a href="/wiki/Einstein%27s_thought_experiments">thought experiments</a> that eventually led Einstein to his radical conclusions about the nature of light and the fundamental connection between space and time.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalison2000377-14">[13]</a></sup>
</p><p>With a few friends he had met in Bern, he started a small discussion group in 1902, self-mockingly named "<a href="/wiki/Olympia_Academy">The Olympia Academy</a>", which met regularly to discuss science and philosophy. Sometimes they were joined by Marić who attentively listened but did not participate.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHighfieldCarter199396–98-77">[75]</a></sup> Their readings included the works of <a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9">Henri Poincaré</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach">Ernst Mach</a>, and <a href="/wiki/David_Hume">David Hume</a>, which influenced his scientific and philosophical outlook.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson200779–84-78">[76]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>First scientific papers</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Einstein_thesis.png"></a></p><div><p>Cover image of the PhD dissertation of Albert Einstein defended in 1905</p></div></div>
<p>In 1900, Einstein's paper <a href="/wiki/List_of_scientific_publications_by_Albert_Einstein#Journal_articles">"Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen"</a> ("Conclusions from the Capillarity Phenomena") was published in the journal <i><a href="/wiki/Annalen_der_Physik">Annalen der Physik</a></i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1901-79">[77]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-SdDhS-80">[78]</a></sup> On 30 April 1905 Einstein completed his dissertation, <i>A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions</i><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1905b&quot;Meinem_Freunde_Herr_Dr._Marcel_Grossmann_gewidmet_(Dedicated_to_my_friend,_Dr._Marcel_Grossmann)&quot;-81">[79]</a></sup> with <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Kleiner">Alfred Kleiner</a>, serving as <i><a href="/wiki/Pro_forma">pro-forma</a></i> advisor.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1905b&quot;Meinem_Freunde_Herr_Dr._Marcel_Grossmann_gewidmet_(Dedicated_to_my_friend,_Dr._Marcel_Grossmann)&quot;-81">[79]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1926bchap._&quot;A_New_Determination_of_Molecular_Dimensions&quot;-82">[80]</a></sup> His thesis was accepted in July 1905, and Einstein was awarded a PhD on 15 January 1906.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1905b&quot;Meinem_Freunde_Herr_Dr._Marcel_Grossmann_gewidmet_(Dedicated_to_my_friend,_Dr._Marcel_Grossmann)&quot;-81">[79]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1926bchap._&quot;A_New_Determination_of_Molecular_Dimensions&quot;-82">[80]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-83">[81]</a></sup>
</p><p>Also in 1905, which has been called Einstein's <i><a href="/wiki/Annus_mirabilis">annus mirabilis</a></i> (amazing year), he published <a href="/wiki/Annus_mirabilis_papers">four groundbreaking papers</a>, on the photoelectric effect, <a href="/wiki/Brownian_motion">Brownian motion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity">special relativity</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Equivalence_of_mass_and_energy">equivalence of mass and energy</a>, which were to bring him to the notice of the academic world, at the age of 26.<sup><a href="#cite_note-84">[82]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Academic career</h3>
<p>By 1908, he was recognized as a leading scientist and was appointed lecturer at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bern">University of Bern</a>. The following year, after he gave a lecture on <a href="/wiki/Electrodynamics">electrodynamics</a> and the relativity principle at the University of Zurich, <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Kleiner">Alfred Kleiner</a> recommended him to the faculty for a newly created professorship in theoretical physics. Einstein was appointed associate professor in 1909.<sup><a href="#cite_note-bG2yp-85">[83]</a></sup>
</p><p>Einstein became a full professor at the German <a href="/wiki/Charles-Ferdinand_University">Charles-Ferdinand University</a> in Prague in April 1911, accepting <a href="/wiki/Cisleithania">Austrian</a> citizenship in the <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian Empire</a> to do so.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007164-86">[84]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Itl8r-87">[85]</a></sup> During his Prague stay, he wrote 11 scientific works, five of them on radiation mathematics and on the quantum theory of solids.
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Einstein-with-habicht-and-solovine.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>In July 1912, he returned to his alma mater in Zürich. From 1912 until 1914, he was a professor of theoretical physics at the <a href="/wiki/ETH_Zurich">ETH Zurich</a>, where he taught analytical mechanics and <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a>. He also studied <a href="/wiki/Continuum_mechanics">continuum mechanics</a>, the molecular theory of heat, and the problem of gravitation, on which he worked with mathematician and friend <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Grossmann">Marcel Grossmann</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-hXQin-88">[86]</a></sup>
</p><p>When the "<a href="/wiki/Manifesto_of_the_Ninety-Three">Manifesto of the Ninety-Three</a>" was published in October 1914—a document signed by a host of prominent German intellectuals that justified Germany's militarism and position during the First World War—Einstein was one of the few German intellectuals to rebut its contents and sign the pacifistic "<a href="/wiki/Manifesto_to_the_Europeans">Manifesto to the Europeans</a>".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScheideler2002333-89">[87]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:19191125_A_New_Physics_Based_on_Einstein_-_The_New_York_Times.png"></a></p><div><p><i>The New York Times</i> reported confirmation of "the Einstein theory" (specifically, the bending of light by gravitation) based on 29 May 1919 eclipse observations in <a href="/wiki/Pr%C3%ADncipe">Príncipe</a> (Africa) and <a href="/wiki/Sobral,_Cear%C3%A1">Sobral</a> (Brazil), after the findings were presented on 6 November 1919 to a joint meeting in London of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society">Royal Society</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Astronomical_Society">Royal Astronomical Society</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-NYTimes_19191125-90">[88]</a></sup></p></div></div>
<p>In the spring of 1913, Einstein was enticed to move to Berlin with an offer that included membership in the Prussian Academy of Sciences, and a linked University of Berlin professorship, enabling him to concentrate exclusively on research.<sup><a href="#cite_note-dh-58">[56]</a></sup> On 3 July 1913, he became a member of the <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Academy_of_Sciences">Prussian Academy of Sciences</a> in Berlin. <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck">Max Planck</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walther_Nernst">Walther Nernst</a> visited him the next week in Zurich to persuade him to join the academy, additionally offering him the post of director at the <a href="/wiki/Kaiser_Wilhelm_Institute_for_Physics">Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics</a>, which was soon to be established.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStachel2002534-91">[89]</a></sup> Membership in the academy included paid salary and professorship without teaching duties at <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin">Humboldt University of Berlin</a>. He was officially elected to the academy on 24 July, and he moved to Berlin the following year. His decision to move to Berlin was also influenced by the prospect of living near his cousin Elsa, with whom he had started a romantic affair. Einstein assumed his position with the academy, and Berlin University,<sup><a href="#cite_note-92">[90]</a></sup> after moving into his <a href="/wiki/Dahlem_(Berlin)">Dahlem</a> apartment on 1 April 1914.<sup><a href="#cite_note-dh-58">[56]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinstein201518–19-93">[91]</a></sup> As World War I broke out that year, the plan for Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics was delayed. The institute was established on 1 October 1917, with Einstein as its director.<sup><a href="#cite_note-EXcH6-94">[92]</a></sup> In 1916, Einstein was elected president of the <a href="/wiki/German_Physical_Society">German Physical Society</a> (1916–1918).<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalapriceLipscombe2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5eWh2O_3OAQCpgPR19_&quot;Timeline&quot;,_p._xix]-95">[93]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1911, Einstein used his 1907 <a href="/wiki/Equivalence_principle">equivalence principle</a> to calculate the deflection of <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_lens">light from another star</a> by the Sun's gravity. In 1913, Einstein improved upon those calculations by using the <a href="/wiki/Riemann_curvature_tensor">curvature</a> of <a href="/wiki/Spacetime">spacetime</a> to represent the gravity field. By the fall of 1915, Einstein had successfully completed his general theory of relativity, which he used to calculate that deflection, and the <a href="/wiki/Tests_of_general_relativity#Perihelion_precession_of_Mercury">perihelion precession of Mercury</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-dh-58">[56]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-96">[94]</a></sup> In 1919, that deflection prediction was confirmed by Sir <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Eddington">Arthur Eddington</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Solar_eclipse_of_May_29,_1919">solar eclipse of 29 May 1919</a>. Those observations were published in the international media, making Einstein world-famous. On 7 November 1919, the leading British newspaper <i><a href="/wiki/The_Times">The Times</a></i> printed a banner headline that read: "Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Eddington-97">[95]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1920, he became a Foreign Member of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences">Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-3gcYy-98">[96]</a></sup> In 1922, he was awarded the 1921 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Nobel_Prize-11">[10]</a></sup> While the <a href="/wiki/General_relativity">general theory of relativity</a> was still considered somewhat controversial, the citation also does not treat even the cited photoelectric work as an <i>explanation</i> but merely as a <i>discovery of the law</i>, as the idea of photons was considered outlandish and did not receive universal acceptance until the 1924 derivation of the <a href="/wiki/Planck_spectrum">Planck spectrum</a> by <a href="/wiki/S._N._Bose">S. N. Bose</a>. Einstein was elected a <a href="/wiki/List_of_Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society_elected_in_1921">Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1921</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-frs-2">[1]</a></sup> He also received the <a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal">Copley Medal</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society">Royal Society</a> in 1925.<sup><a href="#cite_note-frs-2">[1]</a></sup>
</p><p>Einstein resigned from the Prussian Academy in March 1933. Einstein's scientific accomplishments while in Berlin, included finishing the general theory of relativity, proving the <a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93de_Haas_effect">Einstein–de Haas effect</a>, contributing to the quantum theory of radiation, and <a href="/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_statistics">Bose–Einstein statistics</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-dh-58">[56]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>1921–1922: Travels abroad</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Einstein_Albert_Elsa_LOC_32096u.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Einstein with his second wife, Elsa, in 1921</p></div></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Albert_Einstein_(Nobel).png"></a></p><div><p>Einstein's official portrait after receiving the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics</p></div></div>
<p>Einstein visited New York City for the first time on 2 April 1921, where he received an official welcome by Mayor <a href="/wiki/John_Francis_Hylan">John Francis Hylan</a>, followed by three weeks of lectures and receptions.<sup><a href="#cite_note-99">[97]</a></sup> He went on to deliver several lectures at <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University">Columbia University</a> and <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University">Princeton University</a>, and in Washington, he accompanied representatives of the <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> on a visit to the <a href="/wiki/White_House">White House</a>. On his return to Europe he was the guest of the British statesman and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Viscount_Haldane">Viscount Haldane</a> in London, where he met several renowned scientific, intellectual, and political figures, and delivered a lecture at <a href="/wiki/King%27s_College_London">King's College London</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoffmann1972145–148-100">[98]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFölsing1997499–508-101">[99]</a></sup>
</p><p>He also published an essay, "My First Impression of the U.S.A.", in July 1921, in which he tried briefly to describe some characteristics of Americans, much as had <a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville">Alexis de Tocqueville</a>, who published his own impressions in <i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America">Democracy in America</a></i> (1835).<sup><a href="#cite_note-7gwHd-102">[100]</a></sup> For some of his observations, Einstein was clearly surprised: "What strikes a visitor is the joyous, positive attitude to life ... The American is friendly, self-confident, optimistic, and without envy."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolton198420-103">[101]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1922, his travels took him to Asia and later to Palestine, as part of a six-month excursion and speaking tour, as he visited Singapore, <a href="/wiki/Ceylon">Ceylon</a> and Japan, where he gave a series of lectures to thousands of Japanese. After his first public lecture, he met the emperor and empress at the <a href="/wiki/Tokyo_Imperial_Palace">Imperial Palace</a>, where thousands came to watch. In a letter to his sons, he described his impression of the Japanese as being modest, intelligent, considerate, and having a true feel for art.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007307–308-104">[102]</a></sup> In his own travel diaries from his 1922–23 visit to Asia, he expresses some views on the Chinese, Japanese and Indian people, which have been described as xenophobic and racist judgments when they were rediscovered in 2018.<sup><a href="#cite_note-38YkY-105">[103]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-106">[104]</a></sup>
</p><p>Because of Einstein's travels to the Far East, he was unable to personally accept the Nobel Prize for Physics at the Stockholm award ceremony in December 1922. In his place, the banquet speech was made by a German diplomat, who praised Einstein not only as a scientist but also as an international peacemaker and activist.<sup><a href="#cite_note-oxak7-107">[105]</a></sup>
</p><p>On his return voyage, he visited <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine">Palestine</a> for 12 days, his only visit to that region. He was greeted as if he were a head of state, rather than a physicist, which included a cannon salute upon arriving at the home of the British high commissioner, <a href="/wiki/Sir_Herbert_Samuel">Sir Herbert Samuel</a>. During one reception, the building was stormed by people who wanted to see and hear him. In Einstein's talk to the audience, he expressed happiness that the Jewish people were beginning to be recognized as a force in the world.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007308-108">[106]</a></sup>
</p><p>Einstein visited Spain for two weeks in 1923, where he briefly met <a href="/wiki/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal">Santiago Ramón y Cajal</a> and also received a diploma from <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_XIII_of_Spain">King Alfonso XIII</a> naming him a member of the Spanish Academy of Sciences.<sup><a href="#cite_note-w74nv-109">[107]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:League_of_Nations_Commission_067.tif"></a></p></div>
<p>From 1922 to 1932, Einstein was a member of the <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_on_Intellectual_Cooperation">International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation</a> of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations">League of Nations</a> in Geneva (with a few months of interruption in 1923–1924),<sup><a href="#cite_note-Q5hgx-110">[108]</a></sup> a body created to promote international exchange between scientists, researchers, teachers, artists, and intellectuals.<sup><a href="#cite_note-vNNnX-111">[109]</a></sup> Originally slated to serve as the Swiss delegate, Secretary-General <a href="/wiki/Eric_Drummond">Eric Drummond</a> was persuaded by Catholic activists <a href="/wiki/Oskar_Halecki">Oskar Halecki</a> and <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Motta">Giuseppe Motta</a> to instead have him become the German delegate, thus allowing <a href="/wiki/Gonzague_de_Reynold">Gonzague de Reynold</a> to take the Swiss spot, from which he promoted traditionalist Catholic values.<sup><a href="#cite_note-e9Xyh-112">[110]</a></sup> Einstein's former physics professor <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz">Hendrik Lorentz</a> and the Polish chemist <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie">Marie Curie</a> were also members of the committee.<sup><a href="#cite_note-113">[111]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>1925: Visit to South America</h3>
<p>In the months of March and April 1925, Einstein visited South America, where he spent about a month in <a href="/wiki/Argentina">Argentina</a>, a week in <a href="/wiki/Uruguay">Uruguay</a>, and a week in <a href="/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a>, Brazil.<sup><a href="#cite_note-114">[112]</a></sup> Einstein's visit was initiated by Jorge Duclout (1856–1927) and Mauricio Nirenstein (1877–1935)<sup><a href="#cite_note-115">[113]</a></sup> with the support of several Argentine scholars, including <a href="/wiki/Julio_Rey_Pastor">Julio Rey Pastor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jakob_Laub">Jakob Laub</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Leopoldo_Lugones">Leopoldo Lugones</a>. The visit by Einstein and his wife was financed primarily by the Council of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Buenos_Aires">University of Buenos Aires</a> and the <i>Asociación Hebraica Argentina</i> (Argentine Hebraic Association) with a smaller contribution from the Argentine-Germanic Cultural Institution.<sup><a href="#cite_note-116">[114]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>1930–1931: Travel to the US</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Albert_Einstein_and_a_Salvation_Army_band.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>In December 1930, Einstein visited America for the second time, originally intended as a two-month working visit as a research fellow at the <a href="/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology">California Institute of Technology</a>. After the national attention he received during his first trip to the US, he and his arrangers aimed to protect his privacy. Although swamped with telegrams and invitations to receive awards or speak publicly, he declined them all.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007368-117">[115]</a></sup>
</p><p>After arriving in New York City, Einstein was taken to various places and events, including <a href="/wiki/Chinatown,_Manhattan">Chinatown</a>, a lunch with the editors of <i>The New York Times</i>, and a performance of <i>Carmen</i> at the <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Opera">Metropolitan Opera</a>, where he was cheered by the audience on his arrival. During the days following, he was given the keys to the city by Mayor <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Walker">Jimmy Walker</a> and met the president of Columbia University, who described Einstein as "the ruling monarch of the mind".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007370-118">[116]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Harry_Emerson_Fosdick">Harry Emerson Fosdick</a>, pastor at New York's <a href="/wiki/Riverside_Church">Riverside Church</a>, gave Einstein a tour of the church and showed him a full-size statue that the church made of Einstein, standing at the entrance.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007370-118">[116]</a></sup> Also during his stay in New York, he joined a crowd of 15,000 people at <a href="/wiki/Madison_Square_Garden_(1925)">Madison Square Garden</a> during a <a href="/wiki/Hanukkah">Hanukkah</a> celebration.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007370-118">[116]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Albert_Einstein_and_Charlie_Chaplin_City_Lights_premiere_1931.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Einstein next traveled to California, where he met <a href="/wiki/Caltech">Caltech</a> president and Nobel laureate <a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Millikan">Robert A. Millikan</a>. His friendship with Millikan was "awkward", as Millikan "had a penchant for patriotic militarism", where Einstein was a pronounced <a href="/wiki/Pacifism">pacifist</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007373-119">[117]</a></sup> During an address to Caltech's students, Einstein noted that science was often inclined to do more harm than good.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007374-120">[118]</a></sup>
</p><p>This aversion to war also led Einstein to befriend author <a href="/wiki/Upton_Sinclair">Upton Sinclair</a> and film star <a href="/wiki/Charlie_Chaplin">Charlie Chaplin</a>, both noted for their pacifism. <a href="/wiki/Carl_Laemmle">Carl Laemmle</a>, head of <a href="/wiki/Universal_Studios">Universal Studios</a>, gave Einstein a tour of his studio and introduced him to Chaplin. They had an instant rapport, with Chaplin inviting Einstein and his wife, Elsa, to his home for dinner. Chaplin said Einstein's outward persona, calm and gentle, seemed to conceal a "highly emotional temperament", from which came his "extraordinary intellectual energy".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaplin1964320-121">[119]</a></sup>
</p><p>Chaplin's film, <i><a href="/wiki/City_Lights">City Lights</a></i>, was to premiere a few days later in Hollywood, and Chaplin invited Einstein and Elsa to join him as his special guests. <a href="/wiki/Walter_Isaacson">Walter Isaacson</a>, Einstein's biographer, described this as "one of the most memorable scenes in the new era of celebrity".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007374-120">[118]</a></sup> Chaplin visited Einstein at his home on a later trip to Berlin and recalled his "modest little flat" and the piano at which he had begun writing his theory. Chaplin speculated that it was "possibly used as kindling wood by the Nazis".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaplin1964322-122">[120]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>1933: Emigration to the US</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Einstein-cartoon1.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>In February 1933, while on a visit to the United States, Einstein knew he could not return to Germany with the rise to power of the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany">Nazis</a> under Germany's new chancellor, <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFölsing1997659-123">[121]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007404-124">[122]</a></sup>
</p><p>While at American universities in early 1933, he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at the <a href="/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology">California Institute of Technology</a> in Pasadena. In February and March 1933, the <a href="/wiki/Gestapo">Gestapo</a> repeatedly raided his family's apartment in Berlin.<sup><a href="#cite_note-125">[123]</a></sup> He and his wife Elsa returned to Europe in March, and during the trip, they learned that the German Reichstag had passed the <a href="/wiki/Enabling_Act_of_1933">Enabling Act</a> on 23 March, transforming Hitler's government into a <i>de facto</i> legal dictatorship, and that they would not be able to proceed to Berlin. Later on, they heard that their cottage had been raided by the Nazis and Einstein's personal sailboat confiscated. Upon landing in <a href="/wiki/Antwerp">Antwerp</a>, Belgium on 28 March, Einstein immediately went to the German consulate and surrendered his passport, formally renouncing his German citizenship.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007407–410-126">[124]</a></sup> The Nazis later sold his boat and converted his cottage into a <a href="/wiki/Hitler_Youth">Hitler Youth</a> camp.<sup><a href="#cite_note-el4GB-127">[125]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Refugee status</h4>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Einstein%27s_landing_card_(5706142737).jpg"></a></p><div><p>Albert Einstein's landing card (26 May 1933), when he landed in <a href="/wiki/Dover">Dover</a> (United Kingdom) from <a href="/wiki/Ostend">Ostend</a> (Belgium) to visit <a href="/wiki/Oxford">Oxford</a></p></div></div>
<p>In April 1933, Einstein discovered that the new German government had passed laws barring Jews from holding any official positions, including teaching at universities.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007407–410-126">[124]</a></sup> Historian <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Holton">Gerald Holton</a> describes how, with "virtually no audible protest being raised by their colleagues", thousands of Jewish scientists were suddenly forced to give up their university positions and their names were removed from the rolls of institutions where they were employed.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolton1984-128">[126]</a></sup>
</p><p>A month later, Einstein's works were among those targeted by the <a href="/wiki/German_Student_Union">German Student Union</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_book_burnings">Nazi book burnings</a>, with Nazi propaganda minister <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels">Joseph Goebbels</a> proclaiming, "Jewish intellectualism is dead."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007407–410-126">[124]</a></sup> One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, "not yet hanged", offering a $5,000 bounty on his head.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007407–410-126">[124]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Jerome-129">[127]</a></sup> In a subsequent letter to physicist and friend <a href="/wiki/Max_Born">Max Born</a>, who had already emigrated from Germany to England, Einstein wrote, "... I must confess that the degree of their brutality and cowardice came as something of a surprise."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007407–410-126">[124]</a></sup> After moving to the US, he described the book burnings as a "spontaneous emotional outburst" by those who "shun popular enlightenment", and "more than anything else in the world, fear the influence of men of intellectual independence".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1954197-130">[128]</a></sup>
</p><p>Einstein was now without a permanent home, unsure where he would live and work, and equally worried about the fate of countless other scientists still in Germany. Aided by the <a href="/wiki/Council_for_At-Risk_Academics">Academic Assistance Council</a>, founded in April 1933 by British liberal politician <a href="/wiki/William_Beveridge">William Beveridge</a> to help academics escape Nazi persecution, Einstein was able to leave Germany.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Albert_Hall-131">[129]</a></sup> He rented a house in De Haan, Belgium, where he lived for a few months. In late July 1933, he went to England for about six weeks at the personal invitation of British naval officer Commander <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Locker-Lampson">Oliver Locker-Lampson</a>, who had become friends with Einstein in the preceding years.<sup><a href="#cite_note-132">[130]</a></sup> Locker-Lampson invited him to stay near his <a href="/wiki/Cromer">Cromer</a> home in a wooden cabin on Roughton Heath in the Parish of <a href="/wiki/Roughton,_Norfolk">Roughton, Norfolk</a>. To protect Einstein, Locker-Lampson had two bodyguards watch over him at his secluded cabin; a photo of them carrying shotguns and guarding Einstein was published in the <i>Daily Herald</i> on 24 July 1933.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007422-133">[131]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-3zIp7-134">[132]</a></sup>
</p><p>Locker-Lampson took Einstein to meet <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> at his home, and later, <a href="/wiki/Austen_Chamberlain">Austen Chamberlain</a> and former Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_George">Lloyd George</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007419–420-135">[133]</a></sup> Einstein asked them to help bring Jewish scientists out of Germany. British historian <a href="/wiki/Martin_Gilbert">Martin Gilbert</a> notes that Churchill responded immediately, and sent his friend, physicist <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Lindemann,_1st_Viscount_Cherwell">Frederick Lindemann</a>, to Germany to seek out Jewish scientists and place them in British universities.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Gilbert-136">[134]</a></sup> Churchill later observed that as a result of Germany having driven the Jews out, they had lowered their "technical standards" and put <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II">the Allies</a>' technology ahead of theirs.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Gilbert-136">[134]</a></sup>
</p><p>Einstein later contacted leaders of other nations, including <a href="/wiki/Turkey">Turkey</a>'s Prime Minister, <a href="/wiki/%C4%B0smet_%C4%B0n%C3%B6n%C3%BC">İsmet İnönü</a>, to whom he wrote in September 1933 requesting placement of unemployed German-Jewish scientists. As a result of Einstein's letter, Jewish invitees to Turkey eventually totaled over "1,000 saved individuals".<sup><a href="#cite_note-aDu8s-137">[135]</a></sup>
</p><p>Locker-Lampson also submitted a bill to parliament to extend British citizenship to Einstein, during which period Einstein made a number of public appearances describing the crisis brewing in Europe.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark1971-138">[136]</a></sup> In one of his speeches he denounced Germany's treatment of Jews, while at the same time he introduced a bill promoting Jewish citizenship in Palestine, as they were being denied citizenship elsewhere.<sup><a href="#cite_note-AP-139">[137]</a></sup> In his speech he described Einstein as a "citizen of the world" who should be offered a temporary shelter in the UK.<sup><a href="#cite_note-gnriE-140">[note 3]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Guardian-141">[138]</a></sup> Both bills failed, however, and Einstein then accepted an earlier offer from the <a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Advanced_Study">Institute for Advanced Study</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Princeton,_New_Jersey">Princeton, New Jersey</a>, US, to become a resident scholar.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark1971-138">[136]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Resident scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study</h4>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Einstein-formal_portrait-35.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Portrait of Einstein taken in 1935 at Princeton</p></div></div>
<p>On 3 October 1933, Einstein delivered a speech on the importance of academic freedom before a packed audience at the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Albert_Hall">Royal Albert Hall</a> in London, with <i><a href="/wiki/The_Times">The Times</a></i> reporting he was wildly cheered throughout.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Albert_Hall-131">[129]</a></sup> Four days later he returned to the US and took up a position at the Institute for Advanced Study,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark1971-138">[136]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFölsing1997649,_678-142">[139]</a></sup> noted for having become a refuge for scientists fleeing Nazi Germany.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Arntzenius2011-143">[140]</a></sup> At the time, most American universities, including Harvard, Princeton and Yale, had minimal or no Jewish faculty or students, as a result of their <a href="/wiki/Jewish_quota">Jewish quotas</a>, which lasted until the late 1940s.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Arntzenius2011-143">[140]</a></sup>
</p><p>Einstein was still undecided on his future. He had offers from several European universities, including <a href="/wiki/Christ_Church,_Oxford">Christ Church, Oxford</a>, where he stayed for three short periods between May 1931 and June 1933 and was offered a five-year research <a href="/wiki/Fellowship">fellowship</a> (called a "<a href="/wiki/Studentship">studentship</a>" at Christ Church),<sup><a href="#cite_note-FFt5E-144">[141]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-v8v06-145">[142]</a></sup> but in 1935, he arrived at the decision to remain permanently in the United States and apply for citizenship.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark1971-138">[136]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFölsing1997686–687-146">[143]</a></sup>
</p><p>Einstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last until his death in 1955.<sup><a href="#cite_note-mzNc5-147">[144]</a></sup> He was one of the four first selected (along with <a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann">John von Neumann</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del">Kurt Gödel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Weyl">Hermann Weyl</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-148">[145]</a></sup>) at the new Institute. He soon developed a close friendship with Gödel; the two would take long walks together discussing their work. <a href="/wiki/Bruria_Kaufman">Bruria Kaufman</a>, his assistant, later became a physicist. During this period, Einstein tried to develop a <a href="/wiki/Unified_field_theory">unified field theory</a> and to refute the <a href="/wiki/Copenhagen_interpretation">accepted interpretation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_physics">quantum physics</a>, both unsuccessfully.
</p>
<h4>World War II and the Manhattan Project</h4>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:M%C3%BCnchen-2021-Deutsches_Museum-Einstein.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>In 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included émigré physicist <a href="/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd">Leó Szilárd</a> attempted to alert <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C.">Washington</a> to ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. The group's warnings were discounted. Einstein and Szilárd, along with other refugees such as <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller">Edward Teller</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a>, "regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win the <a href="/wiki/German_nuclear_energy_project">race to build an atomic bomb</a>, and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to such a weapon."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007630-149">[146]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-o4fkQ-150">[147]</a></sup> To make certain the US was aware of the danger, in July 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II in Europe, Szilárd and Wigner visited Einstein to explain the possibility of atomic bombs, which Einstein, a pacifist, said he had never considered.<sup><a href="#cite_note-pRqWK-151">[148]</a></sup> He was asked to lend his support by writing <a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Szilard_letter">a letter</a>, with Szilárd, to President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a>, recommending the US pay attention and engage in its own nuclear weapons research.
</p><p>The letter is believed to be "arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II".<sup><a href="#cite_note-4Z68g-152">[149]</a></sup> In addition to the letter, Einstein used his connections with the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Royal_Family">Belgian Royal Family</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-eZym8-153">[150]</a></sup> and the Belgian queen mother to get access with a personal envoy to the White House's Oval Office. Some say that as a result of Einstein's letter and his meetings with Roosevelt, the US entered the "race" to develop the bomb, drawing on its "immense material, financial, and scientific resources" to initiate the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project">Manhattan Project</a>.
</p><p>For Einstein, "war was a disease ... [and] he called for resistance to war." By signing the letter to Roosevelt, some argue he went against his pacifist principles.<sup><a href="#cite_note-z73PK-154">[151]</a></sup> In 1954, a year before his death, Einstein said to his old friend, <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling">Linus Pauling</a>, "I made one great mistake in my life—when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made; but there was some justification—the danger that the Germans would make them ..."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark1971752-155">[152]</a></sup> In 1955, Einstein and ten other intellectuals and scientists, including British philosopher <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell">Bertrand Russell</a>, signed <a href="/wiki/Russell%E2%80%93Einstein_Manifesto">a manifesto</a> highlighting the danger of nuclear weapons.<sup><a href="#cite_note-156">[153]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>US citizenship</h4>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Citizen-Einstein.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into his career at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, he expressed his appreciation of the <a href="/wiki/Meritocracy">meritocracy</a> in American culture compared to Europe. He recognized the "right of individuals to say and think what they pleased" without social barriers. As a result, individuals were encouraged, he said, to be more creative, a trait he valued from his early education.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007432-157">[154]</a></sup>
</p><p>Einstein joined the <a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People</a> (NAACP) in Princeton, where he campaigned for the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)">civil rights</a> of African Americans. He considered racism America's "worst disease",<sup><a href="#cite_note-Jerome-129">[127]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-smithsonianmag-158">[155]</a></sup> seeing it as "handed down from one generation to the next".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalaprice2005148–149-159">[156]</a></sup> As part of his involvement, he corresponded with civil rights activist <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a> and was prepared to testify on his behalf during his trial in 1951.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobeson2002565-160">[157]</a></sup> When Einstein offered to be a character witness for Du Bois, the judge decided to drop the case.<sup><a href="#cite_note-civil-161">[158]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1946, Einstein visited <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_University_(Pennsylvania)">Lincoln University</a> in Pennsylvania, a <a href="/wiki/Historically_black_college">historically black college</a>, where he was awarded an honorary degree. Lincoln was the first university in the United States to grant college degrees to African Americans; alumni include <a href="/wiki/Langston_Hughes">Langston Hughes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a>. Einstein gave a speech about racism in America, adding, "I do not intend to be quiet about it."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Jerome_Isis-162">[159]</a></sup> A resident of Princeton recalls that Einstein had once paid the college tuition for a black student.<sup><a href="#cite_note-civil-161">[158]</a></sup> Einstein has said, "Being a Jew myself, perhaps I can understand and empathize with how black people feel as victims of discrimination".<sup><a href="#cite_note-smithsonianmag-158">[155]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Personal views</h3>
<h4>Political views</h4>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Einsteinwiezmann.PNG"></a></p></div>
<p>In 1918, Einstein was one of the founding members of the <a href="/wiki/German_Democratic_Party">German Democratic Party</a>, a liberal party.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoweSchulmann200783-163">[160]</a></sup> Later in his life, Einstein's political view was in favor of <a href="/wiki/Socialism">socialism</a> and critical of capitalism, which he detailed in his essays such as "<a href="/wiki/Why_Socialism%3F">Why Socialism?</a>"<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1949-164">[161]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-LXsUJ-165">[162]</a></sup> His opinions on the <a href="/wiki/Bolsheviks">Bolsheviks</a> also changed with time. In 1925, he criticized them for not having a 'well-regulated system of government' and called their rule a 'regime of terror and a tragedy in human history'. He later adopted a more moderated view, criticizing their methods but praising them, which is shown by his 1929 remark on <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>: "In Lenin I honor a man, who in total sacrifice of his own person has committed his entire energy to realizing social justice. I do not find his methods advisable. One thing is certain, however: men like him are the guardians and renewers of mankind's conscience."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoweSchulmann2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_X1dAAAAQBAJpgPA413_412,_413]-166">[163]</a></sup> Einstein offered and was called on to give judgments and opinions on matters often unrelated to theoretical physics or mathematics.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark1971-138">[136]</a></sup> He strongly advocated the idea of a democratic <a href="/wiki/Global_government">global government</a> that would check the power of nation-states in the framework of a world federation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007487,_494,_550-167">[164]</a></sup> He wrote "I advocate world government because I am convinced that there is no other possible way of eliminating the most terrible danger in which man has ever found himself."<sup><a href="#cite_note-168">[165]</a></sup> The FBI created a secret dossier on Einstein in 1932, and by the time of his death his FBI file was 1,427 pages long.<sup><a href="#cite_note-ixWWZ-169">[166]</a></sup>
</p><p>Einstein was deeply impressed by <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a>, with whom he exchanged written letters. He described Gandhi as "a role model for the generations to come".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Albano-Müller-170">[167]</a></sup> The initial connection was established on 27 September 1931, when <a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Israel">Wilfrid Israel</a> took his Indian guest <a href="/wiki/V._A._Sundaram">V. A. Sundaram</a> to meet his friend Einstein at his summer home in the town of Caputh. Sundaram was Gandhi's disciple and special envoy, whom Wilfrid Israel met while visiting India and visiting the Indian leader's home in 1925. During the visit, Einstein wrote a short letter to Gandhi that was delivered to him through his envoy, and Gandhi responded quickly with his own letter. Although in the end Einstein and Gandhi were unable to meet as they had hoped, the direct connection between them was established through Wilfrid Israel.<sup><a href="#cite_note-171">[168]</a></sup>
</p>
<h5>Relationship with Zionism</h5>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Albert_Einstein_Head.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Einstein was a figurehead leader in helping establish the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_University_of_Jerusalem">Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-172">[169]</a></sup> which opened in 1925. Earlier, in 1921, he was asked by the biochemist and president of the <a href="/wiki/World_Zionist_Organization">World Zionist Organization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chaim_Weizmann">Chaim Weizmann</a>, to help raise funds for the planned university.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007290-173">[170]</a></sup> He made suggestions for the creation of an Institute of Agriculture, a Chemical Institute and an Institute of Microbiology in order to fight the various ongoing epidemics such as <a href="/wiki/Malaria">malaria</a>, which he called an "evil" that was undermining a third of the country's development.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoweSchulmann2007161-174">[171]</a></sup> He also promoted the establishment of an Oriental Studies Institute, to include language courses given in both Hebrew and Arabic.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoweSchulmann2007158-175">[172]</a></sup>
</p><p>Einstein was not a <a href="/wiki/Nationalist">nationalist</a> and was against the creation of an independent Jewish state, which would be established without his help as Israel in 1948. He felt that the waves of arriving Jews of the <a href="/wiki/Aliyah">Aliyah</a> could live alongside existing Arabs in <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)">Palestine</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-176">[173]</a></sup> Nevertheless, upon the death of Israeli president Weizmann in November 1952, Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion">David Ben-Gurion</a> offered Einstein the largely ceremonial position of <a href="/wiki/President_of_Israel">President of Israel</a> at the urging of <a href="/wiki/Ezriel_Carlebach">Ezriel Carlebach</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Time-177">[174]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Msb2q-178">[175]</a></sup> The offer was presented by Israel's ambassador in Washington, <a href="/wiki/Abba_Eban">Abba Eban</a>, who explained that the offer "embodies the deepest respect which the Jewish people can repose in any of its sons".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007522-179">[176]</a></sup> Einstein wrote that he was "deeply moved", but "at once saddened and ashamed" that he could not accept it.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007522-179">[176]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Religious and philosophical views</h4>
<div><p>Start of a speech by Albert Einstein made on 11 April 1943 for the United Jewish Appeal (recording by Radio Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina) </p><hr /><p> "Ladies (coughs) and gentlemen, our age is proud of the progress it has made in man's intellectual development. The search and striving for truth and knowledge is one of the highest of man's qualities ..."</p></div>
<p>Einstein spoke of his spiritual outlook in a wide array of original writings and interviews.<sup><a href="#cite_note-018QJ-180">[177]</a></sup> He said he had sympathy for the impersonal <a href="/wiki/Pantheism">pantheistic</a> God of <a href="/wiki/Spinozism">Baruch Spinoza's philosophy</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidG_iziBAPXtECpgPA325_325]-181">[178]</a></sup> He did not believe in a <a href="/wiki/Personal_god">personal god</a> who concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings, a view which he described as naïve.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalaprice2000218-182">[179]</a></sup> He clarified, however, that "I am not an atheist",<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcdxWNE7NY6QCpgPT390_390]-183">[180]</a></sup> preferring to call himself an agnostic,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalaprice2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidG_iziBAPXtECpgPA340_340]-184">[181]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-flickr2687-185">[182]</a></sup> or a "deeply religious nonbeliever".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalaprice2000218-182">[179]</a></sup> When asked if he believed in an <a href="/wiki/Afterlife">afterlife</a>, Einstein replied, "No. And one life is enough for me."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidOzSJgdwk5esCpgPT461_461]-186">[183]</a></sup>
</p><p>Einstein was primarily affiliated with non-religious <a href="/wiki/Secular_humanist">humanist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethical_Culture">Ethical Culture</a> groups in both the UK and US. He served on the advisory board of the <a href="/wiki/First_Humanist_Society_of_New_York">First Humanist Society of New York</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-mKToJ-187">[184]</a></sup> and was an honorary associate of the <a href="/wiki/Rationalist_Association">Rationalist Association</a>, which publishes <i><a href="/wiki/New_Humanist">New Humanist</a></i> in Britain. For the 75th anniversary of the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Society_for_Ethical_Culture">New York Society for Ethical Culture</a>, he stated that the idea of Ethical Culture embodied his personal conception of what is most valuable and enduring in religious idealism. He observed, "Without 'ethical culture' there is no salvation for humanity."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1995[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid9fJkBqwDD3sCpgPA62_62]-188">[185]</a></sup>
</p><p>
In a German-language letter to philosopher <a href="/wiki/Eric_Gutkind">Eric Gutkind</a>, dated 3 January 1954, Einstein wrote:</p><blockquote><p><a href="/wiki/God_(word)">The word God</a> is for me nothing more than the expression and product of human weaknesses, the Bible a collection of honorable, but still primitive legends which are nevertheless pretty childish. No interpretation no matter how subtle can (for me) change this. ... For me the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_religion">Jewish religion</a> like all other religions is an incarnation of the most childish superstitions. And the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_people">Jewish people</a> to whom I gladly belong and with whose mentality I have a deep affinity have no different quality for me than all other people. ... I cannot see anything '<a href="/wiki/Jews_as_the_chosen_people">chosen</a>' about them.<sup><a href="#cite_note-xI99y-189">[186]</a></sup></p></blockquote><p>
Einstein had been sympathetic toward vegetarianism for a long time. In a letter in 1930 to Hermann Huth, vice-president of the <a href="/wiki/ProVeg_Deutschland#History">German Vegetarian Federation (Deutsche Vegetarier-Bund)</a>, he wrote:</p><blockquote><p>Although I have been prevented by outward circumstances from observing a strictly vegetarian diet, I have long been an adherent to the cause in principle. Besides agreeing with the aims of vegetarianism for aesthetic and moral reasons, it is my view that a vegetarian manner of living by its purely physical effect on the human temperament would most beneficially influence the lot of mankind.<sup><a href="#cite_note-190">[187]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>He became a vegetarian himself only during the last part of his life. In March 1954 he wrote in a letter: "So I am living without fats, without meat, without fish, but am feeling quite well this way. It almost seems to me that man was not born to be a carnivore."<sup><a href="#cite_note-191">[188]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Love of music</h4>
<p>Einstein developed an appreciation for music at an early age. In his late journals he wrote:
</p>
<blockquote><p>"If I were not a physicist, I would probably be a musician. I often think in music. I live my daydreams in music. I see my life in terms of music ... I get most joy in life out of music."<sup><a href="#cite_note-BQH5A-192">[189]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-aBOjz-193">[190]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>His mother played the piano reasonably well and wanted her son to learn the violin, not only to instill in him a love of music but also to help him assimilate into <a href="/wiki/German_culture">German culture</a>. According to conductor <a href="/wiki/Leon_Botstein">Leon Botstein</a>, Einstein began playing when he was 5. However, he did not enjoy it at that age.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Botstein-194">[191]</a></sup>
</p><p>When he turned 13, he discovered the <a href="/wiki/Mozart_violin_sonatas">violin sonatas of Mozart</a>, whereupon he became enamored of <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart">Mozart</a>'s compositions and studied music more willingly. Einstein taught himself to play without "ever practicing systematically". He said that "love is a better teacher than a sense of duty".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Botstein-194">[191]</a></sup> At the age of 17, he was heard by a school examiner in Aarau while playing <a href="/wiki/Beethoven%27s_violin_sonatas_(disambiguation)">Beethoven's violin sonatas</a>. The examiner stated afterward that his playing was "remarkable and revealing of 'great insight'". What struck the examiner, writes Botstein, was that Einstein "displayed a deep love of the music, a quality that was and remains in short supply. Music possessed an unusual meaning for this student."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Botstein-194">[191]</a></sup>
</p><p>Music took on a pivotal and permanent role in Einstein's life from that period on. Although the idea of becoming a professional musician himself was not on his mind at any time, among those with whom Einstein played <a href="/wiki/Chamber_music">chamber music</a> were a few professionals, including Kurt Appelbaum, and he performed for private audiences and friends. Chamber music had also become a regular part of his social life while living in Bern, Zürich, and Berlin, where he played with Max Planck and his son, among others. He is sometimes erroneously credited as the editor of the 1937 edition of the <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6chel_catalog">Köchel catalog</a> of Mozart's work; that edition was prepared by <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Einstein">Alfred Einstein</a>, who may have been a distant relation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-kGuWC-195">[192]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-OIn6p-196">[193]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1931, while engaged in research at the California Institute of Technology, he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles, where he played some of <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven">Beethoven</a> and Mozart's works with members of the <a href="/wiki/Zoellner_Quartet">Zoellner Quartet</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Times-197">[194]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-RR-198">[195]</a></sup> Near the end of his life, when the young <a href="/wiki/Juilliard_Quartet">Juilliard Quartet</a> visited him in Princeton, he played his violin with them, and the quartet was "impressed by Einstein's level of coordination and intonation".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Botstein-194">[191]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Death</h3>
<p>On 17 April 1955, Einstein experienced <a href="/wiki/Internal_bleeding">internal bleeding</a> caused by the rupture of an <a href="/wiki/Abdominal_aortic_aneurysm">abdominal aortic aneurysm</a>, which had previously been reinforced surgically by <a href="/wiki/Rudolph_Nissen">Rudolph Nissen</a> in 1948.<sup><a href="#cite_note-BXLfp-199">[196]</a></sup> He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the state of Israel's seventh anniversary with him to the hospital, but he did not live to complete it.<sup><a href="#cite_note-QN45b-200">[197]</a></sup>
</p><p>Einstein refused surgery, saying, "I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share; it is time to go. I will do it elegantly."<sup><a href="#cite_note-BhiNM-201">[198]</a></sup> He died in the <a href="/wiki/Penn_Medicine_Princeton_Medical_Center">Penn Medicine Princeton Medical Center</a> early the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end.<sup><a href="#cite_note-YUhsl-202">[199]</a></sup>
</p><p>During the autopsy, the pathologist <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Stoltz_Harvey">Thomas Stoltz Harvey</a> removed <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein%27s_brain">Einstein's brain</a> for preservation without the permission of his family, in the hope that the <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience">neuroscience</a> of the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so intelligent.<sup><a href="#cite_note-MqyYW-203">[200]</a></sup> Einstein's remains were cremated in <a href="/wiki/Trenton,_New_Jersey">Trenton, New Jersey</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-204">[201]</a></sup> and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location.<sup><a href="#cite_note-GQrBZ-205">[202]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Obit-206">[203]</a></sup>
</p><p>In a memorial lecture delivered on 13 December 1965 at <a href="/wiki/UNESCO">UNESCO</a> headquarters, nuclear physicist <a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer">J. Robert Oppenheimer</a> summarized his impression of Einstein as a person: "He was almost wholly without sophistication and wholly without worldliness ... There was always with him a wonderful purity at once childlike and profoundly stubborn."<sup><a href="#cite_note-aJHxn-207">[204]</a></sup>
</p><p>Einstein bequeathed his personal archives, library, and intellectual assets to the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_University_of_Jerusalem">Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a> in Israel.<sup><a href="#cite_note-208">[205]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Scientific career</h2>
<p>Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Bio-6">[5]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Paul_Arthur_Schilpp,_editor_1951_730–746-209">[206]</a></sup> He published more than 300 scientific papers and 150 non-scientific ones.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Nobel-15">[14]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Paul_Arthur_Schilpp,_editor_1951_730–746-209">[206]</a></sup> On 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einstein's papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStachel_et_al.2008-210">[207]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20141204-DB-211">[208]</a></sup> Einstein's intellectual achievements and originality have made the word "Einstein" synonymous with "genius".<sup><a href="#cite_note-wordnetweb.princeton.edu-12">[11]</a></sup> In addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including the <a href="/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_statistics">Bose–Einstein statistics</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Einstein_refrigerator">Einstein refrigerator</a> and others.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Instituut-Lorentz-212">[209]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-e5xd8-213">[210]</a></sup>
</p><p>There is some evidence from Einstein's writings that he collaborated with his first wife, Mileva Marić. In 13 December 1900, a first article on capillarity signed only under Albert’s name was submitted. The decision to publish only under his name seems to have been mutual, but the exact reason is unknown.<sup><a href="#cite_note-mileva-40">[38]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>1905 – <i>Annus Mirabilis</i> papers</h3>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Annus_mirabilis_papers"><i>Annus Mirabilis</i> papers</a> are four articles pertaining to the photoelectric effect (which gave rise to <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics">quantum theory</a>), <a href="/wiki/Brownian_motion">Brownian motion</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Special_theory_of_relativity">special theory of relativity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence"><i>E</i> = <i>mc</i><sup>2</sup></a> that Einstein published in the <i>Annalen der Physik</i> scientific journal in 1905. These four works contributed substantially to the foundation of <a href="/wiki/History_of_physics#Modern_physics">modern physics</a> and changed views on <a href="/wiki/Space">space</a>, time, and <a href="/wiki/Matter">matter</a>. The four papers are:
</p>
<table>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Title <small>(translated)</small></th>
<th><small>Area of focus</small></th>
<th>Received</th>
<th>Published</th>
<th>Significance
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>"On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light"<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1905a-214">[211]</a></sup></td>
<td>Photoelectric effect</td>
<td>18 March</td>
<td>9 June</td>
<td>Resolved an unsolved puzzle by suggesting that energy is exchanged only in discrete amounts (<a href="/wiki/Quantum">quanta</a>).<sup><a href="#cite_note-1Jhcb-215">[212]</a></sup> This idea was pivotal to the early development of quantum theory.<sup><a href="#cite_note-oJBvd-216">[213]</a></sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>"On the Motion of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid, as Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat"<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1905c-217">[214]</a></sup></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Brownian_motion">Brownian motion</a></td>
<td>11 May</td>
<td>18 July</td>
<td>Explained empirical evidence for the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_theory">atomic theory</a>, supporting the application of <a href="/wiki/Statistical_physics">statistical physics</a>.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies"<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1905d-218">[215]</a></sup></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Special_relativity">Special relativity</a></td>
<td>30 June</td>
<td>26 September</td>
<td>Reconciled Maxwell's equations for electricity and magnetism with the laws of mechanics by introducing changes to mechanics, resulting from analysis based on empirical evidence that the speed of light is independent of the motion of the observer.<sup><a href="#cite_note-RhZ8x-219">[216]</a></sup> Discredited the concept of a "<a href="/wiki/Luminiferous_ether">luminiferous ether</a>".<sup><a href="#cite_note-lhfJ9-220">[217]</a></sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>"Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?"<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1905e-221">[218]</a></sup></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence">Matter–energy equivalence</a></td>
<td>27 September</td>
<td>21 November</td>
<td>Equivalence of matter and energy, <i>E</i> = <i>mc</i><sup>2</sup>, the existence of "<a href="/wiki/Rest_energy">rest energy</a>", and the basis of nuclear energy.
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h3>Statistical mechanics</h3>
<h4>Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics</h4>
<p>Einstein's first paper<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1901-79">[77]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-PubList-222">[219]</a></sup> submitted in 1900 to <i>Annalen der Physik</i> was on <a href="/wiki/Capillary_attraction">capillary attraction</a>. It was published in 1901 with the title "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen", which translates as "Conclusions from the capillarity phenomena". Two papers he published in 1902–1903 (thermodynamics) attempted to interpret <a href="/wiki/Atom">atomic</a> phenomena from a statistical point of view. These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper on Brownian motion, which showed that Brownian movement can be construed as firm evidence that molecules exist. His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena.<sup><a href="#cite_note-PubList-222">[219]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Theory of critical opalescence</h4>
<p>Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates this to <a href="/wiki/Rayleigh_scattering">Rayleigh scattering</a>, which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue.<sup><a href="#cite_note-L2N73-223">[220]</a></sup> Einstein quantitatively derived critical opalescence from a treatment of density fluctuations, and demonstrated how both the effect and Rayleigh scattering originate from the atomistic constitution of matter.
</p>
<h3>Special relativity</h3>
<p>Einstein's "<i>Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper</i>"<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1905d-218">[215]</a></sup> ("On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies") was received on 30 June 1905 and published 26 September of that same year. It reconciled conflicts between <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations">Maxwell's equations</a> (the laws of electricity and magnetism) and the laws of Newtonian mechanics by introducing changes to the laws of mechanics.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFölsing1997178–198-224">[221]</a></sup> Observationally, the effects of these changes are most apparent at high speeds (where objects are moving at speeds close to the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light">speed of light</a>). The theory developed in this paper later became known as Einstein's special theory of relativity. 
</p><p>This paper predicted that, when measured in the frame of a relatively moving observer, a clock carried by a moving body would appear to <a href="/wiki/Time_dilation">slow down</a>, and the body itself would <a href="/wiki/Length_contraction">contract</a> in its direction of motion. This paper also argued that the idea of a <a href="/wiki/Luminiferous_aether">luminiferous aether</a>—one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time—was superfluous.<sup><a href="#cite_note-aBfxO-225">[note 4]</a></sup>
</p><p>In his paper on <a href="/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence">mass–energy equivalence</a>, Einstein produced <i>E</i> = <i>mc</i><sup>2</sup> as a consequence of his special relativity equations.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStachel2002vi,_15,_90,_131,_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidOAsQ_hFjhrACpgPA215_215]-226">[222]</a></sup> Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, starting with <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck">Max Planck</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-sBl2q-227">[note 5]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPais1982382–386-228">[223]</a></sup>
</p><p>Einstein originally framed special relativity in terms of <a href="/wiki/Kinematics">kinematics</a> (the study of moving bodies). In 1908, <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Minkowski">Hermann Minkowski</a> reinterpreted special relativity in geometric terms as a theory of <a href="/wiki/Spacetime">spacetime</a>. Einstein adopted Minkowski's formalism in his 1915 <a href="/wiki/General_relativity">general theory of relativity</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPais1982151–152-229">[224]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>General relativity</h3>
<h4>General relativity and the equivalence principle</h4>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:1919_eclipse_positive.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/General_relativity">General relativity</a> (GR) is a <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_gravitation">theory of gravitation</a> that was developed by Einstein between 1907 and 1915. According to it, the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping of <a href="/wiki/Spacetime">spacetime</a> by those masses. General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modern <a href="/wiki/Astrophysics">astrophysics</a>, it provides the foundation for the current understanding of <a href="/wiki/Black_holes">black holes</a>, regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that not even light can escape.<sup><a href="#cite_note-230">[225]</a></sup>
</p><p>As Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial motions within <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity">special relativity</a> was unsatisfactory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of motion (even accelerated ones) should appear more satisfactory.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1923-231">[226]</a></sup> Consequently, in 1907 he published an article on acceleration under special relativity. In that article titled "On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn from It", he argued that <a href="/wiki/Free_fall">free fall</a> is really inertial motion, and that for a free-falling observer the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called the <a href="/wiki/Equivalence_principle">equivalence principle</a>. In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomena of <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_time_dilation">gravitational time dilation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_redshift">gravitational redshift</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_lensing">gravitational lensing</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPais1982179–183-232">[227]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStachel_et_al.2008273–274vol._2:_The_Swiss_Years:_Writings,_1900–1909-233">[228]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1911, Einstein published another article "On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light" expanding on the 1907 article, in which he estimated the amount of deflection of light by massive bodies. Thus, the theoretical prediction of general relativity could for the first time be tested experimentally.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPais1982194–195-234">[229]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Gravitational waves</h4>
<p>In 1916, Einstein predicted <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave">gravitational waves</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1916-235">[230]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1918-236">[231]</a></sup> ripples in the <a href="/wiki/Curvature">curvature</a> of spacetime which propagate as <a href="/wiki/Wave">waves</a>, traveling outward from the source, transporting energy as gravitational radiation. The existence of gravitational waves is possible under general relativity due to its <a href="/wiki/Lorentz_invariance">Lorentz invariance</a> which brings the concept of a finite speed of propagation of the physical interactions of gravity with it. By contrast, gravitational waves cannot exist in the <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation">Newtonian theory of gravitation</a>, which postulates that the physical interactions of gravity propagate at infinite speed.
</p><p>The first, indirect, detection of gravitational waves came in the 1970s through observation of a pair of closely orbiting <a href="/wiki/Neutron_stars">neutron stars</a>, <a href="/wiki/PSR_B1913%2B16">PSR B1913+16</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-natgeo-237">[232]</a></sup> The explanation for the decay in their orbital period was that they were emitting gravitational waves.<sup><a href="#cite_note-natgeo-237">[232]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Tf1T0-238">[233]</a></sup> Einstein's prediction was confirmed on 11 February 2016, when researchers at <a href="/wiki/LIGO">LIGO</a> published the <a href="/wiki/First_observation_of_gravitational_waves">first observation of gravitational waves</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-PRL-20160211-239">[234]</a></sup> detected on Earth on 14 September 2015, nearly one hundred years after the prediction.<sup><a href="#cite_note-natgeo-237">[232]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-CO6kH-240">[235]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-oSmHb-241">[236]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-hkKSp-242">[237]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-38Msx-243">[238]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Hole argument and Entwurf theory</h4>
<p>While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about the <a href="/wiki/Gauge_invariance">gauge invariance</a> in the theory. He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations and searched for equations that would be invariant under general linear transformations only.<sup><a href="#cite_note-244">[239]</a></sup>
</p><p>In June 1913, the Entwurf ('draft') theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. After more than two years of intensive work, Einstein realized that the <a href="/wiki/Hole_argument">hole argument</a> was mistaken<sup><a href="#cite_note-sOA9t-245">[240]</a></sup> and abandoned the theory in November 1915.
</p>
<h4>Physical cosmology</h4>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:MillikanLemaitreEinstein.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to the structure of the universe as a whole.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1917a-246">[241]</a></sup> He discovered that the general field equations predicted a universe that was dynamic, either contracting or expanding. As observational evidence for a dynamic universe was not known at the time, Einstein introduced a new term, the <a href="/wiki/Cosmological_constant">cosmological constant</a>, to the field equations, in order to allow the theory to predict a static universe. The modified field equations predicted a static universe of closed curvature, in accordance with Einstein's understanding of <a href="/wiki/Mach%27s_principle">Mach's principle</a> in these years. This model became known as the Einstein World or <a href="/wiki/Einstein%27s_static_universe">Einstein's static universe</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPais1994285–286-247">[242]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-iJwuX-248">[243]</a></sup>
</p><p>Following the discovery of the recession of the nebulae by <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Hubble">Edwin Hubble</a> in 1929, Einstein abandoned his static model of the universe, and proposed two dynamic models of the cosmos, The <a href="/wiki/Friedmann%E2%80%93Einstein_universe">Friedmann–Einstein universe</a> of 1931<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1931-249">[244]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-cor-2013-250">[245]</a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93de_Sitter_universe">Einstein–de Sitter universe</a> of 1932.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinsteinde_Sitter1932-251">[246]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-J9Tqu-252">[247]</a></sup> In each of these models, Einstein discarded the cosmological constant, claiming that it was "in any case theoretically unsatisfactory".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1931-249">[244]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-cor-2013-250">[245]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-sxfvo-253">[248]</a></sup>
</p><p>In many Einstein biographies, it is claimed that Einstein referred to the cosmological constant in later years as his "biggest blunder", based on a letter <a href="/wiki/George_Gamow">George Gamow</a> claimed to have received from him. The astrophysicist <a href="/wiki/Mario_Livio">Mario Livio</a> has recently cast doubt on this claim.<sup><a href="#cite_note-qmmVf-254">[249]</a></sup>
</p><p>In late 2013, a team led by the Irish physicist <a href="/wiki/Cormac_O%27Raifeartaigh">Cormac O'Raifeartaigh</a> discovered evidence that, shortly after learning of Hubble's observations of the recession of the nebulae, Einstein considered a <a href="/wiki/Steady_State_theory">steady-state model</a> of the universe.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Tq53z-255">[250]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-8pfEk-256">[251]</a></sup> In a hitherto overlooked manuscript, apparently written in early 1931, Einstein explored a model of the expanding universe in which the density of matter remains constant due to a continuous creation of matter, a process he associated with the cosmological constant.<sup><a href="#cite_note-cor-steady-state-257">[252]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Einstein's_aborted_model-258">[253]</a></sup> As he stated in the paper, "In what follows, I would like to draw attention to a solution to equation (1) that can account for Hubbel's [<i>sic</i>] facts, and in which the density is constant over time" ... "If one considers a physically bounded volume, particles of matter will be continually leaving it. For the density to remain constant, new particles of matter must be continually formed in the volume from space."
</p><p>It thus appears that Einstein considered a <a href="/wiki/Steady_State_theory">steady-state model</a> of the expanding universe many years before Hoyle, Bondi and Gold.<sup><a href="#cite_note-ILjYQ-259">[254]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-ThZb0-260">[255]</a></sup> However, Einstein's steady-state model contained a fundamental flaw and he quickly abandoned the idea.<sup><a href="#cite_note-cor-steady-state-257">[252]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Einstein's_aborted_model-258">[253]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-7ShC9-261">[256]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Energy momentum pseudotensor</h4>
<p>General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum. <a href="/wiki/Noether%27s_theorem">Noether's theorem</a> allows these quantities to be determined from a <a href="/wiki/Lagrangian_(field_theory)">Lagrangian</a> with <a href="/wiki/Translational_symmetry">translation invariance</a>, but <a href="/wiki/General_covariance">general covariance</a> makes translation invariance into something of a <a href="/wiki/Gauge_symmetry">gauge symmetry</a>. The energy and momentum derived within general relativity by Noether's prescriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason.<sup><a href="#cite_note-262">[257]</a></sup>
</p><p>Einstein argued that this is true for a fundamental reason: the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was, in fact, the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. While the use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was criticized by <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger">Erwin Schrödinger</a> and others, Einstein's approach has been echoed by physicists including <a href="/wiki/Lev_Landau">Lev Landau</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evgeny_Lifshitz">Evgeny Lifshitz</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-263">[258]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Wormholes</h4>
<p>In 1935, Einstein collaborated with <a href="/wiki/Nathan_Rosen">Nathan Rosen</a> to produce a model of a <a href="/wiki/Wormhole">wormhole</a>, often called <a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Rosen_bridges">Einstein–Rosen bridges</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinsteinRosen1935-264">[259]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-QNjpt-265">[260]</a></sup> His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper "Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?". These solutions cut and pasted <a href="/wiki/Schwarzschild_black_hole">Schwarzschild black holes</a> to make a bridge between two patches. Because these solutions included spacetime curvature without the presence of a physical body, Einstein and Rosen suggested that they could provide the beginnings of a theory that avoided the notion of point particles. However, it was later found that Einstein–Rosen bridges are not stable.<sup><a href="#cite_note-ja7FY-266">[261]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Einstein–Cartan theory</h4>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Albert_Einstein_photo_1920.jpg"></a></p></div><p>In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called the <a href="/wiki/Torsion_tensor">torsion</a>. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s.
</p><h4>Equations of motion</h4>
<p>In general relativity, gravitational force is reimagined as curvature of <a href="/wiki/Spacetime">spacetime</a>. A curved path like an orbit is not the result of a force deflecting a body from an ideal straight-line path, but rather the body's attempt to fall freely through a background that is itself curved by the presence of other masses. A remark by <a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler">John Archibald Wheeler</a> that has become proverbial among physicists summarizes the theory: "Spacetime tells matter how to move; matter tells spacetime how to curve."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Wheeler-267">[262]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-268">[263]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Einstein_field_equations">Einstein field equations</a> cover the latter aspect of the theory, relating the curvature of spacetime to the distribution of matter and energy. The <a href="/wiki/Geodesic_equation">geodesic equation</a> covers the former aspect, stating that freely-falling bodies follow <a href="/wiki/Geodesics_in_general_relativity">lines that are as straight as possible in a curved spacetime</a>. Einstein regarded this as an "independent fundamental assumption" that had to be postulated in addition to the field equations in order to complete the theory. Believing this to be a shortcoming in how general relativity was originally presented, he wished to derive it from the field equations themselves. Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein field equations themselves, not by a new law. Accordingly, Einstein proposed that the field equations would determine the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, to be a geodesic. Both physicists and philosophers have often repeated the assertion that the geodesic equation can be obtained from applying the field equations to the motion of a <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_singularity">gravitational singularity</a>, but this claim remains disputed.<sup><a href="#cite_note-269">[264]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-270">[265]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Old quantum theory</h3>
<h4>Photons and energy quanta</h4>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Photoelectric_effect_in_a_solid_-_diagram.svg"></a></p><div><p>The photoelectric effect. Incoming photons on the left strike a metal plate (bottom), and eject electrons, depicted as flying off to the right.</p></div></div>
<p>In a 1905 paper,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1905a-214">[211]</a></sup> Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles (<i><a href="/wiki/Quantum">quanta</a></i>). Einstein's light quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became universally accepted in 1919, with <a href="/wiki/Robert_Millikan">Robert Millikan</a>'s detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the measurement of <a href="/wiki/Compton_scattering">Compton scattering</a>.
</p><p>Einstein concluded that each wave of frequency <i>f</i> is associated with a collection of photons with energy <i>hf</i> each, where <i>h</i> is <a href="/wiki/Planck%27s_constant">Planck's constant</a>. He does not say much more, because he is not sure how the particles are related to the wave. But he does suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably the photoelectric effect.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1905a-214">[211]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Quantized atomic vibrations</h4>
<p>In 1907, Einstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator. In the Einstein model, each atom oscillates independently—a series of equally spaced quantized states for each oscillator. Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be difficult, but he nevertheless proposed this theory because it was a particularly clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could solve the specific heat problem in classical mechanics. <a href="/wiki/Peter_Debye">Peter Debye</a> refined this model.<sup><a href="#cite_note-ixm32-271">[266]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Bose–Einstein statistics</h4>
<p>In 1924, Einstein received a description of a <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics">statistical</a> model from Indian physicist <a href="/wiki/Satyendra_Nath_Bose">Satyendra Nath Bose</a>, based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his translation of Bose's paper to the <i><a href="/wiki/Zeitschrift_f%C3%BCr_Physik">Zeitschrift für Physik</a></i>. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them the <a href="/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_condensate">Bose–Einstein condensate</a> phenomenon that some particulates should appear at very low temperatures.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1924-272">[267]</a></sup> It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by <a href="/wiki/Eric_Allin_Cornell">Eric Allin Cornell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carl_Wieman">Carl Wieman</a> using <a href="/wiki/Ultracold_atom">ultra-cooling</a> equipment built at the <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology">NIST</a>–<a href="/wiki/JILA">JILA</a> laboratory at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Colorado_at_Boulder">University of Colorado at Boulder</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-nlagl-273">[268]</a></sup> Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly of <a href="/wiki/Boson">bosons</a>. Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Instituut-Lorentz-212">[209]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Wave–particle duality</h4>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Albert_Einstein_photo_1921.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Einstein during his visit to the United States</p></div></div>
<p>Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became a <i><a href="/wiki/Privatdozent">Privatdozent</a></i> at the University of Bern.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPais1982522-274">[269]</a></sup> In "<i>Über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung</i>" ("<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Translation:The_Development_of_Our_Views_on_the_Composition_and_Essence_of_Radiation">The Development of our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation</a>"), on the <a href="/wiki/Quantization_(physics)">quantization</a> of light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-defined <a href="/wiki/Momentum">momenta</a> and act in some respects as independent, <a href="/wiki/Point_particle">point-like particles</a>. This paper introduced the <i>photon</i> concept (although the name <i>photon</i> was introduced later by <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis">Gilbert N. Lewis</a> in 1926) and inspired the notion of <a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93particle_duality">wave–particle duality</a> in quantum mechanics. Einstein saw this wave–particle duality in radiation as concrete evidence for his conviction that physics needed a new, unified foundation.
</p>
<h4>Zero-point energy</h4>
<p>In a series of works completed from 1911 to 1913, Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory and introduced the idea of <a href="/wiki/Zero-point_energy">zero-point energy</a> in his "second quantum theory". Soon, this idea attracted the attention of Einstein and his assistant <a href="/wiki/Otto_Stern">Otto Stern</a>. Assuming the energy of rotating diatomic molecules contains zero-point energy, they then compared the theoretical specific heat of hydrogen gas with the experimental data. The numbers matched nicely. However, after publishing the findings, they promptly withdrew their support, because they no longer had confidence in the correctness of the idea of zero-point energy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStachel_et_al.2008270ffvol._4:_The_Swiss_Years:_Writings,_1912–1914-275">[270]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Stimulated emission</h4>
<p>In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article in <i>Physikalische Zeitschrift</i> that proposed the possibility of <a href="/wiki/Stimulated_emission">stimulated emission</a>, the physical process that makes possible the <a href="/wiki/Maser">maser</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Laser">laser</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1917b-276">[271]</a></sup>
This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws.<sup><a href="#cite_note-277">[272]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Matter waves</h4>
<p>Einstein discovered <a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Broglie">Louis de Broglie</a>'s work and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein observed that <a href="/wiki/Matter_wave">de Broglie waves</a> could explain the <a href="/wiki/Bohr-Sommerfeld_quantization">quantization rules of Bohr and Sommerfeld</a>. This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926.<sup><a href="#cite_note-278">[273]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-279">[274]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Quantum mechanics</h3>
<h4>Einstein's objections to quantum mechanics</h4>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:NYT_May_4,_1935.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Newspaper headline on 4 May 1935</p></div></div>
<p>Einstein played a major role in developing quantum theory, beginning with his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect. However, he became displeased with modern quantum mechanics as it had evolved after 1925, despite its acceptance by other physicists. He was skeptical that the randomness of quantum mechanics was fundamental rather than the result of determinism, stating that God "is not playing at dice".<sup><a href="#cite_note-zZ2hS-280">[275]</a></sup> Until the end of his life, he continued to maintain that quantum mechanics was incomplete.<sup><a href="#cite_note-yzZtL-281">[276]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Bohr versus Einstein</h4>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Niels_Bohr_Albert_Einstein_by_Ehrenfest.jpg"></a></p></div><p> The Bohr–Einstein debates were a series of public disputes about quantum mechanics between Einstein and <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr">Niels Bohr</a>, who were two of its founders. Their debates are remembered because of their importance to the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science">philosophy of science</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Bohr1949-282">[277]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1969-283">[278]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-284">[279]</a></sup> Their debates would influence later <a href="/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics">interpretations of quantum mechanics</a>.
</p><h4>Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox</h4>
<p>In 1935, Einstein returned to quantum mechanics, in particular to the question of its completeness, in a collaboration with <a href="/wiki/Boris_Podolsky">Boris Podolsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nathan_Rosen">Nathan Rosen</a> that laid out what would become known as the <a href="/wiki/EPR_paradox">EPR paradox</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinsteinPodolskyRosen1935-285">[280]</a></sup> In a <a href="/wiki/Einstein%27s_thought_experiments">thought experiment</a>, they considered two particles, which had interacted such that their properties were strongly correlated. No matter how far the two particles were separated, a precise position measurement on one particle would result in equally precise knowledge of the position of the other particle; likewise, a precise momentum measurement of one particle would result in equally precise knowledge of the momentum of the other particle, without needing to disturb the other particle in any way.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007pp._448–453-286">[281]</a></sup>
</p><p>Given Einstein's concept of <a href="/wiki/Local_realism">local realism</a>, there were two possibilities: (1) either the other particle had these properties already determined, or (2) the process of measuring the first particle instantaneously affected the reality of the position and momentum of the second particle. Einstein rejected this second possibility (popularly called "spooky action at a distance").<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007pp._448–453-286">[281]</a></sup>
</p><p>Einstein's belief in local realism led him to assert that, while the correctness of quantum mechanics was not in question, it must be incomplete. But as a physical principle, local realism was shown to be incorrect when the <a href="/wiki/Aspect_experiment">Aspect experiment</a> of 1982 confirmed <a href="/wiki/Bell%27s_theorem">Bell's theorem</a>, which <a href="/wiki/J._S._Bell">J. S. Bell</a> had delineated in 1964. The results of these and subsequent experiments demonstrate that quantum physics cannot be represented by any version of the picture of physics in which "particles are regarded as unconnected independent classical-like entities, each one being unable to communicate with the other after they have separated."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenrose2007583-287">[282]</a></sup>
</p><p>Although Einstein was wrong about local realism, his clear prediction of the unusual properties of its opposite, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_entanglement">entangled quantum states</a>, has resulted in the EPR paper becoming among the most influential papers published in <i><a href="/wiki/Physical_Review">Physical Review</a></i>. It is considered a centerpiece of the development of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_information_theory">quantum information theory</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFine2017-288">[283]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Unified field theory</h3>
<p>Following his research on general relativity, Einstein attempted to generalize his theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism as aspects of a single entity. In 1950, he described his "<a href="/wiki/Unified_field_theory">unified field theory</a>" in a <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American">Scientific American</a></i> article titled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1950-289">[284]</a></sup> Although he was lauded for this work, his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful.
Notably, Einstein's unification project did not accommodate the <a href="/wiki/Strong_nuclear_force">strong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Weak_nuclear_force">weak nuclear forces</a>, neither of which was well understood until many years after his death. Although mainstream physics has left behind Einstein's own approaches to unification, physicists still pursue a <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_everything">theory of everything</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-290">[285]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Other investigations</h3>
<p>Einstein conducted other investigations that were unsuccessful and abandoned. These pertain to <a href="/wiki/Force">force</a>, <a href="/wiki/Superconductivity">superconductivity</a>, and other research.
</p>
<h3>Collaboration with other scientists</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Solvay_conference_1927.jpg"></a></p><div><p>The 1927 <a href="/wiki/Solvay_Conference">Solvay Conference</a> in Brussels, a gathering of the world's top physicists. Einstein is in the center.</p></div></div>
<p>In addition to longtime collaborators <a href="/wiki/Leopold_Infeld">Leopold Infeld</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nathan_Rosen">Nathan Rosen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Bergmann">Peter Bergmann</a> and others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists.
</p>
<h4>Einstein–de Haas experiment</h4>
<p>In 1908, <a href="/wiki/Owen_Willans_Richardson">Owen Willans Richardson</a> predicted that a change in the <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_moment">magnetic moment</a> of a free body will cause this body to rotate. This effect is a consequence of the <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_angular_momentum">conservation of angular momentum</a> and is strong enough to be observable in <a href="/wiki/Ferromagnetic_materials">ferromagnetic materials</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Richardson-1908-291">[286]</a></sup> Einstein and <a href="/wiki/Wander_Johannes_de_Haas">Wander Johannes de Haas</a> published two papers in 1915 claiming the first experimental observation of the effect.<sup><a href="#cite_note-EdH-1-1915-292">[287]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-EdH-2-1915-293">[288]</a></sup> Measurements of this kind demonstrate that the phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Magnetization">magnetization</a> is caused by the alignment (<a href="/wiki/Spin_polarization">polarization</a>) of the <a href="/wiki/Angular_momentum">angular momenta</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Electron">electrons</a> in the material along the axis of magnetization. These measurements also allow the separation of the two contributions to the magnetization: that which is associated with the <a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)">spin</a> and with the orbital motion of the electrons.
</p>
<h4>Einstein refrigerator</h4>
<p>In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the <a href="/wiki/Einstein_refrigerator">Einstein refrigerator</a>. This <a href="/wiki/Absorption_refrigerator">absorption refrigerator</a> was then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Goettling-294">[289]</a></sup> On 11 November 1930, <a href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US1781541">U.S. Patent 1,781,541</a> was awarded to Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, and the most promising of their patents were acquired by the Swedish company <a href="/wiki/Electrolux">Electrolux</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-296">[note 6]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Non-scientific legacy</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Einstein-Oslofjord_(cropped).jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>While traveling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_University_of_Jerusalem">Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a>. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986<sup><a href="#cite_note-margot-obituary-297">[291]</a></sup>). Barbara Wolff, of the Hebrew University's <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein_Archives">Albert Einstein Archives</a>, told the <a href="/wiki/BBC">BBC</a> that there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955.<sup><a href="#cite_note-letters-love-298">[292]</a></sup>
</p><p>Einstein's <a href="/wiki/Personality_rights">right of publicity</a> was litigated in 2015 in a federal district court in California. Although the court initially held that the right had expired,<sup><a href="#cite_note-casetext-hebrew-university-299">[293]</a></sup> that ruling was immediately appealed, and the decision was later vacated in its entirety. The underlying claims between the parties in that lawsuit were ultimately settled. The right is enforceable, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem is the exclusive representative of that right.<sup><a href="#cite_note-pacermonitor-hebrew-university-300">[294]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Branded_Entertainment_Network">Corbis</a>, successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses the <a href="/wiki/Trademark">use of his name and associated imagery</a>, as agent for the university.<sup><a href="#cite_note-einstein.biz-301">[295]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Mount_Einstein">Mount Einstein</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Chugach_Mountains">Chugach Mountains</a> of <a href="/wiki/Alaska">Alaska</a> was named in 1955.
</p><p>Mount Einstein in New Zealand's <a href="/wiki/Paparoa_Range">Paparoa Range</a> was named after him in 1970 by the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Scientific_and_Industrial_Research_(New_Zealand)">Department of Scientific and Industrial Research</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-302">[296]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>In popular culture</h2>
<p>Einstein became one of the most famous <a href="/wiki/Scientific_celebrity">scientific celebrities</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-303">[297]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-304">[298]</a></sup> beginning with the confirmation of his theory of general relativity in 1919.<sup><a href="#cite_note-305">[299]</a></sup> Despite the general public having little understanding of his work, he was widely recognized and received adulation and publicity. In the period before World War II, <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Yorker">The New Yorker</a></i> published a vignette in their "The Talk of the Town" feature saying that Einstein was so well known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain "that theory". He finally figured out a way to handle the incessant inquiries. He told his inquirers, "Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein."<sup><a href="#cite_note-disguise-306">[300]</a></sup>
</p><p>Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music.<sup><a href="#cite_note-orchestra-307">[301]</a></sup> He is a favorite model for depictions of <a href="/wiki/Absent-minded_professor">absent-minded professors</a>; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated. <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)">Time</a></i> magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist's dream come true".<sup><a href="#cite_note-slqbwn-308">[302]</a></sup>
</p><p>Many popular <a href="/wiki/Quotations">quotations</a> are often <a href="/wiki/False_attribution">misattributed</a> to him.<sup><a href="#cite_note-fake-quotes-309">[303]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-humiliate-atheist-310">[304]</a></sup> For example, it is often claimed, erroneously, that he said, "The definition of insanity is doing the same thing over and over and expecting different results."<sup><a href="#cite_note-fake-quotes-309">[303]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Awards and honors</h2>
<p>Einstein received numerous awards and honors, and in 1922, he was awarded the 1921 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". None of the nominations in 1921 met the criteria set by <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Nobel">Alfred Nobel</a>, so the 1921 prize was carried forward and awarded to Einstein in 1922.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Nobel_Prize-11">[10]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Publications</h2>
<h3>Scientific</h3>
<dl><dd></dd></dl>
<div>
<ul><li><cite>Einstein, Albert (1901) [Completed 13 December 1900 and manuscript received 16 December 1900]. Written at Zurich, Switzerland. <a href="/wiki/Paul_Karl_Ludwig_Drude">Paul Karl Ludwig Drude</a> (ed.). <a href="https://zenodo.org/record/1423995">"Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen"</a> [Conclusions Drawn from the Phenomena of Capillarity]. <i><a href="/wiki/Annalen_der_Physik">Annalen der Physik</a></i>. Vierte Folge (in German). Leipzig, Germany: Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth (published 1 March 1901). 4 (all series: 309) (3): 513–523. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1901AnP...309..513E">1901AnP...309..513E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19013090306">10.1002/andp.19013090306</a> – via Wiley Online Library, Hoboken, New Jersey, US (March 2006).</cite></li>
<li><cite>Einstein, Albert (1905a) [Completed 17 March 1905 and submitted 18 March 1905]. Written at Berne, Switzerland. <a href="/wiki/Paul_Karl_Ludwig_Drude">Paul Karl Ludwig Drude</a> (ed.). <a href="http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/1905_17_132-148.pdf">"Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt"</a> [On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light] (PDF). <i><a href="/wiki/Annalen_der_Physik">Annalen der Physik</a></i>. Vierte Folge (in German). Leipzig, Germany: Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth (published 9 June 1905). 17 (all series: 322) (6): 132–148. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1905AnP...322..132E">1905AnP...322..132E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19053220607">10.1002/andp.19053220607</a> – via Wiley Online Library, Hoboken, New Jersey, US (10 March 2006).</cite></li>
<li><cite>Einstein, Albert (1905b) [Completed 30 April 1905]. <a href="http://e-collection.library.ethz.ch/eserv/eth:30378/eth-30378-01.pdf"><i>Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen</i></a> [<i>A new determination of molecular dimensions</i>] (PDF). <i>Dissertationen <a href="/wiki/Universit%C3%A4t_Z%C3%BCrich">Universität Zürich</a></i> (PhD Thesis) (in German). Berne, Switzerland: Wyss Buchdruckerei (published 20 July 1905). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.3929%2Fethz-a-000565688">10.3929/ethz-a-000565688</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)">hdl</a>:<a href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11850%2F139872">20.500.11850/139872</a> – via <a href="/wiki/ETH">ETH</a> Bibliothek, Zürich (2008).</cite></li>
<li><cite>Einstein, Albert (1905c) [Manuscript received: 11 May 1905]. Written at Berne, Switzerland. <a href="/wiki/Paul_Karl_Ludwig_Drude">Paul Karl Ludwig Drude</a> (ed.). <a href="http://sedici.unlp.edu.ar/handle/10915/2785">"Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen"</a> [On the Motion – Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat – of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid]. <i><a href="/wiki/Annalen_der_Physik">Annalen der Physik</a></i>. Vierte Folge (in German). Leipzig, Germany: Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth (published 18 July 1905). 17 (all series: 322) (8): 549–560. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1905AnP...322..549E">1905AnP...322..549E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19053220806">10.1002/andp.19053220806</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)">hdl</a>:<a href="https://hdl.handle.net/10915%2F2785">10915/2785</a> – via Wiley Online Library, Hoboken, New Jersey, US (10 March 2006).</cite></li>
<li><cite>Einstein, Albert (1905d) [Manuscript received 30 June 1905]. Written at Berne, Switzerland. <a href="/wiki/Paul_Karl_Ludwig_Drude">Paul Karl Ludwig Drude</a> (ed.). <a href="http://sedici.unlp.edu.ar/handle/10915/2786">"Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper"</a> [On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies]. <i><a href="/wiki/Annalen_der_Physik">Annalen der Physik</a></i> (Submitted manuscript). Vierte Folge (in German). Leipzig, Germany: Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth (published 26 September 1905). 17 (all series: 322) (10): 891–921. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1905AnP...322..891E">1905AnP...322..891E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19053221004">10.1002/andp.19053221004</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)">hdl</a>:<a href="https://hdl.handle.net/10915%2F2786">10915/2786</a> – via Wiley Online Library, Hoboken, New Jersey, US (10 March 2006).</cite></li>
<li><cite>Einstein, Albert (1905e) [Manuscript received 27 September 1905]. Written at Berne, Switzerland. <a href="/wiki/Paul_Karl_Ludwig_Drude">Paul Karl Ludwig Drude</a> (ed.). <a href="https://zenodo.org/record/1424057">"Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt abhängig?"</a> [Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?]. <i><a href="/wiki/Annalen_der_Physik">Annalen der Physik</a></i>. Vierte Folge (in German). Leipzig, Germany: Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth (published 21 November 1905). 18 (all series: 323) (13): 639–641. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1905AnP...323..639E">1905AnP...323..639E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19053231314">10.1002/andp.19053231314</a> – via Wiley Online Library, Hoboken, New Jersey, US (10 March 2006).</cite></li>
<li><cite>Einstein, Albert (1915) [Completed 25 November 1915]. <a href="http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/MPIWG:ZZB2HK6W">"Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation"</a> [The Field Equations of Gravitation] (Online page images). <i>Sitzungsberichte 1915</i> (in German). Berlin, Germany: <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Academy_of_Sciences">Königlich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften</a> (published 2 December 1915): 844–847 – via ECHO, Cultural Heritage Online, <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute">Max Planck Institute</a> for the History of Science.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Einstein, Albert (1916) [Issued 29 June 1916]. <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1916SPAW.......688E">"Näherungsweise Integration der Feldgleichungen der Gravitation"</a> [Approximate integration of the field equations of gravitation] (Online page images). <i>Sitzungsberichte 1916</i>. Berlin, Germany: <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Academy_of_Sciences">Königlich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften</a>: 688–696. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1916SPAW.......688E">1916SPAW.......688E</a>. Retrieved 24 January 2022 – via SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS).</cite></li>
<li><cite>Einstein, Albert (1917a). <a href="http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/MPIWG:H428RSAN">"Kosmologische Betrachtungen zur allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie"</a> [Cosmological Considerations in the General Theory of Relativity] (Online page images). <i>Sitzungsberichte 1917</i> (in German). <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Academy_of_Sciences">Königlich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften</a>, Berlin.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Einstein, Albert (1917b). "Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung" [On the Quantum Mechanics of Radiation]. <i>Physikalische Zeitschrift</i> (in German). <b>18</b>: 121–128. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1917PhyZ...18..121E">1917PhyZ...18..121E</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Einstein, Albert (31 January 1918). <a href="https://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/ECHOdocuView?url=/permanent/echo/einstein/sitzungsberichte/W7ZU8V1E/index.meta">"Über Gravitationswellen"</a> [About gravitational waves]. <i>Sitzungsberichte der Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften Berlin</i>: 154–167. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1918SPAW.......154E">1918SPAW.......154E</a>. Retrieved 14 November 2020.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Einstein, Albert (1923) [First published 1923, in English 1967]. Written at Gothenburg. <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-lecture.html"><i>Grundgedanken und Probleme der Relativitätstheorie</i></a> [<i>Fundamental Ideas and Problems of the Theory of Relativity</i>] (Speech). Lecture delivered to the Nordic Assembly of Naturalists at Gothenburg, 11 July 1923. <i>Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901–1921</i> (in German and English). Stockholm: Nobelprice.org (published 3 February 2015) – via Nobel Media AB 2014.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Einstein, Albert (1924) [Published 10 July 1924]. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161014072015/http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/ECHOdocuView?url=%2Fpermanent%2Fecho%2Feinstein%2Fsitzungsberichte%2FPG8B073X%2Findex.meta">"Quantentheorie des einatomigen idealen Gases"</a> [Quantum theory of monatomic ideal gases]. <i>Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Physikalisch-Mathematische Klasse</i> (in German): 261–267. Archived from <a href="http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/MPIWG:DRQK5WYB">the original</a> (Online page images) on 14 October 2016. Retrieved 26 February 2015 – via ECHO, Cultural Heritage Online, <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute">Max Planck Institute</a> for the History of Science.</cite> First of a series of papers on this topic.</li>
<li><cite>Einstein, Albert (12 March 1926) [Cover Date 1 March 1926]. Written at Berlin. "Die Ursache der Mäanderbildung der Flußläufe und des sogenannten Baerschen Gesetzes" [On <a href="/wiki/Baer%27s_law">Baer's law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meander">meanders</a> in the courses of rivers]. <i>Die Naturwissenschaften</i> (in German). Heidelberg, Germany. <b>14</b> (11): 223–224. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1926NW.....14..223E">1926NW.....14..223E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01510300">10.1007/BF01510300</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1432-1904">1432-1904</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:39899416">39899416</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Einstein, Albert (1926b). Written at Berne, Switzerland. Fürth, R. (ed.). <a href="http://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/lectures/Rotman_Summer_School_2013/Einstein_1905_docs/Einstein_Dissertation_English.pdf"><i>Investigations on the Theory of the Brownian Movement</i></a> (PDF). Translated by Cowper, A. D. US: Dover Publications (published 1956). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60796-285-4"><bdi>978-1-60796-285-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 4 January 2015.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Einstein, Albert (1931). "Zum kosmologischen Problem der allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie" [On the cosmological problem of the general theory of relativity]. <i>Sonderasugabe aus den Sitzungsb. König. Preuss. Akad.</i>: 235–237.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Einstein, A.; de Sitter, W. (1932). <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1076193">"On the relation between the expansion and the mean density of the universe"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>18</b> (3): 213–214. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1932PNAS...18..213E">1932PNAS...18..213E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.18.3.213">10.1073/pnas.18.3.213</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)">PMC</a> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1076193">1076193</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16587663">16587663</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Einstein, Albert; Rosen, Nathan (1935). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.48.73">"The Particle Problem in the General Theory of Relativity"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Physical_Review">Physical Review</a></i>. <b>48</b> (1): 73. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1935PhRv...48...73E">1935PhRv...48...73E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.48.73">10.1103/PhysRev.48.73</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Einstein, Albert; Podolsky, Boris; Rosen, Nathan (15 May 1935) [Received 25 March 1935]. <a href="http://cds.cern.ch/record/405662">"Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?"</a>. <i>Physical Review</i> (Submitted manuscript). <b>47</b> (10): 777–780. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1935PhRv...47..777E">1935PhRv...47..777E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.47.777">10.1103/PhysRev.47.777</a> – via APS Journals.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Einstein, Albert (1950). "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation". <i>Scientific American</i>. <b>CLXXXII</b> (4): 13–17. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1950SciAm.182d..13E">1950SciAm.182d..13E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0450-13">10.1038/scientificamerican0450-13</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Einstein, Albert (1954). <a href="https://archive.org/details/ideasopinions00eins"><i>Ideas and Opinions</i></a>. New York: Crown Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-517-00393-0"><bdi>978-0-517-00393-0</bdi></a>.</cite><br /><cite>—————— (1995) [1954]. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9fJkBqwDD3sC"><i>Ideas and Opinions</i></a>. New York: Three Rivers Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-517-88440-9"><bdi>978-0-517-88440-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Einstein, Albert (1969). <i>Albert Einstein, Hedwig und Max Born: Briefwechsel 1916–1955</i> (in German). Commented by Max Born; Preface by Bertrand Russell; Foreword by Werner Heisenberg. Munich: Nymphenburger Verlagshandlung. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-88682-005-4"><bdi>978-3-88682-005-4</bdi></a>.</cite> A reprint of this book was published by Edition Erbrich in 1982, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-88682-005-4">978-3-88682-005-4</a>.</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/John_Stachel">Stachel, John</a>; Martin J. Klein; A. J. Kox; Michel Janssen; R. Schulmann; Diana Komos Buchwald; et al., eds. (21 July 2008) [Published between 1987 and 2006]. <a href="https://einsteinpapers.press.princeton.edu/"><i>The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein</i></a>. Vol. 1–10. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press">Princeton University Press</a>.</cite> Further information about the volumes published so far can be found on the webpages of the Einstein Papers Project<sup><a href="#cite_note-311">[305]</a></sup> and on the Princeton University Press Einstein Page.<sup><a href="#cite_note-312">[306]</a></sup></li></ul>
</div>
<h3>Others</h3>
<div>
<ul><li><cite>Einstein, Albert; et al. (4 December 1948). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071217113044/http://phys4.harvard.edu/~wilson/NYTimes1948.html">"To the editors of <i>The New York Times</i>"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times">The New York Times</a></i>. Melville, New York. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7354-0359-8"><bdi>978-0-7354-0359-8</bdi></a>. Archived from <a href="http://phys4.harvard.edu/~wilson/NYTimes1948.html">the original</a> on 17 December 2007. Retrieved 25 May 2006.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Einstein, Albert (May 1949). Sweezy, Paul; Huberman, Leo (eds.). <a href="http://monthlyreview.org/2009/05/01/why-socialism/">"Why Socialism?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Monthly_Review">Monthly Review</a></i>. <b>1</b> (1): 9–15. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.14452%2FMR-001-01-1949-05_3">10.14452/MR-001-01-1949-05_3</a>.</cite><br /><cite>—————— (May 2009) [May 1949]. <a href="http://www.monthlyreview.org/598einst.htm">"Why Socialism? (Reprise)"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Monthly_Review">Monthly Review</a></i>. New York: Monthly Review Foundation. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060111081948/http://www.monthlyreview.org/598einst.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2006. Retrieved 16 January 2006 – via MonthlyReview.org.</cite></li>
<li>Einstein, Albert (September 1960). <a href="https://archive.org/download/gandhiwieldsweap00shar/gandhiwieldsweap00shar.pdf">Foreword to <i>Gandhi Wields the Weapon of Moral Power: Three Case Histories</i>.</a> Introduction by Bharatan Kumarappa. Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House. pp. v-vi. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/2325889">2325889</a>. Foreword originally written in April 1953.</li>
<li><cite>Einstein, Albert (1979). <a href="https://archive.org/details/autobiographical1979eins"><i>Autobiographical Notes</i></a>. Paul Arthur Schilpp (Centennial ed.). Chicago: Open Court. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87548-352-8"><bdi>978-0-87548-352-8</bdi></a>.</cite>. The <i>chasing a light beam</i> thought experiment is described on pages 48–51.</li></ul>
</div>
<h2>See also</h2>
<div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein_House">Albert Einstein House</a> in Princeton</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Einstein_family">Einstein family</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Einstein_notation">Einstein notation</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Einstein_Theory_of_Relativity">The Einstein Theory of Relativity</a></i>, an educational film</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Frist_Campus_Center">Frist Campus Center</a> at <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University">Princeton University</a> – room 302 is associated with Einstein. (The center was once the Palmer Physical Laboratory.)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Burkhardt">Heinrich Burkhardt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bern_Historical_Museum">Bern Historical Museum</a> (Einstein Museum)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_gravitational_theory">History of gravitational theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_coupled_cousins">List of coupled cousins</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers">List of German inventors and discoverers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_Nobel_laureates">Jewish Nobel laureates</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_peace_activists">List of peace activists</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relativity_priority_dispute">Relativity priority dispute</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sticky_bead_argument">Sticky bead argument</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Zangger">Heinrich Zangger</a></li></ul>
</div>
<h2>Notes</h2>
<div><ol>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-GEcitizen_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GEcitizen_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GEcitizen_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> In the German Empire, citizens were exclusively subjects of one of the 27 <i>Bundesstaaten</i>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-MaturaScore_34-0">^</a></b> Einstein's scores on his <i><a href="/wiki/Matura">Matura</a></i> certificate: German 5; French 3; Italian 5; History 6; Geography 4; Algebra 6; Geometry 6; Descriptive Geometry 6; Physics 6; Chemistry 5; Natural History 5; Art Drawing 4; Technical Drawing 4.<br /><a href="/wiki/Grading_systems_by_country#Switzerland">Scale</a>: 6 = very good, 5 = good, 4 = sufficient, 3 = insufficient, 2 = poor, 1 = very poor.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-gnriE_140-0">^</a></b> "Their leaders in Germany have not driven out her cut-throats and her blackguards. She has chosen the cream of her culture and has suppressed it. She has even turned upon her most glorious citizen, Albert Einstein, who is the supreme example of the selfless intellectual...The man, who, beyond all others, approximates a citizen of the world, is without a home. How proud we must be to offer him temporary shelter."
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-aBfxO_225-0">^</a></b> In <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Translation:On_the_Electrodynamics_of_Moving_Bodies">his paper</a>, Einstein wrote: "The introduction of a 'luminiferous æther' will be proved to be superfluous in so far, as according to the conceptions which will be developed, we shall introduce neither a 'space absolutely at rest' endowed with special properties, nor shall we associate a velocity-vector with a point in which electro-magnetic processes take place."
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-sBl2q_227-0">^</a></b> For a discussion of the reception of relativity theory around the world, and the different controversies it encountered, see the articles in <a href="#CITEREFGlick1987">Glick (1987)</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-296">^</a></b> In September 2008 it was reported that Malcolm McCulloch of Oxford University was heading a three-year project to develop more robust appliances that could be used in locales lacking electricity, and that his team had completed a prototype Einstein refrigerator. He was quoted as saying that improving the design and changing the types of gases used might allow the design's efficiency to be quadrupled.<sup><a href="#cite_note-295">[290]</a></sup>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2>References</h2>
<div><ol>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-frs_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-frs_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-frs_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-frs_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-frs_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="/wiki/E._T._Whittaker">Whittaker, E.</a> (1 November 1955). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.1955.0005">"Albert Einstein. 1879–1955"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Biographical_Memoirs_of_Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society">Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society</a></i>. <b>1</b>: 37–67. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.1955.0005">10.1098/rsbm.1955.0005</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/769242">769242</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://ras.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2021-03/Gold%20Medal%202021.pdf">"The Gold Medal"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Royal_Astronomical_Society">Royal Astronomical Society</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211220130005/https://ras.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2021-03/Gold%20Medal%202021.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 20 December 2021. Retrieved 20 December 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.nasonline.org/member-directory/deceased-members/20001817.html">"Membership directory"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211220080311/http://www.nasonline.org/member-directory/deceased-members/20001817.html">Archived</a> from the original on 20 December 2021. Retrieved 20 December 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-NDxay_5-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/John_C._Wells">Wells, John</a> (3 April 2008). <i>Longman Pronunciation Dictionary</i> (3rd ed.). Pearson Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4058-8118-0"><bdi>978-1-4058-8118-0</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bio_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bio_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bio_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bio_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-bio.html">"Albert Einstein – Biography"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Foundation">Nobel Foundation</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070306133522/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-bio.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 March 2007. Retrieved 7 March 2007.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-YangHamilton2010_7-0">^</a></b> <cite>Yang, Fujia; Hamilton, Joseph H. (2010). <i>Modern Atomic and Nuclear Physics</i>. World Scientific. p. 274. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-4277-16-7"><bdi>978-981-4277-16-7</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-LnLVo_8-0">^</a></b> <cite>Bodanis, David (2000). <i>E = mc<sup>2</sup>: A Biography of the World's Most Famous Equation</i>. New York: Walker.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-xZQWt_9-0">^</a></b> <cite>Howard, Don A., ed. (2014) [First published 11 February 2004]. <a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/einstein-philscience/#IntWasEinEpiOpp">"Einstein's Philosophy of Science"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. The Metaphysics Research Lab, Center for the Study of Language and Information (CSLI), Stanford University. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413170244/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/einstein-philscience/#IntWasEinEpiOpp">Archived</a> from the original on 13 April 2021. Retrieved 4 February 2015.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-3UiiT_10-0">^</a></b> <cite>Howard, Don A. (December 2005). <a href="http://www3.nd.edu/~dhoward1/vol58no12p34_40.pdf">"Albert Einstein as a Philosopher of Science"</a> (PDF). <i>Physics Today</i>. <b>58</b> (12): 34–40. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005PhT....58l..34H">2005PhT....58l..34H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.2169442">10.1063/1.2169442</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170769196">170769196</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150828054601/http://www3.nd.edu/~dhoward1/vol58no12p34_40.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 28 August 2015. Retrieved 8 March 2015 – via University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, author's personal webpage.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nobel_Prize_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nobel_Prize_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nobel_Prize_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/">"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921"</a>. Nobel Prize. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180703190346/https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 July 2018. Retrieved 11 July 2016.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-wordnetweb.princeton.edu_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wordnetweb.princeton.edu_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=Einstein">"Result of WordNet Search for Einstein"</a>. 3.1. The Trustees of Princeton University. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150828054753/http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=Einstein">Archived</a> from the original on 28 August 2015. Retrieved 4 January 2015.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/99/einsteinium">"Einsteinium – Element"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Chemistry">Royal Society of Chemistry</a></i>. Retrieved 16 December 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalison2000377_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalison2000377_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFGalison2000">Galison (2000)</a>, p. 377.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nobel_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nobel_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120516052710/https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2011/advanced-physicsprize2011.pdf">"Scientific Background on the Nobel Prize in Physics 2011. The accelerating universe"</a> (PDF). Nobel Media AB. p. 2. Archived from <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2011/advanced-physicsprize2011.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 16 May 2012. Retrieved 4 January 2015.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-NYT-20151124_16-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Overbye">Overbye, Dennis</a> (24 November 2015). <a href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/24/science/a-century-ago-einsteins-theory-of-relativity-changed-everything.html">"A Century Ago, Einstein's Theory of Relativity Changed Everything"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times">The New York Times</a></i>. Archived from <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/24/science/a-century-ago-einsteins-theory-of-relativity-changed-everything.html">the original</a> on 1 January 2022. Retrieved 24 November 2015.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b> <cite>Robinson, Andrew (30 April 2018). <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-05004-4">"Did Einstein really say that?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)">Nature</a></i>. <b>557</b> (30): 30. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018Natur.557...30R">2018Natur.557...30R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fd41586-018-05004-4">10.1038/d41586-018-05004-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14013938">14013938</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201109033021/https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-05004-4">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2020. Retrieved 21 February 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-zE9Bz_18-0">^</a></b> <cite>Levenson, Thomas (9 June 2017). <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2017/06/einstein-germany-and-the-bomb/528534/">"The Scientist and the Fascist"</a>. <i>The Atlantic</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512133141/https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2017/06/einstein-germany-and-the-bomb/528534/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2019. Retrieved 23 August 2018.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-BoyerDubofsky2001_19-0">^</a></b> <cite>Paul S. Boyer; Melvyn Dubofsky (2001). <a href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00paul_0"><i>The Oxford Companion to United States History</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00paul_0/page/218">218</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-508209-8"><bdi>978-0-19-508209-8</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://wiseinternational.org/nuclear-monitor/802/albert-einstein-nuclear-weapons">"Albert Einstein on nuclear weapons | Wise International"</a>. <i>wiseinternational.org</i>. Retrieved 23 October 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/albert-einstein">"Albert Einstein (1879–1955)"</a>. Jewisth Virtual Library. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170309071447/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/albert-einstein">Archived</a> from the original on 9 March 2017. Retrieved 13 February 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b> <cite>Isaacson, Walter (2009). <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2009/12/how-einstein-divided-americas-jews/307763/">"How Einstein Divided America's Jews"</a>. <i>The Atlantic</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210126013637/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2009/12/how-einstein-divided-americas-jews/307763/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 13 February 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStachel2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidOAsQ_hFjhrACpgPA59_59–61]_23-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFStachel2002">Stachel (2002)</a>, pp. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OAsQ_hFjhrAC&amp;pg=PA59">59–61</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-EQyag_24-0">^</a></b> Barry R. Parker (2003). <i>Einstein: The Passions of a Scientist</i>, Prometheus Books, p. 31
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b> <cite>Univerty of Pavia. <a href="http://musei.unipv.eu/msu/our-museums/historical-figures/albert-einstein/">"Einstein, Albert"</a>. <i>Museo per la Storia dell'Università di Pavia</i>. University of Pavia. Retrieved 7 January 2023.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFölsing199730–31_26-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFölsing1997">Fölsing (1997)</a>, pp. 30–31.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStachel_et_al.2008vol._1_(1987),_doc._5_27-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFStachel_et_al.2008">Stachel et al. (2008)</a>, vol. 1 (1987), doc. 5.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-1RgTv_28-0">^</a></b> <cite>Mehra, Jagdish (2001). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o1XVCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1">"Albert Einstein's "First Paper""</a>. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o1XVCgAAQBAJ"><i>Golden Age Of Theoretical Physics, The (Boxed Set Of 2 Vols)</i></a>. World Scientific. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-4492-85-0"><bdi>978-981-4492-85-0</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210818144805/https://books.google.com/books?id=o1XVCgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 18 August 2021. Retrieved 5 January 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b> <cite>Bloom, Howard (2012). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xlEupJb4ojIC"><i>The God Problem: How a Godless Cosmos Creates</i></a> (illustrated ed.). Prometheus Books. p. 294. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61614-552-1"><bdi>978-1-61614-552-1</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210511134020/https://books.google.com/books?id=xlEupJb4ojIC">Archived</a> from the original on 11 May 2021. Retrieved 8 August 2020.</cite> <cite>Bloom, Howard (30 August 2012). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xlEupJb4ojIC&amp;pg=PT294"><i>Extract of page 294</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61614-552-1"><bdi>978-1-61614-552-1</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210511090211/https://books.google.com/books?id=xlEupJb4ojIC&amp;pg=PT294">Archived</a> from the original on 11 May 2021. Retrieved 8 August 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FVfDU_30-0">^</a></b> <i>The Three-body Problem from Pythagoras to Hawking</i>, Mauri Valtonen, Joanna Anosova, Konstantin Kholshevnikov, Aleksandr Mylläri, Victor Orlov, Kiyotaka Tanikawa, (Springer 2016), p. 43, Simon and Schuster, 2008
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsaacson200717_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsaacson200717_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsaacson200717_31-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFIsaacson2007">Isaacson (2007)</a>, p. 17.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsaacson200716_32-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFIsaacson2007">Isaacson (2007)</a>, p. 16.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalapriceLipscombe20058_33-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFCalapriceLipscombe2005">Calaprice &amp; Lipscombe (2005)</a>, p. 8.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStachel_et_al.2008vol._1_(1987),_p._11_35-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFStachel_et_al.2008">Stachel et al. (2008)</a>, vol. 1 (1987), p. 11.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFölsing199736–37_36-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFölsing1997">Fölsing (1997)</a>, pp. 36–37.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHighfieldCarter199321,_31,_56–57_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHighfieldCarter199321,_31,_56–57_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFHighfieldCarter1993">Highfield &amp; Carter (1993)</a>, pp. 21, 31, 56–57.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFölsing199740_38-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFölsing1997">Fölsing (1997)</a>, p. 40.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStachel_et_al.2008vol._1_(1987),_docs._21–27_39-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFStachel_et_al.2008">Stachel et al. (2008)</a>, vol. 1 (1987), docs. 21–27.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-mileva_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mileva_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mileva_40-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mileva_40-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Gagnon, Pauline (19 December 2016). <a href="https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/the-forgotten-life-of-einsteins-first-wife/">"The Forgotten Life of Einstein's First Wife"</a>. <i>Scientific American Blog Network</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201017222145/https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/the-forgotten-life-of-einsteins-first-wife/">Archived</a> from the original on 17 October 2020. Retrieved 17 October 2020.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStachel_et_al.2008vol._1_(1987),_doc._67_41-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFStachel_et_al.2008">Stachel et al. (2008)</a>, vol. 1 (1987), doc. 67.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-7HA7H_42-0">^</a></b> <cite>Troemel-Ploetz, D. (1990). "Mileva Einstein-Marić: The Woman Who Did Einstein's Mathematics". <i>Women's Studies International Forum</i>. <b>13</b> (5): 415–432. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0277-5395%2890%2990094-e">10.1016/0277-5395(90)90094-e</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-1zJdH_43-0">^</a></b> <cite>Walker, Evan Harris (February 1989). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120119093653/http://philosci40.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Walker_Stachel.pdf">"Did Einstein Espouse his Spouse's Ideas?"</a> (PDF). <i>Physics Today</i>. <b>42</b> (2): 9–13. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989PhT....42b...9W">1989PhT....42b...9W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.2810898">10.1063/1.2810898</a>. Archived from <a href="http://philosci40.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Walker_Stachel.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 19 January 2012. Retrieved 19 October 2014.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPais19941–29_44-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPais1994">Pais (1994)</a>, pp. 1–29.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-xKrMG_45-0">^</a></b> Holton, G., <i>Einstein, History, and Other Passions</i>, Harvard University Press, 1996, pp. 177–193.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStachel2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidOAsQ_hFjhrACpgPA49_49–56]_46-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFStachel2002">Stachel (2002)</a>, pp. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OAsQ_hFjhrAC&amp;pg=PA49">49–56</a>.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-dUxMl_47-0">^</a></b> Martinez, A. A., "Handling evidence in history: the case of Einstein's wife", <i>School Science Review</i>, 86 (316), March 2005, pp. 49–56. <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110811141225/https://webspace.utexas.edu/aam829/1/m/Maric_files/EvidenceMaric.pdf">"PDF"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a href="https://webspace.utexas.edu/aam829/1/m/Maric_files/EvidenceMaric.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 11 August 2011. Retrieved 11 August 2011.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-HBMes_48-0">^</a></b> J. Renn &amp; R. Schulmann, <i>Albert Einstein/Mileva Marić: The Love Letters</i>, 1992, pp. 73–74, 78.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalapriceLipscombe200522–23_49-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFCalapriceLipscombe2005">Calaprice &amp; Lipscombe (2005)</a>, pp. 22–23.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStachel1966_50-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFStachel1966">Stachel (1966)</a>.
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalapriceLipscombe2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5eWh2O_3OAQCpgPA50_50]_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalapriceLipscombe2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5eWh2O_3OAQCpgPA50_50]_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFCalapriceLipscombe2005">Calaprice &amp; Lipscombe (2005)</a>, p. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5eWh2O_3OAQC&amp;pg=PA50">50</a>.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b> <cite>Smith, Dinitia (6 November 1996). <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1996/11/06/arts/dark-side-of-einstein-emerges-in-his-letters.html">"Dark Side of Einstein Emerges in His Letters"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210105092333/https://www.nytimes.com/1996/11/06/arts/dark-side-of-einstein-emerges-in-his-letters.html">Archived</a> from the original on 5 January 2021. Retrieved 17 August 2020.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStachel2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidOAsQ_hFjhrACpgPA50_50]_53-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFStachel2002">Stachel (2002)</a>, p. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OAsQ_hFjhrAC&amp;pg=PA50">50</a>.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://einsteinpapers.press.princeton.edu/vol9-trans/28">"Volume 9: The Berlin Years: Correspondence, January 1919 – April 1920 (English translation supplement) page 6"</a>. <i>einsteinpapers.press.princeton.edu</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211004033245/https://einsteinpapers.press.princeton.edu/vol9-trans/28">Archived</a> from the original on 4 October 2021. Retrieved 4 October 2021.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-MlQLY_55-0">^</a></b> <cite>Wüthrich, Urs (11 April 2015). <a href="http://www.bernerzeitung.ch/region/bern/Die-Liebesbriefe-des-untreuen-Einstein/story/11875058">"Die Liebesbriefe des untreuen Einstein"</a> [The love letters of the unfaithful Einstein]. <i>BZ Berner Zeitung</i> (in German). Bern, Switzerland. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150416075918/http://www.bernerzeitung.ch/region/bern/Die-Liebesbriefe-des-untreuen-Einstein/story/11875058">Archived</a> from the original on 16 April 2015. Retrieved 11 April 2015. <q>Ich denke in innigster Liebe an Dich in jeder freien Minute und bin so unglücklich, wie nur ein Mensch es sein kann.</q></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2020]]&lt;sup_class=&quot;noprint_Inline-Template_&quot;_style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;&amp;#91;&lt;i&gt;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|&lt;span_title=&quot;This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&amp;#32;(November_2020)&quot;&gt;page&amp;nbsp;needed&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/i&gt;&amp;#93;&lt;/sup&gt;_56-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFIsaacson2007">Isaacson (2007)</a>, p. <sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources">page needed</a></i>]</sup>.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalapriceKennefickSchulmann201562_57-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFCalapriceKennefickSchulmann2015">Calaprice, Kennefick &amp; Schulmann (2015)</a>, p. 62.
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-dh_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dh_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dh_58-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dh_58-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dh_58-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Hoffmann, Dieter (2013). <i>Einstein's Berlin: In the footsteps of a genius</i>. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 2–9, 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-1040-1"><bdi>978-1-4214-1040-1</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHighfieldCarter1993216_59-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHighfieldCarter1993">Highfield &amp; Carter (1993)</a>, p. 216.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b> <cite>Highfield, Roger (10 July 2006). <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/1523626/Einsteins-theory-of-fidelity.html">"Einstein's theory of fidelity"</a>. <i>The Daily Telegraph</i>. <a href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/1523626/Einsteins-theory-of-fidelity.html">Archived</a> from the original on 10 January 2022.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.natgeotv.com/za/special/genius-albert-einsteins-theory-of-infidelity">"Genius Albert Einstein's Theory of Infidelity"</a>. NatGeo TV. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200923010851/https://www.natgeotv.com/za/special/genius-albert-einsteins-theory-of-infidelity">Archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2020. Retrieved 9 August 2020.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.jpost.com/health-and-science/getting-up-close-and-personal-with-einstein">"Getting up close and personal with Einstein"</a>. <i>The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200923001654/https://www.jpost.com/Health-and-Science/Getting-up-close-and-personal-with-Einstein">Archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2020. Retrieved 29 August 2020.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/einstein-secret-love-affairs-out/story-QVSHrfMYJzCRcIlbBCJKAM.html">"Einstein secret love affairs out!"</a>. <i>Hindustan Times</i>. 13 July 2006. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200923115250/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/einstein-secret-love-affairs-out/story-QVSHrfMYJzCRcIlbBCJKAM.html">Archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2020. Retrieved 17 August 2020.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.nbcnews.com/id/13804030/ns/technology_and_science-science/t/new-letters-shed-light-einsteins-love-life/">"New letters shed light on Einstein's love life"</a>. NBC News. 11 July 2006. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200222022647/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/13804030/ns/technology_and_science-science/t/new-letters-shed-light-einsteins-love-life">Archived</a> from the original on 22 February 2020. Retrieved 15 August 2020.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/albert-einstein-may-have-had-the-iq-but-he-needed-to-work-on-his-eq/articleshow/64849211.cms?from=mdr">"Albert Einstein may have had the IQ, but he needed to work on his EQ"</a>. <i>The Economic Times</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210208134808/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/albert-einstein-may-have-had-the-iq-but-he-needed-to-work-on-his-eq/articleshow/64849211.cms?from=mdr">Archived</a> from the original on 8 February 2021. Retrieved 15 August 2020.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b> <cite>Pogrebin, Robin (1 June 1998). <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1998/06/01/us/love-letters-by-einstein-at-auction.html">"Love Letters By Einstein at Auction"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201107053956/https://www.nytimes.com/1998/06/01/us/love-letters-by-einstein-at-auction.html">Archived</a> from the original on 7 November 2020. Retrieved 10 August 2020.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/einsteins-letters-show-affair-with-spy-1162418.html">"Einstein's letters show affair with spy"</a>. <i>The Independent</i>. 2 June 1998. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201116013010/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/einsteins-letters-show-affair-with-spy-1162418.html">Archived</a> from the original on 16 November 2020. Retrieved 10 November 2020.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Robinson2015a_69-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Walter_Isaacson">Robinson, Andrew</a> (2015). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Px4_CQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA144"><i>Einstein: A Hundred Years of Relativity</i></a>. Princeton University Press. pp. 143–145. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16989-7"><bdi>978-0-691-16989-7</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161127045959/https://books.google.com/books?id=Px4_CQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA144">Archived</a> from the original on 27 November 2016. Retrieved 19 July 2016.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeffe2007[httpsarchiveorgdetailseinsteinbiograph00neffpage203_203]_70-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFNeffe2007">Neffe (2007)</a>, p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/einsteinbiograph00neff/page/203">203</a>.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFölsing199782_71-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFölsing1997">Fölsing (1997)</a>, p. 82.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-ODY5p_72-0">^</a></b> <cite>J. J. O'Connor; E. F. Robertson (May 2010). <a href="http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Grossmann.html">"Grossmann biography"</a>. <i>MacTutor</i>. School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150910072254/http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Grossmann.html">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2015. Retrieved 27 March 2015.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsaacson200763_73-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFIsaacson2007">Isaacson (2007)</a>, p. 63.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-MeZPN_74-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160830195148/https://www.ipi.ch/en/about-us/einstein/einstein-at-the-patent-office.html">"Einstein at the patent office"</a> (official website). Berne, Switzerland: Swiss Federal Institute of Intellectual Property, IGE/IPI. 6 February 2014. Archived from <a href="https://www.ipi.ch/en/about-us/einstein/einstein-at-the-patent-office.html">the original</a> on 30 August 2016. Retrieved 9 September 2016.</cite>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-IGEFAQ_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IGEFAQ_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="https://www.ige.ch/en/about-us/the-history-of-the-ipi/einstein/faq">"FAQ about Einstein and the Institute"</a> (official website). Berne, Switzerland: Swiss Federal Institute of Intellectual Property, IGE/IPI. 27 May 2014. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210612105555/https://www.ige.ch/en/about-us/the-history-of-the-ipi/einstein/faq">Archived</a> from the original on 12 June 2021. Retrieved 27 March 2015.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalison2000370_76-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGalison2000">Galison (2000)</a>, p. 370.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHighfieldCarter199396–98_77-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHighfieldCarter1993">Highfield &amp; Carter (1993)</a>, pp. 96–98.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsaacson200779–84_78-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFIsaacson2007">Isaacson (2007)</a>, pp. 79–84.
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinstein1901_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinstein1901_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFEinstein1901">Einstein (1901)</a>.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-SdDhS_80-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Peter_Galison">Galison, Peter</a> (2003). <a href="https://archive.org/details/einsteinsclocksp00gali"><i>Einstein's Clocks, Poincaré's Maps: Empires of Time</i></a>. New York: W. W. Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-02001-4"><bdi>978-0-393-02001-4</bdi></a>.</cite><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources">page needed</a></i>]</sup>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinstein1905b&quot;Meinem_Freunde_Herr_Dr._Marcel_Grossmann_gewidmet_(Dedicated_to_my_friend,_Dr._Marcel_Grossmann)&quot;_81-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinstein1905b&quot;Meinem_Freunde_Herr_Dr._Marcel_Grossmann_gewidmet_(Dedicated_to_my_friend,_Dr._Marcel_Grossmann)&quot;_81-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinstein1905b&quot;Meinem_Freunde_Herr_Dr._Marcel_Grossmann_gewidmet_(Dedicated_to_my_friend,_Dr._Marcel_Grossmann)&quot;_81-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFEinstein1905b">Einstein (1905b)</a>, "Meinem Freunde Herr Dr. Marcel Grossmann gewidmet (Dedicated to my friend, Dr. Marcel Grossmann)".
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinstein1926bchap._&quot;A_New_Determination_of_Molecular_Dimensions&quot;_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinstein1926bchap._&quot;A_New_Determination_of_Molecular_Dimensions&quot;_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFEinstein1926b">Einstein (1926b)</a>, chap. "A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions".
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b> <cite>Mehra, Jagdish (28 February 2001). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o1XVCgAAQBAJ"><i>Golden Age Of Theoretical Physics, The (Boxed Set Of 2 Vols)</i></a>. World Scientific. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-4492-85-0"><bdi>978-981-4492-85-0</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b> <cite>May, Andrew (2017). Clegg, Brian (ed.). <i>Albert Einstein, in 30-Second Physics: The 50 most fundamental concepts in physics, each explained in half a minute</i>. London: Ivy Press. pp. 108–109. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78240-514-6"><bdi>978-1-78240-514-6</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-bG2yp_85-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140821032129/http://www.library.ethz.ch/en/Resources/Digital-library/Einstein-Online/Associate-Professor-at-the-Universiy-of-Zurich-und-professor-in-Prague-1909-1912">"Associate Professor at the University of Zurich und professor in Prague (1909–1912)"</a> (digital library). Einstein Online (in German and English). Bern, Switzerland: ETH-Bibliothek Zurich, ETH Zürich, www.ethz.ch. 2014. Archived from <a href="http://www.library.ethz.ch/en/Resources/Digital-library/Einstein-Online/Associate-Professor-at-the-Universiy-of-Zurich-und-professor-in-Prague-1909-1912">the original</a> on 21 August 2014. Retrieved 17 August 2014.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007164_86-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFIsaacson2007">Isaacson (2007)</a>, p. 164.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Itl8r_87-0">^</a></b> <cite>von Hirschhausen, Ulrike (2007). <a href="http://econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/49610/1/569197996.pdf">"Von imperialer Inklusion zur nationalen Exklusion:Staatsbürgerschaft in Österreich- Ungarn 1867–1923"</a> (PDF) (WZB Discussion Paper). ZKD – Veröffentlichungsreihe der Forschungsgruppe, "Zivilgesellschaft, Citizenship und politische Mobilisierung in Europa" Schwerpunkt Zivilgesellschaft, Konflikte und Demokratie, Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin für Sozialforschung. Berlin, Germany: WZB Social Science Research Center Berlin. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1860-4315">1860-4315</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150909200726/http://econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/49610/1/569197996.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 September 2015. Retrieved 4 August 2015. <q>Eine weitere Diskontinuität bestand viertens darin, dass die Bestimmungen der österreichischen Staatsbürgerschaft, die in den ersten Dritteln des Jahrhunderts auch auf Ungarn angewandt worden waren, seit 1867 nur noch für die cisleithanische Reichshälfte galten. Ungarn entwickelte hingegen jetzt eine eige-ne Staatsbürgerschaft.</q></cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-hXQin_88-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140821032349/http://www.library.ethz.ch/en/Resources/Digital-library/Einstein-Online/Professor-at-the-ETH-Zurich-1912-1914">"Professor at the ETH Zurich (1912–1914)"</a> (digital library). Einstein Online (in German and English). Zurich, Switzerland: ETH-Bibliothek Zurich, ETH Zürich, www.ethz.ch. 2014. Archived from <a href="http://www.library.ethz.ch/en/Resources/Digital-library/Einstein-Online/Professor-at-the-ETH-Zurich-1912-1914">the original</a> on 21 August 2014. Retrieved 17 August 2014.</cite>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-smithsonianmag_158-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-smithsonianmag_158-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Francis, Matthew (3 March 2017). <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/how-celebrity-scientist-albert-einstein-used-fame-denounce-american-racism-180962356">"How Albert Einstein Used His Fame to Denounce American Racism"</a>. <i>Smithsonian Magazine</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210211150143/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/how-celebrity-scientist-albert-einstein-used-fame-denounce-american-racism-180962356/">Archived</a> from the original on 11 February 2021. Retrieved 10 February 2021.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalaprice2005148–149_159-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFCalaprice2005">Calaprice (2005)</a>, pp. 148–149.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobeson2002565_160-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRobeson2002">Robeson (2002)</a>, p. 565.
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-civil_161-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-civil_161-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2007/04/albert-einstein-civil-rights-activist/">"Albert Einstein, Civil Rights activist"</a>. 12 April 2007. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180302182248/https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2007/04/albert-einstein-civil-rights-activist/">Archived</a> from the original on 2 March 2018. Retrieved 8 June 2014.</cite>, <i>Harvard Gazette</i>, 12 April 2007
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoweSchulmann200783_163-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoweSchulmann2007">Rowe &amp; Schulmann (2007)</a>, p. 83.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinstein1949_164-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEinstein1949">Einstein (1949)</a>.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-LXsUJ_165-0">^</a></b> <cite>Rowe, David E.; Schulmann, Robert (8 June 2007a). David A., Walsh (ed.). <a href="http://hnn.us/articles/39445.html">"What Were Einstein's Politics?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/History_News_Network">History News Network</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190203065834/http://hnn.us/articles/39445.html">Archived</a> from the original on 3 February 2019. Retrieved 29 July 2012.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoweSchulmann2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_X1dAAAAQBAJpgPA413_412,_413]_166-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoweSchulmann2013">Rowe &amp; Schulmann (2013)</a>, pp. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_X1dAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA413">412, 413</a>.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007487,_494,_550_167-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFIsaacson2007">Isaacson (2007)</a>, pp. 487, 494, 550.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b> Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 4 (February 1948), No. 2 35–37: 'A Reply to the Soviet Scientists, December 1947'
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-ixWWZ_169-0">^</a></b> <cite>Waldrop, Mitch (19 April 2017). <a href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/04/science-march-einstein-fbi-genius-science/">"Why the FBI Kept a 1,400-Page File on Einstein"</a>. <i>National Geographic</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170526164434/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/04/science-march-einstein-fbi-genius-science/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2017. Retrieved 7 June 2017.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Albano-Müller_170-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120117104005/http://www.gandhiserve.org/streams/einstein.html">"Einstein on Gandhi (Einstein's letter to Gandhi – Courtesy:Saraswati Albano-Müller &amp; Notes by Einstein on Gandhi – Source: The Hebrew University of Jerusalem)"</a>. Gandhiserve.org. 18 October 1931. Archived from <a href="http://www.gandhiserve.org/streams/einstein.html">the original</a> on 17 January 2012. Retrieved 24 January 2012.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://streams.gandhiserve.org/einstein.html">"Einstein's letter and Gandhi's answer"</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140609031152/http://streams.gandhiserve.org/einstein.html">Archived</a> from the original on 9 June 2014. Retrieved 22 August 2021.</cite>, gandhiserve.org
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b> <cite>Dennis Overbye (25 January 2005). <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2005/01/25/science/brace-yourself-here-comes-einsteins-year.html">"Brace Yourself! Here Comes Einstein's Year"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201030232656/https://www.nytimes.com/2005/01/25/science/brace-yourself-here-comes-einsteins-year.html">Archived</a> from the original on 30 October 2020. Retrieved 27 October 2020. <q>Hebrew University ... which he helped found</q></cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007290_173-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFIsaacson2007">Isaacson (2007)</a>, p. 290.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoweSchulmann2007161_174-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoweSchulmann2007">Rowe &amp; Schulmann (2007)</a>, p. 161.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoweSchulmann2007158_175-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoweSchulmann2007">Rowe &amp; Schulmann (2007)</a>, p. 158.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b> <cite>Rosenkranz, Ze'ev (2011). <i>Einstein Before Israel: Zionist Icon Or Iconoclast?</i>. Princeton University Press. pp. 4–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-14412-2"><bdi>978-0-691-14412-2</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Time_177-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080518022224/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,817454,00.html">"ISRAEL: Einstein Declines"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)">Time</a></i>. 1 December 1952. Archived from <a href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,817454,00.html">the original</a> on 18 May 2008. Retrieved 31 March 2010.</cite>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007522_179-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007522_179-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFIsaacson2007">Isaacson (2007)</a>, p. 522.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-018QJ_180-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Hitchens">Hitchens, Christopher</a>, ed. (2007). "Selected Writings on Religion: Albert Einstein". <a href="/wiki/The_Portable_Atheist"><i>The Portable Atheist: Essential Readings for the Nonbeliever</i></a>. Da Capo Press. p. 155. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-81608-6"><bdi>978-0-306-81608-6</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidG_iziBAPXtECpgPA325_325]_181-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFIsaacson2008">Isaacson (2008)</a>, p. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G_iziBAPXtEC&amp;pg=PA325">325</a>.
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalaprice2000218_182-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalaprice2000218_182-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFCalaprice2000">Calaprice (2000)</a>, p. 218.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcdxWNE7NY6QCpgPT390_390]_183-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFIsaacson2008">Isaacson (2008)</a>, p. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cdxWNE7NY6QC&amp;pg=PT390">390</a>.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalaprice2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidG_iziBAPXtECpgPA340_340]_184-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFCalaprice2010">Calaprice (2010)</a>, p. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G_iziBAPXtEC&amp;pg=PA340">340</a>.
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Botstein_194-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Botstein_194-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Botstein_194-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Botstein_194-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="/wiki/Peter_Galison">Peter Galison</a>; <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Holton">Gerald James Holton</a>; <a href="/wiki/Silvan_S._Schweber">Silvan S. Schweber</a> (2008). <a href="https://archive.org/details/einsteinforstcen00gali"><i>Einstein for the 21st Century: His Legacy in Science, Art, and Modern Culture</i></a>. Princeton University Press. pp. <a href="https://archive.org/details/einsteinforstcen00gali/page/n181">161</a>–164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13520-5"><bdi>978-0-691-13520-5</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Times_197-0">^</a></b> <a href="https://articles.latimes.com/1985-12-22/entertainment/ca-20526_1_life-estate">Cariaga, Daniel, "Not Taking It with You: A Tale of Two Estates", <i>Los Angeles Times</i></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190121200008/http://articles.latimes.com/1985-12-22/entertainment/ca-20526_1_life-estate">Archived</a> 21 January 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 22 December 1985. Retrieved April 2012.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-RR_198-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.rrauction.com/albert_einstein_signed_photo_to_joseph_zoellner.cfm">"Relaxed Einstein signs for a fellow violinist before sailing to Germany for the last time"</a>. <i>RR Auction</i>. 2010. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130524160226/http://www.rrauction.com/albert_einstein_signed_photo_to_joseph_zoellner.cfm">Archived</a> from the original on 24 May 2013. Retrieved 6 June 2012.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-QN45b_200-0">^</a></b> <cite>Albert Einstein Archives (April 1955). <a href="http://alberteinstein.info/vufind1/Digital/EAR000020078#page/1/mode/1up">"Draft of projected Telecast Israel Independence Day, April 1955 (last statement ever written)"</a>. Einstein Archives Online. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070313231657/http://www.alberteinstein.info/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 March 2007. Retrieved 14 March 2007.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-BhiNM_201-0">^</a></b> <cite>Cohen, J. R.; Graver, L. M. (November 1995). "The ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm of Albert Einstein". <i>Surgery, Gynecology &amp; Obstetrics</i>. <b>170</b> (5): 455–458. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2183375">2183375</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-YUhsl_202-0">^</a></b> <cite>Cosgrove, Ben (14 March 2014). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141112114029/http://time.com/3494553/the-day-albert-einstein-died-a-photographers-story/">"The Day Albert Einstein Died: A Photographer's Story"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)">Time</a></i>. Archived from <a href="http://time.com/3494553/the-day-albert-einstein-died-a-photographers-story/">the original</a> on 12 November 2014. Retrieved 24 April 2018.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-MqyYW_203-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4602913">"The Long, Strange Journey of Einstein's Brain"</a>. <a href="/wiki/NPR">NPR</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190714011830/https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4602913">Archived</a> from the original on 14 July 2019. Retrieved 3 October 2007.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a></b> <cite>Cosgrove, Benjamin; Morse, Ralph (14 March 2014). <a href="https://www.life.com/history/the-day-albert-einstein-died-a-photographers-story/">"The Day Albert Einstein Died: A Photographer's Story"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Life_(magazine)">Life</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210319004714/https://www.life.com/history/the-day-albert-einstein-died-a-photographers-story/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 March 2021. Retrieved 10 March 2021.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-GQrBZ_205-0">^</a></b> <cite>O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E.F. (1997). <a href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Einstein.html">"Albert Einstein"</a>. <i>The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive</i>. School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070213223549/http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Einstein.html">Archived</a> from the original on 13 February 2007. Retrieved 11 March 2007.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Obit_206-0">^</a></b> <cite>Late City, ed. (18 April 1955). Written at Princeton, NJ. <a href="http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60C1EFC3D55107A93CBA8178FD85F418585F9">"Dr. Albert Einstein Dies in Sleep at 76; World Mourns Loss of Great Scientist, Rupture of Aorta Causes Death, Body Cremated, Memorial Here Set"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. Vol. CIV, no. 35, 514. New York (published 19 April 1955). p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140525200758/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60C1EFC3D55107A93CBA8178FD85F418585F9">Archived</a> from the original on 25 May 2014. Retrieved 24 May 2014.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-aJHxn_207-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer">Oppenheimer, J. Robert</a> (March 1979). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7goAAAAAMBAJ&amp;pg=PA38">"Oppenheimer on Einstein"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Bulletin_of_the_Atomic_Scientists">Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists</a></i>. <b>35</b> (3): 38. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979BuAtS..35c..36O">1979BuAtS..35c..36O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00963402.1979.11458597">10.1080/00963402.1979.11458597</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200725020111/https://books.google.com/books?id=7goAAAAAMBAJ&amp;pg=PA38">Archived</a> from the original on 25 July 2020. Retrieved 12 January 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a></b> <cite>Unna, Issachar (22 June 2007). <a href="https://www.haaretz.com/1.4945718">"An Ongoing Power of Attraction"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Haaretz">Haaretz</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210616043403/https://www.haaretz.com/1.4945718">Archived</a> from the original on 16 June 2021. Retrieved 15 June 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Paul_Arthur_Schilpp,_editor_1951_730–746_209-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Paul_Arthur_Schilpp,_editor_1951_730–746_209-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Paul Arthur Schilpp, ed. (1951). <i>Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist</i>. Vol. II. New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers (Harper Torchbook edition). pp. 730–746.</cite>. His non-scientific works include: <i>About Zionism: Speeches and Lectures by Professor Albert Einstein</i> (1930), "Why War?" (1933, co-authored by <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud">Sigmund Freud</a>), <i>The World As I See It</i> (1934), <i>Out of My Later Years</i> (1950), and a book on science for the general reader, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Evolution_of_Physics">The Evolution of Physics</a></i> (1938, co-authored by <a href="/wiki/Leopold_Infeld">Leopold Infeld</a>).
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStachel_et_al.2008_210-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFStachel_et_al.2008">Stachel et al. (2008)</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-NYT-20141204-DB_211-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Overbye">Overbye, Dennis</a> (4 December 2014). <a href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/05/science/huge-trove-of-albert-einstein-documents-becomes-available-online.html">"Thousands of Einstein Documents Are Now a Click Away"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. Archived from <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/05/science/huge-trove-of-albert-einstein-documents-becomes-available-online.html">the original</a> on 1 January 2022. Retrieved 4 January 2015.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Instituut-Lorentz_212-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Instituut-Lorentz_212-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> "<cite><a href="http://www.lorentz.leidenuniv.nl/history/Einstein_archive/">"Einstein archive at the Instituut-Lorentz"</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150519023226/http://www.lorentz.leidenuniv.nl/history/Einstein_archive/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 May 2015. Retrieved 21 August 2005.</cite>". <i>Instituut-Lorentz</i>. 2005. Retrieved 21 November 2005.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-e5xd8_213-0">^</a></b> <cite>Pietrow, Alexander G.M. (2019). "Investigations into the origin of Einstein's Sink". <i>Studium</i>. <b>11</b> (4): 260–268. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1905.09022">1905.09022</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019Studi..11E...1P">2019Studi..11E...1P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.18352%2Fstudium.10183">10.18352/studium.10183</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162168640">162168640</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinstein1905a_214-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinstein1905a_214-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinstein1905a_214-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFEinstein1905a">Einstein (1905a)</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-1Jhcb_215-0">^</a></b> <cite>Das, Ashok (2003). <i>Lectures on quantum mechanics</i>. Hindustan Book Agency. p. 59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-85931-41-8"><bdi>978-81-85931-41-8</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-oJBvd_216-0">^</a></b> <cite>Spielberg, Nathan; Anderson, Bryon D. (1995). <a href="https://archive.org/details/sevenideasthatsh00spie_874"><i>Seven ideas that shook the universe</i></a> (2nd ed.). John Wiley &amp; Sons. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/sevenideasthatsh00spie_874/page/n276">263</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-30606-1"><bdi>978-0-471-30606-1</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinstein1905c_217-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEinstein1905c">Einstein (1905c)</a>.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinstein1905d_218-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinstein1905d_218-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFEinstein1905d">Einstein (1905d)</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-RhZ8x_219-0">^</a></b> <cite>Major, Fouad G. (2007). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tmdr6Wx_2PYC"><i>The quantum beat: principles and applications of atomic clocks</i></a> (2nd ed.). Springer. p. 142. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-69533-4"><bdi>978-0-387-69533-4</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161127090212/https://books.google.com/books?id=tmdr6Wx_2PYC">Archived</a> from the original on 27 November 2016. Retrieved 18 June 2015.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-lhfJ9_220-0">^</a></b> <cite>Lindsay, Robert Bruce; Margenau, Henry (1981). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dwZltQAACAAJ"><i>Foundations of physics</i></a>. Ox Bow Press. p. 330. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-918024-17-6"><bdi>978-0-918024-17-6</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161127051103/https://books.google.com/books?id=dwZltQAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 27 November 2016. Retrieved 18 June 2015.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinstein1905e_221-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEinstein1905e">Einstein (1905e)</a>.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-PubList_222-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PubList_222-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Kuepper, Hans-Josef. <a href="http://www.einstein-website.de/z_physics/wisspub-e.html">"List of Scientific Publications of Albert Einstein"</a>. Einstein-website.de. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130508071317/http://www.einstein-website.de/z_physics/wisspub-e.html">Archived</a> from the original on 8 May 2013. Retrieved 3 April 2011.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-L2N73_223-0">^</a></b> <cite>Levenson, Thomas. <a href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/einstein/genius/">"Genius Among Geniuses"</a>. <i>Einstein's Big Idea</i>. Boston: WBGH. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181106193928/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/einstein/genius/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 November 2018. Retrieved 20 June 2015 – via NOVA by <a href="/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service">Public Broadcasting Service</a> (PBS).</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFölsing1997178–198_224-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFölsing1997">Fölsing (1997)</a>, pp. 178–198.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStachel2002vi,_15,_90,_131,_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidOAsQ_hFjhrACpgPA215_215]_226-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFStachel2002">Stachel (2002)</a>, pp. vi, 15, 90, 131, <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OAsQ_hFjhrAC&amp;pg=PA215">215</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPais1982382–386_228-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPais1982">Pais (1982)</a>, pp. 382–386.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPais1982151–152_229-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPais1982">Pais (1982)</a>, pp. 151–152.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a></b> <cite>Fraknoi, Andrew; et al. (2022). <a href="https://openstax.org/details/books/astronomy-2e"><i>Astronomy 2e</i></a> (2e ed.). OpenStax. pp. 800–815. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-951693-50-3"><bdi>978-1-951693-50-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1322188620">1322188620</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinstein1923_231-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEinstein1923">Einstein (1923)</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPais1982179–183_232-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPais1982">Pais (1982)</a>, pp. 179–183.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStachel_et_al.2008273–274vol._2:_The_Swiss_Years:_Writings,_1900–1909_233-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFStachel_et_al.2008">Stachel et al. (2008)</a>, pp. 273–274, vol. 2: The Swiss Years: Writings, 1900–1909.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPais1982194–195_234-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPais1982">Pais (1982)</a>, pp. 194–195.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinstein1916_235-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEinstein1916">Einstein (1916)</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinstein1918_236-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEinstein1918">Einstein (1918)</a>.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-natgeo_237-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-natgeo_237-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-natgeo_237-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="/wiki/Nadia_Drake">Nadia Drake</a> (11 February 2016). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160212083049/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/02/160211-gravitational-waves-found-spacetime-science/">"Found! Gravitational Waves, or a Wrinkle in Spacetime"</a>. <i>National Geographic</i>. Archived from <a href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/02/160211-gravitational-waves-found-spacetime-science/">the original</a> on 12 February 2016. Retrieved 6 July 2016.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tf1T0_238-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1993/press.html">"Gravity investigated with a binary pulsar-Press Release: The 1993 Nobel Prize in Physics"</a>. Nobel Foundation. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180810182047/https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1993/press.html">Archived</a> from the original on 10 August 2018. Retrieved 6 July 2016.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-PRL-20160211_239-0">^</a></b> <cite>Abbott, Benjamin P.; et al. (LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration) (2016). <a href="https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/system/media_files/binaries/301/original/detection-science-summary.pdf">"Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger"</a> (PDF). <i><a href="/wiki/Phys._Rev._Lett.">Phys. Rev. Lett.</a></i> <b>116</b> (6): 061102. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1602.03837">1602.03837</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016PhRvL.116f1102A">2016PhRvL.116f1102A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.116.061102">10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26918975">26918975</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:124959784">124959784</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160216132808/https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/system/media_files/binaries/301/original/detection-science-summary.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 16 February 2016. Retrieved 6 July 2016.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-CO6kH_240-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://space.mit.edu/LIGO/more.html">"Gravitational Waves: Ripples in the fabric of space-time"</a>. LIGO | MIT. 11 February 2016. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160219224900/http://space.mit.edu/LIGO/more.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 February 2016. Retrieved 12 February 2016.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-oSmHb_241-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://news.mit.edu/2016/ligo-first-detection-gravitational-waves-0211">"Scientists make first direct detection of gravitational waves"</a>. <i>Jennifer Chu</i>. MIT News. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190407170726/http://news.mit.edu/2016/ligo-first-detection-gravitational-waves-0211">Archived</a> from the original on 7 April 2019. Retrieved 12 February 2016.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-hkKSp_242-0">^</a></b> <cite>Ghosh, Pallab (11 February 2016). <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-35524440">"Einstein's gravitational waves 'seen' from black holes"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160211235836/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-35524440">Archived</a> from the original on 11 February 2016. Retrieved 12 February 2016.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-38Msx_243-0">^</a></b> <cite>Overbye, Dennis (11 February 2016). <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/12/science/ligo-gravitational-waves-black-holes-einstein.html">"Gravitational Waves Detected, Confirming Einstein's Theory"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160211165128/http://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/12/science/ligo-gravitational-waves-black-holes-einstein.html">Archived</a> from the original on 11 February 2016. Retrieved 12 February 2016.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/John_D._Norton">Norton, John</a> (1984). <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27757535">"How Einstein Found His Field Equations: 1912-1915"</a>. <i>Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences</i>. <b>14</b> (2): 253–316. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F27757535">10.2307/27757535</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0073-2672">0073-2672</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27757535">27757535</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-sOA9t_245-0">^</a></b> van Dongen, Jeroen (2010) <i>Einstein's Unification</i> Cambridge University Press, p. 23.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinstein1917a_246-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEinstein1917a">Einstein (1917a)</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPais1994285–286_247-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPais1994">Pais (1994)</a>, pp. 285–286.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-iJwuX_248-0">^</a></b> <cite>North, J.D. (1965). <i>The Measure of the Universe: A History of Modern Cosmology</i>. New York: Dover. pp. 81–83.</cite>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinstein1931_249-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinstein1931_249-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFEinstein1931">Einstein (1931)</a>.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-cor-2013_250-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cor-2013_250-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>O'Raifeartaigh, C; McCann, B (2014). <a href="http://repository.wit.ie/2867/1/cosmic.pdf">"Einstein's cosmic model of 1931 revisited: An analysis and translation of a forgotten model of the universe"</a> (PDF). <i>The European Physical Journal H</i>. <b>39</b> (2014): 63–85. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1312.2192">1312.2192</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014EPJH...39...63O">2014EPJH...39...63O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1140%2Fepjh%2Fe2013-40038-x">10.1140/epjh/e2013-40038-x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53419239">53419239</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200929102551/https://repository.wit.ie/2867/1/cosmic.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 29 September 2020. Retrieved 31 December 2019.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinsteinde_Sitter1932_251-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEinsteinde_Sitter1932">Einstein &amp; de Sitter (1932)</a>.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-sxfvo_253-0">^</a></b> <cite>Nussbaumer and Bieri (2009). <i>Discovering the Expanding Universe</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 144–152.</cite>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Einstein's_aborted_model_258-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Einstein's_aborted_model_258-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Nussbaumer, Harry (2014). "Einstein's aborted attempt at a dynamic steady-state universe". <i>In memoriam Hilmar Duerbeck</i>. p. 463. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1402.4099">1402.4099</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014arXiv1402.4099N">2014arXiv1402.4099N</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-944913-56-8"><bdi>978-3-944913-56-8</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a></b> <cite>Goldberg, J. N. (1958). "Conservation laws in general relativity". <i>Physical Review</i>. <b>111</b> (1): 315–320. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1958PhRv..111..315G">1958PhRv..111..315G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.111.315">10.1103/PhysRev.111.315</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinsteinRosen1935_264-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEinsteinRosen1935">Einstein &amp; Rosen (1935)</a>.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-QNjpt_265-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://journals.aps.org/general-relativity-centennial">"2015 – General Relativity's Centennial"</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Physical_Society">American Physical Society</a>. 2015. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181115201857/https://journals.aps.org/general-relativity-centennial">Archived</a> from the original on 15 November 2018. Retrieved 7 April 2017.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wheeler_267-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler">Wheeler, John Archibald</a> (18 June 2010). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zGFkK2tTXPsC&amp;pg=PA235"><i>Geons, Black Holes, and Quantum Foam: A Life in Physics</i></a>. W. W. Norton &amp; Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-07948-7"><bdi>978-0-393-07948-7</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinstein1924_272-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEinstein1924">Einstein (1924)</a>.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPais1982522_274-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPais1982">Pais (1982)</a>, p. 522.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStachel_et_al.2008270ffvol._4:_The_Swiss_Years:_Writings,_1912–1914_275-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFStachel_et_al.2008">Stachel et al. (2008)</a>, pp. 270ff, vol. 4: The Swiss Years: Writings, 1912–1914.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinstein1917b_276-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEinstein1917b">Einstein (1917b)</a>.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bohr1949_282-0">^</a></b> <cite>Bohr, N. <a href="https://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/dk/bohr.htm">"Discussions with Einstein on Epistemological Problems in Atomic Physics"</a>. <i>The Value of Knowledge: A Miniature Library of Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Marxists_Internet_Archive">Marxists Internet Archive</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100913033345/http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/dk/bohr.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 13 September 2010. Retrieved 30 August 2010.</cite> From Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist (1949), publ. Cambridge University Press, 1949. Niels Bohr's report of conversations with Einstein.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinstein1969_283-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEinstein1969">Einstein (1969)</a>.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a></b> <cite>Schlosshauer, Maximilian; Kofler, Johannes; Zeilinger, Anton (1 August 2013). "A snapshot of foundational attitudes toward quantum mechanics". <i>Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part B: Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics</i>. <b>44</b> (3): 222–230. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1301.1069">1301.1069</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013SHPMP..44..222S">2013SHPMP..44..222S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.shpsb.2013.04.004">10.1016/j.shpsb.2013.04.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1355-2198">1355-2198</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55537196">55537196</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinsteinPodolskyRosen1935_285-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEinsteinPodolskyRosen1935">Einstein, Podolsky &amp; Rosen (1935)</a>.
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007pp._448–453_286-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsaacson2007pp._448–453_286-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFIsaacson2007">Isaacson (2007)</a>, pp. 448–453.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPenrose2007583_287-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPenrose2007">Penrose (2007)</a>, p. 583.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine2017_288-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFine2017">Fine (2017)</a>.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinstein1950_289-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEinstein1950">Einstein (1950)</a>.
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<cite>Richardson, O. W. (1908). <a href="https://zenodo.org/record/1997325">"A Mechanical Effect Accompanying Magnetization"</a>. <i>Physical Review</i>. Series I. <b>26</b> (3): 248–253. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1908PhRvI..26..248R">1908PhRvI..26..248R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevSeriesI.26.248">10.1103/PhysRevSeriesI.26.248</a>.</cite>
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<cite>Einstein, A.; de Haas, W. J. (1915). "Experimenteller Nachweis der Ampereschen Molekularströme" [Experimental Proof of Ampère's Molecular Currents]. <i>Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft, Verhandlungen</i> (in German). <b>17</b>: 152–170.</cite>
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<cite>Einstein, A.; de Haas, W. J. (1915). <a href="http://www.dwc.knaw.nl/DL/publications/PU00012546.pdf">"Experimental proof of the existence of Ampère's molecular currents"</a> (PDF). <i>Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam, Proceedings</i>. <b>18</b>: 696–711. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1915KNAB...18..696E">1915KNAB...18..696E</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Goettling_294-0">^</a></b> Goettling, Gary. <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050525082445/http://gtalumni.org/Publications/magazine/sum98/einsrefr.html">"Einstein's refrigerator"</a>. Archived from <a href="http://gtalumni.org/Publications/magazine/sum98/einsrefr.html">the original</a> on 25 May 2005.</cite> <i>Georgia Tech Alumni Magazine</i>. 1998. Retrieved 12 November 2014. <a href="/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd">Leó Szilárd</a>, a Hungarian physicist who later worked on the Manhattan Project, is credited with the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Chain_reaction">chain reaction</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-295">^</a></b> <cite>Alok, Jha (21 September 2008). <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2008/sep/21/scienceofclimatechange.climatechange">"Einstein fridge design can help global cooling"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110124172925/http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2008/sep/21/scienceofclimatechange.climatechange">Archived</a> from the original on 24 January 2011. Retrieved 22 February 2011.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-margot-obituary_297-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1986/07/12/obituaries/margot-einstein-86-is-dead-stepdaughter-of-physicist.html">"Obituary"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. 12 July 1986. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170910002303/http://www.nytimes.com/1986/07/12/obituaries/margot-einstein-86-is-dead-stepdaughter-of-physicist.html">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2017. Retrieved 3 April 2011.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-letters-love_298-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5168002.stm">"Letters Reveal Einstein Love Life"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/BBC_News">BBC News</a></i>. 11 July 2006. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190502100238/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5168002.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 2 May 2019. Retrieved 14 March 2007.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-casetext-hebrew-university_299-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://casetext.com/case/hebrew-univ-of-jerusalem-v-gen-motors-llc">"United States District Court, Central District of California, Case No. CV10–03790 AHM (JCx)"</a>. 15 October 2012. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200121133844/https://casetext.com/case/hebrew-univ-of-jerusalem-v-gen-motors-llc">Archived</a> from the original on 21 January 2020. Retrieved 24 November 2019.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-pacermonitor-hebrew-university_300-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.pacermonitor.com/public/case/944657/The_Hebrew_University_of_Jerusalem_v_General_Motors_LLC">"United States District Court, Central District of California, Case No.: CV-10-3790-AB (JCx)"</a>. 15 January 2015. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200725030614/https://www.pacermonitor.com/public/case/944657/The_Hebrew_University_of_Jerusalem_v_General_Motors_LLC">Archived</a> from the original on 25 July 2020. Retrieved 24 November 2019.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-einstein.biz_301-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://einstein.biz/">"Einstein"</a>. Corbis Rights Representation. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080819220424/http://einstein.biz/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 August 2008. Retrieved 8 August 2008.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-302">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://gazetteer.linz.govt.nz/place/3694">"Place name detail: Mount Einstein"</a>. <i>New Zealand Gazetteer</i>. <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Geographic_Board">New Zealand Geographic Board</a>. Retrieved 21 August 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-303">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Paul_Halpern">Halpern, Paul</a> (2019). <a href="https://physicstoday.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/PT.3.4183">"Albert Einstein, celebrity scientist"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Physics_Today">Physics Today</a></i>. <b>72</b> (4): 38–45. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2FPT.3.4183">10.1063/PT.3.4183</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:187603798">187603798</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414011401/https://physicstoday.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/PT.3.4183">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 21 February 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-304">^</a></b> <cite>Fahy, Declan (2015). <a href="https://skepticalinquirer.org/2015/07/a-brief-history-of-scientific-celebrity/">"A Brief History Of Scientific Celebrity"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Skeptical_Inquirer">Skeptical Inquirer</a></i>. Vol. 39, no. 4. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210510182647/https://skepticalinquirer.org/2015/07/a-brief-history-of-scientific-celebrity/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 May 2021. Retrieved 21 February 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-305">^</a></b> <cite>Missner, Marshall (May 1985). "Why Einstein Became Famous in America". <i><a href="/wiki/Social_Studies_of_Science">Social Studies of Science</a></i>. <b>15</b> (2): 267–291. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F030631285015002003">10.1177/030631285015002003</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/285389">285389</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143398600">143398600</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-disguise_306-0">^</a></b> <cite>Libman, E. (14 January 1939). <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1939/01/14/disguise-2">"Disguise"</a>. <i>The New Yorker</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200725014949/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1939/01/14/disguise-2">Archived</a> from the original on 25 July 2020. Retrieved 15 April 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-orchestra_307-0">^</a></b> <cite>McTee, Cindy. <a href="http://www.cindymctee.com/einsteins_dream.html">"Einstein's Dream for orchestra"</a>. Cindymctee.com. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170418203004/http://cindymctee.com/einsteins_dream.html">Archived</a> from the original on 18 April 2017. Retrieved 17 July 2010.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-slqbwn_308-0">^</a></b> <cite>Golden, Frederic (3 January 2000). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060221080452/http://www.time.com/time/time100/poc/magazine/albert_einstein5a.html">"Person of the Century: Albert Einstein"</a>. <i>Time</i>. Archived from <a href="https://www.time.com/time/time100/poc/magazine/albert_einstein5a.html">the original</a> on 21 February 2006. Retrieved 25 February 2006.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-fake-quotes_309-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fake-quotes_309-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Novak, Matt (16 May 2015). <a href="https://www.gizmodo.com.au/2015/05/9-albert-einstein-quotes-that-are-totally-fake/">"9 Albert Einstein Quotes That Are Completely Fake"</a>. <i>Gizmodo</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180705004258/https://www.gizmodo.com.au/2015/05/9-albert-einstein-quotes-that-are-totally-fake/">Archived</a> from the original on 5 July 2018. Retrieved 4 May 2018.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-humiliate-atheist_310-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/false-einstein-humiliates-professor/">"Did Albert Einstein Humiliate an Atheist Professor?"</a>. Snopes. 29 June 2004. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211104194315/https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/false-einstein-humiliates-professor/">Archived</a> from the original on 4 November 2021. Retrieved 4 May 2018.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-311">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.einstein.caltech.edu/index.html">"Einstein Papers Project"</a>. California Institute of Technology. Retrieved 5 November 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-312">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://press.princeton.edu/einstein/">"Albert Einstein"</a>. Princeton University Press. Retrieved 5 November 2022.</cite>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h3>Works cited</h3>
<div>
<ul><li><cite>Calaprice, Alice (2000). <i>The Expanded Quotable Einstein</i>. Princeton University Press.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Calaprice, Alice (2005). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090622063213/http://press.princeton.edu/titles/7921.html"><i>The New Quotable Einstein</i></a>. Princeton University Press. Archived from <a href="http://press.princeton.edu/titles/7921.html">the original</a> on 22 June 2009.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Calaprice, Alice; Lipscombe, Trevor (2005). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5eWh2O_3OAQC"><i>Albert Einstein: A Biography</i></a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33080-3"><bdi>978-0-313-33080-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Calaprice, Alice (2010). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G_iziBAPXtEC"><i>The Ultimate Quotable Einstein</i></a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-3596-6"><bdi>978-1-4008-3596-6</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Calaprice, Alice; Kennefick, Daniel; Schulmann, Robert (2015). <i>An Einstein Encyclopedia</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016eien.book.....C">2016eien.book.....C</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Chaplin, Charles (1964). <i>Charles Chaplin: My Autobiography</i>. New York: Simon and Schuster.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Ronald_W._Clark">Clark, Ronald W.</a> (1971). <a href="https://archive.org/details/einstein00rona"><i>Einstein: The Life and Times</i></a>. New York: Avon Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-380-44123-5"><bdi>978-0-380-44123-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Fölsing, Albrecht (1997). <a href="https://archive.org/details/alberteinsteinbi00fols"><i>Albert Einstein</i></a>. Translated by Osers, Ewald. Abridged by Ewald Osers. New York: Penguin Viking. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-85545-2"><bdi>978-0-670-85545-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Fine, Arthur (2017). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qt-epr/">"The Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Argument in Quantum Theory"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Galison, Peter (Winter 2000). "Einstein's Clocks: The Question of Time". <i>Critical Inquiry</i>. <b>26</b> (2): 355–389. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F448970">10.1086/448970</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1344127">1344127</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144484466">144484466</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Glick, Thomas F., ed. (1987). <i>The Comparative Reception of Relativity</i>. Kluwer Academic Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-277-2498-4"><bdi>978-90-277-2498-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Roger_Highfield">Highfield, Roger</a>; Carter, Paul (1993). <a href="https://archive.org/details/privatelivesofal00high_1"><i>The Private Lives of Albert Einstein</i></a>. London: Faber and Faber. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-571-17170-5"><bdi>978-0-571-17170-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Hoffmann, Banesh (1972). <a href="https://archive.org/details/alberteinsteincr0000hoff_y3a8"><i>Albert Einstein: Creator and Rebel</i></a>. Collaboration with Helen Dukas. New York: Viking Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-11181-7"><bdi>978-0-670-11181-7</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Holton, Gerald (April 1984). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=prgDAAAAMBAJ&amp;pg=PA18">"The migration of physicists to the United States"</a>. <i>Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists</i>. Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science. <b>40</b> (4): 18–24. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984BuAtS..40d..18H">1984BuAtS..40d..18H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00963402.1984.11459207">10.1080/00963402.1984.11459207</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Walter_Isaacson">Isaacson, Walter</a> (2007). <a href="https://archive.org/details/einsteinhislifeu0000isaa"><i>Einstein: His Life and Universe</i></a>. New York: Simon &amp; Schuster Paperbacks. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-6473-0"><bdi>978-0-7432-6473-0</bdi></a>.</cite><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot">dead link</a></i>]</sup></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Walter_Isaacson">Isaacson, Walter</a> (2008). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OzSJgdwk5esC"><i>Einstein: His Life and Universe</i></a>. New York: Simon &amp; Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84739-589-4"><bdi>978-1-84739-589-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Neffe, Jürgen (2007). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B8K6n177ZwcC"><i>Einstein: A Biography</i></a>. Translated by Frisch, Shelley. <a href="/wiki/Farrar,_Straus_and_Giroux">Farrar, Straus and Giroux</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-374-14664-1"><bdi>978-0-374-14664-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Pais, Abraham (1982). <i><a href="/wiki/Subtle_is_the_Lord:_The_Science_and_the_Life_of_Albert_Einstein">Subtle is the Lord: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein</a></i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-853907-0"><bdi>978-0-19-853907-0</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Pais, Abraham (1994). <a href="https://archive.org/details/einsteinlivedher00pais"><i>Einstein Lived Here</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280672-7"><bdi>978-0-19-280672-7</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Penrose, Roger (2007). <i>The Road to Reality</i>. Vintage Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-77631-4"><bdi>978-0-679-77631-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson">Robeson, Paul</a> (2002). <i>Paul Robeson Speaks</i>. Citadel. p. 333.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Rowe, David E.; Schulmann, Robert, eds. (2007). <i>Einstein on Politics: His Private Thoughts and Public Stands on Nationalism, Zionism, War, Peace, and the Bomb</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12094-2"><bdi>978-0-691-12094-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Rowe, David E.; Schulmann, Robert, eds. (2013). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_X1dAAAAQBAJ"><i>Einstein on Politics: His Private Thoughts and Public Stands on Nationalism, Zionism, War, Peace, and the Bomb</i></a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-4828-7"><bdi>978-1-4008-4828-7</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Scheideler, Britta (2002). "The Scientist as Moral Authority: Albert Einstein between Elitism and Democracy, 1914–1933". <i>Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences</i>. <b>32</b> (2): 319–346. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fhsps.2002.32.2.319">10.1525/hsps.2002.32.2.319</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/hsps.2002.32.2.319">10.1525/hsps.2002.32.2.319</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Stachel, John J. (1966). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080307015425/http://philoscience.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Stachel1966.pdf"><i>Albert Einstein and Mileva Marić</i></a> (PDF). Archived from <a href="http://philoscience.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Stachel1966.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 7 March 2008. Retrieved 13 May 2016.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Stachel, John J. (2002). <i>Einstein from 'B' to 'Z'</i>. Einstein Studies. Vol. 9. Birkhäuser. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8176-4143-6"><bdi>978-0-8176-4143-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/237532460">237532460</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Weinstein, G. (2015). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LQz5DAAAQBAJ"><i>General Relativity Conflict and Rivalries: Einstein's Polemics with Physicists</i></a>. Newcastle upon Tyne (UK): Cambridge Scholars Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4438-8362-7"><bdi>978-1-4438-8362-7</bdi></a>.</cite></li></ul>
</div>
<h2>Further reading</h2>
<div>
<ul><li><cite>Brian, Denis (1996). <a href="https://archive.org/details/einstein00deni"><i>Einstein: A Life</i></a>. New York: John Wiley.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Gordin, Michael D. (2020). <i>Einstein in Bohemia</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-17737-3"><bdi>978-0-691-17737-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Alexander_Lindemann">Lindemann, Frederick Alexander</a> (1922). <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1922_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Einstein,_Albert">"Einstein, Albert" </a>. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> (12th ed.). London &amp; New York: The Encyclopædia Britannica Company.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Moring, Gary (2004). <a href="https://archive.org/details/completeidiotsgu00mori_0"><i>The complete idiot's guide to understanding Einstein</i></a> (1st ed.). Indianapolis, Indiana: Alpha books (Macmillan). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-863180-6"><bdi>978-0-02-863180-6</bdi></a>. <q>idiot's guide to Einstein.</q></cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer">Oppenheimer, J. Robert</a> (1971). Lecture delivered at the UNESCO House in Paris on 13 December 1965. "On Albert Einstein". <i>Science and Synthesis: An International Colloquium Organized by Unesco on the Tenth Anniversary of the Death of Albert Einstein and Teilhard de Chardin</i>: 8–12, 208.</cite>, or <cite><a href="http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1966/mar/17/on-albert-einstein/?pagination=false">"On Albert Einstein by Robert Oppenheimer"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books">The New York Review of Books</a></i>. 17 March 1966.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Parker, Barry (2000). <a href="https://archive.org/details/einsteinsbrainch00barr"><i>Einstein's Brainchild: Relativity Made Relatively Easy!</i></a>. Illustrated by Lori Scoffield-Beer. Prometheus Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59102-522-1"><bdi>978-1-59102-522-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Rogers, Donald W. (2005). <i>Einstein's "Other" Theory: The Planck-Bose-Einstein Theory of Heat Capacity</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11826-0"><bdi>978-0-691-11826-0</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Silvan_S._Schweber">Schweber, Silvan S.</a> (2008). <a href="https://archive.org/details/einsteinoppenhei00schw"><i>Einstein and Oppenheimer: The Meaning of Genius</i></a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02828-9"><bdi>978-0-674-02828-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Stone, A. Douglas (2013). <a href="https://archive.org/details/einsteinquantumq0000ston"><i>Einstein and the Quantum</i></a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13968-5"><bdi>978-0-691-13968-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Weinberg, Steven (2005). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.2155755">"Einstein's mistakes"</a>. <i>Physics Today</i>. <b>58</b> (11): 31–35. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005PhT....58k..31W">2005PhT....58k..31W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.2155755">10.1063/1.2155755</a>.</cite></li></ul>
</div>
<h2>External links</h2>
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 + 1.1 Early life and education
 + 1.2 Marriages and children
 + 1.3 Patent office
 + 1.4 First scientific papers
 + 1.5 Academic career
 + 1.6 1921–1922: Travels abroad
 + 1.7 1925: Visit to South America
 + 1.8 1930–1931: Travel to the US
 + 1.9 1933: Emigration to the US
 o 1.9.1 Refugee status
 o 1.9.2 Resident scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study
 o 1.9.3 World War II and the Manhattan Project
 o 1.9.4 US citizenship
 + 1.10 Personal views
 o 1.10.1 Political views
 - 1.10.1.1 Relationship with Zionism
 o 1.10.2 Religious and philosophical views
 o 1.10.3 Love of music
 + 1.11 Death
 * 2 Scientific career
 Toggle Scientific career subsection
 + 2.1 1905 – Annus Mirabilis papers
 + 2.2 Statistical mechanics
 o 2.2.1 Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics
 o 2.2.2 Theory of critical opalescence
 + 2.3 Special relativity
 + 2.4 General relativity
 o 2.4.1 General relativity and the equivalence principle
 o 2.4.2 Gravitational waves
 o 2.4.3 Hole argument and Entwurf theory
 o 2.4.4 Physical cosmology
 o 2.4.5 Energy momentum pseudotensor
 o 2.4.6 Wormholes
 o 2.4.7 Einstein–Cartan theory
 o 2.4.8 Equations of motion
 + 2.5 Old quantum theory
 o 2.5.1 Photons and energy quanta
 o 2.5.2 Quantized atomic vibrations
 o 2.5.3 Bose–Einstein statistics
 o 2.5.4 Wave–particle duality
 o 2.5.5 Zero-point energy
 o 2.5.6 Stimulated emission
 o 2.5.7 Matter waves
 + 2.6 Quantum mechanics
 o 2.6.1 Einstein's objections to quantum mechanics
 o 2.6.2 Bohr versus Einstein
 o 2.6.3 Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox
 + 2.7 Unified field theory
 + 2.8 Other investigations
 + 2.9 Collaboration with other scientists
 o 2.9.1 Einstein–de Haas experiment
 o 2.9.2 Einstein refrigerator
 * 3 Non-scientific legacy
 * 4 In popular culture
 * 5 Awards and honors
 * 6 Publications
 Toggle Publications subsection
 + 6.1 Scientific
 + 6.2 Others
 * 7 See also
 * 8 Notes
 * 9 References
 Toggle References subsection
 + 9.1 Works cited
 * 10 Further reading
 * 11 External links
 Toggle the table of contents
 Toggle the table of contents

 Albert Einstein

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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 "Einstein" redirects here. For other uses, see Einstein (disambiguation) and Albert Einstein (disambiguation).

 Albert Einstein 
 Portrait by Ferdinand Schmutzer, 1921
 Born 14 March 1879  
 Ulm, Kingdom of Württemberg, German Empire 
 Died 18 April 1955 (aged 76)  
 Princeton, New Jersey, US  
 Full list  
 *  
  + Kingdom of Württemberg, part of the German Empire (until 1896)[note 1] 
  + Stateless (1896–1901) 
 Citizenship + Switzerland (1901–1955) 
  + Austria, part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (1911–1912) 
  + Kingdom of Prussia, part of the German Empire (1914–1918)[note 1] 
  + Free State of Prussia (Weimar Republic, 1918–1933) 
  + United States (from 1940) 
 Education * Federal polytechnic school in Zurich (Federal teaching diploma, 1900) 
 * University of Zurich (PhD, 1905) 
 * General relativity  
 * Special relativity  
 * Photoelectric effect  
 * E=mc2 (mass–energy equivalence) 
 * E=hf (Planck–Einstein relation) 
 * Theory of Brownian motion  
 * Einstein field equations  
 Known for * Bose–Einstein statistics  
 * Bose–Einstein condensate  
 * Gravitational wave  
 * Cosmological constant  
 * Unified field theory  
 * EPR paradox  
 * Ensemble interpretation  
 * List of other concepts  
 *  
 Mileva Marić  
 ​  
 Spouses ​(m. 1903; div. 1919)​  
 *  
 Elsa Löwenthal  
 ​  
 ​(m. 1919; died 1936)​  
 * Lieserl  
 Children * Hans Albert  
 * Eduard "Tete"  
 * Barnard Medal (1920)  
 * Nobel Prize in Physics (1921) 
 * Matteucci Medal (1921)  
 * ForMemRS (1921)[1]  
 Awards * Copley Medal (1925)[1]  
 * Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1926)[2] 
 * Max Planck Medal (1929)  
 * Member of the National Academy of Sciences (1942)[3] 
 * Time Person of the Century (1999) 
 Scientific career 
 Fields Physics, philosophy  
 * Swiss Patent Office (Bern) (1902–1909) 
 * University of Bern (1908–1909) 
 * University of Zurich (1909–1911) 
 * Charles University in Prague (1911–1912) 
 * ETH Zurich (1912–1914)  
 * Prussian Academy of Sciences (1914–1933) 
 Institutions * Humboldt University of Berlin (1914–1933) 
 * Kaiser Wilhelm Institute (director, 1917–1933) 
 * German Physical Society (president, 1916–1918) 
 * Leiden University (visits, 1920) 
 * Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton University (1933–1955) 
 * California Institute of Technology (visits, 1931–1933) 
 * University of Oxford (visits, 1931–1933) 
 * Brandeis University (director, 1946–1947) 
 Thesis Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen (A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions) (1905)
 Doctoral advisor Alfred Kleiner  
 Other academic advisors Heinrich Friedrich Weber  
 Influences * Hendrik Lorentz  
 * Hermann Minkowski  
 Influenced * Virtually all modern physicists 
 
 Signature 
 
 
 Part of a series on 
 Physical cosmology 
 * Big Bang · Universe 
 * Age of the universe 
 * Chronology of the universe 
 Early universe 
 * Inflation · Nucleosynthesis 
 Backgrounds 
 * Gravitational wave (GWB) 
 * Microwave (CMB) · Neutrino (CNB) 
 
 Expansion · Future 
 * Hubble's law · Redshift 
 * Metric expansion of space 
 * FLRW metric · Friedmann equations 
 * Inhomogeneous cosmology 
 * Future of an expanding universe 
 * Ultimate fate of the universe 
 Components · Structure 
 Components 
 * Lambda-CDM model 
 * Dark energy · Dark fluid · Dark matter
 Structure 
 * Shape of the universe 
 * Galaxy filament · Galaxy formation 
 * Large quasar group 
 * Large-scale structure 
 * Reionization · Structure formation 
 
 Experiments 
 * Black Hole Initiative (BHI) 
 * BOOMERanG 
 * Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) 
 * Dark Energy Survey 
 * Illustris project 
 * Planck space observatory 
 * Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) 
 * 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey ("2dF") 
 * Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy 
 Probe (WMAP) 
 Scientists 
 * Aaronson 
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 * Suntzeff 
 * Sunyaev 
 * Tolman 
 * Wilson 
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 * List of cosmologists 
 Subject history 
 * Discovery of cosmic microwave 
 background radiation 
 * History of the Big Bang theory 
 * Religious interpretations of 
 the Big Bang theory 
 * Timeline of cosmological theories 
 * Category 
 * Astronomy portal 
 * v 
 * t 
 * e 
 

 Albert Einstein (/ ˈ aɪ n s t aɪ n / EYEN -styne;[4] German: [ˈalbɛʁt ˈʔaɪnʃtaɪn] ( listen ) ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist,[5] widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest and most influential physicists of all time. Best known for developing the theory of relativity, he also made important contributions to the development of the theory of quantum mechanics. Relativity and quantum mechanics are the two pillars of modern physics.[1][6] His mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc2, which arises from relativity theory, has been dubbed "the world's most famous equation".[7] His work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science.[8][9] He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect",[10] a pivotal step in the development of quantum theory. His intellectual achievements and originality resulted in "Einstein" becoming synonymous with "genius".[11] Einsteinium, one of the synthetic elements in the periodic table, was named in his honor.[12]

 In 1905, a year sometimes described as his annus mirabilis ('miracle year'), Einstein published four groundbreaking papers.[13] These outlined the theory of the photoelectric effect, explained Brownian motion, introduced special relativity, and demonstrated mass–energy equivalence. He thought that the laws of classical mechanics could no longer be reconciled with those of the electromagnetic field, which led him to develop his special theory of relativity. He then extended the theory to gravitational fields; he published a paper on general relativity in 1916, introducing his theory of gravitation. In 1917, he applied the general theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe.[14][15] He continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the thermal properties of light and the quantum theory of radiation, which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light.

 However, for much of the later part of his career, he worked on two ultimately unsuccessful endeavors. First, despite his great contributions to quantum mechanics, he opposed what it evolved into, objecting that "God does not play dice".[16] Second, he attempted to devise a unified field theory by generalizing his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism. As a result, he became increasingly isolated from the mainstream of modern physics.

 Einstein was born in the German Empire, but moved to Switzerland in 1895, forsaking his German citizenship (as a subject of the Kingdom of Württemberg)[note 1] the following year. In 1897, at the age of 17, he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swiss Federal polytechnic school in Zürich, graduating in 1900. In 1901, he acquired Swiss citizenship, which he kept for the rest of his life, and in 1903, he secured a permanent position at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern. In 1905, he was awarded a PhD by the University of Zurich. In 1914, he moved to Berlin in order to join the Prussian Academy of Sciences and the Humboldt University of Berlin. In 1917, he became director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics; he also became a German citizen again, this time Prussian.

 In 1933, while he was visiting the United States, Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany. Einstein objected to the policies of the newly elected Nazi government;[17] he settled in the United States and became an American citizen in 1940.[18] On the eve of World War II, he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt alerting him to the potential German nuclear weapons program and recommending that the US begin similar research. Einstein supported the Allies but generally denounced the idea of nuclear weapons.[19]

 Life and career

 Early life and education

 See also: Einstein family
 Einstein at the age of three in 1882
 Einstein in 1893, age 14

 Albert Einstein was born in Ulm,[5] in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire, on 14 March 1879 into a family of secular Ashkenazi Jews.[20][21] His parents were Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer, and Pauline Koch. In 1880, the family moved to Munich, where Einstein's father and his uncle Jakob founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a company that manufactured electrical equipment based on direct current.[5]

 Albert attended a Catholic elementary school in Munich, from the age of five, for three years. At the age of eight, he was transferred to the Luitpold-Gymnasium (now known as the Albert-Einstein-Gymnasium [ de ] ), where he received advanced primary and secondary school education until he left the German Empire seven years later.[22]

 In 1894, Hermann and Jakob's company lost a bid to supply the city of Munich with electrical lighting because they lacked the capital to convert their equipment from the direct current (DC) standard to the more efficient alternating current (AC) standard.[23] The loss forced the sale of the Munich factory. In search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to Milan and a few months later to Pavia. In Pavia, the Einsteins settled in Palazzo Cornazzani, a medieval building where, at different times, Ugo Foscolo, Contardo Ferrini and Ada Negri lived.[24] When the family moved to Pavia, Einstein, then 15, stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium. His father intended for him to pursue electrical engineering, but Einstein clashed with the authorities and resented the school's regimen and teaching method. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought was lost in strict rote learning. At the end of December 1894, he traveled to Italy to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctor's note.[25] During his time in Italy, he wrote a short essay with the title "On the Investigation of the State of the Ether in a Magnetic Field".[26][27]

 Einstein excelled at math and physics from a young age, reaching a mathematical level years ahead of his peers. The 12-year-old Einstein taught himself algebra and Euclidean geometry over a single summer.[28] Einstein also independently discovered his own original proof of the Pythagorean theorem aged 12.[29] A family tutor Max Talmud says that only a short time after he had given the 12-year-old Einstein a geometry textbook, "[Einstein] had worked through the whole book. He thereupon devoted himself to higher mathematics ... Soon the flight of his mathematical genius was so high I could not follow."[30] His passion for geometry and algebra led the 12-year-old to become convinced that nature could be understood as a "mathematical structure".[30] Einstein started teaching himself calculus at 12, and as a 14-year-old he says he had "mastered integral and differential calculus".[31]

 At the age of 13, when he had become more seriously interested in philosophy (and music),[32] Einstein was introduced to Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. Kant became his favorite philosopher, his tutor stating: "At the time he was still a child, only thirteen years old, yet Kant's works, incomprehensible to ordinary mortals, seemed to be clear to him."[30]

 Einstein's Matura certificate, 1896[note 2]

 In 1895, at the age of 16, Einstein took the entrance examinations for the Swiss Federal polytechnic school in Zürich (later the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, ETH). He failed to reach the required standard in the general part of the examination,[33] but obtained exceptional grades in physics and mathematics.[34] On the advice of the principal of the polytechnic school, he attended the Argovian cantonal school (gymnasium) in Aarau, Switzerland, in 1895 and 1896 to complete his secondary schooling. While lodging with the family of Jost Winteler, he fell in love with Winteler's daughter, Marie. Einstein's sister Maja later married Winteler's son Paul.[35] In January 1896, with his father's approval, Einstein renounced his citizenship in the German Kingdom of Württemberg to avoid military service.[36] In September 1896, he passed the Swiss Matura with mostly good grades, including a top grade of 6 in physics and mathematical subjects, on a scale of 1–6.[37] At 17, he enrolled in the four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Federal polytechnic school. Marie Winteler, who was a year older, moved to Olsberg, Switzerland, for a teaching post.[35]

 Einstein's future wife, a 20-year-old Serbian named Mileva Marić, also enrolled at the polytechnic school that year. She was the only woman among the six students in the mathematics and physics section of the teaching diploma course. Over the next few years, Einstein's and Marić's friendship developed into a romance, and they spent countless hours debating and reading books together on extra-curricular physics in which they were both interested. Einstein wrote in his letters to Marić that he preferred studying alongside her.[38] In 1900, Einstein passed the exams in Maths and Physics and was awarded a Federal teaching diploma.[39] There is eyewitness evidence and several letters over many years that indicate Marić might have collaborated with Einstein prior to his landmark 1905 papers,[38][40][41] known as the Annus Mirabilis papers, and that they developed some of the concepts together during their studies, although some historians of physics who have studied the issue disagree that she made any substantive contributions.[42][43][44][45]

 Marriages and children

 Albert Einstein and Mileva Marić Einstein, 1912

 Early correspondence between Einstein and Marić was discovered and published in 1987 which revealed that the couple had a daughter named "Lieserl", born in early 1902 in Novi Sad where Marić was staying with her parents. Marić returned to Switzerland without the child, whose real name and fate are unknown. The contents of Einstein's letter in September 1903 suggest that the girl was either given up for adoption or died of scarlet fever in infancy.[46][47]

 Einstein and Marić married in January 1903. In May 1904, their son Hans Albert Einstein was born in Bern, Switzerland. Their son Eduard was born in Zürich in July 1910. The couple moved to Berlin in April 1914, but Marić returned to Zürich with their sons after learning that, despite their close relationship before,[38] Einstein's chief romantic attraction was now his cousin Elsa Löwenthal;[48] she was his first cousin maternally and second cousin paternally.[49] Einstein and Marić divorced on 14 February 1919, having lived apart for five years.[50][51] As part of the divorce settlement, Einstein agreed to give Marić any future (in the event, 1921) Nobel Prize money.[52]

 In letters revealed in 2015, Einstein wrote to his early love Marie Winteler about his marriage and his strong feelings for her. He wrote in 1910, while his wife was pregnant with their second child: "I think of you in heartfelt love every spare minute and am so unhappy as only a man can be." He spoke about a "misguided love" and a "missed life" regarding his love for Marie.[53]

 Einstein married Löwenthal in 1919,[54][55] after having had a relationship with her since 1912.[49][56] They emigrated to the United States in 1933. Elsa was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems in 1935 and died in December 1936.[57]

 In 1923, Einstein fell in love with a secretary named Betty Neumann, the niece of a close friend, Hans Mühsam.[58][59][60][61] In a volume of letters released by Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 2006,[62] Einstein described about six women, including Margarete Lebach (a blonde Austrian), Estella Katzenellenbogen (the rich owner of a florist business), Toni Mendel (a wealthy Jewish widow) and Ethel Michanowski (a Berlin socialite), with whom he spent time and from whom he received gifts while being married to Elsa.[63][64] Later, after the death of his second wife Elsa, Einstein was briefly in a relationship with Margarita Konenkova. Konenkova was a Russian spy who was married to the Russian sculptor Sergei Konenkov (who created the bronze bust of Einstein at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton).[65][66][ failed verification ]

 Einstein's son Eduard had a breakdown at about age 20 and was diagnosed with schizophrenia.[67] His mother cared for him and he was also committed to asylums for several periods, finally, after her death, being committed permanently to Burghölzli, the Psychiatric University Hospital in Zürich.[68]

 Patent office

 Einstein in 1904, age 25

 After graduating in 1900, Einstein spent almost two years searching for a teaching post. He acquired Swiss citizenship in February 1901,[69] but was not conscripted for medical reasons. With the help of Marcel Grossmann's father, he secured a job in Bern at the Swiss Patent Office,[70][71] as an assistant examiner – level III.[72][73]

 There, he evaluated patent applications for a variety of devices including a gravel sorter and an electromechanical typewriter.[73] In 1903, his position at the patent office became permanent, although he was passed over for promotion until he "fully mastered machine technology".[74] Much of his work was related to questions about transmission of electric signals and electrical-mechanical synchronization of time, two technical problems that show up conspicuously in the thought experiments that eventually led Einstein to his radical conclusions about the nature of light and the fundamental connection between space and time.[13]

 With a few friends he had met in Bern, he started a small discussion group in 1902, self-mockingly named "The Olympia Academy", which met regularly to discuss science and philosophy. Sometimes they were joined by Marić who attentively listened but did not participate.[75] Their readings included the works of Henri Poincaré, Ernst Mach, and David Hume, which influenced his scientific and philosophical outlook.[76]

 First scientific papers

 Cover image of the PhD dissertation of Albert Einstein defended in 1905

 In 1900, Einstein's paper "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen" ("Conclusions from the Capillarity Phenomena") was published in the journal Annalen der Physik.[77][78] On 30 April 1905 Einstein completed his dissertation, A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions[79] with Alfred Kleiner, serving as pro-forma advisor.[79][80] His thesis was accepted in July 1905, and Einstein was awarded a PhD on 15 January 1906.[79][80][81]

 Also in 1905, which has been called Einstein's annus mirabilis (amazing year), he published four groundbreaking papers, on the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, special relativity, and the equivalence of mass and energy, which were to bring him to the notice of the academic world, at the age of 26.[82]

 Academic career

 By 1908, he was recognized as a leading scientist and was appointed lecturer at the University of Bern. The following year, after he gave a lecture on electrodynamics and the relativity principle at the University of Zurich, Alfred Kleiner recommended him to the faculty for a newly created professorship in theoretical physics. Einstein was appointed associate professor in 1909.[83]

 Einstein became a full professor at the German Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague in April 1911, accepting Austrian citizenship in the Austro-Hungarian Empire to do so.[84][85] During his Prague stay, he wrote 11 scientific works, five of them on radiation mathematics and on the quantum theory of solids.

 Olympia Academy founders: Conrad Habicht, Maurice Solovine and Albert Einstein

 In July 1912, he returned to his alma mater in Zürich. From 1912 until 1914, he was a professor of theoretical physics at the ETH Zurich, where he taught analytical mechanics and thermodynamics. He also studied continuum mechanics, the molecular theory of heat, and the problem of gravitation, on which he worked with mathematician and friend Marcel Grossmann.[86]

 When the "Manifesto of the Ninety-Three" was published in October 1914—a document signed by a host of prominent German intellectuals that justified Germany's militarism and position during the First World War—Einstein was one of the few German intellectuals to rebut its contents and sign the pacifistic "Manifesto to the Europeans".[87]

 The New York Times reported confirmation of "the Einstein theory" (specifically, the bending of light by gravitation) based on 29 May 1919 eclipse observations in Príncipe (Africa) and Sobral (Brazil), after the findings were presented on 6 November 1919 to a joint meeting in London of the Royal Society and the Royal Astronomical Society.[88]

 In the spring of 1913, Einstein was enticed to move to Berlin with an offer that included membership in the Prussian Academy of Sciences, and a linked University of Berlin professorship, enabling him to concentrate exclusively on research.[56] On 3 July 1913, he became a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin. Max Planck and Walther Nernst visited him the next week in Zurich to persuade him to join the academy, additionally offering him the post of director at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics, which was soon to be established.[89] Membership in the academy included paid salary and professorship without teaching duties at Humboldt University of Berlin. He was officially elected to the academy on 24 July, and he moved to Berlin the following year. His decision to move to Berlin was also influenced by the prospect of living near his cousin Elsa, with whom he had started a romantic affair. Einstein assumed his position with the academy, and Berlin University,[90] after moving into his Dahlem apartment on 1 April 1914.[56][91] As World War I broke out that year, the plan for Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics was delayed. The institute was established on 1 October 1917, with Einstein as its director.[92] In 1916, Einstein was elected president of the German Physical Society (1916–1918).[93]

 In 1911, Einstein used his 1907 equivalence principle to calculate the deflection of light from another star by the Sun's gravity. In 1913, Einstein improved upon those calculations by using the curvature of spacetime to represent the gravity field. By the fall of 1915, Einstein had successfully completed his general theory of relativity, which he used to calculate that deflection, and the perihelion precession of Mercury.[56][94] In 1919, that deflection prediction was confirmed by Sir Arthur Eddington during the solar eclipse of 29 May 1919. Those observations were published in the international media, making Einstein world-famous. On 7 November 1919, the leading British newspaper The Times printed a banner headline that read: "Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown".[95]

 In 1920, he became a Foreign Member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.[96] In 1922, he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect".[10] While the general theory of relativity was still considered somewhat controversial, the citation also does not treat even the cited photoelectric work as an explanation but merely as a discovery of the law, as the idea of photons was considered outlandish and did not receive universal acceptance until the 1924 derivation of the Planck spectrum by S. N. Bose. Einstein was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1921.[1] He also received the Copley Medal from the Royal Society in 1925.[1]

 Einstein resigned from the Prussian Academy in March 1933. Einstein's scientific accomplishments while in Berlin, included finishing the general theory of relativity, proving the Einstein–de Haas effect, contributing to the quantum theory of radiation, and Bose–Einstein statistics.[56]

 1921–1922: Travels abroad

 Einstein with his second wife, Elsa, in 1921
 Einstein's official portrait after receiving the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics

 Einstein visited New York City for the first time on 2 April 1921, where he received an official welcome by Mayor John Francis Hylan, followed by three weeks of lectures and receptions.[97] He went on to deliver several lectures at Columbia University and Princeton University, and in Washington, he accompanied representatives of the National Academy of Sciences on a visit to the White House. On his return to Europe he was the guest of the British statesman and philosopher Viscount Haldane in London, where he met several renowned scientific, intellectual, and political figures, and delivered a lecture at King's College London.[98][99]

 He also published an essay, "My First Impression of the U.S.A.", in July 1921, in which he tried briefly to describe some characteristics of Americans, much as had Alexis de Tocqueville, who published his own impressions in Democracy in America (1835).[100] For some of his observations, Einstein was clearly surprised: "What strikes a visitor is the joyous, positive attitude to life ... The American is friendly, self-confident, optimistic, and without envy."[101]

 In 1922, his travels took him to Asia and later to Palestine, as part of a six-month excursion and speaking tour, as he visited Singapore, Ceylon and Japan, where he gave a series of lectures to thousands of Japanese. After his first public lecture, he met the emperor and empress at the Imperial Palace, where thousands came to watch. In a letter to his sons, he described his impression of the Japanese as being modest, intelligent, considerate, and having a true feel for art.[102] In his own travel diaries from his 1922–23 visit to Asia, he expresses some views on the Chinese, Japanese and Indian people, which have been described as xenophobic and racist judgments when they were rediscovered in 2018.[103][104]

 Because of Einstein's travels to the Far East, he was unable to personally accept the Nobel Prize for Physics at the Stockholm award ceremony in December 1922. In his place, the banquet speech was made by a German diplomat, who praised Einstein not only as a scientist but also as an international peacemaker and activist.[105]

 On his return voyage, he visited Palestine for 12 days, his only visit to that region. He was greeted as if he were a head of state, rather than a physicist, which included a cannon salute upon arriving at the home of the British high commissioner, Sir Herbert Samuel. During one reception, the building was stormed by people who wanted to see and hear him. In Einstein's talk to the audience, he expressed happiness that the Jewish people were beginning to be recognized as a force in the world.[106]

 Einstein visited Spain for two weeks in 1923, where he briefly met Santiago Ramón y Cajal and also received a diploma from King Alfonso XIII naming him a member of the Spanish Academy of Sciences.[107]

 Albert Einstein at a session of the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation (League of Nations) of which he was a member from 1922 to 1932

 From 1922 to 1932, Einstein was a member of the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations in Geneva (with a few months of interruption in 1923–1924),[108] a body created to promote international exchange between scientists, researchers, teachers, artists, and intellectuals.[109] Originally slated to serve as the Swiss delegate, Secretary-General Eric Drummond was persuaded by Catholic activists Oskar Halecki and Giuseppe Motta to instead have him become the German delegate, thus allowing Gonzague de Reynold to take the Swiss spot, from which he promoted traditionalist Catholic values.[110] Einstein's former physics professor Hendrik Lorentz and the Polish chemist Marie Curie were also members of the committee.[111]

 1925: Visit to South America

 In the months of March and April 1925, Einstein visited South America, where he spent about a month in Argentina, a week in Uruguay, and a week in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.[112] Einstein's visit was initiated by Jorge Duclout (1856–1927) and Mauricio Nirenstein (1877–1935)[113] with the support of several Argentine scholars, including Julio Rey Pastor, Jakob Laub, and Leopoldo Lugones. The visit by Einstein and his wife was financed primarily by the Council of the University of Buenos Aires and the Asociación Hebraica Argentina (Argentine Hebraic Association) with a smaller contribution from the Argentine-Germanic Cultural Institution.[114]

 1930–1931: Travel to the US

 Albert Einstein and a Salvation Army band before a performance at the Rose Bowl Parade, in California, 1926.

 In December 1930, Einstein visited America for the second time, originally intended as a two-month working visit as a research fellow at the California Institute of Technology. After the national attention he received during his first trip to the US, he and his arrangers aimed to protect his privacy. Although swamped with telegrams and invitations to receive awards or speak publicly, he declined them all.[115]

 After arriving in New York City, Einstein was taken to various places and events, including Chinatown, a lunch with the editors of The New York Times, and a performance of Carmen at the Metropolitan Opera, where he was cheered by the audience on his arrival. During the days following, he was given the keys to the city by Mayor Jimmy Walker and met the president of Columbia University, who described Einstein as "the ruling monarch of the mind".[116] Harry Emerson Fosdick, pastor at New York's Riverside Church, gave Einstein a tour of the church and showed him a full-size statue that the church made of Einstein, standing at the entrance.[116] Also during his stay in New York, he joined a crowd of 15,000 people at Madison Square Garden during a Hanukkah celebration.[116]

 Albert Einstein (left) and Charlie Chaplin at the Hollywood premiere of City Lights, January 1931

 Einstein next traveled to California, where he met Caltech president and Nobel laureate Robert A. Millikan. His friendship with Millikan was "awkward", as Millikan "had a penchant for patriotic militarism", where Einstein was a pronounced pacifist.[117] During an address to Caltech's students, Einstein noted that science was often inclined to do more harm than good.[118]

 This aversion to war also led Einstein to befriend author Upton Sinclair and film star Charlie Chaplin, both noted for their pacifism. Carl Laemmle, head of Universal Studios, gave Einstein a tour of his studio and introduced him to Chaplin. They had an instant rapport, with Chaplin inviting Einstein and his wife, Elsa, to his home for dinner. Chaplin said Einstein's outward persona, calm and gentle, seemed to conceal a "highly emotional temperament", from which came his "extraordinary intellectual energy".[119]

 Chaplin's film, City Lights, was to premiere a few days later in Hollywood, and Chaplin invited Einstein and Elsa to join him as his special guests. Walter Isaacson, Einstein's biographer, described this as "one of the most memorable scenes in the new era of celebrity".[118] Chaplin visited Einstein at his home on a later trip to Berlin and recalled his "modest little flat" and the piano at which he had begun writing his theory. Chaplin speculated that it was "possibly used as kindling wood by the Nazis".[120]

 1933: Emigration to the US

 Cartoon of Einstein after shedding his "pacifism" wings (Charles R. Macauley, c. 1933 )

 In February 1933, while on a visit to the United States, Einstein knew he could not return to Germany with the rise to power of the Nazis under Germany's new chancellor, Adolf Hitler.[121][122]

 While at American universities in early 1933, he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. In February and March 1933, the Gestapo repeatedly raided his family's apartment in Berlin.[123] He and his wife Elsa returned to Europe in March, and during the trip, they learned that the German Reichstag had passed the Enabling Act on 23 March, transforming Hitler's government into a de facto legal dictatorship, and that they would not be able to proceed to Berlin. Later on, they heard that their cottage had been raided by the Nazis and Einstein's personal sailboat confiscated. Upon landing in Antwerp, Belgium on 28 March, Einstein immediately went to the German consulate and surrendered his passport, formally renouncing his German citizenship.[124] The Nazis later sold his boat and converted his cottage into a Hitler Youth camp.[125]

 Refugee status

 Albert Einstein's landing card (26 May 1933), when he landed in Dover (United Kingdom) from Ostend (Belgium) to visit Oxford

 In April 1933, Einstein discovered that the new German government had passed laws barring Jews from holding any official positions, including teaching at universities.[124] Historian Gerald Holton describes how, with "virtually no audible protest being raised by their colleagues", thousands of Jewish scientists were suddenly forced to give up their university positions and their names were removed from the rolls of institutions where they were employed.[126]

 A month later, Einstein's works were among those targeted by the German Student Union in the Nazi book burnings, with Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels proclaiming, "Jewish intellectualism is dead."[124] One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, "not yet hanged", offering a $5,000 bounty on his head.[124][127] In a subsequent letter to physicist and friend Max Born, who had already emigrated from Germany to England, Einstein wrote, "... I must confess that the degree of their brutality and cowardice came as something of a surprise."[124] After moving to the US, he described the book burnings as a "spontaneous emotional outburst" by those who "shun popular enlightenment", and "more than anything else in the world, fear the influence of men of intellectual independence".[128]

 Einstein was now without a permanent home, unsure where he would live and work, and equally worried about the fate of countless other scientists still in Germany. Aided by the Academic Assistance Council, founded in April 1933 by British liberal politician William Beveridge to help academics escape Nazi persecution, Einstein was able to leave Germany.[129] He rented a house in De Haan, Belgium, where he lived for a few months. In late July 1933, he went to England for about six weeks at the personal invitation of British naval officer Commander Oliver Locker-Lampson, who had become friends with Einstein in the preceding years.[130] Locker-Lampson invited him to stay near his Cromer home in a wooden cabin on Roughton Heath in the Parish of Roughton, Norfolk. To protect Einstein, Locker-Lampson had two bodyguards watch over him at his secluded cabin; a photo of them carrying shotguns and guarding Einstein was published in the Daily Herald on 24 July 1933.[131][132]

 Locker-Lampson took Einstein to meet Winston Churchill at his home, and later, Austen Chamberlain and former Prime Minister Lloyd George.[133] Einstein asked them to help bring Jewish scientists out of Germany. British historian Martin Gilbert notes that Churchill responded immediately, and sent his friend, physicist Frederick Lindemann, to Germany to seek out Jewish scientists and place them in British universities.[134] Churchill later observed that as a result of Germany having driven the Jews out, they had lowered their "technical standards" and put the Allies' technology ahead of theirs.[134]

 Einstein later contacted leaders of other nations, including Turkey's Prime Minister, İsmet İnönü, to whom he wrote in September 1933 requesting placement of unemployed German-Jewish scientists. As a result of Einstein's letter, Jewish invitees to Turkey eventually totaled over "1,000 saved individuals".[135]

 Locker-Lampson also submitted a bill to parliament to extend British citizenship to Einstein, during which period Einstein made a number of public appearances describing the crisis brewing in Europe.[136] In one of his speeches he denounced Germany's treatment of Jews, while at the same time he introduced a bill promoting Jewish citizenship in Palestine, as they were being denied citizenship elsewhere.[137] In his speech he described Einstein as a "citizen of the world" who should be offered a temporary shelter in the UK.[note 3][138] Both bills failed, however, and Einstein then accepted an earlier offer from the Institute for Advanced Study, in Princeton, New Jersey, US, to become a resident scholar.[136]

 Resident scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study

 Portrait of Einstein taken in 1935 at Princeton

 On 3 October 1933, Einstein delivered a speech on the importance of academic freedom before a packed audience at the Royal Albert Hall in London, with The Times reporting he was wildly cheered throughout.[129] Four days later he returned to the US and took up a position at the Institute for Advanced Study,[136][139] noted for having become a refuge for scientists fleeing Nazi Germany.[140] At the time, most American universities, including Harvard, Princeton and Yale, had minimal or no Jewish faculty or students, as a result of their Jewish quotas, which lasted until the late 1940s.[140]

 Einstein was still undecided on his future. He had offers from several European universities, including Christ Church, Oxford, where he stayed for three short periods between May 1931 and June 1933 and was offered a five-year research fellowship (called a "studentship" at Christ Church),[141][142] but in 1935, he arrived at the decision to remain permanently in the United States and apply for citizenship.[136][143]

 Einstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last until his death in 1955.[144] He was one of the four first selected (along with John von Neumann, Kurt Gödel, and Hermann Weyl[145]) at the new Institute. He soon developed a close friendship with Gödel; the two would take long walks together discussing their work. Bruria Kaufman, his assistant, later became a physicist. During this period, Einstein tried to develop a unified field theory and to refute the accepted interpretation of quantum physics, both unsuccessfully.

 World War II and the Manhattan Project

 See also: Einstein–Szilárd letter
 Albert Einstein's marble bust at the Deutsches Museum in Munich

 In 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included émigré physicist Leó Szilárd attempted to alert Washington to ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. The group's warnings were discounted. Einstein and Szilárd, along with other refugees such as Edward Teller and Eugene Wigner, "regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win the race to build an atomic bomb, and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to such a weapon."[146][147] To make certain the US was aware of the danger, in July 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II in Europe, Szilárd and Wigner visited Einstein to explain the possibility of atomic bombs, which Einstein, a pacifist, said he had never considered.[148] He was asked to lend his support by writing a letter, with Szilárd, to President Roosevelt, recommending the US pay attention and engage in its own nuclear weapons research.

 The letter is believed to be "arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II".[149] In addition to the letter, Einstein used his connections with the Belgian Royal Family[150] and the Belgian queen mother to get access with a personal envoy to the White House's Oval Office. Some say that as a result of Einstein's letter and his meetings with Roosevelt, the US entered the "race" to develop the bomb, drawing on its "immense material, financial, and scientific resources" to initiate the Manhattan Project.

 For Einstein, "war was a disease ... [and] he called for resistance to war." By signing the letter to Roosevelt, some argue he went against his pacifist principles.[151] In 1954, a year before his death, Einstein said to his old friend, Linus Pauling, "I made one great mistake in my life—when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made; but there was some justification—the danger that the Germans would make them ..."[152] In 1955, Einstein and ten other intellectuals and scientists, including British philosopher Bertrand Russell, signed a manifesto highlighting the danger of nuclear weapons.[153]

 US citizenship

 Einstein accepting US citizenship certificate from judge Phillip Forman

 Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into his career at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, he expressed his appreciation of the meritocracy in American culture compared to Europe. He recognized the "right of individuals to say and think what they pleased" without social barriers. As a result, individuals were encouraged, he said, to be more creative, a trait he valued from his early education.[154]

 Einstein joined the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in Princeton, where he campaigned for the civil rights of African Americans. He considered racism America's "worst disease",[127][155] seeing it as "handed down from one generation to the next".[156] As part of his involvement, he corresponded with civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois and was prepared to testify on his behalf during his trial in 1951.[157] When Einstein offered to be a character witness for Du Bois, the judge decided to drop the case.[158]

 In 1946, Einstein visited Lincoln University in Pennsylvania, a historically black college, where he was awarded an honorary degree. Lincoln was the first university in the United States to grant college degrees to African Americans; alumni include Langston Hughes and Thurgood Marshall. Einstein gave a speech about racism in America, adding, "I do not intend to be quiet about it."[159] A resident of Princeton recalls that Einstein had once paid the college tuition for a black student.[158] Einstein has said, "Being a Jew myself, perhaps I can understand and empathize with how black people feel as victims of discrimination".[155]

 Personal views

 Political views

 Main article: Political views of Albert Einstein
 Albert Einstein with his wife Elsa Einstein and Zionist leaders, including the future president of Israel, Chaim Weizmann, his wife Vera Weizmann, Menahem Ussishkin, and Ben-Zion Mossinson on arrival in New York City in 1921

 In 1918, Einstein was one of the founding members of the German Democratic Party, a liberal party.[160] Later in his life, Einstein's political view was in favor of socialism and critical of capitalism, which he detailed in his essays such as "Why Socialism?"[161][162] His opinions on the Bolsheviks also changed with time. In 1925, he criticized them for not having a 'well-regulated system of government' and called their rule a 'regime of terror and a tragedy in human history'. He later adopted a more moderated view, criticizing their methods but praising them, which is shown by his 1929 remark on Vladimir Lenin: "In Lenin I honor a man, who in total sacrifice of his own person has committed his entire energy to realizing social justice. I do not find his methods advisable. One thing is certain, however: men like him are the guardians and renewers of mankind's conscience."[163] Einstein offered and was called on to give judgments and opinions on matters often unrelated to theoretical physics or mathematics.[136] He strongly advocated the idea of a democratic global government that would check the power of nation-states in the framework of a world federation.[164] He wrote "I advocate world government because I am convinced that there is no other possible way of eliminating the most terrible danger in which man has ever found himself."[165] The FBI created a secret dossier on Einstein in 1932, and by the time of his death his FBI file was 1,427 pages long.[166]

 Einstein was deeply impressed by Mahatma Gandhi, with whom he exchanged written letters. He described Gandhi as "a role model for the generations to come".[167] The initial connection was established on 27 September 1931, when Wilfrid Israel took his Indian guest V. A. Sundaram to meet his friend Einstein at his summer home in the town of Caputh. Sundaram was Gandhi's disciple and special envoy, whom Wilfrid Israel met while visiting India and visiting the Indian leader's home in 1925. During the visit, Einstein wrote a short letter to Gandhi that was delivered to him through his envoy, and Gandhi responded quickly with his own letter. Although in the end Einstein and Gandhi were unable to meet as they had hoped, the direct connection between them was established through Wilfrid Israel.[168]

 Relationship with Zionism

 Einstein in 1947

 Einstein was a figurehead leader in helping establish the Hebrew University of Jerusalem,[169] which opened in 1925. Earlier, in 1921, he was asked by the biochemist and president of the World Zionist Organization, Chaim Weizmann, to help raise funds for the planned university.[170] He made suggestions for the creation of an Institute of Agriculture, a Chemical Institute and an Institute of Microbiology in order to fight the various ongoing epidemics such as malaria, which he called an "evil" that was undermining a third of the country's development.[171] He also promoted the establishment of an Oriental Studies Institute, to include language courses given in both Hebrew and Arabic.[172]

 Einstein was not a nationalist and was against the creation of an independent Jewish state, which would be established without his help as Israel in 1948. He felt that the waves of arriving Jews of the Aliyah could live alongside existing Arabs in Palestine.[173] Nevertheless, upon the death of Israeli president Weizmann in November 1952, Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion offered Einstein the largely ceremonial position of President of Israel at the urging of Ezriel Carlebach.[174][175] The offer was presented by Israel's ambassador in Washington, Abba Eban, who explained that the offer "embodies the deepest respect which the Jewish people can repose in any of its sons".[176] Einstein wrote that he was "deeply moved", but "at once saddened and ashamed" that he could not accept it.[176]

 Religious and philosophical views

 Start of a speech by Albert Einstein made on 11 April 1943 for the United Jewish Appeal (recording by Radio Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina) "Ladies (coughs) and gentlemen, our age is proud of the progress it has made in man's intellectual development. The search and striving for truth and knowledge is one of the highest of man's qualities ..."
 Main article: Religious and philosophical views of Albert Einstein

 Einstein spoke of his spiritual outlook in a wide array of original writings and interviews.[177] He said he had sympathy for the impersonal pantheistic God of Baruch Spinoza's philosophy.[178] He did not believe in a personal god who concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings, a view which he described as naïve.[179] He clarified, however, that "I am not an atheist",[180] preferring to call himself an agnostic,[181][182] or a "deeply religious nonbeliever".[179] When asked if he believed in an afterlife, Einstein replied, "No. And one life is enough for me."[183]

 Einstein was primarily affiliated with non-religious humanist and Ethical Culture groups in both the UK and US. He served on the advisory board of the First Humanist Society of New York,[184] and was an honorary associate of the Rationalist Association, which publishes New Humanist in Britain. For the 75th anniversary of the New York Society for Ethical Culture, he stated that the idea of Ethical Culture embodied his personal conception of what is most valuable and enduring in religious idealism. He observed, "Without 'ethical culture' there is no salvation for humanity."[185]

 In a German-language letter to philosopher Eric Gutkind, dated 3 January 1954, Einstein wrote:

 The word God is for me nothing more than the expression and product of human weaknesses, the Bible a collection of honorable, but still primitive legends which are nevertheless pretty childish. No interpretation no matter how subtle can (for me) change this. ... For me the Jewish religion like all other religions is an incarnation of the most childish superstitions. And the Jewish people to whom I gladly belong and with whose mentality I have a deep affinity have no different quality for me than all other people. ... I cannot see anything 'chosen' about them.[186]

 Einstein had been sympathetic toward vegetarianism for a long time. In a letter in 1930 to Hermann Huth, vice-president of the German Vegetarian Federation (Deutsche Vegetarier-Bund), he wrote:

 Although I have been prevented by outward circumstances from observing a strictly vegetarian diet, I have long been an adherent to the cause in principle. Besides agreeing with the aims of vegetarianism for aesthetic and moral reasons, it is my view that a vegetarian manner of living by its purely physical effect on the human temperament would most beneficially influence the lot of mankind.[187]

 He became a vegetarian himself only during the last part of his life. In March 1954 he wrote in a letter: "So I am living without fats, without meat, without fish, but am feeling quite well this way. It almost seems to me that man was not born to be a carnivore."[188]

 Love of music

 Einstein developed an appreciation for music at an early age. In his late journals he wrote:

 "If I were not a physicist, I would probably be a musician. I often think in music. I live my daydreams in music. I see my life in terms of music ... I get most joy in life out of music."[189][190]

 His mother played the piano reasonably well and wanted her son to learn the violin, not only to instill in him a love of music but also to help him assimilate into German culture. According to conductor Leon Botstein, Einstein began playing when he was 5. However, he did not enjoy it at that age.[191]

 When he turned 13, he discovered the violin sonatas of Mozart, whereupon he became enamored of Mozart's compositions and studied music more willingly. Einstein taught himself to play without "ever practicing systematically". He said that "love is a better teacher than a sense of duty".[191] At the age of 17, he was heard by a school examiner in Aarau while playing Beethoven's violin sonatas. The examiner stated afterward that his playing was "remarkable and revealing of 'great insight ' ". What struck the examiner, writes Botstein, was that Einstein "displayed a deep love of the music, a quality that was and remains in short supply. Music possessed an unusual meaning for this student."[191]

 Music took on a pivotal and permanent role in Einstein's life from that period on. Although the idea of becoming a professional musician himself was not on his mind at any time, among those with whom Einstein played chamber music were a few professionals, including Kurt Appelbaum, and he performed for private audiences and friends. Chamber music had also become a regular part of his social life while living in Bern, Zürich, and Berlin, where he played with Max Planck and his son, among others. He is sometimes erroneously credited as the editor of the 1937 edition of the Köchel catalog of Mozart's work; that edition was prepared by Alfred Einstein, who may have been a distant relation.[192][193]

 In 1931, while engaged in research at the California Institute of Technology, he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles, where he played some of Beethoven and Mozart's works with members of the Zoellner Quartet.[194][195] Near the end of his life, when the young Juilliard Quartet visited him in Princeton, he played his violin with them, and the quartet was "impressed by Einstein's level of coordination and intonation".[191]

 Death

 On 17 April 1955, Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused by the rupture of an abdominal aortic aneurysm, which had previously been reinforced surgically by Rudolph Nissen in 1948.[196] He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the state of Israel's seventh anniversary with him to the hospital, but he did not live to complete it.[197]

 Einstein refused surgery, saying, "I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share; it is time to go. I will do it elegantly."[198] He died in the Penn Medicine Princeton Medical Center early the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end.[199]

 During the autopsy, the pathologist Thomas Stoltz Harvey removed Einstein's brain for preservation without the permission of his family, in the hope that the neuroscience of the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so intelligent.[200] Einstein's remains were cremated in Trenton, New Jersey,[201] and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location.[202][203]

 In a memorial lecture delivered on 13 December 1965 at UNESCO headquarters, nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer summarized his impression of Einstein as a person: "He was almost wholly without sophistication and wholly without worldliness ... There was always with him a wonderful purity at once childlike and profoundly stubborn."[204]

 Einstein bequeathed his personal archives, library, and intellectual assets to the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in Israel.[205]

 Scientific career

 Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles.[5][206] He published more than 300 scientific papers and 150 non-scientific ones.[14][206] On 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einstein's papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents.[207][208] Einstein's intellectual achievements and originality have made the word "Einstein" synonymous with "genius".[11] In addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including the Bose–Einstein statistics, the Einstein refrigerator and others.[209][210]

 There is some evidence from Einstein's writings that he collaborated with his first wife, Mileva Marić. In 13 December 1900, a first article on capillarity signed only under Albert’s name was submitted. The decision to publish only under his name seems to have been mutual, but the exact reason is unknown.[38]

 1905 – Annus Mirabilis papers

 The Annus Mirabilis papers are four articles pertaining to the photoelectric effect (which gave rise to quantum theory), Brownian motion, the special theory of relativity, and E = mc2 that Einstein published in the Annalen der Physik scientific journal in 1905. These four works contributed substantially to the foundation of modern physics and changed views on space, time, and matter. The four papers are:

 Title (translated)  Area of focus Received Published Significance     
 "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light"[211] Photoelectric effect 18 March 9 June Resolved an unsolved puzzle by suggesting that energy is exchanged only in discrete amounts (quanta).[212] This idea was pivotal to the early development of quantum theory.[213]   
 "On the Motion of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid, as Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat"[214] Brownian motion 11 May 18 July Explained empirical evidence for the atomic theory, supporting the application of statistical physics.    
 "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies"[215]  Special relativity 30 June 26 September Reconciled Maxwell's equations for electricity and magnetism with the laws of mechanics by introducing changes to mechanics, resulting from analysis based on empirical evidence that the speed of light is independent of the motion of the observer.[216] Discredited the concept of a "luminiferous ether".[217]
 "Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?"[218] Matter–energy equivalence 27 September 21 November Equivalence of matter and energy, E = mc2, the existence of "rest energy", and the basis of nuclear energy.    
 

 Statistical mechanics

 Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics

 Main articles: Statistical mechanics, thermal fluctuations, and statistical physics

 Einstein's first paper[77][219] submitted in 1900 to Annalen der Physik was on capillary attraction. It was published in 1901 with the title "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen", which translates as "Conclusions from the capillarity phenomena". Two papers he published in 1902–1903 (thermodynamics) attempted to interpret atomic phenomena from a statistical point of view. These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper on Brownian motion, which showed that Brownian movement can be construed as firm evidence that molecules exist. His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena.[219]

 Theory of critical opalescence

 Main article: Critical opalescence

 Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates this to Rayleigh scattering, which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue.[220] Einstein quantitatively derived critical opalescence from a treatment of density fluctuations, and demonstrated how both the effect and Rayleigh scattering originate from the atomistic constitution of matter.

 Special relativity

 Main article: History of special relativity

 Einstein's "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper"[215] ("On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies") was received on 30 June 1905 and published 26 September of that same year. It reconciled conflicts between Maxwell's equations (the laws of electricity and magnetism) and the laws of Newtonian mechanics by introducing changes to the laws of mechanics.[221] Observationally, the effects of these changes are most apparent at high speeds (where objects are moving at speeds close to the speed of light). The theory developed in this paper later became known as Einstein's special theory of relativity.

 This paper predicted that, when measured in the frame of a relatively moving observer, a clock carried by a moving body would appear to slow down, and the body itself would contract in its direction of motion. This paper also argued that the idea of a luminiferous aether—one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time—was superfluous.[note 4]

 In his paper on mass–energy equivalence, Einstein produced E = mc2 as a consequence of his special relativity equations.[222] Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, starting with Max Planck.[note 5][223]

 Einstein originally framed special relativity in terms of kinematics (the study of moving bodies). In 1908, Hermann Minkowski reinterpreted special relativity in geometric terms as a theory of spacetime. Einstein adopted Minkowski's formalism in his 1915 general theory of relativity.[224]

 General relativity

 General relativity and the equivalence principle

 Main article: History of general relativity
 See also: Theory of relativity and Einstein field equations
 Eddington's photograph of a solar eclipse.

 General relativity (GR) is a theory of gravitation that was developed by Einstein between 1907 and 1915. According to it, the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping of spacetime by those masses. General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modern astrophysics, it provides the foundation for the current understanding of black holes, regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that not even light can escape.[225]

 As Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial motions within special relativity was unsatisfactory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of motion (even accelerated ones) should appear more satisfactory.[226] Consequently, in 1907 he published an article on acceleration under special relativity. In that article titled "On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn from It", he argued that free fall is really inertial motion, and that for a free-falling observer the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called the equivalence principle. In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomena of gravitational time dilation, gravitational redshift and gravitational lensing.[227][228]

 In 1911, Einstein published another article "On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light" expanding on the 1907 article, in which he estimated the amount of deflection of light by massive bodies. Thus, the theoretical prediction of general relativity could for the first time be tested experimentally.[229]

 Gravitational waves

 In 1916, Einstein predicted gravitational waves,[230][231] ripples in the curvature of spacetime which propagate as waves, traveling outward from the source, transporting energy as gravitational radiation. The existence of gravitational waves is possible under general relativity due to its Lorentz invariance which brings the concept of a finite speed of propagation of the physical interactions of gravity with it. By contrast, gravitational waves cannot exist in the Newtonian theory of gravitation, which postulates that the physical interactions of gravity propagate at infinite speed.

 The first, indirect, detection of gravitational waves came in the 1970s through observation of a pair of closely orbiting neutron stars, PSR B1913+16.[232] The explanation for the decay in their orbital period was that they were emitting gravitational waves.[232][233] Einstein's prediction was confirmed on 11 February 2016, when researchers at LIGO published the first observation of gravitational waves,[234] detected on Earth on 14 September 2015, nearly one hundred years after the prediction.[232][235][236][237][238]

 Hole argument and Entwurf theory

 While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about the gauge invariance in the theory. He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations and searched for equations that would be invariant under general linear transformations only.[239]

 In June 1913, the Entwurf ('draft') theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. After more than two years of intensive work, Einstein realized that the hole argument was mistaken[240] and abandoned the theory in November 1915.

 Physical cosmology

 Main article: Physical cosmology
 Einstein with Millikan and Georges Lemaître at the California Institute of Technology in January 1933

 In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to the structure of the universe as a whole.[241] He discovered that the general field equations predicted a universe that was dynamic, either contracting or expanding. As observational evidence for a dynamic universe was not known at the time, Einstein introduced a new term, the cosmological constant, to the field equations, in order to allow the theory to predict a static universe. The modified field equations predicted a static universe of closed curvature, in accordance with Einstein's understanding of Mach's principle in these years. This model became known as the Einstein World or Einstein's static universe.[242][243]

 Following the discovery of the recession of the nebulae by Edwin Hubble in 1929, Einstein abandoned his static model of the universe, and proposed two dynamic models of the cosmos, The Friedmann–Einstein universe of 1931[244][245] and the Einstein–de Sitter universe of 1932.[246][247] In each of these models, Einstein discarded the cosmological constant, claiming that it was "in any case theoretically unsatisfactory".[244][245][248]

 In many Einstein biographies, it is claimed that Einstein referred to the cosmological constant in later years as his "biggest blunder", based on a letter George Gamow claimed to have received from him. The astrophysicist Mario Livio has recently cast doubt on this claim.[249]

 In late 2013, a team led by the Irish physicist Cormac O'Raifeartaigh discovered evidence that, shortly after learning of Hubble's observations of the recession of the nebulae, Einstein considered a steady-state model of the universe.[250][251] In a hitherto overlooked manuscript, apparently written in early 1931, Einstein explored a model of the expanding universe in which the density of matter remains constant due to a continuous creation of matter, a process he associated with the cosmological constant.[252][253] As he stated in the paper, "In what follows, I would like to draw attention to a solution to equation (1) that can account for Hubbel's [sic] facts, and in which the density is constant over time" ... "If one considers a physically bounded volume, particles of matter will be continually leaving it. For the density to remain constant, new particles of matter must be continually formed in the volume from space."

 It thus appears that Einstein considered a steady-state model of the expanding universe many years before Hoyle, Bondi and Gold.[254][255] However, Einstein's steady-state model contained a fundamental flaw and he quickly abandoned the idea.[252][253][256]

 Energy momentum pseudotensor

 Main article: Stress–energy–momentum pseudotensor

 General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum. Noether's theorem allows these quantities to be determined from a Lagrangian with translation invariance, but general covariance makes translation invariance into something of a gauge symmetry. The energy and momentum derived within general relativity by Noether's prescriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason.[257]

 Einstein argued that this is true for a fundamental reason: the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was, in fact, the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. While the use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was criticized by Erwin Schrödinger and others, Einstein's approach has been echoed by physicists including Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz.[258]

 Wormholes

 In 1935, Einstein collaborated with Nathan Rosen to produce a model of a wormhole, often called Einstein–Rosen bridges.[259][260] His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper "Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?". These solutions cut and pasted Schwarzschild black holes to make a bridge between two patches. Because these solutions included spacetime curvature without the presence of a physical body, Einstein and Rosen suggested that they could provide the beginnings of a theory that avoided the notion of point particles. However, it was later found that Einstein–Rosen bridges are not stable.[261]

 Einstein–Cartan theory

 Main article: Einstein–Cartan theory
 Einstein at his office, University of Berlin, 1920

 In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called the torsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s.

 Equations of motion

 Main article: Einstein–Infeld–Hoffmann equations

 In general relativity, gravitational force is reimagined as curvature of spacetime. A curved path like an orbit is not the result of a force deflecting a body from an ideal straight-line path, but rather the body's attempt to fall freely through a background that is itself curved by the presence of other masses. A remark by John Archibald Wheeler that has become proverbial among physicists summarizes the theory: "Spacetime tells matter how to move; matter tells spacetime how to curve."[262][263] The Einstein field equations cover the latter aspect of the theory, relating the curvature of spacetime to the distribution of matter and energy. The geodesic equation covers the former aspect, stating that freely-falling bodies follow lines that are as straight as possible in a curved spacetime. Einstein regarded this as an "independent fundamental assumption" that had to be postulated in addition to the field equations in order to complete the theory. Believing this to be a shortcoming in how general relativity was originally presented, he wished to derive it from the field equations themselves. Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein field equations themselves, not by a new law. Accordingly, Einstein proposed that the field equations would determine the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, to be a geodesic. Both physicists and philosophers have often repeated the assertion that the geodesic equation can be obtained from applying the field equations to the motion of a gravitational singularity, but this claim remains disputed.[264][265]

 Old quantum theory

 Main article: Old quantum theory

 Photons and energy quanta

 The photoelectric effect. Incoming photons on the left strike a metal plate (bottom), and eject electrons, depicted as flying off to the right.

 In a 1905 paper,[211] Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles (quanta). Einstein's light quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became universally accepted in 1919, with Robert Millikan's detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the measurement of Compton scattering.

 Einstein concluded that each wave of frequency f is associated with a collection of photons with energy hf each, where h is Planck's constant. He does not say much more, because he is not sure how the particles are related to the wave. But he does suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably the photoelectric effect.[211]

 Quantized atomic vibrations

 Main article: Einstein solid

 In 1907, Einstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator. In the Einstein model, each atom oscillates independently—a series of equally spaced quantized states for each oscillator. Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be difficult, but he nevertheless proposed this theory because it was a particularly clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could solve the specific heat problem in classical mechanics. Peter Debye refined this model.[266]

 Bose–Einstein statistics

 Main article: Bose–Einstein statistics

 In 1924, Einstein received a description of a statistical model from Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his translation of Bose's paper to the Zeitschrift für Physik. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them the Bose–Einstein condensate phenomenon that some particulates should appear at very low temperatures.[267] It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by Eric Allin Cornell and Carl Wieman using ultra-cooling equipment built at the NIST–JILA laboratory at the University of Colorado at Boulder.[268] Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly of bosons. Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University.[209]

 Wave–particle duality

 Einstein during his visit to the United States

 Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became a Privatdozent at the University of Bern.[269] In "Über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung" ("The Development of our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation"), on the quantization of light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-defined momenta and act in some respects as independent, point-like particles. This paper introduced the photon concept (although the name photon was introduced later by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1926) and inspired the notion of wave–particle duality in quantum mechanics. Einstein saw this wave–particle duality in radiation as concrete evidence for his conviction that physics needed a new, unified foundation.

 Zero-point energy

 In a series of works completed from 1911 to 1913, Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory and introduced the idea of zero-point energy in his "second quantum theory". Soon, this idea attracted the attention of Einstein and his assistant Otto Stern. Assuming the energy of rotating diatomic molecules contains zero-point energy, they then compared the theoretical specific heat of hydrogen gas with the experimental data. The numbers matched nicely. However, after publishing the findings, they promptly withdrew their support, because they no longer had confidence in the correctness of the idea of zero-point energy.[270]

 Stimulated emission

 In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article in Physikalische Zeitschrift that proposed the possibility of stimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible the maser and the laser.[271] This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws.[272]

 Matter waves

 Einstein discovered Louis de Broglie's work and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein observed that de Broglie waves could explain the quantization rules of Bohr and Sommerfeld. This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926.[273][274]

 Quantum mechanics

 Einstein's objections to quantum mechanics

 Newspaper headline on 4 May 1935

 Einstein played a major role in developing quantum theory, beginning with his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect. However, he became displeased with modern quantum mechanics as it had evolved after 1925, despite its acceptance by other physicists. He was skeptical that the randomness of quantum mechanics was fundamental rather than the result of determinism, stating that God "is not playing at dice".[275] Until the end of his life, he continued to maintain that quantum mechanics was incomplete.[276]

 Bohr versus Einstein

 Main article: Bohr–Einstein debates
 Einstein and Niels Bohr, 1925

 The Bohr–Einstein debates were a series of public disputes about quantum mechanics between Einstein and Niels Bohr, who were two of its founders. Their debates are remembered because of their importance to the philosophy of science.[277][278][279] Their debates would influence later interpretations of quantum mechanics.

 Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox

 Main article: EPR paradox

 In 1935, Einstein returned to quantum mechanics, in particular to the question of its completeness, in a collaboration with Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen that laid out what would become known as the EPR paradox.[280] In a thought experiment, they considered two particles, which had interacted such that their properties were strongly correlated. No matter how far the two particles were separated, a precise position measurement on one particle would result in equally precise knowledge of the position of the other particle; likewise, a precise momentum measurement of one particle would result in equally precise knowledge of the momentum of the other particle, without needing to disturb the other particle in any way.[281]

 Given Einstein's concept of local realism, there were two possibilities: (1) either the other particle had these properties already determined, or (2) the process of measuring the first particle instantaneously affected the reality of the position and momentum of the second particle. Einstein rejected this second possibility (popularly called "spooky action at a distance").[281]

 Einstein's belief in local realism led him to assert that, while the correctness of quantum mechanics was not in question, it must be incomplete. But as a physical principle, local realism was shown to be incorrect when the Aspect experiment of 1982 confirmed Bell's theorem, which J. S. Bell had delineated in 1964. The results of these and subsequent experiments demonstrate that quantum physics cannot be represented by any version of the picture of physics in which "particles are regarded as unconnected independent classical-like entities, each one being unable to communicate with the other after they have separated."[282]

 Although Einstein was wrong about local realism, his clear prediction of the unusual properties of its opposite, entangled quantum states, has resulted in the EPR paper becoming among the most influential papers published in Physical Review. It is considered a centerpiece of the development of quantum information theory.[283]

 Unified field theory

 Main article: Classical unified field theories

 Following his research on general relativity, Einstein attempted to generalize his theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism as aspects of a single entity. In 1950, he described his "unified field theory" in a Scientific American article titled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation".[284] Although he was lauded for this work, his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful. Notably, Einstein's unification project did not accommodate the strong and weak nuclear forces, neither of which was well understood until many years after his death. Although mainstream physics has left behind Einstein's own approaches to unification, physicists still pursue a theory of everything.[285]

 Other investigations

 Main article: Einstein's unsuccessful investigations

 Einstein conducted other investigations that were unsuccessful and abandoned. These pertain to force, superconductivity, and other research.

 Collaboration with other scientists

 The 1927 Solvay Conference in Brussels, a gathering of the world's top physicists. Einstein is in the center.

 In addition to longtime collaborators Leopold Infeld, Nathan Rosen, Peter Bergmann and others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists.

 Einstein–de Haas experiment

 Main article: Einstein–de Haas effect

 In 1908, Owen Willans Richardson predicted that a change in the magnetic moment of a free body will cause this body to rotate. This effect is a consequence of the conservation of angular momentum and is strong enough to be observable in ferromagnetic materials.[286] Einstein and Wander Johannes de Haas published two papers in 1915 claiming the first experimental observation of the effect.[287][288] Measurements of this kind demonstrate that the phenomenon of magnetization is caused by the alignment (polarization) of the angular momenta of the electrons in the material along the axis of magnetization. These measurements also allow the separation of the two contributions to the magnetization: that which is associated with the spin and with the orbital motion of the electrons.

 Einstein refrigerator

 In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the Einstein refrigerator. This absorption refrigerator was then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input.[289] On 11 November 1930, U.S. Patent 1,781,541 was awarded to Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, and the most promising of their patents were acquired by the Swedish company Electrolux.[note 6]

 Non-scientific legacy

 Einstein (second from left) at a picnic in Oslo in 1920. Heinrich Goldschmidt is at the left, Ole Colbjørnsen in the center and Jørgen Vogt sits behind Ilse Einstein.

 While traveling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986[291]). Barbara Wolff, of the Hebrew University's Albert Einstein Archives, told the BBC that there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955.[292]

 Einstein's right of publicity was litigated in 2015 in a federal district court in California. Although the court initially held that the right had expired,[293] that ruling was immediately appealed, and the decision was later vacated in its entirety. The underlying claims between the parties in that lawsuit were ultimately settled. The right is enforceable, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem is the exclusive representative of that right.[294] Corbis, successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses the use of his name and associated imagery, as agent for the university.[295]

 Mount Einstein in the Chugach Mountains of Alaska was named in 1955.

 Mount Einstein in New Zealand's Paparoa Range was named after him in 1970 by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.[296]

 In popular culture

 Main article: Albert Einstein in popular culture

 Einstein became one of the most famous scientific celebrities,[297][298] beginning with the confirmation of his theory of general relativity in 1919.[299] Despite the general public having little understanding of his work, he was widely recognized and received adulation and publicity. In the period before World War II, The New Yorker published a vignette in their "The Talk of the Town" feature saying that Einstein was so well known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain "that theory". He finally figured out a way to handle the incessant inquiries. He told his inquirers, "Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein."[300]

 Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music.[301] He is a favorite model for depictions of absent-minded professors; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated. Time magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist's dream come true".[302]

 Many popular quotations are often misattributed to him.[303][304] For example, it is often claimed, erroneously, that he said, "The definition of insanity is doing the same thing over and over and expecting different results."[303]

 Awards and honors

 Main article: List of awards and honors received by Albert Einstein

 Einstein received numerous awards and honors, and in 1922, he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". None of the nominations in 1921 met the criteria set by Alfred Nobel, so the 1921 prize was carried forward and awarded to Einstein in 1922.[10]

 Publications

 Scientific

 Further information: List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein
 * Einstein, Albert (1901) [Completed 13 December 1900 and manuscript received 16 December 1900]. Written at Zurich, Switzerland. Paul Karl Ludwig Drude (ed.). "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen" [Conclusions Drawn from the Phenomena of Capillarity]. Annalen der Physik. Vierte Folge (in German). Leipzig, Germany: Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth (published 1 March 1901). 4 (all series: 309) (3): 513–523. Bibcode:1901AnP...309..513E. doi:10.1002/andp.19013090306 – via Wiley Online Library, Hoboken, New Jersey, US (March 2006).
 * Einstein, Albert (1905a) [Completed 17 March 1905 and submitted 18 March 1905]. Written at Berne, Switzerland. Paul Karl Ludwig Drude (ed.). "Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt" [On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light] (PDF) . Annalen der Physik. Vierte Folge (in German). Leipzig, Germany: Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth (published 9 June 1905). 17 (all series: 322) (6): 132–148. Bibcode:1905AnP...322..132E. doi:10.1002/andp.19053220607 – via Wiley Online Library, Hoboken, New Jersey, US (10 March 2006).
 * Einstein, Albert (1905b) [Completed 30 April 1905]. Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen [A new determination of molecular dimensions] (PDF) . Dissertationen Universität Zürich (PhD Thesis) (in German). Berne, Switzerland: Wyss Buchdruckerei (published 20 July 1905). doi:10.3929/ethz-a-000565688. hdl:20.500.11850/139872 – via ETH Bibliothek, Zürich (2008).
 * Einstein, Albert (1905c) [Manuscript received: 11 May 1905]. Written at Berne, Switzerland. Paul Karl Ludwig Drude (ed.). "Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen" [On the Motion – Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat – of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid]. Annalen der Physik. Vierte Folge (in German). Leipzig, Germany: Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth (published 18 July 1905). 17 (all series: 322) (8): 549–560. Bibcode:1905AnP...322..549E. doi:10.1002/andp.19053220806. hdl:10915/2785 – via Wiley Online Library, Hoboken, New Jersey, US (10 March 2006).
 * Einstein, Albert (1905d) [Manuscript received 30 June 1905]. Written at Berne, Switzerland. Paul Karl Ludwig Drude (ed.). "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper" [On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies]. Annalen der Physik (Submitted manuscript). Vierte Folge (in German). Leipzig, Germany: Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth (published 26 September 1905). 17 (all series: 322) (10): 891–921. Bibcode:1905AnP...322..891E. doi:10.1002/andp.19053221004. hdl:10915/2786 – via Wiley Online Library, Hoboken, New Jersey, US (10 March 2006).
 * Einstein, Albert (1905e) [Manuscript received 27 September 1905]. Written at Berne, Switzerland. Paul Karl Ludwig Drude (ed.). "Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt abhängig?" [Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?]. Annalen der Physik. Vierte Folge (in German). Leipzig, Germany: Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth (published 21 November 1905). 18 (all series: 323) (13): 639–641. Bibcode:1905AnP...323..639E. doi:10.1002/andp.19053231314 – via Wiley Online Library, Hoboken, New Jersey, US (10 March 2006).
 * Einstein, Albert (1915) [Completed 25 November 1915]. "Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation" [The Field Equations of Gravitation] (Online page images) . Sitzungsberichte 1915 (in German). Berlin, Germany: Königlich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften (published 2 December 1915): 844–847 – via ECHO, Cultural Heritage Online, Max Planck Institute for the History of Science.
 * Einstein, Albert (1916) [Issued 29 June 1916]. "Näherungsweise Integration der Feldgleichungen der Gravitation" [Approximate integration of the field equations of gravitation] (Online page images) . Sitzungsberichte 1916. Berlin, Germany: Königlich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften: 688–696. Bibcode:1916SPAW.......688E . Retrieved 24 January 2022 – via SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS).
 * Einstein, Albert (1917a). "Kosmologische Betrachtungen zur allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie" [Cosmological Considerations in the General Theory of Relativity] (Online page images) . Sitzungsberichte 1917 (in German). Königlich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin.
 * Einstein, Albert (1917b). "Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung" [On the Quantum Mechanics of Radiation]. Physikalische Zeitschrift (in German). 18: 121–128. Bibcode:1917PhyZ...18..121E.
 * Einstein, Albert (31 January 1918). "Über Gravitationswellen" [About gravitational waves]. Sitzungsberichte der Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften Berlin: 154–167. Bibcode:1918SPAW.......154E . Retrieved 14 November 2020 .
 * Einstein, Albert (1923) [First published 1923, in English 1967]. Written at Gothenburg. Grundgedanken und Probleme der Relativitätstheorie [Fundamental Ideas and Problems of the Theory of Relativity] (Speech). Lecture delivered to the Nordic Assembly of Naturalists at Gothenburg, 11 July 1923. Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901–1921 (in German and English). Stockholm: Nobelprice.org (published 3 February 2015) – via Nobel Media AB 2014.
 * Einstein, Albert (1924) [Published 10 July 1924]. "Quantentheorie des einatomigen idealen Gases" [Quantum theory of monatomic ideal gases]. Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Physikalisch-Mathematische Klasse (in German): 261–267. Archived from the original (Online page images) on 14 October 2016 . Retrieved 26 February 2015 – via ECHO, Cultural Heritage Online, Max Planck Institute for the History of Science. First of a series of papers on this topic.
 * Einstein, Albert (12 March 1926) [Cover Date 1 March 1926]. Written at Berlin. "Die Ursache der Mäanderbildung der Flußläufe und des sogenannten Baerschen Gesetzes" [On Baer's law and meanders in the courses of rivers]. Die Naturwissenschaften (in German). Heidelberg, Germany. 14 (11): 223–224. Bibcode:1926NW.....14..223E. doi:10.1007/BF01510300. ISSN 1432-1904. S2CID 39899416.
 * Einstein, Albert (1926b). Written at Berne, Switzerland. Fürth, R. (ed.). Investigations on the Theory of the Brownian Movement (PDF) . Translated by Cowper, A. D. US: Dover Publications (published 1956). ISBN 978-1-60796-285-4 . Retrieved 4 January 2015 .
 * Einstein, Albert (1931). "Zum kosmologischen Problem der allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie" [On the cosmological problem of the general theory of relativity]. Sonderasugabe aus den Sitzungsb. König. Preuss. Akad.: 235–237.
 * Einstein, A.; de Sitter, W. (1932). "On the relation between the expansion and the mean density of the universe". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 18 (3): 213–214. Bibcode:1932PNAS...18..213E. doi:10.1073/pnas.18.3.213. PMC 1076193. PMID 16587663.
 * Einstein, Albert; Rosen, Nathan (1935). "The Particle Problem in the General Theory of Relativity". Physical Review. 48 (1): 73. Bibcode:1935PhRv...48...73E. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.48.73.
 * Einstein, Albert; Podolsky, Boris; Rosen, Nathan (15 May 1935) [Received 25 March 1935]. "Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?". Physical Review (Submitted manuscript). 47 (10): 777–780. Bibcode:1935PhRv...47..777E. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.47.777 – via APS Journals.
 * Einstein, Albert (1950). "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation". Scientific American. CLXXXII (4): 13–17. Bibcode:1950SciAm.182d..13E. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0450-13.
 * Einstein, Albert (1954). Ideas and Opinions. New York: Crown Publishers. ISBN 978-0-517-00393-0.
 —————— (1995) [1954]. Ideas and Opinions. New York: Three Rivers Press. ISBN 978-0-517-88440-9.
 * Einstein, Albert (1969). Albert Einstein, Hedwig und Max Born: Briefwechsel 1916–1955 (in German). Commented by Max Born; Preface by Bertrand Russell; Foreword by Werner Heisenberg. Munich: Nymphenburger Verlagshandlung. ISBN 978-3-88682-005-4. A reprint of this book was published by Edition Erbrich in 1982, ISBN 978-3-88682-005-4.
 * Stachel, John; Martin J. Klein; A. J. Kox; Michel Janssen; R. Schulmann; Diana Komos Buchwald; et al., eds. (21 July 2008) [Published between 1987 and 2006]. The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein. Vol. 1–10. Princeton University Press. Further information about the volumes published so far can be found on the webpages of the Einstein Papers Project[305] and on the Princeton University Press Einstein Page.[306]

 Others

 * Einstein, Albert; et al. (4 December 1948). "To the editors of The New York Times". The New York Times. Melville, New York. ISBN 978-0-7354-0359-8. Archived from the original on 17 December 2007 . Retrieved 25 May 2006 .
 * Einstein, Albert (May 1949). Sweezy, Paul; Huberman, Leo (eds.). "Why Socialism?". Monthly Review. 1 (1): 9–15. doi:10.14452/MR-001-01-1949-05_3.
 —————— (May 2009) [May 1949]. "Why Socialism? (Reprise)". Monthly Review. New York: Monthly Review Foundation. Archived from the original on 11 January 2006 . Retrieved 16 January 2006 – via MonthlyReview.org.
 * Einstein, Albert (September 1960). Foreword to Gandhi Wields the Weapon of Moral Power: Three Case Histories. Introduction by Bharatan Kumarappa. Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House. pp. v-vi. OCLC 2325889. Foreword originally written in April 1953.
 * Einstein, Albert (1979). Autobiographical Notes. Paul Arthur Schilpp (Centennial ed.). Chicago: Open Court. ISBN 978-0-87548-352-8.. The chasing a light beam thought experiment is described on pages 48–51.

 See also

 * Albert Einstein House in Princeton
 * Einstein family
 * Einstein notation
 * The Einstein Theory of Relativity, an educational film
 * Frist Campus Center at Princeton University – room 302 is associated with Einstein. (The center was once the Palmer Physical Laboratory.)
 * Heinrich Burkhardt
 * Bern Historical Museum (Einstein Museum)
 * History of gravitational theory
 * List of coupled cousins
 * List of German inventors and discoverers
 * Jewish Nobel laureates
 * List of peace activists
 * Relativity priority dispute
 * Sticky bead argument
 * Heinrich Zangger

 Notes

 1. ^ a b c In the German Empire, citizens were exclusively subjects of one of the 27 Bundesstaaten .
 2. ^ Einstein's scores on his Matura certificate: German 5; French 3; Italian 5; History 6; Geography 4; Algebra 6; Geometry 6; Descriptive Geometry 6; Physics 6; Chemistry 5; Natural History 5; Art Drawing 4; Technical Drawing 4.
 Scale : 6 = very good, 5 = good, 4 = sufficient, 3 = insufficient, 2 = poor, 1 = very poor.
 3. ^ "Their leaders in Germany have not driven out her cut-throats and her blackguards. She has chosen the cream of her culture and has suppressed it. She has even turned upon her most glorious citizen, Albert Einstein, who is the supreme example of the selfless intellectual...The man, who, beyond all others, approximates a citizen of the world, is without a home. How proud we must be to offer him temporary shelter."
 4. ^ In his paper , Einstein wrote: "The introduction of a 'luminiferous æther' will be proved to be superfluous in so far, as according to the conceptions which will be developed, we shall introduce neither a 'space absolutely at rest' endowed with special properties, nor shall we associate a velocity-vector with a point in which electro-magnetic processes take place."
 5. ^ For a discussion of the reception of relativity theory around the world, and the different controversies it encountered, see the articles in Glick (1987) .
 6. ^ In September 2008 it was reported that Malcolm McCulloch of Oxford University was heading a three-year project to develop more robust appliances that could be used in locales lacking electricity, and that his team had completed a prototype Einstein refrigerator. He was quoted as saying that improving the design and changing the types of gases used might allow the design's efficiency to be quadrupled. [290]

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 Works cited

 * Calaprice, Alice (2000). The Expanded Quotable Einstein. Princeton University Press.
 * Calaprice, Alice (2005). The New Quotable Einstein. Princeton University Press. Archived from the original on 22 June 2009.
 * Calaprice, Alice; Lipscombe, Trevor (2005). Albert Einstein: A Biography. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-33080-3.
 * Calaprice, Alice (2010). The Ultimate Quotable Einstein. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-3596-6.
 * Calaprice, Alice; Kennefick, Daniel; Schulmann, Robert (2015). An Einstein Encyclopedia. Princeton University Press. Bibcode:2016eien.book.....C.
 * Chaplin, Charles (1964). Charles Chaplin: My Autobiography. New York: Simon and Schuster.
 * Clark, Ronald W. (1971). Einstein: The Life and Times. New York: Avon Books. ISBN 978-0-380-44123-5.
 * Fölsing, Albrecht (1997). Albert Einstein. Translated by Osers, Ewald. Abridged by Ewald Osers. New York: Penguin Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-85545-2.
 * Fine, Arthur (2017). "The Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Argument in Quantum Theory". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.
 * Galison, Peter (Winter 2000). "Einstein's Clocks: The Question of Time". Critical Inquiry. 26 (2): 355–389. doi:10.1086/448970. JSTOR 1344127. S2CID 144484466.
 * Glick, Thomas F., ed. (1987). The Comparative Reception of Relativity. Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-277-2498-4.
 * Highfield, Roger; Carter, Paul (1993). The Private Lives of Albert Einstein. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-17170-5.
 * Hoffmann, Banesh (1972). Albert Einstein: Creator and Rebel. Collaboration with Helen Dukas. New York: Viking Press. ISBN 978-0-670-11181-7.
 * Holton, Gerald (April 1984). "The migration of physicists to the United States". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science. 40 (4): 18–24. Bibcode:1984BuAtS..40d..18H. doi:10.1080/00963402.1984.11459207.
 * Isaacson, Walter (2007). Einstein: His Life and Universe. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks. ISBN 978-0-7432-6473-0. [ dead link ]
 * Isaacson, Walter (2008). Einstein: His Life and Universe. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-84739-589-4.
 * Neffe, Jürgen (2007). Einstein: A Biography. Translated by Frisch, Shelley. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-0-374-14664-1.
 * Pais, Abraham (1982). Subtle is the Lord: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0.
 * Pais, Abraham (1994). Einstein Lived Here. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280672-7.
 * Penrose, Roger (2007). The Road to Reality. Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-679-77631-4.
 * Robeson, Paul (2002). Paul Robeson Speaks. Citadel. p. 333.
 * Rowe, David E.; Schulmann, Robert, eds. (2007). Einstein on Politics: His Private Thoughts and Public Stands on Nationalism, Zionism, War, Peace, and the Bomb. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12094-2.
 * Rowe, David E.; Schulmann, Robert, eds. (2013). Einstein on Politics: His Private Thoughts and Public Stands on Nationalism, Zionism, War, Peace, and the Bomb. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-4828-7.
 * Scheideler, Britta (2002). "The Scientist as Moral Authority: Albert Einstein between Elitism and Democracy, 1914–1933". Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences. 32 (2): 319–346. doi:10.1525/hsps.2002.32.2.319. JSTOR 10.1525/hsps.2002.32.2.319.
 * Stachel, John J. (1966). Albert Einstein and Mileva Marić (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 March 2008 . Retrieved 13 May 2016 .
 * Stachel, John J. (2002). Einstein from 'B' to 'Z'. Einstein Studies. Vol. 9. Birkhäuser. ISBN 978-0-8176-4143-6. OCLC 237532460.
 * Weinstein, G. (2015). General Relativity Conflict and Rivalries: Einstein's Polemics with Physicists. Newcastle upon Tyne (UK): Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4438-8362-7.

 Further reading

 * Brian, Denis (1996). Einstein: A Life. New York: John Wiley.
 * Gordin, Michael D. (2020). Einstein in Bohemia. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-17737-3.
 * Lindemann, Frederick Alexander (1922). "Einstein, Albert" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica (12th ed.). London & New York: The Encyclopædia Britannica Company.
 * Moring, Gary (2004). The complete idiot's guide to understanding Einstein (1st ed.). Indianapolis, Indiana: Alpha books (Macmillan). ISBN 978-0-02-863180-6. "idiot's guide to Einstein."
 * Oppenheimer, J. Robert (1971). Lecture delivered at the UNESCO House in Paris on 13 December 1965. "On Albert Einstein". Science and Synthesis: An International Colloquium Organized by Unesco on the Tenth Anniversary of the Death of Albert Einstein and Teilhard de Chardin: 8–12, 208., or "On Albert Einstein by Robert Oppenheimer". The New York Review of Books. 17 March 1966.
 * Parker, Barry (2000). Einstein's Brainchild: Relativity Made Relatively Easy!. Illustrated by Lori Scoffield-Beer. Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1-59102-522-1.
 * Rogers, Donald W. (2005). Einstein's "Other" Theory: The Planck-Bose-Einstein Theory of Heat Capacity. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-11826-0.
 * Schweber, Silvan S. (2008). Einstein and Oppenheimer: The Meaning of Genius. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02828-9.
 * Stone, A. Douglas (2013). Einstein and the Quantum. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13968-5.
 * Weinberg, Steven (2005). "Einstein's mistakes". Physics Today. 58 (11): 31–35. Bibcode:2005PhT....58k..31W. doi:10.1063/1.2155755.

 External links

 Albert Einstein at Wikipedia's sister projects
 * Media from Commons
 * Quotations from Wikiquote
 * Texts from Wikisource
 Scholia has an author profile for Albert Einstein.
 * Albert Einstein at Curlie
 * Works by Albert Einstein at Project Gutenberg
 * Works by or about Albert Einstein at Internet Archive
 * Works by Albert Einstein at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
 * Einstein's Personal Correspondence: Religion, Politics, The Holocaust, and Philosophy Shapell Manuscript Foundation
 * Federal Bureau of Investigation file on Albert Einstein
 * Einstein and his love of music, Physics World
 * Albert Einstein on Nobelprize.org including the Nobel Lecture 11 July 1923 Fundamental ideas and problems of the theory of relativity
 * Albert Einstein Archives Online (80,000+ Documents) Archived 11 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine (MSNBC, 19 March 2012)
 * Einstein's declaration of intention for American citizenship on the World Digital Library
 * Albert Einstein Collection at Brandeis University
 * The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein "Digital Einstein" at Princeton University
 * Newspaper clippings about Albert Einstein in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
 * Home page of Albert Einstein at The Institute for Advanced Study
 * Albert – The Digital Repository of the IAS, which contains many digitized original documents and photographs
 * v 
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 Albert Einstein
 * Special relativity 
 * General relativity 
 * Mass–energy equivalence (E=mc2) 
 * Brownian motion 
 * Photoelectric effect 
 * Einstein coefficients 
 * Einstein solid 
 * Equivalence principle 
 * Einstein field equations 
 * Einstein radius 
 * Einstein relation (kinetic theory) 
 * Cosmological constant 
 Physics * Bose–Einstein condensate 
 * Bose–Einstein statistics 
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 * EPR paradox 
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 * Teleparallelism 
 * Thought experiments 
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 * Gravitational wave 
 * Tea leaf paradox 
 * Annus mirabilis papers (1905) 
 * "Investigations on the Theory of Brownian Movement" (1905) 
 * Relativity: The Special and the General Theory (1916) 
 Works * The Meaning of Relativity (1922) 
 * The World as I See It (1934) 
 * The Evolution of Physics (1938) 
 * "Why Socialism?" (1949) 
 * Russell–Einstein Manifesto (1955) 
 * Die Grundlagen der Einsteinschen Relativitäts-Theorie (1922 documentary)
 * The Einstein Theory of Relativity (1923 documentary) 
 * Relics: Einstein's Brain (1994 documentary) 
 In popular * Insignificance (1985 film) 
 culture * Picasso at the Lapin Agile (1993 play) 
 * I.Q. (1994 film) 
 * Einstein's Gift (2003 play) 
 * Einstein and Eddington (2008 TV film) 
 * Genius (2017 series) 
 * Awards and honors 
 * Brain  
 * House  
 * Memorial 
 * Political views 
 * Religious views 
 Related * List of things named after Albert Einstein 
 * Albert Einstein Archives 
 * Einstein Papers Project 
 * Einstein refrigerator 
 * Einsteinhaus 
 * Einsteinium 
 * Max Talmud 
 * Albert Einstein Award 
 * Albert Einstein Medal 
 * Kalinga Prize 
 Prizes * Albert Einstein Peace Prize 
 * Albert Einstein World Award of Science 
 * Einstein Prize for Laser Science 
 * Einstein Prize (APS) 
 * Albert Einstein: Creator and Rebel 
 * Einstein and Religion 
 * Einstein for Beginners 
 Books about * Einstein: His Life and Universe 
 Einstein * Einstein's Cosmos 
 * I Am Albert Einstein 
 * Introducing Relativity 
 * Subtle is the Lord 
 * Pauline Koch (mother) 
 * Hermann Einstein (father) 
 * Maja Einstein (sister) 
 * Mileva Marić (first wife) 
 * Elsa Einstein (second wife; cousin) 
 * Lieserl Einstein (daughter) 
 Family * Hans Albert Einstein (son) 
 * Eduard Einstein (son) 
 * Bernhard Caesar Einstein (grandson) 
 * Evelyn Einstein (granddaughter) 
 * Thomas Martin Einstein (great-grandson) 
 * Robert Einstein (cousin) 
 * Siegbert Einstein (distant cousin) 
 * Category 
 
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 Copley Medallists (1901–1950) 
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 * James Chadwick (1950) 
 
 * v 
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  * 1916 
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 1976–2000 * 1988: Lederman / Schwartz / Steinberger 
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  * 1990: Friedman / Kendall / R. Taylor 
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 present * 2012: Wineland / Haroche 
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  * 2018: Ashkin / Mourou / Strickland 
  * 2019: Peebles / Mayor / Queloz 
  * 2020: Penrose / Genzel / Ghez 
  * 2021: Parisi / Hasselmann / Manabe 
  * 2022: Aspect / Clauser / Zeilinger 
 
 * v  
 * t  
 * e  
 1921 Nobel Prize laureates 
 Chemistry  * Frederick Soddy (Great Britain)
 Literature  * Anatole France (France) 
 Peace  * Hjalmar Branting (Sweden) 
  * Christian Lous Lange (Norway) 
 Physics  * Albert Einstein (Germany) 
 Physiology or Medicine * None 
 Nobel Prize recipients 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926
 
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Albert Einstein        Portrait by Ferdinand Schmutzer, 1921     Born 14 March 1879   Ulm, Kingdom of Württemberg, German Empire     Died 18 April 1955 (aged 76)   Princeton, New Jersey, US     Citizenship  
  Full list  
  
  Kingdom of Württemberg, part of the German Empire (until 1896) [note 1]  
 Stateless (1896–1901)
Switzerland (1901–1955)
 Austria, part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (1911–1912)
 Kingdom of Prussia, part of the German Empire (1914–1918) [note 1]  
 Free State of Prussia (Weimar Republic, 1918–1933)
United States (from 1940) 
 
    Education  
  Federal polytechnic school in Zurich (Federal teaching diploma, 1900)
 University of Zurich (PhD, 1905) 
    Known for  
  General relativity 
 Special relativity 
 Photoelectric effect 
  E=mc 2 (mass–energy equivalence) 
  E=hf (Planck–Einstein relation) 
Theory of Brownian motion 
 Einstein field equations 
 Bose–Einstein statistics 
 Bose–Einstein condensate 
 Gravitational wave 
 Cosmological constant 
 Unified field theory 
 EPR paradox 
 Ensemble interpretation 
 List of other concepts  
    Spouses  
   
   Mileva Marić  
 ​ ​ (m. 1903; div. 1919) ​ 
   
   Elsa Löwenthal  
 ​ ​ (m. 1919; died 1936) ​ 
    Children  
  Lieserl 
 Hans Albert 
 Eduard "Tete"  
    Awards  
  Barnard Medal (1920)
 Nobel Prize in Physics (1921)
 Matteucci Medal (1921)
 ForMemRS (1921) [1]  
 Copley Medal (1925) [1]  
 Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1926) [2]  
 Max Planck Medal (1929)
 Member of the National Academy of Sciences (1942) [3]  
  Time Person of the Century (1999) 
     Scientific career    Fields  Physics, philosophy   Institutions  
  Swiss Patent Office (Bern) (1902–1909)
 University of Bern (1908–1909)
 University of Zurich (1909–1911)
 Charles University in Prague (1911–1912)
 ETH Zurich (1912–1914)
 Prussian Academy of Sciences (1914–1933)
 Humboldt University of Berlin (1914–1933)
 Kaiser Wilhelm Institute (director, 1917–1933)
 German Physical Society (president, 1916–1918)
 Leiden University (visits, 1920)
 Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton University (1933–1955)
 California Institute of Technology (visits, 1931–1933)
 University of Oxford (visits, 1931–1933)
 Brandeis University (director, 1946–1947) 
     Thesis     Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen (A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions)  (1905)    Doctoral advisor   Alfred Kleiner    Other academic advisors  Heinrich Friedrich Weber    Influences  
  Hendrik Lorentz 
 Hermann Minkowski  
    Influenced  
 Virtually all modern physicists  
    Signature         
 Albert Einstein (  EYEN-styne ; [4]  German:  [ˈalbɛʁt ˈʔaɪnʃtaɪn] (  listen); 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist, [5]  widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest and most influential physicists of all time. Best known for developing the theory of relativity, he also made important contributions to the development of the theory of quantum mechanics. Relativity and quantum mechanics are the two pillars of modern physics. [1]   [6]  His mass–energy equivalence formula  E = mc 2 , which arises from relativity theory, has been dubbed "the world's most famous equation". [7]  His work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science. [8]   [9]  He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect", [10]  a pivotal step in the development of quantum theory. His intellectual achievements and originality resulted in "Einstein" becoming synonymous with "genius". [11]  Einsteinium, one of the synthetic elements in the periodic table, was named in his honor. [12] 
 In 1905, a year sometimes described as his  annus mirabilis  ('miracle year'), Einstein published four groundbreaking papers. [13]  These outlined the theory of the photoelectric effect, explained Brownian motion, introduced special relativity, and demonstrated mass–energy equivalence. He thought that the laws of classical mechanics could no longer be reconciled with those of the electromagnetic field, which led him to develop his special theory of relativity. He then extended the theory to gravitational fields; he published a paper on general relativity in 1916, introducing his theory of gravitation. In 1917, he applied the general theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe. [14]   [15]  He continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the thermal properties of light and the quantum theory of radiation, which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light.
 However, for much of the later part of his career, he worked on two ultimately unsuccessful endeavors. First, despite his great contributions to quantum mechanics, he opposed what it evolved into, objecting that "God does not play dice". [16]  Second, he attempted to devise a unified field theory by generalizing his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism. As a result, he became increasingly isolated from the mainstream of modern physics.
 Einstein was born in the German Empire, but moved to Switzerland in 1895, forsaking his German citizenship (as a subject of the Kingdom of Württemberg) [note 1]  the following year. In 1897, at the age of 17, he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swiss Federal polytechnic school in Zürich, graduating in 1900. In 1901, he acquired Swiss citizenship, which he kept for the rest of his life, and in 1903, he secured a permanent position at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern. In 1905, he was awarded a PhD by the University of Zurich. In 1914, he moved to Berlin in order to join the Prussian Academy of Sciences and the Humboldt University of Berlin. In 1917, he became director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics; he also became a German citizen again, this time Prussian.
 In 1933, while he was visiting the United States, Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany. Einstein objected to the policies of the newly elected Nazi government; [17]  he settled in the United States and became an American citizen in 1940. [18]  On the eve of World War II, he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt alerting him to the potential German nuclear weapons program and recommending that the US begin similar research. Einstein supported the Allies but generally denounced the idea of nuclear weapons. [19] 
Life and career
Early life and education
      Einstein at the age of three in 1882  
     
Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, [5]  in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire, on 14 March 1879 into a family of secular Ashkenazi Jews. [20]   [21]  His parents were Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer, and Pauline Koch. In 1880, the family moved to Munich, where Einstein's father and his uncle Jakob founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein &amp; Cie, a company that manufactured electrical equipment based on direct current. [5] 
 Albert attended a Catholic elementary school in Munich, from the age of five, for three years. At the age of eight, he was transferred to the Luitpold-Gymnasium (now known as the Albert-Einstein-Gymnasium [de]), where he received advanced primary and secondary school education until he left the German Empire seven years later. [22] 
 In 1894, Hermann and Jakob's company lost a bid to supply the city of Munich with electrical lighting because they lacked the capital to convert their equipment from the direct current (DC) standard to the more efficient alternating current (AC) standard. [23]  The loss forced the sale of the Munich factory. In search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to Milan and a few months later to Pavia. In Pavia, the Einsteins settled in Palazzo Cornazzani, a medieval building where, at different times, Ugo Foscolo, Contardo Ferrini and Ada Negri lived. [24]  When the family moved to Pavia, Einstein, then 15, stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium. His father intended for him to pursue electrical engineering, but Einstein clashed with the authorities and resented the school's regimen and teaching method. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought was lost in strict rote learning. At the end of December 1894, he traveled to Italy to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctor's note. [25]  During his time in Italy, he wrote a short essay with the title "On the Investigation of the State of the Ether in a Magnetic Field". [26]   [27] 
 Einstein excelled at math and physics from a young age, reaching a mathematical level years ahead of his peers. The 12-year-old Einstein taught himself algebra and Euclidean geometry over a single summer. [28]  Einstein also independently discovered his own original proof of the Pythagorean theorem aged 12. [29]  A family tutor Max Talmud says that only a short time after he had given the 12-year-old Einstein a geometry textbook, "[Einstein] had worked through the whole book. He thereupon devoted himself to higher mathematics ... Soon the flight of his mathematical genius was so high I could not follow." [30]  His passion for geometry and algebra led the 12-year-old to become convinced that nature could be understood as a "mathematical structure". [30]  Einstein started teaching himself calculus at 12, and as a 14-year-old he says he had "mastered integral and differential calculus". [31] 
 At the age of 13, when he had become more seriously interested in philosophy (and music), [32]  Einstein was introduced to Kant's  Critique of Pure Reason . Kant became his favorite philosopher, his tutor stating: "At the time he was still a child, only thirteen years old, yet Kant's works, incomprehensible to ordinary mortals, seemed to be clear to him." [30] 
      Einstein's  Matura  certificate, 1896 [note 2]    
In 1895, at the age of 16, Einstein took the entrance examinations for the Swiss Federal polytechnic school in Zürich (later the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, ETH). He failed to reach the required standard in the general part of the examination, [33]  but obtained exceptional grades in physics and mathematics. [34]  On the advice of the principal of the polytechnic school, he attended the Argovian cantonal school ( gymnasium ) in Aarau, Switzerland, in 1895 and 1896 to complete his secondary schooling. While lodging with the family of Jost Winteler, he fell in love with Winteler's daughter, Marie. Einstein's sister Maja later married Winteler's son Paul. [35]  In January 1896, with his father's approval, Einstein renounced his citizenship in the German Kingdom of Württemberg to avoid military service. [36]  In September 1896, he passed the Swiss  Matura  with mostly good grades, including a top grade of 6 in physics and mathematical subjects, on a scale of 1–6. [37]  At 17, he enrolled in the four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Federal polytechnic school. Marie Winteler, who was a year older, moved to Olsberg, Switzerland, for a teaching post. [35] 
 Einstein's future wife, a 20-year-old Serbian named Mileva Marić, also enrolled at the polytechnic school that year. She was the only woman among the six students in the mathematics and physics section of the teaching diploma course. Over the next few years, Einstein's and Marić's friendship developed into a romance, and they spent countless hours debating and reading books together on extra-curricular physics in which they were both interested. Einstein wrote in his letters to Marić that he preferred studying alongside her. [38]  In 1900, Einstein passed the exams in Maths and Physics and was awarded a Federal teaching diploma. [39]  There is eyewitness evidence and several letters over many years that indicate Marić might have collaborated with Einstein prior to his landmark 1905 papers, [38]   [40]   [41]  known as the  Annus Mirabilis papers, and that they developed some of the concepts together during their studies, although some historians of physics who have studied the issue disagree that she made any substantive contributions. [42]   [43]   [44]   [45] 
Marriages and children
     
Early correspondence between Einstein and Marić was discovered and published in 1987 which revealed that the couple had a daughter named "Lieserl", born in early 1902 in Novi Sad where Marić was staying with her parents. Marić returned to Switzerland without the child, whose real name and fate are unknown. The contents of Einstein's letter in September 1903 suggest that the girl was either given up for adoption or died of scarlet fever in infancy. [46]   [47] 
 Einstein and Marić married in January 1903. In May 1904, their son Hans Albert Einstein was born in Bern, Switzerland. Their son Eduard was born in Zürich in July 1910. The couple moved to Berlin in April 1914, but Marić returned to Zürich with their sons after learning that, despite their close relationship before, [38]  Einstein's chief romantic attraction was now his cousin Elsa Löwenthal; [48]  she was his first cousin maternally and second cousin paternally. [49]  Einstein and Marić divorced on 14 February 1919, having lived apart for five years. [50]   [51]  As part of the divorce settlement, Einstein agreed to give Marić any future (in the event, 1921) Nobel Prize money. [52] 
 In letters revealed in 2015, Einstein wrote to his early love Marie Winteler about his marriage and his strong feelings for her. He wrote in 1910, while his wife was pregnant with their second child: "I think of you in heartfelt love every spare minute and am so unhappy as only a man can be." He spoke about a "misguided love" and a "missed life" regarding his love for Marie. [53] 
 Einstein married Löwenthal in 1919, [54]   [55]  after having had a relationship with her since 1912. [49]   [56]  They emigrated to the United States in 1933. Elsa was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems in 1935 and died in December 1936. [57] 
 In 1923, Einstein fell in love with a secretary named Betty Neumann, the niece of a close friend, Hans Mühsam. [58]   [59]   [60]   [61]  In a volume of letters released by Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 2006, [62]  Einstein described about six women, including Margarete Lebach (a blonde Austrian), Estella Katzenellenbogen (the rich owner of a florist business), Toni Mendel (a wealthy Jewish widow) and Ethel Michanowski (a Berlin socialite), with whom he spent time and from whom he received gifts while being married to Elsa. [63]   [64]  Later, after the death of his second wife Elsa, Einstein was briefly in a relationship with Margarita Konenkova. Konenkova was a Russian spy who was married to the Russian sculptor Sergei Konenkov (who created the bronze bust of Einstein at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton). [65]   [66]  [ failed verification ]
 Einstein's son Eduard had a breakdown at about age 20 and was diagnosed with schizophrenia. [67]  His mother cared for him and he was also committed to asylums for several periods, finally, after her death, being committed permanently to Burghölzli, the Psychiatric University Hospital in Zürich. [68] 
Patent office
     
After graduating in 1900, Einstein spent almost two years searching for a teaching post. He acquired Swiss citizenship in February 1901, [69]  but was not conscripted for medical reasons. With the help of Marcel Grossmann's father, he secured a job in Bern at the Swiss Patent Office, [70]   [71]  as an assistant examiner – level III. [72]   [73] 
 There, he evaluated patent applications for a variety of devices including a gravel sorter and an electromechanical typewriter. [73]  In 1903, his position at the patent office became permanent, although he was passed over for promotion until he "fully mastered machine technology". [74]  Much of his work was related to questions about transmission of electric signals and electrical-mechanical synchronization of time, two technical problems that show up conspicuously in the thought experiments that eventually led Einstein to his radical conclusions about the nature of light and the fundamental connection between space and time. [13] 
 With a few friends he had met in Bern, he started a small discussion group in 1902, self-mockingly named "The Olympia Academy", which met regularly to discuss science and philosophy. Sometimes they were joined by Marić who attentively listened but did not participate. [75]  Their readings included the works of Henri Poincaré, Ernst Mach, and David Hume, which influenced his scientific and philosophical outlook. [76] 
First scientific papers
      Cover image of the PhD dissertation of Albert Einstein defended in 1905  
In 1900, Einstein's paper "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen" ("Conclusions from the Capillarity Phenomena") was published in the journal  Annalen der Physik . [77]   [78]  On 30 April 1905 Einstein completed his dissertation, A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions  [79]  with Alfred Kleiner, serving as  pro-forma  advisor. [79]   [80]  His thesis was accepted in July 1905, and Einstein was awarded a PhD on 15 January 1906. [79]   [80]   [81] 
 Also in 1905, which has been called Einstein's  annus mirabilis  (amazing year), he published four groundbreaking papers, on the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, special relativity, and the equivalence of mass and energy, which were to bring him to the notice of the academic world, at the age of 26. [82] 
Academic career
By 1908, he was recognized as a leading scientist and was appointed lecturer at the University of Bern. The following year, after he gave a lecture on electrodynamics and the relativity principle at the University of Zurich, Alfred Kleiner recommended him to the faculty for a newly created professorship in theoretical physics. Einstein was appointed associate professor in 1909. [83] 
 Einstein became a full professor at the German Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague in April 1911, accepting Austrian citizenship in the Austro-Hungarian Empire to do so. [84]   [85]  During his Prague stay, he wrote 11 scientific works, five of them on radiation mathematics and on the quantum theory of solids.
     
In July 1912, he returned to his alma mater in Zürich. From 1912 until 1914, he was a professor of theoretical physics at the ETH Zurich, where he taught analytical mechanics and thermodynamics. He also studied continuum mechanics, the molecular theory of heat, and the problem of gravitation, on which he worked with mathematician and friend Marcel Grossmann. [86] 
 When the "Manifesto of the Ninety-Three" was published in October 1914—a document signed by a host of prominent German intellectuals that justified Germany's militarism and position during the First World War—Einstein was one of the few German intellectuals to rebut its contents and sign the pacifistic "Manifesto to the Europeans". [87] 
       The New York Times reported confirmation of "the Einstein theory" (specifically, the bending of light by gravitation) based on 29 May 1919 eclipse observations in Príncipe (Africa) and Sobral (Brazil), after the findings were presented on 6 November 1919 to a joint meeting in London of the Royal Society and the Royal Astronomical Society. [88]    
In the spring of 1913, Einstein was enticed to move to Berlin with an offer that included membership in the Prussian Academy of Sciences, and a linked University of Berlin professorship, enabling him to concentrate exclusively on research. [56]  On 3 July 1913, he became a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin. Max Planck and Walther Nernst visited him the next week in Zurich to persuade him to join the academy, additionally offering him the post of director at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics, which was soon to be established. [89]  Membership in the academy included paid salary and professorship without teaching duties at Humboldt University of Berlin. He was officially elected to the academy on 24 July, and he moved to Berlin the following year. His decision to move to Berlin was also influenced by the prospect of living near his cousin Elsa, with whom he had started a romantic affair. Einstein assumed his position with the academy, and Berlin University, [90]  after moving into his Dahlem apartment on 1 April 1914. [56]   [91]  As World War I broke out that year, the plan for Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics was delayed. The institute was established on 1 October 1917, with Einstein as its director. [92]  In 1916, Einstein was elected president of the German Physical Society (1916–1918). [93] 
 In 1911, Einstein used his 1907 equivalence principle to calculate the deflection of light from another star by the Sun's gravity. In 1913, Einstein improved upon those calculations by using the curvature of spacetime to represent the gravity field. By the fall of 1915, Einstein had successfully completed his general theory of relativity, which he used to calculate that deflection, and the perihelion precession of Mercury. [56]   [94]  In 1919, that deflection prediction was confirmed by Sir Arthur Eddington during the solar eclipse of 29 May 1919. Those observations were published in the international media, making Einstein world-famous. On 7 November 1919, the leading British newspaper  The Times  printed a banner headline that read: "Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown". [95] 
 In 1920, he became a Foreign Member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. [96]  In 1922, he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". [10]  While the general theory of relativity was still considered somewhat controversial, the citation also does not treat even the cited photoelectric work as an explanation but merely as a discovery of the law, as the idea of photons was considered outlandish and did not receive universal acceptance until the 1924 derivation of the Planck spectrum by S. N. Bose. Einstein was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1921. [1]  He also received the Copley Medal from the Royal Society in 1925. [1] 
 Einstein resigned from the Prussian Academy in March 1933. Einstein's scientific accomplishments while in Berlin, included finishing the general theory of relativity, proving the Einstein–de Haas effect, contributing to the quantum theory of radiation, and Bose–Einstein statistics. [56] 
1921–1922: Travels abroad
      Einstein with his second wife, Elsa, in 1921  
      Einstein's official portrait after receiving the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics  
Einstein visited New York City for the first time on 2 April 1921, where he received an official welcome by Mayor John Francis Hylan, followed by three weeks of lectures and receptions. [97]  He went on to deliver several lectures at Columbia University and Princeton University, and in Washington, he accompanied representatives of the National Academy of Sciences on a visit to the White House. On his return to Europe he was the guest of the British statesman and philosopher Viscount Haldane in London, where he met several renowned scientific, intellectual, and political figures, and delivered a lecture at King's College London. [98]   [99] 
 He also published an essay, "My First Impression of the U.S.A.", in July 1921, in which he tried briefly to describe some characteristics of Americans, much as had Alexis de Tocqueville, who published his own impressions in  Democracy in America  (1835). [100]  For some of his observations, Einstein was clearly surprised: "What strikes a visitor is the joyous, positive attitude to life ... The American is friendly, self-confident, optimistic, and without envy." [101] 
 In 1922, his travels took him to Asia and later to Palestine, as part of a six-month excursion and speaking tour, as he visited Singapore, Ceylon and Japan, where he gave a series of lectures to thousands of Japanese. After his first public lecture, he met the emperor and empress at the Imperial Palace, where thousands came to watch. In a letter to his sons, he described his impression of the Japanese as being modest, intelligent, considerate, and having a true feel for art. [102]  In his own travel diaries from his 1922–23 visit to Asia, he expresses some views on the Chinese, Japanese and Indian people, which have been described as xenophobic and racist judgments when they were rediscovered in 2018. [103]   [104] 
 Because of Einstein's travels to the Far East, he was unable to personally accept the Nobel Prize for Physics at the Stockholm award ceremony in December 1922. In his place, the banquet speech was made by a German diplomat, who praised Einstein not only as a scientist but also as an international peacemaker and activist. [105] 
 On his return voyage, he visited Palestine for 12 days, his only visit to that region. He was greeted as if he were a head of state, rather than a physicist, which included a cannon salute upon arriving at the home of the British high commissioner, Sir Herbert Samuel. During one reception, the building was stormed by people who wanted to see and hear him. In Einstein's talk to the audience, he expressed happiness that the Jewish people were beginning to be recognized as a force in the world. [106] 
 Einstein visited Spain for two weeks in 1923, where he briefly met Santiago Ramón y Cajal and also received a diploma from King Alfonso XIII naming him a member of the Spanish Academy of Sciences. [107] 
     
From 1922 to 1932, Einstein was a member of the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations in Geneva (with a few months of interruption in 1923–1924), [108]  a body created to promote international exchange between scientists, researchers, teachers, artists, and intellectuals. [109]  Originally slated to serve as the Swiss delegate, Secretary-General Eric Drummond was persuaded by Catholic activists Oskar Halecki and Giuseppe Motta to instead have him become the German delegate, thus allowing Gonzague de Reynold to take the Swiss spot, from which he promoted traditionalist Catholic values. [110]  Einstein's former physics professor Hendrik Lorentz and the Polish chemist Marie Curie were also members of the committee. [111] 
1925: Visit to South America
In the months of March and April 1925, Einstein visited South America, where he spent about a month in Argentina, a week in Uruguay, and a week in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. [112]  Einstein's visit was initiated by Jorge Duclout (1856–1927) and Mauricio Nirenstein (1877–1935) [113]  with the support of several Argentine scholars, including Julio Rey Pastor, Jakob Laub, and Leopoldo Lugones. The visit by Einstein and his wife was financed primarily by the Council of the University of Buenos Aires and the Asociación Hebraica Argentina (Argentine Hebraic Association) with a smaller contribution from the Argentine-Germanic Cultural Institution. [114] 
1930–1931: Travel to the US
     
In December 1930, Einstein visited America for the second time, originally intended as a two-month working visit as a research fellow at the California Institute of Technology. After the national attention he received during his first trip to the US, he and his arrangers aimed to protect his privacy. Although swamped with telegrams and invitations to receive awards or speak publicly, he declined them all. [115] 
 After arriving in New York City, Einstein was taken to various places and events, including Chinatown, a lunch with the editors of The New York Times, and a performance of Carmen at the Metropolitan Opera, where he was cheered by the audience on his arrival. During the days following, he was given the keys to the city by Mayor Jimmy Walker and met the president of Columbia University, who described Einstein as "the ruling monarch of the mind". [116]  Harry Emerson Fosdick, pastor at New York's Riverside Church, gave Einstein a tour of the church and showed him a full-size statue that the church made of Einstein, standing at the entrance. [116]  Also during his stay in New York, he joined a crowd of 15,000 people at Madison Square Garden during a Hanukkah celebration. [116] 
     
Einstein next traveled to California, where he met Caltech president and Nobel laureate Robert A. Millikan. His friendship with Millikan was "awkward", as Millikan "had a penchant for patriotic militarism", where Einstein was a pronounced pacifist. [117]  During an address to Caltech's students, Einstein noted that science was often inclined to do more harm than good. [118] 
 This aversion to war also led Einstein to befriend author Upton Sinclair and film star Charlie Chaplin, both noted for their pacifism. Carl Laemmle, head of Universal Studios, gave Einstein a tour of his studio and introduced him to Chaplin. They had an instant rapport, with Chaplin inviting Einstein and his wife, Elsa, to his home for dinner. Chaplin said Einstein's outward persona, calm and gentle, seemed to conceal a "highly emotional temperament", from which came his "extraordinary intellectual energy". [119] 
 Chaplin's film,  City Lights , was to premiere a few days later in Hollywood, and Chaplin invited Einstein and Elsa to join him as his special guests. Walter Isaacson, Einstein's biographer, described this as "one of the most memorable scenes in the new era of celebrity". [118]  Chaplin visited Einstein at his home on a later trip to Berlin and recalled his "modest little flat" and the piano at which he had begun writing his theory. Chaplin speculated that it was "possibly used as kindling wood by the Nazis". [120] 
1933: Emigration to the US
     
In February 1933, while on a visit to the United States, Einstein knew he could not return to Germany with the rise to power of the Nazis under Germany's new chancellor, Adolf Hitler. [121]   [122] 
 While at American universities in early 1933, he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. In February and March 1933, the Gestapo repeatedly raided his family's apartment in Berlin. [123]  He and his wife Elsa returned to Europe in March, and during the trip, they learned that the German Reichstag had passed the Enabling Act on 23 March, transforming Hitler's government into a de facto legal dictatorship, and that they would not be able to proceed to Berlin. Later on, they heard that their cottage had been raided by the Nazis and Einstein's personal sailboat confiscated. Upon landing in Antwerp, Belgium on 28 March, Einstein immediately went to the German consulate and surrendered his passport, formally renouncing his German citizenship. [124]  The Nazis later sold his boat and converted his cottage into a Hitler Youth camp. [125] 
Refugee status
      Albert Einstein's landing card (26 May 1933), when he landed in Dover (United Kingdom) from Ostend (Belgium) to visit Oxford   
In April 1933, Einstein discovered that the new German government had passed laws barring Jews from holding any official positions, including teaching at universities. [124]  Historian Gerald Holton describes how, with "virtually no audible protest being raised by their colleagues", thousands of Jewish scientists were suddenly forced to give up their university positions and their names were removed from the rolls of institutions where they were employed. [126] 
 A month later, Einstein's works were among those targeted by the German Student Union in the Nazi book burnings, with Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels proclaiming, "Jewish intellectualism is dead." [124]  One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, "not yet hanged", offering a $5,000 bounty on his head. [124]   [127]  In a subsequent letter to physicist and friend Max Born, who had already emigrated from Germany to England, Einstein wrote, "... I must confess that the degree of their brutality and cowardice came as something of a surprise." [124]  After moving to the US, he described the book burnings as a "spontaneous emotional outburst" by those who "shun popular enlightenment", and "more than anything else in the world, fear the influence of men of intellectual independence". [128] 
 Einstein was now without a permanent home, unsure where he would live and work, and equally worried about the fate of countless other scientists still in Germany. Aided by the Academic Assistance Council, founded in April 1933 by British liberal politician William Beveridge to help academics escape Nazi persecution, Einstein was able to leave Germany. [129]  He rented a house in De Haan, Belgium, where he lived for a few months. In late July 1933, he went to England for about six weeks at the personal invitation of British naval officer Commander Oliver Locker-Lampson, who had become friends with Einstein in the preceding years. [130]  Locker-Lampson invited him to stay near his Cromer home in a wooden cabin on Roughton Heath in the Parish of Roughton, Norfolk. To protect Einstein, Locker-Lampson had two bodyguards watch over him at his secluded cabin; a photo of them carrying shotguns and guarding Einstein was published in the Daily Herald on 24 July 1933. [131]   [132] 
 Locker-Lampson took Einstein to meet Winston Churchill at his home, and later, Austen Chamberlain and former Prime Minister Lloyd George. [133]  Einstein asked them to help bring Jewish scientists out of Germany. British historian Martin Gilbert notes that Churchill responded immediately, and sent his friend, physicist Frederick Lindemann, to Germany to seek out Jewish scientists and place them in British universities. [134]  Churchill later observed that as a result of Germany having driven the Jews out, they had lowered their "technical standards" and put the Allies' technology ahead of theirs. [134] 
 Einstein later contacted leaders of other nations, including Turkey's Prime Minister, İsmet İnönü, to whom he wrote in September 1933 requesting placement of unemployed German-Jewish scientists. As a result of Einstein's letter, Jewish invitees to Turkey eventually totaled over "1,000 saved individuals". [135] 
 Locker-Lampson also submitted a bill to parliament to extend British citizenship to Einstein, during which period Einstein made a number of public appearances describing the crisis brewing in Europe. [136]  In one of his speeches he denounced Germany's treatment of Jews, while at the same time he introduced a bill promoting Jewish citizenship in Palestine, as they were being denied citizenship elsewhere. [137]  In his speech he described Einstein as a "citizen of the world" who should be offered a temporary shelter in the UK. [note 3]   [138]  Both bills failed, however, and Einstein then accepted an earlier offer from the Institute for Advanced Study, in Princeton, New Jersey, US, to become a resident scholar. [136] 
Resident scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study
      Portrait of Einstein taken in 1935 at Princeton  
On 3 October 1933, Einstein delivered a speech on the importance of academic freedom before a packed audience at the Royal Albert Hall in London, with  The Times  reporting he was wildly cheered throughout. [129]  Four days later he returned to the US and took up a position at the Institute for Advanced Study, [136]   [139]  noted for having become a refuge for scientists fleeing Nazi Germany. [140]  At the time, most American universities, including Harvard, Princeton and Yale, had minimal or no Jewish faculty or students, as a result of their Jewish quotas, which lasted until the late 1940s. [140] 
 Einstein was still undecided on his future. He had offers from several European universities, including Christ Church, Oxford, where he stayed for three short periods between May 1931 and June 1933 and was offered a five-year research fellowship (called a "studentship" at Christ Church), [141]   [142]  but in 1935, he arrived at the decision to remain permanently in the United States and apply for citizenship. [136]   [143] 
 Einstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last until his death in 1955. [144]  He was one of the four first selected (along with John von Neumann, Kurt Gödel, and Hermann Weyl  [145] ) at the new Institute. He soon developed a close friendship with Gödel; the two would take long walks together discussing their work. Bruria Kaufman, his assistant, later became a physicist. During this period, Einstein tried to develop a unified field theory and to refute the accepted interpretation of quantum physics, both unsuccessfully.
World War II and the Manhattan Project
     
In 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included émigré physicist Leó Szilárd attempted to alert Washington to ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. The group's warnings were discounted. Einstein and Szilárd, along with other refugees such as Edward Teller and Eugene Wigner, "regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win the race to build an atomic bomb, and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to such a weapon." [146]   [147]  To make certain the US was aware of the danger, in July 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II in Europe, Szilárd and Wigner visited Einstein to explain the possibility of atomic bombs, which Einstein, a pacifist, said he had never considered. [148]  He was asked to lend his support by writing a letter, with Szilárd, to President Roosevelt, recommending the US pay attention and engage in its own nuclear weapons research.
 The letter is believed to be "arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II". [149]  In addition to the letter, Einstein used his connections with the Belgian Royal Family  [150]  and the Belgian queen mother to get access with a personal envoy to the White House's Oval Office. Some say that as a result of Einstein's letter and his meetings with Roosevelt, the US entered the "race" to develop the bomb, drawing on its "immense material, financial, and scientific resources" to initiate the Manhattan Project.
 For Einstein, "war was a disease ... [and] he called for resistance to war." By signing the letter to Roosevelt, some argue he went against his pacifist principles. [151]  In 1954, a year before his death, Einstein said to his old friend, Linus Pauling, "I made one great mistake in my life—when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made; but there was some justification—the danger that the Germans would make them ..." [152]  In 1955, Einstein and ten other intellectuals and scientists, including British philosopher Bertrand Russell, signed a manifesto highlighting the danger of nuclear weapons. [153] 
US citizenship
     
Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into his career at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, he expressed his appreciation of the meritocracy in American culture compared to Europe. He recognized the "right of individuals to say and think what they pleased" without social barriers. As a result, individuals were encouraged, he said, to be more creative, a trait he valued from his early education. [154] 
 Einstein joined the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in Princeton, where he campaigned for the civil rights of African Americans. He considered racism America's "worst disease", [127]   [155]  seeing it as "handed down from one generation to the next". [156]  As part of his involvement, he corresponded with civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois and was prepared to testify on his behalf during his trial in 1951. [157]  When Einstein offered to be a character witness for Du Bois, the judge decided to drop the case. [158] 
 In 1946, Einstein visited Lincoln University in Pennsylvania, a historically black college, where he was awarded an honorary degree. Lincoln was the first university in the United States to grant college degrees to African Americans; alumni include Langston Hughes and Thurgood Marshall. Einstein gave a speech about racism in America, adding, "I do not intend to be quiet about it." [159]  A resident of Princeton recalls that Einstein had once paid the college tuition for a black student. [158]  Einstein has said, "Being a Jew myself, perhaps I can understand and empathize with how black people feel as victims of discrimination". [155] 
Personal views
Political views
     
In 1918, Einstein was one of the founding members of the German Democratic Party, a liberal party. [160]  Later in his life, Einstein's political view was in favor of socialism and critical of capitalism, which he detailed in his essays such as "Why Socialism?" [161]   [162]  His opinions on the Bolsheviks also changed with time. In 1925, he criticized them for not having a 'well-regulated system of government' and called their rule a 'regime of terror and a tragedy in human history'. He later adopted a more moderated view, criticizing their methods but praising them, which is shown by his 1929 remark on Vladimir Lenin: "In Lenin I honor a man, who in total sacrifice of his own person has committed his entire energy to realizing social justice. I do not find his methods advisable. One thing is certain, however: men like him are the guardians and renewers of mankind's conscience." [163]  Einstein offered and was called on to give judgments and opinions on matters often unrelated to theoretical physics or mathematics. [136]  He strongly advocated the idea of a democratic global government that would check the power of nation-states in the framework of a world federation. [164]  He wrote "I advocate world government because I am convinced that there is no other possible way of eliminating the most terrible danger in which man has ever found himself." [165]  The FBI created a secret dossier on Einstein in 1932, and by the time of his death his FBI file was 1,427 pages long. [166] 
 Einstein was deeply impressed by Mahatma Gandhi, with whom he exchanged written letters. He described Gandhi as "a role model for the generations to come". [167]  The initial connection was established on 27 September 1931, when Wilfrid Israel took his Indian guest V. A. Sundaram to meet his friend Einstein at his summer home in the town of Caputh. Sundaram was Gandhi's disciple and special envoy, whom Wilfrid Israel met while visiting India and visiting the Indian leader's home in 1925. During the visit, Einstein wrote a short letter to Gandhi that was delivered to him through his envoy, and Gandhi responded quickly with his own letter. Although in the end Einstein and Gandhi were unable to meet as they had hoped, the direct connection between them was established through Wilfrid Israel. [168] 
Relationship with Zionism
     
Einstein was a figurehead leader in helping establish the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, [169]  which opened in 1925. Earlier, in 1921, he was asked by the biochemist and president of the World Zionist Organization, Chaim Weizmann, to help raise funds for the planned university. [170]  He made suggestions for the creation of an Institute of Agriculture, a Chemical Institute and an Institute of Microbiology in order to fight the various ongoing epidemics such as malaria, which he called an "evil" that was undermining a third of the country's development. [171]  He also promoted the establishment of an Oriental Studies Institute, to include language courses given in both Hebrew and Arabic. [172] 
 Einstein was not a nationalist and was against the creation of an independent Jewish state, which would be established without his help as Israel in 1948. He felt that the waves of arriving Jews of the Aliyah could live alongside existing Arabs in Palestine. [173]  Nevertheless, upon the death of Israeli president Weizmann in November 1952, Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion offered Einstein the largely ceremonial position of President of Israel at the urging of Ezriel Carlebach. [174]   [175]  The offer was presented by Israel's ambassador in Washington, Abba Eban, who explained that the offer "embodies the deepest respect which the Jewish people can repose in any of its sons". [176]  Einstein wrote that he was "deeply moved", but "at once saddened and ashamed" that he could not accept it. [176] 
Religious and philosophical views
 Start of a speech by Albert Einstein made on 11 April 1943 for the United Jewish Appeal (recording by Radio Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina)    "Ladies (coughs) and gentlemen, our age is proud of the progress it has made in man's intellectual development. The search and striving for truth and knowledge is one of the highest of man's qualities ..." 
Einstein spoke of his spiritual outlook in a wide array of original writings and interviews. [177]  He said he had sympathy for the impersonal pantheistic God of Baruch Spinoza's philosophy. [178]  He did not believe in a personal god who concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings, a view which he described as naïve. [179]  He clarified, however, that "I am not an atheist", [180]  preferring to call himself an agnostic, [181]   [182]  or a "deeply religious nonbeliever". [179]  When asked if he believed in an afterlife, Einstein replied, "No. And one life is enough for me." [183] 
 Einstein was primarily affiliated with non-religious humanist and Ethical Culture groups in both the UK and US. He served on the advisory board of the First Humanist Society of New York, [184]  and was an honorary associate of the Rationalist Association, which publishes  New Humanist  in Britain. For the 75th anniversary of the New York Society for Ethical Culture, he stated that the idea of Ethical Culture embodied his personal conception of what is most valuable and enduring in religious idealism. He observed, "Without 'ethical culture' there is no salvation for humanity." [185] 
 
In a German-language letter to philosopher Eric Gutkind, dated 3 January 1954, Einstein wrote:   The word God is for me nothing more than the expression and product of human weaknesses, the Bible a collection of honorable, but still primitive legends which are nevertheless pretty childish. No interpretation no matter how subtle can (for me) change this. ... For me the Jewish religion like all other religions is an incarnation of the most childish superstitions. And the Jewish people to whom I gladly belong and with whose mentality I have a deep affinity have no different quality for me than all other people. ... I cannot see anything 'chosen' about them. [186]    
Einstein had been sympathetic toward vegetarianism for a long time. In a letter in 1930 to Hermann Huth, vice-president of the German Vegetarian Federation (Deutsche Vegetarier-Bund), he wrote:  Although I have been prevented by outward circumstances from observing a strictly vegetarian diet, I have long been an adherent to the cause in principle. Besides agreeing with the aims of vegetarianism for aesthetic and moral reasons, it is my view that a vegetarian manner of living by its purely physical effect on the human temperament would most beneficially influence the lot of mankind. [187]   
He became a vegetarian himself only during the last part of his life. In March 1954 he wrote in a letter: "So I am living without fats, without meat, without fish, but am feeling quite well this way. It almost seems to me that man was not born to be a carnivore." [188] 
Love of music
Einstein developed an appreciation for music at an early age. In his late journals he wrote:
 "If I were not a physicist, I would probably be a musician. I often think in music. I live my daydreams in music. I see my life in terms of music ... I get most joy in life out of music." [189]   [190]   
His mother played the piano reasonably well and wanted her son to learn the violin, not only to instill in him a love of music but also to help him assimilate into German culture. According to conductor Leon Botstein, Einstein began playing when he was 5. However, he did not enjoy it at that age. [191] 
 When he turned 13, he discovered the violin sonatas of Mozart, whereupon he became enamored of Mozart's compositions and studied music more willingly. Einstein taught himself to play without "ever practicing systematically". He said that "love is a better teacher than a sense of duty". [191]  At the age of 17, he was heard by a school examiner in Aarau while playing Beethoven's violin sonatas. The examiner stated afterward that his playing was "remarkable and revealing of 'great insight'". What struck the examiner, writes Botstein, was that Einstein "displayed a deep love of the music, a quality that was and remains in short supply. Music possessed an unusual meaning for this student." [191] 
 Music took on a pivotal and permanent role in Einstein's life from that period on. Although the idea of becoming a professional musician himself was not on his mind at any time, among those with whom Einstein played chamber music were a few professionals, including Kurt Appelbaum, and he performed for private audiences and friends. Chamber music had also become a regular part of his social life while living in Bern, Zürich, and Berlin, where he played with Max Planck and his son, among others. He is sometimes erroneously credited as the editor of the 1937 edition of the Köchel catalog of Mozart's work; that edition was prepared by Alfred Einstein, who may have been a distant relation. [192]   [193] 
 In 1931, while engaged in research at the California Institute of Technology, he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles, where he played some of Beethoven and Mozart's works with members of the Zoellner Quartet. [194]   [195]  Near the end of his life, when the young Juilliard Quartet visited him in Princeton, he played his violin with them, and the quartet was "impressed by Einstein's level of coordination and intonation". [191] 
Death
On 17 April 1955, Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused by the rupture of an abdominal aortic aneurysm, which had previously been reinforced surgically by Rudolph Nissen in 1948. [196]  He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the state of Israel's seventh anniversary with him to the hospital, but he did not live to complete it. [197] 
 Einstein refused surgery, saying, "I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share; it is time to go. I will do it elegantly." [198]  He died in the Penn Medicine Princeton Medical Center early the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end. [199] 
 During the autopsy, the pathologist Thomas Stoltz Harvey removed Einstein's brain for preservation without the permission of his family, in the hope that the neuroscience of the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so intelligent. [200]  Einstein's remains were cremated in Trenton, New Jersey, [201]  and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location. [202]   [203] 
 In a memorial lecture delivered on 13 December 1965 at UNESCO headquarters, nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer summarized his impression of Einstein as a person: "He was almost wholly without sophistication and wholly without worldliness ... There was always with him a wonderful purity at once childlike and profoundly stubborn." [204] 
 Einstein bequeathed his personal archives, library, and intellectual assets to the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in Israel. [205] 
Scientific career
Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles. [5]   [206]  He published more than 300 scientific papers and 150 non-scientific ones. [14]   [206]  On 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einstein's papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents. [207]   [208]  Einstein's intellectual achievements and originality have made the word "Einstein" synonymous with "genius". [11]  In addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including the Bose–Einstein statistics, the Einstein refrigerator and others. [209]   [210] 
 There is some evidence from Einstein's writings that he collaborated with his first wife, Mileva Marić. In 13 December 1900, a first article on capillarity signed only under Albert’s name was submitted. The decision to publish only under his name seems to have been mutual, but the exact reason is unknown. [38] 
1905 – Annus Mirabilis papers
The  Annus Mirabilis papers are four articles pertaining to the photoelectric effect (which gave rise to quantum theory), Brownian motion, the special theory of relativity, and  E = mc 2  that Einstein published in the Annalen der Physik scientific journal in 1905. These four works contributed substantially to the foundation of modern physics and changed views on space, time, and matter. The four papers are:
 
Title (translated) 
 Area of focus 
Received
Published
Significance
 
"On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light" [211]  
Photoelectric effect
18 March
9 June
Resolved an unsolved puzzle by suggesting that energy is exchanged only in discrete amounts (quanta). [212]  This idea was pivotal to the early development of quantum theory. [213] 
 
"On the Motion of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid, as Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat" [214]  
 Brownian motion 
11 May
18 July
Explained empirical evidence for the atomic theory, supporting the application of statistical physics.
 
"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies" [215]  
 Special relativity 
30 June
26 September
Reconciled Maxwell's equations for electricity and magnetism with the laws of mechanics by introducing changes to mechanics, resulting from analysis based on empirical evidence that the speed of light is independent of the motion of the observer. [216]  Discredited the concept of a "luminiferous ether". [217] 
 
"Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?" [218]  
 Matter–energy equivalence 
27 September
21 November
Equivalence of matter and energy, E = mc 2, the existence of "rest energy", and the basis of nuclear energy.
   
Statistical mechanics
Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics
Einstein's first paper [77]   [219]  submitted in 1900 to Annalen der Physik was on capillary attraction. It was published in 1901 with the title "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen", which translates as "Conclusions from the capillarity phenomena". Two papers he published in 1902–1903 (thermodynamics) attempted to interpret atomic phenomena from a statistical point of view. These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper on Brownian motion, which showed that Brownian movement can be construed as firm evidence that molecules exist. His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena. [219] 
Theory of critical opalescence
Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates this to Rayleigh scattering, which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue. [220]  Einstein quantitatively derived critical opalescence from a treatment of density fluctuations, and demonstrated how both the effect and Rayleigh scattering originate from the atomistic constitution of matter.
Special relativity
Einstein's "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper" [215]  ("On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies") was received on 30 June 1905 and published 26 September of that same year. It reconciled conflicts between Maxwell's equations (the laws of electricity and magnetism) and the laws of Newtonian mechanics by introducing changes to the laws of mechanics. [221]  Observationally, the effects of these changes are most apparent at high speeds (where objects are moving at speeds close to the speed of light). The theory developed in this paper later became known as Einstein's special theory of relativity. 
 This paper predicted that, when measured in the frame of a relatively moving observer, a clock carried by a moving body would appear to slow down, and the body itself would contract in its direction of motion. This paper also argued that the idea of a luminiferous aether—one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time—was superfluous. [note 4] 
 In his paper on mass–energy equivalence, Einstein produced E = mc 2 as a consequence of his special relativity equations. [222]  Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, starting with Max Planck. [note 5]   [223] 
 Einstein originally framed special relativity in terms of kinematics (the study of moving bodies). In 1908, Hermann Minkowski reinterpreted special relativity in geometric terms as a theory of spacetime. Einstein adopted Minkowski's formalism in his 1915 general theory of relativity. [224] 
General relativity
General relativity and the equivalence principle
     
 General relativity (GR) is a theory of gravitation that was developed by Einstein between 1907 and 1915. According to it, the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping of spacetime by those masses. General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modern astrophysics, it provides the foundation for the current understanding of black holes, regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that not even light can escape. [225] 
 As Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial motions within special relativity was unsatisfactory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of motion (even accelerated ones) should appear more satisfactory. [226]  Consequently, in 1907 he published an article on acceleration under special relativity. In that article titled "On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn from It", he argued that free fall is really inertial motion, and that for a free-falling observer the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called the equivalence principle. In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomena of gravitational time dilation, gravitational redshift and gravitational lensing. [227]   [228] 
 In 1911, Einstein published another article "On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light" expanding on the 1907 article, in which he estimated the amount of deflection of light by massive bodies. Thus, the theoretical prediction of general relativity could for the first time be tested experimentally. [229] 
Gravitational waves
In 1916, Einstein predicted gravitational waves, [230]   [231]  ripples in the curvature of spacetime which propagate as waves, traveling outward from the source, transporting energy as gravitational radiation. The existence of gravitational waves is possible under general relativity due to its Lorentz invariance which brings the concept of a finite speed of propagation of the physical interactions of gravity with it. By contrast, gravitational waves cannot exist in the Newtonian theory of gravitation, which postulates that the physical interactions of gravity propagate at infinite speed.
 The first, indirect, detection of gravitational waves came in the 1970s through observation of a pair of closely orbiting neutron stars, PSR B1913+16. [232]  The explanation for the decay in their orbital period was that they were emitting gravitational waves. [232]   [233]  Einstein's prediction was confirmed on 11 February 2016, when researchers at LIGO published the first observation of gravitational waves, [234]  detected on Earth on 14 September 2015, nearly one hundred years after the prediction. [232]   [235]   [236]   [237]   [238] 
Hole argument and Entwurf theory
While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about the gauge invariance in the theory. He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations and searched for equations that would be invariant under general linear transformations only. [239] 
 In June 1913, the Entwurf ('draft') theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. After more than two years of intensive work, Einstein realized that the hole argument was mistaken [240]  and abandoned the theory in November 1915.
Physical cosmology
     
In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to the structure of the universe as a whole. [241]  He discovered that the general field equations predicted a universe that was dynamic, either contracting or expanding. As observational evidence for a dynamic universe was not known at the time, Einstein introduced a new term, the cosmological constant, to the field equations, in order to allow the theory to predict a static universe. The modified field equations predicted a static universe of closed curvature, in accordance with Einstein's understanding of Mach's principle in these years. This model became known as the Einstein World or Einstein's static universe. [242]   [243] 
 Following the discovery of the recession of the nebulae by Edwin Hubble in 1929, Einstein abandoned his static model of the universe, and proposed two dynamic models of the cosmos, The Friedmann–Einstein universe of 1931 [244]   [245]  and the Einstein–de Sitter universe of 1932. [246]   [247]  In each of these models, Einstein discarded the cosmological constant, claiming that it was "in any case theoretically unsatisfactory". [244]   [245]   [248] 
 In many Einstein biographies, it is claimed that Einstein referred to the cosmological constant in later years as his "biggest blunder", based on a letter George Gamow claimed to have received from him. The astrophysicist Mario Livio has recently cast doubt on this claim. [249] 
 In late 2013, a team led by the Irish physicist Cormac O'Raifeartaigh discovered evidence that, shortly after learning of Hubble's observations of the recession of the nebulae, Einstein considered a steady-state model of the universe. [250]   [251]  In a hitherto overlooked manuscript, apparently written in early 1931, Einstein explored a model of the expanding universe in which the density of matter remains constant due to a continuous creation of matter, a process he associated with the cosmological constant. [252]   [253]  As he stated in the paper, "In what follows, I would like to draw attention to a solution to equation (1) that can account for Hubbel's [sic] facts, and in which the density is constant over time" ... "If one considers a physically bounded volume, particles of matter will be continually leaving it. For the density to remain constant, new particles of matter must be continually formed in the volume from space."
 It thus appears that Einstein considered a steady-state model of the expanding universe many years before Hoyle, Bondi and Gold. [254]   [255]  However, Einstein's steady-state model contained a fundamental flaw and he quickly abandoned the idea. [252]   [253]   [256] 
Energy momentum pseudotensor
General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum. Noether's theorem allows these quantities to be determined from a Lagrangian with translation invariance, but general covariance makes translation invariance into something of a gauge symmetry. The energy and momentum derived within general relativity by Noether's prescriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason. [257] 
 Einstein argued that this is true for a fundamental reason: the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was, in fact, the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. While the use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was criticized by Erwin Schrödinger and others, Einstein's approach has been echoed by physicists including Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz. [258] 
Wormholes
In 1935, Einstein collaborated with Nathan Rosen to produce a model of a wormhole, often called Einstein–Rosen bridges. [259]   [260]  His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper "Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?". These solutions cut and pasted Schwarzschild black holes to make a bridge between two patches. Because these solutions included spacetime curvature without the presence of a physical body, Einstein and Rosen suggested that they could provide the beginnings of a theory that avoided the notion of point particles. However, it was later found that Einstein–Rosen bridges are not stable. [261] 
Einstein–Cartan theory
      In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called the torsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s.
 Equations of motion
In general relativity, gravitational force is reimagined as curvature of spacetime. A curved path like an orbit is not the result of a force deflecting a body from an ideal straight-line path, but rather the body's attempt to fall freely through a background that is itself curved by the presence of other masses. A remark by John Archibald Wheeler that has become proverbial among physicists summarizes the theory: "Spacetime tells matter how to move; matter tells spacetime how to curve." [262]   [263]  The Einstein field equations cover the latter aspect of the theory, relating the curvature of spacetime to the distribution of matter and energy. The geodesic equation covers the former aspect, stating that freely-falling bodies follow lines that are as straight as possible in a curved spacetime. Einstein regarded this as an "independent fundamental assumption" that had to be postulated in addition to the field equations in order to complete the theory. Believing this to be a shortcoming in how general relativity was originally presented, he wished to derive it from the field equations themselves. Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein field equations themselves, not by a new law. Accordingly, Einstein proposed that the field equations would determine the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, to be a geodesic. Both physicists and philosophers have often repeated the assertion that the geodesic equation can be obtained from applying the field equations to the motion of a gravitational singularity, but this claim remains disputed. [264]   [265] 
Old quantum theory
Photons and energy quanta
      The photoelectric effect. Incoming photons on the left strike a metal plate (bottom), and eject electrons, depicted as flying off to the right.  
In a 1905 paper, [211]  Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles ( quanta ). Einstein's light quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became universally accepted in 1919, with Robert Millikan's detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the measurement of Compton scattering.
 Einstein concluded that each wave of frequency f is associated with a collection of photons with energy hf each, where h is Planck's constant. He does not say much more, because he is not sure how the particles are related to the wave. But he does suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably the photoelectric effect. [211] 
Quantized atomic vibrations
In 1907, Einstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator. In the Einstein model, each atom oscillates independently—a series of equally spaced quantized states for each oscillator. Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be difficult, but he nevertheless proposed this theory because it was a particularly clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could solve the specific heat problem in classical mechanics. Peter Debye refined this model. [266] 
Bose–Einstein statistics
In 1924, Einstein received a description of a statistical model from Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his translation of Bose's paper to the  Zeitschrift für Physik . Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them the Bose–Einstein condensate phenomenon that some particulates should appear at very low temperatures. [267]  It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by Eric Allin Cornell and Carl Wieman using ultra-cooling equipment built at the NIST–JILA laboratory at the University of Colorado at Boulder. [268]  Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly of bosons. Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University. [209] 
Wave–particle duality
      Einstein during his visit to the United States  
Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became a  Privatdozent  at the University of Bern. [269]  In "Über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung" ("The Development of our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation"), on the quantization of light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-defined momenta and act in some respects as independent, point-like particles. This paper introduced the photon concept (although the name photon was introduced later by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1926) and inspired the notion of wave–particle duality in quantum mechanics. Einstein saw this wave–particle duality in radiation as concrete evidence for his conviction that physics needed a new, unified foundation.
Zero-point energy
In a series of works completed from 1911 to 1913, Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory and introduced the idea of zero-point energy in his "second quantum theory". Soon, this idea attracted the attention of Einstein and his assistant Otto Stern. Assuming the energy of rotating diatomic molecules contains zero-point energy, they then compared the theoretical specific heat of hydrogen gas with the experimental data. The numbers matched nicely. However, after publishing the findings, they promptly withdrew their support, because they no longer had confidence in the correctness of the idea of zero-point energy. [270] 
Stimulated emission
In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article in Physikalische Zeitschrift that proposed the possibility of stimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible the maser and the laser. [271] 
This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws. [272] 
Matter waves
Einstein discovered Louis de Broglie's work and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein observed that de Broglie waves could explain the quantization rules of Bohr and Sommerfeld. This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926. [273]   [274] 
Quantum mechanics
Einstein's objections to quantum mechanics
      Newspaper headline on 4 May 1935  
Einstein played a major role in developing quantum theory, beginning with his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect. However, he became displeased with modern quantum mechanics as it had evolved after 1925, despite its acceptance by other physicists. He was skeptical that the randomness of quantum mechanics was fundamental rather than the result of determinism, stating that God "is not playing at dice". [275]  Until the end of his life, he continued to maintain that quantum mechanics was incomplete. [276] 
Bohr versus Einstein
       The Bohr–Einstein debates were a series of public disputes about quantum mechanics between Einstein and Niels Bohr, who were two of its founders. Their debates are remembered because of their importance to the philosophy of science. [277]   [278]   [279]  Their debates would influence later interpretations of quantum mechanics.
 Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox
In 1935, Einstein returned to quantum mechanics, in particular to the question of its completeness, in a collaboration with Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen that laid out what would become known as the EPR paradox. [280]  In a thought experiment, they considered two particles, which had interacted such that their properties were strongly correlated. No matter how far the two particles were separated, a precise position measurement on one particle would result in equally precise knowledge of the position of the other particle; likewise, a precise momentum measurement of one particle would result in equally precise knowledge of the momentum of the other particle, without needing to disturb the other particle in any way. [281] 
 Given Einstein's concept of local realism, there were two possibilities: (1) either the other particle had these properties already determined, or (2) the process of measuring the first particle instantaneously affected the reality of the position and momentum of the second particle. Einstein rejected this second possibility (popularly called "spooky action at a distance"). [281] 
 Einstein's belief in local realism led him to assert that, while the correctness of quantum mechanics was not in question, it must be incomplete. But as a physical principle, local realism was shown to be incorrect when the Aspect experiment of 1982 confirmed Bell's theorem, which J. S. Bell had delineated in 1964. The results of these and subsequent experiments demonstrate that quantum physics cannot be represented by any version of the picture of physics in which "particles are regarded as unconnected independent classical-like entities, each one being unable to communicate with the other after they have separated." [282] 
 Although Einstein was wrong about local realism, his clear prediction of the unusual properties of its opposite, entangled quantum states, has resulted in the EPR paper becoming among the most influential papers published in  Physical Review . It is considered a centerpiece of the development of quantum information theory. [283] 
Unified field theory
Following his research on general relativity, Einstein attempted to generalize his theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism as aspects of a single entity. In 1950, he described his "unified field theory" in a  Scientific American  article titled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation". [284]  Although he was lauded for this work, his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful.
Notably, Einstein's unification project did not accommodate the strong and weak nuclear forces, neither of which was well understood until many years after his death. Although mainstream physics has left behind Einstein's own approaches to unification, physicists still pursue a theory of everything. [285] 
Other investigations
Einstein conducted other investigations that were unsuccessful and abandoned. These pertain to force, superconductivity, and other research.
Collaboration with other scientists
      The 1927 Solvay Conference in Brussels, a gathering of the world's top physicists. Einstein is in the center.  
In addition to longtime collaborators Leopold Infeld, Nathan Rosen, Peter Bergmann and others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists.
Einstein–de Haas experiment
In 1908, Owen Willans Richardson predicted that a change in the magnetic moment of a free body will cause this body to rotate. This effect is a consequence of the conservation of angular momentum and is strong enough to be observable in ferromagnetic materials. [286]  Einstein and Wander Johannes de Haas published two papers in 1915 claiming the first experimental observation of the effect. [287]   [288]  Measurements of this kind demonstrate that the phenomenon of magnetization is caused by the alignment (polarization) of the angular momenta of the electrons in the material along the axis of magnetization. These measurements also allow the separation of the two contributions to the magnetization: that which is associated with the spin and with the orbital motion of the electrons.
Einstein refrigerator
In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the Einstein refrigerator. This absorption refrigerator was then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input. [289]  On 11 November 1930, U.S. Patent 1,781,541 was awarded to Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, and the most promising of their patents were acquired by the Swedish company Electrolux. [note 6] 
Non-scientific legacy
     
While traveling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986 [291] ). Barbara Wolff, of the Hebrew University's Albert Einstein Archives, told the BBC that there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955. [292] 
 Einstein's right of publicity was litigated in 2015 in a federal district court in California. Although the court initially held that the right had expired, [293]  that ruling was immediately appealed, and the decision was later vacated in its entirety. The underlying claims between the parties in that lawsuit were ultimately settled. The right is enforceable, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem is the exclusive representative of that right. [294]  Corbis, successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses the use of his name and associated imagery, as agent for the university. [295] 
  Mount Einstein in the Chugach Mountains of Alaska was named in 1955.
 Mount Einstein in New Zealand's Paparoa Range was named after him in 1970 by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. [296] 
In popular culture
Einstein became one of the most famous scientific celebrities, [297]   [298]  beginning with the confirmation of his theory of general relativity in 1919. [299]  Despite the general public having little understanding of his work, he was widely recognized and received adulation and publicity. In the period before World War II,  The New Yorker  published a vignette in their "The Talk of the Town" feature saying that Einstein was so well known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain "that theory". He finally figured out a way to handle the incessant inquiries. He told his inquirers, "Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein." [300] 
 Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music. [301]  He is a favorite model for depictions of absent-minded professors; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated.  Time  magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist's dream come true". [302] 
 Many popular quotations are often misattributed to him. [303]   [304]  For example, it is often claimed, erroneously, that he said, "The definition of insanity is doing the same thing over and over and expecting different results." [303] 
Awards and honors
Einstein received numerous awards and honors, and in 1922, he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". None of the nominations in 1921 met the criteria set by Alfred Nobel, so the 1921 prize was carried forward and awarded to Einstein in 1922. [10] 
Publications
Scientific
   
  Einstein, Albert (1901) [Completed 13 December 1900 and manuscript received 16 December 1900]. Written at Zurich, Switzerland. Paul Karl Ludwig Drude (ed.). "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen" [Conclusions Drawn from the Phenomena of Capillarity].  Annalen der Physik . Vierte Folge (in German). Leipzig, Germany: Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth (published 1 March 1901). 4 (all series: 309) (3): 513–523. Bibcode:1901AnP...309..513E. doi:10.1002/andp.19013090306 – via Wiley Online Library, Hoboken, New Jersey, US (March 2006). 
 Einstein, Albert (1905a) [Completed 17 March 1905 and submitted 18 March 1905]. Written at Berne, Switzerland. Paul Karl Ludwig Drude (ed.). "Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt" [On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light] (PDF).  Annalen der Physik . Vierte Folge (in German). Leipzig, Germany: Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth (published 9 June 1905). 17 (all series: 322) (6): 132–148. Bibcode:1905AnP...322..132E. doi:10.1002/andp.19053220607 – via Wiley Online Library, Hoboken, New Jersey, US (10 March 2006). 
 Einstein, Albert (1905b) [Completed 30 April 1905].  Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen  [A new determination of molecular dimensions] (PDF). Dissertationen Universität Zürich  (PhD Thesis) (in German). Berne, Switzerland: Wyss Buchdruckerei (published 20 July 1905). doi:10.3929/ethz-a-000565688. hdl:20.500.11850/139872 – via ETH Bibliothek, Zürich (2008). 
 Einstein, Albert (1905c) [Manuscript received: 11 May 1905]. Written at Berne, Switzerland. Paul Karl Ludwig Drude (ed.). "Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen" [On the Motion – Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat – of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid].  Annalen der Physik . Vierte Folge (in German). Leipzig, Germany: Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth (published 18 July 1905). 17 (all series: 322) (8): 549–560. Bibcode:1905AnP...322..549E. doi:10.1002/andp.19053220806. hdl:10915/2785 – via Wiley Online Library, Hoboken, New Jersey, US (10 March 2006). 
 Einstein, Albert (1905d) [Manuscript received 30 June 1905]. Written at Berne, Switzerland. Paul Karl Ludwig Drude (ed.). "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper" [On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies].  Annalen der Physik  (Submitted manuscript). Vierte Folge (in German). Leipzig, Germany: Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth (published 26 September 1905). 17 (all series: 322) (10): 891–921. Bibcode:1905AnP...322..891E. doi:10.1002/andp.19053221004. hdl:10915/2786 – via Wiley Online Library, Hoboken, New Jersey, US (10 March 2006). 
 Einstein, Albert (1905e) [Manuscript received 27 September 1905]. Written at Berne, Switzerland. Paul Karl Ludwig Drude (ed.). "Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt abhängig?" [Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?].  Annalen der Physik . Vierte Folge (in German). Leipzig, Germany: Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth (published 21 November 1905). 18 (all series: 323) (13): 639–641. Bibcode:1905AnP...323..639E. doi:10.1002/andp.19053231314 – via Wiley Online Library, Hoboken, New Jersey, US (10 March 2006). 
 Einstein, Albert (1915) [Completed 25 November 1915]. "Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation" [The Field Equations of Gravitation] (Online page images). Sitzungsberichte 1915 (in German). Berlin, Germany: Königlich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften (published 2 December 1915): 844–847 – via ECHO, Cultural Heritage Online, Max Planck Institute for the History of Science. 
 Einstein, Albert (1916) [Issued 29 June 1916]. "Näherungsweise Integration der Feldgleichungen der Gravitation" [Approximate integration of the field equations of gravitation] (Online page images). Sitzungsberichte 1916. Berlin, Germany: Königlich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften: 688–696. Bibcode:1916SPAW.......688E. Retrieved 24 January 2022 – via SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS). 
 Einstein, Albert (1917a). "Kosmologische Betrachtungen zur allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie" [Cosmological Considerations in the General Theory of Relativity] (Online page images). Sitzungsberichte 1917 (in German). Königlich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin. 
 Einstein, Albert (1917b). "Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung" [On the Quantum Mechanics of Radiation]. Physikalische Zeitschrift (in German). 18: 121–128. Bibcode:1917PhyZ...18..121E. 
 Einstein, Albert (31 January 1918). "Über Gravitationswellen" [About gravitational waves]. Sitzungsberichte der Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften Berlin: 154–167. Bibcode:1918SPAW.......154E. Retrieved 14 November 2020. 
 Einstein, Albert (1923) [First published 1923, in English 1967]. Written at Gothenburg.  Grundgedanken und Probleme der Relativitätstheorie  [Fundamental Ideas and Problems of the Theory of Relativity] (Speech). Lecture delivered to the Nordic Assembly of Naturalists at Gothenburg, 11 July 1923. Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901–1921 (in German and English). Stockholm: Nobelprice.org (published 3 February 2015) – via Nobel Media AB 2014. 
 Einstein, Albert (1924) [Published 10 July 1924]. "Quantentheorie des einatomigen idealen Gases" [Quantum theory of monatomic ideal gases]. Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Physikalisch-Mathematische Klasse (in German): 261–267. Archived from the original (Online page images) on 14 October 2016. Retrieved 26 February 2015 – via ECHO, Cultural Heritage Online, Max Planck Institute for the History of Science. First of a series of papers on this topic.
 Einstein, Albert (12 March 1926) [Cover Date 1 March 1926]. Written at Berlin. "Die Ursache der Mäanderbildung der Flußläufe und des sogenannten Baerschen Gesetzes" [On Baer's law and meanders in the courses of rivers]. Die Naturwissenschaften (in German). Heidelberg, Germany. 14 (11): 223–224. Bibcode:1926NW.....14..223E. doi:10.1007/BF01510300. ISSN 1432-1904. S2CID 39899416. 
 Einstein, Albert (1926b). Written at Berne, Switzerland. Fürth, R. (ed.).  Investigations on the Theory of the Brownian Movement  (PDF). Translated by Cowper, A. D. US: Dover Publications (published 1956). ISBN  978-1-60796-285-4 . Retrieved 4 January 2015. 
 Einstein, Albert (1931). "Zum kosmologischen Problem der allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie" [On the cosmological problem of the general theory of relativity]. Sonderasugabe aus den Sitzungsb. König. Preuss. Akad.: 235–237. 
 Einstein, A.; de Sitter, W. (1932). "On the relation between the expansion and the mean density of the universe". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 18 (3): 213–214. Bibcode:1932PNAS...18..213E. doi:10.1073/pnas.18.3.213. PMC 1076193. PMID 16587663. 
 Einstein, Albert; Rosen, Nathan (1935). "The Particle Problem in the General Theory of Relativity".  Physical Review . 48 (1): 73. Bibcode:1935PhRv...48...73E. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.48.73. 
 Einstein, Albert; Podolsky, Boris; Rosen, Nathan (15 May 1935) [Received 25 March 1935]. "Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?". Physical Review (Submitted manuscript). 47 (10): 777–780. Bibcode:1935PhRv...47..777E. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.47.777 – via APS Journals. 
 Einstein, Albert (1950). "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation". Scientific American. CLXXXII (4): 13–17. Bibcode:1950SciAm.182d..13E. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0450-13. 
 Einstein, Albert (1954).  Ideas and Opinions . New York: Crown Publishers. ISBN  978-0-517-00393-0 .  —————— (1995) [1954].  Ideas and Opinions . New York: Three Rivers Press. ISBN  978-0-517-88440-9 . 
 Einstein, Albert (1969). Albert Einstein, Hedwig und Max Born: Briefwechsel 1916–1955 (in German). Commented by Max Born; Preface by Bertrand Russell; Foreword by Werner Heisenberg. Munich: Nymphenburger Verlagshandlung. ISBN  978-3-88682-005-4 . A reprint of this book was published by Edition Erbrich in 1982, ISBN 978-3-88682-005-4.
  Stachel, John; Martin J. Klein; A. J. Kox; Michel Janssen; R. Schulmann; Diana Komos Buchwald; et al., eds. (21 July 2008) [Published between 1987 and 2006].  The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein . Vol. 1–10. Princeton University Press. Further information about the volumes published so far can be found on the webpages of the Einstein Papers Project [305]  and on the Princeton University Press Einstein Page. [306]   
Others
  Einstein, Albert; et al. (4 December 1948). "To the editors of The New York Times".  The New York Times . Melville, New York. ISBN  978-0-7354-0359-8 . Archived from the original on 17 December 2007. Retrieved 25 May 2006. 
 Einstein, Albert (May 1949). Sweezy, Paul; Huberman, Leo (eds.). "Why Socialism?".  Monthly Review . 1 (1): 9–15. doi:10.14452/MR-001-01-1949-05_3.  —————— (May 2009) [May 1949]. "Why Socialism? (Reprise)".  Monthly Review . New York: Monthly Review Foundation. Archived from the original on 11 January 2006. Retrieved 16 January 2006 – via MonthlyReview.org. 
Einstein, Albert (September 1960). Foreword to Gandhi Wields the Weapon of Moral Power: Three Case Histories. Introduction by Bharatan Kumarappa. Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House. pp. v-vi. OCLC 2325889. Foreword originally written in April 1953.
 Einstein, Albert (1979).  Autobiographical Notes . Paul Arthur Schilpp (Centennial ed.). Chicago: Open Court. ISBN  978-0-87548-352-8 .. The chasing a light beam thought experiment is described on pages 48–51. 
See also
  Albert Einstein House in Princeton
 Einstein family 
 Einstein notation 
  The Einstein Theory of Relativity , an educational film
 Frist Campus Center at Princeton University – room 302 is associated with Einstein. (The center was once the Palmer Physical Laboratory.)
 Heinrich Burkhardt 
 Bern Historical Museum (Einstein Museum)
 History of gravitational theory 
 List of coupled cousins 
 List of German inventors and discoverers 
 Jewish Nobel laureates 
 List of peace activists 
 Relativity priority dispute 
 Sticky bead argument 
 Heinrich Zangger  
Notes
 
^    a       b       c    In the German Empire, citizens were exclusively subjects of one of the 27 Bundesstaaten.
  ^  Einstein's scores on his  Matura  certificate: German 5; French 3; Italian 5; History 6; Geography 4; Algebra 6; Geometry 6; Descriptive Geometry 6; Physics 6; Chemistry 5; Natural History 5; Art Drawing 4; Technical Drawing 4. Scale: 6 = very good, 5 = good, 4 = sufficient, 3 = insufficient, 2 = poor, 1 = very poor.
  ^  "Their leaders in Germany have not driven out her cut-throats and her blackguards. She has chosen the cream of her culture and has suppressed it. She has even turned upon her most glorious citizen, Albert Einstein, who is the supreme example of the selfless intellectual...The man, who, beyond all others, approximates a citizen of the world, is without a home. How proud we must be to offer him temporary shelter."
  ^  In his paper, Einstein wrote: "The introduction of a 'luminiferous æther' will be proved to be superfluous in so far, as according to the conceptions which will be developed, we shall introduce neither a 'space absolutely at rest' endowed with special properties, nor shall we associate a velocity-vector with a point in which electro-magnetic processes take place."
  ^  For a discussion of the reception of relativity theory around the world, and the different controversies it encountered, see the articles in Glick (1987).
  ^  In September 2008 it was reported that Malcolm McCulloch of Oxford University was heading a three-year project to develop more robust appliances that could be used in locales lacking electricity, and that his team had completed a prototype Einstein refrigerator. He was quoted as saying that improving the design and changing the types of gases used might allow the design's efficiency to be quadrupled. [290] 
 
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^    a       b       c    Einstein (1905b), "Meinem Freunde Herr Dr. Marcel Grossmann gewidmet (Dedicated to my friend, Dr. Marcel Grossmann)".
^    a       b    Einstein (1926b), chap. "A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions".
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  ^   Malament, David (2012). "A Remark About the 'Geodesic Principle' in General Relativity" (PDF). In Frappier, M.; Brown, D.; DiSalle, R. (eds.). Analysis and Interpretation in the Exact Sciences. The Western Ontario Series in Philosophy of Science. Vol. 78. Springer. pp. 245–252. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-2582-9_14. ISBN  978-94-007-2581-2 . Though the geodesic principle can be recovered as theorem in general relativity, it is not a consequence of Einstein's equation (or the conservation principle) alone. Other assumptions are needed to derive the theorems in question. 
  ^   "Celebrating Einstein 'Solid Cold'. U.S. DOE". Archived from the original on 19 July 2017. Retrieved 21 February 2011., Office of Scientific and Technical Information, 2011.
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  ^  Pais (1982), p. 522.
  ^  Stachel et al. (2008), pp. 270ff, vol. 4: The Swiss Years: Writings, 1912–1914.
  ^  Einstein (1917b).
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  ^  Hanle, Paul A. (July 1979). "The Schrödinger‐Einstein correspondence and the sources of wave mechanics". American Journal of Physics. 47 (7): 644–648. Bibcode:1979AmJPh..47..644H. doi:10.1119/1.11950. ISSN 0002-9505.
  ^  Raman, V. V.; Forman, Paul (1969). "Why Was It Schrödinger Who Developed de Broglie's Ideas?". Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences. 1: 291–314. doi:10.2307/27757299. ISSN 0073-2672. JSTOR 27757299.
  ^  Andrews, Robert (2003).  The New Penguin Dictionary of Modern Quotations . Penguin UK. p. 499. ISBN  978-0-14-196531-4 . Archived from the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 18 June 2015.
  ^  Pais, Abraham (October 1979). "Einstein and the quantum theory" (PDF). Reviews of Modern Physics. 51 (4): 863–914. Bibcode:1979RvMP...51..863P. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.51.863. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 August 2019. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
  ^  Bohr, N. "Discussions with Einstein on Epistemological Problems in Atomic Physics". The Value of Knowledge: A Miniature Library of Philosophy. Marxists Internet Archive. Archived from the original on 13 September 2010. Retrieved 30 August 2010. From Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist (1949), publ. Cambridge University Press, 1949. Niels Bohr's report of conversations with Einstein.
  ^  Einstein (1969).
  ^  Schlosshauer, Maximilian; Kofler, Johannes; Zeilinger, Anton (1 August 2013). "A snapshot of foundational attitudes toward quantum mechanics". Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part B: Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics. 44 (3): 222–230. arXiv:1301.1069. Bibcode:2013SHPMP..44..222S. doi:10.1016/j.shpsb.2013.04.004. ISSN 1355-2198. S2CID 55537196.
  ^  Einstein, Podolsky &amp; Rosen (1935).
^    a       b    Isaacson (2007), pp. 448–453.
  ^  Penrose (2007), p. 583.
  ^  Fine (2017).
  ^  Einstein (1950).
  ^  Goenner, Hubert F. M. (1 December 2004). "On the History of Unified Field Theories". Living Reviews in Relativity. 7 (1): 2. Bibcode:2004LRR.....7....2G. doi:10.12942/lrr-2004-2. ISSN 1433-8351. PMC 5256024. PMID 28179864.
  ^  
Richardson, O. W. (1908). "A Mechanical Effect Accompanying Magnetization". Physical Review. Series I. 26 (3): 248–253. Bibcode:1908PhRvI..26..248R. doi:10.1103/PhysRevSeriesI.26.248.
  ^  
Einstein, A.; de Haas, W. J. (1915). "Experimenteller Nachweis der Ampereschen Molekularströme" [Experimental Proof of Ampère's Molecular Currents]. Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft, Verhandlungen (in German). 17: 152–170.
  ^  
Einstein, A.; de Haas, W. J. (1915). "Experimental proof of the existence of Ampère's molecular currents" (PDF). Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam, Proceedings. 18: 696–711. Bibcode:1915KNAB...18..696E.
  ^  Goettling, Gary.  "Einstein's refrigerator". Archived from the original on 25 May 2005. Georgia Tech Alumni Magazine. 1998. Retrieved 12 November 2014. Leó Szilárd, a Hungarian physicist who later worked on the Manhattan Project, is credited with the discovery of the chain reaction
  ^  Alok, Jha (21 September 2008). "Einstein fridge design can help global cooling". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 24 January 2011. Retrieved 22 February 2011.
  ^   "Obituary". The New York Times. 12 July 1986. Archived from the original on 10 September 2017. Retrieved 3 April 2011.
  ^   "Letters Reveal Einstein Love Life".  BBC News . 11 July 2006. Archived from the original on 2 May 2019. Retrieved 14 March 2007.
  ^   "United States District Court, Central District of California, Case No. CV10–03790 AHM (JCx)". 15 October 2012. Archived from the original on 21 January 2020. Retrieved 24 November 2019.
  ^   "United States District Court, Central District of California, Case No.: CV-10-3790-AB (JCx)". 15 January 2015. Archived from the original on 25 July 2020. Retrieved 24 November 2019.
  ^   "Einstein". Corbis Rights Representation. Archived from the original on 19 August 2008. Retrieved 8 August 2008.
  ^   "Place name detail: Mount Einstein". New Zealand Gazetteer. New Zealand Geographic Board. Retrieved 21 August 2022.
  ^   Halpern, Paul (2019). "Albert Einstein, celebrity scientist".  Physics Today . 72 (4): 38–45. doi:10.1063/PT.3.4183. S2CID 187603798. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 21 February 2021.
  ^  Fahy, Declan (2015). "A Brief History Of Scientific Celebrity".  Skeptical Inquirer . Vol. 39, no. 4. Archived from the original on 10 May 2021. Retrieved 21 February 2021.
  ^  Missner, Marshall (May 1985). "Why Einstein Became Famous in America".  Social Studies of Science . 15 (2): 267–291. doi:10.1177/030631285015002003. JSTOR 285389. S2CID 143398600.
  ^  Libman, E. (14 January 1939). "Disguise". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 25 July 2020. Retrieved 15 April 2020.
  ^  McTee, Cindy. "Einstein's Dream for orchestra". Cindymctee.com. Archived from the original on 18 April 2017. Retrieved 17 July 2010.
  ^  Golden, Frederic (3 January 2000). "Person of the Century: Albert Einstein". Time. Archived from the original on 21 February 2006. Retrieved 25 February 2006.
^    a       b    Novak, Matt (16 May 2015). "9 Albert Einstein Quotes That Are Completely Fake". Gizmodo. Archived from the original on 5 July 2018. Retrieved 4 May 2018.
  ^   "Did Albert Einstein Humiliate an Atheist Professor?". Snopes. 29 June 2004. Archived from the original on 4 November 2021. Retrieved 4 May 2018.
  ^   "Einstein Papers Project". California Institute of Technology. Retrieved 5 November 2022.
  ^   "Albert Einstein". Princeton University Press. Retrieved 5 November 2022.
 
Works cited
  Calaprice, Alice (2000). The Expanded Quotable Einstein. Princeton University Press. 
 Calaprice, Alice (2005).  The New Quotable Einstein . Princeton University Press. Archived from the original on 22 June 2009. 
 Calaprice, Alice; Lipscombe, Trevor (2005).  Albert Einstein: A Biography . Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN  978-0-313-33080-3 . 
 Calaprice, Alice (2010).  The Ultimate Quotable Einstein . Princeton University Press. ISBN  978-1-4008-3596-6 . 
 Calaprice, Alice; Kennefick, Daniel; Schulmann, Robert (2015). An Einstein Encyclopedia. Princeton University Press. Bibcode:2016eien.book.....C. 
 Chaplin, Charles (1964). Charles Chaplin: My Autobiography. New York: Simon and Schuster. 
  Clark, Ronald W. (1971).  Einstein: The Life and Times . New York: Avon Books. ISBN  978-0-380-44123-5 . 
 Fölsing, Albrecht (1997).  Albert Einstein . Translated by Osers, Ewald. Abridged by Ewald Osers. New York: Penguin Viking. ISBN  978-0-670-85545-2 . 
 Fine, Arthur (2017). "The Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Argument in Quantum Theory". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 
 Galison, Peter (Winter 2000). "Einstein's Clocks: The Question of Time". Critical Inquiry. 26 (2): 355–389. doi:10.1086/448970. JSTOR 1344127. S2CID 144484466. 
 Glick, Thomas F., ed. (1987). The Comparative Reception of Relativity. Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN  978-90-277-2498-4 . 
  Highfield, Roger; Carter, Paul (1993).  The Private Lives of Albert Einstein . London: Faber and Faber. ISBN  978-0-571-17170-5 . 
 Hoffmann, Banesh (1972).  Albert Einstein: Creator and Rebel . Collaboration with Helen Dukas. New York: Viking Press. ISBN  978-0-670-11181-7 . 
 Holton, Gerald (April 1984). "The migration of physicists to the United States". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science. 40 (4): 18–24. Bibcode:1984BuAtS..40d..18H. doi:10.1080/00963402.1984.11459207. 
  Isaacson, Walter (2007).  Einstein: His Life and Universe . New York: Simon &amp; Schuster Paperbacks. ISBN  978-0-7432-6473-0 . [ dead link ] 
  Isaacson, Walter (2008).  Einstein: His Life and Universe . New York: Simon &amp; Schuster. ISBN  978-1-84739-589-4 . 
 Neffe, Jürgen (2007).  Einstein: A Biography . Translated by Frisch, Shelley. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN  978-0-374-14664-1 . 
 Pais, Abraham (1982).  Subtle is the Lord: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein . Oxford University Press. ISBN  978-0-19-853907-0 . 
 Pais, Abraham (1994).  Einstein Lived Here . Oxford University Press. ISBN  978-0-19-280672-7 . 
 Penrose, Roger (2007). The Road to Reality. Vintage Books. ISBN  978-0-679-77631-4 . 
  Robeson, Paul (2002). Paul Robeson Speaks. Citadel. p. 333. 
 Rowe, David E.; Schulmann, Robert, eds. (2007). Einstein on Politics: His Private Thoughts and Public Stands on Nationalism, Zionism, War, Peace, and the Bomb. Princeton University Press. ISBN  978-0-691-12094-2 . 
 Rowe, David E.; Schulmann, Robert, eds. (2013).  Einstein on Politics: His Private Thoughts and Public Stands on Nationalism, Zionism, War, Peace, and the Bomb . Princeton University Press. ISBN  978-1-4008-4828-7 . 
 Scheideler, Britta (2002). "The Scientist as Moral Authority: Albert Einstein between Elitism and Democracy, 1914–1933". Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences. 32 (2): 319–346. doi:10.1525/hsps.2002.32.2.319. JSTOR 10.1525/hsps.2002.32.2.319. 
 Stachel, John J. (1966).  Albert Einstein and Mileva Marić  (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 March 2008. Retrieved 13 May 2016. 
 Stachel, John J. (2002). Einstein from 'B' to 'Z'. Einstein Studies. Vol. 9. Birkhäuser. ISBN  978-0-8176-4143-6 . OCLC 237532460. 
 Weinstein, G. (2015).  General Relativity Conflict and Rivalries: Einstein's Polemics with Physicists . Newcastle upon Tyne (UK): Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN  978-1-4438-8362-7 .  
Further reading
  Brian, Denis (1996).  Einstein: A Life . New York: John Wiley. 
 Gordin, Michael D. (2020). Einstein in Bohemia. Princeton University Press. ISBN  978-0-691-17737-3 . 
  Lindemann, Frederick Alexander (1922). "Einstein, Albert" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.).  Encyclopædia Britannica  (12th ed.). London &amp; New York: The Encyclopædia Britannica Company. 
 Moring, Gary (2004).  The complete idiot's guide to understanding Einstein  (1st ed.). Indianapolis, Indiana: Alpha books (Macmillan). ISBN  978-0-02-863180-6 . idiot's guide to Einstein.  
  Oppenheimer, J. Robert (1971). Lecture delivered at the UNESCO House in Paris on 13 December 1965. "On Albert Einstein". Science and Synthesis: An International Colloquium Organized by Unesco on the Tenth Anniversary of the Death of Albert Einstein and Teilhard de Chardin: 8–12, 208., or  "On Albert Einstein by Robert Oppenheimer".  The New York Review of Books . 17 March 1966. 
 Parker, Barry (2000).  Einstein's Brainchild: Relativity Made Relatively Easy! . Illustrated by Lori Scoffield-Beer. Prometheus Books. ISBN  978-1-59102-522-1 . 
 Rogers, Donald W. (2005). Einstein's "Other" Theory: The Planck-Bose-Einstein Theory of Heat Capacity. Princeton University Press. ISBN  978-0-691-11826-0 . 
  Schweber, Silvan S. (2008).  Einstein and Oppenheimer: The Meaning of Genius . Harvard University Press. ISBN  978-0-674-02828-9 . 
 Stone, A. Douglas (2013).  Einstein and the Quantum . Princeton University Press. ISBN  978-0-691-13968-5 . 
 Weinberg, Steven (2005). "Einstein's mistakes". Physics Today. 58 (11): 31–35. Bibcode:2005PhT....58k..31W. doi:10.1063/1.2155755.  
External links
Albert Einstein - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_family
Einstein family - Wikipedia
2008-08-06
None
<div><div>
<p>This article is about the family of Albert Einstein. For other people named Einstein, see <a href="/wiki/Einstein_(surname)">Einstein (surname)</a>.</p>
<table><tbody><tr><th>Albert Einstein</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:Einstein1921_by_F_Schmutzer_2.jpg"></a></td></tr><tr><th>Current region</th><td>Worldwide</td></tr><tr><th>Place of origin</th><td><a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Augsburg">Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg">Duchy of Württemberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg">Kingdom of Württemberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Bavaria">Electorate of Bavaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bavaria">Kingdom of Bavaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_Empire">German Empire</a></td></tr><tr><th>Members</th><td><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>, <a href="#Maria_&quot;Maja&quot;_Einstein_(Albert's_younger_sister)">Maja Einstein</a>, <a href="#Hermann_Einstein_(Albert's_father)">Hermann Einstein</a>, <a href="#Pauline_Koch_(Albert's_mother)">Pauline Koch</a></td></tr><tr><th>Connected families</th><td>Koch, Moos, Overnauer</td></tr></tbody></table>
<div><p></p><p><a href="/wiki/File:Einstein_Family.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>The <b>Einstein family</b> is the family of physicist <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> (1879–1955). Einstein's great-great-great-great-grandfather, Jakob Weil, was his oldest recorded relative, born in the late 17th century, and the family continues to this day. Albert Einstein's great-great-grandfather, Löb Moses Sontheimer (1745–1831), was also the grandfather of the tenor <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Sontheim">Heinrich Sontheim</a> (1820–1912) of Stuttgart.<sup><a href="#cite_note-tanzer-1">[1]</a></sup>
</p><p>Albert's three children were from his relationship with his first wife, <a href="/wiki/Mileva_Mari%C4%87">Mileva Marić</a>, his daughter Lieserl being born a year before they married. Albert Einstein's second wife was <a href="/wiki/Elsa_Einstein">Elsa Einstein</a>, whose mother <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fanny_Koch&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1">Fanny Koch</a> was the sister of Albert's mother, and whose father, Rudolf Einstein, was the son of Raphael Einstein, a brother of Albert's paternal grandfather. Albert and Elsa were thus first cousins through their mothers and second cousins through their fathers.<sup><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Etymology[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1">edit</a>]</h2>
<p><i>Einstein</i> ( <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key"><i>EYEN-styne</i></a>, <small>German: </small><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German">[ˈaɪnʃtaɪn]</a> (<a href="/wiki/File:De-Einstein.ogg"></a><a href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/De-Einstein.ogg">listen</a>)) is either a German habitational surname from various places named with a Middle High German derivative of the verb <i>einsteinen</i> 'to enclose, surround with stone'; or a Jewish (Ashkenazic) adaptation of the German name, or else an ornamental name using the ending <i>-stein</i> 'stone'.<sup><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Einstein family table[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Einstein_Family_Tree.png"></a></p></div>
<table>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Generation
</th>
<th>Paternal
</th>
<th>Maternal
</th>
<th>Comments
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>1st
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>Emma Tiia from Norway (?) (father of Jüttle Sara)<sup><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup>
</td>
<td>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>2nd
</td>
<td>Juda from Nordstetten (?), Chaja [last name unknown] (?), Hoyna Moses Sontheimer (1705–?), Gölla [last name unknown] (?)<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</td>
<td>Jakob Weil (?),<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> Jüttle Sara Weil (1722–1808),<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
<p>David Ka<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify">clarification needed</a></i>]</sup>
Löb Moses Sontheimer (1745–?)<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> <br /> 
</p>
</td>
<td>Jakob Simon Bernheimer (1756–1790),<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> Leah Hajm (1753–1833)<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> 
<p>Bernard (Beerle) Weil (1750–1840),<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> Rösle Katz (1760–1826)<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> 
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>4th
</td>
<td>Naphtali Einstein (1733–1801), Hayum Moos,<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> Helene Steppach (1737–1790)
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>5th
</td>
<td>Rupert Einstein (1759–1834) Veit Hirsch (1763–1820)<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> Rebekka Overnauer (1770–1843)<br /> Hayum Moos (1788–?),<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions">who?</a></i>]</sup> Fanny Schmal (1792–?)
</td>
<td>Zadok Löb Dörzbacher (1783–1852), Blumle Sontheimer (1786–1856)
</td>
<td>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>6th
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Einstein">Abraham Einstein</a> (1808–1868). Siblings: Hirsch Einstein (1799–?), Judith Einstein (1802–?), Samuel Rupert Einstein (1804–?), Raphael Einstein (1806–?), David Einstein (1810–?)
<p>Helene Moos (1814–1887, Siblings: None)
</p>
</td>
<td>Julius Dörzbacher (1816–1895, Siblings: None),
<p>Jette Bernheimer (1825–1886, Siblings: None)
</p>
</td>
<td>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>7th
</td>
<td><a href="#Hermann_Einstein_(Albert's_father)">Hermann Einstein</a> (1847–1902). Siblings: August Ignaz Einstein (1841–?), Jette Einstein (1844–?), Heinrich Einstein (1845–?), Jakob Einstein (1850–?), Friederike Einstein (1855–?)
</td>
<td><a href="#Pauline_Koch_(Albert's_mother)">Pauline Koch</a> (1858–1920). Siblings: Fanny Koch (1852–1926), Jacob Koch (?), Caesar Koch (?)
</td>
<td>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b>8th</b>
</td>
<td><b><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein">Albert Einstein</a></b> (1879–1955). Siblings: <a href="/wiki/Maja_Einstein">Maja Einstein</a> (1881–1951).
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>Albert's wives: <a href="/wiki/Mileva_Mari%C4%87">Mileva Marić</a> (1875–1948), <a href="/wiki/Elsa_Einstein">Elsa Einstein</a> (1876–1936)
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>9th
</td>
<td><b>Albert's children</b>: <a href="/wiki/Lieserl_Einstein">Lieserl Einstein</a> (1902–1903?), <a href="/wiki/Hans_Albert_Einstein">Hans Albert Einstein</a> (1904–1973), <a href="#Eduard_&quot;Tete&quot;_Einstein_(Albert's_second_son)">Eduard Einstein</a> (1910–1965)
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>10th
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Bernhard_Caesar_Einstein">Bernhard Caesar Einstein</a> (1930–2008), Klaus Martin (1933–1939); David Einstein (16 October 1939 – 21 November 1939); and <a href="/wiki/Evelyn_Einstein">Evelyn</a> (1941–2011, adopted child)
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>11th
</td>
<td>Thomas Martin Einstein (1955–), Paul Michael Einstein (1959–), Eduard Albert (Ted) Einstein (1961–), Mira Einstein-Yehieli (1965–), Charles Quincy Ascher (Charly) Einstein (1971–)
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h2>Pauline Koch (Albert's mother)[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3">edit</a>]</h2>
<table><tbody><tr><th><p>Pauline Einstein (née Koch)</p></th></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:Pauline_Koch.jpg"></a></td></tr><tr><th>Born</th><td>8 February 1858<br /><div><p><a href="/wiki/Cannstatt">Cannstatt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg">Kingdom of Württemberg</a></p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Died</th><td>20 February 1920 (aged 62)<br /><div><p>Berlin, <a href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia">Free State of Prussia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic">Weimar Republic</a></p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Spouse</th><td><a href="#Hermann_Einstein_(Albert's_father)">Hermann Einstein</a></td></tr><tr><th>Children</th><td><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> <br /> <a href="#Maria_&quot;Maja&quot;_Einstein_(Albert's_younger_sister)">Maja Einstein</a></td></tr><tr><th>Parent(s)</th><td>Julius Derzbacher <br /> Jette Bernheimer</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Pauline Einstein</b> (née Koch) (8 February 1858 – 20 February 1920) was the mother of the physicist <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>. She was born in <a href="/wiki/Cannstatt">Cannstatt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg">Kingdom of Württemberg</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> She was <a href="/wiki/Jewish">Jewish</a> and had an older sister, Fanny, and two older brothers, Jacob and Caesar. Her parents were Julius Doerzbacher, who had adopted the family name Koch in 1842, and Jette Bernheimer. They were married in 1847. Pauline's father was from <a href="/wiki/Jebenhausen">Jebenhausen</a>, now part of the city of <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ppingen">Göppingen</a>, and grew up in modest economic circumstances. Later, he lived in Cannstatt and together with his brother Heinrich, made a considerable fortune in the corn trade. They even became "Royal Württemberg <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/purveyor">Purveyor</a> to the Court". Their mother was from Cannstatt and was a quiet and caring person.
</p>
<h3>Early life[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>At 18 years old, Pauline married the merchant <a href="#Hermann_Einstein_(Albert's_father)">Hermann Einstein</a> who lived in <a href="/wiki/Ulm">Ulm</a>. They married in Cannstatt on 8 August 1876. After the wedding, the young couple lived in Ulm, where Hermann became joint partner in a bed feathers company. Their son, Albert was born on 14 March 1879.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Bio-6">[6]</a></sup> On the initiative of Hermann's brother Jakob the family moved to <a href="/wiki/Munich">Munich</a> in the summer of 1880, where the two brothers together founded an electrical engineering company called <sup><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> Einstein &amp; Cie. The second child of Hermann and Pauline, their daughter Maria (called <a href="/wiki/Maja_Einstein">Maja</a>), was born in Munich on 18 November 1881. Pauline Einstein was a well-educated and quiet woman who had an inclination for the arts. She was a talented and dedicated piano player. She made Albert begin violin lessons at the age of five.<sup><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Business problems[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>The factory of Hermann and Jakob was moved to <a href="/wiki/Pavia">Pavia</a>, Italy, in 1894. Hermann, Maria and Pauline moved to <a href="/wiki/Milan">Milan</a> in the same year and one year later, moved to Pavia. Albert stayed with relatives in Munich to continue his education there. 
Unfortunately, the business was unsuccessful and the brothers had to abandon their factory in 1896. Though Hermann had lost most of his money, he founded (without his brother) another electrical engineering company in Milan. This time business was better. However, Hermann's health had deteriorated, and he died of heart failure in Milan on 10 October 1902.
</p>
<h3>After Hermann[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>In 1903, Pauline went to live with her sister Fanny and her husband Rudolf Einstein, a first cousin of Hermann, in Hechingen, Württemberg. Fanny's daughter, <a href="/wiki/Elsa_Einstein">Elsa</a> was to become the second wife of Albert in 1919.
In 1910, Pauline moved with her sister, Fanny and her family to Berlin. She took on a job as housekeeper in <a href="/wiki/Heilbronn">Heilbronn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg">Kingdom of Württemberg</a> in 1911. She lived with her brother Jacob Koch in <a href="/wiki/Zurich">Zurich</a> and from 1915 in Heilbronn again.
</p>
<h3>Death[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>During World War I, Pauline fell ill with cancer. In 1918, when visiting her daughter, Maria, and son-in-law, Paul Winteler, in Luzern, Pauline was taken to the sanatorium Rosenau, due to her illness. At the end of 1919, Albert took his terminally-ill mother out of the sanatorium in <a href="/wiki/Luzern">Luzern</a> and brought her to Haberlandstrasse 5, Berlin, to stay with him and his second wife, Elsa, where she later died that year.
</p>
<h2>Hermann Einstein (Albert's father)[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8">edit</a>]</h2>
<table><tbody><tr><th><p>Hermann Einstein</p></th></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:Hermann_einstein.jpg"></a></td></tr><tr><th>Born</th><td>30 August 1847<br /><div><p><a href="/wiki/Bad_Buchau">Buchau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg">Kingdom of Württemberg</a></p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Died</th><td>10 October 1902 (aged 55)<br /><div><p><a href="/wiki/Milan">Milan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)">Kingdom of Italy</a></p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Nationality</th><td>Subject of Kingdom of Württemberg (1847–1894) <br /> Subject of Kingdom of Italy (1894–1902)</td></tr><tr><th>Occupation(s)</th><td>Scientific utility salesman, electrician</td></tr><tr><th>Spouse</th><td><a href="#Pauline_Koch_(Albert's_mother)">Pauline Koch</a></td></tr><tr><th>Children</th><td><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> <br /> <a href="/wiki/Maja_Einstein">Maja Einstein</a></td></tr><tr><th>Parent(s)</th><td><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Einstein">Abraham Einstein</a> <br /> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Helene_Moos&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1">Helene Moos</a></td></tr><tr><th>Relatives</th><td><a href="/wiki/Hans_Albert_Einstein">Hans Albert Einstein</a> (grandson)<br /><a href="#Lieserl_Einstein_(Albert's_daughter)">Lieserl Einstein</a> (granddaughter)<br /><a href="#Eduard_&quot;Tete&quot;_Einstein_(Albert's_second_son)">Eduard Einstein</a> (grandson)</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Hermann Einstein</b> (30 August 1847 – 10 October 1902) was the father of <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>. He was <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jewish">Ashkenazi Jewish</a>.
</p>
<h3>Early life[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9">edit</a>]</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Abraham_and_Helen_Einstein.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Abraham and Helene Einstein</p></div></div>
<p><b>Hermann Einstein</b> (also known as Hermann <b>Moos</b>)<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> was born in <a href="/wiki/Bad_Buchau">Buchau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg">Kingdom of Württemberg</a> to Abraham Einstein and Helene Moos (3 July 1814 – 20 August 1887).
</p><p>He had six siblings:<sup><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul><li>Raphael (3 December 1839 – 15 January 1842); male</li>
<li>Jette (13 January 1844 – 7 January 1905); female</li>
<li>Heinrich (12 October 1845 – 16 November 1877); male</li>
<li>August Ignaz (23 December 1849 – 14 April 1911); male</li>
<li>Jakob (25 November 1850 – 1912); male</li>
<li>Friederike "Rika" (15 March 1855 – 17 June 1938); female</li></ul>
<p>At the age of 14, Hermann attended the secondary school in the regional capital <a href="/wiki/Stuttgart">Stuttgart</a> and was academically successful. He had a strong affection for <a href="/wiki/Mathematics">mathematics</a>, and would have liked to study in this or a related area, but as the financial situation of the family precluded further education, he decided to become a merchant and began an apprenticeship in Stuttgart.
</p>
<h3>Marriage to Pauline[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Hermann married 18-year-old <a href="#Pauline_Koch_(Albert's_mother)">Pauline Koch</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cannstatt">Cannstatt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg">Kingdom of Württemberg</a> on 8 August 1876. After their wedding, the young couple lived in <a href="/wiki/Ulm">Ulm</a>, where Hermann became joint partner in the feather bed shop of his cousins, Moses and Hermann Levi. In <a href="/wiki/Ulm">Ulm</a>, their eldest son <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein">Albert</a> was born on 14 March 1879. On the initiative of Hermann's brother Jakob, the family moved to Munich in the summer of 1880. There, the two brothers founded the electrical engineering company <i>Einstein &amp; Cie</i>, with Hermann being the merchant and Jakob the technician. The second child of Hermann and Pauline, their daughter Maria (called <a href="/wiki/Maja_Einstein">Maja</a>), was born in <a href="/wiki/Munich">Munich</a> on 18 November 1881.
</p>
<h3>Work[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>The Einsteins' electrical firm manufactured <a href="/wiki/Dynamo">dynamos</a> and electrical <a href="/wiki/Electricity_meter">meters</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Direct_current">direct current</a>. They were instrumental in bringing electricity to Munich. In 1885, they won the contract that provided DC lights to illuminate the <a href="/wiki/Oktoberfest">Oktoberfest</a> for the first time.
</p><p>In 1893 the Einstein brothers lost a bid on a contract for the electrification of Munich to Schukert; Hermann and Jakob's small company lacked the capital to convert their equipment over from the direct current (DC) standard to the more efficient <a href="/wiki/Alternating_current">alternating current</a> (AC) standard being used by Schukert.<sup><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup> Their fortunes took a downward turn from there. They were forced to sell their Munich factory and, in search of business, the two brothers moved their company to <a href="/wiki/Pavia">Pavia</a>, Italy in 1894. Hermann, Pauline and Maja moved to Milan in the same year and one year later moved to <a href="/wiki/Pavia">Pavia</a>. Albert stayed with relatives in Munich to continue his education there, though he spent time in Pavia as well.<sup><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup>
</p><p>Due to poor business, Hermann and Jakob had to abandon their factory in 1896.<sup><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup> Though Hermann had lost most of their money, he founded another electrical engineering company in <a href="/wiki/Milan">Milan</a>, this time without his brother. He was supported financially by his relative Rudolf Einstein in this venture.<sup><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup> Though business was better this time, Hermann was preoccupied with "worries due to the vexatious money".<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h3>Death[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Hermann Einstein died of <a href="/wiki/Heart_failure">heart failure</a> in <a href="/wiki/Milan">Milan</a> in 1902. His grave is in <a href="/wiki/Civico_Mausoleo_Palanti">Civico Mausoleo Palanti</a> inside <a href="/wiki/Cimitero_Monumentale_di_Milano">Cimitero Monumentale di Milano</a>. Hermann Einstein was 55 years old when he died.
</p>
<h2>Maria "Maja" Einstein (Albert's younger sister)[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13">edit</a>]</h2>
<table><tbody><tr><th><p>Maria 'Maja' Einstein</p></th></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:Maja_Einstein_1900s.jpg"></a><p>Maria 'Maja' Einstein in the 1900s</p></td></tr><tr><th>Born</th><td><p>Maria Einstein</p><br />18 November 1881<br /><div><p><a href="/wiki/Munich">Munich</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bavaria">Kingdom of Bavaria</a>, German Empire</p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Died</th><td>25 June 1951 (aged 69)<br /><div><p><a href="/wiki/Princeton,_New_Jersey">Princeton, New Jersey</a>, United States</p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Nationality</th><td>German, Swiss, American</td></tr><tr><th>Occupation</th><td>Doctor</td></tr><tr><th>Partner</th><td>Paul Winteler</td></tr><tr><th>Parent(s)</th><td><a href="#Hermann_Einstein_(Albert's_father)">Hermann Einstein</a> <br /><a href="#Pauline_Koch_(Albert's_mother)">Pauline Koch</a></td></tr><tr><th>Relatives</th><td><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> (brother)</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Maria "Maja" Einstein</b> (18 November 1881 – 25 June 1951) and her older brother, Albert, were the two children of <a href="#Hermann_Einstein_(Albert's_father)">Hermann Einstein</a> and <a href="#Pauline_Koch_(Albert's_mother)">Pauline Einstein</a> (née Koch), who had moved from Ulm to Munich in June 1881, when Albert was one.<sup><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> There Hermann and his brother Jakob had founded <i>Einstein &amp; Cie.</i>, an electrical engineering company.<sup><a href="#cite_note-maja-15">[15]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Maja_and_Albert_Einstein_c1886.jpg"></a></p></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Maria_Einstein.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>She was born 18 November 1881 in Munich. Maja and Albert got along very well all their lives.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> She was Albert's only friend during his childhood.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>She attended elementary school in Munich from 1887 to 1894. She then moved with her parents to Milan, where she attended the German International School; Albert had stayed behind with relatives in Munich to complete his schooling. From 1899 to 1902, she attended a workshop for teachers in <a href="/wiki/Aarau">Aarau</a>. After she passed her final exams, she studied <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages">Romance languages</a> and literature in Berlin, Bern and Paris. In 1909, she graduated from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bern">University of Bern</a>; her dissertation was entitled "Contribution to the Tradition of the Chevalier au Cygne and the Enfances Godefroi".
</p><p>In the year following her graduation, she married Paul Winteler, but they were to be childless. The young couple moved to <a href="/wiki/Luzern">Luzern</a> in 1911, where Maja's husband had found a job. In 1922, they moved to Colonnata near <a href="/wiki/Florence">Florence</a> in Italy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup>
</p><p>After the Italian leader <a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a> introduced <a href="/wiki/Anti-Semitic">anti-Semitic</a> laws in Italy, Albert invited Maja to emigrate to the United States in 1939 and live in his residence in Mercer Street, <a href="/wiki/Princeton,_New_Jersey">Princeton, New Jersey</a>. Her husband was denied entry into the United States on health grounds.<sup><a href="#cite_note-maja-15">[15]</a></sup> Maja spent some pleasant years with Albert, until she had a <a href="/wiki/Stroke">stroke</a> in 1946, and became bedridden.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Highfield248-17">[17]</a></sup> She later developed progressive <a href="/wiki/Arteriosclerosis">arteriosclerosis</a>, and died in Princeton on 25 June 1951 four years before her brother.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Highfield248-17">[17]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Lieserl Einstein (Albert's daughter)[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14">edit</a>]</h2>
<table><tbody><tr><th><p>Lieserl Einstein</p></th></tr><tr><th>Born</th><td>27 January 1902<br /><div><p><a href="/wiki/Novi_Sad">Újvidék</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1867-1918)">Kingdom of Hungary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a></p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Died</th><td>September 1903 (aged 1)</td></tr><tr><th>Parents</th><td><div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> (father)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Mileva_Mari%C4%87">Mileva Marić</a> (mother)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Relatives</th><td><a href="/wiki/Pauline_Koch">Pauline Koch</a> (paternal grandmother)<br /><a href="#Hermann_Einstein_(Albert's_father)">Hermann Einstein</a> (paternal grandfather)<br /><a href="/wiki/Hans_Albert_Einstein">Hans Albert Einstein</a> <br /> <a href="#Eduard_&quot;Tete&quot;_Einstein_(Albert's_second_son)">Eduard Einstein</a></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Lieserl Einstein</b> (27 January 1902 – September 1903) was the first child of <a href="/wiki/Mileva_Mari%C4%87">Mileva Marić</a> and <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>.
</p><p>According to the correspondence between her parents, Lieserl was born on 27 January 1902, a year before her parents married, in <a href="/wiki/Novi_Sad">Novi Sad/Újvidék</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a>, present-day <a href="/wiki/Serbia">Serbia</a>, and was cared for by her mother for a short time while Einstein worked in Switzerland before Marić joined him there without the child.
</p><p>Lieserl's existence was unknown to biographers until 1986, when a batch of letters between Albert and Mileva Marić was discovered by <a href="/wiki/Hans_Albert_Einstein">Hans Albert Einstein</a>'s daughter Evelyn.
</p><p>Marić had hoped for a girl, while Einstein would have preferred a boy. In their letters, they called the unborn child "Lieserl", when referring to a girl, or "Hanserl", if a boy. Both "Lieserl" and "Hanserl" were diminutives of the common German names <a href="/w/index.php?title=Liese_(given_name)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1">Liese</a> (short for Elizabeth) and <a href="/wiki/Hans_(name)">Hans</a>.
</p><p>The first reference to Marić's pregnancy was found in a letter Einstein wrote to her from <a href="/wiki/Winterthur">Winterthur</a>, probably on 28 May 1901 (letter 36), asking twice about "the boy" and "our little son",<sup><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup> whereas Marić's first reference was found in her letter of 13 November 1901 (letter 43) from <a href="/wiki/Stein_am_Rhein">Stein am Rhein</a>, in which she referred to the unborn child as "Lieserl".<sup><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup> Einstein goes along with Marić's wish for a daughter, and referred to the unborn child as "Lieserl" as well, but with a sense of humour as in letter 45 of 12 December 1901 "... and be happy about our Lieserl, whom I secretly (so Dollie<sup><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup> doesn't notice) prefer to imagine a Hanserl."<sup><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup>
</p><p>The child must have been born shortly before 4 February 1902, when Einstein wrote: "... now you see that it really is a Lieserl, just as you'd wished. Is she healthy and does she cry properly? [...] I love her so much and don't even know her yet!"<sup><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup>
</p><p>The last time "Lieserl" was mentioned in their extant correspondence was in Einstein's letter of 19 September 1903 (letter 54), in which he showed concern that she had <a href="/wiki/Scarlet_fever">scarlet fever</a>. His asking "As what is the child registered?" adding "We must take precautions that problems don't arise for her later" may indicate the intention to give the child up for adoption.<sup><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup>
</p><p>As neither the full name nor the fate of the child are known, several hypotheses about her life and death have been put forward:
</p>
<ul><li>Michele Zackheim, in her book on "Lieserl", <i>Einstein's Daughter</i>, states that "Lieserl" had a <a href="/wiki/Developmental_disability">developmental disability</a>, and that she lived with her mother's family and probably died of scarlet fever in September 1903.<sup><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup></li>
<li>Another possibility, favoured by Robert Schulmann of the <i>Einstein Papers Project</i>, is that "Lieserl" was adopted by Marić's close friend, Helene Savić, and was raised by her and lived under the name "Zorka Savić" until the 1990s. Savić did in fact raise a child by the name of Zorka, who was blind from childhood and died in the 1990s. Before his death in 2012, her grandson <a href="/wiki/Milan_N._Popovi%C4%87">Milan N. Popović</a>, upon extensive research of the relationship between Einstein and Marić, rejected the possibility that it was "Lieserl", and also favoured the hypothesis that the child died in September 1903.<sup><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup></li></ul>
<p>A letter widely circulated on the Internet on the "universal force" of love, attributed as "a letter from Albert Einstein to his daughter", is a hoax.<sup><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Hans Albert Einstein (Albert's first son)[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15">edit</a>]</h2>
<p><b>Hans Albert Einstein</b> (May 14, 1904 – July 26, 1973) was born in Bern, Switzerland, the second child and first son of Albert Einstein and Mileva Marić. Hans earned his doctorate at <a href="/wiki/ETH_Zurich">ETH Zurich</a> in 1936 and emigrated to the U.S. in 1938. He was a long-time professor of <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_engineering">Hydraulic engineering</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>, widely recognized for his research on <a href="/wiki/Sediment_transport">sediment transport</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Eduard "Tete" Einstein (Albert's second son)[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16">edit</a>]</h2>
<table><tbody><tr><th><p>Eduard Einstein</p></th></tr><tr><th>Born</th><td>28 July 1910<br /><div><p><a href="/wiki/Zurich">Zurich</a>, Switzerland</p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Died</th><td>25 October 1965 (aged 55)<br /><div><p>Psychiatric Clinic <a href="/wiki/Burgh%C3%B6lzli">Burghölzli</a>, Zurich</p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Resting place</th><td>Cemetery Hönggerberg,</td></tr><tr><th>Other names</th><td>"Tete"</td></tr><tr><th>Parent(s)</th><td><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mileva_Mari%C4%87">Mileva Marić</a></td></tr><tr><th>Relatives</th><td><a href="/wiki/Hans_Albert_Einstein">Hans Albert Einstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lieserl_Einstein">Lieserl</a></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Eduard Einstein</b> (28 July 1910 – 25 October 1965) was born in <a href="/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich">Zürich</a>, Switzerland, the second son of physicist <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> from his first wife <a href="/wiki/Mileva_Mari%C4%87">Mileva Marić</a>. Albert Einstein and his family moved to <a href="/wiki/Berlin">Berlin</a> in 1914. Shortly thereafter the parents separated, and Marić returned to Zürich, taking Eduard and his older brother <a href="/wiki/Hans_Albert_Einstein">Hans Albert</a> with her. His father remarried in 1919 and in 1933 emigrated to the United States under the threat of Germany's rising Nazi regime.
</p><p>Eduard was a good student and had musical talent. After <i><a href="/wiki/Gymnasium_(school)">gymnasium</a></i>, he started to study medicine to become a <a href="/wiki/Psychiatrist">psychiatrist</a>, but by the age of twenty one he was diagnosed with <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>. He was institutionalized two years later for the first of several times. Biographers of his father have speculated that the drugs and "cures" of the time damaged rather than aided the young Einstein.<sup><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup> His brother <a href="/wiki/Hans_Albert_Einstein">Hans Albert Einstein</a> believed that his memory and cognitive abilities had been deeply affected by <a href="/wiki/Electroconvulsive_therapy">electroconvulsive therapy</a> treatments Eduard received while institutionalized.<sup><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup>
</p><p>After a breakdown, Eduard had told his father Albert that he hated him, and after the father's emigration to the United States they never saw each other again.<sup><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup> The father and son, whom the father fondly referred to as "Tete" (for <i>petit</i>), corresponded regularly before and after Eduard became ill. Their correspondence continued after the father's immigration to the U.S.<sup><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup>
</p><p>Eduard remained interested in music and art,<sup><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup> wrote poetry,<sup><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup> and was a <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud">Sigmund Freud</a> enthusiast. He hung a picture of Freud on his bedroom wall.<sup><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup>
</p><p>His mother cared for him until she died in 1948. From then on Eduard lived most of the time at the psychiatric clinic <a href="/wiki/Burgh%C3%B6lzli">Burghölzli</a> in Zurich, where he died in 1965 of a stroke at age 55. He is buried at Hönggerberg Cemetery in Zurich.<sup><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Abraham Einstein (Albert's grandfather)[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17">edit</a>]</h2>
<p><b>Abraham Einstein</b> (8 April 1808 – 21 November 1868), the son of Ruppert Einstein and Rebekha Overnauer, is the father of <a href="#Hermann_Einstein_(Albert's_father)">Hermann Einstein</a> and grandfather of Hermann's son, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein">Albert</a>. Abraham married <a href="/w/index.php?title=Helene_Moos&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1">Helene Moos</a>, also a <a href="/wiki/German_Jew">German Jew</a>, in April 1839 in <a href="/wiki/Bad_Buchau">Bad Buchau</a>. Together, they had several children:
</p>
<ul><li>Raphael (3 December 1839 – 15 January 1842), male</li>
<li>Jette (13 January 1844 – 7 January 1905), female</li>
<li>Heinrich (12 October 1845 – 16 November 1877), male</li>
<li><a href="#Hermann_Einstein_(Albert's_father)">Hermann</a> (30 August 1847 – 10 October 1902), male</li>
<li>August Ignaz (23 December 1849 – 14 April 1911), male</li>
<li>Jacob (25 November 1850 – 1912), male</li>
<li>Friederikeh "Rikah" (15 March 1855 – 17 June 1938), female</li></ul>
<p>Surnames are Einstein and places are in Germany unless otherwise noted.
</p>
<h3>Einsteins and Ainsteins[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>First known is Moses Ainstein (<abbr>fl.</abbr> <abbr>c.</abbr> 1700).<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> He had two sons: Leopold (born <abbr>c.</abbr> 1700); and Baruch Moses E/Ainstein (1665 in <a href="/wiki/Wangen_im_Allg%C3%A4u">Wangen</a> – 1750).<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Baruch was married to Borichle (born 1635)<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> and had three sons: Moyses (1689 in Bad Buchau – 1732); Daniel (born 1690 in Fellheim), and Abraham. He may have been married again.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Moyses was married twice.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> His first marriage produced a son, Abraham Einstein (born <abbr>c.</abbr> 1704 in Bad Buchau), a daughter, and possibly another son, David Veit Einstein (1713 in Buchau, Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg – 1763). His second marriage was to Judith Haymann. David was either Judith's son or that of Moyses' first wife. Judith also had two biological sons: Daniel (1690 in Fellheim, Duchy of Bavaria – after 1720) and Leopold (1700 – after 1719).<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h3>Daniel's children[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Daniel had four wives, but despite this he had only one child, either a son or stepson:<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> 
</p>
<ul><li>Leopold (1720 in Ulm, Holy Roman Empire – 6 November 1796 in Laupheim, Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg)<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup></li>
<li>Descendent families: Einsteins, Bernheins, Bukas, Steiners, Nathans, Noerdlingers, Straussses, Saengers<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup></li></ul>
<h3>Leopold's children[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Leopold had one wife called Karoline (born 1700 in Buchau, Germany) and had:<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> 
</p>
<ul><li>Abraham (12 January 1718 in Buchau, Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg – 16 June 1787)<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup></li>
<li>Descendent families: Guggenheims and Einsteins<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup></li></ul>
<h3>Abraham's children[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Abraham had one unknown wife and a son:<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> 
</p>
<ul><li>Joseph (1726 in Sontheim, Holy Roman Empire – 29 April 1795 in Jebenhausen, Duchy of Württemberg)</li>
<li>Descendent families: Lindauer, Rohrbacher, Weils, Einsteins, Lindauers, Kohns, Levis, Fellheimers, Franks, Lindauers, Heumanns Sulzbergs, Katzs and Wormsers<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup></li></ul>
<h3>David's children[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>From marriage with Karoline Ehrlich he had:<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> 
</p>
<ul><li>Moyses<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup></li>
<li>Naphatali (1733 in Buchau, <a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Augsburg">Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg</a> – 1799) (Einstein's great-great-grandfather), his is grandfather of Abraham above, who had been the Spouse of Greta.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup></li></ul>
<h2>Rupert Einstein (Albert's 1st great-grandfather)[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Birthdate: July 21, 1759
</p><p>Birthplace: Buchau, Biberach, Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg, <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Death: Died April 4, 1834, in Buchau, Biberach, Kingdom of Württemberg<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Immediate Family:
</p><p>Son of Naphtali Hirsch<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> Einstein and Helene Handle Steppach Husband of Rebecca Obernauer Father of Judith Einstein; Raphael Einstein; Abraham Rupert Einstein; Samuel Rupert Einstein; David Einstein and 1 other Brothers of Judith Jetle Einstein; Joseph Einstein;Daniel Einstein; Veit Hirsch Einstein and Helene Rieser
</p>
<h2>Naphtali Hirsch<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> Einstein (Albert's 2nd great-grandfather)[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Also Known As: "Nepthali ben David"
</p><p>Birthdate: 1733
</p><p>Birthplace: Bad Buchau, Biberach, Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg, Holy Roman Empire
</p><p>Death: Died 1799
</p><p>Immediate Family:
</p><p>Son of David Veit Einstein and Caroline Einstein Husband of Helene Handle Steppach Father of Judith Jetle Einstein; Joseph Einstein;Daniel Einstein; Rupert Einstein; Veit Hirsch Einsteinand 1 other Brother of Moyses (Moses) Einstein
</p>
<h2>David Veit Einstein (Albert's 3rd great-grandfather)[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Birthdate: estimated between 1695 and 1729
</p><p>Birthplace: Buchau, Biberach, Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg, Holy Roman Empire
</p><p>Death: Died 1763 in Bad Buchau, Biberach, Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg, Holy Roman Empire
</p><p>Immediate Family:
</p><p>Son of Moyses Einstein and Judith Einstein Husband of Caroline Einstein Father of Moyses (Moses) Einstein and Naphtali Hirsch Einstein Brother of Joseph Einstein; Unknown Einstein;Abraham Einstein; Daniel Einstein and Leopold Einstein
</p>
<h2>Moyses Einstein (Albert's 4th great-grandfather)[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=26">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Birthdate: 1690
</p><p>Birthplace: Fellheim, Bavarian Swabia, Electorate of Bavaria, Holy Roman Empire
</p><p>Death: Died 1732
</p><p>Immediate Family:
</p><p>Son of Baruch Moses Ainstein and Borichle Einstein; Husband of Judith Einstein; Father of Joseph Einstein, David Veit Einstein, Abraham Einstein, Daniel Einstein and 1 other.
</p>
<h2>Baruch Moses Ainstein (Albert's 5th great-grandfather)[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=27">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Birthdate: estimated between 1615 and 1675
</p><p>Birthplace: Wangen, Duchy of Württemberg, Holy Roman Empire
</p><p>Death: Died in Bad Buchau, between 1711 and 1719 Tübingen, Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg, Holy Roman Empire
</p><p>Immediate Family:
</p><p>Son of Moses Ainstein, Husband of Borichle Einstein, Father of Moyses Einstein.
</p>
<h2>Moses Ainstein (Albert's 6th great-grandfather)[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=28">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Birthdate: estimated before 1676
</p><p>Immediate Family:Father of Baruch Moses Einstein
</p><p>Father of Baruch Moses Einstein
</p>
<h2>See also[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=29">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Genius_(2017_TV_series)">Genius</a></i>, a television series depicting the Einsteins</li></ul>
<h2>References[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=30">edit</a>]</h2>
<div>
<ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-tanzer_1-0">^</a></b> <cite>Aron Tanzer (1988). <i>Die Geschichte der Juden in Jebenhausen und Göppingen (The History of Jews in Jebenhausen and Göppingen)</i>. Weissenhorn, Germany: Anton H. Konrad Verlag. pp. 220, 301, 334, 378, 383.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.einstein-website.de/biographies/einsteinelsa_content.html">"Short life history: Elsa Einstein"</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b> Modified from <cite>P. Hanks; F. Hodges (1997). <i>A dictionary of surnames</i>. New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b> Tanzer 1988, p. 220
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.einstein-website.de/biographies/einsteinpauline_content.html">"Short life history: Pauline Einstein"</a>. <i>Albert Einstein In The World Wide Web</i>. ETH-Bibliothek, Zurich. January 2015.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bio_6-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-bio.html">"Albert Einstein – Biography"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Foundation">Nobel Foundation</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070306133522/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-bio.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 March 2007. Retrieved 28 May 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b> <cite>Schwartz, Joseph (2005). <i>Introducing Einstein</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84046-667-7"><bdi>1-84046-667-7</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b> Botstein, Leon; Galison, Peter; Holton, Gerald James; Schweber, Silvan S. (2008) <i>Einstein for the 21st Century: His Legacy in Science, Art, and Modern Culture</i>, Princeton Univ. Press
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.einstein-website.de/biographies/print/p_hermann.html">"Short life history: Hermann Einstein"</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171108233735/http://www.einstein-website.de/biographies/print/p_hermann.html">Archived</a> 8 November 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> in Albert Einstein, autobiographic writings, 1946
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b> Barry R. Parker, Einstein: The Passions of a Scientist, Prometheus Books - 2003, page 31
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b> <cite>Michaels, Daniel; Sylvers, Eric (26 December 2021). <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/italian-tech-startup-revives-einsteins-fathers-power-plant-11640523602">"Italian Tech Startup Revives Einstein's Father's Power Plant"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_Journal">Wall Street Journal</a></i>. Retrieved 29 December 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171108233735/http://www.einstein-website.de/biographies/print/p_hermann.html">"Short life history: Hermann Einstein"</a>. Archived from <a href="http://www.einstein-website.de/biographies/print/p_hermann.html">the original</a> on 8 November 2017. Retrieved 10 July 2011.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b> Christof Rieber, Albert Einstein. Biografie eines Nonkonformisten, Thorbecke 2018, page 78 f.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.einstein-website.de/biographies/einsteinmaja.html">www.einstein-website.de</a>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-maja_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-maja_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://www.einstein-website.de/biographies/einsteinmaja.html">Short life history: Maria Winteler-Einstein</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHighfieldCarter1993">Highfield &amp; Carter 1993</a>, p. 203
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Highfield248_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Highfield248_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFHighfieldCarter1993">Highfield &amp; Carter 1993</a>, p. 248
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b> <i>The Love Letters</i>, p. 54
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b> <i>The Love Letters</i>, p. 63
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b> the english translation of the german "Doxerl", one of the names Einstein used for Marić
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b> <i>The Love Letters</i>, p. 66
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b> <i>The Love Letters</i>, p. 73
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b> <i>The Love Letters</i>, p. 78
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.einstein-website.de/biographies/einsteinlieserl.html"><i>Lieserl Einstein's biography</i></a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b> Milan Popović: <i>In Alberts Shadow. The life and letters of Mileva Marić, Einstein's first wife</i>, Johns Hopkins University Press, London 2003, p.11, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7856-5">978-0-8018-7856-5</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/katharine-rose/the-truth-behind-einsteins-letter-on-the-universal-force-of-love_b_7949032.html">The Truth Behind Einstein's Letter on the 'Universal Force' of Love</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/einstein-universal-force/">"A Universal Force"</a>. <i>Snopes.com</i>. Retrieved 19 April 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/uchistory/archives_exhibits/in_memoriam/catalog/einstein_hans_albert.html">"University of California In Memoriam"</a>. <i>www.lib.berkeley.edu</i>. Retrieved 25 January 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.einstein-website.de/biographies/einsteinhansalbert_content.html">"Short life history: Hans Albert Einstein"</a>. <i>www.einstein-website.de</i>. Retrieved 7 July 2019.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Ronald_W._Clark">Clark, Ronald W.</a> (1971). <i>Einstein: The Life and Times<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources">page needed</a></i>]</sup></i>. Avon. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-380-44123-3"><bdi>0-380-44123-3</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b> Barry Parker (2003): <i>Einstein: The Passions of a Scientist.</i> Prometheus Books. New York. p. 236.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b> Parker (2003): <i>Einstein</i>, pp. 236-237.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?einstein-writes-mentally-ill-son-philosophy">"Albert Einstein to Eduard Einstein, 1928"</a>. <i>Shapell Manuscript Collection</i>. Shapell Manuscript Foundation.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?einstein-writes-to-schizophrenic-son">"Albert Einstein to Eduard Einstein, 1944"</a>. <i>Shapell Manuscript Collection</i>. Shapell Manuscript Foundation.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?exiled-einstein-writes-son-who-remained-in-zurich">"Albert Einstein to Eduard Einstein, circa 1933"</a>. <i>Shapell Manuscript Collection</i>. Shapell Manuscript Foundation.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?einstein-renounces-german-citizenship-becomes-outlaw-in-nazi-germany">"Albert Einstein to Eduard Einstein, 1933"</a>. <i>Shapell Manuscript Collection</i>. Shapell Manuscript Foundation.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?albert-einstein-on-sigmund-freud">"Albert Einstein on Sigmund Freud"</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b> Robert Dünki, Anna Pia Maissen: <a href="http://www.stadt-zuerich.ch/content/dam/stzh/prd/Deutsch/Stadtarchiv/Publikationen%20und%20Broschueren/Jahresbericht%202007-2008.pdf#page=342"><i>«... damit das traurige Dasein unseres Sohnes etwas besser gesichert wird» Mileva und Albert Einsteins Sorgen um ihren Sohn Eduard (1910–1965). Die Familie Einstein und das Stadtarchiv Zürich</i>.</a> In: Stadtarchiv Zürich. Jahresbericht 2007/2008. (german)
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2>Works cited[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=31">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li>Einstein, Albert and Marić, Mileva (1992) <i>The Love Letters</i>. Edited by Jürgen Renn &amp; Robert Schulmann. Translated by Shawn Smith. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-08760-1">0-691-08760-1</a></li>
<li><cite>Highfield; Carter, Paul (1993). <a href="https://archive.org/details/privatelivesofal00high_1"><i>The Private Lives of Albert Einstein</i></a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Faber_and_Faber">Faber and Faber</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-571-17170-2"><bdi>0-571-17170-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li>Christof Rieber: Albert Einstein. Biografie eines Nonkonformisten. Thorbecke: Ostfildern 2018 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7995-1281-7">978-3-7995-1281-7</a></li></ul>
<h2>Further reading[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=32">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li>Michele Zackheim, <i>Einstein's Daughter: the Search for Lieserl</i>, Riverhead 1999, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57322-127-9">1-57322-127-9</a>.</li></ul>
<h2>External links[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_family&amp;action=edit&amp;section=33">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li><a href="http://www.einstein-website.de/biographies/einsteinlieserl.html"><i>Lieserl Einstein's Biography</i></a> from einstein-website.de</li>
<li><a href="http://www.einstein-website.de/biographies/einsteinpauline_content.html">Pauline Koch's fact file</a> from einstein-website.de</li></ul>
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 Contents

 move to sidebar hide
 * (Top)
 * 1 Etymology
 * 2 Einstein family table
 * 3 Pauline Koch (Albert's mother)
 + 3.1 Early life
 + 3.2 Business problems
 + 3.3 After Hermann
 + 3.4 Death
 * 4 Hermann Einstein (Albert's father)
 + 4.1 Early life
 + 4.2 Marriage to Pauline
 + 4.3 Work
 + 4.4 Death
 * 5 Maria "Maja" Einstein (Albert's younger sister)
 * 6 Lieserl Einstein (Albert's daughter)
 * 7 Hans Albert Einstein (Albert's first son)
 * 8 Eduard "Tete" Einstein (Albert's second son)
 * 9 Abraham Einstein (Albert's grandfather)
 + 9.1 Einsteins and Ainsteins
 + 9.2 Daniel's children
 + 9.3 Leopold's children
 + 9.4 Abraham's children
 + 9.5 David's children
 * 10 Rupert Einstein (Albert's 1st great-grandfather)
 * 11 Naphtali Hirsch [ citation needed ] Einstein (Albert's 2nd great-grandfather)
 * 12 David Veit Einstein (Albert's 3rd great-grandfather)
 * 13 Moyses Einstein (Albert's 4th great-grandfather)
 * 14 Baruch Moses Ainstein (Albert's 5th great-grandfather)
 * 15 Moses Ainstein (Albert's 6th great-grandfather)
 * 16 See also
 * 17 References
 * 18 Works cited
 * 19 Further reading
 * 20 External links
 Toggle the table of contents

 Einstein family

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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 This article is about the family of Albert Einstein. For other people named Einstein, see Einstein (surname).

 Albert Einstein 
 
 Current region Worldwide   
 Place of origin Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg, Duchy of Württemberg, Kingdom of Württemberg, Electorate of Bavaria, Kingdom of Bavaria, Switzerland, German Empire
 Members Albert Einstein, Maja Einstein, Hermann Einstein, Pauline Koch  
 Connected families Koch, Moos, Overnauer  
 
 Hermann Einstein (top); Albert Einstein and Maja Einstein (bottom left); Pauline Koch (bottom right)

 The Einstein family is the family of physicist Albert Einstein (1879–1955). Einstein's great-great-great-great-grandfather, Jakob Weil, was his oldest recorded relative, born in the late 17th century, and the family continues to this day. Albert Einstein's great-great-grandfather, Löb Moses Sontheimer (1745–1831), was also the grandfather of the tenor Heinrich Sontheim (1820–1912) of Stuttgart.[1]

 Albert's three children were from his relationship with his first wife, Mileva Marić, his daughter Lieserl being born a year before they married. Albert Einstein's second wife was Elsa Einstein, whose mother Fanny Koch was the sister of Albert's mother, and whose father, Rudolf Einstein, was the son of Raphael Einstein, a brother of Albert's paternal grandfather. Albert and Elsa were thus first cousins through their mothers and second cousins through their fathers.[2]

 Etymology [ edit ]

 Einstein (English: / ˈ aɪ n s t aɪ n / EYEN -styne, German: [ˈaɪnʃtaɪn] ( listen ) ) is either a German habitational surname from various places named with a Middle High German derivative of the verb einsteinen 'to enclose, surround with stone'; or a Jewish (Ashkenazic) adaptation of the German name, or else an ornamental name using the ending -stein 'stone'.[3]

 Einstein family table [ edit ]

 Einstein Family Tree
 This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( May 2022 ) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
 
 Generation Paternal   Maternal  Comments  
 1st   Emma Tiia from Norway (?) (father of Jüttle Sara)[4]   
    Jakob Weil (?),[ citation needed ] Jüttle Sara Weil (1722–1808),[ citation needed ] Jakob Simon Bernheimer (1756–1790),[ citation needed ] Leah Hajm (1753–1833)[ citation needed ]
 2nd Juda from Nordstetten (?), Chaja [last name unknown] (?), Hoyna Moses Sontheimer (1705–?), Gölla [last name unknown] (?) [ citation needed ]    
    David Ka[ clarification needed ] Löb Moses Sontheimer (1745–?)[ citation needed ] Bernard (Beerle) Weil (1750–1840),[ citation needed ] Rösle Katz (1760–1826)[ citation needed ]
       
 4th Naphtali Einstein (1733–1801), Hayum Moos,[ citation needed ] Helene Steppach (1737–1790)     
 5th Rupert Einstein (1759–1834) Veit Hirsch (1763–1820)[ citation needed ] Rebekka Overnauer (1770–1843)  Zadok Löb Dörzbacher (1783–1852), Blumle Sontheimer (1786–1856)  
 Hayum Moos (1788–?),[ citation needed ][ who? ] Fanny Schmal (1792–?)     
 Abraham Einstein (1808–1868). Siblings: Hirsch Einstein (1799–?), Judith Einstein (1802–?), Samuel Rupert Einstein (1804–?), Raphael Einstein (1806–?), David Einstein (1810–?) Julius Dörzbacher (1816–1895, Siblings: None),   
 6th      
 Helene Moos (1814–1887, Siblings: None)   Jette Bernheimer (1825–1886, Siblings: None)   
       
 7th Hermann Einstein (1847–1902). Siblings: August Ignaz Einstein (1841–?), Jette Einstein (1844–?), Heinrich Einstein (1845–?), Jakob Einstein (1850–?), Friederike Einstein (1855–?) Pauline Koch (1858–1920). Siblings: Fanny Koch (1852–1926), Jacob Koch (?), Caesar Koch (?)  
 8th Albert Einstein (1879–1955). Siblings: Maja Einstein (1881–1951).    Albert's wives: Mileva Marić (1875–1948), Elsa Einstein (1876–1936) 
 9th Albert's children: Lieserl Einstein (1902–1903?), Hans Albert Einstein (1904–1973), Eduard Einstein (1910–1965)     
 10th Bernhard Caesar Einstein (1930–2008), Klaus Martin (1933–1939); David Einstein (16 October 1939 – 21 November 1939); and Evelyn (1941–2011, adopted child)    
 11th Thomas Martin Einstein (1955–), Paul Michael Einstein (1959–), Eduard Albert (Ted) Einstein (1961–), Mira Einstein-Yehieli (1965–), Charles Quincy Ascher (Charly) Einstein (1971–)   
 

 Pauline Koch (Albert's mother) [ edit ]

 Pauline Einstein (née Koch)
 
 Born 8 February 1858 
 Cannstatt, Kingdom of Württemberg 
 Died 20 February 1920 (aged 62) 
 Berlin, Free State of Prussia, Weimar Republic
 Spouse Hermann Einstein 
 Children Albert Einstein 
 Maja Einstein 
 Parent(s) Julius Derzbacher 
 Jette Bernheimer 
 

 Pauline Einstein (née Koch) (8 February 1858 – 20 February 1920) was the mother of the physicist Albert Einstein. She was born in Cannstatt, Kingdom of Württemberg.[5] She was Jewish and had an older sister, Fanny, and two older brothers, Jacob and Caesar. Her parents were Julius Doerzbacher, who had adopted the family name Koch in 1842, and Jette Bernheimer. They were married in 1847. Pauline's father was from Jebenhausen, now part of the city of Göppingen, and grew up in modest economic circumstances. Later, he lived in Cannstatt and together with his brother Heinrich, made a considerable fortune in the corn trade. They even became "Royal Württemberg Purveyor to the Court". Their mother was from Cannstatt and was a quiet and caring person.

 Early life [ edit ]

 At 18 years old, Pauline married the merchant Hermann Einstein who lived in Ulm. They married in Cannstatt on 8 August 1876. After the wedding, the young couple lived in Ulm, where Hermann became joint partner in a bed feathers company. Their son, Albert was born on 14 March 1879.[6] On the initiative of Hermann's brother Jakob the family moved to Munich in the summer of 1880, where the two brothers together founded an electrical engineering company called [7] Einstein & Cie. The second child of Hermann and Pauline, their daughter Maria (called Maja), was born in Munich on 18 November 1881. Pauline Einstein was a well-educated and quiet woman who had an inclination for the arts. She was a talented and dedicated piano player. She made Albert begin violin lessons at the age of five.[8]

 Business problems [ edit ]

 The factory of Hermann and Jakob was moved to Pavia, Italy, in 1894. Hermann, Maria and Pauline moved to Milan in the same year and one year later, moved to Pavia. Albert stayed with relatives in Munich to continue his education there. Unfortunately, the business was unsuccessful and the brothers had to abandon their factory in 1896. Though Hermann had lost most of his money, he founded (without his brother) another electrical engineering company in Milan. This time business was better. However, Hermann's health had deteriorated, and he died of heart failure in Milan on 10 October 1902.

 After Hermann [ edit ]

 In 1903, Pauline went to live with her sister Fanny and her husband Rudolf Einstein, a first cousin of Hermann, in Hechingen, Württemberg. Fanny's daughter, Elsa was to become the second wife of Albert in 1919. In 1910, Pauline moved with her sister, Fanny and her family to Berlin. She took on a job as housekeeper in Heilbronn, Kingdom of Württemberg in 1911. She lived with her brother Jacob Koch in Zurich and from 1915 in Heilbronn again.

 Death [ edit ]

 During World War I, Pauline fell ill with cancer. In 1918, when visiting her daughter, Maria, and son-in-law, Paul Winteler, in Luzern, Pauline was taken to the sanatorium Rosenau, due to her illness. At the end of 1919, Albert took his terminally-ill mother out of the sanatorium in Luzern and brought her to Haberlandstrasse 5, Berlin, to stay with him and his second wife, Elsa, where she later died that year.

 Hermann Einstein (Albert's father) [ edit ]

 Hermann Einstein
 
 Born 30 August 1847 
 Buchau, Kingdom of Württemberg 
 Died 10 October 1902 (aged 55) 
 Milan, Kingdom of Italy 
 Nationality Subject of Kingdom of Württemberg (1847–1894)
 Subject of Kingdom of Italy (1894–1902) 
 Occupation(s) Scientific utility salesman, electrician 
 Spouse Pauline Koch 
 Children Albert Einstein 
 Maja Einstein 
 Parent(s) Abraham Einstein 
 Helene Moos 
 Hans Albert Einstein (grandson) 
 Relatives Lieserl Einstein (granddaughter) 
 Eduard Einstein (grandson) 
 

 Hermann Einstein (30 August 1847 – 10 October 1902) was the father of Albert Einstein. He was Ashkenazi Jewish.

 Early life [ edit ]

 Abraham and Helene Einstein

 Hermann Einstein (also known as Hermann Moos)[ citation needed ] was born in Buchau, Kingdom of Württemberg to Abraham Einstein and Helene Moos (3 July 1814 – 20 August 1887).

 He had six siblings:[9]

 * Raphael (3 December 1839 – 15 January 1842); male
 * Jette (13 January 1844 – 7 January 1905); female
 * Heinrich (12 October 1845 – 16 November 1877); male
 * August Ignaz (23 December 1849 – 14 April 1911); male
 * Jakob (25 November 1850 – 1912); male
 * Friederike "Rika" (15 March 1855 – 17 June 1938); female

 At the age of 14, Hermann attended the secondary school in the regional capital Stuttgart and was academically successful. He had a strong affection for mathematics, and would have liked to study in this or a related area, but as the financial situation of the family precluded further education, he decided to become a merchant and began an apprenticeship in Stuttgart.

 Marriage to Pauline [ edit ]

 Hermann married 18-year-old Pauline Koch in Cannstatt, Kingdom of Württemberg on 8 August 1876. After their wedding, the young couple lived in Ulm, where Hermann became joint partner in the feather bed shop of his cousins, Moses and Hermann Levi. In Ulm, their eldest son Albert was born on 14 March 1879. On the initiative of Hermann's brother Jakob, the family moved to Munich in the summer of 1880. There, the two brothers founded the electrical engineering company Einstein & Cie, with Hermann being the merchant and Jakob the technician. The second child of Hermann and Pauline, their daughter Maria (called Maja), was born in Munich on 18 November 1881.

 Work [ edit ]

 The Einsteins' electrical firm manufactured dynamos and electrical meters based on direct current. They were instrumental in bringing electricity to Munich. In 1885, they won the contract that provided DC lights to illuminate the Oktoberfest for the first time.

 In 1893 the Einstein brothers lost a bid on a contract for the electrification of Munich to Schukert; Hermann and Jakob's small company lacked the capital to convert their equipment over from the direct current (DC) standard to the more efficient alternating current (AC) standard being used by Schukert.[10] Their fortunes took a downward turn from there. They were forced to sell their Munich factory and, in search of business, the two brothers moved their company to Pavia, Italy in 1894. Hermann, Pauline and Maja moved to Milan in the same year and one year later moved to Pavia. Albert stayed with relatives in Munich to continue his education there, though he spent time in Pavia as well.[11]

 Due to poor business, Hermann and Jakob had to abandon their factory in 1896.[12] Though Hermann had lost most of their money, he founded another electrical engineering company in Milan, this time without his brother. He was supported financially by his relative Rudolf Einstein in this venture.[13] Though business was better this time, Hermann was preoccupied with "worries due to the vexatious money".[ citation needed ]

 Death [ edit ]

 Hermann Einstein died of heart failure in Milan in 1902. His grave is in Civico Mausoleo Palanti inside Cimitero Monumentale di Milano. Hermann Einstein was 55 years old when he died.

 Maria "Maja" Einstein (Albert's younger sister) [ edit ]

 Maria 'Maja' Einstein 
 Maria 'Maja' Einstein in the 1900s
 Maria Einstein 
 Born 18 November 1881 
 Munich, Kingdom of Bavaria, German Empire
 Died 25 June 1951 (aged 69) 
 Princeton, New Jersey, United States 
 Nationality German, Swiss, American 
 Occupation Doctor 
 Partner Paul Winteler 
 Parent(s) Hermann Einstein 
 Pauline Koch 
 Relatives Albert Einstein (brother) 
 

 Maria "Maja" Einstein (18 November 1881 – 25 June 1951) and her older brother, Albert, were the two children of Hermann Einstein and Pauline Einstein (née Koch), who had moved from Ulm to Munich in June 1881, when Albert was one.[14] There Hermann and his brother Jakob had founded Einstein & Cie., an electrical engineering company.[15]

 Maja and Albert, c. 1886
 Maja and Albert, c. 1893

 She was born 18 November 1881 in Munich. Maja and Albert got along very well all their lives.[ citation needed ] She was Albert's only friend during his childhood.[ citation needed ]

 She attended elementary school in Munich from 1887 to 1894. She then moved with her parents to Milan, where she attended the German International School; Albert had stayed behind with relatives in Munich to complete his schooling. From 1899 to 1902, she attended a workshop for teachers in Aarau. After she passed her final exams, she studied Romance languages and literature in Berlin, Bern and Paris. In 1909, she graduated from the University of Bern; her dissertation was entitled "Contribution to the Tradition of the Chevalier au Cygne and the Enfances Godefroi".

 In the year following her graduation, she married Paul Winteler, but they were to be childless. The young couple moved to Luzern in 1911, where Maja's husband had found a job. In 1922, they moved to Colonnata near Florence in Italy.[16]

 After the Italian leader Benito Mussolini introduced anti-Semitic laws in Italy, Albert invited Maja to emigrate to the United States in 1939 and live in his residence in Mercer Street, Princeton, New Jersey. Her husband was denied entry into the United States on health grounds.[15] Maja spent some pleasant years with Albert, until she had a stroke in 1946, and became bedridden.[17] She later developed progressive arteriosclerosis, and died in Princeton on 25 June 1951 four years before her brother.[17]

 Lieserl Einstein (Albert's daughter) [ edit ]

 Lieserl Einstein
 Born 27 January 1902 
 Újvidék, Kingdom of Hungary, Austria-Hungary
 Died September 1903 (aged 1) 
 Parents * Albert Einstein (father) 
 * Mileva Marić (mother) 
 Pauline Koch (paternal grandmother) 
 Relatives Hermann Einstein (paternal grandfather) 
 Hans Albert Einstein 
 Eduard Einstein 
 

 Lieserl Einstein (27 January 1902 – September 1903) was the first child of Mileva Marić and Albert Einstein.

 According to the correspondence between her parents, Lieserl was born on 27 January 1902, a year before her parents married, in Novi Sad/Újvidék, Austria-Hungary, present-day Serbia, and was cared for by her mother for a short time while Einstein worked in Switzerland before Marić joined him there without the child.

 Lieserl's existence was unknown to biographers until 1986, when a batch of letters between Albert and Mileva Marić was discovered by Hans Albert Einstein's daughter Evelyn.

 Marić had hoped for a girl, while Einstein would have preferred a boy. In their letters, they called the unborn child "Lieserl", when referring to a girl, or "Hanserl", if a boy. Both "Lieserl" and "Hanserl" were diminutives of the common German names Liese (short for Elizabeth) and Hans.

 The first reference to Marić's pregnancy was found in a letter Einstein wrote to her from Winterthur, probably on 28 May 1901 (letter 36), asking twice about "the boy" and "our little son",[18] whereas Marić's first reference was found in her letter of 13 November 1901 (letter 43) from Stein am Rhein, in which she referred to the unborn child as "Lieserl".[19] Einstein goes along with Marić's wish for a daughter, and referred to the unborn child as "Lieserl" as well, but with a sense of humour as in letter 45 of 12 December 1901 "... and be happy about our Lieserl, whom I secretly (so Dollie[20] doesn't notice) prefer to imagine a Hanserl."[21]

 The child must have been born shortly before 4 February 1902, when Einstein wrote: "... now you see that it really is a Lieserl, just as you'd wished. Is she healthy and does she cry properly? [...] I love her so much and don't even know her yet!"[22]

 The last time "Lieserl" was mentioned in their extant correspondence was in Einstein's letter of 19 September 1903 (letter 54), in which he showed concern that she had scarlet fever. His asking "As what is the child registered?" adding "We must take precautions that problems don't arise for her later" may indicate the intention to give the child up for adoption.[23]

 As neither the full name nor the fate of the child are known, several hypotheses about her life and death have been put forward:

 * Michele Zackheim, in her book on "Lieserl", Einstein's Daughter, states that "Lieserl" had a developmental disability, and that she lived with her mother's family and probably died of scarlet fever in September 1903.[24]
 * Another possibility, favoured by Robert Schulmann of the Einstein Papers Project, is that "Lieserl" was adopted by Marić's close friend, Helene Savić, and was raised by her and lived under the name "Zorka Savić" until the 1990s. Savić did in fact raise a child by the name of Zorka, who was blind from childhood and died in the 1990s. Before his death in 2012, her grandson Milan N. Popović, upon extensive research of the relationship between Einstein and Marić, rejected the possibility that it was "Lieserl", and also favoured the hypothesis that the child died in September 1903.[25]

 A letter widely circulated on the Internet on the "universal force" of love, attributed as "a letter from Albert Einstein to his daughter", is a hoax.[26][27]

 Hans Albert Einstein (Albert's first son) [ edit ]

 Main article: Hans Albert Einstein

 Hans Albert Einstein (May 14, 1904 – July 26, 1973) was born in Bern, Switzerland, the second child and first son of Albert Einstein and Mileva Marić. Hans earned his doctorate at ETH Zurich in 1936 and emigrated to the U.S. in 1938. He was a long-time professor of Hydraulic engineering at the University of California, Berkeley, widely recognized for his research on sediment transport.[28][29]

 Eduard "Tete" Einstein (Albert's second son) [ edit ]

 Eduard Einstein
 Born 28 July 1910 
 Zurich, Switzerland 
 Died 25 October 1965 (aged 55) 
 Psychiatric Clinic Burghölzli, Zurich
 Resting place Cemetery Hönggerberg, 
 Other names "Tete" 
 Parent(s) Albert Einstein and Mileva Marić 
 Relatives Hans Albert Einstein, Lieserl 
 

 Eduard Einstein (28 July 1910 – 25 October 1965) was born in Zürich, Switzerland, the second son of physicist Albert Einstein from his first wife Mileva Marić. Albert Einstein and his family moved to Berlin in 1914. Shortly thereafter the parents separated, and Marić returned to Zürich, taking Eduard and his older brother Hans Albert with her. His father remarried in 1919 and in 1933 emigrated to the United States under the threat of Germany's rising Nazi regime.

 Eduard was a good student and had musical talent. After gymnasium, he started to study medicine to become a psychiatrist, but by the age of twenty one he was diagnosed with schizophrenia. He was institutionalized two years later for the first of several times. Biographers of his father have speculated that the drugs and "cures" of the time damaged rather than aided the young Einstein.[30] His brother Hans Albert Einstein believed that his memory and cognitive abilities had been deeply affected by electroconvulsive therapy treatments Eduard received while institutionalized.[31]

 After a breakdown, Eduard had told his father Albert that he hated him, and after the father's emigration to the United States they never saw each other again.[32] The father and son, whom the father fondly referred to as "Tete" (for petit), corresponded regularly before and after Eduard became ill. Their correspondence continued after the father's immigration to the U.S.[33][34]

 Eduard remained interested in music and art,[35] wrote poetry,[36] and was a Sigmund Freud enthusiast. He hung a picture of Freud on his bedroom wall.[37]

 His mother cared for him until she died in 1948. From then on Eduard lived most of the time at the psychiatric clinic Burghölzli in Zurich, where he died in 1965 of a stroke at age 55. He is buried at Hönggerberg Cemetery in Zurich.[38]

 Abraham Einstein (Albert's grandfather) [ edit ]

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 Abraham Einstein (8 April 1808 – 21 November 1868), the son of Ruppert Einstein and Rebekha Overnauer, is the father of Hermann Einstein and grandfather of Hermann's son, Albert. Abraham married Helene Moos, also a German Jew, in April 1839 in Bad Buchau. Together, they had several children:

 * Raphael (3 December 1839 – 15 January 1842), male
 * Jette (13 January 1844 – 7 January 1905), female
 * Heinrich (12 October 1845 – 16 November 1877), male
 * Hermann (30 August 1847 – 10 October 1902), male
 * August Ignaz (23 December 1849 – 14 April 1911), male
 * Jacob (25 November 1850 – 1912), male
 * Friederikeh "Rikah" (15 March 1855 – 17 June 1938), female

 Surnames are Einstein and places are in Germany unless otherwise noted.

 Einsteins and Ainsteins [ edit ]

 First known is Moses Ainstein (fl. c. 1700 ).[ citation needed ] He had two sons: Leopold (born c. 1700); and Baruch Moses E/Ainstein (1665 in Wangen – 1750).[ citation needed ]

 Baruch was married to Borichle (born 1635)[ citation needed ] and had three sons: Moyses (1689 in Bad Buchau – 1732); Daniel (born 1690 in Fellheim), and Abraham. He may have been married again.[ citation needed ]

 Moyses was married twice.[ citation needed ] His first marriage produced a son, Abraham Einstein (born c. 1704 in Bad Buchau), a daughter, and possibly another son, David Veit Einstein (1713 in Buchau, Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg – 1763). His second marriage was to Judith Haymann. David was either Judith's son or that of Moyses' first wife. Judith also had two biological sons: Daniel (1690 in Fellheim, Duchy of Bavaria – after 1720) and Leopold (1700 – after 1719).[ citation needed ]

 Daniel's children [ edit ]

 Daniel had four wives, but despite this he had only one child, either a son or stepson:[ citation needed ]

 * Leopold (1720 in Ulm, Holy Roman Empire – 6 November 1796 in Laupheim, Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg)[ citation needed ]
 * Descendent families: Einsteins, Bernheins, Bukas, Steiners, Nathans, Noerdlingers, Straussses, Saengers[ citation needed ]

 Leopold's children [ edit ]

 Leopold had one wife called Karoline (born 1700 in Buchau, Germany) and had:[ citation needed ]

 * Abraham (12 January 1718 in Buchau, Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg – 16 June 1787)[ citation needed ]
 * Descendent families: Guggenheims and Einsteins[ citation needed ]

 Abraham's children [ edit ]

 Abraham had one unknown wife and a son:[ citation needed ]

 * Joseph (1726 in Sontheim, Holy Roman Empire – 29 April 1795 in Jebenhausen, Duchy of Württemberg)
 * Descendent families: Lindauer, Rohrbacher, Weils, Einsteins, Lindauers, Kohns, Levis, Fellheimers, Franks, Lindauers, Heumanns Sulzbergs, Katzs and Wormsers[ citation needed ]

 David's children [ edit ]

 From marriage with Karoline Ehrlich he had:[ citation needed ]

 * Moyses[ citation needed ]
 * Naphatali (1733 in Buchau, Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg – 1799) (Einstein's great-great-grandfather), his is grandfather of Abraham above, who had been the Spouse of Greta.[ citation needed ]

 Rupert Einstein (Albert's 1st great-grandfather) [ edit ]

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 Birthdate: July 21, 1759

 Birthplace: Buchau, Biberach, Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg, Holy Roman Empire[ citation needed ]

 Death: Died April 4, 1834, in Buchau, Biberach, Kingdom of Württemberg[ citation needed ]

 Immediate Family:

 Son of Naphtali Hirsch [ citation needed ] Einstein and Helene Handle Steppach Husband of Rebecca Obernauer Father of Judith Einstein; Raphael Einstein; Abraham Rupert Einstein; Samuel Rupert Einstein; David Einstein and 1 other Brothers of Judith Jetle Einstein; Joseph Einstein;Daniel Einstein; Veit Hirsch Einstein and Helene Rieser

 Naphtali Hirsch [ citation needed ] Einstein (Albert's 2nd great-grandfather) [ edit ]

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 Also Known As: "Nepthali ben David"

 Birthdate: 1733

 Birthplace: Bad Buchau, Biberach, Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg, Holy Roman Empire

 Death: Died 1799

 Immediate Family:

 Son of David Veit Einstein and Caroline Einstein Husband of Helene Handle Steppach Father of Judith Jetle Einstein; Joseph Einstein;Daniel Einstein; Rupert Einstein; Veit Hirsch Einsteinand 1 other Brother of Moyses (Moses) Einstein

 David Veit Einstein (Albert's 3rd great-grandfather) [ edit ]

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 Birthdate: estimated between 1695 and 1729

 Birthplace: Buchau, Biberach, Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg, Holy Roman Empire

 Death: Died 1763 in Bad Buchau, Biberach, Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg, Holy Roman Empire

 Immediate Family:

 Son of Moyses Einstein and Judith Einstein Husband of Caroline Einstein Father of Moyses (Moses) Einstein and Naphtali Hirsch Einstein Brother of Joseph Einstein; Unknown Einstein;Abraham Einstein; Daniel Einstein and Leopold Einstein

 Moyses Einstein (Albert's 4th great-grandfather) [ edit ]

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 Birthdate: 1690

 Birthplace: Fellheim, Bavarian Swabia, Electorate of Bavaria, Holy Roman Empire

 Death: Died 1732

 Immediate Family:

 Son of Baruch Moses Ainstein and Borichle Einstein; Husband of Judith Einstein; Father of Joseph Einstein, David Veit Einstein, Abraham Einstein, Daniel Einstein and 1 other.

 Baruch Moses Ainstein (Albert's 5th great-grandfather) [ edit ]

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 Birthdate: estimated between 1615 and 1675

 Birthplace: Wangen, Duchy of Württemberg, Holy Roman Empire

 Death: Died in Bad Buchau, between 1711 and 1719 Tübingen, Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg, Holy Roman Empire

 Immediate Family:

 Son of Moses Ainstein, Husband of Borichle Einstein, Father of Moyses Einstein.

 Moses Ainstein (Albert's 6th great-grandfather) [ edit ]

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 Birthdate: estimated before 1676

 Immediate Family:Father of Baruch Moses Einstein

 Father of Baruch Moses Einstein

 See also [ edit ]

 * Genius, a television series depicting the Einsteins

 References [ edit ]

 1. ^ Aron Tanzer (1988). Die Geschichte der Juden in Jebenhausen und Göppingen (The History of Jews in Jebenhausen and Göppingen). Weissenhorn, Germany: Anton H. Konrad Verlag. pp. 220, 301, 334, 378, 383.
 2. ^ "Short life history: Elsa Einstein".
 3. ^ Modified from P. Hanks; F. Hodges (1997). A dictionary of surnames. New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press.
 4. ^ Tanzer 1988, p. 220
 5. ^ "Short life history: Pauline Einstein". Albert Einstein In The World Wide Web. ETH-Bibliothek, Zurich. January 2015.
 6. ^ "Albert Einstein – Biography". Nobel Foundation. Archived from the original on 6 March 2007 . Retrieved 28 May 2017 .
 7. ^ Schwartz, Joseph (2005). Introducing Einstein. ISBN 1-84046-667-7.
 8. ^ Botstein, Leon; Galison, Peter; Holton, Gerald James; Schweber, Silvan S. (2008) Einstein for the 21st Century: His Legacy in Science, Art, and Modern Culture , Princeton Univ. Press
 9. ^ "Short life history: Hermann Einstein" Archived 8 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine in Albert Einstein, autobiographic writings, 1946
 10. ^ Barry R. Parker, Einstein: The Passions of a Scientist, Prometheus Books - 2003, page 31
 11. ^ Michaels, Daniel; Sylvers, Eric (26 December 2021). "Italian Tech Startup Revives Einstein's Father's Power Plant". Wall Street Journal . Retrieved 29 December 2021 .
 12. ^ "Short life history: Hermann Einstein". Archived from the original on 8 November 2017 . Retrieved 10 July 2011 .
 13. ^ Christof Rieber, Albert Einstein. Biografie eines Nonkonformisten, Thorbecke 2018, page 78 f.
 14. ^ www.einstein-website.de
 15. ^ a b Short life history: Maria Winteler-Einstein
 16. ^ Highfield & Carter 1993 , p. 203
 17. ^ a b Highfield & Carter 1993 , p. 248
 18. ^ The Love Letters , p. 54
 19. ^ The Love Letters , p. 63
 20. ^ the english translation of the german "Doxerl", one of the names Einstein used for Marić
 21. ^ The Love Letters , p. 66
 22. ^ The Love Letters , p. 73
 23. ^ The Love Letters , p. 78
 24. ^ Lieserl Einstein's biography
 25. ^ Milan Popović: In Alberts Shadow. The life and letters of Mileva Marić, Einstein's first wife , Johns Hopkins University Press, London 2003, p.11, ISBN 978-0-8018-7856-5
 26. ^ The Truth Behind Einstein's Letter on the 'Universal Force' of Love
 27. ^ "A Universal Force". Snopes.com . Retrieved 19 April 2020 .
 28. ^ "University of California In Memoriam". www.lib.berkeley.edu . Retrieved 25 January 2017 .
 29. ^ "Short life history: Hans Albert Einstein". www.einstein-website.de . Retrieved 7 July 2019 .
 30. ^ Clark, Ronald W. (1971). Einstein: The Life and Times[ page needed ]. Avon. ISBN 0-380-44123-3.
 31. ^ Barry Parker (2003): Einstein: The Passions of a Scientist. Prometheus Books. New York. p. 236.
 32. ^ Parker (2003): Einstein , pp. 236-237.
 33. ^ "Albert Einstein to Eduard Einstein, 1928". Shapell Manuscript Collection. Shapell Manuscript Foundation.
 34. ^ "Albert Einstein to Eduard Einstein, 1944". Shapell Manuscript Collection. Shapell Manuscript Foundation.
 35. ^ "Albert Einstein to Eduard Einstein, circa 1933". Shapell Manuscript Collection. Shapell Manuscript Foundation.
 36. ^ "Albert Einstein to Eduard Einstein, 1933". Shapell Manuscript Collection. Shapell Manuscript Foundation.
 37. ^ "Albert Einstein on Sigmund Freud"
 38. ^ Robert Dünki, Anna Pia Maissen: «... damit das traurige Dasein unseres Sohnes etwas besser gesichert wird» Mileva und Albert Einsteins Sorgen um ihren Sohn Eduard (1910–1965). Die Familie Einstein und das Stadtarchiv Zürich. In: Stadtarchiv Zürich. Jahresbericht 2007/2008. (german)

 Works cited [ edit ]

 * Einstein, Albert and Marić, Mileva (1992) The Love Letters. Edited by Jürgen Renn & Robert Schulmann. Translated by Shawn Smith. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J. ISBN 0-691-08760-1
 * Highfield; Carter, Paul (1993). The Private Lives of Albert Einstein. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-571-17170-2.
 * Christof Rieber: Albert Einstein. Biografie eines Nonkonformisten. Thorbecke: Ostfildern 2018 ISBN 978-3-7995-1281-7

 Further reading [ edit ]

 * Michele Zackheim, Einstein's Daughter: the Search for Lieserl, Riverhead 1999, ISBN 1-57322-127-9.

 External links [ edit ]

 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Einstein Family .
 * Lieserl Einstein's Biography from einstein-website.de
 * Pauline Koch's fact file from einstein-website.de
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  * Annus mirabilis papers (1905) 
  * "Investigations on the Theory of Brownian Movement" (1905) 
  * Relativity: The Special and the General Theory (1916) 
 Works * The Meaning of Relativity (1922) 
  * The World as I See It (1934) 
  * The Evolution of Physics (1938) 
  * "Why Socialism?" (1949) 
  * Russell–Einstein Manifesto (1955) 
  * Die Grundlagen der Einsteinschen Relativitäts-Theorie (1922 documentary)
  * The Einstein Theory of Relativity (1923 documentary) 
  * Relics: Einstein's Brain (1994 documentary) 
 In popular * Insignificance (1985 film) 
 culture * Picasso at the Lapin Agile (1993 play) 
  * I.Q. (1994 film) 
  * Einstein's Gift (2003 play) 
  * Einstein and Eddington (2008 TV film) 
  * Genius (2017 series) 
  * Awards and honors 
  * Brain  
  * House  
  * Memorial 
  * Political views 
  * Religious views 
 Related * List of things named after Albert Einstein 
  * Albert Einstein Archives 
  * Einstein Papers Project 
  * Einstein refrigerator 
  * Einsteinhaus 
  * Einsteinium 
  * Max Talmud 
  * Albert Einstein Award 
  * Albert Einstein Medal 
  * Kalinga Prize 
 Prizes * Albert Einstein Peace Prize 
  * Albert Einstein World Award of Science 
  * Einstein Prize for Laser Science 
  * Einstein Prize (APS) 
  * Albert Einstein: Creator and Rebel 
  * Einstein and Religion 
  * Einstein for Beginners 
 Books about * Einstein: His Life and Universe 
 Einstein * Einstein's Cosmos 
  * I Am Albert Einstein 
  * Introducing Relativity 
  * Subtle is the Lord 
  * Pauline Koch (mother) 
  * Hermann Einstein (father) 
  * Maja Einstein (sister) 
  * Mileva Marić (first wife) 
  * Elsa Einstein (second wife; cousin) 
  * Lieserl Einstein (daughter) 
 Family * Hans Albert Einstein (son) 
  * Eduard Einstein (son) 
  * Bernhard Caesar Einstein (grandson) 
  * Evelyn Einstein (granddaughter) 
  * Thomas Martin Einstein (great-grandson) 
  * Robert Einstein (cousin) 
  * Siegbert Einstein (distant cousin) 
 * Category 
 
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This article is about the family of Albert Einstein. For other people named Einstein, see Einstein (surname).
   Albert Einstein         Current region Worldwide   Place of origin  Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg, Duchy of Württemberg, Kingdom of Württemberg, Electorate of Bavaria, Kingdom of Bavaria, Switzerland, German Empire    Members  Albert Einstein, Maja Einstein, Hermann Einstein, Pauline Koch    Connected families Koch, Moos, Overnauer   
       
The Einstein family is the family of physicist Albert Einstein (1879–1955). Einstein's great-great-great-great-grandfather, Jakob Weil, was his oldest recorded relative, born in the late 17th century, and the family continues to this day. Albert Einstein's great-great-grandfather, Löb Moses Sontheimer (1745–1831), was also the grandfather of the tenor Heinrich Sontheim (1820–1912) of Stuttgart. [1] 
 Albert's three children were from his relationship with his first wife, Mileva Marić, his daughter Lieserl being born a year before they married. Albert Einstein's second wife was Elsa Einstein, whose mother Fanny Koch was the sister of Albert's mother, and whose father, Rudolf Einstein, was the son of Raphael Einstein, a brother of Albert's paternal grandfather. Albert and Elsa were thus first cousins through their mothers and second cousins through their fathers. [2] 
Etymology[edit]
 Einstein (  EYEN-styne , German:  [ˈaɪnʃtaɪn] (  listen)) is either a German habitational surname from various places named with a Middle High German derivative of the verb einsteinen 'to enclose, surround with stone'; or a Jewish (Ashkenazic) adaptation of the German name, or else an ornamental name using the ending -stein 'stone'. [3] 
Einstein family table[edit]
     
 
Generation
Paternal
Maternal
Comments
 
1st
Emma Tiia from Norway (?) (father of Jüttle Sara) [4] 
 
2nd
Juda from Nordstetten (?), Chaja [last name unknown] (?), Hoyna Moses Sontheimer (1705–?), Gölla [last name unknown] (?)[ citation needed ]
Jakob Weil (?),[ citation needed ] Jüttle Sara Weil (1722–1808),[ citation needed ]
David Ka[ clarification needed ]
Löb Moses Sontheimer (1745–?)[ citation needed ]  
Jakob Simon Bernheimer (1756–1790),[ citation needed ] Leah Hajm (1753–1833)[ citation needed ] 
Bernard (Beerle) Weil (1750–1840),[ citation needed ] Rösle Katz (1760–1826)[ citation needed ] 
 
4th
Naphtali Einstein (1733–1801), Hayum Moos,[ citation needed ] Helene Steppach (1737–1790)
 
5th
Rupert Einstein (1759–1834) Veit Hirsch (1763–1820)[ citation needed ] Rebekka Overnauer (1770–1843) Hayum Moos (1788–?),[ citation needed ] [ who? ] Fanny Schmal (1792–?)
Zadok Löb Dörzbacher (1783–1852), Blumle Sontheimer (1786–1856)
 
6th
 Abraham Einstein (1808–1868). Siblings: Hirsch Einstein (1799–?), Judith Einstein (1802–?), Samuel Rupert Einstein (1804–?), Raphael Einstein (1806–?), David Einstein (1810–?)
Helene Moos (1814–1887, Siblings: None)
Julius Dörzbacher (1816–1895, Siblings: None),
Jette Bernheimer (1825–1886, Siblings: None)
 
7th
 Hermann Einstein (1847–1902). Siblings: August Ignaz Einstein (1841–?), Jette Einstein (1844–?), Heinrich Einstein (1845–?), Jakob Einstein (1850–?), Friederike Einstein (1855–?)
 Pauline Koch (1858–1920). Siblings: Fanny Koch (1852–1926), Jacob Koch (?), Caesar Koch (?)
 
 8th
  Albert Einstein  (1879–1955). Siblings: Maja Einstein (1881–1951).
Albert's wives: Mileva Marić (1875–1948), Elsa Einstein (1876–1936)
 
9th
 Albert's children: Lieserl Einstein (1902–1903?), Hans Albert Einstein (1904–1973), Eduard Einstein (1910–1965)
 
10th
 Bernhard Caesar Einstein (1930–2008), Klaus Martin (1933–1939); David Einstein (16 October 1939 – 21 November 1939); and Evelyn (1941–2011, adopted child)
 
11th
Thomas Martin Einstein (1955–), Paul Michael Einstein (1959–), Eduard Albert (Ted) Einstein (1961–), Mira Einstein-Yehieli (1965–), Charles Quincy Ascher (Charly) Einstein (1971–)
   
Pauline Koch (Albert's mother)[edit]
    Pauline Einstein (née Koch)          Born 8 February 1858   Cannstatt, Kingdom of Württemberg      Died 20 February 1920 (aged 62)  Berlin, Free State of Prussia, Weimar Republic      Spouse  Hermann Einstein    Children  Albert Einstein  Maja Einstein    Parent(s) Julius Derzbacher  Jette Bernheimer   
 Pauline Einstein (née Koch) (8 February 1858 – 20 February 1920) was the mother of the physicist Albert Einstein. She was born in Cannstatt, Kingdom of Württemberg. [5]  She was Jewish and had an older sister, Fanny, and two older brothers, Jacob and Caesar. Her parents were Julius Doerzbacher, who had adopted the family name Koch in 1842, and Jette Bernheimer. They were married in 1847. Pauline's father was from Jebenhausen, now part of the city of Göppingen, and grew up in modest economic circumstances. Later, he lived in Cannstatt and together with his brother Heinrich, made a considerable fortune in the corn trade. They even became "Royal Württemberg Purveyor to the Court". Their mother was from Cannstatt and was a quiet and caring person.
Early life[edit]
At 18 years old, Pauline married the merchant Hermann Einstein who lived in Ulm. They married in Cannstatt on 8 August 1876. After the wedding, the young couple lived in Ulm, where Hermann became joint partner in a bed feathers company. Their son, Albert was born on 14 March 1879. [6]  On the initiative of Hermann's brother Jakob the family moved to Munich in the summer of 1880, where the two brothers together founded an electrical engineering company called  [7]  Einstein &amp; Cie. The second child of Hermann and Pauline, their daughter Maria (called Maja), was born in Munich on 18 November 1881. Pauline Einstein was a well-educated and quiet woman who had an inclination for the arts. She was a talented and dedicated piano player. She made Albert begin violin lessons at the age of five. [8] 
Business problems[edit]
The factory of Hermann and Jakob was moved to Pavia, Italy, in 1894. Hermann, Maria and Pauline moved to Milan in the same year and one year later, moved to Pavia. Albert stayed with relatives in Munich to continue his education there. 
Unfortunately, the business was unsuccessful and the brothers had to abandon their factory in 1896. Though Hermann had lost most of his money, he founded (without his brother) another electrical engineering company in Milan. This time business was better. However, Hermann's health had deteriorated, and he died of heart failure in Milan on 10 October 1902.
After Hermann[edit]
In 1903, Pauline went to live with her sister Fanny and her husband Rudolf Einstein, a first cousin of Hermann, in Hechingen, Württemberg. Fanny's daughter, Elsa was to become the second wife of Albert in 1919.
In 1910, Pauline moved with her sister, Fanny and her family to Berlin. She took on a job as housekeeper in Heilbronn, Kingdom of Württemberg in 1911. She lived with her brother Jacob Koch in Zurich and from 1915 in Heilbronn again.
Death[edit]
During World War I, Pauline fell ill with cancer. In 1918, when visiting her daughter, Maria, and son-in-law, Paul Winteler, in Luzern, Pauline was taken to the sanatorium Rosenau, due to her illness. At the end of 1919, Albert took his terminally-ill mother out of the sanatorium in Luzern and brought her to Haberlandstrasse 5, Berlin, to stay with him and his second wife, Elsa, where she later died that year.
Hermann Einstein (Albert's father)[edit]
    Hermann Einstein          Born 30 August 1847   Buchau, Kingdom of Württemberg      Died 10 October 1902 (aged 55)   Milan, Kingdom of Italy      Nationality Subject of Kingdom of Württemberg (1847–1894)  Subject of Kingdom of Italy (1894–1902)   Occupation(s) Scientific utility salesman, electrician   Spouse  Pauline Koch    Children  Albert Einstein  Maja Einstein    Parent(s)  Abraham Einstein  Helene Moos    Relatives  Hans Albert Einstein (grandson) Lieserl Einstein (granddaughter) Eduard Einstein (grandson)   
 Hermann Einstein (30 August 1847 – 10 October 1902) was the father of Albert Einstein. He was Ashkenazi Jewish.
Early life[edit]
      Abraham and Helene Einstein  
 Hermann Einstein (also known as Hermann Moos)[ citation needed ] was born in Buchau, Kingdom of Württemberg to Abraham Einstein and Helene Moos (3 July 1814 – 20 August 1887).
 He had six siblings: [9] 
 Raphael (3 December 1839 – 15 January 1842); male
Jette (13 January 1844 – 7 January 1905); female
Heinrich (12 October 1845 – 16 November 1877); male
August Ignaz (23 December 1849 – 14 April 1911); male
Jakob (25 November 1850 – 1912); male
Friederike "Rika" (15 March 1855 – 17 June 1938); female 
At the age of 14, Hermann attended the secondary school in the regional capital Stuttgart and was academically successful. He had a strong affection for mathematics, and would have liked to study in this or a related area, but as the financial situation of the family precluded further education, he decided to become a merchant and began an apprenticeship in Stuttgart.
Marriage to Pauline[edit]
Hermann married 18-year-old Pauline Koch in Cannstatt, Kingdom of Württemberg on 8 August 1876. After their wedding, the young couple lived in Ulm, where Hermann became joint partner in the feather bed shop of his cousins, Moses and Hermann Levi. In Ulm, their eldest son Albert was born on 14 March 1879. On the initiative of Hermann's brother Jakob, the family moved to Munich in the summer of 1880. There, the two brothers founded the electrical engineering company Einstein &amp; Cie, with Hermann being the merchant and Jakob the technician. The second child of Hermann and Pauline, their daughter Maria (called Maja), was born in Munich on 18 November 1881.
Work[edit]
The Einsteins' electrical firm manufactured dynamos and electrical meters based on direct current. They were instrumental in bringing electricity to Munich. In 1885, they won the contract that provided DC lights to illuminate the Oktoberfest for the first time.
 In 1893 the Einstein brothers lost a bid on a contract for the electrification of Munich to Schukert; Hermann and Jakob's small company lacked the capital to convert their equipment over from the direct current (DC) standard to the more efficient alternating current (AC) standard being used by Schukert. [10]  Their fortunes took a downward turn from there. They were forced to sell their Munich factory and, in search of business, the two brothers moved their company to Pavia, Italy in 1894. Hermann, Pauline and Maja moved to Milan in the same year and one year later moved to Pavia. Albert stayed with relatives in Munich to continue his education there, though he spent time in Pavia as well. [11] 
 Due to poor business, Hermann and Jakob had to abandon their factory in 1896. [12]  Though Hermann had lost most of their money, he founded another electrical engineering company in Milan, this time without his brother. He was supported financially by his relative Rudolf Einstein in this venture. [13]  Though business was better this time, Hermann was preoccupied with "worries due to the vexatious money".[ citation needed ]
Death[edit]
Hermann Einstein died of heart failure in Milan in 1902. His grave is in Civico Mausoleo Palanti inside Cimitero Monumentale di Milano. Hermann Einstein was 55 years old when he died.
Maria "Maja" Einstein (Albert's younger sister)[edit]
    Maria 'Maja' Einstein       Maria 'Maja' Einstein in the 1900s    Born  Maria Einstein 18 November 1881   Munich, Kingdom of Bavaria, German Empire     Died 25 June 1951 (aged 69)   Princeton, New Jersey, United States     Nationality German, Swiss, American   Occupation Doctor   Partner Paul Winteler   Parent(s)  Hermann Einstein  Pauline Koch    Relatives  Albert Einstein (brother)   
 Maria "Maja" Einstein (18 November 1881 – 25 June 1951) and her older brother, Albert, were the two children of Hermann Einstein and Pauline Einstein (née Koch), who had moved from Ulm to Munich in June 1881, when Albert was one. [14]  There Hermann and his brother Jakob had founded Einstein &amp; Cie., an electrical engineering company. [15] 
     
     
She was born 18 November 1881 in Munich. Maja and Albert got along very well all their lives.[ citation needed ] She was Albert's only friend during his childhood.[ citation needed ]
 She attended elementary school in Munich from 1887 to 1894. She then moved with her parents to Milan, where she attended the German International School; Albert had stayed behind with relatives in Munich to complete his schooling. From 1899 to 1902, she attended a workshop for teachers in Aarau. After she passed her final exams, she studied Romance languages and literature in Berlin, Bern and Paris. In 1909, she graduated from the University of Bern; her dissertation was entitled "Contribution to the Tradition of the Chevalier au Cygne and the Enfances Godefroi".
 In the year following her graduation, she married Paul Winteler, but they were to be childless. The young couple moved to Luzern in 1911, where Maja's husband had found a job. In 1922, they moved to Colonnata near Florence in Italy. [16] 
 After the Italian leader Benito Mussolini introduced anti-Semitic laws in Italy, Albert invited Maja to emigrate to the United States in 1939 and live in his residence in Mercer Street, Princeton, New Jersey. Her husband was denied entry into the United States on health grounds. [15]  Maja spent some pleasant years with Albert, until she had a stroke in 1946, and became bedridden. [17]  She later developed progressive arteriosclerosis, and died in Princeton on 25 June 1951 four years before her brother. [17] 
Lieserl Einstein (Albert's daughter)[edit]
    Lieserl Einstein    Born 27 January 1902   Újvidék, Kingdom of Hungary, Austria-Hungary      Died September 1903 (aged 1)   Parents     Albert Einstein (father)  Mileva Marić (mother)      Relatives  Pauline Koch (paternal grandmother) Hermann Einstein (paternal grandfather) Hans Albert Einstein  Eduard Einstein    
 Lieserl Einstein (27 January 1902 – September 1903) was the first child of Mileva Marić and Albert Einstein.
 According to the correspondence between her parents, Lieserl was born on 27 January 1902, a year before her parents married, in Novi Sad/Újvidék, Austria-Hungary, present-day Serbia, and was cared for by her mother for a short time while Einstein worked in Switzerland before Marić joined him there without the child.
 Lieserl's existence was unknown to biographers until 1986, when a batch of letters between Albert and Mileva Marić was discovered by Hans Albert Einstein's daughter Evelyn.
 Marić had hoped for a girl, while Einstein would have preferred a boy. In their letters, they called the unborn child "Lieserl", when referring to a girl, or "Hanserl", if a boy. Both "Lieserl" and "Hanserl" were diminutives of the common German names Liese (short for Elizabeth) and Hans.
 The first reference to Marić's pregnancy was found in a letter Einstein wrote to her from Winterthur, probably on 28 May 1901 (letter 36), asking twice about "the boy" and "our little son", [18]  whereas Marić's first reference was found in her letter of 13 November 1901 (letter 43) from Stein am Rhein, in which she referred to the unborn child as "Lieserl". [19]  Einstein goes along with Marić's wish for a daughter, and referred to the unborn child as "Lieserl" as well, but with a sense of humour as in letter 45 of 12 December 1901 "... and be happy about our Lieserl, whom I secretly (so Dollie [20]  doesn't notice) prefer to imagine a Hanserl." [21] 
 The child must have been born shortly before 4 February 1902, when Einstein wrote: "... now you see that it really is a Lieserl, just as you'd wished. Is she healthy and does she cry properly? [...] I love her so much and don't even know her yet!" [22] 
 The last time "Lieserl" was mentioned in their extant correspondence was in Einstein's letter of 19 September 1903 (letter 54), in which he showed concern that she had scarlet fever. His asking "As what is the child registered?" adding "We must take precautions that problems don't arise for her later" may indicate the intention to give the child up for adoption. [23] 
 As neither the full name nor the fate of the child are known, several hypotheses about her life and death have been put forward:
 Michele Zackheim, in her book on "Lieserl", Einstein's Daughter, states that "Lieserl" had a developmental disability, and that she lived with her mother's family and probably died of scarlet fever in September 1903. [24]  
Another possibility, favoured by Robert Schulmann of the Einstein Papers Project, is that "Lieserl" was adopted by Marić's close friend, Helene Savić, and was raised by her and lived under the name "Zorka Savić" until the 1990s. Savić did in fact raise a child by the name of Zorka, who was blind from childhood and died in the 1990s. Before his death in 2012, her grandson Milan N. Popović, upon extensive research of the relationship between Einstein and Marić, rejected the possibility that it was "Lieserl", and also favoured the hypothesis that the child died in September 1903. [25]   
A letter widely circulated on the Internet on the "universal force" of love, attributed as "a letter from Albert Einstein to his daughter", is a hoax. [26]   [27] 
Hans Albert Einstein (Albert's first son)[edit]
 Hans Albert Einstein (May 14, 1904 – July 26, 1973) was born in Bern, Switzerland, the second child and first son of Albert Einstein and Mileva Marić. Hans earned his doctorate at ETH Zurich in 1936 and emigrated to the U.S. in 1938. He was a long-time professor of Hydraulic engineering at the University of California, Berkeley, widely recognized for his research on sediment transport. [28]   [29] 
Eduard "Tete" Einstein (Albert's second son)[edit]
    Eduard Einstein    Born 28 July 1910   Zurich, Switzerland     Died 25 October 1965 (aged 55)  Psychiatric Clinic Burghölzli, Zurich     Resting place Cemetery Hönggerberg,   Other names "Tete"   Parent(s)  Albert Einstein and Mileva Marić    Relatives  Hans Albert Einstein, Lieserl    
 Eduard Einstein (28 July 1910 – 25 October 1965) was born in Zürich, Switzerland, the second son of physicist Albert Einstein from his first wife Mileva Marić. Albert Einstein and his family moved to Berlin in 1914. Shortly thereafter the parents separated, and Marić returned to Zürich, taking Eduard and his older brother Hans Albert with her. His father remarried in 1919 and in 1933 emigrated to the United States under the threat of Germany's rising Nazi regime.
 Eduard was a good student and had musical talent. After  gymnasium , he started to study medicine to become a psychiatrist, but by the age of twenty one he was diagnosed with schizophrenia. He was institutionalized two years later for the first of several times. Biographers of his father have speculated that the drugs and "cures" of the time damaged rather than aided the young Einstein. [30]  His brother Hans Albert Einstein believed that his memory and cognitive abilities had been deeply affected by electroconvulsive therapy treatments Eduard received while institutionalized. [31] 
 After a breakdown, Eduard had told his father Albert that he hated him, and after the father's emigration to the United States they never saw each other again. [32]  The father and son, whom the father fondly referred to as "Tete" (for petit), corresponded regularly before and after Eduard became ill. Their correspondence continued after the father's immigration to the U.S. [33]   [34] 
 Eduard remained interested in music and art, [35]  wrote poetry, [36]  and was a Sigmund Freud enthusiast. He hung a picture of Freud on his bedroom wall. [37] 
 His mother cared for him until she died in 1948. From then on Eduard lived most of the time at the psychiatric clinic Burghölzli in Zurich, where he died in 1965 of a stroke at age 55. He is buried at Hönggerberg Cemetery in Zurich. [38] 
Abraham Einstein (Albert's grandfather)[edit]
 Abraham Einstein (8 April 1808 – 21 November 1868), the son of Ruppert Einstein and Rebekha Overnauer, is the father of Hermann Einstein and grandfather of Hermann's son, Albert. Abraham married Helene Moos, also a German Jew, in April 1839 in Bad Buchau. Together, they had several children:
 Raphael (3 December 1839 – 15 January 1842), male
Jette (13 January 1844 – 7 January 1905), female
Heinrich (12 October 1845 – 16 November 1877), male
 Hermann (30 August 1847 – 10 October 1902), male
August Ignaz (23 December 1849 – 14 April 1911), male
Jacob (25 November 1850 – 1912), male
Friederikeh "Rikah" (15 March 1855 – 17 June 1938), female 
Surnames are Einstein and places are in Germany unless otherwise noted.
Einsteins and Ainsteins[edit]
First known is Moses Ainstein (fl. c. 1700).[ citation needed ] He had two sons: Leopold (born c. 1700); and Baruch Moses E/Ainstein (1665 in Wangen – 1750).[ citation needed ]
 Baruch was married to Borichle (born 1635)[ citation needed ] and had three sons: Moyses (1689 in Bad Buchau – 1732); Daniel (born 1690 in Fellheim), and Abraham. He may have been married again.[ citation needed ]
 Moyses was married twice.[ citation needed ] His first marriage produced a son, Abraham Einstein (born c. 1704 in Bad Buchau), a daughter, and possibly another son, David Veit Einstein (1713 in Buchau, Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg – 1763). His second marriage was to Judith Haymann. David was either Judith's son or that of Moyses' first wife. Judith also had two biological sons: Daniel (1690 in Fellheim, Duchy of Bavaria – after 1720) and Leopold (1700 – after 1719).[ citation needed ]
Daniel's children[edit]
Daniel had four wives, but despite this he had only one child, either a son or stepson:[ citation needed ] 
 Leopold (1720 in Ulm, Holy Roman Empire – 6 November 1796 in Laupheim, Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg)[ citation needed ] 
Descendent families: Einsteins, Bernheins, Bukas, Steiners, Nathans, Noerdlingers, Straussses, Saengers[ citation needed ]  
Leopold's children[edit]
Leopold had one wife called Karoline (born 1700 in Buchau, Germany) and had:[ citation needed ] 
 Abraham (12 January 1718 in Buchau, Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg – 16 June 1787)[ citation needed ] 
Descendent families: Guggenheims and Einsteins[ citation needed ]  
Abraham's children[edit]
Abraham had one unknown wife and a son:[ citation needed ] 
 Joseph (1726 in Sontheim, Holy Roman Empire – 29 April 1795 in Jebenhausen, Duchy of Württemberg)
Descendent families: Lindauer, Rohrbacher, Weils, Einsteins, Lindauers, Kohns, Levis, Fellheimers, Franks, Lindauers, Heumanns Sulzbergs, Katzs and Wormsers[ citation needed ]  
David's children[edit]
From marriage with Karoline Ehrlich he had:[ citation needed ] 
 Moyses[ citation needed ] 
Naphatali (1733 in Buchau, Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg – 1799) (Einstein's great-great-grandfather), his is grandfather of Abraham above, who had been the Spouse of Greta.[ citation needed ]  
Rupert Einstein (Albert's 1st great-grandfather)[edit]
Birthdate: July 21, 1759
 Birthplace: Buchau, Biberach, Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg, Holy Roman Empire [ citation needed ]
 Death: Died April 4, 1834, in Buchau, Biberach, Kingdom of Württemberg[ citation needed ]
 Immediate Family:
 Son of Naphtali Hirsch[ citation needed ] Einstein and Helene Handle Steppach Husband of Rebecca Obernauer Father of Judith Einstein; Raphael Einstein; Abraham Rupert Einstein; Samuel Rupert Einstein; David Einstein and 1 other Brothers of Judith Jetle Einstein; Joseph Einstein;Daniel Einstein; Veit Hirsch Einstein and Helene Rieser
Naphtali Hirsch[ citation needed ] Einstein (Albert's 2nd great-grandfather)[edit]
Also Known As: "Nepthali ben David"
 Birthdate: 1733
 Birthplace: Bad Buchau, Biberach, Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg, Holy Roman Empire
 Death: Died 1799
 Immediate Family:
 Son of David Veit Einstein and Caroline Einstein Husband of Helene Handle Steppach Father of Judith Jetle Einstein; Joseph Einstein;Daniel Einstein; Rupert Einstein; Veit Hirsch Einsteinand 1 other Brother of Moyses (Moses) Einstein
David Veit Einstein (Albert's 3rd great-grandfather)[edit]
Birthdate: estimated between 1695 and 1729
 Birthplace: Buchau, Biberach, Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg, Holy Roman Empire
 Death: Died 1763 in Bad Buchau, Biberach, Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg, Holy Roman Empire
 Immediate Family:
 Son of Moyses Einstein and Judith Einstein Husband of Caroline Einstein Father of Moyses (Moses) Einstein and Naphtali Hirsch Einstein Brother of Joseph Einstein; Unknown Einstein;Abraham Einstein; Daniel Einstein and Leopold Einstein
Moyses Einstein (Albert's 4th great-grandfather)[edit]
Birthdate: 1690
 Birthplace: Fellheim, Bavarian Swabia, Electorate of Bavaria, Holy Roman Empire
 Death: Died 1732
 Immediate Family:
 Son of Baruch Moses Ainstein and Borichle Einstein; Husband of Judith Einstein; Father of Joseph Einstein, David Veit Einstein, Abraham Einstein, Daniel Einstein and 1 other.
Baruch Moses Ainstein (Albert's 5th great-grandfather)[edit]
Birthdate: estimated between 1615 and 1675
 Birthplace: Wangen, Duchy of Württemberg, Holy Roman Empire
 Death: Died in Bad Buchau, between 1711 and 1719 Tübingen, Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg, Holy Roman Empire
 Immediate Family:
 Son of Moses Ainstein, Husband of Borichle Einstein, Father of Moyses Einstein.
Moses Ainstein (Albert's 6th great-grandfather)[edit]
Birthdate: estimated before 1676
 Immediate Family:Father of Baruch Moses Einstein
 Father of Baruch Moses Einstein
See also[edit]
   Genius , a television series depicting the Einsteins 
References[edit]
  ^  Aron Tanzer (1988). Die Geschichte der Juden in Jebenhausen und Göppingen (The History of Jews in Jebenhausen and Göppingen). Weissenhorn, Germany: Anton H. Konrad Verlag. pp. 220, 301, 334, 378, 383.
  ^   "Short life history: Elsa Einstein".
  ^  Modified from P. Hanks; F. Hodges (1997). A dictionary of surnames. New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  ^  Tanzer 1988, p. 220
  ^   "Short life history: Pauline Einstein". Albert Einstein In The World Wide Web. ETH-Bibliothek, Zurich. January 2015.
  ^   "Albert Einstein – Biography". Nobel Foundation. Archived from the original on 6 March 2007. Retrieved 28 May 2017.
  ^  Schwartz, Joseph (2005). Introducing Einstein. ISBN  1-84046-667-7 .
  ^  Botstein, Leon; Galison, Peter; Holton, Gerald James; Schweber, Silvan S. (2008) Einstein for the 21st Century: His Legacy in Science, Art, and Modern Culture, Princeton Univ. Press
  ^  "Short life history: Hermann Einstein" Archived 8 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine in Albert Einstein, autobiographic writings, 1946
  ^  Barry R. Parker, Einstein: The Passions of a Scientist, Prometheus Books - 2003, page 31
  ^  Michaels, Daniel; Sylvers, Eric (26 December 2021). "Italian Tech Startup Revives Einstein's Father's Power Plant".  Wall Street Journal . Retrieved 29 December 2021.
  ^   "Short life history: Hermann Einstein". Archived from the original on 8 November 2017. Retrieved 10 July 2011.
  ^  Christof Rieber, Albert Einstein. Biografie eines Nonkonformisten, Thorbecke 2018, page 78 f.
  ^  www.einstein-website.de
^    a       b    Short life history: Maria Winteler-Einstein
  ^  Highfield &amp; Carter 1993, p. 203
^    a       b    Highfield &amp; Carter 1993, p. 248
  ^  The Love Letters, p. 54
  ^  The Love Letters, p. 63
  ^  the english translation of the german "Doxerl", one of the names Einstein used for Marić
  ^  The Love Letters, p. 66
  ^  The Love Letters, p. 73
  ^  The Love Letters, p. 78
  ^   Lieserl Einstein's biography 
  ^  Milan Popović: In Alberts Shadow. The life and letters of Mileva Marić, Einstein's first wife, Johns Hopkins University Press, London 2003, p.11, ISBN 978-0-8018-7856-5
  ^  The Truth Behind Einstein's Letter on the 'Universal Force' of Love
  ^   "A Universal Force". Snopes.com. Retrieved 19 April 2020.
  ^   "University of California In Memoriam". www.lib.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 25 January 2017.
  ^   "Short life history: Hans Albert Einstein". www.einstein-website.de. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
  ^   Clark, Ronald W. (1971). Einstein: The Life and Times[ page needed ] . Avon. ISBN  0-380-44123-3 .
  ^  Barry Parker (2003): Einstein: The Passions of a Scientist. Prometheus Books. New York. p. 236.
  ^  Parker (2003): Einstein, pp. 236-237.
  ^   "Albert Einstein to Eduard Einstein, 1928". Shapell Manuscript Collection. Shapell Manuscript Foundation.
  ^   "Albert Einstein to Eduard Einstein, 1944". Shapell Manuscript Collection. Shapell Manuscript Foundation.
  ^   "Albert Einstein to Eduard Einstein, circa 1933". Shapell Manuscript Collection. Shapell Manuscript Foundation.
  ^   "Albert Einstein to Eduard Einstein, 1933". Shapell Manuscript Collection. Shapell Manuscript Foundation.
  ^  "Albert Einstein on Sigmund Freud"
  ^  Robert Dünki, Anna Pia Maissen:  «... damit das traurige Dasein unseres Sohnes etwas besser gesichert wird» Mileva und Albert Einsteins Sorgen um ihren Sohn Eduard (1910–1965). Die Familie Einstein und das Stadtarchiv Zürich. In: Stadtarchiv Zürich. Jahresbericht 2007/2008. (german)
 
Works cited[edit]
 Einstein, Albert and Marić, Mileva (1992) The Love Letters. Edited by Jürgen Renn &amp; Robert Schulmann. Translated by Shawn Smith. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J. ISBN 0-691-08760-1 
 Highfield; Carter, Paul (1993).  The Private Lives of Albert Einstein . London: Faber and Faber. ISBN  0-571-17170-2 . 
Christof Rieber: Albert Einstein. Biografie eines Nonkonformisten. Thorbecke: Ostfildern 2018 ISBN 978-3-7995-1281-7  
Further reading[edit]
 Michele Zackheim, Einstein's Daughter: the Search for Lieserl, Riverhead 1999, ISBN 1-57322-127-9. 
External links[edit]
   Lieserl Einstein's Biography  from einstein-website.de
 Pauline Koch's fact file from einstein-website.de
Einstein family - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_family
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mileva_Mari%C4%87
Mileva Marić - Wikipedia
2002-11-22
Debate over co-authorship
<div><div>
	<p>From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</p>
	</div><div>
<table><tbody><tr><th><p>Mileva Marić</p></th></tr><tr><td><p>Милева Марић</p></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:Mileva_Maric.jpg"></a><p>Marić in 1896</p></td></tr><tr><th>Born</th><td><p>Mileva Marić</p><br />19 December 1875<br /><div><p><a href="/wiki/Titel">Titel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1867%E2%80%931918)">Kingdom of Hungary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a></p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Died</th><td>4 August 1948 (aged 72)<br /><div><p><a href="/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich">Zürich</a>, Switzerland</p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Resting place</th><td>Friedhof Nordheim, Zürich</td></tr><tr><th>Nationality</th><td><a href="/wiki/Serbs">Serbian</a></td></tr><tr><th>Other names</th><td><ul><li>Mileva Marić-Einstein</li><li>Mileva Marić-Ajnštajn</li></ul></td></tr><tr><th>Alma mater</th><td><ul><li><a href="/wiki/ETH">Eidgenössisches Polytechnikum, Zürich</a> (known today as ETH, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule),
<a href="/wiki/Heidelberg_University">Heidelberg University</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th>Occupation</th><td>Mathematician</td></tr><tr><th>Spouse</th><td><div><div><p><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein">Albert Einstein</a></p></div>
 <p>​</p> <p>​</p><p>(<abbr>m.</abbr> 1903; <abbr>div.</abbr> 1919)<wbr></wbr>​</p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Children</th><td><div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lieserl_Einstein">Lieserl Einstein</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Albert_Einstein">Hans Albert Einstein</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Einstein_family#Eduard_&quot;Tete&quot;_Einstein_(Albert's_son)">Eduard "Tete" Einstein</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Mileva Marić</b> (<a href="/wiki/Serbian_Cyrillic_alphabet">Serbian Cyrillic</a>: Милева Марић; 19 December 1875 – 4 August 1948), sometimes called <b>Mileva Marić-Einstein</b> (<a href="/wiki/Serbian_Cyrillic_alphabet">Serbian Cyrillic</a>: Милева Марић-Ајнштајн, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Serbian">romanized</a>: </small><i>Mileva Marić-Ajnštajn</i>), was a <a href="/wiki/Serbs">Serbian</a> physicist and mathematician and the first wife of <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> from 1903 to 1919. She was the only woman among Einstein's fellow students at <a href="/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich">Zürich</a> <a href="/wiki/ETH">Polytechnic</a> and was the second woman to finish a full program of study at the Department of Mathematics and Physics.<sup><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup> Marić and Einstein were collaborators and lovers and had a daughter <a href="/wiki/Lieserl_Einstein">Lieserl</a> in 1902, whose fate is unknown. They later had two sons, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Albert_Einstein">Hans Albert</a> and <a href="/wiki/Einstein_family#Eduard_&quot;Tete&quot;_Einstein_(Albert's_second_son)">Eduard</a>.
</p><p>They separated in 1914, with Marić taking the boys and returning to Zürich from Berlin. They divorced in 1919; that year Einstein married again. When he received the Nobel Prize in 1921, he transferred the money to Marić, chiefly to support their sons; she had access to the interest. In 1930, their second son Eduard had a breakdown at about age 20 and was diagnosed with <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>. With expenses mounting by the late 1930s for his institutional care, Marić sold two of the three houses she and Einstein had purchased. He made regular contributions to his sons' care, which he continued after emigrating to the United States with his second wife (<a href="/wiki/Elsa_Einstein">Elsa</a>, his first cousin).
</p>
<h2>Biography[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mileva_Mari%C4%87&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>On 19 December 1875, Mileva Marić was born into a wealthy family in <a href="/wiki/Titel">Titel</a> in <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a> (today <a href="/wiki/Serbia">Serbia</a>) as the eldest of three children of Miloš Marić (1846–1922) and Marija Ružić-Marić (1847–1935).<sup><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> Shortly after her birth, her father ended his military career and took a job at the court in <a href="/wiki/Ruma">Ruma</a> and later in <a href="/wiki/Zagreb">Zagreb</a>.
</p><p>She began her secondary education in 1886 at a high school for girls in <a href="/wiki/Novi_Sad">Novi Sad</a>, but changed the following year to a high school in <a href="/wiki/Sremska_Mitrovica">Sremska Mitrovica</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Highfield,_1993,_pp._36-3">[3]</a></sup> Beginning in 1890, Marić attended the Royal Serbian Grammar School in <a href="/wiki/%C5%A0abac">Šabac</a>. In 1891, her father obtained special permission to enroll Marić as a private student at the all-male Royal Classical High School in Zagreb.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Highfield,_1993,_pp._36-3">[3]</a></sup> Her mathematics teacher was <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Vari%C4%87ak">Vladimir Varićak</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> She passed the entrance exam and entered the tenth grade in 1892. She won special permission to attend physics lectures in February 1894 and passed the final exams in September 1894. Her highest grades were in mathematics and physics, both "very good", one grade below the highest "excellent".<sup><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> That year she fell seriously ill and decided to move to Switzerland, where on 14 November, she started at the "Girls High School" in Zurich. In 1896, she passed her <a href="/wiki/Matura">Matura-Exam</a>, and started studying medicine at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Zurich">University of Zurich</a> for one semester.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Highfield,_1993,_pp._36-3">[3]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the fall of 1896, Marić switched to the Zurich <a href="/wiki/ETH">Polytechnic</a> (later Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, <a href="/wiki/ETH">ETH</a>), having passed the mathematics entrance examination with an average grade of 4.25 (scale 1–6).<sup><a href="#cite_note-Trbuhuvić-6">[6]</a></sup> She enrolled for the diploma course to teach physics and mathematics in secondary schools (section VIA) at the same time as Albert Einstein. She was the only woman in her group of six students, and the fifth woman to enter that section. She would have had to have been extraordinarily talented to overcome the restrictions on the admission of women.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Highfield,_1993,_pp._36-3">[3]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Trbuhuvić-6">[6]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinkbeiner2019-7">[7]</a></sup> She and Einstein became close friends quite soon. In October, Marić went to <a href="/wiki/Heidelberg">Heidelberg</a> to study at <a href="/wiki/Heidelberg_University">Heidelberg University</a> for the winter semester 1897/98, attending physics and mathematics lectures as an auditor. She rejoined the Zurich Polytechnic in April 1898,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Highfield,_1993,_pp._36-3">[3]</a></sup> where her studies included the following courses: <a href="/wiki/Differential_calculus">differential</a> and <a href="/wiki/Integral">integral calculus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Descriptive_geometry">descriptive</a> and <a href="/wiki/Projective_geometry">projective geometry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mechanics">mechanics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics">theoretical physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Applied_physics">applied physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Experimental_physics">experimental physics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Astronomy">astronomy</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Trbuhuvić-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p><p>She sat for the intermediate <a href="/wiki/Diploma">diploma</a> examinations in 1899, one year later than the other students in her group. Her grade average of 5.05 (scale 1–6) placed her fifth out of the six students taking the examinations that year.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Trbuhuvić-6">[6]</a></sup> (Einstein had come top of the previous year's candidates with a grade average of 5.7)<sup><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> Marić's grade in physics was 5.5 (the same as Einstein's). In 1900, she failed the final teaching diploma examinations with a grade average of 4.00, having obtained only grade 2.5 in the mathematics component (<a href="/wiki/Theory_of_functions">theory of functions</a><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Disambiguation/Fixing_links">disambiguation needed</a></i>]</sup>).<sup><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup> Einstein passed the exam in fourth place with a grade average of 4.91.<sup><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup>
</p><p>Marić's academic career was disrupted in May 1901 on a short holiday in Italy when she became pregnant by Einstein. When three months pregnant, she resat the diploma examination, but failed for the second time without improving her grade.<sup><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup> She discontinued work on her diploma dissertation that she had hoped to develop into a PhD thesis under the supervision of the physics professor <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Friedrich_Weber">Heinrich Weber</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup>
</p><p>She went to Novi Sad, where her daughter was born in 1902, probably in January. The girl was referred to in correspondence between the couple as Hansel before she was born and <a href="/wiki/Lieserl_Einstein">Lieserl</a> after. At the age of one year, Lieserl suffered from <a href="/wiki/Scarlet_fever">scarlet fever</a> from which she retained permanent damage.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Einstein_1914-13">[13]</a></sup> Some sources say Lieserl died soon after in 1903,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Einstein_1992-14">[14]</a></sup> but others suggest she was put up for adoption in Serbia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup> 
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Einstein_Haus.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Center: the <i><a href="/wiki/Einsteinhaus">Einsteinhaus</a></i> Kramgasse 49 in Bern. On the second floor: the flat where Albert and Mileva Einstein lived from 1903 to 1905</p></div></div>
<h2>Debate over collaboration with Einstein[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mileva_Mari%C4%87&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Albert_Einstein_and_his_wife_Mileva_Maric.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Albert and Mileva Einstein, 1912</p></div></div>
<p>The question whether (and if so, to what extent) Marić contributed to <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>'s early work, and to the <i><a href="/wiki/Annus_Mirabilis_Papers">Annus Mirabilis Papers</a></i> in particular, is a subject of debate. Many historians of physics argue that she made no significant scientific contribution,<sup><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup> while others suggest that she was a supportive companion in science and may have helped him materially in his research,<sup><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup> and there is also a possibility of them developing the scientific concepts together when they were still students.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Pauline_Gagnon-19">[19]</a></sup> 
</p>
<h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mileva_Mari%C4%87&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Debate over whether Marić was a co-author of some of Einstein's early work, putatively culminating in the 1905 papers, is based on the following evidence: 
</p>
<ul><li>"The testimony of the well-known Russian physicist <a href="/wiki/Abram_Joffe">Abram Joffe</a>, who gave the name of the author of the three <i><a href="/wiki/Annus_mirabilis_papers">Annus Mirabilis Papers</a></i> as Einstein-Marity, erroneously attributing the addition of the name Marity, Marić's official name, to a non-existent Swiss custom."<sup><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup> However, in the paragraph in question, in which Joffe stated that "Einstein's" entrance into the arena of science in 1905 was "unforgettable", he described the author (singular) of the 1905 papers as "a bureaucrat at the Patent Office in Bern", i.e., Albert Einstein.<sup><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup></li></ul>
<ul><li>Mileva told a Serbian friend, referring to 1905, that "we finished some important work that will make my husband world famous."<sup><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup> Historians Highfield and <a href="/wiki/Carter_G._Woodson">Carter</a> argue that this statement is "hometown folklore."<sup><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup></li></ul>
<h3>Debate over collaboration[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mileva_Mari%C4%87&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Some of the debate over whether Marić collaborated with Einstein is based on their letters:
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Stachel">John Stachel</a> argues that letters in which Einstein referred to "our" theory and "our" work were written in their student days, at least four years before the 1905 papers. Stachel also suggests that some of the instances in which Einstein used "our" in relation to scientific work referred to their diploma dissertations, for which they had each chosen the same topic (experimental studies of <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conduction">heat conduction</a>).<sup><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinkbeiner2019-7">[7]</a></sup> Stachel argues that Einstein used "our" in general statements, while he invariably used "I" and "my" when he recounted "specific" ideas he was working on: "the letters to Marić show Einstein referring to 'his' studies, 'his' work on the <a href="/wiki/On_the_Electrodynamics_of_Moving_Bodies">electrodynamics</a> of moving bodies over a dozen times... as compared to 'one' reference to 'our' work on the problem of relative motion."<sup><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup></li>
<li>Stachel also suggests that in two cases where letters from Marić survive that directly respond to those from Einstein in which he had recounted his latest ideas, she gives no response at all. Her letters, in contrast to Einstein's, contain only personal matters, or comments related to her Polytechnic coursework. Stachel writes: "In her case, we have <i>no</i> published papers, <i>no</i> letters with a serious scientific content, either to Einstein nor to anyone else; nor any <i>objective</i> evidence of her supposed creative talents. We do not even have hearsay accounts of conversations she had with anyone else that have a specific, scientific content, let alone claiming to report her ideas."<sup><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup></li></ul>
<p>Thus, while some scholars have argued that there is not enough evidence to support the idea that Marić helped Einstein to develop his theories,<sup><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinkbeiner2019-7">[7]</a></sup> others have argued that their letters suggest a collaboration between them, at least through 1901 before their children were born.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Pauline_Gagnon-19">[19]</a></sup>
</p><p>Some of the debate over whether Marić collaborated with Einstein is based on their interactions:
</p>
<ul><li>Marić's brother and other relatives reported eyewitness accounts of Marić and Albert discussing physics together when they were married.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Pauline_Gagnon-19">[19]</a></sup></li>
<li>The couple's first son, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Albert_Einstein">Hans Albert</a> (born 1904), said that when his mother married Einstein in 1903, she gave up her scientific ambitions.<sup><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup> But he also said how his parents' "scientific collaboration continued into their marriage, and that he remembered seeing [them] work together in the evenings at the same table."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Pauline_Gagnon-19">[19]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup></li></ul>
<h2>Marriage and family[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mileva_Mari%C4%87&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>In 1901, Marić was pregnant with Einstein's first child. She managed to hide the pregnancy and travelled to her home town to give birth in order to avoid the scandal. Letters to Einstein have documented that their daughter was born in <a href="/wiki/Novi_Sad">Novi Sad</a>, in January 1902. No further information is available about what happened to the little girl.<sup><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1903, Marić and Einstein married in <a href="/wiki/Bern">Bern</a>, Switzerland, where Einstein had found a job at the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Office_for_Intellectual_Property">Federal Office for Intellectual Property</a>. In 1904, their first son <a href="/wiki/Hans_Albert_Einstein">Hans Albert</a>, was born. The Einsteins lived in Bern until 1909, when Einstein got a teaching position at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Z%C3%BCrich">University of Zürich</a>. In 1910, their second son <a href="/wiki/Einstein_family#Eduard_&quot;Tete&quot;_Einstein_(Albert's_second_son)">Eduard</a> was born. In 1911, they moved to <a href="/wiki/Prague">Prague</a>, where Einstein held a teaching position at <a href="/wiki/Charles_University">Charles University</a>. A year later, they returned to Zurich, as Einstein had accepted a professorship at his <a href="/wiki/Alma_mater">alma mater</a>.
</p>
<h2>Move to Berlin and separation[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mileva_Mari%C4%87&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>In July 1913, <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck">Max Planck</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walther_Nernst">Walther Nernst</a> asked Einstein to come to Berlin, which he agreed to, but the decision caused Marić distress.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Highfield,_1993,_154-34">[34]</a></sup> In August, the Einsteins planned a walking holiday with their sons and <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie">Marie Curie</a> and her two daughters. Marić was delayed temporarily due to Eduard being ill, but then joined the party. In September 1913, the Einsteins visited Marić's parents near Novi Sad, and on the day they were to leave for Vienna, Marić had her sons baptised as <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox">Orthodox Christians</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Highfield,_1993,_154-34">[34]</a></sup> After Vienna, Einstein visited relatives in Germany while Marić returned to Zurich. After Christmas, she traveled to Berlin to stay with <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Haber">Fritz Haber</a>, who helped her look for accommodation for the Einsteins' impending move in April 1914. The Einsteins both left Zurich for Berlin in late March. On the way, Einstein visited an uncle in <a href="/wiki/Antwerp">Antwerp</a> and then <a href="/wiki/Paul_Ehrenfest">Ehrenfest</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz">Lorentz</a> in Leiden, while Marić took a swimming holiday with the children in <a href="/wiki/Locarno">Locarno</a>, arriving in Berlin in mid-April.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Highfield,_1993,_154-34">[34]</a></sup>
</p><p>The marriage had been strained since 1912, in the spring of which Einstein became reacquainted with his first cousin, <a href="/wiki/Elsa_Einstein">Elsa</a>. They began a regular correspondence. Marić, who had never wanted to go to Berlin, became increasingly unhappy in the city. In mid-July 1914,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Departure_Berlin-35">[35]</a></sup> after settling in Berlin, Einstein insisted on harsh terms if she were to remain with him. Although initially accepting the terms, she reconsidered and on 29 July 1914, the day after <a href="/wiki/World_War_I">World War I</a> started, she left Germany and took the boys back to Zürich, a separation that was to become permanent. Einstein made a legal commitment to send her an annual maintenance of 5600 <a href="/wiki/Reichsmark">Reichsmark</a> in quarterly instalments, just under half of his salary,<sup><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup> a commitment to which he largely adhered.<sup><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup> After the required five years of separation, the couple divorced on 14 February 1919.<sup><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup>
</p><p>They had negotiated a settlement<sup><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup> whereby the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize">Nobel Prize</a> money that Einstein anticipated he would soon receive was to be placed in trust for their two boys. Einstein would receive the prize for his work, and she would receive the money. Marić could draw on the interest, but had no authority over the capital without Einstein's permission.<sup><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup> After Einstein married his cousin Elsa in June 1919, he returned to Zurich to talk to Marić about the children's future. During the visit, he took Hans Albert for a sail on <a href="/wiki/Lake_Constance">Lake Constance</a> and Eduard to <a href="/wiki/Arosa">Arosa</a> for convalescence.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>In 1922, Einstein received news that he had won the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize">Nobel Prize</a> in November. His divorce agreement promised her his Nobel Prize money. Under the terms of the agreement, the money was to be held in trust for their two boys, while she was able to draw on the interest.<sup><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup> Based on newly released letters (sealed by Einstein's step-granddaughter, Margot Einstein, until 20 years after her death), <a href="/wiki/Walter_Isaacson">Walter Isaacson</a> reported that Marić eventually invested the Nobel Prize money in three apartment buildings in Zurich to produce income.<sup><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup> Marić lived in one, a five-story house at Huttenstrasse 62; the other two were investments.
</p><p>In 1930, at around 20, Eduard had a breakdown and was diagnosed with <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>. By the late 1930s, the costs of his care at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Z%C3%BCrich">University of Zürich</a>'s psychiatric clinic "<a href="/wiki/Burgh%C3%B6lzli">Burghölzli</a>" overwhelmed Marić. She sold the two houses to raise funds for his care and maintenance.<sup><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup> In 1939, Marić agreed to transfer ownership of the Huttenstrasse house where she was living to Einstein to prevent its loss, with Marić retaining power of attorney.
</p>
<h2>Death[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mileva_Mari%C4%87&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Mileva Marić suffered a severe stroke and 
died at age 72 on 4 August 1948, in Zürich. She was interred there at Nordheim-Cemetery. Eduard Einstein was institutionalized until his death in 1965.<sup><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Honours[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mileva_Mari%C4%87&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%93%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B1_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%9B-%D0%90%D1%98%D0%BD%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%BD.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Memorial gravestone at the Nordheim Cemetery in Zürich</p></div></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Bista_Mileve_Mari%C4%87-Ajn%C5%A1tajn,_Studentski_grad.JPG"></a></p></div>
<p>In 2005, Marić was honoured in Zürich by the <a href="/wiki/ETH_Zurich">ETH</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Gesellschaft_zu_Fraum%C3%BCnster">Gesellschaft zu Fraumünster</a>. A memorial plaque was unveiled on her former residence in Zürich, the house Huttenstrasse 62, in her memory.<sup><a href="#cite_note-fraumünster-Frauenehrungen1-48">[48]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-fraumünster-awardlist-49">[49]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup> In the same year, a bust was placed in her high-school town, <a href="/wiki/Sremska_Mitrovica">Sremska Mitrovica</a>. Another bust is located on the campus of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Novi_Sad">University of Novi Sad</a>. A high school in her birthplace of <a href="/wiki/Titel">Titel</a> is named after her.<sup><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup> Sixty years after her death, a memorial plate was placed on the house of the former clinic in Zürich where she died. In June 2009, a memorial gravestone was dedicated to her at the Nordheim-Cemetery in Zürich where she rests.<sup><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1995, <i>Narodna knjiga</i> in <a href="/wiki/Belgrade">Belgrade</a> published (in Serbian) <i>Mileva Marić Ajnštajn</i> by Dragana Bukumirović, a journalist with <i><a href="/wiki/Politika">Politika</a></i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup>
</p><p>Three years later, in 1998, <a href="/wiki/Vida_Ognjenovi%C4%87">Vida Ognjenović</a> produced a drama, <i>Mileva Ajnštajn</i>, which was translated into English in 2002.<sup><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup> Ognjenović later adapted the play into a <a href="/wiki/Libretto">libretto</a> for the opera <i>Mileva</i>, composed by <a href="/wiki/Aleksandra_Vrebalov">Aleksandra Vrebalov</a>, which premiered in 2011 in the <a href="/wiki/Serbian_National_Theatre">Serbian National Theatre</a> in Novi Sad.<sup><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Popular culture[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mileva_Mari%C4%87&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li>In her novel <i>The Other Einstein</i> (2016), <a href="/wiki/Marie_Benedict">Marie Benedict</a> gives a fictionalized account of the relationship between Mileva Marić and Albert Einstein.<sup><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup></li>
<li>In 2017, her life was depicted in the first season of the television series <i><a href="/wiki/Genius_(2017_TV_series)">Genius</a></i>, which focuses on Einstein's life. She was played by <a href="/wiki/Samantha_Colley">Samantha Colley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sally_Dexter">Sally Dexter</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup></li>
<li>A fictionalized depiction of Mileva Marić (portrayed by Christina Jastrzembska) and her potential contributions to Einstein's work is depicted in the first episode of the second season of the <a href="/wiki/Time_travel">time-travelling</a> superhero television series, <a href="/wiki/Legends_of_Tomorrow">DC's Legends of Tomorrow</a>.</li>
<li>In 2019, physicist and writer Gabriella Greison applied for the posthumous award of a degree to Mileva Maric at the <a href="/wiki/ETH_Zurich">ETH</a> Zurich. After 4 months of discussions, the university denied the degree.<sup><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup></li>
<li>Mileva Marić is a major character in <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Peterson_Haddix">Margaret Peterson Haddix</a>'s 2012 young-adult science-fiction novel <i>Caught</i>, part of "<a href="/wiki/The_Missing_(novel_series)">The Missing</a>" series.</li></ul>
<h2>See also[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mileva_Mari%C4%87&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Relativity_priority_dispute">Relativity priority dispute</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Milo%C5%A1_Mari%C4%87_(scientist)">Miloš Marić (scientist)</a></li></ul>
<h2>Notes[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mileva_Mari%C4%87&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Luise_F._Pusch">Pusch, Luise</a>. <a href="http://www.fembio.org/english/biography.php/woman/biography/mileva-maric-einstein">"Mileva Einstein-Marić"</a>. <i>fembio.org</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160401002239/http://www.fembio.org/english/biography.php/woman/biography/mileva-maric-einstein/">Archived</a> from the original on 1 April 2016. Retrieved 10 April 2016.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b> M. Popović (2003). <i>In Albert's Shadow: The Life and Letters of Mileva Marić, Einstein's First Wife</i>, p. xv<br />"The Family Tree of Mileva Marić-Einstein"
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Highfield,_1993,_pp._36_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Highfield,_1993,_pp._36_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Highfield,_1993,_pp._36_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Highfield,_1993,_pp._36_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Highfield,_1993,_pp._36_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> Highfield, 1993, pp. 36–43.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b> Darko V: Mathematics Intelligencer Sep 2019
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b> Esterson and Cassidy, 2019, pp. 10, 269
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Trbuhuvić_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Trbuhuvić_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Trbuhuvić_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Trbuhuvić_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> D. Trbuhuvić-Gjurić, <i>Im Schatten Albert Einsteins</i>, 1988, pp. 35, 43, 49, 60, 63
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinkbeiner2019_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinkbeiner2019_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinkbeiner2019_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFFinkbeiner2019">Finkbeiner 2019</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b> <i>The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein</i>, Vol. 1, Doc. 42.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b> <cite>Asmodelle, Estelle (2015). "(PDF) The Collaboration of Mileva Maric and Albert Einstein". <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a href="//arxiv.org/abs/1503.08020">1503.08020</a> [<a href="//arxiv.org/archive/physics.hist-ph">physics.hist-ph</a>].</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b> <i>The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein</i>, Vol. 1, Doc. 67
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b> Stachel (1996), pp. 41, 52, n. 22
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b> Highfield, 1993, p. 80
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Einstein_1914_13-0">^</a></b> The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 5 The Swiss Years: Correspondence, 1902–1914. Edited by Martin J. Klein, A. J. Kox, and Robert Schulmann.<a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691033228">9780691033228</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Einstein_1992_14-0">^</a></b> Einstein, Albert and Marić, Mileva (1992) The Love Letters. Edited by Jürgen Renn &amp; Robert Schulmann. Translated by Shawn Smith. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-08760-1">0-691-08760-1</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b> 
<cite>Singh, S (2005). <i>Big Bang</i>. Harper Perennial. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-715252-0"><bdi>978-0-00-715252-0</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b> Pais, A. (1994), pp. 1–29<br />Holton, G. (1996), pp. 177–93<br />Stachel, J. (2002), pp. 26–39, 55<br />Martinez, A. (2005)<br />Calaprice, A. &amp; T. Lipscombe (2005), pp. 41–42
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b> Maurer, M. (1996); Troemel-Ploetz, S. (1990)<br />Walker, E.H. (1991)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b> <cite>Ruth H. Howes, Caroline L. Herzenberg (1999). <i>Their Day in the Sun</i>. Temple University Press. p. 26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1566397193"><bdi>978-1566397193</bdi></a>.</cite><code>{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_uses_authors_parameter">link</a>)
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pauline_Gagnon_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pauline_Gagnon_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pauline_Gagnon_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pauline_Gagnon_19-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Gagnon, Pauline (19 December 2016). <a href="https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/the-forgotten-life-of-einsteins-first-wife/">"The Forgotten Life of Einstein's First Wife"</a>. <i>Scientific American Blog Network</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201017222145/https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/the-forgotten-life-of-einsteins-first-wife/">Archived</a> from the original on 17 October 2020. Retrieved 17 October 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b> Abram F. Joffe: <i>Памяти Алъберта Эйнштейна</i>, Успехи физических наук, т. 57 (2), стр. 187–192 (<i>Pamyati Alberta Eynshtyna</i>, Uspekhi fizicheskikh nauk, v. 57, pp. 187–92 (1955)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b> Stachel (2005), <a href="http://www.esterson.org/Stachel_Joffe.htm">pp. lxv–lxxii</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091111105146/http://www.esterson.org/Stachel_Joffe.htm">Archived</a> 11 November 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; Martinez, A. (2005)<br /><a href="https://webspace.utexas.edu/aam829/1/m/Maric_files/EvidenceMaric.pdf">pp. 51–52</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110811141225/https://webspace.utexas.edu/aam829/1/m/Maric_files/EvidenceMaric.pdf">Archived</a> 11 August 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b> <a href="https://www.pbs.org/opb/einsteinswife/milevastory/married.htm">"Mileva's Story"</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150430064318/http://www.pbs.org/opb/einsteinswife/milevastory/married.htm">Archived</a> 30 April 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Einstein's Wife</i>, PBS.org; accessed 3 February 2017.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b> Highfield and Carter (1993), p. 110
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b> Stachel (2002), p. 45.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b> Stachel (2002), p. 36;<br />The letter dated 27 March 1901 from Einstein says in translation: "How happy and proud I will be, when we two together have victoriously led our work on relative motion to an end!"
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b> Stachel (2002), pp. 33–37<br />Holton, G. (1996), pp. 181–93.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b> Holton (1996), pp. 177–93
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b> Stachel (2002), pp. 26–39, 55
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b> Martinez, A.A., <i>Mileva Marić</i>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b> G.J. Whitrow (ed.), <i>Einstein: The Man and His Achievements</i>, p. 19 (1967)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b> <cite>Krstić, Djordje (2004). <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/447458003"><i>Mileva &amp; Albert Einstein : their love and scientific collaboration</i></a>. Mayer, Janez, 1948–. Radovljica: Didakta. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/961-6530-08-9"><bdi>961-6530-08-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/447458003">447458003</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220504185546/https://www.worldcat.org/title/mileva-albert-einstein-their-love-and-scientific-collaboration/oclc/447458003">Archived</a> from the original on 4 May 2022. Retrieved 18 November 2020.</cite><code>{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: date and year (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_date_and_year">link</a>)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.einsteinfoundation.de/albert/albert-nr-4-aufbruch/die-bessere-haelfte/">"Die bessere Hälfte"</a>. Einsteinfoundation.de. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210121155318/https://www.einsteinfoundation.de/albert/albert-nr-4-aufbruch/die-bessere-haelfte/">Archived</a> from the original on 21 January 2021. Retrieved 4 April 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.uni-heidelberg.de/de/universitaet/heidelberger-profile/historische-portraets/mileva-maric-die-fast-vergessene-einstein">"Mileva MarićMileva Marić: Die (fast) vergessene Einstein"</a>. Heidelberg University. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210416224603/https://www.uni-heidelberg.de/de/universitaet/heidelberger-profile/historische-portraets/mileva-maric-die-fast-vergessene-einstein">Archived</a> from the original on 16 April 2021. Retrieved 4 April 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Highfield,_1993,_154_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Highfield,_1993,_154_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Highfield,_1993,_154_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> Highfield, 1993, pp. 154–166
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Departure_Berlin_35-0">^</a></b> <cite>Isaacson, Walter (2007). <a href="https://archive.org/details/einsteinhislifeu0000isaa"><i>Einstein</i></a>. New York NY: Simon &amp; Schuster. pp. <a href="https://archive.org/details/einsteinhislifeu0000isaa/page/185">185–187</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7394-8903-1"><bdi>978-0-7394-8903-1</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b> (approximately 44000 Euros — 5600 times 7.9 — as per <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080605142728/http://fredriks.de/HVV/kaufkraft.htm">this extract</a>)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b> Highfield, 1993, p. 172<br />Isaacson, 2007, p. 186.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b> Fölsing (1997, pp. 420–421), Isaacson (2007, pp. 234–235), Highfield and Carter (1993, p. 186).
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b> Highfield, 1993, p. 188.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160306044226/http://www.shapell.org/manuscript/einstein-divorce-from-mileva-maric-hebrew-university">"Einstein Works Out Details of His 1919 Divorce from Mileva Marić"</a>. <i>Shapell Manuscript Collection</i>. Shapell Manuscript Foundation. Archived from <a href="http://www.shapell.org/manuscript/einstein-divorce-from-mileva-maric-hebrew-university">the original</a> on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 18 January 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b> Highfield and Carter, p. 187 ("180,000 Swiss Francs")
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b> <i>The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein</i>, Vol. 8, document 562.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b> <i>Einstein Collected Papers,</i> Vol. 8, Docs. pp. 449, 562.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b> Walter Isaacson, <i>Time</i> 168(3): 50–55, 17 July 2006.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?einstein-nobel-prize-money-and-family">"Einstein Writes About House Bought With Nobel Prize Money"</a>. <i>Shapell Manuscript Collection</i>. Shapell Manuscript Foundation. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141220000658/http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?einstein-nobel-prize-money-and-family">Archived</a> from the original on 20 December 2014. Retrieved 3 February 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b> Thomas Huonker,
<a href="http://www.thata.net/thomashuonkerdiagnosemoralischdefektzuerich2003opt.pdf#page=204"><i>Diagnose: «moralisch defekt» Kastration, Sterilisation und «Rassenhygiene» im Dienst der Schweizer Sozialpolitik und Psychiatrie 1890–1970</i> (2003)</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161002015228/http://www.thata.net/thomashuonkerdiagnosemoralischdefektzuerich2003opt.pdf#page=204">Archived</a> 2 October 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Zürich; accessed 3 February 2017. (in German)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b> <cite>Marić, Mileva; Einstein-Marić, Mileva; Einstein-Maric, Mileva (2003). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rU6Fs-aZPKgC&amp;q=mileva+maric+date+of+death&amp;pg=PP23"><i>In Albert's Shadow: The Life and Letters of Mileva Marić, Einstein's First Wife</i></a>. JHU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801878565"><bdi>9780801878565</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220504185546/https://books.google.com/books?id=rU6Fs-aZPKgC&amp;q=mileva+maric+date+of+death&amp;pg=PP23">Archived</a> from the original on 4 May 2022. Retrieved 5 October 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-fraumünster-Frauenehrungen1_48-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.fraumuenstergesellschaft.ch/#page387">"Frauenehrungen"</a> (in German). <a href="/wiki/Gesellschaft_zu_Fraum%C3%BCnster">Gesellschaft zu Fraumünster</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304173854/http://fraumuenstergesellschaft.ch/#page387">Archived</a> from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 30 November 2014.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-fraumünster-awardlist_49-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150207162646/http://www.fraumuenstergesellschaft.ch/media/upload/aktivitaten/frauenehrung/frauenehrungen.pdf">"Frauenehrungen der Gesellschaft zu Fraumünster"</a> (PDF) (in German). Gesellschaft zu Fraumünster. 2014. Archived from <a href="http://www.fraumuenstergesellschaft.ch/media/upload/aktivitaten/frauenehrung/frauenehrungen.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 7 February 2015. Retrieved 30 November 2014.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b> ETH und <a href="/wiki/Gesellschaft_zu_Fraum%C3%BCnster">Gesellschaft zu Fraumünster</a>, Zurich ehren Mileva Einstein-Marić <a href="http://archiv.ethlife.ethz.ch/articles/tages/sechselaeuten05.html">„Mitentwicklerin der Relativitätstheorie"</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120224061655/http://archiv.ethlife.ethz.ch/articles/tages/sechselaeuten05.html">Archived</a> 24 February 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Sechseläuten 2005. <a href="http://www.unifemmes.ch/docs/bull.oct05.pdf#page=33">Laudatio: Katharina von Salis</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131023061236/http://www.unifemmes.ch/docs/bull.oct05.pdf#page=33">Archived</a> 23 October 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; accessed 3 February 2017. (in German)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b> Tesla Memorial Society of New York Website: <a href="http://www.teslasociety.com/mileva_einstein.htm">Mileva Marić-Einstein profile</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170913163345/http://www.teslasociety.com/mileva_einstein.htm">Archived</a> 13 September 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, teslasociety.com; accessed 3 February 2017.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.teslasociety.ch/info/rs"><i>Unveiling and consecration of memorial gravestone dedicated to Mileva Marić-Einstein</i></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170202054211/http://www.teslasociety.ch/info/rs">Archived</a> 2 February 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Republic of Serbia, Ministry for Diaspora, 14 June 2009.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b> <cite>Savić, Svenka (2002). <a href="http://www.zenskestudije.org.rs/01_o_nama/svenka_savic/textovi/the_road_to_mileva_maric.doc">"The Road to Mileva Marić-Einstein: Private Letters"</a>. <i>Belgrade Women's Studies Journal</i>. Belgrade: Belgrade Women's Studies Center. <b>1</b> (Anniversary Issue 1992/2002): 201–10. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120323144840/http://www.zenskestudije.org.rs/01_o_nama/svenka_savic/textovi/the_road_to_mileva_maric.doc">Archived</a> from the original on 23 March 2012. Retrieved 5 May 2011. <q>[...] a book written by Dragana Bukumirović, a journalist with <i>Politika</i>, entitled Mileva Marić-Ajnštajn[...]</q></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1N1-110F50F9202049F8.html"><i>Mrs. Einstein takes the stage</i></a><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot">dead link</a></i>]</sup>, <i>Lincolnwood Review</i> via highbeam.com, 7 November 2002.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.snp.org.rs/wp-content/uploads/static/eng/opera/mileva.html">"Mileva"</a>. Serbian National Theatre. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170510163736/http://www.snp.org.rs/wp-content/uploads/static/eng/opera/mileva.html">Archived</a> from the original on 10 May 2017. Retrieved 30 August 2016.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.blic.rs/kultura/vesti/premijera-opere-mileva/bs25xrp">"Premijera opere "Mileva""</a> (in Serbian). blic.rs. 19 October 2011. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170510090734/http://www.blic.rs/kultura/vesti/premijera-opere-mileva/bs25xrp">Archived</a> from the original on 10 May 2017. Retrieved 30 August 2016.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.publishersweekly.com/978-1-4926-3725-7">"Fiction Book Review: The Other Einstein by Marie Benedict. Sourcebooks Landmark, $25.99 (304p) ISBN 978-1-4926-3725-7"</a>. <i>publishersweekly.com</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180119060617/https://www.publishersweekly.com/978-1-4926-3725-7">Archived</a> from the original on 19 January 2018. Retrieved 18 January 2018.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b> <cite>Martinez, Albert (25 April 2017). <a href="http://scienceandfilm.org/articles/2893/einsteins-girlfriend-on-national-geographic">"Einstein's Girlfriend on National Geographic"</a>. <i>Sloan Science &amp; Film</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170426064026/http://scienceandfilm.org/articles/2893/einsteins-girlfriend-on-national-geographic">Archived</a> from the original on 26 April 2017. Retrieved 25 April 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b> <cite>Greison, Gabriella (November 2019). <a href="https://www.repubblica.it/scienze/2019/11/01/news/milena_maric_laurea_postuma-240029825/?ref=RHRS-BH-I240030342-C6-P2-S1.6-T1">"Il politecnico di Zurigo nega a Mileva Maric la laurea postuma. "Ma Einstein è stato un pessimo marito""</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220504185550/https://www.repubblica.it/scienze/2019/11/01/news/milena_maric_laurea_postuma-240029825/?ref=RHRS-BH-I240030342-C6-P2-S1.6-T1">Archived</a> from the original on 4 May 2022. Retrieved 3 November 2019.</cite>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2>References[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mileva_Mari%C4%87&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12">edit</a>]</h2>
<div>
<ul><li>Calaprice, A. &amp; Lipscombe, T. (2005). <i>Albert Einstein: A Biography</i>. Westport and London: Greenwood Press; <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-33080-8">0-313-33080-8</a></li>
<li>Clark, R. W. <i>Einstein: The Life and Times</i>. New York 1971 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-690-00664-0">0-690-00664-0</a>, HarperCollins, New York 2007; <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-135184-9">0-06-135184-9</a></li>
<li>Einstein, A. (1987). <i>The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein</i>. Volume 1. Ed. J. Stachel et al. Princeton University Press; <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-08475-0">0-691-08475-0</a></li>
<li>Einstein, A. (1987). <i>The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein</i>. Volume 1. (English translation). Trans. by A. Beck, Consultant P. Havas. Princeton University Press; <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-08475-0">0-691-08475-0</a></li>
<li>Einstein, A. (1998). <i>The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein</i>. Volume 8. Ed. R. Schulmann et al. Princeton University Press; <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-04841-3">978-0-691-04841-3</a></li>
<li>Esterson, A, and Cassidy, D. C. (2019). Einstein's Wife: The Real Story of Mileva Einstein-Marić. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press.</li>
<li>Fölsing, A. (1990) <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110717134958/http://pdf.zeit.de/1990/47/Keine-Mutter-der-Relativitaetstheorie.pdf"><i>Keine „Mutter der Relativitätstheorie"</i></a>, Die Zeit, 16 November 1990. (<a href="http://www.esterson.org/Foelsing_Die_Zeit_1990.htm">English translation</a>.)</li>
<li>Gearhart, C.A. (1992). <i>"The Education of Albert Einstein"</i>, SJU Faculty Colloquium, 15 January 1992.<a href="http://employees.csbsju.edu/cgearhart/Courses/Honors210/Einstein/Ein_Symp92.pdf">"</a></li>
<li><cite>Highfield, R.; Carter, P. (1993). <a href="https://archive.org/details/privatelivesofal00high_1"><i>The Private Lives of Albert Einstein</i></a>. London, UK: Faber and Faber. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-571-17170-5"><bdi>978-0-571-17170-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li>Holton, G. (1996). <i>Einstein, History, and Other Passions.</i> American Institute of Physics, Woodbury, N.Y.; <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56396-333-7">1-56396-333-7</a></li>
<li>Isaacson, W. (2007). <i>Einstein. His life and Universe</i>. New York: Simon &amp; Schuster.</li>
<li>Krstić, D. (1991). Appendix A: <i>"Mileva Einstein-Maric."</i> In Elizabeth Roboz Einstein: <i>Hans Albert Einstein. Reminiscences of His Life and Our Life Together</i>, Iowa City (Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research) 1991, pp. 85–99; <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87414-083-8">0-87414-083-8</a></li>
<li>Krstić, D. (2004). <i>Mileva &amp; Albert Einstein: Their Love and Scientific Collaboration</i>. DIDAKTA d.o.o. Radovljica; <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/961-6530-08-9">961-6530-08-9</a></li>
<li>Martinez, A. (2005). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110811141225/https://webspace.utexas.edu/aam829/1/m/Maric_files/EvidenceMaric.pdf"><i>Handling evidence in history: the case of Einstein's Wife</i></a> in <i>School Science Review</i>, Vol. 86, No. 316 (March 2005), pp. 49–56.</li>
<li>Maurer, M. (1990). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060426011034/http://rli.at/Seiten/kooperat/maric1.htm"><i>"Weil nicht sein kann, was nicht sein darf...'DIE ELTERN' ODER 'DER VATER' DER RELATIVITÄTSTHEORIE? Zum Streit über den Anteil von Mileva Maric an der Entstehung der Relativitätstheorie"</i></a>, PCnews, Nr. 48, Jg. 11, Heft 3, Wien, Juni 1996, SS 20–27. RLI-Web (August 2005)</li>
<li>Milentijević, Radmila (2012). <i>Милева Марић Ајнштајн: живот са Албертом Ајнштајном</i> (Mileva Marić Einstein: A Life with Albert Einstein). Belgrade: Prosveta; <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788607019632">9788607019632</a></li>
<li>Ognjenović, V. (1998). <i>Mileva Ajnštajn/Mileva Einstein</i>. Translated by Janković, M. In: Ćirilov, J., Pantić, M. (eds.). <i>Infinity Contained in Ten Square Yards. An Anthology of Contemporary Plays</i>, Serbian PEN Centre, Beograd 2008; <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-86-84555-10-8">978-86-84555-10-8</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Pais">Pais, Abraham</a> (1994). <i>Einstein Lived Here</i>, Oxford University Press; <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-853994-0">0-19-853994-0</a></li>
<li>Popović, M. (ed.) <i>In Albert's Shadow: The Life and Letters of Mileva Marić, Einstein's First Wife</i> (2003). Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-7856-X">0-8018-7856-X</a></li>
<li>Shankland, R.S. <i>"Conversations with Albert Einstein"</i>, in: American Journal of Physics, Vol. 31, 1963, S. 47–57.</li>
<li>Stachel, J. (1996). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131203005611/http://www.philoscience.unibe.ch/documents/kursarchiv/WS99/Stachel1966.pdf"><i>Albert Einstein and Mileva Marić: A Collaboration that Failed to Develop</i></a>. In <a href="/wiki/Helena_Pycior">H. M. Pycior</a>, N. G. Slack, and P. G. Abir-Am (eds.) (1996), <i>Creative Couples in the Sciences</i>, Rutgers University Press; <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8135-2187-4">0-8135-2187-4</a></li>
<li>Stachel, J. (2002). <i>Einstein from 'B' to 'Z'</i>. Boston: Birkhäuser; <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7643-4143-2">3-7643-4143-2</a> <a href="http://www.esterson.org/Stachel_Einsteins_letters.htm">pp. 31–39, 55</a></li>
<li>Stachel, J (ed.) <i>Einstein's Miraculous Year: Five Papers That Changed the Face of Physics</i>. Princeton. Appendix to Introduction, Centenary Edition (2005) <a href="http://www.esterson.org/Stachel_Joffe.htm">pp. liv–lxxii</a></li>
<li>Stefan, V Alexander: Regarding Interalia, Albert Einstein and Mileva Marich Einstein, The World Year of Physics 2008 Honoring Albert Einstein, <a href="http://www.stefan-university.edu/ALBERT-EINSTEIN.pdf">http://www.stefan-university.edu/ALBERT-EINSTEIN.pdf</a></li>
<li>Trbuhovic-Gjuric, D. (1983). <i>Im Schatten Albert Einsteins. Das tragische Leben der Mileva Einstein-Maric</i>, Bern: Paul Haupt; <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-258-04700-6">3-258-04700-6</a>.</li>
<li>Trbuhovic-Gjuric, D. <i>Im Schatten Albert Einsteins. Das tragische Leben der Mileva Einstein-Maric</i>, Bern: Paul Haupt (1988); <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-258-03973-9">3-258-03973-9</a>.</li>
<li>Trbuhovic-Gjuric, D. (1991). <i>Mileva Einstein: Une Vie</i>, Editions des Femmes; <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-7210-0407-7">2-7210-0407-7</a> (translation into French by Nicole Casanova of <i>Im Schatten Albert Einsteins. Das tragische Leben der Mileva Einstein-Maric</i>, 1988 edition).</li>
<li><cite>Troemel-Ploetz, Senta (1990). "The woman who did Einstein's mathematics". <i><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Studies_International_Forum">Women's Studies International Forum</a></i>. <b>13</b> (5): 415–32. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0277-5395%2890%2990094-E">10.1016/0277-5395(90)90094-E</a>.</cite></li>
<li>Walker, E.H.: <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110927172921/http://philoscience.unibe.ch/documents/kursarchiv/WS99/Walker_Stachel.pdf"><i>Did Einstein espouse his spouse's ideas?</i> with a reply by John Stachel et al.</a>, <i>Physics Today</i> (February 1991)</li>
<li>Zackheim, M.: <i>Einstein's daughter. The search for Lieserl</i>, Riverhead Books, New York (1999); <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57322-127-9">1-57322-127-9</a></li>
<li><cite>Finkbeiner, Ann (2019). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fd41586-019-00741-6">"The debated legacy of Einstein's first wife"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)">Nature</a></i>. <b>567</b> (7746): 28–29. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019Natur.567...28F">2019Natur.567...28F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fd41586-019-00741-6">10.1038/d41586-019-00741-6</a>.</cite></li></ul>
</div>
<h2>External links[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mileva_Mari%C4%87&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li><a href="http://www.teslasociety.com/mileva_einstein.htm">Mileva Marić-Einstein profile</a>, teslasociety.com; accessed 3 February 2017.</li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512054746/http://www.pbs.org/opb/einsteinswife/"><i>Einstein's Wife. The Life of Mileva Marić-Einstein</i></a>, pbs.org; accessed 3 February 2017.</li>
<li><a href="https://einsteinpapers.press.princeton.edu/">[1]</a>, The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein; accessed 28 October 2018.</li>
<li><a href="http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?einstein-on-theory-of-relativity-and-raising-his-children">Albert-Mileva Correspondence: Original Letters</a>, Shapell Manuscript Foundation; accessed 3 February 2017.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Getler">Michael Getler</a>: <a href="https://www.pbs.org/ombudsman/2006/12/einsteins_wife_the_relative_motion_of_facts.html">"Einstein's Wife: The Relative Motion of 'Facts'"</a>, The Ombudsman Column (pbs.org), 15 December 2006.</li>
<li><a href="http://physicsbuzz.physicscentral.com/2008/12/einstein-controversy.html"><i>The Einstein Controversy</i></a> – letter by <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Holton">Gerald Holton, Robert Schulmann and John Stachel</a>, 17 December 2008.</li>
<li>Robert Dünki &amp; Anna Pia Maissen: <a href="http://www.stadt-zuerich.ch/content/dam/stzh/prd/Deutsch/Stadtarchiv/Publikationen%20und%20Broschueren/Jahresbericht%202007-2008.pdf#page=342"><i>«...damit das traurige Dasein unseres Sohnes etwas besser gesichert wird» Mileva und Albert Einsteins Sorgen um ihren Sohn Eduard (1910–1965). Die Familie Einstein und das Stadtarchiv Zürich</i></a> In: Stadtarchiv Zürich. Jahresbericht 2007–08. (in German)</li>
<li>Thomas Huonker: <a href="http://www.thata.net/thomashuonkerdiagnosemoralischdefektzuerich2003opt.pdf#page=204"><i>Diagnose: «moralisch defekt» Kastration, Sterilisation und «Rassenhygiene» im Dienst der Schweizer Sozialpolitik und Psychiatrie 1890–1970. «Er versank immer mehr in Apathie und Untätigkeit» Prominente als Patienten</i>, Zürich 2003, p. 204ff.</a> (in German)</li></ul>
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 * (Top)
 * 1 Biography
 * 2 Debate over collaboration with Einstein
 + 2.1 Debate over co-authorship
 + 2.2 Debate over collaboration
 * 3 Marriage and family
 * 4 Move to Berlin and separation
 * 5 Death
 * 6 Honours
 * 7 Popular culture
 * 8 See also
 * 9 Notes
 * 10 References
 * 11 External links
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 Mileva Marić

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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 Mileva Marić 
 Милева Марић 
 Marić in 1896
 Mileva Marić  
 Born 19 December 1875  
 Titel, Kingdom of Hungary, Austria-Hungary  
 Died 4 August 1948 (aged 72)  
 Zürich, Switzerland  
 Resting place Friedhof Nordheim, Zürich  
 Nationality Serbian  
 Other names * Mileva Marić-Einstein  
 * Mileva Marić-Ajnštajn  
 Alma mater * Eidgenössisches Polytechnikum, Zürich (known today as ETH, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule), Heidelberg University
 Occupation Mathematician  
 Albert Einstein  
 Spouse ​  
 ​(m. 1903; div. 1919)​  
 * Lieserl Einstein  
 Children * Hans Albert Einstein  
 * Eduard "Tete" Einstein  
 

 Mileva Marić (Serbian Cyrillic: Милева Марић ; 19 December 1875 – 4 August 1948), sometimes called Mileva Marić-Einstein (Serbian Cyrillic: Милева Марић-Ајнштајн , romanized: Mileva Marić-Ajnštajn), was a Serbian physicist and mathematician and the first wife of Albert Einstein from 1903 to 1919. She was the only woman among Einstein's fellow students at Zürich Polytechnic and was the second woman to finish a full program of study at the Department of Mathematics and Physics.[1] Marić and Einstein were collaborators and lovers and had a daughter Lieserl in 1902, whose fate is unknown. They later had two sons, Hans Albert and Eduard.

 They separated in 1914, with Marić taking the boys and returning to Zürich from Berlin. They divorced in 1919; that year Einstein married again. When he received the Nobel Prize in 1921, he transferred the money to Marić, chiefly to support their sons; she had access to the interest. In 1930, their second son Eduard had a breakdown at about age 20 and was diagnosed with schizophrenia. With expenses mounting by the late 1930s for his institutional care, Marić sold two of the three houses she and Einstein had purchased. He made regular contributions to his sons' care, which he continued after emigrating to the United States with his second wife (Elsa, his first cousin).

 Biography [ edit ]

 On 19 December 1875, Mileva Marić was born into a wealthy family in Titel in Austria-Hungary (today Serbia) as the eldest of three children of Miloš Marić (1846–1922) and Marija Ružić-Marić (1847–1935).[2] Shortly after her birth, her father ended his military career and took a job at the court in Ruma and later in Zagreb.

 She began her secondary education in 1886 at a high school for girls in Novi Sad, but changed the following year to a high school in Sremska Mitrovica.[3] Beginning in 1890, Marić attended the Royal Serbian Grammar School in Šabac. In 1891, her father obtained special permission to enroll Marić as a private student at the all-male Royal Classical High School in Zagreb.[3] Her mathematics teacher was Vladimir Varićak.[4] She passed the entrance exam and entered the tenth grade in 1892. She won special permission to attend physics lectures in February 1894 and passed the final exams in September 1894. Her highest grades were in mathematics and physics, both "very good", one grade below the highest "excellent".[5] That year she fell seriously ill and decided to move to Switzerland, where on 14 November, she started at the "Girls High School" in Zurich. In 1896, she passed her Matura-Exam, and started studying medicine at the University of Zurich for one semester.[3]

 In the fall of 1896, Marić switched to the Zurich Polytechnic (later Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, ETH), having passed the mathematics entrance examination with an average grade of 4.25 (scale 1–6).[6] She enrolled for the diploma course to teach physics and mathematics in secondary schools (section VIA) at the same time as Albert Einstein. She was the only woman in her group of six students, and the fifth woman to enter that section. She would have had to have been extraordinarily talented to overcome the restrictions on the admission of women.[3][6][7] She and Einstein became close friends quite soon. In October, Marić went to Heidelberg to study at Heidelberg University for the winter semester 1897/98, attending physics and mathematics lectures as an auditor. She rejoined the Zurich Polytechnic in April 1898,[3] where her studies included the following courses: differential and integral calculus, descriptive and projective geometry, mechanics, theoretical physics, applied physics, experimental physics, and astronomy.[6]

 She sat for the intermediate diploma examinations in 1899, one year later than the other students in her group. Her grade average of 5.05 (scale 1–6) placed her fifth out of the six students taking the examinations that year.[6] (Einstein had come top of the previous year's candidates with a grade average of 5.7)[8] Marić's grade in physics was 5.5 (the same as Einstein's). In 1900, she failed the final teaching diploma examinations with a grade average of 4.00, having obtained only grade 2.5 in the mathematics component (theory of functions[ disambiguation needed ]).[9] Einstein passed the exam in fourth place with a grade average of 4.91.[10]

 Marić's academic career was disrupted in May 1901 on a short holiday in Italy when she became pregnant by Einstein. When three months pregnant, she resat the diploma examination, but failed for the second time without improving her grade.[11] She discontinued work on her diploma dissertation that she had hoped to develop into a PhD thesis under the supervision of the physics professor Heinrich Weber.[12]

 She went to Novi Sad, where her daughter was born in 1902, probably in January. The girl was referred to in correspondence between the couple as Hansel before she was born and Lieserl after. At the age of one year, Lieserl suffered from scarlet fever from which she retained permanent damage.[13] Some sources say Lieserl died soon after in 1903,[14] but others suggest she was put up for adoption in Serbia.[15]

 Center: the Einsteinhaus Kramgasse 49 in Bern. On the second floor: the flat where Albert and Mileva Einstein lived from 1903 to 1905

 Debate over collaboration with Einstein [ edit ]

 Albert and Mileva Einstein, 1912

 The question whether (and if so, to what extent) Marić contributed to Albert Einstein's early work, and to the Annus Mirabilis Papers in particular, is a subject of debate. Many historians of physics argue that she made no significant scientific contribution,[16] while others suggest that she was a supportive companion in science and may have helped him materially in his research,[17][18] and there is also a possibility of them developing the scientific concepts together when they were still students.[19]

 Debate over co-authorship [ edit ]

 Debate over whether Marić was a co-author of some of Einstein's early work, putatively culminating in the 1905 papers, is based on the following evidence:

 * "The testimony of the well-known Russian physicist Abram Joffe, who gave the name of the author of the three Annus Mirabilis Papers as Einstein-Marity, erroneously attributing the addition of the name Marity, Marić's official name, to a non-existent Swiss custom."[20] However, in the paragraph in question, in which Joffe stated that "Einstein's" entrance into the arena of science in 1905 was "unforgettable", he described the author (singular) of the 1905 papers as "a bureaucrat at the Patent Office in Bern", i.e., Albert Einstein.[21]
 * Mileva told a Serbian friend, referring to 1905, that "we finished some important work that will make my husband world famous."[22] Historians Highfield and Carter argue that this statement is "hometown folklore."[23]

 Debate over collaboration [ edit ]

 Some of the debate over whether Marić collaborated with Einstein is based on their letters:

 * John Stachel argues that letters in which Einstein referred to "our" theory and "our" work were written in their student days, at least four years before the 1905 papers. Stachel also suggests that some of the instances in which Einstein used "our" in relation to scientific work referred to their diploma dissertations, for which they had each chosen the same topic (experimental studies of heat conduction).[24][7] Stachel argues that Einstein used "our" in general statements, while he invariably used "I" and "my" when he recounted "specific" ideas he was working on: "the letters to Marić show Einstein referring to 'his' studies, 'his' work on the electrodynamics of moving bodies over a dozen times... as compared to 'one' reference to 'our' work on the problem of relative motion."[25]
 * Stachel also suggests that in two cases where letters from Marić survive that directly respond to those from Einstein in which he had recounted his latest ideas, she gives no response at all. Her letters, in contrast to Einstein's, contain only personal matters, or comments related to her Polytechnic coursework. Stachel writes: "In her case, we have no published papers, no letters with a serious scientific content, either to Einstein nor to anyone else; nor any objective evidence of her supposed creative talents. We do not even have hearsay accounts of conversations she had with anyone else that have a specific, scientific content, let alone claiming to report her ideas."[26]

 Thus, while some scholars have argued that there is not enough evidence to support the idea that Marić helped Einstein to develop his theories,[27][28][29][7] others have argued that their letters suggest a collaboration between them, at least through 1901 before their children were born.[19]

 Some of the debate over whether Marić collaborated with Einstein is based on their interactions:

 * Marić's brother and other relatives reported eyewitness accounts of Marić and Albert discussing physics together when they were married.[19]
 * The couple's first son, Hans Albert (born 1904), said that when his mother married Einstein in 1903, she gave up her scientific ambitions.[30] But he also said how his parents' "scientific collaboration continued into their marriage, and that he remembered seeing [them] work together in the evenings at the same table."[19][31]

 Marriage and family [ edit ]

 In 1901, Marić was pregnant with Einstein's first child. She managed to hide the pregnancy and travelled to her home town to give birth in order to avoid the scandal. Letters to Einstein have documented that their daughter was born in Novi Sad, in January 1902. No further information is available about what happened to the little girl.[32][33]

 In 1903, Marić and Einstein married in Bern, Switzerland, where Einstein had found a job at the Federal Office for Intellectual Property. In 1904, their first son Hans Albert, was born. The Einsteins lived in Bern until 1909, when Einstein got a teaching position at the University of Zürich. In 1910, their second son Eduard was born. In 1911, they moved to Prague, where Einstein held a teaching position at Charles University. A year later, they returned to Zurich, as Einstein had accepted a professorship at his alma mater.

 Move to Berlin and separation [ edit ]

 In July 1913, Max Planck and Walther Nernst asked Einstein to come to Berlin, which he agreed to, but the decision caused Marić distress.[34] In August, the Einsteins planned a walking holiday with their sons and Marie Curie and her two daughters. Marić was delayed temporarily due to Eduard being ill, but then joined the party. In September 1913, the Einsteins visited Marić's parents near Novi Sad, and on the day they were to leave for Vienna, Marić had her sons baptised as Orthodox Christians.[34] After Vienna, Einstein visited relatives in Germany while Marić returned to Zurich. After Christmas, she traveled to Berlin to stay with Fritz Haber, who helped her look for accommodation for the Einsteins' impending move in April 1914. The Einsteins both left Zurich for Berlin in late March. On the way, Einstein visited an uncle in Antwerp and then Ehrenfest and Lorentz in Leiden, while Marić took a swimming holiday with the children in Locarno, arriving in Berlin in mid-April.[34]

 The marriage had been strained since 1912, in the spring of which Einstein became reacquainted with his first cousin, Elsa. They began a regular correspondence. Marić, who had never wanted to go to Berlin, became increasingly unhappy in the city. In mid-July 1914,[35] after settling in Berlin, Einstein insisted on harsh terms if she were to remain with him. Although initially accepting the terms, she reconsidered and on 29 July 1914, the day after World War I started, she left Germany and took the boys back to Zürich, a separation that was to become permanent. Einstein made a legal commitment to send her an annual maintenance of 5600 Reichsmark in quarterly instalments, just under half of his salary,[36][37] a commitment to which he largely adhered.[38] After the required five years of separation, the couple divorced on 14 February 1919.[39]

 They had negotiated a settlement[40] whereby the Nobel Prize money that Einstein anticipated he would soon receive was to be placed in trust for their two boys. Einstein would receive the prize for his work, and she would receive the money. Marić could draw on the interest, but had no authority over the capital without Einstein's permission.[41][42] After Einstein married his cousin Elsa in June 1919, he returned to Zurich to talk to Marić about the children's future. During the visit, he took Hans Albert for a sail on Lake Constance and Eduard to Arosa for convalescence.[ citation needed ]

 In 1922, Einstein received news that he had won the Nobel Prize in November. His divorce agreement promised her his Nobel Prize money. Under the terms of the agreement, the money was to be held in trust for their two boys, while she was able to draw on the interest.[43] Based on newly released letters (sealed by Einstein's step-granddaughter, Margot Einstein, until 20 years after her death), Walter Isaacson reported that Marić eventually invested the Nobel Prize money in three apartment buildings in Zurich to produce income.[44][45] Marić lived in one, a five-story house at Huttenstrasse 62; the other two were investments.

 In 1930, at around 20, Eduard had a breakdown and was diagnosed with schizophrenia. By the late 1930s, the costs of his care at the University of Zürich's psychiatric clinic "Burghölzli" overwhelmed Marić. She sold the two houses to raise funds for his care and maintenance.[46] In 1939, Marić agreed to transfer ownership of the Huttenstrasse house where she was living to Einstein to prevent its loss, with Marić retaining power of attorney.

 Death [ edit ]

 Mileva Marić suffered a severe stroke and died at age 72 on 4 August 1948, in Zürich. She was interred there at Nordheim-Cemetery. Eduard Einstein was institutionalized until his death in 1965.[47]

 Honours [ edit ]

 Memorial gravestone at the Nordheim Cemetery in Zürich
 Bust on the campus of the University of Novi Sad

 In 2005, Marić was honoured in Zürich by the ETH and the Gesellschaft zu Fraumünster. A memorial plaque was unveiled on her former residence in Zürich, the house Huttenstrasse 62, in her memory.[48][49][50] In the same year, a bust was placed in her high-school town, Sremska Mitrovica. Another bust is located on the campus of the University of Novi Sad. A high school in her birthplace of Titel is named after her.[51] Sixty years after her death, a memorial plate was placed on the house of the former clinic in Zürich where she died. In June 2009, a memorial gravestone was dedicated to her at the Nordheim-Cemetery in Zürich where she rests.[52]

 In 1995, Narodna knjiga in Belgrade published (in Serbian) Mileva Marić Ajnštajn by Dragana Bukumirović, a journalist with Politika.[53]

 Three years later, in 1998, Vida Ognjenović produced a drama, Mileva Ajnštajn, which was translated into English in 2002.[54] Ognjenović later adapted the play into a libretto for the opera Mileva, composed by Aleksandra Vrebalov, which premiered in 2011 in the Serbian National Theatre in Novi Sad.[55][56]

 Popular culture [ edit ]

 * In her novel The Other Einstein (2016), Marie Benedict gives a fictionalized account of the relationship between Mileva Marić and Albert Einstein.[57]
 * In 2017, her life was depicted in the first season of the television series Genius, which focuses on Einstein's life. She was played by Samantha Colley and Sally Dexter.[58]
 * A fictionalized depiction of Mileva Marić (portrayed by Christina Jastrzembska) and her potential contributions to Einstein's work is depicted in the first episode of the second season of the time-travelling superhero television series, DC's Legends of Tomorrow.
 * In 2019, physicist and writer Gabriella Greison applied for the posthumous award of a degree to Mileva Maric at the ETH Zurich. After 4 months of discussions, the university denied the degree.[59]
 * Mileva Marić is a major character in Margaret Peterson Haddix's 2012 young-adult science-fiction novel Caught, part of "The Missing" series.

 See also [ edit ]

 * Relativity priority dispute
 * Miloš Marić (scientist)

 Notes [ edit ]

 1. ^ Pusch, Luise. "Mileva Einstein-Marić". fembio.org. Archived from the original on 1 April 2016 . Retrieved 10 April 2016 .
 2. ^ M. Popović (2003). In Albert's Shadow: The Life and Letters of Mileva Marić, Einstein's First Wife , p. xv
 "The Family Tree of Mileva Marić-Einstein"
 3. ^ a b c d e Highfield, 1993, pp. 36–43.
 4. ^ Darko V: Mathematics Intelligencer Sep 2019
 5. ^ Esterson and Cassidy, 2019, pp. 10, 269
 6. ^ a b c d D. Trbuhuvić-Gjurić, Im Schatten Albert Einsteins , 1988, pp. 35, 43, 49, 60, 63
 7. ^ a b c Finkbeiner 2019 .
 8. ^ The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein , Vol. 1, Doc. 42.
 9. ^ Asmodelle, Estelle (2015). "(PDF) The Collaboration of Mileva Maric and Albert Einstein". arXiv:1503.08020 [physics.hist-ph].
 10. ^ The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein , Vol. 1, Doc. 67
 11. ^ Stachel (1996), pp. 41, 52, n. 22
 12. ^ Highfield, 1993, p. 80
 13. ^ The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 5 The Swiss Years: Correspondence, 1902–1914. Edited by Martin J. Klein, A. J. Kox, and Robert Schulmann. ISBN 9780691033228
 14. ^ Einstein, Albert and Marić, Mileva (1992) The Love Letters. Edited by Jürgen Renn & Robert Schulmann. Translated by Shawn Smith. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J. ISBN 0-691-08760-1
 15. ^ Singh, S (2005). Big Bang. Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-00-715252-0.
 16. ^ Pais, A. (1994), pp. 1–29
 Holton, G. (1996), pp. 177–93
 Stachel, J. (2002), pp. 26–39, 55
 Martinez, A. (2005)
 Calaprice, A. & T. Lipscombe (2005), pp. 41–42
 17. ^ Maurer, M. (1996); Troemel-Ploetz, S. (1990)
 Walker, E.H. (1991)
 18. ^ Ruth H. Howes, Caroline L. Herzenberg (1999). Their Day in the Sun. Temple University Press. p. 26. ISBN 978-1566397193.{{cite book}} : CS1 maint: uses authors parameter ( link )
 19. ^ a b c d Gagnon, Pauline (19 December 2016). "The Forgotten Life of Einstein's First Wife". Scientific American Blog Network. Archived from the original on 17 October 2020 . Retrieved 17 October 2020 .
 20. ^ Abram F. Joffe: Памяти Алъберта Эйнштейна , Успехи физических наук, т. 57 (2), стр. 187–192 ( Pamyati Alberta Eynshtyna , Uspekhi fizicheskikh nauk, v. 57, pp. 187–92 (1955)
 21. ^ Stachel (2005), pp. lxv–lxxii Archived 11 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine ; Martinez, A. (2005)
 pp. 51–52 Archived 11 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine
 22. ^ "Mileva's Story" Archived 30 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine , Einstein's Wife , PBS.org; accessed 3 February 2017.
 23. ^ Highfield and Carter (1993), p. 110
 24. ^ Stachel (2002), p. 45.
 25. ^ Stachel (2002), p. 36;
 The letter dated 27 March 1901 from Einstein says in translation: "How happy and proud I will be, when we two together have victoriously led our work on relative motion to an end!"
 26. ^ Stachel (2002), pp. 33–37
 Holton, G. (1996), pp. 181–93.
 27. ^ Holton (1996), pp. 177–93
 28. ^ Stachel (2002), pp. 26–39, 55
 29. ^ Martinez, A.A., Mileva Marić
 30. ^ G.J. Whitrow (ed.), Einstein: The Man and His Achievements , p. 19 (1967)
 31. ^ Krstić, Djordje (2004). Mileva & Albert Einstein : their love and scientific collaboration. Mayer, Janez, 1948–. Radovljica: Didakta. p. 7. ISBN 961-6530-08-9. OCLC 447458003. Archived from the original on 4 May 2022 . Retrieved 18 November 2020 .{{cite book}} : CS1 maint: date and year ( link )
 32. ^ "Die bessere Hälfte". Einsteinfoundation.de. Archived from the original on 21 January 2021 . Retrieved 4 April 2022 .
 33. ^ "Mileva MarićMileva Marić: Die (fast) vergessene Einstein". Heidelberg University. Archived from the original on 16 April 2021 . Retrieved 4 April 2022 .
 34. ^ a b c Highfield, 1993, pp. 154–166
 35. ^ Isaacson, Walter (2007). Einstein. New York NY: Simon & Schuster. pp. 185–187. ISBN 978-0-7394-8903-1.
 36. ^ (approximately 44000 Euros — 5600 times 7.9 — as per this extract )
 37. ^ Highfield, 1993, p. 172
 Isaacson, 2007, p. 186.
 38. ^ Fölsing (1997, pp. 420–421), Isaacson (2007, pp. 234–235), Highfield and Carter (1993, p. 186).
 39. ^ Highfield, 1993, p. 188.
 40. ^ "Einstein Works Out Details of His 1919 Divorce from Mileva Marić". Shapell Manuscript Collection. Shapell Manuscript Foundation. Archived from the original on 6 March 2016 . Retrieved 18 January 2021 .
 41. ^ Highfield and Carter, p. 187 ("180,000 Swiss Francs")
 42. ^ The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein , Vol. 8, document 562.
 43. ^ Einstein Collected Papers, Vol. 8, Docs. pp. 449, 562.
 44. ^ Walter Isaacson, Time 168(3): 50–55, 17 July 2006.
 45. ^ "Einstein Writes About House Bought With Nobel Prize Money". Shapell Manuscript Collection. Shapell Manuscript Foundation. Archived from the original on 20 December 2014 . Retrieved 3 February 2017 .
 46. ^ Thomas Huonker, Diagnose: «moralisch defekt» Kastration, Sterilisation und «Rassenhygiene» im Dienst der Schweizer Sozialpolitik und Psychiatrie 1890–1970 (2003) Archived 2 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine , Zürich; accessed 3 February 2017. (in German)
 47. ^ Marić, Mileva; Einstein-Marić, Mileva; Einstein-Maric, Mileva (2003). In Albert's Shadow: The Life and Letters of Mileva Marić, Einstein's First Wife. JHU Press. ISBN 9780801878565. Archived from the original on 4 May 2022 . Retrieved 5 October 2020 .
 48. ^ "Frauenehrungen" (in German). Gesellschaft zu Fraumünster. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016 . Retrieved 30 November 2014 .
 49. ^ "Frauenehrungen der Gesellschaft zu Fraumünster" (PDF) (in German). Gesellschaft zu Fraumünster. 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 February 2015 . Retrieved 30 November 2014 .
 50. ^ ETH und Gesellschaft zu Fraumünster , Zurich ehren Mileva Einstein-Marić „Mitentwicklerin der Relativitätstheorie" Archived 24 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine , Sechseläuten 2005. Laudatio: Katharina von Salis Archived 23 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine ; accessed 3 February 2017. (in German)
 51. ^ Tesla Memorial Society of New York Website: Mileva Marić-Einstein profile Archived 13 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine , teslasociety.com; accessed 3 February 2017.
 52. ^ Unveiling and consecration of memorial gravestone dedicated to Mileva Marić-Einstein Archived 2 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine , Republic of Serbia, Ministry for Diaspora, 14 June 2009.
 53. ^ Savić, Svenka (2002). "The Road to Mileva Marić-Einstein: Private Letters". Belgrade Women's Studies Journal. Belgrade: Belgrade Women's Studies Center. 1 (Anniversary Issue 1992/2002): 201–10. Archived from the original on 23 March 2012 . Retrieved 5 May 2011 . "[...] a book written by Dragana Bukumirović, a journalist with "Politika", entitled Mileva Marić-Ajnštajn[...]"
 54. ^ Mrs. Einstein takes the stage [ dead link ] , Lincolnwood Review via highbeam.com, 7 November 2002.
 55. ^ "Mileva". Serbian National Theatre. Archived from the original on 10 May 2017 . Retrieved 30 August 2016 .
 56. ^ "Premijera opere "Mileva"" (in Serbian). blic.rs. 19 October 2011. Archived from the original on 10 May 2017 . Retrieved 30 August 2016 .
 57. ^ "Fiction Book Review: The Other Einstein by Marie Benedict. Sourcebooks Landmark, $25.99 (304p) ISBN 978-1-4926-3725-7". publishersweekly.com. Archived from the original on 19 January 2018 . Retrieved 18 January 2018 .
 58. ^ Martinez, Albert (25 April 2017). "Einstein's Girlfriend on National Geographic". Sloan Science & Film. Archived from the original on 26 April 2017 . Retrieved 25 April 2017 .
 59. ^ Greison, Gabriella (November 2019). "Il politecnico di Zurigo nega a Mileva Maric la laurea postuma. "Ma Einstein è stato un pessimo marito"". Archived from the original on 4 May 2022 . Retrieved 3 November 2019 .

 References [ edit ]

 * Calaprice, A. & Lipscombe, T. (2005). Albert Einstein: A Biography. Westport and London: Greenwood Press; ISBN 0-313-33080-8
 * Clark, R. W. Einstein: The Life and Times. New York 1971 ISBN 0-690-00664-0, HarperCollins, New York 2007; ISBN 0-06-135184-9
 * Einstein, A. (1987). The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein. Volume 1. Ed. J. Stachel et al. Princeton University Press; ISBN 0-691-08475-0
 * Einstein, A. (1987). The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein. Volume 1. (English translation). Trans. by A. Beck, Consultant P. Havas. Princeton University Press; ISBN 0-691-08475-0
 * Einstein, A. (1998). The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein. Volume 8. Ed. R. Schulmann et al. Princeton University Press; ISBN 978-0-691-04841-3
 * Esterson, A, and Cassidy, D. C. (2019). Einstein's Wife: The Real Story of Mileva Einstein-Marić. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press.
 * Fölsing, A. (1990) Keine „Mutter der Relativitätstheorie", Die Zeit, 16 November 1990. (English translation.)
 * Gearhart, C.A. (1992). "The Education of Albert Einstein", SJU Faculty Colloquium, 15 January 1992."
 * Highfield, R.; Carter, P. (1993). The Private Lives of Albert Einstein. London, UK: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-17170-5.
 * Holton, G. (1996). Einstein, History, and Other Passions. American Institute of Physics, Woodbury, N.Y.; ISBN 1-56396-333-7
 * Isaacson, W. (2007). Einstein. His life and Universe. New York: Simon & Schuster.
 * Krstić, D. (1991). Appendix A: "Mileva Einstein-Maric." In Elizabeth Roboz Einstein: Hans Albert Einstein. Reminiscences of His Life and Our Life Together, Iowa City (Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research) 1991, pp. 85–99; ISBN 0-87414-083-8
 * Krstić, D. (2004). Mileva & Albert Einstein: Their Love and Scientific Collaboration. DIDAKTA d.o.o. Radovljica; ISBN 961-6530-08-9
 * Martinez, A. (2005). Handling evidence in history: the case of Einstein's Wife in School Science Review, Vol. 86, No. 316 (March 2005), pp. 49–56.
 * Maurer, M. (1990). "Weil nicht sein kann, was nicht sein darf...'DIE ELTERN' ODER 'DER VATER' DER RELATIVITÄTSTHEORIE? Zum Streit über den Anteil von Mileva Maric an der Entstehung der Relativitätstheorie", PCnews, Nr. 48, Jg. 11, Heft 3, Wien, Juni 1996, SS 20–27. RLI-Web (August 2005)
 * Milentijević, Radmila (2012). Милева Марић Ајнштајн: живот са Албертом Ајнштајном (Mileva Marić Einstein: A Life with Albert Einstein). Belgrade: Prosveta; ISBN 9788607019632
 * Ognjenović, V. (1998). Mileva Ajnštajn/Mileva Einstein. Translated by Janković, M. In: Ćirilov, J., Pantić, M. (eds.). Infinity Contained in Ten Square Yards. An Anthology of Contemporary Plays, Serbian PEN Centre, Beograd 2008; ISBN 978-86-84555-10-8
 * Pais, Abraham (1994). Einstein Lived Here, Oxford University Press; ISBN 0-19-853994-0
 * Popović, M. (ed.) In Albert's Shadow: The Life and Letters of Mileva Marić, Einstein's First Wife (2003). Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-7856-X
 * Shankland, R.S. "Conversations with Albert Einstein", in: American Journal of Physics, Vol. 31, 1963, S. 47–57.
 * Stachel, J. (1996). Albert Einstein and Mileva Marić: A Collaboration that Failed to Develop. In H. M. Pycior, N. G. Slack, and P. G. Abir-Am (eds.) (1996), Creative Couples in the Sciences, Rutgers University Press; ISBN 0-8135-2187-4
 * Stachel, J. (2002). Einstein from 'B' to 'Z'. Boston: Birkhäuser; ISBN 3-7643-4143-2 pp. 31–39, 55
 * Stachel, J (ed.) Einstein's Miraculous Year: Five Papers That Changed the Face of Physics. Princeton. Appendix to Introduction, Centenary Edition (2005) pp. liv–lxxii
 * Stefan, V Alexander: Regarding Interalia, Albert Einstein and Mileva Marich Einstein, The World Year of Physics 2008 Honoring Albert Einstein, http://www.stefan-university.edu/ALBERT-EINSTEIN.pdf
 * Trbuhovic-Gjuric, D. (1983). Im Schatten Albert Einsteins. Das tragische Leben der Mileva Einstein-Maric, Bern: Paul Haupt; ISBN 3-258-04700-6.
 * Trbuhovic-Gjuric, D. Im Schatten Albert Einsteins. Das tragische Leben der Mileva Einstein-Maric, Bern: Paul Haupt (1988); ISBN 3-258-03973-9.
 * Trbuhovic-Gjuric, D. (1991). Mileva Einstein: Une Vie, Editions des Femmes; ISBN 2-7210-0407-7 (translation into French by Nicole Casanova of Im Schatten Albert Einsteins. Das tragische Leben der Mileva Einstein-Maric, 1988 edition).
 * Troemel-Ploetz, Senta (1990). "The woman who did Einstein's mathematics". Women's Studies International Forum. 13 (5): 415–32. doi:10.1016/0277-5395(90)90094-E.
 * Walker, E.H.: Did Einstein espouse his spouse's ideas? with a reply by John Stachel et al., Physics Today (February 1991)
 * Zackheim, M.: Einstein's daughter. The search for Lieserl, Riverhead Books, New York (1999); ISBN 1-57322-127-9
 * Finkbeiner, Ann (2019). "The debated legacy of Einstein's first wife". Nature. 567 (7746): 28–29. Bibcode:2019Natur.567...28F. doi:10.1038/d41586-019-00741-6.

 External links [ edit ]

 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mileva Marić.
 * Mileva Marić-Einstein profile, teslasociety.com; accessed 3 February 2017.
 * Einstein's Wife. The Life of Mileva Marić-Einstein, pbs.org; accessed 3 February 2017.
 * [1], The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein; accessed 28 October 2018.
 * Albert-Mileva Correspondence: Original Letters, Shapell Manuscript Foundation; accessed 3 February 2017.
 * Michael Getler: "Einstein's Wife: The Relative Motion of 'Facts'", The Ombudsman Column (pbs.org), 15 December 2006.
 * The Einstein Controversy – letter by Gerald Holton, Robert Schulmann and John Stachel, 17 December 2008.
 * Robert Dünki & Anna Pia Maissen: «...damit das traurige Dasein unseres Sohnes etwas besser gesichert wird» Mileva und Albert Einsteins Sorgen um ihren Sohn Eduard (1910–1965). Die Familie Einstein und das Stadtarchiv Zürich In: Stadtarchiv Zürich. Jahresbericht 2007–08. (in German)
 * Thomas Huonker: Diagnose: «moralisch defekt» Kastration, Sterilisation und «Rassenhygiene» im Dienst der Schweizer Sozialpolitik und Psychiatrie 1890–1970. «Er versank immer mehr in Apathie und Untätigkeit» Prominente als Patienten, Zürich 2003, p. 204ff. (in German)
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
	 
    Mileva Marić     Милева Марић       Marić in 1896    Born  Mileva Marić 19 December 1875   Titel, Kingdom of Hungary, Austria-Hungary      Died 4 August 1948 (aged 72)   Zürich, Switzerland     Resting place Friedhof Nordheim, Zürich   Nationality  Serbian    Other names   Mileva Marić-Einstein Mileva Marić-Ajnštajn     Alma mater    Eidgenössisches Polytechnikum, Zürich (known today as ETH, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule),
Heidelberg University      Occupation Mathematician   Spouse     Albert Einstein  
 ​ ​ (m. 1903; div. 1919) ​     Children     Lieserl Einstein   Hans Albert Einstein   Eduard "Tete" Einstein       
 Mileva Marić (Serbian Cyrillic: Милева Марић; 19 December 1875 – 4 August 1948), sometimes called Mileva Marić-Einstein (Serbian Cyrillic: Милева Марић-Ајнштајн,  romanized:  Mileva Marić-Ajnštajn), was a Serbian physicist and mathematician and the first wife of Albert Einstein from 1903 to 1919. She was the only woman among Einstein's fellow students at Zürich Polytechnic and was the second woman to finish a full program of study at the Department of Mathematics and Physics. [1]  Marić and Einstein were collaborators and lovers and had a daughter Lieserl in 1902, whose fate is unknown. They later had two sons, Hans Albert and Eduard.
 They separated in 1914, with Marić taking the boys and returning to Zürich from Berlin. They divorced in 1919; that year Einstein married again. When he received the Nobel Prize in 1921, he transferred the money to Marić, chiefly to support their sons; she had access to the interest. In 1930, their second son Eduard had a breakdown at about age 20 and was diagnosed with schizophrenia. With expenses mounting by the late 1930s for his institutional care, Marić sold two of the three houses she and Einstein had purchased. He made regular contributions to his sons' care, which he continued after emigrating to the United States with his second wife (Elsa, his first cousin).
Biography[edit]
On 19 December 1875, Mileva Marić was born into a wealthy family in Titel in Austria-Hungary (today Serbia) as the eldest of three children of Miloš Marić (1846–1922) and Marija Ružić-Marić (1847–1935). [2]  Shortly after her birth, her father ended his military career and took a job at the court in Ruma and later in Zagreb.
 She began her secondary education in 1886 at a high school for girls in Novi Sad, but changed the following year to a high school in Sremska Mitrovica. [3]  Beginning in 1890, Marić attended the Royal Serbian Grammar School in Šabac. In 1891, her father obtained special permission to enroll Marić as a private student at the all-male Royal Classical High School in Zagreb. [3]  Her mathematics teacher was Vladimir Varićak. [4]  She passed the entrance exam and entered the tenth grade in 1892. She won special permission to attend physics lectures in February 1894 and passed the final exams in September 1894. Her highest grades were in mathematics and physics, both "very good", one grade below the highest "excellent". [5]  That year she fell seriously ill and decided to move to Switzerland, where on 14 November, she started at the "Girls High School" in Zurich. In 1896, she passed her Matura-Exam, and started studying medicine at the University of Zurich for one semester. [3] 
 In the fall of 1896, Marić switched to the Zurich Polytechnic (later Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, ETH), having passed the mathematics entrance examination with an average grade of 4.25 (scale 1–6). [6]  She enrolled for the diploma course to teach physics and mathematics in secondary schools (section VIA) at the same time as Albert Einstein. She was the only woman in her group of six students, and the fifth woman to enter that section. She would have had to have been extraordinarily talented to overcome the restrictions on the admission of women. [3]   [6]   [7]  She and Einstein became close friends quite soon. In October, Marić went to Heidelberg to study at Heidelberg University for the winter semester 1897/98, attending physics and mathematics lectures as an auditor. She rejoined the Zurich Polytechnic in April 1898, [3]  where her studies included the following courses: differential and integral calculus, descriptive and projective geometry, mechanics, theoretical physics, applied physics, experimental physics, and astronomy. [6] 
 She sat for the intermediate diploma examinations in 1899, one year later than the other students in her group. Her grade average of 5.05 (scale 1–6) placed her fifth out of the six students taking the examinations that year. [6]  (Einstein had come top of the previous year's candidates with a grade average of 5.7) [8]  Marić's grade in physics was 5.5 (the same as Einstein's). In 1900, she failed the final teaching diploma examinations with a grade average of 4.00, having obtained only grade 2.5 in the mathematics component (theory of functions [ disambiguation needed ]). [9]  Einstein passed the exam in fourth place with a grade average of 4.91. [10] 
 Marić's academic career was disrupted in May 1901 on a short holiday in Italy when she became pregnant by Einstein. When three months pregnant, she resat the diploma examination, but failed for the second time without improving her grade. [11]  She discontinued work on her diploma dissertation that she had hoped to develop into a PhD thesis under the supervision of the physics professor Heinrich Weber. [12] 
 She went to Novi Sad, where her daughter was born in 1902, probably in January. The girl was referred to in correspondence between the couple as Hansel before she was born and Lieserl after. At the age of one year, Lieserl suffered from scarlet fever from which she retained permanent damage. [13]  Some sources say Lieserl died soon after in 1903, [14]  but others suggest she was put up for adoption in Serbia. [15]  
      Center: the  Einsteinhaus  Kramgasse 49 in Bern. On the second floor: the flat where Albert and Mileva Einstein lived from 1903 to 1905  
Debate over collaboration with Einstein[edit]
      Albert and Mileva Einstein, 1912  
The question whether (and if so, to what extent) Marić contributed to Albert Einstein's early work, and to the  Annus Mirabilis Papers  in particular, is a subject of debate. Many historians of physics argue that she made no significant scientific contribution, [16]  while others suggest that she was a supportive companion in science and may have helped him materially in his research, [17]   [18]  and there is also a possibility of them developing the scientific concepts together when they were still students. [19]  
[edit]
Debate over whether Marić was a co-author of some of Einstein's early work, putatively culminating in the 1905 papers, is based on the following evidence: 
 "The testimony of the well-known Russian physicist Abram Joffe, who gave the name of the author of the three  Annus Mirabilis Papers  as Einstein-Marity, erroneously attributing the addition of the name Marity, Marić's official name, to a non-existent Swiss custom." [20]  However, in the paragraph in question, in which Joffe stated that "Einstein's" entrance into the arena of science in 1905 was "unforgettable", he described the author (singular) of the 1905 papers as "a bureaucrat at the Patent Office in Bern", i.e., Albert Einstein. [21]   
 Mileva told a Serbian friend, referring to 1905, that "we finished some important work that will make my husband world famous." [22]  Historians Highfield and Carter argue that this statement is "hometown folklore." [23]   
Debate over collaboration[edit]
Some of the debate over whether Marić collaborated with Einstein is based on their letters:
  John Stachel argues that letters in which Einstein referred to "our" theory and "our" work were written in their student days, at least four years before the 1905 papers. Stachel also suggests that some of the instances in which Einstein used "our" in relation to scientific work referred to their diploma dissertations, for which they had each chosen the same topic (experimental studies of heat conduction). [24]   [7]  Stachel argues that Einstein used "our" in general statements, while he invariably used "I" and "my" when he recounted "specific" ideas he was working on: "the letters to Marić show Einstein referring to 'his' studies, 'his' work on the electrodynamics of moving bodies over a dozen times... as compared to 'one' reference to 'our' work on the problem of relative motion." [25]  
Stachel also suggests that in two cases where letters from Marić survive that directly respond to those from Einstein in which he had recounted his latest ideas, she gives no response at all. Her letters, in contrast to Einstein's, contain only personal matters, or comments related to her Polytechnic coursework. Stachel writes: "In her case, we have no published papers, no letters with a serious scientific content, either to Einstein nor to anyone else; nor any objective evidence of her supposed creative talents. We do not even have hearsay accounts of conversations she had with anyone else that have a specific, scientific content, let alone claiming to report her ideas." [26]   
Thus, while some scholars have argued that there is not enough evidence to support the idea that Marić helped Einstein to develop his theories, [27]   [28]   [29]   [7]  others have argued that their letters suggest a collaboration between them, at least through 1901 before their children were born. [19] 
 Some of the debate over whether Marić collaborated with Einstein is based on their interactions:
 Marić's brother and other relatives reported eyewitness accounts of Marić and Albert discussing physics together when they were married. [19]  
The couple's first son, Hans Albert (born 1904), said that when his mother married Einstein in 1903, she gave up her scientific ambitions. [30]  But he also said how his parents' "scientific collaboration continued into their marriage, and that he remembered seeing [them] work together in the evenings at the same table." [19]   [31]   
Marriage and family[edit]
In 1901, Marić was pregnant with Einstein's first child. She managed to hide the pregnancy and travelled to her home town to give birth in order to avoid the scandal. Letters to Einstein have documented that their daughter was born in Novi Sad, in January 1902. No further information is available about what happened to the little girl. [32]   [33] 
 In 1903, Marić and Einstein married in Bern, Switzerland, where Einstein had found a job at the Federal Office for Intellectual Property. In 1904, their first son Hans Albert, was born. The Einsteins lived in Bern until 1909, when Einstein got a teaching position at the University of Zürich. In 1910, their second son Eduard was born. In 1911, they moved to Prague, where Einstein held a teaching position at Charles University. A year later, they returned to Zurich, as Einstein had accepted a professorship at his alma mater.
Move to Berlin and separation[edit]
In July 1913, Max Planck and Walther Nernst asked Einstein to come to Berlin, which he agreed to, but the decision caused Marić distress. [34]  In August, the Einsteins planned a walking holiday with their sons and Marie Curie and her two daughters. Marić was delayed temporarily due to Eduard being ill, but then joined the party. In September 1913, the Einsteins visited Marić's parents near Novi Sad, and on the day they were to leave for Vienna, Marić had her sons baptised as Orthodox Christians. [34]  After Vienna, Einstein visited relatives in Germany while Marić returned to Zurich. After Christmas, she traveled to Berlin to stay with Fritz Haber, who helped her look for accommodation for the Einsteins' impending move in April 1914. The Einsteins both left Zurich for Berlin in late March. On the way, Einstein visited an uncle in Antwerp and then Ehrenfest and Lorentz in Leiden, while Marić took a swimming holiday with the children in Locarno, arriving in Berlin in mid-April. [34] 
 The marriage had been strained since 1912, in the spring of which Einstein became reacquainted with his first cousin, Elsa. They began a regular correspondence. Marić, who had never wanted to go to Berlin, became increasingly unhappy in the city. In mid-July 1914, [35]  after settling in Berlin, Einstein insisted on harsh terms if she were to remain with him. Although initially accepting the terms, she reconsidered and on 29 July 1914, the day after World War I started, she left Germany and took the boys back to Zürich, a separation that was to become permanent. Einstein made a legal commitment to send her an annual maintenance of 5600 Reichsmark in quarterly instalments, just under half of his salary, [36]   [37]  a commitment to which he largely adhered. [38]  After the required five years of separation, the couple divorced on 14 February 1919. [39] 
 They had negotiated a settlement [40]  whereby the Nobel Prize money that Einstein anticipated he would soon receive was to be placed in trust for their two boys. Einstein would receive the prize for his work, and she would receive the money. Marić could draw on the interest, but had no authority over the capital without Einstein's permission. [41]   [42]  After Einstein married his cousin Elsa in June 1919, he returned to Zurich to talk to Marić about the children's future. During the visit, he took Hans Albert for a sail on Lake Constance and Eduard to Arosa for convalescence.[ citation needed ]
 In 1922, Einstein received news that he had won the Nobel Prize in November. His divorce agreement promised her his Nobel Prize money. Under the terms of the agreement, the money was to be held in trust for their two boys, while she was able to draw on the interest. [43]  Based on newly released letters (sealed by Einstein's step-granddaughter, Margot Einstein, until 20 years after her death), Walter Isaacson reported that Marić eventually invested the Nobel Prize money in three apartment buildings in Zurich to produce income. [44]   [45]  Marić lived in one, a five-story house at Huttenstrasse 62; the other two were investments.
 In 1930, at around 20, Eduard had a breakdown and was diagnosed with schizophrenia. By the late 1930s, the costs of his care at the University of Zürich's psychiatric clinic "Burghölzli" overwhelmed Marić. She sold the two houses to raise funds for his care and maintenance. [46]  In 1939, Marić agreed to transfer ownership of the Huttenstrasse house where she was living to Einstein to prevent its loss, with Marić retaining power of attorney.
Death[edit]
Mileva Marić suffered a severe stroke and 
died at age 72 on 4 August 1948, in Zürich. She was interred there at Nordheim-Cemetery. Eduard Einstein was institutionalized until his death in 1965. [47] 
Honours[edit]
      Memorial gravestone at the Nordheim Cemetery in Zürich  
     
In 2005, Marić was honoured in Zürich by the ETH and the Gesellschaft zu Fraumünster. A memorial plaque was unveiled on her former residence in Zürich, the house Huttenstrasse 62, in her memory. [48]   [49]   [50]  In the same year, a bust was placed in her high-school town, Sremska Mitrovica. Another bust is located on the campus of the University of Novi Sad. A high school in her birthplace of Titel is named after her. [51]  Sixty years after her death, a memorial plate was placed on the house of the former clinic in Zürich where she died. In June 2009, a memorial gravestone was dedicated to her at the Nordheim-Cemetery in Zürich where she rests. [52] 
 In 1995, Narodna knjiga in Belgrade published (in Serbian) Mileva Marić Ajnštajn by Dragana Bukumirović, a journalist with  Politika . [53] 
 Three years later, in 1998, Vida Ognjenović produced a drama, Mileva Ajnštajn, which was translated into English in 2002. [54]  Ognjenović later adapted the play into a libretto for the opera Mileva, composed by Aleksandra Vrebalov, which premiered in 2011 in the Serbian National Theatre in Novi Sad. [55]   [56] 
Popular culture[edit]
 In her novel The Other Einstein (2016), Marie Benedict gives a fictionalized account of the relationship between Mileva Marić and Albert Einstein. [57]  
In 2017, her life was depicted in the first season of the television series  Genius , which focuses on Einstein's life. She was played by Samantha Colley and Sally Dexter. [58]  
A fictionalized depiction of Mileva Marić (portrayed by Christina Jastrzembska) and her potential contributions to Einstein's work is depicted in the first episode of the second season of the time-travelling superhero television series, DC's Legends of Tomorrow.
In 2019, physicist and writer Gabriella Greison applied for the posthumous award of a degree to Mileva Maric at the ETH Zurich. After 4 months of discussions, the university denied the degree. [59]  
Mileva Marić is a major character in Margaret Peterson Haddix's 2012 young-adult science-fiction novel Caught, part of "The Missing" series. 
See also[edit]
  Relativity priority dispute 
 Miloš Marić (scientist)  
Notes[edit]
 
  ^   Pusch, Luise. "Mileva Einstein-Marić". fembio.org. Archived from the original on 1 April 2016. Retrieved 10 April 2016.
  ^  M. Popović (2003). In Albert's Shadow: The Life and Letters of Mileva Marić, Einstein's First Wife, p. xv"The Family Tree of Mileva Marić-Einstein"
^    a       b       c       d       e    Highfield, 1993, pp. 36–43.
  ^  Darko V: Mathematics Intelligencer Sep 2019
  ^  Esterson and Cassidy, 2019, pp. 10, 269
^    a       b       c       d    D. Trbuhuvić-Gjurić, Im Schatten Albert Einsteins, 1988, pp. 35, 43, 49, 60, 63
^    a       b       c    Finkbeiner 2019.
  ^  The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Vol. 1, Doc. 42.
  ^  Asmodelle, Estelle (2015). "(PDF) The Collaboration of Mileva Maric and Albert Einstein". arXiv:1503.08020 [physics.hist-ph].
  ^  The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Vol. 1, Doc. 67
  ^  Stachel (1996), pp. 41, 52, n. 22
  ^  Highfield, 1993, p. 80
  ^  The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 5 The Swiss Years: Correspondence, 1902–1914. Edited by Martin J. Klein, A. J. Kox, and Robert Schulmann.ISBN 9780691033228
  ^  Einstein, Albert and Marić, Mileva (1992) The Love Letters. Edited by Jürgen Renn &amp; Robert Schulmann. Translated by Shawn Smith. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J. ISBN 0-691-08760-1
  ^  
Singh, S (2005). Big Bang. Harper Perennial. ISBN  978-0-00-715252-0 .
  ^  Pais, A. (1994), pp. 1–29Holton, G. (1996), pp. 177–93Stachel, J. (2002), pp. 26–39, 55Martinez, A. (2005)Calaprice, A. &amp; T. Lipscombe (2005), pp. 41–42
  ^  Maurer, M. (1996); Troemel-Ploetz, S. (1990)Walker, E.H. (1991)
  ^  Ruth H. Howes, Caroline L. Herzenberg (1999). Their Day in the Sun. Temple University Press. p. 26. ISBN  978-1566397193 . {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
^    a       b       c       d    Gagnon, Pauline (19 December 2016). "The Forgotten Life of Einstein's First Wife". Scientific American Blog Network. Archived from the original on 17 October 2020. Retrieved 17 October 2020.
  ^  Abram F. Joffe: Памяти Алъберта Эйнштейна, Успехи физических наук, т. 57 (2), стр. 187–192 (Pamyati Alberta Eynshtyna, Uspekhi fizicheskikh nauk, v. 57, pp. 187–92 (1955)
  ^  Stachel (2005), pp. lxv–lxxii Archived 11 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine; Martinez, A. (2005) pp. 51–52 Archived 11 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  ^  "Mileva's Story" Archived 30 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Einstein's Wife, PBS.org; accessed 3 February 2017.
  ^  Highfield and Carter (1993), p. 110
  ^  Stachel (2002), p. 45.
  ^  Stachel (2002), p. 36;The letter dated 27 March 1901 from Einstein says in translation: "How happy and proud I will be, when we two together have victoriously led our work on relative motion to an end!"
  ^  Stachel (2002), pp. 33–37Holton, G. (1996), pp. 181–93.
  ^  Holton (1996), pp. 177–93
  ^  Stachel (2002), pp. 26–39, 55
  ^  Martinez, A.A., Mileva Marić
  ^  G.J. Whitrow (ed.), Einstein: The Man and His Achievements, p. 19 (1967)
  ^  Krstić, Djordje (2004).  Mileva &amp; Albert Einstein : their love and scientific collaboration . Mayer, Janez, 1948–. Radovljica: Didakta. p. 7. ISBN  961-6530-08-9 . OCLC 447458003. Archived from the original on 4 May 2022. Retrieved 18 November 2020. {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  ^   "Die bessere Hälfte". Einsteinfoundation.de. Archived from the original on 21 January 2021. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
  ^   "Mileva MarićMileva Marić: Die (fast) vergessene Einstein". Heidelberg University. Archived from the original on 16 April 2021. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
^    a       b       c    Highfield, 1993, pp. 154–166
  ^  Isaacson, Walter (2007).  Einstein . New York NY: Simon &amp; Schuster. pp. 185–187. ISBN  978-0-7394-8903-1 .
  ^  (approximately 44000 Euros — 5600 times 7.9 — as per this extract)
  ^  Highfield, 1993, p. 172Isaacson, 2007, p. 186.
  ^  Fölsing (1997, pp. 420–421), Isaacson (2007, pp. 234–235), Highfield and Carter (1993, p. 186).
  ^  Highfield, 1993, p. 188.
  ^   "Einstein Works Out Details of His 1919 Divorce from Mileva Marić". Shapell Manuscript Collection. Shapell Manuscript Foundation. Archived from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 18 January 2021.
  ^  Highfield and Carter, p. 187 ("180,000 Swiss Francs")
  ^  The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Vol. 8, document 562.
  ^  Einstein Collected Papers, Vol. 8, Docs. pp. 449, 562.
  ^  Walter Isaacson, Time 168(3): 50–55, 17 July 2006.
  ^   "Einstein Writes About House Bought With Nobel Prize Money". Shapell Manuscript Collection. Shapell Manuscript Foundation. Archived from the original on 20 December 2014. Retrieved 3 February 2017.
  ^  Thomas Huonker,
 Diagnose: «moralisch defekt» Kastration, Sterilisation und «Rassenhygiene» im Dienst der Schweizer Sozialpolitik und Psychiatrie 1890–1970 (2003) Archived 2 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Zürich; accessed 3 February 2017. (in German)
  ^  Marić, Mileva; Einstein-Marić, Mileva; Einstein-Maric, Mileva (2003).  In Albert's Shadow: The Life and Letters of Mileva Marić, Einstein's First Wife . JHU Press. ISBN  9780801878565 . Archived from the original on 4 May 2022. Retrieved 5 October 2020.
  ^   "Frauenehrungen" (in German). Gesellschaft zu Fraumünster. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 30 November 2014.
  ^   "Frauenehrungen der Gesellschaft zu Fraumünster" (PDF) (in German). Gesellschaft zu Fraumünster. 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 February 2015. Retrieved 30 November 2014.
  ^  ETH und Gesellschaft zu Fraumünster, Zurich ehren Mileva Einstein-Marić „Mitentwicklerin der Relativitätstheorie" Archived 24 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Sechseläuten 2005. Laudatio: Katharina von Salis Archived 23 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine; accessed 3 February 2017. (in German)
  ^  Tesla Memorial Society of New York Website: Mileva Marić-Einstein profile Archived 13 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine, teslasociety.com; accessed 3 February 2017.
  ^   Unveiling and consecration of memorial gravestone dedicated to Mileva Marić-Einstein  Archived 2 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Republic of Serbia, Ministry for Diaspora, 14 June 2009.
  ^  Savić, Svenka (2002). "The Road to Mileva Marić-Einstein: Private Letters". Belgrade Women's Studies Journal. Belgrade: Belgrade Women's Studies Center. 1 (Anniversary Issue 1992/2002): 201–10. Archived from the original on 23 March 2012. Retrieved 5 May 2011. [...] a book written by Dragana Bukumirović, a journalist with Politika, entitled Mileva Marić-Ajnštajn[...] 
  ^   Mrs. Einstein takes the stage  [ dead link ], Lincolnwood Review via highbeam.com, 7 November 2002.
  ^   "Mileva". Serbian National Theatre. Archived from the original on 10 May 2017. Retrieved 30 August 2016.
  ^   "Premijera opere "Mileva"" (in Serbian). blic.rs. 19 October 2011. Archived from the original on 10 May 2017. Retrieved 30 August 2016.
  ^   "Fiction Book Review: The Other Einstein by Marie Benedict. Sourcebooks Landmark, $25.99 (304p) ISBN 978-1-4926-3725-7". publishersweekly.com. Archived from the original on 19 January 2018. Retrieved 18 January 2018.
  ^  Martinez, Albert (25 April 2017). "Einstein's Girlfriend on National Geographic". Sloan Science &amp; Film. Archived from the original on 26 April 2017. Retrieved 25 April 2017.
  ^  Greison, Gabriella (November 2019). "Il politecnico di Zurigo nega a Mileva Maric la laurea postuma. "Ma Einstein è stato un pessimo marito"". Archived from the original on 4 May 2022. Retrieved 3 November 2019.
 
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Stefan, V Alexander: Regarding Interalia, Albert Einstein and Mileva Marich Einstein, The World Year of Physics 2008 Honoring Albert Einstein, http://www.stefan-university.edu/ALBERT-EINSTEIN.pdf 
Trbuhovic-Gjuric, D. (1983). Im Schatten Albert Einsteins. Das tragische Leben der Mileva Einstein-Maric, Bern: Paul Haupt; ISBN 3-258-04700-6.
Trbuhovic-Gjuric, D. Im Schatten Albert Einsteins. Das tragische Leben der Mileva Einstein-Maric, Bern: Paul Haupt (1988); ISBN 3-258-03973-9.
Trbuhovic-Gjuric, D. (1991). Mileva Einstein: Une Vie, Editions des Femmes; ISBN 2-7210-0407-7 (translation into French by Nicole Casanova of Im Schatten Albert Einsteins. Das tragische Leben der Mileva Einstein-Maric, 1988 edition).
 Troemel-Ploetz, Senta (1990). "The woman who did Einstein's mathematics".  Women's Studies International Forum . 13 (5): 415–32. doi:10.1016/0277-5395(90)90094-E. 
Walker, E.H.:  Did Einstein espouse his spouse's ideas? with a reply by John Stachel et al., Physics Today (February 1991)
Zackheim, M.: Einstein's daughter. The search for Lieserl, Riverhead Books, New York (1999); ISBN 1-57322-127-9 
 Finkbeiner, Ann (2019). "The debated legacy of Einstein's first wife".  Nature . 567 (7746): 28–29. Bibcode:2019Natur.567...28F. doi:10.1038/d41586-019-00741-6.  
External links[edit]
  Mileva Marić-Einstein profile, teslasociety.com; accessed 3 February 2017.
  Einstein's Wife. The Life of Mileva Marić-Einstein , pbs.org; accessed 3 February 2017.
 [1], The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein; accessed 28 October 2018.
 Albert-Mileva Correspondence: Original Letters, Shapell Manuscript Foundation; accessed 3 February 2017.
 Michael Getler: "Einstein's Wife: The Relative Motion of 'Facts'", The Ombudsman Column (pbs.org), 15 December 2006.
  The Einstein Controversy  – letter by Gerald Holton, Robert Schulmann and John Stachel, 17 December 2008.
Robert Dünki &amp; Anna Pia Maissen:  «...damit das traurige Dasein unseres Sohnes etwas besser gesichert wird» Mileva und Albert Einsteins Sorgen um ihren Sohn Eduard (1910–1965). Die Familie Einstein und das Stadtarchiv Zürich  In: Stadtarchiv Zürich. Jahresbericht 2007–08. (in German)
Thomas Huonker:  Diagnose: «moralisch defekt» Kastration, Sterilisation und «Rassenhygiene» im Dienst der Schweizer Sozialpolitik und Psychiatrie 1890–1970. «Er versank immer mehr in Apathie und Untätigkeit» Prominente als Patienten, Zürich 2003, p. 204ff. (in German)
Mileva Marić - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mileva_Mari%C4%87
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_(disambiguation)
Einstein (disambiguation) - Wikipedia
2005-01-18
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<p><b><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein">Albert Einstein</a></b> (1879–1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist.
</p><p><b>Einstein</b> may also refer to:
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Einstein_(surname)">Einstein (surname)</a>, a surname (including a list of people with the name)</li></ul>
<h2>Science and technology[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_(disambiguation)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Einstein_Observatory">Einstein Observatory</a>, the first fully imaging X-ray telescope put into orbit</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Einstein_(US-CERT_program)">Einstein (US-CERT program)</a>, an intrusion detection program used by the United States Department of Homeland Security</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Einstein_Telescope">Einstein Telescope</a>, a gravitational wave detector under design</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Einstein_Tower">Einstein Tower</a>, an astrophysical observatory in Potsdam, Germany</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Einstein_(unit)">Einstein (unit)</a>, a unit of measurement defined primarily as one mole of photons</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tatung_Einstein">Tatung Einstein</a>, a personal computer produced by Taiwanese corporation Tatung</li></ul>
<h2>Places[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_(disambiguation)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/2001_Einstein">2001 Einstein</a>, a main belt asteroid</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Einstein_(crater)">Einstein (crater)</a>, a large lunar crater</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Einstein">Mount Einstein</a> in Alaska</li>
<li>Mount Einstein in the <a href="/wiki/Paparoa_Range">Paparoa Range</a> in New Zealand</li></ul>
<h2>Fictional characters[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_(disambiguation)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Einstein_(Farscape)">Einstein (Farscape)</a>, a character in the science fiction television series <i>Farscape</i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Einstein_(dog)">Einstein (dog)</a>, canine pet of Doc Brown in the <i>Back to the Future</i> movie trilogy</li>
<li>Albert Einstein, a character in the television series <i><a href="/wiki/Alien_Nation_(1989_TV_series)">Alien Nation</a></i></li>
<li>Einstein, a Great Dane in the 1988 film <i><a href="/wiki/Oliver_%26_Company">Oliver &amp; Company</a></i></li>
<li>Nina Einstein, a <a href="/wiki/List_of_Code_Geass_characters#Nina_Einstein">character from the anime series <i>Code Geass</i></a></li>
<li>Agent Einstein, a character in the <a href="/wiki/The_X-Files_(season_10)">tenth season</a> of the television series <i>The X-Files</i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Brutananadilewski">Carl Brutananadilewski</a>, known as the <i>Gridiron Einstein</i> from the animated series <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Teen_Hunger_Force">Aqua Teen Hunger Force</a>.</li></ul>
<h2>Television[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_(disambiguation)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Einstein_(film)"><i>Einstein</i> (film)</a>, a 2008 biographical TV movie about Albert Einstein</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Einstein_(German_TV_series)"><i>Einstein</i> (German TV series)</a>, a German series</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Einstein_(Swiss_TV_series)"><i>Einstein</i> (Swiss TV series)</a>, a Swiss television scientific infotainment serial</li>
<li><i>Einstein</i>, the first season of the American series <i><a href="/wiki/Genius_(U.S._TV_series)">Genius</a></i></li></ul>
<h2>Other uses[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_(disambiguation)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Einstein_(Kelly_Clarkson_song)">"Einstein" (Kelly Clarkson song)</a>, from her 2011 album <i>Stronger</i></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_(game)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1">Einstein (game)</a>, a toy similar to the <i><a href="/wiki/Simon_(game)">Simon</a></i> made in 1979 by the Castle Toy Co.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Einstein_Prize_(disambiguation)">Einstein Prize (disambiguation)</a>, several awards named after Albert Einstein</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Einstein_(horse)">Einstein (horse)</a>, a Thoroughbred race horse</li>
<li><i>Einstein</i>, a 1974 opera by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dessau">Paul Dessau</a></li></ul>
<h2>See also[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_(disambiguation)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein_(disambiguation)">Albert Einstein (disambiguation)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Einstein_problem">Einstein problem</a>, a mathematical problem about periodic tilings</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Einstein@Home">Einstein@Home</a>, a distributed computing project</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Einstein_Bros._Bagels">Einstein Bros. Bagels</a>, a bagel and coffee chain in the United States</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Special:Search/intitle:%22Einstein%22">All pages with titles containing <i>Einstein</i></a></li></ul>
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 Einstein (disambiguation)

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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 Look up Einstein or einstein in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

 Albert Einstein (1879–1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist.

 Einstein may also refer to:

 * Einstein (surname), a surname (including a list of people with the name)

 Science and technology [ edit ]

 * Einstein Observatory, the first fully imaging X-ray telescope put into orbit
 * Einstein (US-CERT program), an intrusion detection program used by the United States Department of Homeland Security
 * Einstein Telescope, a gravitational wave detector under design
 * Einstein Tower, an astrophysical observatory in Potsdam, Germany
 * Einstein (unit), a unit of measurement defined primarily as one mole of photons
 * Tatung Einstein, a personal computer produced by Taiwanese corporation Tatung

 Places [ edit ]

 * 2001 Einstein, a main belt asteroid
 * Einstein (crater), a large lunar crater
 * Mount Einstein in Alaska
 * Mount Einstein in the Paparoa Range in New Zealand

 Fictional characters [ edit ]

 * Einstein (Farscape), a character in the science fiction television series Farscape
 * Einstein (dog), canine pet of Doc Brown in the Back to the Future movie trilogy
 * Albert Einstein, a character in the television series Alien Nation
 * Einstein, a Great Dane in the 1988 film Oliver & Company
 * Nina Einstein, a character from the anime series Code Geass
 * Agent Einstein, a character in the tenth season of the television series The X-Files
 * Carl Brutananadilewski, known as the Gridiron Einstein from the animated series Aqua Teen Hunger Force.

 Television [ edit ]

 * Einstein (film), a 2008 biographical TV movie about Albert Einstein
 * Einstein (German TV series), a German series
 * Einstein (Swiss TV series), a Swiss television scientific infotainment serial
 * Einstein, the first season of the American series Genius

 Other uses [ edit ]

 * "Einstein" (Kelly Clarkson song), from her 2011 album Stronger
 * Einstein (game), a toy similar to the Simon made in 1979 by the Castle Toy Co.
 * Einstein Prize (disambiguation), several awards named after Albert Einstein
 * Einstein (horse), a Thoroughbred race horse
 * Einstein, a 1974 opera by Paul Dessau

 See also [ edit ]

 * Albert Einstein (disambiguation)
 * Einstein problem, a mathematical problem about periodic tilings
 * Einstein@Home, a distributed computing project
 * Einstein Bros. Bagels, a bagel and coffee chain in the United States
 * All pages with titles containing Einstein
 This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Einstein.
 If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.
 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Einstein_(disambiguation)&oldid=1136045122"
 Category:
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 Hidden categories:
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 * This page was last edited on 28 January 2023, at 12:32 (UTC) .
 * Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
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Toggle the table of contents
	
	
	
	From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
	
	
  Albert Einstein  (1879–1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist.
  Einstein may also refer to:
  Einstein (surname), a surname (including a list of people with the name) 
Science and technology[edit]
  Einstein Observatory, the first fully imaging X-ray telescope put into orbit
 Einstein (US-CERT program), an intrusion detection program used by the United States Department of Homeland Security
 Einstein Telescope, a gravitational wave detector under design
 Einstein Tower, an astrophysical observatory in Potsdam, Germany
 Einstein (unit), a unit of measurement defined primarily as one mole of photons
 Tatung Einstein, a personal computer produced by Taiwanese corporation Tatung 
Places[edit]
  2001 Einstein, a main belt asteroid
 Einstein (crater), a large lunar crater
 Mount Einstein in Alaska
Mount Einstein in the Paparoa Range in New Zealand 
Fictional characters[edit]
  Einstein (Farscape), a character in the science fiction television series Farscape 
 Einstein (dog), canine pet of Doc Brown in the Back to the Future movie trilogy
Albert Einstein, a character in the television series  Alien Nation  
Einstein, a Great Dane in the 1988 film  Oliver &amp; Company  
Nina Einstein, a character from the anime series Code Geass  
Agent Einstein, a character in the tenth season of the television series The X-Files 
 Carl Brutananadilewski, known as the Gridiron Einstein from the animated series Aqua Teen Hunger Force. 
Television[edit]
   Einstein (film), a 2008 biographical TV movie about Albert Einstein
  Einstein (German TV series), a German series
  Einstein (Swiss TV series), a Swiss television scientific infotainment serial
 Einstein, the first season of the American series  Genius   
Other uses[edit]
  "Einstein" (Kelly Clarkson song), from her 2011 album Stronger 
 Einstein (game), a toy similar to the  Simon  made in 1979 by the Castle Toy Co.
 Einstein Prize (disambiguation), several awards named after Albert Einstein
 Einstein (horse), a Thoroughbred race horse
 Einstein, a 1974 opera by Paul Dessau  
See also[edit]
  Albert Einstein (disambiguation) 
 Einstein problem, a mathematical problem about periodic tilings
 Einstein@Home, a distributed computing project
 Einstein Bros. Bagels, a bagel and coffee chain in the United States
 All pages with titles containing Einstein
Einstein (disambiguation) - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_(disambiguation)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_(surname)
Einstein (surname) - Wikipedia
2007-03-21
Authority control National libraries United States
<div><div>
	<p>From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</p>
	</div><div><p><b>Einstein</b> is a <a href="/wiki/German-Jewish">German-Jewish</a> surname. "Ein stein" is German for "a rock". It is strongly associated with German-born American physicist <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>. People with the surname include:
</p>
<ul><li>Albert Einstein (1879–1955)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Einstein_family">Einstein family</a>, including:
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mileva_Mari%C4%87">Mileva Einstein (née Marić)</a> (1875–1948), Serbian physicist and mathematician, first wife of Albert Einstein
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Albert_Einstein">Hans Albert Einstein</a> (1904–1973), Swiss-American engineer, son of Albert and Mileva
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bernhard_Caesar_Einstein">Bernhard Caesar Einstein</a> (1930–2008), German-American physicist, son of Hans Albert Einstein, grandson of Albert Einstein
<ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Helmut_Einstein&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1">Thomas Helmut Einstein</a> (born 1955), anesthesiologist and physician, son of Bernhard Caesar Einstein, great-grandson of Albert Einstein</li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Einstein_family#Eduard_&quot;Tete&quot;_Einstein_(Albert's_second_son)">Eduard Einstein</a> (1910–1965), second son of Albert and Mileva</li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Elsa_Einstein">Elsa Einstein</a> (1876–1936), cousin and second wife of Albert Einstein</li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Einstein">Hans Einstein</a> (1923–2012), physician, grandson of a first cousin of Albert Einstein</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Einstein">Alfred Einstein</a> (1880–1952), musicologist and distant cousin of Albert Einstein</li></ul>
<h2>Others[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Einstein_(surname)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li>An American entertainment family:
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Einstein">Harry Einstein</a> (1904–1958), comedian and writer, and father of:
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Einstein">Bob Einstein</a> (1942–2019), actor best known for portraying Super Dave Osborne</li>
<li>Albert Einstein, professionally known as <a href="/wiki/Albert_Brooks">Albert Brooks</a> (born 1947), actor</li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arik_Einstein">Arik Einstein</a> (1939–2013), Israeli singer</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Einstein">Carl Einstein</a> (1885–1940), author and art critic</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Einstein">Edwin Einstein</a> (1842–1905), U.S. congressperson from Massachusetts</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Bachman_Einstein">Hannah Bachman Einstein</a> (1862–1929), American social worker and activist</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Izzy_Einstein">Izzy Einstein</a> (c. 1880–1938), American police officer</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Einstein">Lewis Einstein</a> (1887–1967), American diplomat and historian</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Einstein">Napoleon Einstein</a> (born 1989), Indian cricketer</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Siegbert_Einstein">Siegbert Einstein</a> (1889–1968), German civil servant and politician</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Siegfried_Einstein">Siegfried Einstein</a> (1919–1983), German writer</li></ul>
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 Einstein (surname)

 3 languages
 * Bân-lâm-gú
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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 Einstein is a German-Jewish surname. "Ein stein" is German for "a rock". It is strongly associated with German-born American physicist Albert Einstein. People with the surname include:

 * Albert Einstein (1879–1955)
 * Einstein family, including:
 + Mileva Einstein (née Marić) (1875–1948), Serbian physicist and mathematician, first wife of Albert Einstein
 o Hans Albert Einstein (1904–1973), Swiss-American engineer, son of Albert and Mileva
 - Bernhard Caesar Einstein (1930–2008), German-American physicist, son of Hans Albert Einstein, grandson of Albert Einstein
 * Thomas Helmut Einstein (born 1955), anesthesiologist and physician, son of Bernhard Caesar Einstein, great-grandson of Albert Einstein
 o Eduard Einstein (1910–1965), second son of Albert and Mileva
 + Elsa Einstein (1876–1936), cousin and second wife of Albert Einstein
 * Hans Einstein (1923–2012), physician, grandson of a first cousin of Albert Einstein
 * Alfred Einstein (1880–1952), musicologist and distant cousin of Albert Einstein

 Others [ edit ]

 * An American entertainment family:
 + Harry Einstein (1904–1958), comedian and writer, and father of:
 o Bob Einstein (1942–2019), actor best known for portraying Super Dave Osborne
 o Albert Einstein, professionally known as Albert Brooks (born 1947), actor
 * Arik Einstein (1939–2013), Israeli singer
 * Carl Einstein (1885–1940), author and art critic
 * Edwin Einstein (1842–1905), U.S. congressperson from Massachusetts
 * Hannah Bachman Einstein (1862–1929), American social worker and activist
 * Izzy Einstein (c. 1880–1938), American police officer
 * Lewis Einstein (1887–1967), American diplomat and historian
 * Napoleon Einstein (born 1989), Indian cricketer
 * Siegbert Einstein (1889–1968), German civil servant and politician
 * Siegfried Einstein (1919–1983), German writer
 This page lists people with the surname Einstein.
 If an internal link intending to refer to a specific person led you to this page, you may wish to change that link by adding the person's given name(s) to the link.
 Authority control: National libraries * United States
 
 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Einstein_(surname)&oldid=1123924096"
 Categories:
 * Surnames
 * Jewish surnames
 * German-language surnames
 * Yiddish-language surnames
 Hidden categories:
 * Articles with short description
 * Short description is different from Wikidata
 * All set index articles
 * Articles with LCCN identifiers
 * This page was last edited on 26 November 2022, at 12:30 (UTC) .
 * Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
 * Privacy policy
 * About Wikipedia
 * Disclaimers
 * Contact Wikipedia
 * Mobile view
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 * 
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
	   Einstein is a German-Jewish surname. "Ein stein" is German for "a rock". It is strongly associated with German-born American physicist Albert Einstein. People with the surname include:
 Albert Einstein (1879–1955)
 Einstein family, including:
  Mileva Einstein (née Marić) (1875–1948), Serbian physicist and mathematician, first wife of Albert Einstein
  Hans Albert Einstein (1904–1973), Swiss-American engineer, son of Albert and Mileva
  Bernhard Caesar Einstein (1930–2008), German-American physicist, son of Hans Albert Einstein, grandson of Albert Einstein
  Thomas Helmut Einstein (born 1955), anesthesiologist and physician, son of Bernhard Caesar Einstein, great-grandson of Albert Einstein    
 Eduard Einstein (1910–1965), second son of Albert and Mileva  
 Elsa Einstein (1876–1936), cousin and second wife of Albert Einstein  
 Hans Einstein (1923–2012), physician, grandson of a first cousin of Albert Einstein
 Alfred Einstein (1880–1952), musicologist and distant cousin of Albert Einstein 
Others[edit]
 An American entertainment family:
  Harry Einstein (1904–1958), comedian and writer, and father of:
  Bob Einstein (1942–2019), actor best known for portraying Super Dave Osborne
Albert Einstein, professionally known as Albert Brooks (born 1947), actor    
 Arik Einstein (1939–2013), Israeli singer
 Carl Einstein (1885–1940), author and art critic
 Edwin Einstein (1842–1905), U.S. congressperson from Massachusetts
 Hannah Bachman Einstein (1862–1929), American social worker and activist
 Izzy Einstein (c. 1880–1938), American police officer
 Lewis Einstein (1887–1967), American diplomat and historian
 Napoleon Einstein (born 1989), Indian cricketer
 Siegbert Einstein (1889–1968), German civil servant and politician
 Siegfried Einstein (1919–1983), German writer
Einstein (surname) - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_(surname)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elsa_Einstein
Elsa Einstein - Wikipedia
2007-01-02
Authority control
<div><div>
	<p>From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</p>
	</div><div>
<table><tbody><tr><th><p>Elsa Einstein</p></th></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00486A,_Elsa_Einstein.jpg"></a><p>Elsa Einstein in 1929</p></td></tr><tr><th>Born</th><td>18 January 1876<br /><div><p><a href="/wiki/Hechingen">Hechingen</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_Empire">German Empire</a></p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Died</th><td>20 December 1936 (aged 60)<br /><div><p><a href="/wiki/Princeton,_New_Jersey">Princeton, New Jersey</a>, US</p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Nationality</th><td>German</td></tr><tr><th>Known for</th><td>Being the second wife and cousin of Albert Einstein</td></tr><tr><th>Spouse(s)</th><td><div><p>Max Löwenthal</p>
 <p>​</p> <p>​</p><p>(<abbr>m.</abbr> 1896; <abbr>div.</abbr> )<wbr></wbr>​</p></div><br />
<div><div><p><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein">Albert Einstein</a></p></div> <p>​</p><p>(<abbr>m.</abbr></p><p>)<wbr></wbr>​</p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Children</th><td>Ilse Lowenthal Einstein<br />Margot Lowenthal Einstein</td></tr><tr><th>Parent(s)</th><td>Rudolf Einstein<br />Fanny Koch Einstein</td></tr><tr><th>Relatives</th><td><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Einstein">Hermann Einstein</a> <small>(father-in-law; first cousin, once removed)</small> 
<a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> <small>(second husband; first cousin)</small></td></tr><tr><th>Family</th><td><a href="/wiki/Einstein_family">Einstein</a></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Elsa Einstein</b> (18 January 1876 – 20 December 1936)<sup><a href="#cite_note-elsa-1">[1]</a></sup> was the second <a href="/wiki/Wife">wife</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cousin">cousin</a> of <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>. Their mothers were sisters, thus making them maternal first cousins. Further, their fathers were first cousins, making the couple paternal second cousins too. Elsa had the surname of Einstein at birth, lost it when she took the name of her first husband Max Löwenthal, She and her daughters reverted to her maiden name, Einstein, after her 1908 divorce.
</p>
<h2>Early life[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Elsa_Einstein&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Elsa, the daughter of Rudolf Einstein and Fanny Einstein (née Koch), was born in <a href="/wiki/Hechingen">Hechingen</a> on 18 January 1876.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Highfield1993-2">[2]</a></sup><sup>: 146 </sup> She had two sisters: Paula (c. 1878–c. 1955) and Hermine (1872–1942). Rudolf was a textile manufacturer in Hechingen. During the regular visits with the family in <a href="/wiki/Munich">Munich</a>, she often played with her cousin Albert. In her <a href="/wiki/Swabian_German">Swabian</a> dialect, she called him "Albertle".<sup><a href="#cite_note-elsa-1">[1]</a></sup> The two parted ways in 1894, when Albert left Germany to follow his family to <a href="/wiki/Milan">Milan</a>.
</p>
<h2>Married life[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Elsa_Einstein&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>In 1896, Elsa married textile trader Max Löwenthal (1864–1914),<sup><a href="#cite_note-Highfield1993-2">[2]</a></sup><sup>: 146 </sup> from <a href="/wiki/Berlin">Berlin</a>, with whom she had three children: daughters Ilse (1897–1934) and Margot (1899–1986), and a son who was born in 1903, but died shortly after birth.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Highfield1993-2">[2]</a></sup><sup>: 146,287 </sup> They lived together in Hechingen. In 1902, Max Löwenthal took a job in Berlin. His family stayed in Hechingen. She divorced Max on 11 May 1908,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Highfield1993-2">[2]</a></sup><sup>: 146 </sup> and moved with her two daughters to an apartment above her parents on Haberlandstrasse 5, in Berlin.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Highfield1993-2">[2]</a></sup><sup>: 146 </sup> She and her daughters reverted to her maiden name, Einstein, after her 1908 divorce.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Isaacson2007-3">[3]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Einstein_Albert_Elsa_LOC_32096u.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Elsa Einstein with her husband, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>, arriving in New York aboard the SS <i>Rotterdam</i></p></div></div>
<p>She began a relationship with her cousin Albert Einstein in April 1912,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Highfield1993-2">[2]</a></sup><sup>: 147 </sup> while Albert was still married to his first wife, the physicist and mathematician <a href="/wiki/Mileva_Mari%C4%87">Mileva Marić</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-NYT1996-4">[4]</a></sup> Einstein separated from Mileva in July 1914. He sent her with the two sons back to <a href="/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich">Zürich</a>. Their dedicated divorce was final on 10 February 1919. Elsa married him three and a half months later, on 2 June 1919.<sup><a href="#cite_note-TheGuardian-5">[5]</a></sup>
</p><p>With stepdaughters Ilse and Margot, the Einsteins formed a close-knit family. Although Albert and Elsa did not have any children of their own, Albert raised Ilse and Margot as his own.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Highfield1993-2">[2]</a></sup><sup>: 193 </sup> They lived in the Berlin area, also having since 1929 a summer house in <a href="/wiki/Caputh,_Brandenburg">Caputh</a> in nearby <a href="/wiki/Potsdam">Potsdam</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Highfield1993-2">[2]</a></sup><sup>: 203 </sup> Ilse also served as Einstein's secretary for a brief period.<sup><a href="#cite_note-EconomicTimes-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p><p>Elsa spent most of her marriage with Albert acting as his gatekeeper, protecting him from unwelcome visitors and charlatans.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Highfield1993-2">[2]</a></sup><sup>: 190,196 </sup> She also was the driving force behind building their summer house.<sup><a href="#cite_note-elsa-1">[1]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Later life[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Elsa_Einstein&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>In 1933, Albert and Elsa Einstein immigrated to <a href="/wiki/Princeton,_New_Jersey">Princeton, New Jersey</a>, US.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Rieber2018-7">[7]</a></sup> In autumn 1935, they moved to a house at <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein_House">112 Mercer Street</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Highfield1993-2">[2]</a></sup><sup>: 216 </sup> bought that August,<sup><a href="#cite_note-elsa-1">[1]</a></sup> but shortly afterwards Elsa developed a swollen eye and was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Highfield1993-2">[2]</a></sup><sup>: 216 </sup> When Elsa was diagnosed, Einstein decided to spend much of his time in his studies. It was stated in <a href="/wiki/Walter_Isaacson">Walter Isaacson</a>'s book, <i><a href="/wiki/Einstein:_His_Life_and_Universe">Einstein: His Life and Universe</a></i>, that he believed "strenuous intellectual work and looking at God's nature are the reconciling, fortifying yet relentlessly strict angels that shall lead me through all of life's troubles".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Isaacson2007-3">[3]</a></sup> Thus did Einstein try to escape from his troubles by focusing on work that would distract him from Elsa's dying. Elsa died after a painful illness on 20 December 1936, in the house on Mercer Street.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Highfield1993-2">[2]</a></sup><sup>: 216 </sup>
</p>
<h2>See also[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Elsa_Einstein&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein_House">Albert Einstein House</a> Princeton</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Genius_(2017_TV_series)">Genius</a></i>, a television series depicting the Einsteins</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_coupled_cousins">List of coupled cousins</a></li></ul>
<h2>References[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Elsa_Einstein&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5">edit</a>]</h2>
<div>
<ol>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-elsa_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-elsa_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-elsa_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-elsa_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Küpper, Hans-Josef (2018). <a href="https://www.einstein-website.de/biographies/einsteinelsa_content.html">"Short life history: Elsa Einstein"</a>. <i>einstein-website.de</i>. Retrieved 18 March 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Highfield1993_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Highfield1993_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Highfield1993_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Highfield1993_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Highfield1993_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Highfield1993_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Highfield1993_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Highfield1993_2-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Highfield1993_2-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Highfield1993_2-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Highfield1993_2-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Highfield1993_2-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Highfield, Roger; Carter, Paul (1993). <a href="https://archive.org/details/privatelivesofal0000high"><i>The Private Lives of Albert Einstein</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/London">London</a>: <a href="/wiki/Faber_and_Faber">Faber and Faber</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780571167449"><bdi>9780571167449</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/1256489238">1256489238</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Isaacson2007_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Isaacson2007_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Isaacson, Walter (2007). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m-AWQWmnICYC"><i>Einstein: His Life and Universe</i></a>. New York: Simon &amp; Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)">ASIN</a> <a href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B000PC0S0K">B000PC0S0K</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-6473-0"><bdi>978-0-7432-6473-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/76961150">76961150</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-NYT1996_4-0">^</a></b> <cite>Smith, Dinitia (6 November 1996). <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1996/11/06/arts/dark-side-of-einstein-emerges-in-his-letters.html">"Dark Side of Einstein Emerges in His Letters"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. Retrieved 18 March 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-TheGuardian_5-0">^</a></b> <cite>Jha, Alok (11 July 2006). <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2006/jul/11/internationalnews">"Letters reveal relative truth of Einstein's family life"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. Retrieved 18 March 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-EconomicTimes_6-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/albert-einsteins-letter-to-colleague-may-fetch-5000-at-auction/articleshow/61915745.cms">"Albert Einstein's letter to colleague may fetch $5,000 at auction"</a>. <i>The Economic Times</i>. 4 December 2017. Retrieved 18 March 2022. <q>The eldest daughter of Einstein's second wife, Elsa, Ilse Lowenthal Einstein served as Einstein's secretary for a brief period, according to RR Auctions.</q></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rieber2018_7-0">^</a></b> <cite>Rieber, Christoph (2018). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nqXNuQEACAAJ"><i>Albert Einstein: Biografie eines Nonkonformisten</i></a> (in German). <a href="/wiki/Ostfildern">Ostfildern</a>: Jan Thorbecke Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783799512817"><bdi>9783799512817</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/1048272199">1048272199</a>.</cite>
</li>
</ol></div>
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 * 1 Early life
 * 2 Married life
 + 2.1 Later life
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 Elsa Einstein

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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 Elsa Einstein 
 Elsa Einstein in 1929
 Born 18 January 1876  
 Hechingen, German Empire  
 Died 20 December 1936 (aged 60)  
 Princeton, New Jersey, US  
 Nationality German  
 Known for Being the second wife and cousin of Albert Einstein 
 Max Löwenthal  
 Spouse(s) ​  
 ​(m. 1896; div. 1908 )​  
 Albert Einstein ​(m. 1919 )​  
 Children Ilse Lowenthal Einstein  
 Margot Lowenthal Einstein  
 Parent(s) Rudolf Einstein  
 Fanny Koch Einstein  
 Relatives Hermann Einstein (father-in-law; first cousin, once removed) Albert Einstein (second husband; first cousin)
 Family Einstein  
 

 Elsa Einstein (18 January 1876 – 20 December 1936)[1] was the second wife and cousin of Albert Einstein. Their mothers were sisters, thus making them maternal first cousins. Further, their fathers were first cousins, making the couple paternal second cousins too. Elsa had the surname of Einstein at birth, lost it when she took the name of her first husband Max Löwenthal, She and her daughters reverted to her maiden name, Einstein, after her 1908 divorce.

 Early life [ edit ]

 Elsa, the daughter of Rudolf Einstein and Fanny Einstein (née Koch), was born in Hechingen on 18 January 1876.[2] : 146 She had two sisters: Paula (c. 1878–c. 1955) and Hermine (1872–1942). Rudolf was a textile manufacturer in Hechingen. During the regular visits with the family in Munich, she often played with her cousin Albert. In her Swabian dialect, she called him "Albertle".[1] The two parted ways in 1894, when Albert left Germany to follow his family to Milan.

 Married life [ edit ]

 In 1896, Elsa married textile trader Max Löwenthal (1864–1914),[2] : 146 from Berlin, with whom she had three children: daughters Ilse (1897–1934) and Margot (1899–1986), and a son who was born in 1903, but died shortly after birth.[2] : 146,287 They lived together in Hechingen. In 1902, Max Löwenthal took a job in Berlin. His family stayed in Hechingen. She divorced Max on 11 May 1908,[2] : 146 and moved with her two daughters to an apartment above her parents on Haberlandstrasse 5, in Berlin.[2] : 146 She and her daughters reverted to her maiden name, Einstein, after her 1908 divorce.[3]

 Elsa Einstein with her husband, Albert Einstein, arriving in New York aboard the SS Rotterdam

 She began a relationship with her cousin Albert Einstein in April 1912,[2] : 147 while Albert was still married to his first wife, the physicist and mathematician Mileva Marić.[4] Einstein separated from Mileva in July 1914. He sent her with the two sons back to Zürich. Their dedicated divorce was final on 10 February 1919. Elsa married him three and a half months later, on 2 June 1919.[5]

 With stepdaughters Ilse and Margot, the Einsteins formed a close-knit family. Although Albert and Elsa did not have any children of their own, Albert raised Ilse and Margot as his own.[2] : 193 They lived in the Berlin area, also having since 1929 a summer house in Caputh in nearby Potsdam.[2] : 203 Ilse also served as Einstein's secretary for a brief period.[6]

 Elsa spent most of her marriage with Albert acting as his gatekeeper, protecting him from unwelcome visitors and charlatans.[2] : 190,196 She also was the driving force behind building their summer house.[1]

 Later life [ edit ]

 In 1933, Albert and Elsa Einstein immigrated to Princeton, New Jersey, US.[7] In autumn 1935, they moved to a house at 112 Mercer Street,[2] : 216 bought that August,[1] but shortly afterwards Elsa developed a swollen eye and was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems.[2] : 216 When Elsa was diagnosed, Einstein decided to spend much of his time in his studies. It was stated in Walter Isaacson's book, Einstein: His Life and Universe, that he believed "strenuous intellectual work and looking at God's nature are the reconciling, fortifying yet relentlessly strict angels that shall lead me through all of life's troubles".[3] Thus did Einstein try to escape from his troubles by focusing on work that would distract him from Elsa's dying. Elsa died after a painful illness on 20 December 1936, in the house on Mercer Street.[2] : 216

 See also [ edit ]

 * Albert Einstein House Princeton
 * Genius, a television series depicting the Einsteins
 * List of coupled cousins

 References [ edit ]

 1. ^ a b c d Küpper, Hans-Josef (2018). "Short life history: Elsa Einstein". einstein-website.de . Retrieved 18 March 2022 .
 2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Highfield, Roger; Carter, Paul (1993). The Private Lives of Albert Einstein. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 9780571167449. OCLC 1256489238.
 3. ^ a b Isaacson, Walter (2007). Einstein: His Life and Universe. New York: Simon & Schuster. ASIN B000PC0S0K. ISBN 978-0-7432-6473-0. OCLC 76961150.
 4. ^ Smith, Dinitia (6 November 1996). "Dark Side of Einstein Emerges in His Letters". The New York Times . Retrieved 18 March 2022 .
 5. ^ Jha, Alok (11 July 2006). "Letters reveal relative truth of Einstein's family life". The Guardian . Retrieved 18 March 2022 .
 6. ^ "Albert Einstein's letter to colleague may fetch $5,000 at auction". The Economic Times. 4 December 2017 . Retrieved 18 March 2022 . "The eldest daughter of Einstein's second wife, Elsa, Ilse Lowenthal Einstein served as Einstein's secretary for a brief period, according to RR Auctions."
 7. ^ Rieber, Christoph (2018). Albert Einstein: Biografie eines Nonkonformisten (in German). Ostfildern: Jan Thorbecke Verlag. ISBN 9783799512817. OCLC 1048272199.
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
	 
    Elsa Einstein       Elsa Einstein in 1929    Born 18 January 1876   Hechingen, German Empire      Died 20 December 1936 (aged 60)   Princeton, New Jersey, US     Nationality German   Known for Being the second wife and cousin of Albert Einstein   Spouse(s)   Max Löwenthal
 ​ ​ (m. 1896; div. ) ​  
   Albert Einstein   ​ (m.  ) ​     Children Ilse Lowenthal EinsteinMargot Lowenthal Einstein   Parent(s) Rudolf EinsteinFanny Koch Einstein   Relatives  Hermann Einstein (father-in-law; first cousin, once removed) 
Albert Einstein (second husband; first cousin)    Family  Einstein    
 Elsa Einstein (18 January 1876 – 20 December 1936) [1]  was the second wife and cousin of Albert Einstein. Their mothers were sisters, thus making them maternal first cousins. Further, their fathers were first cousins, making the couple paternal second cousins too. Elsa had the surname of Einstein at birth, lost it when she took the name of her first husband Max Löwenthal, She and her daughters reverted to her maiden name, Einstein, after her 1908 divorce.
Early life[edit]
Elsa, the daughter of Rudolf Einstein and Fanny Einstein (née Koch), was born in Hechingen on 18 January 1876. [2]  : 146  She had two sisters: Paula (c. 1878–c. 1955) and Hermine (1872–1942). Rudolf was a textile manufacturer in Hechingen. During the regular visits with the family in Munich, she often played with her cousin Albert. In her Swabian dialect, she called him "Albertle". [1]  The two parted ways in 1894, when Albert left Germany to follow his family to Milan.
Married life[edit]
In 1896, Elsa married textile trader Max Löwenthal (1864–1914), [2]  : 146  from Berlin, with whom she had three children: daughters Ilse (1897–1934) and Margot (1899–1986), and a son who was born in 1903, but died shortly after birth. [2]  : 146,287  They lived together in Hechingen. In 1902, Max Löwenthal took a job in Berlin. His family stayed in Hechingen. She divorced Max on 11 May 1908, [2]  : 146  and moved with her two daughters to an apartment above her parents on Haberlandstrasse 5, in Berlin. [2]  : 146  She and her daughters reverted to her maiden name, Einstein, after her 1908 divorce. [3] 
      Elsa Einstein with her husband, Albert Einstein, arriving in New York aboard the SS Rotterdam   
She began a relationship with her cousin Albert Einstein in April 1912, [2]  : 147  while Albert was still married to his first wife, the physicist and mathematician Mileva Marić. [4]  Einstein separated from Mileva in July 1914. He sent her with the two sons back to Zürich. Their dedicated divorce was final on 10 February 1919. Elsa married him three and a half months later, on 2 June 1919. [5] 
 With stepdaughters Ilse and Margot, the Einsteins formed a close-knit family. Although Albert and Elsa did not have any children of their own, Albert raised Ilse and Margot as his own. [2]  : 193  They lived in the Berlin area, also having since 1929 a summer house in Caputh in nearby Potsdam. [2]  : 203  Ilse also served as Einstein's secretary for a brief period. [6] 
 Elsa spent most of her marriage with Albert acting as his gatekeeper, protecting him from unwelcome visitors and charlatans. [2]  : 190,196  She also was the driving force behind building their summer house. [1] 
Later life[edit]
In 1933, Albert and Elsa Einstein immigrated to Princeton, New Jersey, US. [7]  In autumn 1935, they moved to a house at 112 Mercer Street, [2]  : 216  bought that August, [1]  but shortly afterwards Elsa developed a swollen eye and was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems. [2]  : 216  When Elsa was diagnosed, Einstein decided to spend much of his time in his studies. It was stated in Walter Isaacson's book,  Einstein: His Life and Universe , that he believed "strenuous intellectual work and looking at God's nature are the reconciling, fortifying yet relentlessly strict angels that shall lead me through all of life's troubles". [3]  Thus did Einstein try to escape from his troubles by focusing on work that would distract him from Elsa's dying. Elsa died after a painful illness on 20 December 1936, in the house on Mercer Street. [2]  : 216 
See also[edit]
  Albert Einstein House Princeton
  Genius , a television series depicting the Einsteins
 List of coupled cousins  
References[edit]
^    a       b       c       d    Küpper, Hans-Josef (2018). "Short life history: Elsa Einstein". einstein-website.de. Retrieved 18 March 2022.
^    a       b       c       d       e       f       g       h       i       j       k       l    Highfield, Roger; Carter, Paul (1993).  The Private Lives of Albert Einstein . London: Faber and Faber. ISBN  9780571167449 . OCLC 1256489238.
^    a       b    Isaacson, Walter (2007).  Einstein: His Life and Universe . New York: Simon &amp; Schuster. ASIN B000PC0S0K. ISBN  978-0-7432-6473-0 . OCLC 76961150.
  ^  Smith, Dinitia (6 November 1996). "Dark Side of Einstein Emerges in His Letters". The New York Times. Retrieved 18 March 2022.
  ^  Jha, Alok (11 July 2006). "Letters reveal relative truth of Einstein's family life". The Guardian. Retrieved 18 March 2022.
  ^   "Albert Einstein's letter to colleague may fetch $5,000 at auction". The Economic Times. 4 December 2017. Retrieved 18 March 2022. The eldest daughter of Einstein's second wife, Elsa, Ilse Lowenthal Einstein served as Einstein's secretary for a brief period, according to RR Auctions. 
  ^  Rieber, Christoph (2018).  Albert Einstein: Biografie eines Nonkonformisten  (in German). Ostfildern: Jan Thorbecke Verlag. ISBN  9783799512817 . OCLC 1048272199.
Elsa Einstein - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elsa_Einstein
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Albert_Einstein
Outline of Albert Einstein
2016-08-15
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<p>From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</p>
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<p>The following <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_(list)">outline</a> is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Albert Einstein:
</p><p><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein">Albert Einstein</a></b> – deceased German-born <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_physicist">theoretical physicist</a>. He developed the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_relativity">theory of relativity</a>, one of the two pillars of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_physics">modern physics</a> (alongside <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>).<sup><a href="#cite_note-frs-1">[1]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-YangHamilton2010-2">[2]</a></sup><sup></sup> Einstein's work is also known for its influence on the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science">philosophy of science</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> Einstein is best known by the general public for his <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence">mass–energy equivalence</a> formula (which has been dubbed "the world's most famous equation").<sup><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> He received the 1921 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoelectric_effect">photoelectric effect</a>", a pivotal step in the evolution of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduction_to_quantum_mechanics">quantum theory</a>. Einstein published <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_publications_by_Albert_Einstein">more than 300 scientific papers</a> along with over 150 non-scientific works.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Paul_Arthur_Schilpp,_editor_1951_730–746-6">[6]</a></sup> Einstein's intellectual achievements and originality have made the word "Einstein" synonymous with "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genius">genius</a>".<sup><a href="#cite_note-wordnetweb.princeton.edu-7">[7]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2></h2>
<h3></h3>
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativity">General relativity</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence">Mass–energy equivalence (E=MC<sup>2</sup>)</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brownian_motion">Brownian motion</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotoelectric_effect">Fotoelectric effect</a></li></ul>
<h2></h2>
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein%27s_political_views">Albert Einstein's political views</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_views_of_Albert_Einstein">Religious views of Albert Einstein</a></li></ul>
<h3></h3>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_family">Einstein family</a>
</p>
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauline_Koch">Pauline Koch</a> (mother)</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Einstein">Hermann Einstein</a> (father)</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maja_Einstein">Maja Einstein</a> (sister)</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mileva_Mari%C4%87">Mileva Marić</a> (first wife)</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elsa_Einstein">Elsa Einstein</a> (second wife)</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieserl_Einstein">Lieserl Einstein</a> (daughter)</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Albert_Einstein">Hans Albert Einstein</a> (son)</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_family#Eduard_%22Tete%22_Einstein_(Albert%27s_second_son)">Eduard Einstein</a> (son)</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Caesar_Einstein">Bernhard Caesar Einstein</a> (grandson)</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evelyn_Einstein">Evelyn Einstein</a> (granddaughter)</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Martin_Einstein">Thomas Martin Einstein</a> (great-grandson)</li></ul>
<h2></h2>
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein_House">Albert Einstein House</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein%27s_Blackboard">Einstein's Blackboard</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_refrigerator">Einstein refrigerator</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein%27s_brain">Albert Einstein's brain</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein_in_popular_culture">Albert Einstein in popular culture</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einsteinium">Einsteinium</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein%27s_awards_and_honors">Awards and honors</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Albert_Einstein">List of things named after Albert Einstein</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_Papers_Project">Einstein Papers Project</a></li>
<li><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Einstein_Theory_of_Relativity">The Einstein Theory of Relativity</a></i> (1923 documentary)</li></ul>
<h3></h3>
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein_Archives">Albert Einstein Archives</a></li></ul>
<h4></h4>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_publications_by_Albert_Einstein">Scientific publications by Albert Einstein</a>
</p>
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annus_Mirabilis_papers"><i>Annus Mirabilis</i> papers</a> (1905)</li>
<li>"<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Cber_die_von_der_molekularkinetischen_Theorie_der_W%C3%A4rme_geforderte_Bewegung_von_in_ruhenden_Fl%C3%BCssigkeiten_suspendierten_Teilchen">Investigations on the Theory of Brownian Movement</a>" (1905)</li>
<li><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativity:_The_Special_and_the_General_Theory">Relativity: The Special and the General Theory</a></i> (1916)</li>
<li><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_as_I_See_It_(book)">The World as I See It</a></i> (1934)</li>
<li>"<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_Socialism%3F">Why Socialism?</a>" (1949)</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russell%E2%80%93Einstein_Manifesto">Russell–Einstein Manifesto</a> (1955)</li></ul>
<h3></h3>
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein_Award">Albert Einstein Award</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein_Medal">Albert Einstein Medal</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein_Peace_Prize">Albert Einstein Peace Prize</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein_World_Award_of_Science">Albert Einstein World Award of Science</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_Prize_(APS)">Einstein Prize (APS)</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_Prize_for_Laser_Science">Einstein Prize for Laser Science</a></li></ul>
<h2></h2>
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein_Society">Albert Einstein Society</a></li></ul>
<h2></h2>
<ul><li><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein:_Creator_and_Rebel">Albert Einstein: Creator and Rebel</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein:_The_Practical_Bohemian">Albert Einstein: The Practical Bohemian</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Am_Albert_Einstein">I Am Albert Einstein</a></i></li></ul>
<h2></h2>
<ul><li><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_(film)">Einstein</a></i> (2008)</li></ul>
<h2></h2>
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_physics">Outline of physics</a></li></ul>
<h2></h2>
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<ul><li><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/1630">Works by Albert Einstein</a> at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li>
<li><a href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Einstein%2C%20Albert%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Albert%20Einstein%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Einstein%2C%20Albert%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Albert%20Einstein%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Einstein%2C%20A%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Albert%20Einstein%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Einstein%2C%20Albert%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Albert%20Einstein%22%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Albert Einstein</a> at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive">Internet Archive</a></li>
<li><a href="https://librivox.org/author/1035">Works by Albert Einstein</a> at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) </li>
<li><a href="http://www.shapell.org/Collection/Jewish-Figures/Einstein-Albert">Einstein's Personal Correspondence: Religion, Politics, The Holocaust, and Philosophy</a> Shapell Manuscript Foundation</li>
<li><a href="https://vault.fbi.gov/Albert%20Einstein">Federal Bureau of Investigation file on Albert Einstein</a></li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150828225916/http://www.pha.jhu.edu/einstein/stuff/einstein%26music.pdf">Einstein and his love of music</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_World">Physics World</a></li>
<li><a href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-bio.html">Albert Einstein</a> on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NobelPrize.org">NobelPrize.org</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.history.com/topics/albert-einstein">Albert Einstein</a>, videos on History.com</li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110608004818/http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/science-technology-and-society/sts-042j-einstein-oppenheimer-feynman-physics-in-the-20th-century-spring-2006/">MIT OpenCourseWare STS.042J/8.225J: Einstein, Oppenheimer, Feynman: Physics in the 20th century</a> at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived 8 June 2011) – free study course that explores the changing roles of physics and physicists during the 20th century</li>
<li><a href="http://www.alberteinstein.info/">Albert Einstein Archives Online (80,000+ Documents)</a> (<a href="http://www.nbcnews.com/id/46785542">MSNBC, 19 March 2012</a>)</li>
<li><a href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/2745/">Einstein's declaration of intention for American citizenship</a> on the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Digital_Library">World Digital Library</a></li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130929151059/http://archon.brandeis.edu/?p=collections%2Ffindingaid&amp;id=41">Albert Einstein Collection</a> at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandeis_University">Brandeis University</a></li>
<li><a href="http://einsteinpapers.press.princeton.edu/">The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein "Digital Einstein"</a> at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University">Princeton University</a></li></ul>
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 * (Top)
 * 1 Achievements and contributions
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 + 1.1 Physics
 * 2 Personal life
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 + 2.1 Family
 * 3 Legacy
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 + 3.1 Works of Albert Einstein
 o 3.1.1 Bibliography of works by Einstein
 + 3.2 Einstein prizes
 * 4 Organizations concerning Albert Einstein
 * 5 Publications about Albert Einstein
 * 6 Films about Albert Einstein
 * 7 See also
 * 8 References
 * 9 External links
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 Outline of Albert Einstein

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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 
 

 The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Albert Einstein:

 Albert Einstein – deceased German-born theoretical physicist. He developed the theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics (alongside quantum mechanics).[1][2] : 274 Einstein's work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science.[3][4] Einstein is best known by the general public for his mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc2 (which has been dubbed "the world's most famous equation").[5] He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect", a pivotal step in the evolution of quantum theory. Einstein published more than 300 scientific papers along with over 150 non-scientific works.[6] Einstein's intellectual achievements and originality have made the word "Einstein" synonymous with "genius".[7]

 Achievements and contributions [ edit ]

 Physics [ edit ]

 * General relativity
 * Mass–energy equivalence (E=MC2)
 * Brownian motion
 * Fotoelectric effect

 Personal life [ edit ]

 * Albert Einstein's political views
 * Religious views of Albert Einstein

 Family [ edit ]

 Einstein family

 * Pauline Koch (mother)
 * Hermann Einstein (father)
 * Maja Einstein (sister)
 * Mileva Marić (first wife)
 * Elsa Einstein (second wife)
 * Lieserl Einstein (daughter)
 * Hans Albert Einstein (son)
 * Eduard Einstein (son)
 * Bernhard Caesar Einstein (grandson)
 * Evelyn Einstein (granddaughter)
 * Thomas Martin Einstein (great-grandson)

 Legacy [ edit ]

 * Albert Einstein House
 * Einstein's Blackboard
 * Einstein refrigerator
 * Albert Einstein's brain
 * Albert Einstein in popular culture
 * Einsteinium
 * Awards and honors
 * List of things named after Albert Einstein
 * Einstein Papers Project
 * The Einstein Theory of Relativity (1923 documentary)

 Works of Albert Einstein [ edit ]

 * Albert Einstein Archives

 Bibliography of works by Einstein [ edit ]

 Scientific publications by Albert Einstein

 * Annus Mirabilis papers (1905)
 * "Investigations on the Theory of Brownian Movement" (1905)
 * Relativity: The Special and the General Theory (1916)
 * The World as I See It (1934)
 * "Why Socialism?" (1949)
 * Russell–Einstein Manifesto (1955)

 Einstein prizes [ edit ]

 * Albert Einstein Award
 * Albert Einstein Medal
 * Albert Einstein Peace Prize
 * Albert Einstein World Award of Science
 * Einstein Prize (APS)
 * Einstein Prize for Laser Science

 Organizations concerning Albert Einstein [ edit ]

 * Albert Einstein Society

 Publications about Albert Einstein [ edit ]

 * Albert Einstein: Creator and Rebel
 * Albert Einstein: The Practical Bohemian
 * I Am Albert Einstein

 Films about Albert Einstein [ edit ]

 * Einstein (2008)

 See also [ edit ]

 * Outline of physics

 References [ edit ]

 1. ^ Whittaker, E. (1 November 1955). "Albert Einstein. 1879–1955". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 1: 37–67. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1955.0005. JSTOR 769242.
 2. ^ Fujia Yang; Joseph H. Hamilton (2010). Modern Atomic and Nuclear Physics. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-4277-16-7.
 3. ^ Don A. Howard, ed. (2014) [First published 11 February 2004], "Einstein's Philosophy of Science", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (website), The Metaphysics Research Lab, Center for the Study of Language and Information (CSLI), Stanford University , retrieved 2015-02-04
 4. ^ Don A. Howard (December 2005), "Albert Einstein as a Philosopher of Science" (PDF) , Physics Today, 58 (12), American Institute of Physics: 34–40, Bibcode:2005PhT....58l..34H, doi:10.1063/1.2169442 , retrieved 2015-03-08 – via University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, author's personal webpage
 5. ^ David Bodanis (2000). E = mc2: A Biography of the World's Most Famous Equation. New York: Walker.
 6. ^ Paul Arthur Schilpp, ed. (1951), Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist, vol. II, New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers (Harper Torchbook edition), pp. 730–746 . His non-scientific works include: About Zionism: Speeches and Lectures by Professor Albert Einstein (1930), "Why War?" (1933, co-authored by Sigmund Freud ), The World As I See It (1934), Out of My Later Years (1950), and a book on science for the general reader, The Evolution of Physics (1938, co-authored by Leopold Infeld ).
 7. ^ Result of WordNet Search for Einstein, 3.1, The Trustees of Princeton University , retrieved 2015-01-04

 External links [ edit ]

 Albert Einstein at Wikipedia's sister projects
 * Definitions from Wiktionary
 * Media from Commons
 * News from Wikinews
 * Quotations from Wikiquote
 * Texts from Wikisource
 * Textbooks from Wikibooks
 * Resources from Wikiversity
 * Works by Albert Einstein at Project Gutenberg
 * Works by or about Albert Einstein at Internet Archive
 * Works by Albert Einstein at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
 * Einstein's Personal Correspondence: Religion, Politics, The Holocaust, and Philosophy Shapell Manuscript Foundation
 * Federal Bureau of Investigation file on Albert Einstein
 * Einstein and his love of music, Physics World
 * Albert Einstein on NobelPrize.org
 * Albert Einstein, videos on History.com
 * MIT OpenCourseWare STS.042J/8.225J: Einstein, Oppenheimer, Feynman: Physics in the 20th century at the Wayback Machine (archived 8 June 2011) – free study course that explores the changing roles of physics and physicists during the 20th century
 * Albert Einstein Archives Online (80,000+ Documents) (MSNBC, 19 March 2012)
 * Einstein's declaration of intention for American citizenship on the World Digital Library
 * Albert Einstein Collection at Brandeis University
 * The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein "Digital Einstein" at Princeton University
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Albert Einstein:
   Albert Einstein  – deceased German-born theoretical physicist. He developed the theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics (alongside quantum mechanics). [1]   [2]    Einstein's work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science. [3]   [4]  Einstein is best known by the general public for his mass–energy equivalence formula (which has been dubbed "the world's most famous equation"). [5]  He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect", a pivotal step in the evolution of quantum theory. Einstein published more than 300 scientific papers along with over 150 non-scientific works. [6]  Einstein's intellectual achievements and originality have made the word "Einstein" synonymous with "genius". [7] 
 
 
  General relativity 
 Mass–energy equivalence (E=MC2) 
 Brownian motion 
 Fotoelectric effect  
 
  Albert Einstein's political views 
 Religious views of Albert Einstein  
 
 Einstein family
  Pauline Koch (mother)
 Hermann Einstein (father)
 Maja Einstein (sister)
 Mileva Marić (first wife)
 Elsa Einstein (second wife)
 Lieserl Einstein (daughter)
 Hans Albert Einstein (son)
 Eduard Einstein (son)
 Bernhard Caesar Einstein (grandson)
 Evelyn Einstein (granddaughter)
 Thomas Martin Einstein (great-grandson) 
 
  Albert Einstein House 
 Einstein's Blackboard 
 Einstein refrigerator 
 Albert Einstein's brain 
 Albert Einstein in popular culture 
 Einsteinium 
 Awards and honors 
 List of things named after Albert Einstein 
 Einstein Papers Project 
  The Einstein Theory of Relativity  (1923 documentary) 
 
  Albert Einstein Archives  
 
 Scientific publications by Albert Einstein
   Annus Mirabilis papers (1905)
"Investigations on the Theory of Brownian Movement" (1905)
  Relativity: The Special and the General Theory  (1916)
  The World as I See It  (1934)
"Why Socialism?" (1949)
 Russell–Einstein Manifesto (1955) 
 
  Albert Einstein Award 
 Albert Einstein Medal 
 Albert Einstein Peace Prize 
 Albert Einstein World Award of Science 
 Einstein Prize (APS) 
 Einstein Prize for Laser Science  
 
  Albert Einstein Society  
 
   Albert Einstein: Creator and Rebel  
  Albert Einstein: The Practical Bohemian  
  I Am Albert Einstein   
 
   Einstein  (2008) 
 
  Outline of physics  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  Works by Albert Einstein at Project Gutenberg 
 Works by or about Albert Einstein at Internet Archive 
 Works by Albert Einstein at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) 
 Einstein's Personal Correspondence: Religion, Politics, The Holocaust, and Philosophy Shapell Manuscript Foundation
 Federal Bureau of Investigation file on Albert Einstein 
 Einstein and his love of music, Physics World 
 Albert Einstein on NobelPrize.org 
 Albert Einstein, videos on History.com
 MIT OpenCourseWare STS.042J/8.225J: Einstein, Oppenheimer, Feynman: Physics in the 20th century at the Wayback Machine (archived 8 June 2011) – free study course that explores the changing roles of physics and physicists during the 20th century
 Albert Einstein Archives Online (80,000+ Documents) (MSNBC, 19 March 2012)
 Einstein's declaration of intention for American citizenship on the World Digital Library 
 Albert Einstein Collection at Brandeis University 
 The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein "Digital Einstein" at Princeton University
Outline of Albert Einstein
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Albert_Einstein
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_views_of_Albert_Einstein
Political views of Albert Einstein - Wikipedia
2009-08-16
None
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<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Albert_Einstein_Head.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> was predominantly known during his lifetime for his development of the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity">theory of relativity</a> and his work in the field of <a href="/wiki/Physics">physics</a> in general. However, his political views were of public interest through the middle of the 20th century due to his fame and involvement in political, humanitarian, and academic projects around the world.
</p><p>Einstein was a <a href="/wiki/List_of_peace_activists#E">peace activist</a> and a firm advocate of <a href="/wiki/World_Federalism">global federalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_law">world law</a>. He was in favour of <a href="/wiki/Socialism">socialism</a>, especially in his later life, detailing his economic views in a 1949 article titled "<a href="/wiki/Why_Socialism%3F">Why Socialism?</a>" for the <i><a href="/wiki/Monthly_Review">Monthly Review</a></i>. His visible position in society allowed him to speak and write frankly, even provocatively, at a time when many people were silenced in <a href="/wiki/Europe">Europe</a> due to the rise of <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany">Nazism in Germany</a>. Einstein, an <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews">Ashkenazi Jew</a>, was staunchly opposed to the policies of the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Nazi_Germany">Nazi government</a>; shortly after the outbreak of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II">World War II</a>, he relocated to the <a href="/wiki/United_States">United States</a> and became an <a href="/wiki/Citizenship_of_the_United_States">American citizen</a> in 1940. Following his move, he frequently objected to the mistreatment of <a href="/wiki/African_Americans">African Americans</a> throughout the country and also worked with various civil rights organizations. Einstein was a prominent supporter of <a href="/wiki/Labor_Zionism">Labor Zionism</a> for <a href="/wiki/Israel">Israel</a>, and also advocated <a href="/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_peace_process">Arab–Jewish cooperation</a> after the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</a>.
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<h2>Germany[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_views_of_Albert_Einstein&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Born in <a href="/wiki/Ulm">Ulm</a>, Einstein was a German citizen from birth. As he grew older, Einstein's <a href="/wiki/Pacifism">pacifism</a> often clashed with the German Empire's militant views at the time. At the age of 17, Einstein renounced his German citizenship and moved to <a href="/wiki/Switzerland">Switzerland</a> to attend college. The loss of Einstein's citizenship allowed him to avoid service in the military, which suited his pacifist views. In response to a <a href="/wiki/Manifesto_of_the_Ninety-Three">Manifesto of the Ninety-Three</a> signed by 93 leading German intellectuals including <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck">Max Planck</a> in support of the German war effort, Einstein and three others wrote a counter-manifesto.<sup><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup>
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Einstein accepted a position at the University of Berlin in 1914, returning to Germany where he spent his time during the rest of World War I.<sup><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> Einstein also reacquired his German citizenship. In the years after the war, Einstein was very vocal in his support for Germany. In 1918, Einstein was one of the founding members of the <a href="/wiki/German_Democratic_Party">German Democratic Party</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Liberalism">liberal</a> party.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Einstein2013-3">[3]</a></sup><sup>: 83 </sup> In 1921, Einstein refused to attend the third <a href="/wiki/Solvay_Congress">Solvay Congress</a> in <a href="/wiki/Belgium">Belgium</a>, as his German compatriots were excluded. In 1922, Einstein joined a committee sponsored by the League of Nations, but quickly left when the League refused to act on <a href="/wiki/France">France</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Ruhr">occupation of the</a> <a href="/wiki/Ruhr">Ruhr</a> in 1923. As a member of the <a href="/wiki/German_League_of_Human_Rights">German League of Human Rights</a>, Einstein worked hard to repair relations between Germany and France.</p><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Citizen-Einstein.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Einstein receiving his certificate of American citizenship from Judge <a href="/wiki/Phillip_Forman">Phillip Forman</a> in 1940. He retained his Swiss citizenship.<sup><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup></p></div></div>
<p>Einstein moved to the United States in December 1932, where he worked at the <a href="/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology">California Institute of Technology</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pasadena,_California">Pasadena, California</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> and lectured at <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Flexner">Abraham Flexner</a>'s newly founded <a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Advanced_Study">Institute for Advanced Study</a> in <a href="/wiki/Princeton,_New_Jersey">Princeton, New Jersey</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup> Einstein renounced his German citizenship in 1933 due to the rise of <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party">Nazi Party</a>.
</p><p>During the 1930s and into World War II, Einstein wrote <a href="/wiki/Affidavit">affidavits</a> recommending United States <a href="/wiki/Visa_(document)">visas</a> for European Jews who were trying to flee persecution and lobbied for looser immigration rules.<sup><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> He raised money for Zionist organizations and was, in part, responsible for the 1933 formation of the <a href="/wiki/International_Rescue_Committee">International Rescue Committee</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup>
</p><p>After World War II ended, and the Nazis were removed from power, Einstein refused to associate with Germany. Einstein refused several honors bestowed upon him by Germany, as he could not forgive the Germans for the <a href="/wiki/Holocaust">Holocaust</a>, where six million of his fellow Jews were murdered.<sup><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup> In 1944 Einstein stated "Behind the Nazi party stands the German people, who elected Hitler after he had in his book and in his speeches made his shameful intentions clear beyond the possibility of misunderstanding".<sup><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup> Einstein, however, re-visited Germany on a trip to Europe in 1952.<sup><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup>
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<h2>Civil rights[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_views_of_Albert_Einstein&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Einstein was a proponent of <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights">civil rights</a> and used his notoriety to condemn American discrimination. When he arrived in America, he objected to the mistreatment of <a href="/wiki/African_American">African Americans</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup> Einstein, who had experienced heavy anti-Semitic discrimination in pre-World War II Germany, worked with a number of leading civil rights activists<sup><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-14">[14]</a></sup> and civil rights organizations (such as the Princeton chapter of the <a href="/wiki/NAACP">NAACP</a>) to demand equality and denounce racism and segregation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup>
</p><p>When African American singer and civil rights supporter <a href="/wiki/Marian_Anderson">Marian Anderson</a> was denied rooms at hotels and forbidden to eat at public restaurants, Einstein invited her to his home. After a bloody racial riot in 1946, where 500 state troopers with submachine guns attacked and destroyed virtually every black-owned business in a four-square-block area in Tennessee and arrested 25 black men for attempted murder, Einstein joined <a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt">Eleanor Roosevelt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Langston_Hughes">Langston Hughes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a> to fight for justice for the men. Later, 24 of the 25 defendants were acquitted.
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<blockquote>
<p>There is, however, a somber point in the social outlook of Americans. Their sense of equality and human dignity is mainly limited to men of white skins.
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<p><cite>Albert Einstein<br />speech at <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_University_(Pennsylvania)">Lincoln University</a>, 1946<sup><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-14">[14]</a></sup></cite>
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<p>In 1946, he travelled to <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_University_(Pennsylvania)">Lincoln University</a> in Pennsylvania, the alma mater of Langston Hughes and Thurgood Marshall and the first school in America to grant college degrees to blacks. At Lincoln, Einstein received an honorary degree and gave a lecture on relativity to Lincoln students.<sup><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup>
</p><p>When two black couples were murdered in <a href="/wiki/Monroe,_Georgia">Monroe, Georgia</a>, and justice was not served, Einstein was so outraged that he lent his prominence to actor and activist <a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson">Paul Robeson</a>’s <a href="/wiki/American_Crusade_to_End_Lynching">American Crusade to End Lynching</a> and wrote a letter to President <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman">Truman</a> calling for prosecution of <a href="/wiki/Lynching">lynchers</a> and passage of a federal anti-lynching law. When Robeson was <a href="/wiki/Blacklisting">blacklisted</a> due to his activism against racism, again it was Einstein who opened his home to his long-time friend of 20 years.
</p><p>In 1931, Einstein joined <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Dreiser">Theodore Dreiser</a>'s committee to protest the injustice experienced by the <a href="/wiki/Scottsboro_Boys">Scottsboro Boys</a>, a group of African American teenagers convicted of rape by an <a href="/wiki/All_white_jury">all-white jury</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup> In 1946, Einstein also came out in support of <a href="/wiki/Willie_McGee_(convict)">Willie McGee</a>, a black Mississippi sharecropper who was sentenced to death after being accused of raping a white woman.<sup><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup>
</p><p>Written between October 1922 and March 1923, the travel diaries of Einstein released in 2018 contain remarks that have been called racist and <a href="/wiki/Xenophobia">xenophobic</a>. He notes how the "Chinese don’t sit on benches while eating but squat like Europeans do when they relieve themselves out in the leafy woods. All this occurs quietly and demurely. Even the children are spiritless and look obtuse." After earlier writing of the "abundance of offspring" and the "fecundity" of the Chinese, he goes on to say: "It would be a pity if these Chinese supplant all other races. For the likes of us the mere thought is unspeakably dreary." Einstein's perceptions of the Japanese he meets are more positive: "Japanese unostentatious, decent, altogether very appealing," he writes. "Pure souls as nowhere else among people. One has to love and admire this country."<sup><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup>
</p><p>Einstein was one of the thousands of signatories of <a href="/wiki/Magnus_Hirschfeld">Magnus Hirschfeld</a>'s petition against <a href="/wiki/Paragraph_175">Paragraph 175</a> of the German penal code, which condemned homosexuality. The petition ran for more than thirty years in the intellectual circles thanks to the activity of Hirschfeld's <a href="/wiki/Scientific-Humanitarian_Committee">Scientific-Humanitarian Committee</a>, which collected many signatures from Jewish members of the German intellectual elite.<sup><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup>
</p><p>Einstein was opposed to violence against animals, so he thought that one should "embrace all living creatures". He also sympathized with the idea of <a href="/wiki/Vegetarianism">vegetarianism</a>. The latest indications, a letter written to Hans Mühsam, dated March 30, 1954, suggest that Einstein was a vegetarian for the last year of his life, though he appears to have supported the idea for many years before practicing it himself. In this letter Einstein states that he was feeling quite well eating vegetarian food and that "man was not born to be a carnivore". He wrote in another letter a year before: "I have always eaten animal flesh with a somewhat guilty conscience".<sup><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup>
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<h2>Zionism[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_views_of_Albert_Einstein&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Einstein was a prominent supporter of both <a href="/wiki/Labor_Zionism">Labor Zionism</a> and efforts to encourage Jewish-Arab cooperation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-StachelBZ-23">[23]</a></sup> In 1938 Einstein explained "In this hour one thing, above all, must be emphasized: Judaism owes a great debt of gratitude to Zionism. The Zionist movement has revived among Jews the sense of community. It has performed productive work surpassing all the expectations any one could entertain. This productive work in Palestine, to which self-sacrificing Jews throughout the world have contributed has saved a large number of our brethren from direst need".<sup><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup> Einstein supported the creation of a Jewish national homeland in the <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine">British mandate of Palestine</a> but was opposed to the idea of a Jewish state "with borders, an army, and a measure of temporal power."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Einstein2013-3">[3]</a></sup><sup>: 33 </sup> According to Marc Elis, Einstein declared himself a human being, a Jew, an opponent of nationalism, and a Zionist; he supported the idea of a Jewish homeland in Palestine but until summer 1947 conceived of this as a <a href="/wiki/Binational_solution">bi-national state</a> with "continuously functioning, mixed, administrative, economic, and social organizations."<sup><a href="#cite_note-forward.com-25">[25]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup>
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<blockquote><p>Long before the emergence of Hitler I made the cause of Zionism mine because through it I saw a means of correcting a flagrant wrong....The Jewish people alone has for centuries been in the anomalous position of being victimized and hounded as a people, though bereft of all the rights and protections which even the smallest people normally has...Zionism offered the means of ending this discrimination. Through the return to the land to which they were bound by close historic ties...Jews sought to abolish their pariah status among peoples... The advent of Hitler underscored with a savage logic all the disastrous implications contained in the abnormal situation in which Jews found themselves. Millions of Jews perished... because there was no spot on the globe where they could find sanctuary...The Jewish survivors demand the right to dwell amid brothers, on the ancient soil of their fathers."Letter to <a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru">Jawaharlal Nehru</a>, Prime Minister of India, June 13, 1947<sup><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Einsteinwiezmann.PNG"></a></p></div>
<p>His speeches and lectures about Zionism were published in 1931 by The Macmillan Company<sup><a href="#cite_note-Einstein_Simon_1931_p.-28">[28]</a></sup> and eleven of these essays were collected in a 1933 book entitled <i>Mein Weltbild</i> and translated into English as <i><a href="/wiki/The_World_as_I_See_It_(book)">The World as I See It</a></i>; Einstein's foreword dedicates the collection "to the Jews of Germany".<sup><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup> In the face of Germany's rising militarism, Einstein wrote and spoke for peace.<sup><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup>
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Einstein publicly stated reservations about the proposal to partition the British mandate of Palestine into independent Arab and Jewish countries. In a 1938 speech, "Our Debt to Zionism", he said: </p><blockquote><p>I should much rather see reasonable agreement with the Arabs on the basis of living together in peace than the creation of a Jewish state. My awareness of the essential nature of <a href="/wiki/Judaism">Judaism</a> resists the idea of a Jewish state with borders, an army, and a measure of temporal power, no matter how modest. I am afraid of the inner damage Judaism will sustain—especially from the development of a narrow nationalism within our own ranks, against which we have already had to fight strongly, even without a Jewish state. ... If external necessity should after all compel us to assume this burden, let us bear it with tact and patience.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Rowe_2007,_p_33-32">[32]</a></sup></p></blockquote><p>His attitudes were nuanced: In his testimony before the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-American_Committee_of_Inquiry">Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry</a> in January 1946, Einstein stated that he was not in favor of the creation of a Jewish state,<sup><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup> while in a 1947 letter to Indian Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru">Jawaharlal Nehru</a> intended to persuade India to support Zionist aims of establishing a Jewish homeland in Palestine, Einstein stated that the <a href="/wiki/Balfour_Declaration">Balfour Declaration</a>'s proposal to establish a national home for Jews in Palestine "redresses the balance" of justice and history,<sup><a href="#cite_note-morris-34">[34]</a></sup> claiming that "at the end of the first world war, the Allies gave the Arabs 99% of the vast, underpopulated territories liberated from the Turks to satisfy their national aspirations and five independent Arab states were established. One percent was reserved for the Jews in the land of their origin".<sup><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup> Einstein remained strongly supportive of unlimited Jewish immigration to Palestine.<sup><a href="#cite_note-RoweSchulmann2007-36">[36]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-JanssenLehner2014-37">[37]</a></sup>
</p><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Jawaharlal_Nehru_with_Albert_Einstein_at_Princeton,_New_Jersey.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Albert Einstein with Jawaharlal Nehru at Princeton, New Jersey</p></div></div>
<p>The United Nations ultimately recommended division the mandate and the establishment of a <a href="/wiki/State_of_Israel">Jewish State</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/1948_Arab-Israeli_war">1948 Arab-Israeli war</a> broke out as the mandate ended. Einstein was one of the authors of an open letter to the <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times">New York Times</a></i> in 1948<sup><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup> which deeply criticized <a href="/wiki/Menachem_Begin">Menachem Begin</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Herut">Herut</a> (Freedom) Party for the <a href="/wiki/Deir_Yassin_massacre">Deir Yassin massacre</a> attributed to "terrorist bands", (<a href="#CITEREFEinstein1948">Einstein 1948</a>) and likened Herut to "the Nazi and Fascist parties". He further stated "The Deir Yassin incident exemplifies the character and actions of the Freedom Party". Einstein said of the party that "Today they speak of freedom, democracy and anti-imperialism...It is in its actions that the terrorist party betrays its real character", while also criticizing <a href="/wiki/Irgun">Irgun</a> by calling it a "terrorist, right-wing, chauvinist organization".<sup><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup>
</p><p>When President <a href="/wiki/Harry_Truman">Harry Truman</a> recognized Israel in May 1948, Einstein declared it "the fulfillment of our (Jewish) dreams."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Was_Einstein_a_Zionist-42">[42]</a></sup> Einstein also supported vice president <a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wallace">Henry Wallace</a>’s <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Party_(United_States,_1948)">Progressive Party</a> during the 1948 Presidential election which also advocated a pro-Soviet and pro-Israel foreign policy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-jewishtribune.ca-43">[43]</a></sup> 
</p><p>Einstein served on the Board of Governors of <a href="/wiki/The_Hebrew_University">The Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a>. In his Will of 1950, Einstein bequeathed literary rights to his writings The Hebrew University, where many of his original documents are held in the <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein_Archives">Albert Einstein Archives</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup>
</p><p>When Israeli President <a href="/wiki/Chaim_Weizmann">Chaim Weizmann</a> died in 1952, Einstein was asked to be Israel's second president, but he declined, stating that he had "neither the natural ability nor the experience to deal with human beings."<sup><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup> He wrote: "I am deeply moved by the offer from our State of Israel, and at once saddened and ashamed that I cannot accept it."<sup><a href="#cite_note-zqhsnv-46">[46]</a></sup>
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<h2>Cold War politics[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_views_of_Albert_Einstein&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>When he was a visible figure working against the rise of Nazism, Einstein had sought help and developed working relationships in both the West and what was to become the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_bloc">Soviet bloc</a>. After World War II, enmity between the former allies became a very serious issue for people with international résumés. To make things worse, during the first days of <a href="/wiki/McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a>, Einstein was writing about a single <a href="/wiki/World_government">world government</a> believing "There can never be complete agreement on international control and the administration of atomic energy or on general disarmament until there is a modification of the traditional concept of national sovereignty."<sup><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/J._Edgar_Hoover">J. Edgar Hoover</a>, the first director of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation">Federal Bureau of Investigation</a>, promoted a letter from the <a href="/wiki/Woman_Patriot_Corporation">Woman Patriot Corporation</a> accusing Einstein of left-wing radicalism and imploring the government to bar him from entry to the United States. Hoover accused Einstein of being pro-Soviet. However, Einstein denounced <a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic">Soviet Russia</a> and in a letter said, "there seems to be complete suppression of the individual and of <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech">freedom of speech</a>".<sup><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup>
</p><p>In a 1949 <i><a href="/wiki/Monthly_Review">Monthly Review</a></i> article entitled "Why Socialism?"<sup><a href="#cite_note-WhySoc-49">[49]</a></sup> Albert Einstein described a chaotic capitalist society, a source of evil to be overcome, as the "predatory phase of human development" (<a href="#CITEREFEinstein1949">Einstein 1949</a>). With <a href="/wiki/Albert_Schweitzer">Albert Schweitzer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell">Bertrand Russell</a>, Einstein lobbied to stop nuclear testing and future bombs. Days before his death, Einstein signed the <a href="/wiki/Russell-Einstein_Manifesto">Russell-Einstein Manifesto</a>, which led to the <a href="/wiki/Pugwash_Conferences_on_Science_and_World_Affairs">Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup>
</p><p>When the aged <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a> was accused of being a Communist spy, Einstein volunteered as a character witness, and the case was dismissed shortly afterward. Einstein's friendship with activist <a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson">Paul Robeson</a>, with whom he served as co-chair of the American Crusade to End Lynching, lasted twenty years.<sup><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup> In 1953, in a letter to Rose Russell, a member of the Teachers Union of the City of New York, Einstein described the McCarthy hearings as "using people as tools for the prosecution of others that one wants to label as 'unorthodox.'"<sup><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup> Einstein considered Senator <a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCarthy">Joseph McCarthy</a> to be a danger to intellectual and <a href="/wiki/Academic_freedom">academic freedom</a>.
</p><p>In 1953, <a href="/wiki/William_Frauenglass">William Frauenglass</a>, a New York city school teacher who, having been called to testify, refused, and facing dismissal from his position, wrote to Einstein for support. In his reply, Einstein stated: "The reactionary politicians have managed to instill suspicion of all intellectual efforts into the public by dangling before their eyes a danger from without. Having succeeded so far they are now proceeding to suppress the freedom of teaching and to deprive of their positions all those who do not prove submissive, i.e. to starve them." Einstein's advised: "Every intellectual who is called before one of the committees ought to refuse to testify, i.e. he must be prepared for jail and economic ruin, in short, for the sacrifice of his personal welfare in the interest of the cultural welfare of his country." Einstein concluded, "If enough people are ready to take this grave step they will be successful. If not, then the intellectuals of this country deserve nothing better than the slavery which is intended for them."<sup><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1946, Einstein collaborated with Rabbi Israel Goldstein, <a href="/wiki/Middlesex_University_(Massachusetts)">Middlesex University</a> heir C. Ruggles Smith, and activist attorney George Alpert on the Albert Einstein Foundation for Higher Learning, which was formed to create a Jewish-sponsored secular university, open to all students, on the grounds of the former Middlesex University in <a href="/wiki/Waltham,_Massachusetts">Waltham, Massachusetts</a>. Middlesex was chosen in part because it was accessible from both Boston and New York City, Jewish cultural centers of the U.S. Their vision was a university "deeply conscious both of the Hebraic tradition of Torah looking upon culture as a birthright, and of the American ideal of an educated democracy."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Reis-54">[54]</a></sup> The collaboration was stormy, however. When Einstein wanted to appoint British economist <a href="/wiki/Harold_Laski">Harold Laski</a> as the university's president, George Alpert wrote that Laski was "a man utterly alien to American principles of democracy, tarred with the Communist brush."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Reis-54">[54]</a></sup> Einstein withdrew his support of the university and barred the use of his name,<sup><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup> opening in 1948 as <a href="/wiki/Brandeis_University">Brandeis University</a> instead. In 1953, Brandeis offered Einstein an honorary degree, which he declined.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Reis-54">[54]</a></sup><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot">dead link</a></i>]</sup>
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<h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_views_of_Albert_Einstein&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5">edit</a>]</h2><p>
In 1918, Einstein was one of the founding members of the <a href="/wiki/German_Democratic_Party">German Democratic Party</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Liberalism">liberal</a> party.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Einstein2013-3">[3]</a></sup><sup>: 83 </sup> However, later in his life, Einstein was in favor of <a href="/wiki/Socialism">socialism</a> and in opposition to <a href="/wiki/Capitalism">capitalism</a>. In his 1949 essay "Why Socialism?", he wrote:</p><blockquote><p>I am convinced there is only one way to eliminate these grave evils, namely through the establishment of a socialist economy, accompanied by an educational system which would be oriented toward social goals. In such an economy, the means of production are owned by society itself and are utilized in a planned fashion. A planned economy, which adjusts production to the needs of the community, would distribute the work to be done among all those able to work and would guarantee a livelihood to every man, woman, and child. The education of the individual, in addition to promoting his own innate abilities, would attempt to develop in him a sense of responsibility for his fellow-men in place of the glorification of power and success in our present society.</p></blockquote><p>Einstein's opinions on the <a href="/wiki/Bolsheviks">Bolsheviks</a> changed with time. In 1925, he criticized them for not having a 'well-regulated system of government' and called their rule a 'regime of terror and a tragedy in human history'. He later adopted a more balanced view, criticizing their methods but praising their goals, demonstrated by his 1929 remark on <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>: "I honor Lenin as a man who completely sacrificed himself and devoted all his energy to the realization of social justice. I do not consider his methods practical, but one thing is certain: men of his type are the guardians and restorers of the conscience of humanity."<sup><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup> Rowe translates the beginning of the second sentence as "I do not find his methods advisable".<sup><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1949 Einstein stated "The achievement of socialism requires the solution of some extremely difficult socio-political problems: how is it possible, in view of the far-reaching centralization of political and economic power, to prevent bureaucracy from becoming all-powerful and overweening? How can the rights of the individual be protected and therewith a democratic counterweight to the power of bureaucracy be assured?".<sup><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup>
</p><p>Einstein held <a href="/wiki/Georgism">Georgism</a> (named after the political economist <a href="/wiki/Henry_George">Henry George</a>) in high regard, writing in 1934: "One cannot imagine a more beautiful combination of intellectual keenness, artistic form and fervent love of justice."<sup><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup>
</p><p>Given Einstein's links to Germany and Zionism, his socialist ideals, and his links to Communist figures, the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation">U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation</a> kept a file on Einstein that grew to 1,427 pages.<sup><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Internationalism[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_views_of_Albert_Einstein&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>From the 1930s and until his death in the 1950s, a primary focus of Einstein political work was promoting international cooperation. He promoted the creation of a new world organization to replace the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations">League of Nations</a>, and advocated reforming the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations">United Nations</a> once it had been created. He was also in favor of world federalism.
</p><p>
He wrote hundreds of letters, speeches, gave interviews and directly advocated the issue of <a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)">internationalism</a> in various forms. In a letter to the United Nations General Assembly he wrote: </p><blockquote><p>[T]he method of representation at the United Nations should be considerably modified. The present method of selection by government appointment does not leave any real freedom to the appointee. Furthermore, selection by governments cannot give the peoples of the world the feeling of being fairly and proportionately represented. The moral authority of the United Nations would be considerably enhanced if the delegates were elected directly by the people. Were they responsible to an electorate, they would have much more freedom to follow their consciences. Thus we could hope for more statesmen and fewer diplomats.<sup><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></sup></p></blockquote><p>In 1951, Einstein wrote that the United Nations was "merely an organization of delegates from national governments and not of independent individuals who, guided solely by their personal convictions, represent the populations of the various countries. Moreover, decisions in the United Nations have no binding force on any national government; nor do any concrete means exist by which these decisions can actually be enforced." Einstein in 1947 wrote that "with all my heart I believe that the world present system" will lead only "to barbarism, war and inhumanity and that only world law can assure progress toward a civilized peaceful humanity".<sup><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup>
</p><h2>War and pacifism[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_views_of_Albert_Einstein&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Einstein-cartoon1.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Cartoon of Einstein, depicting him shedding his "Pacifism" wings and raising a sword labeled "Preparedness" in response to an increasingly hostile Germany (circa 1933)</p></div></div>
<p>Einstein was a lifelong pacifist and believed that wars stood in the way of human progress.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Einstein-64">[64]</a></sup> He believed that wars were the result of natural aggressive tendencies found within all organisms and that the aims and causes of war were simply justification for these tendencies. He advocated the creation of a supranational organization would make war as impossible in Europe as it was impossible between the former kingdoms that comprised the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire">German Empire</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup> Einstein was horrified by the destruction caused by <a href="/wiki/World_War_I">World War I</a> and promoted what he referred to as the "two percent plan". According to the plan, nations would be unable to wage war if one in 50 men refused to serve in the military.<sup><a href="#cite_note-johnhorgan.org-67">[67]</a></sup>
</p><p>Despite these views, following the rise to power of <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>, Einstein became a vocal advocate for preparedness, recognizing the dangers of Nazi Germany gaining an advantage over the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II">Western Allies</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></sup> Alarmed at Hitler’s territorial ambitions, Einstein actively encouraged Belgians to join the military to protect European civilization.<sup><a href="#cite_note-johnhorgan.org-67">[67]</a></sup> He explained the change in his outlook in 1941:
</p>
<blockquote><p>In the twenties, when no dictatorships existed, I advocated that refusing to go to war would make war improper. But as soon as coercive conditions appeared in certain nations, I felt that it would weaken the less aggressive nations vis-à-vis the more aggressive ones.<sup><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>Einstein justified his letter to President Roosevelt recommending that an atomic bomb be produced by writing:
</p>
<blockquote><p>...it seemed probable that the Germans might be working on the same problem with every prospect of success. I had no alternative but to act as I did, <i>although I have always been a convinced pacifist.</i> (emphasis in original)<sup><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>When questioned about this position, Einstein wrote:
</p>
<blockquote><p>I did not say that I was an <i>absolute</i> pacifist, but rather that I have always been a <i>convinced</i> pacifist. While I am a convinced pacifist, there are circumstances in which I believe the use of force is appropriate – namely, in the face of an enemy unconditionally bent on destroying me and my people. ... I am a <i>dedicated</i> but not an <i>absolute</i> pacifist; this means that I am opposed to the use of force under any circumstances except when confronted by an enemy who pursues the destruction of life as an <i>end in itself</i>. (emphasis in original)<sup><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>He further explained:
</p>
<blockquote><p>I have always been a pacifist, i.e. I have declined to recognize brute force as a means for the solution of international conflicts. Nevertheless, it is, in my opinion, not reasonable to cling to that principle unconditionally. An exception has necessarily to be made if a hostile power threatens wholesale destruction of one's own group.<sup><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>In September 1942, in a private letter to Princeton University president, Einstein criticized the U.S. for not doing enough to fight Nazi Germany. He argued that "If Hitler were not a lunatic he could easily have avoided the hostility of the Western powers" if not for his threats of world domination.<sup><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></sup>
</p><p>Following the conclusion of World War II, Einstein once again became a constant and vocal activist for world peace.<sup><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Atomic bomb[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_views_of_Albert_Einstein&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Concerned scientists, many of them refugees in the U.S. from German anti-Semitism, recognized the danger of German scientists' developing an <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bomb">atomic bomb</a> based on the newly discovered phenomena of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission">nuclear fission</a>. In 1939, the Hungarian émigré <a href="/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd">Leó Szilárd</a>, having failed to arouse U.S. government interest on his own, worked with Einstein to write a letter to U.S. President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt">Franklin Delano Roosevelt</a>, which Einstein signed, urging coordination of U.S. research into fission.<sup><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></sup> On 11 October 1939 <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Sachs">Alexander Sachs</a>, an adviser to Roosevelt on economic affairs, delivered the <a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Szil%C3%A1rd_letter">Einstein–Szilárd letter</a> and persuaded the president of its importance.<sup><a href="#cite_note-rhodes-76">[76]</a></sup> "This requires action", Roosevelt told an aide, and authorized a small research program into the feasibility of nuclear weapons.<sup><a href="#cite_note-rhodes-76">[76]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></sup>
</p><p>This work was originally quite modest, and Einstein himself was deliberately excluded from it. In 1941, the work accelerated, after the favorable conclusions of a report from the British <a href="/wiki/MAUD_Committee">MAUD Committee</a> reached the United States. This would lead, in 1942, to the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project">Manhattan Project</a>, a massive scientific-industrial-military effort to develop atomic bombs for use in war. By late 1945, the U.S., with support from the United Kingdom and Canada, had developed operational nuclear weapons, and used them on the Japanese cities of <a href="/wiki/Hiroshima">Hiroshima</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nagasaki,_Nagasaki">Nagasaki</a>.
</p><p>Einstein himself did not play a role in the development of the atomic bomb other than signing the letter, although he did help the United States Navy with some unrelated theoretical questions it was working on during the war.<sup><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></sup><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources">unreliable source?</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling">Linus Pauling</a>, Einstein later expressed regret about his letter to Roosevelt, adding that Einstein had originally justified his decision because of the greater danger that Nazi Germany would develop the bomb first.<sup><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></sup> In 1947, Einstein told <i><a href="/wiki/Newsweek">Newsweek</a></i> magazine that "had I known that the Germans would not succeed in developing an atomic bomb, I would have done nothing."<sup><a href="#cite_note-AMNH-80">[80]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></sup> In that same year, he wrote an article for <i><a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic_Monthly">The Atlantic Monthly</a></i> arguing that the United States should not try to pursue an atomic monopoly, and instead should equip the United Nations with nuclear weapons for the sole purpose of maintaining deterrence.<sup><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></sup> Einstein also said during this period "Since I do not foresee that atomic energy is to be a great boon for a long time, I have to say that for the present it is a menace. Perhaps it is well that it should be. It may intimidate the human race to bring order into its international affairs, which without the pressure of fear, it undoubtedly would not do".<sup><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></sup>
</p><p>Einstein is often attributed to variations of the following quote: "I do not know how the <a href="/wiki/World_War_III">Third World War</a> will be fought, but I can tell you what they will use in the Fourth — sticks and stones". There is no record of Einstein uttering the quote apart from anecdotes from peers.<sup><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Humanitarianism[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_views_of_Albert_Einstein&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Einstein participated in the 1927 congress of the <a href="/wiki/League_against_Imperialism">League against Imperialism</a> in <a href="/wiki/Brussels">Brussels</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></sup> Einstein also met with many <a href="/wiki/Humanism">humanists</a> and humanitarians, including <a href="/wiki/Rabindranath_Tagore">Rabindranath Tagore</a> with whom he had extensive conversations in 1930 prior to leaving Germany.<sup><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>See also[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_views_of_Albert_Einstein&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_and_philosophical_views_of_Albert_Einstein">Religious and philosophical views of Albert Einstein</a></li></ul>
<h2>References[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_views_of_Albert_Einstein&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11">edit</a>]</h2>
<div>
<ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b> <cite>American Institute of Physics, <a href="https://history.aip.org/exhibits/einstein/public1.htm">"Albert Einstein: Public Concerns"</a>, <i>American Institute of Physics</i></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b> <cite>American Museum of Natural History, <a href="http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/past-exhibitions/einstein/peace-and-war/europe-at-war">"Europe at War"</a>, <i>Einstein</i></cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Einstein2013_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Einstein2013_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Einstein2013_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Rowe, David E.; Schulmann, Robert (2007-04-16). <i>Einstein on Politics: His Private Thoughts and Public Stands on Nationalism, Zionism, War, Peace, and the Bomb</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12094-2"><bdi>978-0-691-12094-2</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.aip.org/history/einstein/chron.htm">"An Albert Einstein Chronology"</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Institute_of_Physics">American Institute of Physics</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070715110214/http://www.aip.org/history/einstein/chron.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 15 July 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-06.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b> Clark, R. "Einstein: The Life and Times" Harper-Collins, 1984. 880 pp.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b> <cite>Hakim, Joy (1995). <i>A History of Us: War, Peace and all that Jazz</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-509514-6"><bdi>0-19-509514-6</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b> <cite>Onion, Rebecca. <a href="http://www.slate.com/blogs/the_vault/2013/12/13/albert_einstein_eleanor_roosevelt_1941_letter_asking_the_first_lady_to_help.html">"Einstein's 1941 Letter to Eleanor Roosevelt, Begging Asylum for Jewish Refugees"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Slate_Magazine">Slate Magazine</a></i>. Retrieved 13 December 2013.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b> 
<cite><a href="https://www.rescue.org/page/history-international-rescue-committee">"History of the International Rescue Committee"</a>. International Rescue Committee. 22 July 2016. Retrieved 3 March 2019.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b> which gives support and shelter to refugees from social and political persecution.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b> <cite>American Institute of Physics, <a href="http://www.aip.org/history/einstein/nuclear2.htm">"Albert Einstein: Nuclear Age II"</a>, <i>American Institute of Physics</i></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b> Einstein, A. (1950). Out of my later years. Philosophical library, Inc. Chapter 53, To the heroes of the battle of the Warsaw ghetto. p. 239
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b> <cite>Kleinknecht, Konrad. <a href="https://www.faz.net/aktuell/wissen/physik-mehr/raetselhafter-brief-von-physiker-albert-einstein-13928338.html">"Rätselhafter Einstein-Brief: "Danke für dieses Stückchen Mittelalter""</a>. <i>Faz.net</i>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/past-exhibitions/einstein/global-citizen/civil-rights-movement">[1]</a>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/past-exhibitions/einstein/global-citizen/civil-rights-movement">Civil Rights Movement</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b> <cite>States, John J. SimonTopics: History Socialism Places: Germany United (2005-05-01). <a href="https://monthlyreview.org/2005/05/01/albert-einstein-radical-a-political-profile/">"Monthly Review | Albert Einstein, Radical: A Political Profile"</a>. <i>Monthly Review</i>. Retrieved 2021-06-04.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b> <a href="http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2007/04/albert-einstein-civil-rights-activist/">Albert Einstein, Civil Rights activist | Harvard Gazette</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/how-celebrity-scientist-albert-einstein-used-fame-denounce-american-racism-180962356/">"How Albert Einstein Used His Fame to Denounce American Racism"</a>. <i>Smithsonian Magazine</i>. Retrieved 2021-06-04.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=126539134">"My Grandfather's Execution"</a>. <i>NPR.org</i>. Retrieved 2021-06-04.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b> <cite>Flood, Alison (12 June 2018). <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2018/jun/12/einsteins-travel-diaries-reveal-shocking-xenophobia">"Einstein's travel diaries reveal 'shocking' xenophobia"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b> [Carol Dunn, "The Jewish Connection to Homosexuality in the Third Reich", University of Sydney], citing p. 24,[3], John Lauritsen and David Thorstad, <i>The Early Homosexual Rights Movement (1864-1935)</i>, New York Times Change Press, 1974, 14
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.ivu.org/history/northam20a/einstein.html">"History of Vegetarianism – Albert Einstein"</a>. Retrieved 2010-10-08.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b> Alice Calaprice (Hrsg.): <i>The Ultimate Quotable Einstein.</i> Princeton University Press 2011, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13817-6">978-0-691-13817-6</a>, S. 453–454. (<i><a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G_iziBAPXtEC&amp;pg=PA453">Auszug (Google)</a></i>, p. 453, at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books">Google Books</a>)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-StachelBZ_23-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/John_Stachel">Stachel, John</a> (2001-12-10). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OAsQ_hFjhrAC&amp;pg=PA70"><i>Einstein from 'B' to 'Z'</i></a>. Birkhäuser Boston. p. 70. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8176-4143-2"><bdi>0-8176-4143-2</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b> Einstein, A. (1950). Out of my later years. Philosophical library, Inc. Chapter 52, Our debt to zionism. p 237
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-forward.com_25-0">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.forward.com/articles/109560/">"Einstein and Complex Analyses of Zionism"</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Daily_Forward">Jewish Daily Forward</a></i>, July 24, 2009
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b> Fred Jerome, <i>Einstein on Israel and Zionism: His Provocative Ideas About the Middle East</i>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b> Letter to <a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru">Jawaharlal Nehru</a>, Prime Minister of India, June 13, 1947,<a href="http://www.jns.org/latest-articles/2016/7/19/history-channel-removes-tendentious-wording-about-einstein-and-israel#.V9Z7sFt96Uk=">http://www.jns.org/latest-articles/2016/7/19/history-channel-removes-tendentious-wording-about-einstein-and-israel#.V9Z7sFt96Uk=</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Einstein_Simon_1931_p._28-0">^</a></b> <cite>Einstein, Albert; Simon, Leon (1931). <a href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.88312"><i>About Zionism : speeches and letters</i></a>. The Macmillan Co. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1331582">1331582</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b> Originally published by <a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Querido">Querido</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a> publishing house and available in reprint paperback from Filiquarian Publishing, LLC, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59986-965-9">1-59986-965-9</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070315185808/http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/einstein/revolution/index.php"><i>Einstein's Revolution</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/American_Museum_of_Natural_History">American Museum of Natural History</a>, 2002, archived from <a href="http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/einstein/revolution/index.php">the original</a> on 15 March 2007, retrieved 2007-03-14</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b> See the AMNH site's popup of translated letter from Freud, in the section "Freud and Einstein", regarding proposed joint presentation on "What can be done to rid mankind of the menace of war?"
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rowe_2007,_p_33_32-0">^</a></b> <a href="/wiki/David_E._Rowe">David E. Rowe</a> &amp; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Schulmann&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1">Robert Schulmann</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Schulmann">de</a>], <i>Einstein on Politics: His Private Thoughts and Public Stands on Nationalism, Zionism, War, Peace, and the Bomb</i> (2007), p. 33.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b> Evan Wilson, <i>A Calculated Risk: The U.S. Decision to Recognize Israel</i> (1979) 2009 p.149.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-morris_34-0">^</a></b> <cite>Morris, Benny (2005-02-16). <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/feb/16/israel.india">"Einstein's other theory"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. Guardian News and Media Limited. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101027112402/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2005/feb/16/israel.india">Archived</a> from the original on 27 October 2010. Retrieved 2013-05-23.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b> <cite>Morris, Benny (2005-02-16). <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/feb/16/israel.india">"Einstein's other theory"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-RoweSchulmann2007_36-0">^</a></b> <cite>David E. Rowe; Robert J. Schulmann (2007). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AIHgK-p6mhgC"><i>Einstein on Politics: His Private Thoughts and Public Stands on Nationalism, Zionism, War, Peace, and the Bomb</i></a>. Princeton University Press. p. 37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12094-2"><bdi>978-0-691-12094-2</bdi></a>.</cite> <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AIHgK-p6mhgC&amp;pg=PA37">Extract of page 37</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-JanssenLehner2014_37-0">^</a></b> <cite>Michel Janssen; Christoph Lehner (19 May 2014). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LBhvAwAAQBAJ"><i>The Cambridge Companion to Einstein</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 440. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82834-5"><bdi>978-0-521-82834-5</bdi></a>.</cite> <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LBhvAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA440">Extract of page 440</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b> <cite>Abramowitz, Isidore. <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/New_Palestine_Party;_Visit_of_Menachen_Begin_and_Aims_of_Political_Movement_Discussed"><i>New Palestine Party; Visit of Menachen Begin and Aims of Political Movement Discussed</i></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b> <cite>Albert Einstein, Hannah Arendt. <a href="https://archive.org/details/AlbertEinsteinLetterToTheNewYorkTimes.December41948"><i>Albert Einstein Letter to The New York Times. December 4, 1948 New Palestine Party. Visit of Menachen Begin and Aims of Political Movement Discussed</i></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1948/12/04/96605844.html">"New Palestine Party; Visit of Menachen Begin and Aims of Political Movement Discussed"</a>. <i>timesmachine.nytimes.com</i>. Retrieved 2021-02-22.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b> New Palestine Party Visit of Menachem Begin and Aims of Political Movement Discussed
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Was_Einstein_a_Zionist_42-0">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.zionism-israel.com/ezine/Einstein_and_Zionism.htm">"Was Einstein a Zionist"</a> <i>Zionism and Israel Information Center</i>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-jewishtribune.ca_43-0">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.jewishtribune.ca/TribuneV2/201004142880/Albert-Einstein-was-a-political-activist.html/">"Albert Einstein was a political activist"</a> <a href="https://archive.today/20101017220129/http://www.jewishtribune.ca/TribuneV2/201004142880/Albert-Einstein-was-a-political-activist.html/">Archived</a> 2010-10-17 at <a href="/wiki/Archive.today">archive.today</a> <i>Jewish Tribune</i>,14 April 2010
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b> <cite>Albert Einstein Archives (2007), <a href="http://albert-einstein.org/history5.html">"History of the Estate of Albert Einstein"</a>, <a href="http://albert-einstein.org/"><i>Albert Einstein Archives</i></a>, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070329121541/http://www.albert-einstein.org/">archived</a> from the original on 29 March 2007, retrieved 2007-03-25</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b> <cite>TIME Online (1952-12-01), <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080817132036/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,817454,00.html">"Einstein Declines"</a>, <i>TIME</i>, archived from <a href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,817454,00.html">the original</a> on 17 August 2008, retrieved 2008-08-08</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-zqhsnv_46-0">^</a></b> <cite>Princeton Online (1995), <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070208202014/http://www.princetonhistory.org/museum_alberteinstein.cfm"><i>Einstein in Princeton: Scientist, Humanitarian, Cultural Icon</i></a>, Historical Society of Princeton, archived from <a href="http://www.princetonhistory.org/museum_alberteinstein.cfm">the original</a> on 2007-02-08, retrieved 2007-03-14</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130510174259/http://neutrino.aquaphoenix.com/un-esa/ws1997-letter-einstein.html">"To the General Assembly of the United Nations by Albert Einstein"</a>. Archived from <a href="http://neutrino.aquaphoenix.com/un-esa/ws1997-letter-einstein.html">the original</a> on 2013-05-10. Retrieved 2019-03-25.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b> <cite>Isaacson, Walter (2008-09-04). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OzSJgdwk5esC&amp;pg=PP433"><i>Einstein: His Life and Universe</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Simon_and_Schuster">Simon and Schuster</a>. p. 433. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84739-589-4"><bdi>978-1-84739-589-4</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-WhySoc_49-0">^</a></b> <cite>Albert Einstein (May 1949). <a href="http://monthlyreview.org/598einstein.php">"Why Socialism?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Monthly_Review">Monthly Review</a></i>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b> <cite>Butcher, Sandra Ionno (May 2005). <a href="http://www.pugwash.org/publication/phs/history9.pdf">"The Origins of the Russell-Einstein Manifesto"</a> (PDF). Council of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070604194704/http://www.pugwash.org/publication/phs/history9.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 4 June 2007. Retrieved 2007-05-02.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b> <cite>Ken Gewertz (2007-04-12). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070529080415/http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2007/04.12/01-einstein.html">"Albert Einstein, Civil Rights activist"</a>. <i>Harvard University Gazette</i>. Archived from <a href="http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2007/04.12/01-einstein.html">the original</a> on 2007-05-29. Retrieved 2007-06-11.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/spotlight-primary-source/albert-einstein-mccarthy-hearings-and-fifth-amendment">"Albert Einstein on the McCarthy hearings and the Fifth Amendment, 1953 | Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History"</a>. <i>www.gilderlehrman.org</i>. Retrieved 2021-06-04.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b> Letter to William Frauenglass, published in the New York Times June 12, 1953
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Reis_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reis_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reis_54-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Reis, Arthur H., Jr (1998), <a href="http://www.brandeis.edu/publications/review/50threview/einstein.pdf">"The Albert Einstein Involvement"</a> (PDF), <i>Brandeis Review, 50th Anniversary Edition</i>, retrieved 2007-03-25</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b> <cite>New York Times (22 June 1947), <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1947/06/22/archives/dr-einstein-quits-university-plan-withdraws-support-of-brandeis-and.html">"Dr. Einstein Quits University Plan"</a>, <i>The New York Times</i>, retrieved 2007-03-14</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b> <cite>Feuer, Lewis S. (1989). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7S_jiIbNq6cC&amp;pg=PA25"><i>Einstein and the Generations of Science</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0878558995"><bdi>978-0878558995</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b> Einstein: An Intimate Study of a Great Man. Dimitri Marianoff, Palma Wayne. p.96
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b> <cite>Rowe, David E. (2013-11-10). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_X1dAAAAQBAJ&amp;q=Einstein+on+Politics%3A+His+Private+Thoughts+Lenin&amp;pg=PA413"><i>Einstein on Politics: His Private Thoughts and Public Stands on Nationalism, Zionism, War, Peace, and the Bomb</i></a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-4828-7"><bdi>978-1-4008-4828-7</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b> Einstein, A. (1950). Out of my later years. Philosophical library, Inc. Chapter 18, Why Socialism? p 126
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110412105846/http://www.cooperativeindividualism.org/einstein-albert_letters-to-anna-george-demille-1934.html">"Albert Einstein / On Henry George"</a>. Archived from <a href="http://www.cooperativeindividualism.org/einstein-albert_letters-to-anna-george-demille-1934.html">the original</a> on 2011-04-12. Retrieved 2010-12-28.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.wsws.org/articles/2002/sep2002/eins-s03.shtml">"The FBI and Albert Einstein"</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7goAAAAAMBAJ&amp;pg=PA13"><i>Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists</i></a>. Vol. 35. <a href="/wiki/Bulletin_of_the_Atomic_Scientists">Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists</a>. March 1979. p. 13.</cite><code>{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: date and year (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_date_and_year">link</a>)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b> <cite>Einstein, Albert (1960). Nathan, Otto; Norden, Heinz (eds.). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OHOPAAAAMAAJ"><i>Einstein on Peace</i></a>. Simon and Schuster. pp. 4, 14, 51–52, 406–407, 429–430, 539–540, 691.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Einstein_64-0">^</a></b> <cite>Einstein, Albert (1933). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UQ85AQAAIAAJ"><i>The Fight Against War. Edited by Alfred Lief</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/John_Day_Company">John Day</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b> Einstein, Albert. <a href="http://www.onbeing.org/program/einstein039s-god-einstein039s-ethics/extra/einstein-my-opinion-war-1915/1988">"My Opinion on the War"</a> (1915)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b> Einstein, Albert. To A. Morrisett (March 21, 1952). Einstein Archive 60-595, quoted in Calaprice, Alice (ed.) <i>The New Quotable Einstein</i> Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2005. p.160 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-12075-7">0-691-12075-7</a>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-johnhorgan.org_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-johnhorgan.org_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://www.johnhorgan.org/toward_a_unified_theory_of_einstein_s_life_61298.htm">http://www.johnhorgan.org/toward_a_unified_theory_of_einstein_s_life_61298.htm</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140624084003/http://www.johnhorgan.org/toward_a_unified_theory_of_einstein_s_life_61298.htm">Archived</a> 2014-06-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Author: John Horgan
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.dannen.com/ae-fdr.html">http://www.dannen.com/ae-fdr.html</a> Einstein to Roosevelt, August 2, 1939
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b> Einstein, Albert. Interview in <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times">The New York Times</a></i> (December 30, 1941. Einstein Archive 29-096, quoted in Calaprice, Alice (ed.) <i>The New Quotable Einstein</i> Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2005. p.159 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-12075-7">0-691-12075-7</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b> Einstein, Albert. Letter to the editor of the Japanese magazine <i>Kaizo</i> (September 22, 1952), quoted in Calaprice, Alice (ed.) <i>The New Quotable Einstein</i> Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2005. p.160 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-12075-7">0-691-12075-7</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b> Einstein, Albert. Letter to Japanese pacifist Seiei Shinohara (February 22, 1953), quoted in Calaprice, Alice (ed.) <i>The New Quotable Einstein</i> Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2005. p.161 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-12075-7">0-691-12075-7</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b> Einstein, Albert. To Herbert H. Fox (May 18, 1954), from the Einstein Archive 59-727, quoted in Calaprice, Alice (ed.) <i>The New Quotable Einstein</i> Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2005. p.162 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-12075-7">0-691-12075-7</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b> <cite>Albert Einstein (10 November 2013). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7mmYDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA451"><i>Einstein on Politics: His Private Thoughts and Public Stands on Nationalism, Zionism, War, Peace, and the Bomb</i></a>. Princeton University Press. pp. 451–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16020-7"><bdi>978-0-691-16020-7</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b> <a href="https://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/episodes/albert-einstein/how-i-see-the-world/585/"><i>Albert Einstein: How I See the World</i></a> <i><a href="/wiki/American_Masters">American Masters</a></i> (TV series), <a href="/wiki/PBS">PBS</a> (August 16, 2006)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b> <cite>Discover Magazine March 2008. <a href="http://discovermagazine.com/2008/mar/18-chain-reaction-from-einstein-to-the-atomic-bomb">"Chain Reaction: From Einstein to the Atomic Bomb"</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-rhodes_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rhodes_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rhodes">Rhodes, Richard</a> (1986). <a href="/wiki/The_Making_of_the_Atomic_Bomb"><i>The Making of the Atomic Bomb</i></a>. New York: Simon and Schuster. pp. <a href="https://archive.org/details/makingofatomicbo00rhod/page/307">307–314</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-44133-7"><bdi>0-671-44133-7</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b> <cite>The Atomic Heritage Foundation. <a href="http://www.mphpa.org/index2.php?option=com_content&amp;do_pdf=1&amp;id=172">"Einstein's Letter to Franklin D. Roosevelt"</a>. Retrieved 2007-05-26.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b> <cite>Schwarz, Frederic (April 1998). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090924035622/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/it/1998/4/1998_4_8.shtml">"Einstein's Ordnance"</a>. AmericanHeritage.com. Archived from <a href="http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/it/1998/4/1998_4_8.shtml">the original</a> on 2009-09-24. Retrieved 2008-03-23.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b> <i><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061108075927/http://virtor.bar.admin.ch/pdf/ausstellung_einstein_fr/der_pazifist/A-Bomb_Regrets.pdf">Scientist Tells of Einstein's A-bomb Regrets</a></i>. The Philadelphia Bulletin, 13 May 1955. (PDF document from the <a href="http://virtor.bar.admin.ch/en/default.aspx">Swiss Federal Archives</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070129060603/http://virtor.bar.admin.ch/en/default.aspx">Archived</a> 2007-01-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from Internet Archive.)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-AMNH_80-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/past-exhibitions/einstein/peace-and-war/the-manhattan-project">"The Manhattan Project"</a>. American Museum of Natural History. Retrieved October 9, 2013.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b> <cite>"Einstein, the Man Who Started It All". <i><a href="/wiki/Newsweek">Newsweek</a></i>. 10 March 1947.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b> <cite>Einstein, Albert (November 1947). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080308034044/http://theamericanideabook.theatlantic.com/archives/2007/09/atomic_war_or_peace.php">"Atomic War or Peace"</a>. <i>Atlantic Monthly</i>. Archived from <a href="http://theamericanideabook.theatlantic.com/archives/2007/09/atomic_war_or_peace.php">the original</a> on 8 March 2008. Retrieved 2008-03-23.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b> Einstein, A. (1950). Out of my later years. Philosophical library, Inc. Chapter 31, Atomic war or peace. p 177
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b> <cite>Calaprice, Alice (2005), <a href="http://press.princeton.edu/titles/7921.html"><i>The new quotable Einstein</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press">Princeton University Press</a>, p. 173, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-12075-7"><bdi>0-691-12075-7</bdi></a></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/einstein-world-war-iv-sticks-stones/">"Did Albert Einstein Say World War IV Will be Fought 'With Sticks and Stones'?"</a>. <i>Snopes.com</i>. Retrieved 2021-06-04.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://san.beck.org/15-4-ChinaCivilWar1927-37.html">"<i>Nationalist-Communist Civil War 1927–1937</i>"</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071011161337/http://www.san.beck.org/15-4-ChinaCivilWar1927-37.html">Archived</a> from the original on 11 October 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-03.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.sawf.org/newedit/edit03192001/musicarts.asp">Sawf.org</a>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2>External links[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_views_of_Albert_Einstein&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li><a href="https://www.shapell.org/historical-perspectives/exhibitions/albert-einstein-original-letters-aid-brethren/">Historical Letters and Primary Source Documents from Albert Einstein</a> Shapell Manuscript Foundation</li>
<li><a href="https://monthlyreview.org/2009/05/01/why-socialism">Why Socialism?</a> by Albert Einstein, <i><a href="/wiki/Monthly_Review">Monthly Review</a></i>, May 1949</li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101008203712/http://themindofeinstein.com/category/politics-government-society/">On Politics, Government, and Society</a> A Collection of Einstein's Thoughts</li>
<li>Alan Whyte and Peter Daniels. <a href="http://www.wsws.org/articles/2002/sep2002/eins-s03.shtml">"The FBI and Albert Einstein"</a> World Socialist Web Site. September 3, 2002</li></ul>
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 * 1 Germany
 * 2 Civil rights
 * 3 Zionism
 * 4 Cold War politics
 * 5 Socialism
 * 6 Internationalism
 * 7 War and pacifism
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 * 8 Humanitarianism
 * 9 See also
 * 10 References
 * 11 External links
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 Political views of Albert Einstein

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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 Einstein, 1947 (aged 68)

 Albert Einstein was predominantly known during his lifetime for his development of the theory of relativity and his work in the field of physics in general. However, his political views were of public interest through the middle of the 20th century due to his fame and involvement in political, humanitarian, and academic projects around the world.

 Einstein was a peace activist and a firm advocate of global federalism and world law. He was in favour of socialism, especially in his later life, detailing his economic views in a 1949 article titled "Why Socialism?" for the Monthly Review. His visible position in society allowed him to speak and write frankly, even provocatively, at a time when many people were silenced in Europe due to the rise of Nazism in Germany. Einstein, an Ashkenazi Jew, was staunchly opposed to the policies of the Nazi government; shortly after the outbreak of World War II, he relocated to the United States and became an American citizen in 1940. Following his move, he frequently objected to the mistreatment of African Americans throughout the country and also worked with various civil rights organizations. Einstein was a prominent supporter of Labor Zionism for Israel, and also advocated Arab–Jewish cooperation after the outbreak of the Arab–Israeli conflict.

 Germany [ edit ]

 Born in Ulm, Einstein was a German citizen from birth. As he grew older, Einstein's pacifism often clashed with the German Empire's militant views at the time. At the age of 17, Einstein renounced his German citizenship and moved to Switzerland to attend college. The loss of Einstein's citizenship allowed him to avoid service in the military, which suited his pacifist views. In response to a Manifesto of the Ninety-Three signed by 93 leading German intellectuals including Max Planck in support of the German war effort, Einstein and three others wrote a counter-manifesto.[1]

 Einstein accepted a position at the University of Berlin in 1914, returning to Germany where he spent his time during the rest of World War I.[2] Einstein also reacquired his German citizenship. In the years after the war, Einstein was very vocal in his support for Germany. In 1918, Einstein was one of the founding members of the German Democratic Party, a liberal party.[3] : 83 In 1921, Einstein refused to attend the third Solvay Congress in Belgium, as his German compatriots were excluded. In 1922, Einstein joined a committee sponsored by the League of Nations, but quickly left when the League refused to act on France's occupation of the Ruhr in 1923. As a member of the German League of Human Rights, Einstein worked hard to repair relations between Germany and France.

 Einstein receiving his certificate of American citizenship from Judge Phillip Forman in 1940. He retained his Swiss citizenship.[4]

 Einstein moved to the United States in December 1932, where he worked at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, California,[5] and lectured at Abraham Flexner's newly founded Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey.[6] Einstein renounced his German citizenship in 1933 due to the rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party.

 During the 1930s and into World War II, Einstein wrote affidavits recommending United States visas for European Jews who were trying to flee persecution and lobbied for looser immigration rules.[7] He raised money for Zionist organizations and was, in part, responsible for the 1933 formation of the International Rescue Committee.[8][9]

 After World War II ended, and the Nazis were removed from power, Einstein refused to associate with Germany. Einstein refused several honors bestowed upon him by Germany, as he could not forgive the Germans for the Holocaust, where six million of his fellow Jews were murdered.[10] In 1944 Einstein stated "Behind the Nazi party stands the German people, who elected Hitler after he had in his book and in his speeches made his shameful intentions clear beyond the possibility of misunderstanding".[11] Einstein, however, re-visited Germany on a trip to Europe in 1952.[12]

 Civil rights [ edit ]

 Einstein was a proponent of civil rights and used his notoriety to condemn American discrimination. When he arrived in America, he objected to the mistreatment of African Americans.[13] Einstein, who had experienced heavy anti-Semitic discrimination in pre-World War II Germany, worked with a number of leading civil rights activists[14] and civil rights organizations (such as the Princeton chapter of the NAACP) to demand equality and denounce racism and segregation.[15]

 When African American singer and civil rights supporter Marian Anderson was denied rooms at hotels and forbidden to eat at public restaurants, Einstein invited her to his home. After a bloody racial riot in 1946, where 500 state troopers with submachine guns attacked and destroyed virtually every black-owned business in a four-square-block area in Tennessee and arrested 25 black men for attempted murder, Einstein joined Eleanor Roosevelt, Langston Hughes, and Thurgood Marshall to fight for justice for the men. Later, 24 of the 25 defendants were acquitted.

 There is, however, a somber point in the social outlook of Americans. Their sense of equality and human dignity is mainly limited to men of white skins.

 Albert Einstein
 speech at Lincoln University, 1946[14]

 In 1946, he travelled to Lincoln University in Pennsylvania, the alma mater of Langston Hughes and Thurgood Marshall and the first school in America to grant college degrees to blacks. At Lincoln, Einstein received an honorary degree and gave a lecture on relativity to Lincoln students.[16]

 When two black couples were murdered in Monroe, Georgia, and justice was not served, Einstein was so outraged that he lent his prominence to actor and activist Paul Robeson’s American Crusade to End Lynching and wrote a letter to President Truman calling for prosecution of lynchers and passage of a federal anti-lynching law. When Robeson was blacklisted due to his activism against racism, again it was Einstein who opened his home to his long-time friend of 20 years.

 In 1931, Einstein joined Theodore Dreiser's committee to protest the injustice experienced by the Scottsboro Boys, a group of African American teenagers convicted of rape by an all-white jury.[17] In 1946, Einstein also came out in support of Willie McGee, a black Mississippi sharecropper who was sentenced to death after being accused of raping a white woman.[18]

 Written between October 1922 and March 1923, the travel diaries of Einstein released in 2018 contain remarks that have been called racist and xenophobic. He notes how the "Chinese don’t sit on benches while eating but squat like Europeans do when they relieve themselves out in the leafy woods. All this occurs quietly and demurely. Even the children are spiritless and look obtuse." After earlier writing of the "abundance of offspring" and the "fecundity" of the Chinese, he goes on to say: "It would be a pity if these Chinese supplant all other races. For the likes of us the mere thought is unspeakably dreary." Einstein's perceptions of the Japanese he meets are more positive: "Japanese unostentatious, decent, altogether very appealing," he writes. "Pure souls as nowhere else among people. One has to love and admire this country."[19]

 Einstein was one of the thousands of signatories of Magnus Hirschfeld's petition against Paragraph 175 of the German penal code, which condemned homosexuality. The petition ran for more than thirty years in the intellectual circles thanks to the activity of Hirschfeld's Scientific-Humanitarian Committee, which collected many signatures from Jewish members of the German intellectual elite.[20]

 Einstein was opposed to violence against animals, so he thought that one should "embrace all living creatures". He also sympathized with the idea of vegetarianism. The latest indications, a letter written to Hans Mühsam, dated March 30, 1954, suggest that Einstein was a vegetarian for the last year of his life, though he appears to have supported the idea for many years before practicing it himself. In this letter Einstein states that he was feeling quite well eating vegetarian food and that "man was not born to be a carnivore". He wrote in another letter a year before: "I have always eaten animal flesh with a somewhat guilty conscience".[21][22]

 Zionism [ edit ]

 Einstein was a prominent supporter of both Labor Zionism and efforts to encourage Jewish-Arab cooperation.[23] In 1938 Einstein explained "In this hour one thing, above all, must be emphasized: Judaism owes a great debt of gratitude to Zionism. The Zionist movement has revived among Jews the sense of community. It has performed productive work surpassing all the expectations any one could entertain. This productive work in Palestine, to which self-sacrificing Jews throughout the world have contributed has saved a large number of our brethren from direst need".[24] Einstein supported the creation of a Jewish national homeland in the British mandate of Palestine but was opposed to the idea of a Jewish state "with borders, an army, and a measure of temporal power."[3] : 33 According to Marc Elis, Einstein declared himself a human being, a Jew, an opponent of nationalism, and a Zionist; he supported the idea of a Jewish homeland in Palestine but until summer 1947 conceived of this as a bi-national state with "continuously functioning, mixed, administrative, economic, and social organizations."[25][26]

 Long before the emergence of Hitler I made the cause of Zionism mine because through it I saw a means of correcting a flagrant wrong....The Jewish people alone has for centuries been in the anomalous position of being victimized and hounded as a people, though bereft of all the rights and protections which even the smallest people normally has...Zionism offered the means of ending this discrimination. Through the return to the land to which they were bound by close historic ties...Jews sought to abolish their pariah status among peoples... The advent of Hitler underscored with a savage logic all the disastrous implications contained in the abnormal situation in which Jews found themselves. Millions of Jews perished... because there was no spot on the globe where they could find sanctuary...The Jewish survivors demand the right to dwell amid brothers, on the ancient soil of their fathers."Letter to Jawaharlal Nehru, Prime Minister of India, June 13, 1947[27]

 Albert Einstein, seen here with his wife Elsa Einstein and Zionist leaders, including future President of Israel Chaim Weizmann, his wife Dr. Vera Weizmann, Menahem Ussishkin, and Ben-Zion Mossinson on arrival in New York City in 1921

 His speeches and lectures about Zionism were published in 1931 by The Macmillan Company[28] and eleven of these essays were collected in a 1933 book entitled Mein Weltbild and translated into English as The World as I See It; Einstein's foreword dedicates the collection "to the Jews of Germany".[29] In the face of Germany's rising militarism, Einstein wrote and spoke for peace.[30][31]

 Einstein publicly stated reservations about the proposal to partition the British mandate of Palestine into independent Arab and Jewish countries. In a 1938 speech, "Our Debt to Zionism", he said:

 I should much rather see reasonable agreement with the Arabs on the basis of living together in peace than the creation of a Jewish state. My awareness of the essential nature of Judaism resists the idea of a Jewish state with borders, an army, and a measure of temporal power, no matter how modest. I am afraid of the inner damage Judaism will sustain—especially from the development of a narrow nationalism within our own ranks, against which we have already had to fight strongly, even without a Jewish state. ... If external necessity should after all compel us to assume this burden, let us bear it with tact and patience.[32]

 His attitudes were nuanced: In his testimony before the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry in January 1946, Einstein stated that he was not in favor of the creation of a Jewish state,[33] while in a 1947 letter to Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru intended to persuade India to support Zionist aims of establishing a Jewish homeland in Palestine, Einstein stated that the Balfour Declaration's proposal to establish a national home for Jews in Palestine "redresses the balance" of justice and history,[34] claiming that "at the end of the first world war, the Allies gave the Arabs 99% of the vast, underpopulated territories liberated from the Turks to satisfy their national aspirations and five independent Arab states were established. One percent was reserved for the Jews in the land of their origin".[35] Einstein remained strongly supportive of unlimited Jewish immigration to Palestine.[36][37]

 Albert Einstein with Jawaharlal Nehru at Princeton, New Jersey

 The United Nations ultimately recommended division the mandate and the establishment of a Jewish State, and the 1948 Arab-Israeli war broke out as the mandate ended. Einstein was one of the authors of an open letter to the New York Times in 1948[38][39][40] which deeply criticized Menachem Begin's Herut (Freedom) Party for the Deir Yassin massacre attributed to "terrorist bands", (Einstein 1948) and likened Herut to "the Nazi and Fascist parties". He further stated "The Deir Yassin incident exemplifies the character and actions of the Freedom Party". Einstein said of the party that "Today they speak of freedom, democracy and anti-imperialism...It is in its actions that the terrorist party betrays its real character", while also criticizing Irgun by calling it a "terrorist, right-wing, chauvinist organization".[41]

 When President Harry Truman recognized Israel in May 1948, Einstein declared it "the fulfillment of our (Jewish) dreams."[42] Einstein also supported vice president Henry Wallace’s Progressive Party during the 1948 Presidential election which also advocated a pro-Soviet and pro-Israel foreign policy.[43]

 Einstein served on the Board of Governors of The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. In his Will of 1950, Einstein bequeathed literary rights to his writings The Hebrew University, where many of his original documents are held in the Albert Einstein Archives.[44]

 When Israeli President Chaim Weizmann died in 1952, Einstein was asked to be Israel's second president, but he declined, stating that he had "neither the natural ability nor the experience to deal with human beings."[45] He wrote: "I am deeply moved by the offer from our State of Israel, and at once saddened and ashamed that I cannot accept it."[46]

 Cold War politics [ edit ]

 When he was a visible figure working against the rise of Nazism, Einstein had sought help and developed working relationships in both the West and what was to become the Soviet bloc. After World War II, enmity between the former allies became a very serious issue for people with international résumés. To make things worse, during the first days of McCarthyism, Einstein was writing about a single world government believing "There can never be complete agreement on international control and the administration of atomic energy or on general disarmament until there is a modification of the traditional concept of national sovereignty."[47]

 J. Edgar Hoover, the first director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, promoted a letter from the Woman Patriot Corporation accusing Einstein of left-wing radicalism and imploring the government to bar him from entry to the United States. Hoover accused Einstein of being pro-Soviet. However, Einstein denounced Soviet Russia and in a letter said, "there seems to be complete suppression of the individual and of freedom of speech".[48]

 In a 1949 Monthly Review article entitled "Why Socialism?"[49] Albert Einstein described a chaotic capitalist society, a source of evil to be overcome, as the "predatory phase of human development" (Einstein 1949). With Albert Schweitzer and Bertrand Russell, Einstein lobbied to stop nuclear testing and future bombs. Days before his death, Einstein signed the Russell-Einstein Manifesto, which led to the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs.[50]

 When the aged W. E. B. Du Bois was accused of being a Communist spy, Einstein volunteered as a character witness, and the case was dismissed shortly afterward. Einstein's friendship with activist Paul Robeson, with whom he served as co-chair of the American Crusade to End Lynching, lasted twenty years.[51] In 1953, in a letter to Rose Russell, a member of the Teachers Union of the City of New York, Einstein described the McCarthy hearings as "using people as tools for the prosecution of others that one wants to label as 'unorthodox. ' "[52] Einstein considered Senator Joseph McCarthy to be a danger to intellectual and academic freedom.

 In 1953, William Frauenglass, a New York city school teacher who, having been called to testify, refused, and facing dismissal from his position, wrote to Einstein for support. In his reply, Einstein stated: "The reactionary politicians have managed to instill suspicion of all intellectual efforts into the public by dangling before their eyes a danger from without. Having succeeded so far they are now proceeding to suppress the freedom of teaching and to deprive of their positions all those who do not prove submissive, i.e. to starve them." Einstein's advised: "Every intellectual who is called before one of the committees ought to refuse to testify, i.e. he must be prepared for jail and economic ruin, in short, for the sacrifice of his personal welfare in the interest of the cultural welfare of his country." Einstein concluded, "If enough people are ready to take this grave step they will be successful. If not, then the intellectuals of this country deserve nothing better than the slavery which is intended for them."[53]

 In 1946, Einstein collaborated with Rabbi Israel Goldstein, Middlesex University heir C. Ruggles Smith, and activist attorney George Alpert on the Albert Einstein Foundation for Higher Learning, which was formed to create a Jewish-sponsored secular university, open to all students, on the grounds of the former Middlesex University in Waltham, Massachusetts. Middlesex was chosen in part because it was accessible from both Boston and New York City, Jewish cultural centers of the U.S. Their vision was a university "deeply conscious both of the Hebraic tradition of Torah looking upon culture as a birthright, and of the American ideal of an educated democracy."[54] The collaboration was stormy, however. When Einstein wanted to appoint British economist Harold Laski as the university's president, George Alpert wrote that Laski was "a man utterly alien to American principles of democracy, tarred with the Communist brush."[54] Einstein withdrew his support of the university and barred the use of his name,[55] opening in 1948 as Brandeis University instead. In 1953, Brandeis offered Einstein an honorary degree, which he declined.[54] [ dead link ]

 Socialism [ edit ]

 In 1918, Einstein was one of the founding members of the German Democratic Party, a liberal party.[3] : 83 However, later in his life, Einstein was in favor of socialism and in opposition to capitalism. In his 1949 essay "Why Socialism?", he wrote:

 I am convinced there is only one way to eliminate these grave evils, namely through the establishment of a socialist economy, accompanied by an educational system which would be oriented toward social goals. In such an economy, the means of production are owned by society itself and are utilized in a planned fashion. A planned economy, which adjusts production to the needs of the community, would distribute the work to be done among all those able to work and would guarantee a livelihood to every man, woman, and child. The education of the individual, in addition to promoting his own innate abilities, would attempt to develop in him a sense of responsibility for his fellow-men in place of the glorification of power and success in our present society.

 Einstein's opinions on the Bolsheviks changed with time. In 1925, he criticized them for not having a 'well-regulated system of government' and called their rule a 'regime of terror and a tragedy in human history'. He later adopted a more balanced view, criticizing their methods but praising their goals, demonstrated by his 1929 remark on Vladimir Lenin: "I honor Lenin as a man who completely sacrificed himself and devoted all his energy to the realization of social justice. I do not consider his methods practical, but one thing is certain: men of his type are the guardians and restorers of the conscience of humanity."[56][57] Rowe translates the beginning of the second sentence as "I do not find his methods advisable".[58]

 In 1949 Einstein stated "The achievement of socialism requires the solution of some extremely difficult socio-political problems: how is it possible, in view of the far-reaching centralization of political and economic power, to prevent bureaucracy from becoming all-powerful and overweening? How can the rights of the individual be protected and therewith a democratic counterweight to the power of bureaucracy be assured?".[59]

 Einstein held Georgism (named after the political economist Henry George) in high regard, writing in 1934: "One cannot imagine a more beautiful combination of intellectual keenness, artistic form and fervent love of justice."[60]

 Given Einstein's links to Germany and Zionism, his socialist ideals, and his links to Communist figures, the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation kept a file on Einstein that grew to 1,427 pages.[61]

 Internationalism [ edit ]

 From the 1930s and until his death in the 1950s, a primary focus of Einstein political work was promoting international cooperation. He promoted the creation of a new world organization to replace the League of Nations, and advocated reforming the United Nations once it had been created. He was also in favor of world federalism.

 He wrote hundreds of letters, speeches, gave interviews and directly advocated the issue of internationalism in various forms. In a letter to the United Nations General Assembly he wrote:

 [T]he method of representation at the United Nations should be considerably modified. The present method of selection by government appointment does not leave any real freedom to the appointee. Furthermore, selection by governments cannot give the peoples of the world the feeling of being fairly and proportionately represented. The moral authority of the United Nations would be considerably enhanced if the delegates were elected directly by the people. Were they responsible to an electorate, they would have much more freedom to follow their consciences. Thus we could hope for more statesmen and fewer diplomats.[62]

 In 1951, Einstein wrote that the United Nations was "merely an organization of delegates from national governments and not of independent individuals who, guided solely by their personal convictions, represent the populations of the various countries. Moreover, decisions in the United Nations have no binding force on any national government; nor do any concrete means exist by which these decisions can actually be enforced." Einstein in 1947 wrote that "with all my heart I believe that the world present system" will lead only "to barbarism, war and inhumanity and that only world law can assure progress toward a civilized peaceful humanity".[63]

 War and pacifism [ edit ]

 Cartoon of Einstein, depicting him shedding his "Pacifism" wings and raising a sword labeled "Preparedness" in response to an increasingly hostile Germany (circa 1933)

 Einstein was a lifelong pacifist and believed that wars stood in the way of human progress.[64] He believed that wars were the result of natural aggressive tendencies found within all organisms and that the aims and causes of war were simply justification for these tendencies. He advocated the creation of a supranational organization would make war as impossible in Europe as it was impossible between the former kingdoms that comprised the German Empire.[65][66] Einstein was horrified by the destruction caused by World War I and promoted what he referred to as the "two percent plan". According to the plan, nations would be unable to wage war if one in 50 men refused to serve in the military.[67]

 Despite these views, following the rise to power of Adolf Hitler, Einstein became a vocal advocate for preparedness, recognizing the dangers of Nazi Germany gaining an advantage over the Western Allies.[68] Alarmed at Hitler’s territorial ambitions, Einstein actively encouraged Belgians to join the military to protect European civilization.[67] He explained the change in his outlook in 1941:

 In the twenties, when no dictatorships existed, I advocated that refusing to go to war would make war improper. But as soon as coercive conditions appeared in certain nations, I felt that it would weaken the less aggressive nations vis-à-vis the more aggressive ones.[69]

 Einstein justified his letter to President Roosevelt recommending that an atomic bomb be produced by writing:

 ...it seemed probable that the Germans might be working on the same problem with every prospect of success. I had no alternative but to act as I did, although I have always been a convinced pacifist. (emphasis in original)[70]

 When questioned about this position, Einstein wrote:

 I did not say that I was an absolute pacifist, but rather that I have always been a convinced pacifist. While I am a convinced pacifist, there are circumstances in which I believe the use of force is appropriate – namely, in the face of an enemy unconditionally bent on destroying me and my people. ... I am a dedicated but not an absolute pacifist; this means that I am opposed to the use of force under any circumstances except when confronted by an enemy who pursues the destruction of life as an end in itself. (emphasis in original)[71]

 He further explained:

 I have always been a pacifist, i.e. I have declined to recognize brute force as a means for the solution of international conflicts. Nevertheless, it is, in my opinion, not reasonable to cling to that principle unconditionally. An exception has necessarily to be made if a hostile power threatens wholesale destruction of one's own group.[72]

 In September 1942, in a private letter to Princeton University president, Einstein criticized the U.S. for not doing enough to fight Nazi Germany. He argued that "If Hitler were not a lunatic he could easily have avoided the hostility of the Western powers" if not for his threats of world domination.[73]

 Following the conclusion of World War II, Einstein once again became a constant and vocal activist for world peace.[74]

 Atomic bomb [ edit ]

 Main article: Manhattan Project

 Concerned scientists, many of them refugees in the U.S. from German anti-Semitism, recognized the danger of German scientists' developing an atomic bomb based on the newly discovered phenomena of nuclear fission. In 1939, the Hungarian émigré Leó Szilárd, having failed to arouse U.S. government interest on his own, worked with Einstein to write a letter to U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, which Einstein signed, urging coordination of U.S. research into fission.[75] On 11 October 1939 Alexander Sachs, an adviser to Roosevelt on economic affairs, delivered the Einstein–Szilárd letter and persuaded the president of its importance.[76] "This requires action", Roosevelt told an aide, and authorized a small research program into the feasibility of nuclear weapons.[76][77]

 This work was originally quite modest, and Einstein himself was deliberately excluded from it. In 1941, the work accelerated, after the favorable conclusions of a report from the British MAUD Committee reached the United States. This would lead, in 1942, to the creation of the Manhattan Project, a massive scientific-industrial-military effort to develop atomic bombs for use in war. By late 1945, the U.S., with support from the United Kingdom and Canada, had developed operational nuclear weapons, and used them on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

 Einstein himself did not play a role in the development of the atomic bomb other than signing the letter, although he did help the United States Navy with some unrelated theoretical questions it was working on during the war.[78][ unreliable source? ]

 According to Linus Pauling, Einstein later expressed regret about his letter to Roosevelt, adding that Einstein had originally justified his decision because of the greater danger that Nazi Germany would develop the bomb first.[79] In 1947, Einstein told Newsweek magazine that "had I known that the Germans would not succeed in developing an atomic bomb, I would have done nothing."[80][81] In that same year, he wrote an article for The Atlantic Monthly arguing that the United States should not try to pursue an atomic monopoly, and instead should equip the United Nations with nuclear weapons for the sole purpose of maintaining deterrence.[82] Einstein also said during this period "Since I do not foresee that atomic energy is to be a great boon for a long time, I have to say that for the present it is a menace. Perhaps it is well that it should be. It may intimidate the human race to bring order into its international affairs, which without the pressure of fear, it undoubtedly would not do".[83]

 Einstein is often attributed to variations of the following quote: "I do not know how the Third World War will be fought, but I can tell you what they will use in the Fourth — sticks and stones". There is no record of Einstein uttering the quote apart from anecdotes from peers.[84][85]

 Humanitarianism [ edit ]

 Einstein participated in the 1927 congress of the League against Imperialism in Brussels.[86] Einstein also met with many humanists and humanitarians, including Rabindranath Tagore with whom he had extensive conversations in 1930 prior to leaving Germany.[87]

 See also [ edit ]

 * Religious and philosophical views of Albert Einstein

 References [ edit ]

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 56. ^ Feuer, Lewis S. (1989). Einstein and the Generations of Science. Routledge. p. 25. ISBN 978-0878558995.
 57. ^ Einstein: An Intimate Study of a Great Man. Dimitri Marianoff, Palma Wayne. p.96
 58. ^ Rowe, David E. (2013-11-10). Einstein on Politics: His Private Thoughts and Public Stands on Nationalism, Zionism, War, Peace, and the Bomb. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-4828-7.
 59. ^ Einstein, A. (1950). Out of my later years. Philosophical library, Inc. Chapter 18, Why Socialism? p 126
 60. ^ "Albert Einstein / On Henry George". Archived from the original on 2011-04-12 . Retrieved 2010-12-28 .
 61. ^ "The FBI and Albert Einstein".
 62. ^ Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Vol. 35. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. March 1979. p. 13.{{cite book}} : CS1 maint: date and year ( link )
 63. ^ Einstein, Albert (1960). Nathan, Otto; Norden, Heinz (eds.). Einstein on Peace. Simon and Schuster. pp. 4, 14, 51–52, 406–407, 429–430, 539–540, 691.
 64. ^ Einstein, Albert (1933). The Fight Against War. Edited by Alfred Lief. New York: John Day.
 65. ^ Einstein, Albert. "My Opinion on the War" (1915)
 66. ^ Einstein, Albert. To A. Morrisett (March 21, 1952). Einstein Archive 60-595, quoted in Calaprice, Alice (ed.) The New Quotable Einstein Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2005. p.160 ISBN 0-691-12075-7
 67. ^ a b http://www.johnhorgan.org/toward_a_unified_theory_of_einstein_s_life_61298.htm Archived 2014-06-24 at the Wayback Machine Author: John Horgan
 68. ^ http://www.dannen.com/ae-fdr.html Einstein to Roosevelt, August 2, 1939
 69. ^ Einstein, Albert. Interview in The New York Times (December 30, 1941. Einstein Archive 29-096, quoted in Calaprice, Alice (ed.) The New Quotable Einstein Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2005. p.159 ISBN 0-691-12075-7
 70. ^ Einstein, Albert. Letter to the editor of the Japanese magazine Kaizo (September 22, 1952), quoted in Calaprice, Alice (ed.) The New Quotable Einstein Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2005. p.160 ISBN 0-691-12075-7
 71. ^ Einstein, Albert. Letter to Japanese pacifist Seiei Shinohara (February 22, 1953), quoted in Calaprice, Alice (ed.) The New Quotable Einstein Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2005. p.161 ISBN 0-691-12075-7
 72. ^ Einstein, Albert. To Herbert H. Fox (May 18, 1954), from the Einstein Archive 59-727, quoted in Calaprice, Alice (ed.) The New Quotable Einstein Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2005. p.162 ISBN 0-691-12075-7
 73. ^ Albert Einstein (10 November 2013). Einstein on Politics: His Private Thoughts and Public Stands on Nationalism, Zionism, War, Peace, and the Bomb. Princeton University Press. pp. 451–. ISBN 978-0-691-16020-7.
 74. ^ Albert Einstein: How I See the World American Masters (TV series), PBS (August 16, 2006)
 75. ^ Discover Magazine March 2008. "Chain Reaction: From Einstein to the Atomic Bomb".
 76. ^ a b Rhodes, Richard (1986). The Making of the Atomic Bomb. New York: Simon and Schuster. pp. 307–314. ISBN 0-671-44133-7.
 77. ^ The Atomic Heritage Foundation. "Einstein's Letter to Franklin D. Roosevelt" . Retrieved 2007-05-26 .
 78. ^ Schwarz, Frederic (April 1998). "Einstein's Ordnance". AmericanHeritage.com. Archived from the original on 2009-09-24 . Retrieved 2008-03-23 .
 79. ^ Scientist Tells of Einstein's A-bomb Regrets . The Philadelphia Bulletin, 13 May 1955. (PDF document from the Swiss Federal Archives Archived 2007-01-29 at the Wayback Machine from Internet Archive.)
 80. ^ "The Manhattan Project". American Museum of Natural History . Retrieved October 9, 2013 .
 81. ^ "Einstein, the Man Who Started It All". Newsweek. 10 March 1947.
 82. ^ Einstein, Albert (November 1947). "Atomic War or Peace". Atlantic Monthly. Archived from the original on 8 March 2008 . Retrieved 2008-03-23 .
 83. ^ Einstein, A. (1950). Out of my later years. Philosophical library, Inc. Chapter 31, Atomic war or peace. p 177
 84. ^ Calaprice, Alice (2005), The new quotable Einstein, Princeton University Press, p. 173, ISBN 0-691-12075-7
 85. ^ "Did Albert Einstein Say World War IV Will be Fought 'With Sticks and Stones'?". Snopes.com . Retrieved 2021-06-04 .
 86. ^ "Nationalist-Communist Civil War 1927–1937". Archived from the original on 11 October 2007 . Retrieved 2007-10-03 .
 87. ^ Sawf.org

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 * Historical Letters and Primary Source Documents from Albert Einstein Shapell Manuscript Foundation
 * Why Socialism? by Albert Einstein, Monthly Review, May 1949
 * On Politics, Government, and Society A Collection of Einstein's Thoughts
 * Alan Whyte and Peter Daniels. "The FBI and Albert Einstein" World Socialist Web Site. September 3, 2002
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Albert Einstein was predominantly known during his lifetime for his development of the theory of relativity and his work in the field of physics in general. However, his political views were of public interest through the middle of the 20th century due to his fame and involvement in political, humanitarian, and academic projects around the world.
 Einstein was a peace activist and a firm advocate of global federalism and world law. He was in favour of socialism, especially in his later life, detailing his economic views in a 1949 article titled "Why Socialism?" for the  Monthly Review . His visible position in society allowed him to speak and write frankly, even provocatively, at a time when many people were silenced in Europe due to the rise of Nazism in Germany. Einstein, an Ashkenazi Jew, was staunchly opposed to the policies of the Nazi government; shortly after the outbreak of World War II, he relocated to the United States and became an American citizen in 1940. Following his move, he frequently objected to the mistreatment of African Americans throughout the country and also worked with various civil rights organizations. Einstein was a prominent supporter of Labor Zionism for Israel, and also advocated Arab–Jewish cooperation after the outbreak of the Arab–Israeli conflict.
Germany[edit]
Born in Ulm, Einstein was a German citizen from birth. As he grew older, Einstein's pacifism often clashed with the German Empire's militant views at the time. At the age of 17, Einstein renounced his German citizenship and moved to Switzerland to attend college. The loss of Einstein's citizenship allowed him to avoid service in the military, which suited his pacifist views. In response to a Manifesto of the Ninety-Three signed by 93 leading German intellectuals including Max Planck in support of the German war effort, Einstein and three others wrote a counter-manifesto. [1] 
 
Einstein accepted a position at the University of Berlin in 1914, returning to Germany where he spent his time during the rest of World War I. [2]  Einstein also reacquired his German citizenship. In the years after the war, Einstein was very vocal in his support for Germany. In 1918, Einstein was one of the founding members of the German Democratic Party, a liberal party. [3]  : 83  In 1921, Einstein refused to attend the third Solvay Congress in Belgium, as his German compatriots were excluded. In 1922, Einstein joined a committee sponsored by the League of Nations, but quickly left when the League refused to act on France's occupation of the Ruhr in 1923. As a member of the German League of Human Rights, Einstein worked hard to repair relations between Germany and France.       Einstein receiving his certificate of American citizenship from Judge Phillip Forman in 1940. He retained his Swiss citizenship. [4]    
Einstein moved to the United States in December 1932, where he worked at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, California, [5]  and lectured at Abraham Flexner's newly founded Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. [6]  Einstein renounced his German citizenship in 1933 due to the rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party.
 During the 1930s and into World War II, Einstein wrote affidavits recommending United States visas for European Jews who were trying to flee persecution and lobbied for looser immigration rules. [7]  He raised money for Zionist organizations and was, in part, responsible for the 1933 formation of the International Rescue Committee. [8]   [9] 
 After World War II ended, and the Nazis were removed from power, Einstein refused to associate with Germany. Einstein refused several honors bestowed upon him by Germany, as he could not forgive the Germans for the Holocaust, where six million of his fellow Jews were murdered. [10]  In 1944 Einstein stated "Behind the Nazi party stands the German people, who elected Hitler after he had in his book and in his speeches made his shameful intentions clear beyond the possibility of misunderstanding". [11]  Einstein, however, re-visited Germany on a trip to Europe in 1952. [12] 
Civil rights[edit]
Einstein was a proponent of civil rights and used his notoriety to condemn American discrimination. When he arrived in America, he objected to the mistreatment of African Americans. [13]  Einstein, who had experienced heavy anti-Semitic discrimination in pre-World War II Germany, worked with a number of leading civil rights activists [14]  and civil rights organizations (such as the Princeton chapter of the NAACP) to demand equality and denounce racism and segregation. [15] 
 When African American singer and civil rights supporter Marian Anderson was denied rooms at hotels and forbidden to eat at public restaurants, Einstein invited her to his home. After a bloody racial riot in 1946, where 500 state troopers with submachine guns attacked and destroyed virtually every black-owned business in a four-square-block area in Tennessee and arrested 25 black men for attempted murder, Einstein joined Eleanor Roosevelt, Langston Hughes, and Thurgood Marshall to fight for justice for the men. Later, 24 of the 25 defendants were acquitted.
There is, however, a somber point in the social outlook of Americans. Their sense of equality and human dignity is mainly limited to men of white skins.
 Albert Einsteinspeech at Lincoln University, 1946 [14]  
In 1946, he travelled to Lincoln University in Pennsylvania, the alma mater of Langston Hughes and Thurgood Marshall and the first school in America to grant college degrees to blacks. At Lincoln, Einstein received an honorary degree and gave a lecture on relativity to Lincoln students. [16] 
 When two black couples were murdered in Monroe, Georgia, and justice was not served, Einstein was so outraged that he lent his prominence to actor and activist Paul Robeson’s American Crusade to End Lynching and wrote a letter to President Truman calling for prosecution of lynchers and passage of a federal anti-lynching law. When Robeson was blacklisted due to his activism against racism, again it was Einstein who opened his home to his long-time friend of 20 years.
 In 1931, Einstein joined Theodore Dreiser's committee to protest the injustice experienced by the Scottsboro Boys, a group of African American teenagers convicted of rape by an all-white jury. [17]  In 1946, Einstein also came out in support of Willie McGee, a black Mississippi sharecropper who was sentenced to death after being accused of raping a white woman. [18] 
 Written between October 1922 and March 1923, the travel diaries of Einstein released in 2018 contain remarks that have been called racist and xenophobic. He notes how the "Chinese don’t sit on benches while eating but squat like Europeans do when they relieve themselves out in the leafy woods. All this occurs quietly and demurely. Even the children are spiritless and look obtuse." After earlier writing of the "abundance of offspring" and the "fecundity" of the Chinese, he goes on to say: "It would be a pity if these Chinese supplant all other races. For the likes of us the mere thought is unspeakably dreary." Einstein's perceptions of the Japanese he meets are more positive: "Japanese unostentatious, decent, altogether very appealing," he writes. "Pure souls as nowhere else among people. One has to love and admire this country." [19] 
 Einstein was one of the thousands of signatories of Magnus Hirschfeld's petition against Paragraph 175 of the German penal code, which condemned homosexuality. The petition ran for more than thirty years in the intellectual circles thanks to the activity of Hirschfeld's Scientific-Humanitarian Committee, which collected many signatures from Jewish members of the German intellectual elite. [20] 
 Einstein was opposed to violence against animals, so he thought that one should "embrace all living creatures". He also sympathized with the idea of vegetarianism. The latest indications, a letter written to Hans Mühsam, dated March 30, 1954, suggest that Einstein was a vegetarian for the last year of his life, though he appears to have supported the idea for many years before practicing it himself. In this letter Einstein states that he was feeling quite well eating vegetarian food and that "man was not born to be a carnivore". He wrote in another letter a year before: "I have always eaten animal flesh with a somewhat guilty conscience". [21]   [22] 
Zionism[edit]
Einstein was a prominent supporter of both Labor Zionism and efforts to encourage Jewish-Arab cooperation. [23]  In 1938 Einstein explained "In this hour one thing, above all, must be emphasized: Judaism owes a great debt of gratitude to Zionism. The Zionist movement has revived among Jews the sense of community. It has performed productive work surpassing all the expectations any one could entertain. This productive work in Palestine, to which self-sacrificing Jews throughout the world have contributed has saved a large number of our brethren from direst need". [24]  Einstein supported the creation of a Jewish national homeland in the British mandate of Palestine but was opposed to the idea of a Jewish state "with borders, an army, and a measure of temporal power." [3]  : 33  According to Marc Elis, Einstein declared himself a human being, a Jew, an opponent of nationalism, and a Zionist; he supported the idea of a Jewish homeland in Palestine but until summer 1947 conceived of this as a bi-national state with "continuously functioning, mixed, administrative, economic, and social organizations." [25]   [26] 
 Long before the emergence of Hitler I made the cause of Zionism mine because through it I saw a means of correcting a flagrant wrong....The Jewish people alone has for centuries been in the anomalous position of being victimized and hounded as a people, though bereft of all the rights and protections which even the smallest people normally has...Zionism offered the means of ending this discrimination. Through the return to the land to which they were bound by close historic ties...Jews sought to abolish their pariah status among peoples... The advent of Hitler underscored with a savage logic all the disastrous implications contained in the abnormal situation in which Jews found themselves. Millions of Jews perished... because there was no spot on the globe where they could find sanctuary...The Jewish survivors demand the right to dwell amid brothers, on the ancient soil of their fathers."Letter to Jawaharlal Nehru, Prime Minister of India, June 13, 1947 [27]   
     
His speeches and lectures about Zionism were published in 1931 by The Macmillan Company [28]  and eleven of these essays were collected in a 1933 book entitled Mein Weltbild and translated into English as  The World as I See It ; Einstein's foreword dedicates the collection "to the Jews of Germany". [29]  In the face of Germany's rising militarism, Einstein wrote and spoke for peace. [30]   [31] 
 
Einstein publicly stated reservations about the proposal to partition the British mandate of Palestine into independent Arab and Jewish countries. In a 1938 speech, "Our Debt to Zionism", he said:   I should much rather see reasonable agreement with the Arabs on the basis of living together in peace than the creation of a Jewish state. My awareness of the essential nature of Judaism resists the idea of a Jewish state with borders, an army, and a measure of temporal power, no matter how modest. I am afraid of the inner damage Judaism will sustain—especially from the development of a narrow nationalism within our own ranks, against which we have already had to fight strongly, even without a Jewish state. ... If external necessity should after all compel us to assume this burden, let us bear it with tact and patience. [32]    His attitudes were nuanced: In his testimony before the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry in January 1946, Einstein stated that he was not in favor of the creation of a Jewish state, [33]  while in a 1947 letter to Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru intended to persuade India to support Zionist aims of establishing a Jewish homeland in Palestine, Einstein stated that the Balfour Declaration's proposal to establish a national home for Jews in Palestine "redresses the balance" of justice and history, [34]  claiming that "at the end of the first world war, the Allies gave the Arabs 99% of the vast, underpopulated territories liberated from the Turks to satisfy their national aspirations and five independent Arab states were established. One percent was reserved for the Jews in the land of their origin". [35]  Einstein remained strongly supportive of unlimited Jewish immigration to Palestine. [36]   [37] 
       Albert Einstein with Jawaharlal Nehru at Princeton, New Jersey  
The United Nations ultimately recommended division the mandate and the establishment of a Jewish State, and the 1948 Arab-Israeli war broke out as the mandate ended. Einstein was one of the authors of an open letter to the  New York Times  in 1948 [38]   [39]   [40]  which deeply criticized Menachem Begin's Herut (Freedom) Party for the Deir Yassin massacre attributed to "terrorist bands", (Einstein 1948) and likened Herut to "the Nazi and Fascist parties". He further stated "The Deir Yassin incident exemplifies the character and actions of the Freedom Party". Einstein said of the party that "Today they speak of freedom, democracy and anti-imperialism...It is in its actions that the terrorist party betrays its real character", while also criticizing Irgun by calling it a "terrorist, right-wing, chauvinist organization". [41] 
 When President Harry Truman recognized Israel in May 1948, Einstein declared it "the fulfillment of our (Jewish) dreams." [42]  Einstein also supported vice president Henry Wallace’s Progressive Party during the 1948 Presidential election which also advocated a pro-Soviet and pro-Israel foreign policy. [43]  
 Einstein served on the Board of Governors of The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. In his Will of 1950, Einstein bequeathed literary rights to his writings The Hebrew University, where many of his original documents are held in the Albert Einstein Archives. [44] 
 When Israeli President Chaim Weizmann died in 1952, Einstein was asked to be Israel's second president, but he declined, stating that he had "neither the natural ability nor the experience to deal with human beings." [45]  He wrote: "I am deeply moved by the offer from our State of Israel, and at once saddened and ashamed that I cannot accept it." [46] 
Cold War politics[edit]
When he was a visible figure working against the rise of Nazism, Einstein had sought help and developed working relationships in both the West and what was to become the Soviet bloc. After World War II, enmity between the former allies became a very serious issue for people with international résumés. To make things worse, during the first days of McCarthyism, Einstein was writing about a single world government believing "There can never be complete agreement on international control and the administration of atomic energy or on general disarmament until there is a modification of the traditional concept of national sovereignty." [47] 
  J. Edgar Hoover, the first director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, promoted a letter from the Woman Patriot Corporation accusing Einstein of left-wing radicalism and imploring the government to bar him from entry to the United States. Hoover accused Einstein of being pro-Soviet. However, Einstein denounced Soviet Russia and in a letter said, "there seems to be complete suppression of the individual and of freedom of speech". [48] 
 In a 1949  Monthly Review  article entitled "Why Socialism?" [49]  Albert Einstein described a chaotic capitalist society, a source of evil to be overcome, as the "predatory phase of human development" (Einstein 1949). With Albert Schweitzer and Bertrand Russell, Einstein lobbied to stop nuclear testing and future bombs. Days before his death, Einstein signed the Russell-Einstein Manifesto, which led to the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs. [50] 
 When the aged W. E. B. Du Bois was accused of being a Communist spy, Einstein volunteered as a character witness, and the case was dismissed shortly afterward. Einstein's friendship with activist Paul Robeson, with whom he served as co-chair of the American Crusade to End Lynching, lasted twenty years. [51]  In 1953, in a letter to Rose Russell, a member of the Teachers Union of the City of New York, Einstein described the McCarthy hearings as "using people as tools for the prosecution of others that one wants to label as 'unorthodox.'" [52]  Einstein considered Senator Joseph McCarthy to be a danger to intellectual and academic freedom.
 In 1953, William Frauenglass, a New York city school teacher who, having been called to testify, refused, and facing dismissal from his position, wrote to Einstein for support. In his reply, Einstein stated: "The reactionary politicians have managed to instill suspicion of all intellectual efforts into the public by dangling before their eyes a danger from without. Having succeeded so far they are now proceeding to suppress the freedom of teaching and to deprive of their positions all those who do not prove submissive, i.e. to starve them." Einstein's advised: "Every intellectual who is called before one of the committees ought to refuse to testify, i.e. he must be prepared for jail and economic ruin, in short, for the sacrifice of his personal welfare in the interest of the cultural welfare of his country." Einstein concluded, "If enough people are ready to take this grave step they will be successful. If not, then the intellectuals of this country deserve nothing better than the slavery which is intended for them." [53] 
 In 1946, Einstein collaborated with Rabbi Israel Goldstein, Middlesex University heir C. Ruggles Smith, and activist attorney George Alpert on the Albert Einstein Foundation for Higher Learning, which was formed to create a Jewish-sponsored secular university, open to all students, on the grounds of the former Middlesex University in Waltham, Massachusetts. Middlesex was chosen in part because it was accessible from both Boston and New York City, Jewish cultural centers of the U.S. Their vision was a university "deeply conscious both of the Hebraic tradition of Torah looking upon culture as a birthright, and of the American ideal of an educated democracy." [54]  The collaboration was stormy, however. When Einstein wanted to appoint British economist Harold Laski as the university's president, George Alpert wrote that Laski was "a man utterly alien to American principles of democracy, tarred with the Communist brush." [54]  Einstein withdrew his support of the university and barred the use of his name, [55]  opening in 1948 as Brandeis University instead. In 1953, Brandeis offered Einstein an honorary degree, which he declined. [54]  [ dead link ]
[edit] 
In 1918, Einstein was one of the founding members of the German Democratic Party, a liberal party. [3]  : 83  However, later in his life, Einstein was in favor of socialism and in opposition to capitalism. In his 1949 essay "Why Socialism?", he wrote:  I am convinced there is only one way to eliminate these grave evils, namely through the establishment of a socialist economy, accompanied by an educational system which would be oriented toward social goals. In such an economy, the means of production are owned by society itself and are utilized in a planned fashion. A planned economy, which adjusts production to the needs of the community, would distribute the work to be done among all those able to work and would guarantee a livelihood to every man, woman, and child. The education of the individual, in addition to promoting his own innate abilities, would attempt to develop in him a sense of responsibility for his fellow-men in place of the glorification of power and success in our present society.  Einstein's opinions on the Bolsheviks changed with time. In 1925, he criticized them for not having a 'well-regulated system of government' and called their rule a 'regime of terror and a tragedy in human history'. He later adopted a more balanced view, criticizing their methods but praising their goals, demonstrated by his 1929 remark on Vladimir Lenin: "I honor Lenin as a man who completely sacrificed himself and devoted all his energy to the realization of social justice. I do not consider his methods practical, but one thing is certain: men of his type are the guardians and restorers of the conscience of humanity." [56]   [57]  Rowe translates the beginning of the second sentence as "I do not find his methods advisable". [58] 
 In 1949 Einstein stated "The achievement of socialism requires the solution of some extremely difficult socio-political problems: how is it possible, in view of the far-reaching centralization of political and economic power, to prevent bureaucracy from becoming all-powerful and overweening? How can the rights of the individual be protected and therewith a democratic counterweight to the power of bureaucracy be assured?". [59] 
 Einstein held Georgism (named after the political economist Henry George) in high regard, writing in 1934: "One cannot imagine a more beautiful combination of intellectual keenness, artistic form and fervent love of justice." [60] 
 Given Einstein's links to Germany and Zionism, his socialist ideals, and his links to Communist figures, the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation kept a file on Einstein that grew to 1,427 pages. [61] 
Internationalism[edit]
From the 1930s and until his death in the 1950s, a primary focus of Einstein political work was promoting international cooperation. He promoted the creation of a new world organization to replace the League of Nations, and advocated reforming the United Nations once it had been created. He was also in favor of world federalism.
 
He wrote hundreds of letters, speeches, gave interviews and directly advocated the issue of internationalism in various forms. In a letter to the United Nations General Assembly he wrote:   [T]he method of representation at the United Nations should be considerably modified. The present method of selection by government appointment does not leave any real freedom to the appointee. Furthermore, selection by governments cannot give the peoples of the world the feeling of being fairly and proportionately represented. The moral authority of the United Nations would be considerably enhanced if the delegates were elected directly by the people. Were they responsible to an electorate, they would have much more freedom to follow their consciences. Thus we could hope for more statesmen and fewer diplomats. [62]    In 1951, Einstein wrote that the United Nations was "merely an organization of delegates from national governments and not of independent individuals who, guided solely by their personal convictions, represent the populations of the various countries. Moreover, decisions in the United Nations have no binding force on any national government; nor do any concrete means exist by which these decisions can actually be enforced." Einstein in 1947 wrote that "with all my heart I believe that the world present system" will lead only "to barbarism, war and inhumanity and that only world law can assure progress toward a civilized peaceful humanity". [63] 
 War and pacifism[edit]
      Cartoon of Einstein, depicting him shedding his "Pacifism" wings and raising a sword labeled "Preparedness" in response to an increasingly hostile Germany (circa 1933)  
Einstein was a lifelong pacifist and believed that wars stood in the way of human progress. [64]  He believed that wars were the result of natural aggressive tendencies found within all organisms and that the aims and causes of war were simply justification for these tendencies. He advocated the creation of a supranational organization would make war as impossible in Europe as it was impossible between the former kingdoms that comprised the German Empire. [65]   [66]  Einstein was horrified by the destruction caused by World War I and promoted what he referred to as the "two percent plan". According to the plan, nations would be unable to wage war if one in 50 men refused to serve in the military. [67] 
 Despite these views, following the rise to power of Adolf Hitler, Einstein became a vocal advocate for preparedness, recognizing the dangers of Nazi Germany gaining an advantage over the Western Allies. [68]  Alarmed at Hitler’s territorial ambitions, Einstein actively encouraged Belgians to join the military to protect European civilization. [67]  He explained the change in his outlook in 1941:
 In the twenties, when no dictatorships existed, I advocated that refusing to go to war would make war improper. But as soon as coercive conditions appeared in certain nations, I felt that it would weaken the less aggressive nations vis-à-vis the more aggressive ones. [69]   
Einstein justified his letter to President Roosevelt recommending that an atomic bomb be produced by writing:
 ...it seemed probable that the Germans might be working on the same problem with every prospect of success. I had no alternative but to act as I did, although I have always been a convinced pacifist. (emphasis in original) [70]   
When questioned about this position, Einstein wrote:
 I did not say that I was an absolute pacifist, but rather that I have always been a convinced pacifist. While I am a convinced pacifist, there are circumstances in which I believe the use of force is appropriate – namely, in the face of an enemy unconditionally bent on destroying me and my people. ... I am a dedicated but not an absolute pacifist; this means that I am opposed to the use of force under any circumstances except when confronted by an enemy who pursues the destruction of life as an end in itself. (emphasis in original) [71]   
He further explained:
 I have always been a pacifist, i.e. I have declined to recognize brute force as a means for the solution of international conflicts. Nevertheless, it is, in my opinion, not reasonable to cling to that principle unconditionally. An exception has necessarily to be made if a hostile power threatens wholesale destruction of one's own group. [72]   
In September 1942, in a private letter to Princeton University president, Einstein criticized the U.S. for not doing enough to fight Nazi Germany. He argued that "If Hitler were not a lunatic he could easily have avoided the hostility of the Western powers" if not for his threats of world domination. [73] 
 Following the conclusion of World War II, Einstein once again became a constant and vocal activist for world peace. [74] 
Atomic bomb[edit]
Concerned scientists, many of them refugees in the U.S. from German anti-Semitism, recognized the danger of German scientists' developing an atomic bomb based on the newly discovered phenomena of nuclear fission. In 1939, the Hungarian émigré Leó Szilárd, having failed to arouse U.S. government interest on his own, worked with Einstein to write a letter to U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, which Einstein signed, urging coordination of U.S. research into fission. [75]  On 11 October 1939 Alexander Sachs, an adviser to Roosevelt on economic affairs, delivered the Einstein–Szilárd letter and persuaded the president of its importance. [76]  "This requires action", Roosevelt told an aide, and authorized a small research program into the feasibility of nuclear weapons. [76]   [77] 
 This work was originally quite modest, and Einstein himself was deliberately excluded from it. In 1941, the work accelerated, after the favorable conclusions of a report from the British MAUD Committee reached the United States. This would lead, in 1942, to the creation of the Manhattan Project, a massive scientific-industrial-military effort to develop atomic bombs for use in war. By late 1945, the U.S., with support from the United Kingdom and Canada, had developed operational nuclear weapons, and used them on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
 Einstein himself did not play a role in the development of the atomic bomb other than signing the letter, although he did help the United States Navy with some unrelated theoretical questions it was working on during the war. [78]  [ unreliable source? ]
 According to Linus Pauling, Einstein later expressed regret about his letter to Roosevelt, adding that Einstein had originally justified his decision because of the greater danger that Nazi Germany would develop the bomb first. [79]  In 1947, Einstein told  Newsweek  magazine that "had I known that the Germans would not succeed in developing an atomic bomb, I would have done nothing." [80]   [81]  In that same year, he wrote an article for  The Atlantic Monthly  arguing that the United States should not try to pursue an atomic monopoly, and instead should equip the United Nations with nuclear weapons for the sole purpose of maintaining deterrence. [82]  Einstein also said during this period "Since I do not foresee that atomic energy is to be a great boon for a long time, I have to say that for the present it is a menace. Perhaps it is well that it should be. It may intimidate the human race to bring order into its international affairs, which without the pressure of fear, it undoubtedly would not do". [83] 
 Einstein is often attributed to variations of the following quote: "I do not know how the Third World War will be fought, but I can tell you what they will use in the Fourth — sticks and stones". There is no record of Einstein uttering the quote apart from anecdotes from peers. [84]   [85] 
Humanitarianism[edit]
Einstein participated in the 1927 congress of the League against Imperialism in Brussels. [86]  Einstein also met with many humanists and humanitarians, including Rabindranath Tagore with whom he had extensive conversations in 1930 prior to leaving Germany. [87] 
See also[edit]
  Religious and philosophical views of Albert Einstein  
References[edit]
  ^  American Institute of Physics, "Albert Einstein: Public Concerns", American Institute of Physics 
  ^  American Museum of Natural History, "Europe at War", Einstein 
^    a       b       c    Rowe, David E.; Schulmann, Robert (2007-04-16). Einstein on Politics: His Private Thoughts and Public Stands on Nationalism, Zionism, War, Peace, and the Bomb. Princeton University Press. ISBN  978-0-691-12094-2 .
  ^   "An Albert Einstein Chronology". American Institute of Physics. Archived from the original on 15 July 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-06.
  ^  Clark, R. "Einstein: The Life and Times" Harper-Collins, 1984. 880 pp.
  ^  Hakim, Joy (1995). A History of Us: War, Peace and all that Jazz. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN  0-19-509514-6 .
  ^  Onion, Rebecca. "Einstein's 1941 Letter to Eleanor Roosevelt, Begging Asylum for Jewish Refugees".  Slate Magazine . Retrieved 13 December 2013.
  ^  
 "History of the International Rescue Committee". International Rescue Committee. 22 July 2016. Retrieved 3 March 2019.
  ^  which gives support and shelter to refugees from social and political persecution.
  ^  American Institute of Physics, "Albert Einstein: Nuclear Age II", American Institute of Physics 
  ^  Einstein, A. (1950). Out of my later years. Philosophical library, Inc. Chapter 53, To the heroes of the battle of the Warsaw ghetto. p. 239
  ^  Kleinknecht, Konrad. "Rätselhafter Einstein-Brief: "Danke für dieses Stückchen Mittelalter"". Faz.net.
  ^  [1]
^    a       b    Civil Rights Movement
  ^  States, John J. SimonTopics: History Socialism Places: Germany United (2005-05-01). "Monthly Review | Albert Einstein, Radical: A Political Profile". Monthly Review. Retrieved 2021-06-04.
  ^  Albert Einstein, Civil Rights activist | Harvard Gazette
  ^   "How Albert Einstein Used His Fame to Denounce American Racism". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 2021-06-04.
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  ^  [Carol Dunn, "The Jewish Connection to Homosexuality in the Third Reich", University of Sydney], citing p. 24,[3], John Lauritsen and David Thorstad, The Early Homosexual Rights Movement (1864-1935), New York Times Change Press, 1974, 14
  ^   "History of Vegetarianism – Albert Einstein". Retrieved 2010-10-08.
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  ^   Stachel, John (2001-12-10).  Einstein from 'B' to 'Z' . Birkhäuser Boston. p. 70. ISBN  0-8176-4143-2 .
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  ^  "Einstein and Complex Analyses of Zionism"  Jewish Daily Forward , July 24, 2009
  ^  Fred Jerome, Einstein on Israel and Zionism: His Provocative Ideas About the Middle East
  ^  Letter to Jawaharlal Nehru, Prime Minister of India, June 13, 1947,http://www.jns.org/latest-articles/2016/7/19/history-channel-removes-tendentious-wording-about-einstein-and-israel#.V9Z7sFt96Uk=
  ^  Einstein, Albert; Simon, Leon (1931).  About Zionism : speeches and letters . The Macmillan Co. OCLC 1331582.
  ^  Originally published by Querido, an Amsterdam publishing house and available in reprint paperback from Filiquarian Publishing, LLC, ISBN 1-59986-965-9.
  ^    Einstein's Revolution , American Museum of Natural History, 2002, archived from the original on 15 March 2007, retrieved 2007-03-14
  ^  See the AMNH site's popup of translated letter from Freud, in the section "Freud and Einstein", regarding proposed joint presentation on "What can be done to rid mankind of the menace of war?"
  ^  David E. Rowe &amp; Robert Schulmann [de], Einstein on Politics: His Private Thoughts and Public Stands on Nationalism, Zionism, War, Peace, and the Bomb (2007), p. 33.
  ^  Evan Wilson, A Calculated Risk: The U.S. Decision to Recognize Israel (1979) 2009 p.149.
  ^  Morris, Benny (2005-02-16). "Einstein's other theory". The Guardian. Guardian News and Media Limited. Archived from the original on 27 October 2010. Retrieved 2013-05-23.
  ^  Morris, Benny (2005-02-16). "Einstein's other theory". The Guardian.
  ^  David E. Rowe; Robert J. Schulmann (2007).  Einstein on Politics: His Private Thoughts and Public Stands on Nationalism, Zionism, War, Peace, and the Bomb . Princeton University Press. p. 37. ISBN  978-0-691-12094-2 . Extract of page 37
  ^  Michel Janssen; Christoph Lehner (19 May 2014).  The Cambridge Companion to Einstein . Cambridge University Press. p. 440. ISBN  978-0-521-82834-5 . Extract of page 440
  ^  Abramowitz, Isidore.  New Palestine Party; Visit of Menachen Begin and Aims of Political Movement Discussed .
  ^  Albert Einstein, Hannah Arendt.  Albert Einstein Letter to The New York Times. December 4, 1948 New Palestine Party. Visit of Menachen Begin and Aims of Political Movement Discussed .
  ^   "New Palestine Party; Visit of Menachen Begin and Aims of Political Movement Discussed". timesmachine.nytimes.com. Retrieved 2021-02-22.
  ^  New Palestine Party Visit of Menachem Begin and Aims of Political Movement Discussed
  ^  "Was Einstein a Zionist" Zionism and Israel Information Center
  ^  "Albert Einstein was a political activist" Archived 2010-10-17 at archive.today Jewish Tribune,14 April 2010
  ^  Albert Einstein Archives (2007), "History of the Estate of Albert Einstein",  Albert Einstein Archives , The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, archived from the original on 29 March 2007, retrieved 2007-03-25
  ^  TIME Online (1952-12-01), "Einstein Declines", TIME, archived from the original on 17 August 2008, retrieved 2008-08-08
  ^  Princeton Online (1995),  Einstein in Princeton: Scientist, Humanitarian, Cultural Icon , Historical Society of Princeton, archived from the original on 2007-02-08, retrieved 2007-03-14
  ^   "To the General Assembly of the United Nations by Albert Einstein". Archived from the original on 2013-05-10. Retrieved 2019-03-25.
  ^  Isaacson, Walter (2008-09-04).  Einstein: His Life and Universe . Simon and Schuster. p. 433. ISBN  978-1-84739-589-4 .
  ^  Albert Einstein (May 1949). "Why Socialism?".  Monthly Review .
  ^  Butcher, Sandra Ionno (May 2005). "The Origins of the Russell-Einstein Manifesto" (PDF). Council of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 June 2007. Retrieved 2007-05-02.
  ^  Ken Gewertz (2007-04-12). "Albert Einstein, Civil Rights activist". Harvard University Gazette. Archived from the original on 2007-05-29. Retrieved 2007-06-11.
  ^   "Albert Einstein on the McCarthy hearings and the Fifth Amendment, 1953 | Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History". www.gilderlehrman.org. Retrieved 2021-06-04.
  ^  Letter to William Frauenglass, published in the New York Times June 12, 1953
^    a       b       c    Reis, Arthur H., Jr (1998), "The Albert Einstein Involvement" (PDF), Brandeis Review, 50th Anniversary Edition, retrieved 2007-03-25
  ^  New York Times (22 June 1947), "Dr. Einstein Quits University Plan", The New York Times, retrieved 2007-03-14
  ^  Feuer, Lewis S. (1989).  Einstein and the Generations of Science . Routledge. p. 25. ISBN  978-0878558995 .
  ^  Einstein: An Intimate Study of a Great Man. Dimitri Marianoff, Palma Wayne. p.96
  ^  Rowe, David E. (2013-11-10).  Einstein on Politics: His Private Thoughts and Public Stands on Nationalism, Zionism, War, Peace, and the Bomb . Princeton University Press. ISBN  978-1-4008-4828-7 .
  ^  Einstein, A. (1950). Out of my later years. Philosophical library, Inc. Chapter 18, Why Socialism? p 126
  ^   "Albert Einstein / On Henry George". Archived from the original on 2011-04-12. Retrieved 2010-12-28.
  ^   "The FBI and Albert Einstein".
  ^    Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists . Vol. 35. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. March 1979. p. 13. {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  ^  Einstein, Albert (1960). Nathan, Otto; Norden, Heinz (eds.).  Einstein on Peace . Simon and Schuster. pp. 4, 14, 51–52, 406–407, 429–430, 539–540, 691.
  ^  Einstein, Albert (1933).  The Fight Against War. Edited by Alfred Lief . New York: John Day.
  ^  Einstein, Albert. "My Opinion on the War" (1915)
  ^  Einstein, Albert. To A. Morrisett (March 21, 1952). Einstein Archive 60-595, quoted in Calaprice, Alice (ed.) The New Quotable Einstein Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2005. p.160 ISBN 0-691-12075-7
^    a       b    http://www.johnhorgan.org/toward_a_unified_theory_of_einstein_s_life_61298.htm Archived 2014-06-24 at the Wayback Machine Author: John Horgan
  ^  http://www.dannen.com/ae-fdr.html Einstein to Roosevelt, August 2, 1939
  ^  Einstein, Albert. Interview in  The New York Times  (December 30, 1941. Einstein Archive 29-096, quoted in Calaprice, Alice (ed.) The New Quotable Einstein Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2005. p.159 ISBN 0-691-12075-7
  ^  Einstein, Albert. Letter to the editor of the Japanese magazine Kaizo (September 22, 1952), quoted in Calaprice, Alice (ed.) The New Quotable Einstein Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2005. p.160 ISBN 0-691-12075-7
  ^  Einstein, Albert. Letter to Japanese pacifist Seiei Shinohara (February 22, 1953), quoted in Calaprice, Alice (ed.) The New Quotable Einstein Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2005. p.161 ISBN 0-691-12075-7
  ^  Einstein, Albert. To Herbert H. Fox (May 18, 1954), from the Einstein Archive 59-727, quoted in Calaprice, Alice (ed.) The New Quotable Einstein Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2005. p.162 ISBN 0-691-12075-7
  ^  Albert Einstein (10 November 2013).  Einstein on Politics: His Private Thoughts and Public Stands on Nationalism, Zionism, War, Peace, and the Bomb . Princeton University Press. pp. 451–. ISBN  978-0-691-16020-7 .
  ^   Albert Einstein: How I See the World   American Masters  (TV series), PBS (August 16, 2006)
  ^  Discover Magazine March 2008. "Chain Reaction: From Einstein to the Atomic Bomb".
^    a       b     Rhodes, Richard (1986).  The Making of the Atomic Bomb . New York: Simon and Schuster. pp. 307–314. ISBN  0-671-44133-7 .
  ^  The Atomic Heritage Foundation. "Einstein's Letter to Franklin D. Roosevelt". Retrieved 2007-05-26.
  ^  Schwarz, Frederic (April 1998). "Einstein's Ordnance". AmericanHeritage.com. Archived from the original on 2009-09-24. Retrieved 2008-03-23.
  ^   Scientist Tells of Einstein's A-bomb Regrets . The Philadelphia Bulletin, 13 May 1955. (PDF document from the Swiss Federal Archives Archived 2007-01-29 at the Wayback Machine from Internet Archive.)
  ^   "The Manhattan Project". American Museum of Natural History. Retrieved October 9, 2013.
  ^  "Einstein, the Man Who Started It All".  Newsweek . 10 March 1947.
  ^  Einstein, Albert (November 1947). "Atomic War or Peace". Atlantic Monthly. Archived from the original on 8 March 2008. Retrieved 2008-03-23.
  ^  Einstein, A. (1950). Out of my later years. Philosophical library, Inc. Chapter 31, Atomic war or peace. p 177
  ^  Calaprice, Alice (2005),  The new quotable Einstein , Princeton University Press, p. 173, ISBN  0-691-12075-7  
  ^   "Did Albert Einstein Say World War IV Will be Fought 'With Sticks and Stones'?". Snopes.com. Retrieved 2021-06-04.
  ^   "Nationalist-Communist Civil War 1927–1937". Archived from the original on 11 October 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-03.
  ^  Sawf.org
 
External links[edit]
  Historical Letters and Primary Source Documents from Albert Einstein Shapell Manuscript Foundation
 Why Socialism? by Albert Einstein,  Monthly Review , May 1949
 On Politics, Government, and Society A Collection of Einstein's Thoughts
Alan Whyte and Peter Daniels. "The FBI and Albert Einstein" World Socialist Web Site. September 3, 2002
Political views of Albert Einstein - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_views_of_Albert_Einstein
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Albert-Einstein
Albert Einstein | Biography, Education, Discoveries, & Facts
2023-01-11
Michio Kaku
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 Albert Einstein
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 Albert Einstein
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 * Childhood and education
 * From graduation to the “miracle year” of scientific theories
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 + What did Albert Einstein do?
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 Albert Einstein

 German-American physicist
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 Albert Einstein
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 Born: March 14, 1879 Ulm Germany ...(Show more) Died: April 18, 1955 (aged 76) Princeton New Jersey ...(Show more) Awards And Honors: Copley Medal (1925) Nobel Prize (1921) ...(Show more) Subjects Of Study: E=mc2 gravitational wave space-time special relativity unified field theory ...(Show more)
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 Top Questions

 What did Albert Einstein do?

 Albert Einstein was a famous physicist. His research spanned from quantum mechanics to theories about gravity and motion. After publishing some groundbreaking papers, Einstein toured the world and gave speeches about his discoveries. In 1921 he won the Nobel Prize for Physics for his discovery of the photoelectric effect.

 Read more below: From graduation to the “miracle year” of scientific theories

 What is Albert Einstein known for?

 Albert Einstein is best known for his equation E = mc2, which states that energy and mass (matter) are the same thing, just in different forms. He is also known for his discovery of the photoelectric effect, for which he won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921. Einstein developed a theory of special and general relativity, which helped to complicate and expand upon theories that had been put forth by Isaac Newton over 200 years prior.

 How Albert Einstein Developed the Theory of General Relativity
 Learn more about why it took Albert Einstein years to express his ideas mathematically.

 What influence did Albert Einstein have on science?

 Albert Einstein had a massive influence on contemporary physics. His theory of relativity shifted contemporary understanding of space completely. Along with his equation E = mc2, it also foreshadowed the creation of the atomic bomb. Einstein’s understanding of light as something which can function both as a wave and as a stream of particles became the basis for what is known today as quantum mechanics.

 Read more below: Legacy

 What was Albert Einstein’s family like?

 Albert Einstein was raised in a secular Jewish family and had one sister, Maja, who was two years younger than him. In 1903 Einstein married Milena Maric, a Serbian physics student whom he had met at school in Zürich. They had three children: a daughter, named Lieserl, and two sons, named Hans and Eduard. After a period of unrest, Einstein and Maric divorced in 1919. Einstein, during his marriage, had begun an affair with his cousin Elsa Löwenthal. They were married in 1919, the same year he divorced Maric.

 How did Albert Einstein die?

 After suffering an abdominal aortic aneurysm rupture several days before, Albert Einstein died on April 18, 1955, at age 76.

 Read more below: Increasing professional isolation and death

 What did Albert Einstein mean when he wrote that God “does not play dice”?

 In December 1926 Albert Einstein wrote to Max Born that “[t]he theory produces a good deal but hardly brings us closer to the secret of the Old One. I am at all events convinced that He does not play dice.” Einstein was reacting to Born’s probabilistic interpretation of quantum mechanics and expressing a deterministic view of the world. Learn more.

 Summary

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 Albert Einstein, (born March 14, 1879, Ulm, Württemberg, Germany—died April 18, 1955, Princeton, New Jersey, U.S.), German-born physicist who developed the special and general theories of relativity and won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921 for his explanation of the photoelectric effect. Einstein is generally considered the most influential physicist of the 20th century.

 (Read Einstein’s 1926 Britannica essay on space-time.)

 Childhood and education

 Einstein’s parents were secular, middle-class Jews. His father, Hermann Einstein, was originally a featherbed salesman and later ran an electrochemical factory with moderate success. His mother, the former Pauline Koch, ran the family household. He had one sister, Maria (who went by the name Maja), born two years after Albert.

 Einstein would write that two “wonders” deeply affected his early years. The first was his encounter with a compass at age five. He was mystified that invisible forces could deflect the needle. This would lead to a lifelong fascination with invisible forces. The second wonder came at age 12 when he discovered a book of geometry, which he devoured, calling it his “sacred little geometry book.”

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 All About Einstein

 Einstein became deeply religious at age 12, even composing several songs in praise of God and chanting religious songs on the way to school. This began to change, however, after he read science books that contradicted his religious beliefs. This challenge to established authority left a deep and lasting impression. At the Luitpold Gymnasium, Einstein often felt out of place and victimized by a Prussian-style educational system that seemed to stifle originality and creativity. One teacher even told him that he would never amount to anything.

 Yet another important influence on Einstein was a young medical student, Max Talmud (later Max Talmey), who often had dinner at the Einstein home. Talmud became an informal tutor, introducing Einstein to higher mathematics and philosophy. A pivotal turning point occurred when Einstein was 16 years old. Talmud had earlier introduced him to a children’s science series by Aaron Bernstein, Naturwissenschaftliche Volksbucher (1867–68; Popular Books on Physical Science), in which the author imagined riding alongside electricity that was traveling inside a telegraph wire. Einstein then asked himself the question that would dominate his thinking for the next 10 years: What would a light beam look like if you could run alongside it? If light were a wave, then the light beam should appear stationary, like a frozen wave. Even as a child, though, he knew that stationary light waves had never been seen, so there was a paradox. Einstein also wrote his first “scientific paper” at that time (“The Investigation of the State of Aether in Magnetic Fields”).

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 Einstein’s education was disrupted by his father’s repeated failures at business. In 1894, after his company failed to get an important contract to electrify the city of Munich, Hermann Einstein moved to Milan to work with a relative. Einstein was left at a boardinghouse in Munich and expected to finish his education. Alone, miserable, and repelled by the looming prospect of military duty when he turned 16, Einstein ran away six months later and landed on the doorstep of his surprised parents. His parents realized the enormous problems that he faced as a school dropout and draft dodger with no employable skills. His prospects did not look promising.

 Fortunately, Einstein could apply directly to the Eidgenössische Polytechnische Schule (“Swiss Federal Polytechnic School”; in 1911, following expansion in 1909 to full university status, it was renamed the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, or “Swiss Federal Institute of Technology”) in Zürich without the equivalent of a high school diploma if he passed its stiff entrance examinations. His marks showed that he excelled in mathematics and physics, but he failed at French, chemistry, and biology. Because of his exceptional math scores, he was allowed into the polytechnic on the condition that he first finish his formal schooling. He went to a special high school run by Jost Winteler in Aarau, Switzerland, and graduated in 1896. He also renounced his German citizenship at that time. (He was stateless until 1901, when he was granted Swiss citizenship.) He became lifelong friends with the Winteler family, with whom he had been boarding. (Winteler’s daughter, Marie, was Einstein’s first love; Einstein’s sister, Maja, would eventually marry Winteler’s son Paul; and his close friend Michele Besso would marry their eldest daughter, Anna.)

 Einstein would recall that his years in Zürich were some of the happiest years of his life. He met many students who would become loyal friends, such as Marcel Grossmann, a mathematician, and Besso, with whom he enjoyed lengthy conversations about space and time. He also met his future wife, Mileva Maric, a fellow physics student from Serbia.

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Albert Einstein | Biography, Education, Discoveries, & Facts
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Albert-Einstein
https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/einstein/biographical/
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921
2023-01-01
None
<div><div>
<section>
<article>
<p><a href="/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-faq.html">Questions and Answers on Albert Einstein</a></p>
<p>Albert Einstein was born at Ulm, in Württemberg, Germany, on March 14, 1879. Six weeks later the family moved to Munich, where he later on began his schooling at the Luitpold Gymnasium. Later, they moved to Italy and Albert continued his education at Aarau, Switzerland and in 1896 he entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich to be trained as a teacher in physics and mathematics. In 1901, the year he gained his diploma, he acquired Swiss citizenship and, as he was unable to find a teaching post, he accepted a position as technical assistant in the Swiss Patent Office. In 1905 he obtained his doctor’s degree.</p>
<p>During his stay at the Patent Office, and in his spare time, he produced much of his remarkable work and in 1908 he was appointed Privatdozent in Berne. In 1909 he became Professor Extraordinary at Zurich, in 1911 Professor of Theoretical Physics at Prague, returning to Zurich in the following year to fill a similar post. In 1914 he was appointed Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute and Professor in the University of Berlin. He became a German citizen in 1914 and remained in Berlin until 1933 when he renounced his citizenship for political reasons and emigrated to America to take the position of Professor of Theoretical Physics at Princeton<a href="#footnote">*</a>. He became a United States citizen in 1940 and retired from his post in 1945.</p>
<p>After World War II, Einstein was a leading figure in the World Government Movement, he was offered the Presidency of the State of Israel, which he declined, and he collaborated with Dr. Chaim Weizmann in establishing the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.</p>
<p>Einstein always appeared to have a clear view of the problems of physics and the determination to solve them. He had a strategy of his own and was able to visualize the main stages on the way to his goal. He regarded his major achievements as mere stepping-stones for the next advance.</p>
<p>At the start of his scientific work, Einstein realized the inadequacies of Newtonian mechanics and his special theory of relativity stemmed from an attempt to reconcile the laws of mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. He dealt with classical problems of statistical mechanics and problems in which they were merged with quantum theory: this led to an explanation of the Brownian movement of molecules. He investigated the thermal properties of light with a low radiation density and his observations laid the foundation of the photon theory of light.</p>
<p>In his early days in Berlin, Einstein postulated that the correct interpretation of the special theory of relativity must also furnish a theory of gravitation and in 1916 he published his paper on the general theory of relativity. During this time he also contributed to the problems of the theory of radiation and statistical mechanics.</p>
<p>In the 1920s, Einstein embarked on the construction of unified field theories, although he continued to work on the probabilistic interpretation of quantum theory, and he persevered with this work in America. He contributed to statistical mechanics by his development of the quantum theory of a monatomic gas and he has also accomplished valuable work in connection with atomic transition probabilities and relativistic cosmology.</p>
<p>After his retirement he continued to work towards the unification of the basic concepts of physics, taking the opposite approach, geometrisation, to the majority of physicists.</p>
<p>Einstein’s researches are, of course, well chronicled and his more important works include <i>Special Theory of Relativity</i> (1905), <i>Relativity</i> (English translations, 1920 and 1950), <i>General Theory of Relativity</i> (1916), <i>Investigations on Theory of Brownian Movement</i> (1926), and <i>The Evolution of Physics</i> (1938). Among his non-scientific works, <i>About Zionism</i> (1930), <i>Why War?</i> (1933), <i>My Philosophy</i> (1934), and <i>Out of My Later Years</i> (1950) are perhaps the most important.</p>
<p>Albert Einstein received honorary doctorate degrees in science, medicine and philosophy from many European and American universities. During the 1920’s he lectured in Europe, America and the Far East, and he was awarded Fellowships or Memberships of all the leading scientific academies throughout the world. He gained numerous awards in recognition of his work, including the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London in 1925, and the Franklin Medal of the Franklin Institute in 1935.</p>
<p>Einstein’s gifts inevitably resulted in his dwelling much in intellectual solitude and, for relaxation, music played an important part in his life. He married Mileva Maric in 1903 and they had a daughter and two sons; their marriage was dissolved in 1919 and in the same year he married his cousin, Elsa Löwenthal, who died in 1936. He died on April 18, 1955 at Princeton, New Jersey.</p>
 
<p>This autobiography/biography was written
at the time of the award and first
published in the book series <a href="/nobel_organizations/nobelfoundation/publications/lesprix.html"><i>Les Prix Nobel</i></a>.
It was later edited and republished in <i><a href="/nobel_organizations/nobelfoundation/publications/lectures/index.html">Nobel Lectures</a></i>. To cite this document, always state the source as shown above.</p>
<hr />
<p><a href="/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/"></a>* Albert Einstein was formally associated with the Institute for Advanced Study located in Princeton, New Jersey.</p>
Copyright © The Nobel Foundation 1922
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 Albert Einstein

 Biographical

 Questions and Answers on Albert Einstein

 A lbert Einstein was born at Ulm, in Württemberg, Germany, on March 14, 1879. Six weeks later the family moved to Munich, where he later on began his schooling at the Luitpold Gymnasium. Later, they moved to Italy and Albert continued his education at Aarau, Switzerland and in 1896 he entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich to be trained as a teacher in physics and mathematics. In 1901, the year he gained his diploma, he acquired Swiss citizenship and, as he was unable to find a teaching post, he accepted a position as technical assistant in the Swiss Patent Office. In 1905 he obtained his doctor’s degree.

 During his stay at the Patent Office, and in his spare time, he produced much of his remarkable work and in 1908 he was appointed Privatdozent in Berne. In 1909 he became Professor Extraordinary at Zurich, in 1911 Professor of Theoretical Physics at Prague, returning to Zurich in the following year to fill a similar post. In 1914 he was appointed Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute and Professor in the University of Berlin. He became a German citizen in 1914 and remained in Berlin until 1933 when he renounced his citizenship for political reasons and emigrated to America to take the position of Professor of Theoretical Physics at Princeton*. He became a United States citizen in 1940 and retired from his post in 1945.

 After World War II, Einstein was a leading figure in the World Government Movement, he was offered the Presidency of the State of Israel, which he declined, and he collaborated with Dr. Chaim Weizmann in establishing the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

 Einstein always appeared to have a clear view of the problems of physics and the determination to solve them. He had a strategy of his own and was able to visualize the main stages on the way to his goal. He regarded his major achievements as mere stepping-stones for the next advance.

 At the start of his scientific work, Einstein realized the inadequacies of Newtonian mechanics and his special theory of relativity stemmed from an attempt to reconcile the laws of mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. He dealt with classical problems of statistical mechanics and problems in which they were merged with quantum theory: this led to an explanation of the Brownian movement of molecules. He investigated the thermal properties of light with a low radiation density and his observations laid the foundation of the photon theory of light.

 In his early days in Berlin, Einstein postulated that the correct interpretation of the special theory of relativity must also furnish a theory of gravitation and in 1916 he published his paper on the general theory of relativity. During this time he also contributed to the problems of the theory of radiation and statistical mechanics.

 In the 1920s, Einstein embarked on the construction of unified field theories, although he continued to work on the probabilistic interpretation of quantum theory, and he persevered with this work in America. He contributed to statistical mechanics by his development of the quantum theory of a monatomic gas and he has also accomplished valuable work in connection with atomic transition probabilities and relativistic cosmology.

 After his retirement he continued to work towards the unification of the basic concepts of physics, taking the opposite approach, geometrisation, to the majority of physicists.

 Einstein’s researches are, of course, well chronicled and his more important works include Special Theory of Relativity (1905), Relativity (English translations, 1920 and 1950), General Theory of Relativity (1916), Investigations on Theory of Brownian Movement (1926), and The Evolution of Physics (1938). Among his non-scientific works, About Zionism (1930), Why War? (1933), My Philosophy (1934), and Out of My Later Years (1950) are perhaps the most important.

 Albert Einstein received honorary doctorate degrees in science, medicine and philosophy from many European and American universities. During the 1920’s he lectured in Europe, America and the Far East, and he was awarded Fellowships or Memberships of all the leading scientific academies throughout the world. He gained numerous awards in recognition of his work, including the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London in 1925, and the Franklin Medal of the Franklin Institute in 1935.

 Einstein’s gifts inevitably resulted in his dwelling much in intellectual solitude and, for relaxation, music played an important part in his life. He married Mileva Maric in 1903 and they had a daughter and two sons; their marriage was dissolved in 1919 and in the same year he married his cousin, Elsa Löwenthal, who died in 1936. He died on April 18, 1955 at Princeton, New Jersey.

 From Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901-1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967

 This autobiography/biography was written at the time of the award and first published in the book series Les Prix Nobel. It was later edited and republished in Nobel Lectures. To cite this document, always state the source as shown above.

 * Albert Einstein was formally associated with the Institute for Advanced Study located in Princeton, New Jersey.

 Copyright © The Nobel Foundation 1922

 To cite this section
 MLA style: Albert Einstein – Biographical. NobelPrize.org. Nobel Prize Outreach AB 2023. Thu. 13 Apr 2023. <https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/einstein/biographical/>

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Questions and Answers on Albert Einstein 
Albert Einstein was born at Ulm, in Württemberg, Germany, on March 14, 1879. Six weeks later the family moved to Munich, where he later on began his schooling at the Luitpold Gymnasium. Later, they moved to Italy and Albert continued his education at Aarau, Switzerland and in 1896 he entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich to be trained as a teacher in physics and mathematics. In 1901, the year he gained his diploma, he acquired Swiss citizenship and, as he was unable to find a teaching post, he accepted a position as technical assistant in the Swiss Patent Office. In 1905 he obtained his doctor’s degree.
During his stay at the Patent Office, and in his spare time, he produced much of his remarkable work and in 1908 he was appointed Privatdozent in Berne. In 1909 he became Professor Extraordinary at Zurich, in 1911 Professor of Theoretical Physics at Prague, returning to Zurich in the following year to fill a similar post. In 1914 he was appointed Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute and Professor in the University of Berlin. He became a German citizen in 1914 and remained in Berlin until 1933 when he renounced his citizenship for political reasons and emigrated to America to take the position of Professor of Theoretical Physics at Princeton*. He became a United States citizen in 1940 and retired from his post in 1945.
After World War II, Einstein was a leading figure in the World Government Movement, he was offered the Presidency of the State of Israel, which he declined, and he collaborated with Dr. Chaim Weizmann in establishing the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
Einstein always appeared to have a clear view of the problems of physics and the determination to solve them. He had a strategy of his own and was able to visualize the main stages on the way to his goal. He regarded his major achievements as mere stepping-stones for the next advance.
At the start of his scientific work, Einstein realized the inadequacies of Newtonian mechanics and his special theory of relativity stemmed from an attempt to reconcile the laws of mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. He dealt with classical problems of statistical mechanics and problems in which they were merged with quantum theory: this led to an explanation of the Brownian movement of molecules. He investigated the thermal properties of light with a low radiation density and his observations laid the foundation of the photon theory of light.
In his early days in Berlin, Einstein postulated that the correct interpretation of the special theory of relativity must also furnish a theory of gravitation and in 1916 he published his paper on the general theory of relativity. During this time he also contributed to the problems of the theory of radiation and statistical mechanics.
In the 1920s, Einstein embarked on the construction of unified field theories, although he continued to work on the probabilistic interpretation of quantum theory, and he persevered with this work in America. He contributed to statistical mechanics by his development of the quantum theory of a monatomic gas and he has also accomplished valuable work in connection with atomic transition probabilities and relativistic cosmology.
After his retirement he continued to work towards the unification of the basic concepts of physics, taking the opposite approach, geometrisation, to the majority of physicists.
Einstein’s researches are, of course, well chronicled and his more important works include Special Theory of Relativity (1905), Relativity (English translations, 1920 and 1950), General Theory of Relativity (1916), Investigations on Theory of Brownian Movement (1926), and The Evolution of Physics (1938). Among his non-scientific works, About Zionism (1930), Why War? (1933), My Philosophy (1934), and Out of My Later Years (1950) are perhaps the most important.
Albert Einstein received honorary doctorate degrees in science, medicine and philosophy from many European and American universities. During the 1920’s he lectured in Europe, America and the Far East, and he was awarded Fellowships or Memberships of all the leading scientific academies throughout the world. He gained numerous awards in recognition of his work, including the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London in 1925, and the Franklin Medal of the Franklin Institute in 1935.
Einstein’s gifts inevitably resulted in his dwelling much in intellectual solitude and, for relaxation, music played an important part in his life. He married Mileva Maric in 1903 and they had a daughter and two sons; their marriage was dissolved in 1919 and in the same year he married his cousin, Elsa Löwenthal, who died in 1936. He died on April 18, 1955 at Princeton, New Jersey.
 
This autobiography/biography was written
at the time of the award and first
published in the book series  Les Prix Nobel .
It was later edited and republished in  Nobel Lectures . To cite this document, always state the source as shown above.
  * Albert Einstein was formally associated with the Institute for Advanced Study located in Princeton, New Jersey.
Copyright © The Nobel Foundation 1922
 
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Nobel Prizes 2022 
 
 
Fourteen laureates were awarded a Nobel Prize in 2022, for achievements that have conferred the greatest benefit to humankind. Their work and discoveries range from paleogenomics and click chemistry to documenting war crimes. See them all presented here.  
  
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The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921
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