Here's the person who was tutored by Aristotle
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great
Alexander the Great - Wikipedia
2001-10-04
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<table><tbody><tr><th>Alexander the Great</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_the_Great_mosaic_(cropped).jpg"></a><div><p>Alexander the Great in the <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Mosaic">Alexander Mosaic</a> at the <a href="/wiki/National_Archaeological_Museum,_Naples">National Archaeological Museum, Naples</a>, Italy</p></div></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Macedon">King of Macedonia</a></th></tr><tr><th>Reign</th><td>336–323 BC</td></tr><tr><th>Predecessor</th><td><a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon">Philip II</a></td></tr><tr><th>Successor</th><td><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_IV_of_Macedon">Alexander IV</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Macedon">Philip III</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/Hegemony#8th–1st_centuries_BC">Hegemon</a> of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth">Hellenic League</a></th></tr><tr><th>Reign</th><td>336–323 BC</td></tr><tr><th>Predecessor</th><td><a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon">Philip II</a></td></tr><tr><th>Successor</th><td><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_Poliorcetes">Demetrius Poliorcetes</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/List_of_Pharaohs">Pharaoh of Egypt</a></th></tr><tr><th>Reign</th><td>332–323 BC</td></tr><tr><th>Predecessor</th><td><a href="/wiki/Darius_III">Darius III</a></td></tr><tr><th>Successor</th><td><div>
<ul><li>Alexander IV</li>
<li>Philip III</li></ul>
</div><div><div><p><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_royal_titulary">Royal titulary</a></p></div></div></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Persia">King of Persia</a></th></tr><tr><th>Reign</th><td>330–323 BC</td></tr><tr><th>Predecessor</th><td>Darius III</td></tr><tr><th>Successor</th><td><div>
<ul><li>Alexander IV</li>
<li>Philip III</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th></th></tr><tr><th>Born</th><td>20 or 21 July 356 BC<br /><a href="/wiki/Pella">Pella</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macedon">Macedon</a></td></tr><tr><th>Died</th><td>10 or 11 June 323 BC (aged 32)<br /><a href="/wiki/Babylon">Babylon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></td></tr><tr><th>Spouse</th><td><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roxana">Roxana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stateira_(wife_of_Alexander_the_Great)">Stateira</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Parysatis_II">Parysatis</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th>Issue</th><td><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_IV_of_Macedon">Alexander IV</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Heracles_of_Macedon">Heracles</a> (alleged illegitimate son)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td><table><tbody><tr><th>Names</th></tr><tr><td>Alexander III of Macedon</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/Greek_language">Greek</a></th><td>Ἀλέξανδρος<sup><a href="#cnote_d">[d]</a></sup></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/Dynasty">Dynasty</a></th><td><a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty">Argead</a></td></tr><tr><th>Father</th><td><a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a></td></tr><tr><th>Mother</th><td><a href="/wiki/Olympias">Olympias of Epirus</a></td></tr><tr><th>Religion</th><td><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion">Ancient Greek religion</a></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Alexander III of Macedon</b> (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language">Ancient Greek</a>: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BC%88%CE%BB%CE%AD%CE%BE%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B4%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82">Ἀλέξανδρος</a>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Ancient_Greek">romanized</a>: </small><i>Alexandros</i>; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as <b>Alexander the Great</b>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Plautus-2">[a]</a></sup> was a king of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece">ancient Greek</a> kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)">Macedon</a>.<sup><a href="#cnote_a">[a]</a></sup> He succeeded his father <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon">Philip II</a> to the throne in 336 BC at the age of 20, and spent most of his ruling years conducting a lengthy <a href="/wiki/Military_campaign">military campaign</a> throughout <a href="/wiki/Western_Asia">Western Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt">Egypt</a>. By the age of 30, he had created one of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires">largest empires</a> in history, stretching from <a href="/wiki/Greece">Greece</a> to northwestern <a href="/wiki/Historical_India">India</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-3">[2]</a></sup> He was undefeated in battle and is widely considered to be one of history's greatest and most successful military commanders.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYenne2010159-4">[3]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-5">[4]</a></sup>
</p><p>Until the age of 16, Alexander was tutored by <a href="/wiki/Aristotle">Aristotle</a>. In 335 BC, shortly after his assumption of kingship over Macedon, he <a href="/wiki/Alexander%27s_Balkan_campaign">campaigned in the Balkans</a> and reasserted control over <a href="/wiki/Thrace">Thrace</a> and <a href="/wiki/Illyria">Illyria</a> before marching on the city of <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Greece">Thebes</a>, which was <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thebes">subsequently destroyed in battle</a>. Alexander then led the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth">League of Corinth</a>, and used his authority to launch the <a href="/wiki/Greek_nationalism#History">pan-Hellenic project</a> envisaged by his father, assuming leadership over all <a href="/wiki/Greeks">Greeks</a> in their conquest of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran">Persia</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeckelTritle200999-6">[5]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-7">[6]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 334 BC, he invaded the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire">Achaemenid Persian Empire</a> and began <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great#Persia">a series of campaigns</a> that lasted for 10 years. Following his conquest of <a href="/wiki/Anatolia">Asia Minor</a>, Alexander broke the power of Achaemenid Persia in a series of decisive battles, including those at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Issus">Issus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gaugamela">Gaugamela</a>; he subsequently overthrew <a href="/wiki/Darius_III">Darius III</a> and conquered the Achaemenid Empire in its entirety.<sup><a href="#cnote_b">[b]</a></sup> After the fall of Persia, the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Alexander_the_Great">Macedonian Empire</a> held a vast swath of territory between the <a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Sea">Adriatic Sea</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River">Indus River</a>. Alexander endeavored to reach the "ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea" and <a href="/wiki/Indian_campaign_of_Alexander_the_Great">invaded India</a> in 326 BC, achieving an important victory over <a href="/wiki/Porus_the_Elder">Porus</a>, an ancient Indian king of present-day <a href="/wiki/Punjab">Punjab</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Hydaspes">Battle of the Hydaspes</a>. Due to the demand of his homesick troops, he eventually turned back at the <a href="/wiki/Beas_River">Beas River</a> and later died in 323 BC in <a href="/wiki/Babylon">Babylon</a>, the city of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> that he had planned to establish as his empire's capital. <a href="/wiki/Death_of_Alexander_the_Great">Alexander's death</a> left unexecuted an additional series of planned military and mercantile campaigns that would have begun with a Greek invasion of <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula">Arabia</a>. In the years following his death, <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Diadochi">a series of civil wars</a> broke out across the Macedonian Empire, eventually leading to its disintegration at the hands of the <a href="/wiki/Diadochi">Diadochi</a>.
</p><p>With his death marking the start of the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period">Hellenistic period</a>, Alexander's legacy includes the cultural diffusion and syncretism that his conquests engendered, such as <a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism">Hellenistic Judaism</a>. <a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_Alexander_the_Great">He founded more than twenty cities</a>, with the most prominent being the city of <a href="/wiki/Alexandria">Alexandria</a> in <a href="/wiki/Egypt">Egypt</a>. Alexander's settlement of <a href="/wiki/Greek_colonisation">Greek colonists</a> and the resulting spread of <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Greece">Greek culture</a> led to the overwhelming dominance of <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period">Hellenistic civilization</a> and influence as far east as the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>. The Hellenistic period developed through the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire">Roman Empire</a> into modern <a href="/wiki/Western_culture">Western culture</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language">Greek language</a> became the <i><a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca">lingua franca</a></i> of the region and was the predominant language of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> up until its collapse in the mid-15th century AD. Greek-speaking communities <a href="/wiki/Cappadocian_Greeks">in central Anatolia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pontic_Greeks">in far-eastern Anatolia</a> survived until the <a href="/wiki/Greek_genocide">Greek genocide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Convention_Concerning_the_Exchange_of_Greek_and_Turkish_Populations">Greek–Turkish population exchanges</a> of the early 20th century AD. Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mould of <a href="/wiki/Achilles">Achilles</a>, featuring prominently in the historical and mythical traditions of both Greek and non-Greek cultures. His military achievements and unprecedented enduring successes in battle made him the measure against which many later military leaders would compare themselves,<sup><a href="#cnote_c">[c]</a></sup> and his tactics remain a significant subject of study in <a href="/wiki/Military_academy">military academies</a> worldwide.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYenne2010viii-8">[7]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Early life</h2>
<h3>Lineage and childhood</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Macedonia_336_BC-en.svg"></a></p></div>
<p>Alexander III was born in <a href="/wiki/Pella">Pella</a>, the capital of the <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)">Kingdom of Macedon</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-9">[8]</a></sup> on the sixth day of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_calendars">ancient Greek month</a> of <a href="/wiki/Attic_calendar">Hekatombaion</a>, which probably corresponds to 20 July 356 BC (although the exact date is uncertain).<sup><a href="#cite_note-10">[9]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-11">[10]</a></sup> He was the son of the erstwhile king of Macedon, <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon">Philip II</a>, and his fourth wife, <a href="/wiki/Olympias">Olympias</a> (daughter of <a href="/wiki/Neoptolemus_I_of_Epirus">Neoptolemus I</a>, king of <a href="/wiki/Epirus_(ancient_state)">Epirus</a>).<sup><a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a></sup> Although Philip had seven or eight wives, Olympias was his principal wife for some time, likely because she gave birth to Alexander.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010171-13">[12]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Coin_olympias_mus_theski.JPG"></a></p><div><p>Roman medallion depicting <a href="/wiki/Olympias">Olympias</a>, Alexander's mother</p></div></div>
<p>Several legends surround Alexander's birth and childhood.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010188-14">[13]</a></sup> According to the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece">ancient Greek</a> biographer <a href="/wiki/Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, on the eve of the consummation of her marriage to Philip, Olympias dreamed that her womb was struck by a thunderbolt that caused a flame to spread "far and wide" before dying away. Sometime after the wedding, Philip is said to have seen himself, in a dream, securing his wife's womb with a <a href="/wiki/Seal_(emblem)">seal</a> engraved with a lion's image.<sup><a href="#cite_note-PA2-15">[14]</a></sup> Plutarch offered a variety of interpretations for these dreams: that Olympias was pregnant before her marriage, indicated by the sealing of her womb; or that Alexander's father was <a href="/wiki/Zeus">Zeus</a>. Ancient commentators were divided about whether the ambitious Olympias promulgated the story of Alexander's divine parentage, variously claiming that she had told Alexander, or that she dismissed the suggestion as impious.<sup><a href="#cite_note-PA2-15">[14]</a></sup>
</p><p>On the day Alexander was born, Philip was preparing a <a href="/wiki/Siege">siege</a> on the city of <a href="/wiki/Potidea">Potidea</a> on the peninsula of <a href="/wiki/Chalcidice">Chalcidice</a>. That same day, Philip received news that his general <a href="/wiki/Parmenion">Parmenion</a> had defeated the combined <a href="/wiki/Illyria">Illyrian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paeonian">Paeonian</a> armies and that his horses had won at the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Olympic_Games">Olympic Games</a>. It was also said that on this day, the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Artemis">Temple of Artemis</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ephesus">Ephesus</a>, one of the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Wonders_of_the_Ancient_World">Seven Wonders of the World</a>, burnt down. This led <a href="/wiki/Hegesias_of_Magnesia">Hegesias of Magnesia</a> to say that it had burnt down because <a href="/wiki/Artemis">Artemis</a> was away, attending the birth of Alexander.<sup><a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a></sup> Such legends may have emerged when Alexander was king, and possibly at his instigation, to show that he was superhuman and destined for greatness from conception.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010188-14">[13]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Archaeological_Site_of_Pella_by_Joy_of_Museums.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Archaeological Site of <a href="/wiki/Pella">Pella</a>, Greece, Alexander's birthplace</p></div></div>
<p>In his early years, Alexander was raised by a nurse, <a href="/wiki/Lanike">Lanike</a>, sister of Alexander's future general <a href="/wiki/Cleitus_the_Black">Cleitus the Black</a>. Later in his childhood, Alexander was tutored by the strict <a href="/wiki/Leonidas_of_Epirus">Leonidas</a>, a relative of his mother, and by <a href="/wiki/Lysimachus_of_Acarnania">Lysimachus of Acarnania</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERenault200133–34-17">[16]</a></sup> Alexander was raised in the manner of noble Macedonian youths, learning to read, play the <a href="/wiki/Lyre">lyre</a>, ride, fight, and hunt.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010186-18">[17]</a></sup>
When Alexander was ten years old, a trader from <a href="/wiki/Thessaly">Thessaly</a> brought Philip a horse, which he offered to sell for thirteen <a href="/wiki/Attic_talent">talents</a>. The horse refused to be mounted, and Philip ordered it away. Alexander, however, detecting the horse's fear of its own shadow, asked to tame the horse, which he eventually managed.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010188-14">[13]</a></sup> Plutarch stated that Philip, overjoyed at this display of courage and ambition, kissed his son tearfully, declaring: "My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedon is too small for you", and bought the horse for him.<sup><a href="#cite_note-PA6-19">[18]</a></sup> Alexander named it <a href="/wiki/Bucephalas">Bucephalas</a>, meaning "ox-head". Bucephalas carried Alexander as far as <a href="/wiki/India">India</a>. When the animal died (because of old age, according to Plutarch, at age thirty), Alexander named a city after him, <a href="/wiki/Alexandria_Bucephalous">Bucephala</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Education</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Alejandro_Magno,_Alexander_The_Great_Bust_Alexander_BM_1857_(cropped).jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>When Alexander was 13, Philip began to search for a <a href="/wiki/Tutor">tutor</a>, and considered such academics as <a href="/wiki/Isocrates">Isocrates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Speusippus">Speusippus</a>, the latter offering to resign from his stewardship of the <a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy">Academy</a> to take up the post. In the end, Philip chose <a href="/wiki/Aristotle">Aristotle</a> and provided the Temple of the Nymphs at <a href="/wiki/Mieza,_Macedonia">Mieza</a> as a classroom. In return for teaching Alexander, Philip agreed to rebuild Aristotle's hometown of <a href="/wiki/Stageira">Stageira</a>, which Philip had razed, and to repopulate it by buying and freeing the ex-citizens who were slaves, or pardoning those who were in exile.<sup><a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a></sup>
</p><p>Mieza was like a boarding school for Alexander and the children of Macedonian nobles, such as <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter">Ptolemy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hephaistion">Hephaistion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cassander">Cassander</a>. Many of these students would become his friends and future generals, and are often known as the "Companions". Aristotle taught Alexander and his companions about medicine, philosophy, morals, religion, logic, and art. Under Aristotle's tutelage, Alexander developed a passion for the works of <a href="/wiki/Homer">Homer</a>, and in particular the <i><a href="/wiki/Iliad">Iliad</a></i>; Aristotle gave him an annotated copy, which Alexander later carried on his campaigns.<sup><a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a></sup>
</p><p>Alexander was able to quote <a href="/wiki/Euripides">Euripides</a> from memory.<sup><a href="#cite_note-RLF-23">[22]</a></sup>
</p><p>During his youth, Alexander was also acquainted with Persian exiles at the Macedonian court, who received the protection of Philip II for several years as they opposed <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III">Artaxerxes III</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECawthorne2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoxyz0v9T74sCpgPA42_42–43]-24">[23]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-EDC-26">[25]</a></sup> Among them were <a href="/wiki/Artabazos_II">Artabazos II</a> and his daughter <a href="/wiki/Barsine">Barsine</a>, possible future mistress of Alexander, who resided at the Macedonian court from 352 to 342 BC, as well as <a href="/wiki/Amminapes">Amminapes</a>, future <a href="/wiki/Satrap">satrap</a> of Alexander, or a Persian nobleman named <a href="/wiki/Sisines">Sisines</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECawthorne2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoxyz0v9T74sCpgPA42_42–43]-24">[23]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-JM-27">[26]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-EJ-29">[28]</a></sup> This gave the Macedonian court a good knowledge of Persian issues, and may even have influenced some of the innovations in the management of the Macedonian state.<sup><a href="#cite_note-JM-27">[26]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Suda">Suda</a> writes that <a href="/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Lampsacus">Anaximenes of Lampsacus</a> was one of Alexander's teachers, and that Anaximenes also accompanied Alexander on his campaigns.<sup><a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Heir of Philip II</h2>
<h3>Regency and ascent of Macedon</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Philip_II_of_Macedon_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN2263.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>At the age of 16, Alexander's education under Aristotle ended. Philip II had waged war against the <a href="/wiki/Thracians">Thracians</a> to the north, which left Alexander in charge as <a href="/wiki/Regent">regent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heir_apparent">heir apparent</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010188-14">[13]</a></sup> During Philip's absence, the <a href="/wiki/Thracians">Thracian</a> tribe of <a href="/wiki/Maedi">Maedi</a> revolted against Macedonia. Alexander responded quickly and drove them from their territory. The territory was colonized, and a city, named <a href="/wiki/Alexandropolis_Maedica">Alexandropolis</a>, was founded.<sup><a href="#cite_note-31">[30]</a></sup>
</p><p>Upon Philip's return, Alexander was dispatched with a small force to subdue the revolts in southern <a href="/wiki/Thrace">Thrace</a>. Campaigning against the Greek city of <a href="/wiki/Perinthus">Perinthus</a>, Alexander reportedly saved his father's life. Meanwhile, the city of <a href="/wiki/Amphissa_(city)">Amphissa</a> began to work lands that were sacred to <a href="/wiki/Apollo">Apollo</a> near <a href="/wiki/Delphi">Delphi</a>, a sacrilege that gave Philip the opportunity to further intervene in Greek affairs. While Philip was occupied in Thrace, Alexander was ordered to muster an army for a campaign in southern Greece. Concerned that other Greek states might intervene, Alexander made it look as though he was preparing to attack <a href="/wiki/Illyria">Illyria</a> instead. During this turmoil, the Illyrians invaded Macedonia, only to be repelled by Alexander.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERenault200147–49-32">[31]</a></sup>
</p><p>Philip and his army joined his son in 338 BC, and they marched south through <a href="/wiki/Thermopylae">Thermopylae</a>, taking it after stubborn resistance from its Theban garrison. They went on to occupy the city of <a href="/wiki/Elatea">Elatea</a>, only a few days' march from both <a href="/wiki/Athens">Athens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Greece">Thebes</a>. The Athenians, led by <a href="/wiki/Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a>, voted to seek alliance with Thebes against Macedonia. Both Athens and Philip sent embassies to win Thebes's favour, but Athens won the contest.<sup><a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a></sup> Philip marched on Amphissa (ostensibly acting on the request of the <a href="/wiki/Amphictyonic_League">Amphictyonic League</a>), capturing the mercenaries sent there by Demosthenes and accepting the city's surrender. Philip then returned to Elatea, sending a final offer of peace to Athens and Thebes, who both rejected it.<sup><a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Chaeronea,_338_BC.png"></a></p></div>
<p>As Philip marched south, his opponents blocked him near <a href="/wiki/Chaeronea">Chaeronea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boeotia">Boeotia</a>. During the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chaeronea_(338_BC)">Battle of Chaeronea</a>, Philip commanded the right wing and Alexander the left, accompanied by a group of Philip's trusted generals. According to the ancient sources, the two sides fought bitterly for some time. Philip deliberately commanded his troops to retreat, counting on the untested Athenian <a href="/wiki/Hoplites">hoplites</a> to follow, thus breaking their line. Alexander was the first to break the Theban lines, followed by Philip's generals. Having damaged the enemy's cohesion, Philip ordered his troops to press forward and quickly routed them. With the Athenians lost, the Thebans were surrounded. Left to fight alone, they were defeated.<sup><a href="#cite_note-DiodXVI-35">[34]</a></sup>
</p><p>After the victory at Chaeronea, Philip and Alexander marched unopposed into the Peloponnese, welcomed by all cities; however, when they reached <a href="/wiki/Sparta">Sparta</a>, they were refused, but did not resort to war.<sup><a href="#cite_note-36">[35]</a></sup> At <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Corinth">Corinth</a>, Philip established a "Hellenic Alliance" (modelled on the old <a href="/wiki/Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece#Hellenic_alliance">anti-Persian alliance</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a>), which included most Greek city-states except Sparta. Philip was then named <i><a href="/wiki/Hegemon">Hegemon</a></i> (often translated as "Supreme Commander") of this league (known by modern scholars as the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth">League of Corinth</a>), and announced his plans to attack the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire">Persian Empire</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERenault200154-37">[36]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCarty200426-38">[37]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Exile and return</h3>
<p>When Philip returned to Pella, he fell in love with and married <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_Eurydice_of_Macedon">Cleopatra Eurydice</a> in 338 BC,<sup><a href="#cite_note-39">[38]</a></sup> the niece of his general <a href="/wiki/Attalus_(general)">Attalus</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010179-40">[39]</a></sup> The marriage made Alexander's position as heir less secure, since any son of Cleopatra Eurydice would be a fully Macedonian heir, while Alexander was only half-Macedonian.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCarty200427-41">[40]</a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Banquet">wedding banquet</a>, a drunken Attalus publicly prayed to the gods that the union would produce a legitimate heir.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010179-40">[39]</a></sup>
</p>
<blockquote><p>At the wedding of Cleopatra, whom Philip fell in love with and married, she being much too young for him, her uncle Attalus in his drink desired the Macedonians would implore the gods to give them a lawful successor to the kingdom by his niece. This so irritated Alexander, that throwing one of the cups at his head, "You villain," said he, "what, am I then a bastard?" Then Philip, taking Attalus's part, rose up and would have run his son through; but by good fortune for them both, either his over-hasty rage, or the wine he had drunk, made his foot slip, so that he fell down on the floor. At which Alexander reproachfully insulted over him: "See there," said he, "the man who makes preparations to pass out of Europe into Asia, overturned in passing from one seat to another."</p><p>— <cite>Plutarch, describing the feud at Philip's wedding.<sup><a href="#cite_note-PA9-42">[41]</a></sup></cite></p></blockquote>
<p>In 337 BC, Alexander fled Macedon with his mother, dropping her off with her brother, King <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Epirus">Alexander I of Epirus</a> in <a href="/wiki/Dodona">Dodona</a>, capital of the <a href="/wiki/Molossians">Molossians</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010180-43">[42]</a></sup> He continued to Illyria,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010180-43">[42]</a></sup> where he sought refuge with one or more Illyrian kings, perhaps with <a href="/wiki/Glaucias_of_Taulantii">Glaukias</a>, and was treated as a guest, despite having defeated them in battle a few years before.<sup><a href="#cite_note-44">[43]</a></sup> However, it appears Philip never intended to disown his politically and militarily trained son.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010180-43">[42]</a></sup> Accordingly, Alexander returned to Macedon after six months due to the efforts of a family friend, <a href="/wiki/Demaratus_(hetairos)">Demaratus</a>, who mediated between the two parties.<sup><a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the following year, the Persian <a href="/wiki/Satrap">satrap</a> (governor) of <a href="/wiki/Caria">Caria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pixodarus_of_Caria">Pixodarus</a>, offered his eldest daughter to Alexander's half-brother, <a href="/wiki/Philip_Arrhidaeus">Philip Arrhidaeus</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010180-43">[42]</a></sup> Olympias and several of Alexander's friends suggested this showed Philip intended to make Arrhidaeus his heir.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010180-43">[42]</a></sup> Alexander reacted by sending an actor, <a href="/wiki/Thessalus_(actor)">Thessalus</a> of Corinth, to tell Pixodarus that he should not offer his daughter's hand to an illegitimate son, but instead to Alexander. When Philip heard of this, he stopped the negotiations and scolded Alexander for wishing to marry the daughter of a Carian, explaining that he wanted a better bride for him.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010180-43">[42]</a></sup> Philip exiled four of Alexander's friends, <a href="/wiki/Harpalus">Harpalus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nearchus">Nearchus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter">Ptolemy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erigyius">Erigyius</a>, and had the Corinthians bring Thessalus to him in chains.<sup><a href="#cite_note-46">[45]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>King of Macedon</h2>
<h3>Accession</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Pausanius_assassinates_Philip_during_the_procession_into_the_theatre_by_Andre_Castaigne_(1898-1899).jpg"></a></p><div><p>Pausanius assassinates Philip II, Alexander's father, during his procession into the theatre</p></div></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Deer_hunt_mosaic_from_Pella.jpg"></a></p><div><p>The emblema of the <a href="/wiki/Stag_Hunt_Mosaic">Stag Hunt Mosaic</a>, <abbr>c.</abbr> 300 BC, from <a href="/wiki/Pella">Pella</a>; the figure on the right is possibly Alexander the Great due to the date of the mosaic along with the depicted upsweep of his centrally-parted hair (<i>anastole</i>); the figure on the left wielding a double-edged axe (associated with <a href="/wiki/Hephaistos">Hephaistos</a>) is perhaps <a href="/wiki/Hephaestion">Hephaestion</a>, one of Alexander's loyal companions.<sup><a href="#cite_note-bare_url_a-47">[46]</a></sup></p></div></div>
<p>In summer 336 BC, while at <a href="/wiki/Vergina">Aegae</a> attending the wedding of his daughter <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_of_Macedon">Cleopatra</a> to Olympias's brother, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Epirus">Alexander I of Epirus</a>, Philip was assassinated by the captain of his <a href="/wiki/Somatophylax">bodyguards</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pausanias_of_Orestis">Pausanias</a>.<sup><a href="#cnote_e">[e]</a></sup> As Pausanias tried to escape, he tripped over a vine and was killed by his pursuers, including two of Alexander's companions, <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas">Perdiccas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leonnatus">Leonnatus</a>. Alexander was proclaimed king on the spot by the nobles and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_military">army</a> at the age of 20.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCarty200430–31-48">[47]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Fox_1980_72-50">[49]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Consolidation of power</h3>
<p>Alexander began his reign by eliminating potential rivals to the throne. He had his cousin, the former <a href="/wiki/Amyntas_IV_of_Macedon">Amyntas IV</a>, executed.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010190-51">[50]</a></sup> He also had two Macedonian princes from the region of <a href="/wiki/Lyncestis">Lyncestis</a> killed for having been involved in his father's assassination, but spared a third, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Lyncestes">Alexander Lyncestes</a>. Olympias had Cleopatra Eurydice, and Europa, her daughter by Philip, burned alive. When Alexander learned about this, he was furious. Alexander also ordered the murder of Attalus,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010190-51">[50]</a></sup> who was in command of the advance guard of the army in Asia Minor and Cleopatra's uncle.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Green_2007_5–6-52">[51]</a></sup>
</p><p>Attalus was at that time corresponding with Demosthenes, regarding the possibility of defecting to Athens. Attalus also had severely insulted Alexander, and following Cleopatra's murder, Alexander may have considered him too dangerous to leave alive.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Green_2007_5–6-52">[51]</a></sup> Alexander spared Arrhidaeus, who was by all accounts mentally disabled, possibly as a result of poisoning by Olympias.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCarty200430–31-48">[47]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Fox_1980_72-50">[49]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-53">[52]</a></sup>
</p><p>News of Philip's death roused many states into revolt, including Thebes, Athens, Thessaly, and the Thracian tribes north of Macedon. When news of the revolts reached Alexander, he responded quickly. Though advised to use diplomacy, Alexander mustered 3,000 Macedonian cavalry and rode south towards Thessaly. He found the Thessalian army occupying the pass between <a href="/wiki/Mount_Olympus">Mount Olympus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mount_Ossa_(Greece)">Mount Ossa</a>, and ordered his men to ride over Mount Ossa. When the Thessalians awoke the next day, they found Alexander in their rear and promptly surrendered, adding their cavalry to Alexander's force. He then continued south towards the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnese">Peloponnese</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-54">[53]</a></sup>
</p><p>Alexander stopped at Thermopylae, where he was recognized as the leader of the Amphictyonic League before heading south to <a href="/wiki/Corinth">Corinth</a>. Athens sued for peace and Alexander pardoned the rebels. The famous <a href="/wiki/Diogenes_and_Alexander">encounter between Alexander and Diogenes the Cynic</a> occurred during Alexander's stay in Corinth. When Alexander asked Diogenes what he could do for him, the philosopher disdainfully asked Alexander to stand a little to the side, as he was blocking the sunlight.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman200421-55">[54]</a></sup> This reply apparently delighted Alexander, who is reported to have said "But verily, if I were not Alexander, I would like to be Diogenes."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDillon2004187–88-56">[55]</a></sup> At Corinth, Alexander took the title of <i>Hegemon</i> ("leader") and, like Philip, was appointed commander for the coming war against Persia. He also received news of a Thracian uprising.<sup><a href="#cite_note-57">[56]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Balkan campaign</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:The_Macedonian_phalanx_counter-attacks_during_the_battle_of_the_carts.jpg"></a></p><div><p>The Macedonian phalanx at the "Battle of the Carts" against the Thracians in 335 BC</p></div></div>
<p>Before crossing to Asia, Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders. In the spring of 335 BC, he advanced to suppress several revolts. Starting from <a href="/wiki/Amphipolis">Amphipolis</a>, he travelled east into the country of the "Independent Thracians"; and at <a href="/wiki/Haemus_Mons">Mount Haemus</a>, the Macedonian army attacked and defeated the Thracian forces manning the heights.<sup><a href="#cite_note-I,_1-58">[57]</a></sup> The Macedonians marched into the country of the <a href="/wiki/Triballi">Triballi</a>, and defeated their army near the <a href="/wiki/Rositsa_(river)">Lyginus</a> river<sup><a href="#cite_note-59">[58]</a></sup> (a <a href="/wiki/List_of_tributaries_of_the_Danube">tributary of the Danube</a>). Alexander then marched for three days to the <a href="/wiki/Danube">Danube</a>, encountering the <a href="/wiki/Getae">Getae</a> tribe on the opposite shore. Crossing the river at night, he surprised them and forced their army to retreat after the first cavalry <a href="/wiki/Skirmish">skirmish</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-60">[59]</a></sup>
</p><p>News then reached Alexander that the <a href="/wiki/Illyrians">Illyrian</a> chieftain <a href="/wiki/Cleitus_(son_of_Bardylis)">Cleitus</a> and <a href="/wiki/King_Glaukias">King Glaukias</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Taulantii">Taulantii</a> were in open revolt against his authority. Marching west into Illyria, Alexander defeated each in turn, forcing the two rulers to flee with their troops. With these victories, he secured his northern frontier.<sup><a href="#cite_note-61">[60]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Destruction of Thebes</h3>
<p>While Alexander campaigned north, the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once again. Alexander immediately headed south.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010192-62">[61]</a></sup> While the other cities again hesitated, Thebes decided to fight. The Theban resistance was ineffective, and Alexander <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thebes">razed the city</a> and divided its territory between the other Boeotian cities. The end of Thebes cowed Athens, leaving all of Greece temporarily at peace.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010192-62">[61]</a></sup> Alexander then set out on his Asian campaign, leaving <a href="/wiki/Antipater">Antipater</a> as regent.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_199-63">[62]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Conquest of the Achaemenid Persian Empire</h2>
<h3>Asia Minor</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:MacedonEmpire.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Map of Alexander's empire and his route</p></div></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Audran.jpg"></a></p></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_cuts_the_Gordian_Knot.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>After his victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chaeronea_(338_BC)">Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon">Philip II</a> began the work of establishing himself as <i>hēgemṓn</i> (<a href="/wiki/Greek_language">Greek</a>: ἡγεμών) of a league which according to <a href="/wiki/Diodorus">Diodorus</a> was to wage a campaign against the Persians for the sundry grievances Greece suffered in <a href="/wiki/Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece">480</a> and free the Greek cities of the western coast and islands from Achaemenid rule. In 336 he sent <a href="/wiki/Parmenion">Parmenion</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Amyntas_(son_of_Andromenes)">Amyntas</a>, Andromenes and <a href="/wiki/Attalus_(general)">Attalus</a>, and an army of 10,000 men into <a href="/wiki/Anatolia">Anatolia</a> to make preparations for an invasion.<sup><a href="#cite_note-PB-64">[63]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-WH-65">[64]</a></sup> At first, all went well. The Greek cities on the western coast of Anatolia revolted until the news arrived that Philip had been murdered and had been succeeded by his young son Alexander. The Macedonians were demoralized by Philip's death and were subsequently defeated near <a href="/wiki/Magnesia_on_the_Meander">Magnesia</a> by the Achaemenids under the command of the mercenary <a href="/wiki/Memnon_of_Rhodes">Memnon of Rhodes</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-PB-64">[63]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-WH-65">[64]</a></sup>
</p><p>Taking over the invasion project of Philip II, Alexander's army crossed the <a href="/wiki/Hellespont">Hellespont</a> in 334 BC with approximately 48,100 soldiers, 6,100 cavalry and a fleet of 120 ships with crews numbering 38,000,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010192-62">[61]</a></sup> drawn from Macedon and various Greek city-states, mercenaries, and feudally raised soldiers from <a href="/wiki/Thrace">Thrace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paionia">Paionia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Illyria">Illyria</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-66">[65]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cnote_f">[f]</a></sup> He showed his intent to conquer the entirety of the Persian Empire by throwing a spear into Asian soil and saying he accepted Asia as a gift from the gods. This also showed Alexander's eagerness to fight, in contrast to his father's preference for diplomacy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010192-62">[61]</a></sup>
</p><p>After an initial victory against Persian forces at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Granicus">Battle of the Granicus</a>, Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of <a href="/wiki/Sardis">Sardis</a>; he then proceeded along the <a href="/wiki/Ionia">Ionian</a> coast, granting autonomy and democracy to the cities. <a href="/wiki/Miletus">Miletus</a>, held by Achaemenid forces, required a delicate siege operation, with Persian naval forces nearby. Further south, at <a href="/wiki/Halicarnassus">Halicarnassus</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Caria">Caria</a>, Alexander successfully waged his first large-scale <a href="/wiki/Siege">siege</a>, eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captain <a href="/wiki/Memnon_of_Rhodes">Memnon of Rhodes</a> and the Persian <a href="/wiki/Satrap">satrap</a> of Caria, <a href="/wiki/Orontobates">Orontobates</a>, to withdraw by sea.<sup><a href="#cite_note-67">[66]</a></sup> Alexander left the government of Caria to a member of the Hecatomnid dynasty, <a href="/wiki/Ada_of_Caria">Ada</a>, who adopted Alexander.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Arrian_1976_loc=I,_23-68">[67]</a></sup>
</p><p>From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainous <a href="/wiki/Lycia">Lycia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pamphylia">Pamphylian</a> plain, asserting control over all coastal cities to deny the Persians naval bases. From Pamphylia onwards the coast held no major ports and Alexander moved inland. At <a href="/wiki/Termessos">Termessos</a>, Alexander humbled but did not storm the <a href="/wiki/Pisidia">Pisidian</a> city.<sup><a href="#cite_note-69">[68]</a></sup> At the ancient Phrygian capital of <a href="/wiki/Gordium">Gordium</a>, Alexander "undid" the hitherto unsolvable <a href="/wiki/Gordian_Knot">Gordian Knot</a>, a feat said to await the future "king of <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor">Asia</a>".<sup><a href="#cite_note-70">[69]</a></sup> According to the story, Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone and hacked it apart with his sword.<sup><a href="#cite_note-71">[70]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>The Levant and Syria</h3>
<p>In spring 333 BC, Alexander crossed the <a href="/wiki/Taurus_Mountains">Taurus</a> into <a href="/wiki/Cilicia">Cilicia</a>. After a long pause due to an illness, he marched on towards Syria. Though outmanoeuvered by Darius's significantly larger army, he marched back to Cilicia, where he defeated Darius at <a href="/wiki/Issus_(Cilicia)">Issus</a>. Darius fled the battle, causing his army to collapse, and left behind his wife, his two daughters, his mother <a href="/wiki/Sisygambis">Sisygambis</a>, and a fabulous treasure.<sup><a href="#cite_note-72">[71]</a></sup> He offered a <a href="/wiki/Peace_treaty">peace treaty</a> that included the lands he had already lost, and a ransom of 10,000 <a href="/wiki/Attic_talent">talents</a> for his family. Alexander replied that since he was now king of Asia, it was he alone who decided territorial divisions.<sup><a href="#cite_note-73">[72]</a></sup>
Alexander proceeded to take possession of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Syria">Syria</a>, and most of the coast of the <a href="/wiki/Levant">Levant</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Arrian_1976_loc=I,_23-68">[67]</a></sup> In the following year, 332 BC, he was forced to attack <a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon">Tyre</a>, which he captured after a long and difficult <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tyre_(332_BC)">siege</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-74">[73]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-75">[74]</a></sup> The men of military age were massacred and the women and children sold into <a href="/wiki/Slavery">slavery</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-76">[75]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Egypt</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Name_of_Alexander_the_Great_in_Hieroglyphs_circa_330_BCE.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>When Alexander destroyed Tyre, most of the towns on the route to <a href="/wiki/Egypt">Egypt</a> quickly capitulated. However, Alexander was met with resistance at <a href="/wiki/Gaza_City">Gaza</a>. The stronghold was heavily fortified and built on a hill, requiring a siege. When "his engineers pointed out to him that because of the height of the mound it would be impossible... this encouraged Alexander all the more to make the
attempt".<sup><a href="#cite_note-77">[76]</a></sup> After three unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold fell, but not before Alexander had received a serious shoulder wound. As in Tyre, men of military age were put to the sword and the women and children were sold into slavery.<sup><a href="#cite_note-78">[77]</a></sup>
</p><p>Egypt was only one of a large number of territories taken by Alexander from the Persians. After his trip to Siwa, Alexander was crowned in the temple of Ptah at Memphis. It appears that the Egyptian people did not find it disturbing that he was a foreigner - nor that he was absent for virtually his entire reign.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:0-79">[78]</a></sup> Alexander restored the temples neglected by the Persians and dedicated new monuments to the Egyptian gods. In the temple of Luxor, near Karnak, he built a chapel for the sacred barge. During his brief months in Egypt, he reformed the taxation system on the Greek models and organized the military occupation of the country, but, early in 331 BC, he left for Asia in pursuit of the Persians.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:0-79">[78]</a></sup>
</p><p>Alexander advanced on Egypt in later 332 BC, where he was regarded as a liberator.<sup><a href="#cite_note-80">[79]</a></sup> To legitimize taking power and be recognized as the descendant of the long line of pharaohs, Alexander made sacrifices to the gods at Memphis and went to consult the famous oracle of Amun-Ra at the <a href="/wiki/Siwa_Oasis">Siwa Oasis</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:0-79">[78]</a></sup> He was pronounced son of the deity <a href="/wiki/Amun">Amun</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Oracle">Oracle</a> of <a href="/wiki/Siwa_Oasis">Siwa Oasis</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Libya">Libyan</a> desert.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworth198871–74-81">[80]</a></sup> Henceforth, Alexander often referred to <a href="/wiki/Zeus-Ammon">Zeus-Ammon</a> as his true father, and after his death, currency depicted him adorned with the <a href="/wiki/Horns_of_Ammon">Horns of Ammon</a> as a symbol of his divinity.<sup><a href="#cite_note-82">[81]</a></sup> The Greeks interpreted this message - one that the gods addressed to all pharaohs - as a prophecy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:0-79">[78]</a></sup>
</p><p>During his stay in Egypt, he founded <a href="/wiki/Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, which would become the prosperous capital of the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a> after his death.<sup><a href="#cite_note-83">[82]</a></sup> Control of Egypt passed to Ptolemy I (son of Lagos), the founder of the Ptolemaic Dynasty (305-30 BC) after the death of Alexander.
</p>
<h3>Assyria and Babylonia</h3>
<p>Leaving Egypt in 331 BC, Alexander marched eastward into <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Assyria">Achaemenid Assyria</a> in <a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a> (now northern <a href="/wiki/Iraq">Iraq</a>) and defeated Darius again at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gaugamela">Battle of Gaugamela</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-84">[83]</a></sup> Darius once more fled the field, and Alexander chased him as far as <a href="/wiki/Erbil">Arbela</a>. Gaugamela would be the final and decisive encounter between the two.<sup><a href="#cite_note-85">[84]</a></sup> Darius fled over the mountains to <a href="/wiki/Ecbatana">Ecbatana</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Hamadan">Hamadan</a>) while Alexander captured <a href="/wiki/Babylon">Babylon</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-AIII16-86">[85]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomical_diaries">Babylonian astronomical diaries</a> say that "the king of the world, Alexander" sent his scouts with a message to the people of Babylon before entering the city: "I shall not enter your houses".<sup><a href="#cite_note-87">[86]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Persia</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:2persian_gate_wall.JPG"></a></p></div>
<p>From Babylon, Alexander went to <a href="/wiki/Susa">Susa</a>, one of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire">Achaemenid</a> capitals, and captured its treasury.<sup><a href="#cite_note-AIII16-86">[85]</a></sup> He sent the bulk of his army to the Persian ceremonial capital of <a href="/wiki/Persepolis">Persepolis</a> via the Persian <a href="/wiki/Royal_Road">Royal Road</a>. Alexander himself took selected troops on the direct route to the city. He then stormed the pass of the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gates">Persian Gates</a> (in the modern <a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a>) which had been blocked by a Persian army under <a href="/wiki/Ariobarzanes_(satrap_of_Persis)">Ariobarzanes</a> and then hurried to Persepolis before its garrison could loot the treasury.<sup><a href="#cite_note-88">[87]</a></sup>
</p><p>On entering Persepolis, Alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for several days.<sup><a href="#cite_note-89">[88]</a></sup> Alexander stayed in Persepolis for five months.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996121-90">[89]</a></sup> During his stay a fire broke out in the eastern palace of <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I">Xerxes I</a> and spread to the rest of the city. Possible causes include a drunken accident or deliberate revenge for the burning of the <a href="/wiki/Acropolis_of_Athens">Acropolis of Athens</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars">Second Persian War</a> by Xerxes;<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammond198372–73-91">[90]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Plutarch">Plutarch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diodorus">Diodorus</a> allege that Alexander's companion, the <a href="/wiki/Hetaera">hetaera</a> <a href="/wiki/Tha%C3%AFs">Thaïs</a>, instigated and started the fire. Even as he watched the city burn, Alexander immediately began to regret his decision.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYenne2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkngnd0GlUc4CpgPA99_99]-92">[91]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-93">[92]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-94">[93]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Plutarch">Plutarch</a> claims that he ordered his men to put out the fires,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYenne2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkngnd0GlUc4CpgPA99_99]-92">[91]</a></sup> but that the flames had already spread to most of the city.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYenne2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkngnd0GlUc4CpgPA99_99]-92">[91]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus">Curtius</a> claims that Alexander did not regret his decision until the next morning.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYenne2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkngnd0GlUc4CpgPA99_99]-92">[91]</a></sup> Plutarch recounts an anecdote in which Alexander pauses and talks to a fallen statue of Xerxes as if it were a live person:
</p>
<blockquote><p>Shall I pass by and leave you lying there because of the expeditions you led against Greece, or shall I set you up again because of your magnanimity and your virtues in other respects?<sup><a href="#cite_note-95">[94]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<h3>Fall of the Persian Empire and the East</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Khalili_Collection_Aramaic_Documents_manuscript_Bactria.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Alexander then chased Darius, first into Media, and then Parthia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1976III,_19–20-97">[96]</a></sup> The Persian king no longer controlled his own destiny, and was taken prisoner by <a href="/wiki/Bessus">Bessus</a>, his <a href="/wiki/Bactria">Bactrian</a> satrap and kinsman.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1976III,_21-98">[97]</a></sup> As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men fatally stab the Great King and then declared himself Darius's successor as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia to launch a <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare">guerrilla</a> campaign against Alexander.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1976III,_21,_25-99">[98]</a></sup> Alexander buried Darius's remains next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a regal funeral.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1976III,_22-100">[99]</a></sup> He claimed that, while dying, Darius had named him as his successor to the Achaemenid throne.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGergel200481-101">[100]</a></sup> The Achaemenid Empire is normally considered to have fallen with Darius.<sup><a href="#cite_note-102">[101]</a></sup> However, as basic forms of community life and the general structure of government were maintained and resuscitated by Alexander under his own rule, he, in the words of the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_studies">Iranologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Briant">Pierre Briant</a> "may therefore be considered to have acted in many ways as the <i>last of the Achaemenids</i>."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant1985827–830-103">[102]</a></sup>
</p><p>Alexander viewed Bessus as a usurper and set out to defeat him. This campaign, initially against Bessus, turned into a grand tour of central Asia. Alexander founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including modern <a href="/wiki/Kandahar">Kandahar</a> in Afghanistan, and <a href="/wiki/Alexandria_Eschate">Alexandria Eschate</a> ("The Furthest") in modern <a href="/wiki/Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a>. The campaign took Alexander through <a href="/wiki/Media_(region)">Media</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parthia">Parthia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aria_(satrapy)">Aria</a> (West Afghanistan), <a href="/wiki/Drangiana">Drangiana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arachosia">Arachosia</a> (South and Central Afghanistan), <a href="/wiki/Bactria">Bactria</a> (North and Central Afghanistan), and <a href="/wiki/Scythia">Scythia</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1976III,_23–25,_27–30;_IV,_1–7-104">[103]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 329 BC, <a href="/wiki/Spitamenes">Spitamenes</a>, who held an undefined position in the satrapy of Sogdiana, betrayed Bessus to <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter">Ptolemy</a>, one of Alexander's trusted companions, and Bessus was executed.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1976III,_30-105">[104]</a></sup> However, when, at some point later, Alexander was on the <a href="/wiki/Syr_Darya">Jaxartes</a> dealing with an incursion by a horse nomad army, Spitamenes raised Sogdiana in revolt. Alexander personally defeated the Scythians at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jaxartes">Battle of Jaxartes</a> and immediately launched a campaign against Spitamenes, defeating him in the Battle of Gabai. After the defeat, Spitamenes was killed by his own men, who then sued for peace.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1976IV,_5–6,_16–17-106">[105]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Problems and plots</h3>
 <div><p><a href="/wiki/File:The_killing_of_Cleitus_by_Andre_Castaigne_(1898-1899)_reduced.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>During this time, Alexander adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court, notably the custom of <i><a href="/wiki/Proskynesis">proskynesis</a></i>, either a symbolic kissing of the hand, or prostration on the ground, that Persians showed to their social superiors.<sup><a href="#cite_note-AVII11-107">[106]</a></sup> This was one aspect of Alexander's broad strategy aimed at securing the aid and support of the Iranian upper classes.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant1985827–830-103">[102]</a></sup> The Greeks however regarded the gesture of <i>proskynesis</i> as the province of <a href="/wiki/Deities">deities</a> and believed that Alexander meant to deify himself by requiring it. This cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen, and he eventually abandoned it.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996111-108">[107]</a></sup>
</p><p>During the long rule of the Achaemenids, the elite positions in many segments of the empire including the central government, the army, and the many satrapies were specifically reserved for <a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples">Iranians</a> and to a major degree <a href="/wiki/Persians">Persian</a> noblemen.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant1985827–830-103">[102]</a></sup> The latter were in many cases additionally connected through marriage alliances with the royal Achaemenid family.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant1985827–830-103">[102]</a></sup> This created a problem for Alexander as to whether he had to make use of the various segments and people that had given the empire its solidity and unity for a lengthy period of time.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant1985827–830-103">[102]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Briant">Pierre Briant</a> explains that Alexander realized that it was insufficient to merely exploit the internal contradictions within the imperial system as in Asia Minor, Babylonia or Egypt; he also had to (re)create a central government with or without the support of the Iranians.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant1985827–830-103">[102]</a></sup> As early as 334 BC he demonstrated awareness of this, when he challenged incumbent King Darius III "by appropriating the main elements of the Achaemenid monarchy's ideology, particularly the theme of the king who protects the lands and the peasants".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant1985827–830-103">[102]</a></sup> Alexander wrote a letter in 332 BC to Darius III, wherein he argued that he was worthier than Darius "to succeed to the Achaemenid throne".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant1985827–830-103">[102]</a></sup> However, Alexander's eventual decision to burn the Achaemenid palace at <a href="/wiki/Persepolis">Persepolis</a> in conjunction with the major rejection and opposition of the "entire Persian people" made it impracticable for him to pose himself as Darius' legitimate successor.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant1985827–830-103">[102]</a></sup> Against Bessus (Artaxerxes V) however, Briant adds, Alexander reasserted "his claim to legitimacy as the avenger of Darius III".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant1985827–830-103">[102]</a></sup>
</p><p>A plot against his life was revealed, and one of his officers, <a href="/wiki/Philotas">Philotas</a>, was executed for failing to alert Alexander. The death of the son necessitated the death of the father, and thus <a href="/wiki/Parmenion">Parmenion</a>, who had been charged with guarding the treasury at <a href="/wiki/Ecbatana">Ecbatana</a>, was assassinated at Alexander's command, to prevent attempts at vengeance. Most infamously, Alexander personally killed the man who had saved his life at Granicus, <a href="/wiki/Cleitus_the_Black">Cleitus the Black</a>, during a violent drunken altercation at <a href="/wiki/Maracanda">Maracanda</a> (modern day <a href="/wiki/Samarkand">Samarkand</a> in <a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a>), in which Cleitus accused Alexander of several judgmental mistakes and most especially, of having forgotten the Macedonian ways in favour of a corrupt oriental lifestyle.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGergel200499-109">[108]</a></sup>
</p><p>Later, in the Central Asian campaign, a second plot against his life was revealed, this one instigated by his own royal <a href="/wiki/Page_(servant)">pages</a>. His official historian, <a href="/wiki/Callisthenes">Callisthenes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Olynthus">Olynthus</a>, was implicated in the plot, and in the <i><a href="/wiki/Anabasis_of_Alexander">Anabasis of Alexander</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Arrian">Arrian</a> states that Callisthenes and the pages were then tortured on the <a href="/wiki/Rack_(torture)">rack</a> as punishment, and likely died soon after.<sup><a href="#cite_note-110">[109]</a></sup> It remains unclear if Callisthenes was actually involved in the plot, for prior to his accusation he had fallen out of favour by leading the opposition to the attempt to introduce proskynesis.<sup><a href="#cite_note-111">[110]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Macedon in Alexander's absence</h3>
<p>When Alexander set out for Asia, he left his general <a href="/wiki/Antipater">Antipater</a>, an experienced military and political leader and part of Philip II's "Old Guard", in charge of Macedon.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_199-63">[62]</a></sup> Alexander's sacking of Thebes ensured that Greece remained quiet during his absence.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_199-63">[62]</a></sup> The one exception was a call to arms by Spartan king <a href="/wiki/Agis_III">Agis III</a> in 331 BC, whom Antipater defeated and killed in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Megalopolis">battle of Megalopolis</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_199-63">[62]</a></sup> Antipater referred the Spartans' punishment to the League of Corinth, which then deferred to Alexander, who chose to pardon them.<sup><a href="#cite_note-112">[111]</a></sup> There was also considerable friction between Antipater and Olympias, and each complained to Alexander about the other.<sup><a href="#cite_note-113">[112]</a></sup>
</p><p>In general, Greece enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity during Alexander's campaign in Asia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-114">[113]</a></sup> Alexander sent back vast sums from his conquest, which stimulated the economy and increased trade across his empire.<sup><a href="#cite_note-115">[114]</a></sup> However, Alexander's constant demands for troops and the migration of Macedonians throughout his empire depleted Macedon's strength, greatly weakening it in the years after Alexander, and ultimately led to its subjugation by Rome after the <a href="/wiki/Third_Macedonian_War">Third Macedonian War</a> (171–168 BC).<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010186-18">[17]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Coinage</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Silver_tetradrachm_of_Alexander_the_Great.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Silver tetradrachm of Alexander the Great found in Byblos (ca 330–300 bc.) (BnF 1998–859; 17,33g; Byblos, Price 3426b)</p></div></div>
<p>The conquest by <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon">Philip II</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pangaeum">Pangaeum</a> and then of the island of <a href="/wiki/Thasos">Thasos</a> between 356 and 342 BC brought rich gold and silver mines under Macedonian control.<sup><a href="#cite_note-116">[115]</a></sup>
</p><p>Alexander appears to have introduced a new coinage in <a href="/wiki/Cilicia">Cilicia</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tarsus,_Mersin">Tarsus</a>, after the Battle of Issus in 333 BC, which went on to become the main coinage of the empire.<sup><a href="#cite_note-LE_RIDER_2003,_p153-214-117">[116]</a></sup> Alexander minted gold <a href="/wiki/Stater">staters</a>, silver <a href="/wiki/Tetradrachm">tetradrachms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_drachma">drachims</a>, and various fractional bronze coins. The types of these coins remained constant in his empire. The gold series had the head of <a href="/wiki/Athena">Athena</a> on the obverse and a winged Nike (Victory) on the reverse.<sup><a href="#cite_note-118">[117]</a></sup> The silver coinage had a beardless head of <a href="/wiki/Heracles">Heracles</a> wearing a lionskin headdress on the obverse and <a href="/wiki/Zeus">Zeus</a> aetophoros ('eagle bearer') enthroned with a scepter in his left hand, on the reverse.<sup><a href="#cite_note-119">[118]</a></sup> There are both Greek and non-Greek aspects to this design. Heracles and Zeus were important deities for the Macedonians, with Heracles considered to be the ancestor of the Temenid dynasty and Zeus the patron of the main Macedonian sanctuary, <a href="/wiki/Dium">Dium</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-LE_RIDER_2003,_p153-214-117">[116]</a></sup> However, the lion was also the symbolic animal of the Anatolian god <a href="/wiki/Sandas">Sandas</a>, worshipped at <a href="/wiki/Tarsus,_Mersin">Tarsus</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-LE_RIDER_2003,_p153-214-117">[116]</a></sup> The reverse design of Alexander's tetradrachms is closely modelled on the depiction of the god <a href="/wiki/Baaltars">Baaltars</a> (Baal of Tarsus), on the silver staters minted at Tarsus by the Persian satrap <a href="/wiki/Mazaeus">Mazaeus</a> before Alexander's conquest.<sup><a href="#cite_note-LE_RIDER_2003,_p153-214-117">[116]</a></sup>
</p><p>Alexander did not attempt to impose uniform imperial coinage throughout his new conquests. Persian coins continued to circulate in all the <a href="/wiki/Satrap">satrapies</a> of the empire.<sup><a href="#cite_note-120">[119]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Indian campaign</h2>
<h3>Forays into the Indian subcontinent</h3>
 <div><p><a href="/wiki/File:The_phalanx_attacking_the_centre_in_the_battle_of_the_Hydaspes_by_Andre_Castaigne_(1898-1899).jpg"></a></p></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:AlexanderConquestsInIndia.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Alexander's invasion of the Indian subcontinent</p></div></div>
<p>After the death of <a href="/wiki/Spitamenes">Spitamenes</a> and his marriage to Roxana (Raoxshna in <a href="/wiki/Old_Iranian">Old Iranian</a>) to cement relations with his new satrapies, Alexander turned to the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>. He invited the <a href="/wiki/Tribal_chief">chieftains</a> of the former satrapy of <a href="/wiki/Gandhara">Gandhara</a> (a region presently straddling eastern <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> and northern <a href="/wiki/Pakistan">Pakistan</a>), to come to him and submit to his authority. <a href="/wiki/Omphis">Omphis</a> (Indian name <a href="/wiki/Ambhi">Ambhi</a>), the ruler of <a href="/wiki/Taxila">Taxila</a>, whose kingdom extended from the <a href="/wiki/Indus">Indus</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Jhelum_River">Hydaspes (Jhelum)</a>, complied, but the chieftains of some hill clans, including the <a href="/wiki/Aspasioi">Aspasioi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Assakenoi">Assakenoi</a> sections of the <a href="/wiki/Kambojas">Kambojas</a> (known in Indian texts also as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas), refused to submit.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETripathi1999118–21-121">[120]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ambhi">Ambhi</a> hastened to relieve Alexander of his apprehension and met him with valuable presents, placing himself and all his forces at his disposal. Alexander not only returned Ambhi his title and the gifts but he also presented him with a wardrobe of "Persian robes, gold and silver ornaments, 30 horses and 1,000 talents in gold". Alexander was emboldened to divide his forces, and Ambhi assisted <a href="/wiki/Hephaestion">Hephaestion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas">Perdiccas</a> in constructing a bridge over the Indus where it bends at <a href="/wiki/Hund,_Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa">Hund</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-122">[121]</a></sup> supplied their troops with provisions, and received Alexander himself, and his whole army, in his capital city of Taxila, with every demonstration of friendship and the most liberal hospitality.
</p><p>On the subsequent advance of the <a href="/wiki/Macedon">Macedonian</a> king, Taxiles accompanied him with a force of 5,000 men and took part in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Hydaspes_River">battle of the Hydaspes River</a>. After that victory he was sent by Alexander in pursuit of <a href="/wiki/Porus_the_Elder">Porus</a>, to whom he was charged to offer favourable terms, but narrowly escaped losing his life at the hands of his old enemy. Subsequently, however, the two rivals were reconciled by the personal mediation of Alexander; and Taxiles, after having contributed zealously to the equipment of the fleet on the Hydaspes, was entrusted by the king with the government of the whole territory between that river and the Indus. A considerable accession of power was granted him after the death of <a href="/wiki/Philip_(son_of_Machatas)">Philip</a>, son of Machatas; and he was allowed to retain his authority at the death of Alexander himself (323 BC), as well as in the subsequent partition of the provinces at <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Triparadisus">Triparadisus</a>, 321 BC.
</p><p>In the winter of 327/326 BC, Alexander personally led a campaign against the Aspasioi of <a href="/wiki/Kunar_Valley">Kunar</a> <a href="/wiki/Valley">valleys</a>, the Guraeans of the <a href="/wiki/Panjkora">Guraeus</a> valley, and the Assakenoi of the <a href="/wiki/Swat_(Pakistan)">Swat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buner_Valley">Buner</a> valleys.<sup><a href="#cite_note-123">[122]</a></sup> A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi in which Alexander was wounded in the shoulder by a dart, but eventually the Aspasioi lost. Alexander then faced the Assakenoi, who fought against him from the strongholds of Massaga, Ora and <a href="/wiki/Aornos">Aornos</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETripathi1999118–21-121">[120]</a></sup>
</p><p>The fort of Massaga was reduced only after days of bloody fighting, in which Alexander was wounded seriously in the ankle. According to <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus">Curtius</a>, "Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubble."<sup><a href="#cite_note-124">[123]</a></sup> A similar slaughter followed at Ora. In the aftermath of Massaga and Ora, numerous Assakenians fled to the fortress of <a href="/wiki/Aornos">Aornos</a>. Alexander followed close behind and captured the strategic hill-fort after four bloody days.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETripathi1999118–21-121">[120]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_accepts_the_surrender_of_Porus_by_Andre_Castaigne_(1898-1899).jpg"></a></p><div><p><i><a href="/wiki/Porus_the_Elder">Porus</a> surrenders to Alexander</i></p></div></div>
<p>After Aornos, Alexander crossed the Indus and fought and won an epic battle against <a href="/wiki/Porus_the_Elder">King Porus</a>, who ruled a region lying between the <a href="/wiki/Hydaspes">Hydaspes</a> and the Acesines (<a href="/wiki/Chenab">Chenab</a>), in what is now the <a href="/wiki/Punjab_region">Punjab</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Hydaspes">Battle of the Hydaspes</a> in 326 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETripathi1999124–25-125">[124]</a></sup> Alexander was impressed by Porus's bravery, and made him an ally. He appointed Porus as satrap, and added to Porus's territory land that he did not previously own, towards the south-east, up to the Hyphasis (<a href="/wiki/Beas">Beas</a>).<sup><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-126">[125]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-127">[126]</a></sup> Choosing a local helped him control these lands so distant from Greece.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETripathi1999126–27-128">[127]</a></sup> Alexander founded two cities on opposite sides of the <a href="/wiki/Jhelum_River">Hydaspes</a> river, naming one <a href="/wiki/Alexandria_Bucephalous">Bucephala</a>, in honour of his horse, who died around this time.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGergel2004120-129">[128]</a></sup> The other was <a href="/wiki/Nicaea_(Punjab)">Nicaea</a> (Victory), thought to be located at the site of modern-day <a href="/wiki/Mong,_Punjab">Mong, Punjab</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-130">[129]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Philostratus_the_Elder">Philostratus the Elder</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Life_of_Apollonius_of_Tyana">Life of Apollonius of Tyana</a> writes that in the army of Porus there was an elephant who fought brave against Alexander's army and Alexander dedicated it to the <a href="/wiki/Helios">Helios</a> (Sun) and named it Ajax, because he thought that a so great animal deserved a great name. The elephant had gold rings around its tusks and an inscription was on them written in Greek: "Alexander the son of Zeus dedicates Ajax to the Helios" (ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΣ Ο ΔΙΟΣ ΤΟΝ ΑΙΑΝΤΑ ΤΩΙ ΗΛΙΩΙ).<sup><a href="#cite_note-131">[130]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Revolt of the Hellenic army</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Asia_323bc.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>East of Porus's kingdom, near the <a href="/wiki/Ganges_River">Ganges River</a>, was the <a href="/wiki/Nanda_dynasty">Nanda Empire</a> of <a href="/wiki/Magadha">Magadha</a>, and further east, the <a href="/wiki/Gangaridai">Gangaridai Empire</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bengal">Bengal</a> region of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>. Fearing the prospect of facing other large armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, Alexander's army mutinied at the <a href="/wiki/Beas_River">Hyphasis River (Beas)</a>, refusing to march farther east.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKosmin201434-132">[131]</a></sup> This river thus marks the easternmost extent of Alexander's conquests.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETripathi1999129–30-133">[132]</a></sup>
</p>
<blockquote><p>As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed their further advance into India. For having had all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river Ganges also, the width of which, as they learned, was thirty-two furlongs [6.4 km], its depth one hundred fathoms [180 m], while its banks on the further side were covered with multitudes of <a href="/wiki/Man-at-arms">men-at-arms</a> and horsemen and elephants. For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand <a href="/wiki/War_elephant">war elephants</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-PA62-134">[133]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>Alexander tried to persuade his soldiers to march farther, but his general <a href="/wiki/Coenus_(general)">Coenus</a> pleaded with him to change his opinion and return; the men, he said, "longed to again see their parents, their wives and children, their homeland". Alexander eventually agreed and turned south, marching along the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River">Indus</a>. Along the way his army conquered the <a href="/wiki/Malhi_(Jat_clan)">Malhi</a> (in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Multan">Multan</a>) and other Indian tribes and Alexander sustained an injury during the siege.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETripathi1999137–38-135">[134]</a></sup>
</p><p>Alexander sent much of his army to <a href="/wiki/Kerman_province">Carmania</a> (modern southern <a href="/wiki/Iran">Iran</a>) with general <a href="/wiki/Craterus">Craterus</a>, and commissioned a fleet to explore the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> shore under his admiral <a href="/wiki/Nearchus">Nearchus</a>, while he led the rest back to Persia through the more difficult southern route along the <a href="/wiki/Gedrosia">Gedrosian Desert</a> and <a href="/wiki/Makran">Makran</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETripathi1999141-136">[135]</a></sup> Alexander reached Susa in 324 BC, but not before losing many men to the harsh desert.<sup><a href="#cite_note-137">[136]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Last years in Persia</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_and_Hephaestion.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Alexander (left) and <a href="/wiki/Hephaestion">Hephaestion</a> (right): Both were connected by a tight man-to-man friendship<sup><a href="#cite_note-138">[137]</a></sup></p></div></div>
<p>Discovering that many of his <a href="/wiki/Satrap">satraps</a> and military governors had misbehaved in his absence, Alexander executed several of them as examples on his way to <a href="/wiki/Susa">Susa</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-AVI27-139">[138]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-AVII4-140">[139]</a></sup> As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers, and announced that he would send over-aged and disabled veterans back to Macedon, led by Craterus. His troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at the town of <a href="/wiki/Opis">Opis</a>. They refused to be sent away and criticized his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Worthington_2003_307-141">[140]</a></sup>
</p><p>After three days, unable to persuade his men to back down, Alexander gave Persians command posts in the army and conferred Macedonian military titles upon Persian units. The Macedonians quickly begged forgiveness, which Alexander accepted, and held a great banquet with several thousand of his men.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_194-142">[141]</a></sup> In an attempt to craft a lasting harmony between his Macedonian and Persian subjects, Alexander <a href="/wiki/Susa_weddings">held a mass marriage</a> of his senior officers to Persian and other noblewomen at Susa, but few of those marriages seem to have lasted much beyond a year.<sup><a href="#cite_note-AVII4-140">[139]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Valenciennes,_Pierre-Henri_de_-_Alexander_at_the_Tomb_of_Cyrus_the_Great_-_1796.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Meanwhile, upon his return to Persia, Alexander learned that guards of the <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Cyrus_the_Great">tomb of Cyrus the Great</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pasargadae">Pasargadae</a> had desecrated it, and swiftly executed them.<sup><a href="#cite_note-AVI29-143">[142]</a></sup> Alexander admired <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great">Cyrus the Great</a>, from an early age reading Xenophon's <i><a href="/wiki/Cyropaedia">Cyropaedia</a></i>, which described Cyrus's heroism in battle and governance as a king and legislator.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Ulrich-144">[143]</a></sup> During his visit to Pasargadae, Alexander ordered his architect <a href="/wiki/Aristobulus_of_Cassandreia">Aristobulus</a> to decorate the interior of the sepulchral chamber of Cyrus's tomb.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Ulrich-144">[143]</a></sup>
</p><p>Afterwards, Alexander travelled to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure. There, his closest friend, <a href="/wiki/Hephaestion">Hephaestion</a>, died of illness or poisoning.<sup><a href="#cite_note-AVII14-145">[144]</a></sup> Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander and he ordered the preparation of an expensive <a href="/wiki/Funeral_pyre">funeral pyre</a> in Babylon along with a decree for public mourning.<sup><a href="#cite_note-AVII14-145">[144]</a></sup> Back in Babylon, Alexander planned a series of new campaigns, beginning with an invasion of Arabia, but he would not have a chance to realize them, as he died shortly after Hephaestion.<sup><a href="#cite_note-AVII19-146">[145]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Death and succession</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Babylonian_astronomical_diary_recording_the_death_of_Alexander_the_Great_(British_Museum).jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>On either 10 or 11 June 323 BC, Alexander died in the palace of <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II">Nebuchadnezzar II</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Babylon">Babylon</a>, at age 32.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Depuydt-147">[146]</a></sup> There are two different versions of Alexander's death, differing slightly in details. <a href="/wiki/Plutarch">Plutarch</a>'s account is that roughly 14 days before his death, Alexander entertained admiral <a href="/wiki/Nearchus">Nearchus</a> and spent the night and next day drinking with <a href="/wiki/Medius_of_Larissa">Medius of Larissa</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-P75-148">[147]</a></sup> Alexander developed a fever, which worsened until he was unable to speak. The common soldiers, anxious about his health, were granted the right to file past him as he silently waved at them.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood20012267–70-149">[148]</a></sup> In the second account, <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus">Diodorus</a> recounts that Alexander was struck with pain after downing a large bowl of unmixed wine in honour of <a href="/wiki/Heracles">Heracles</a> followed by 11 days of weakness; he did not develop a fever, instead dying after some agony.<sup><a href="#cite_note-DSXVII117-150">[149]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Arrian">Arrian</a> also mentioned this as an alternative, but Plutarch specifically denied this claim.<sup><a href="#cite_note-P75-148">[147]</a></sup>
</p><p>Given the propensity of the Macedonian aristocracy to assassination,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen20071–2-151">[150]</a></sup> foul play featured in multiple accounts of his death. Diodorus, Plutarch, Arrian and <a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)">Justin</a> all mentioned the theory that Alexander was poisoned. Justin stated that Alexander was the victim of a poisoning conspiracy, Plutarch dismissed it as a fabrication,<sup><a href="#cite_note-PA77-152">[151]</a></sup> while both Diodorus and Arrian noted that they mentioned it only for the sake of completeness.<sup><a href="#cite_note-DSXVII117-150">[149]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-AVII27-153">[152]</a></sup> The accounts were nevertheless fairly consistent in designating <a href="/wiki/Antipater">Antipater</a>, recently removed as Macedonian viceroy and at odds with Olympias, as the head of the alleged plot. Perhaps taking his summons to Babylon as a death sentence<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200723–24-154">[153]</a></sup> and having seen the fate of Parmenion and Philotas,<sup><a href="#cite_note-DSXVII118-155">[154]</a></sup> Antipater purportedly arranged for Alexander to be poisoned by his son Iollas, who was Alexander's wine-pourer.<sup><a href="#cite_note-AVII27-153">[152]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-DSXVII118-155">[154]</a></sup> There was even a suggestion that Aristotle may have participated.<sup><a href="#cite_note-AVII27-153">[152]</a></sup>
</p><p>The strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days passed between the start of his illness and his death; such long-acting poisons were probably not available.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELane_Fox2006chapter_32-156">[155]</a></sup> However, in a 2003 BBC documentary investigating the death of Alexander, Leo Schep from the New Zealand National Poisons Centre proposed that the plant white hellebore (<i><a href="/wiki/Veratrum_album">Veratrum album</a></i>), which was known in antiquity, may have been used to poison Alexander.<sup><a href="#cite_note-157">[156]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECawthorne2004138-158">[157]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-159">[158]</a></sup> In a 2014 manuscript in the journal <i><a href="/wiki/Clinical_Toxicology">Clinical Toxicology</a></i>, Schep suggested Alexander's wine was spiked with <i>Veratrum album</i>, and that this would produce poisoning symptoms that match the course of events described in the <i><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Romance">Alexander Romance</a></i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-schep-160">[159]</a></sup> <i>Veratrum album</i> poisoning can have a prolonged course and it was suggested that if Alexander was poisoned, <i>Veratrum album</i> offers the most plausible cause.<sup><a href="#cite_note-schep-160">[159]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-161">[160]</a></sup> Another poisoning explanation put forward in 2010 proposed that the circumstances of his death were compatible with poisoning by water of the river Styx (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Mavroneri">Mavroneri</a> in Arcadia, Greece) that contained <a href="/wiki/Calicheamicin">calicheamicin</a>, a dangerous compound produced by bacteria.<sup><a href="#cite_note-162">[161]</a></sup>
</p><p>Several <a href="/wiki/Natural_causes">natural causes</a> (diseases) have been suggested, including <a href="/wiki/Malaria">malaria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Typhoid_fever">typhoid fever</a>. A 1998 article in the <i><a href="/wiki/New_England_Journal_of_Medicine">New England Journal of Medicine</a></i> attributed his death to typhoid fever complicated by <a href="/wiki/Bowel_perforation">bowel perforation</a> and ascending <a href="/wiki/Paralysis">paralysis</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-AMD-163">[162]</a></sup> Another recent analysis suggested pyogenic (infectious) <a href="/wiki/Spondylitis">spondylitis</a> or <a href="/wiki/Meningitis">meningitis</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-ashrafian-164">[163]</a></sup> Other illnesses fit the symptoms, including <a href="/wiki/Acute_pancreatitis">acute pancreatitis</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Nile_virus">West Nile virus</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-ref1-165">[164]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-166">[165]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Guillain-Barr%C3%A9_syndrome">Guillain-Barré syndrome</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-167">[166]</a></sup> Natural-cause theories also tend to emphasize that Alexander's health may have been in general decline after years of heavy drinking and severe wounds. The anguish that Alexander felt after <a href="/wiki/Hephaestion">Hephaestion</a>'s death may also have contributed to his declining health.<sup><a href="#cite_note-AMD-163">[162]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Post-death events</h3>
<p>Alexander's body was laid in a gold anthropoid <a href="/wiki/Sarcophagus">sarcophagus</a> that was filled with honey, which was in turn placed in a gold casket.<sup><a href="#cite_note-sarco1-168">[167]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-169">[168]</a></sup> According to Aelian, a seer called Aristander foretold that the land where Alexander was laid to rest "would be happy and unvanquishable forever".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Aelian-170">[169]</a></sup> Perhaps more likely, the successors may have seen possession of the body as a symbol of legitimacy, since burying the prior king was a <a href="/wiki/Royal_prerogative">royal prerogative</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200732-171">[170]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Mid-nineteenth_century_reconstruction_of_Alexander%27s_catafalque_based_on_the_description_by_Diodorus.jpg"></a></p><div><p>19th-century depiction of Alexander's funeral procession, based on the description by <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></p></div></div>
<p>While Alexander's funeral cortege was on its way to Macedon, Ptolemy seized it and took it temporarily to Memphis.<sup><a href="#cite_note-sarco1-168">[167]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Aelian-170">[169]</a></sup> His successor, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus">Ptolemy II Philadelphus</a>, transferred the sarcophagus to Alexandria, where it remained until at least <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity">late Antiquity</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_IX_Lathyros">Ptolemy IX Lathyros</a>, one of Ptolemy's final successors, replaced Alexander's sarcophagus with a glass one so he could convert the original to coinage.<sup><a href="#cite_note-sarco2-172">[171]</a></sup> The recent discovery of an <a href="/wiki/Kasta_Tomb">enormous tomb</a> in northern Greece, at <a href="/wiki/Amphipolis">Amphipolis</a>, dating from the time of Alexander the Great<sup><a href="#cite_note-173">[172]</a></sup> has given rise to speculation that its original intent was to be the burial place of Alexander. This would fit with the intended destination of Alexander's funeral cortege. However, the memorial was found to be dedicated to the dearest friend of Alexander the Great, <a href="/wiki/Hephaestion">Hephaestion</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-174">[173]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-175">[174]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_Sarcophagus_Battle_of_Issus.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Pompey">Pompey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Augustus">Augustus</a> all visited the tomb in Alexandria, where Augustus, allegedly, accidentally knocked the nose off. <a href="/wiki/Caligula">Caligula</a> was said to have taken Alexander's breastplate from the tomb for his own use. Around AD 200, Emperor <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus">Septimius Severus</a> closed Alexander's tomb to the public. His son and successor, <a href="/wiki/Caracalla">Caracalla</a>, a great admirer, visited the tomb during his own reign. After this, details on the fate of the tomb are hazy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-sarco2-172">[171]</a></sup>
</p><p>The so-called "<a href="/wiki/Alexander_Sarcophagus">Alexander Sarcophagus</a>", discovered near <a href="/wiki/Sidon">Sidon</a> and now in the <a href="/wiki/Istanbul_Archaeology_Museum">Istanbul Archaeology Museum</a>, is so named not because it was thought to have contained Alexander's remains, but because its <a href="/wiki/Bas-relief">bas-reliefs</a> depict Alexander and his companions fighting the Persians and hunting. It was originally thought to have been the sarcophagus of <a href="/wiki/Abdalonymus">Abdalonymus</a> (died 311 BC), the king of Sidon appointed by Alexander immediately following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Issus">battle of Issus</a> in 331.<sup><a href="#cite_note-176">[175]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-177">[176]</a></sup> However, more recently, it has been suggested that it may date from earlier than Abdalonymus's death.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Demades">Demades</a> likened the Macedonian army, after the death of Alexander, to the blinded <a href="/wiki/Cyclops">Cyclops</a>, due to the many random and disorderly movements that it made.<sup><a href="#cite_note-178">[177]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-179">[178]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-180">[179]</a></sup> In addition, Leosthenes, also, likened the anarchy between the generals, after Alexander's death, to the blinded Cyclops "who after he had lost his eye went feeling and groping about with his hands before him, not knowing where to lay them".<sup><a href="#cite_note-181">[180]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Division of the Macedonian Empire</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Diadochi_EN.png"></a></p></div>
<p>Alexander's death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached Greece, they were not immediately believed.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_199-63">[62]</a></sup> Alexander had no obvious or legitimate heir, his son Alexander IV by Roxane being born after Alexander's death.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200724–26-182">[181]</a></sup> According to Diodorus, Alexander's companions asked him on his deathbed to whom he bequeathed his kingdom; his laconic reply was "tôi kratistôi"—"to the strongest".<sup><a href="#cite_note-DSXVII117-150">[149]</a></sup> Another theory is that his successors wilfully or erroneously misheard "tôi Kraterôi"—"to Craterus", the general leading his Macedonian troops home and newly entrusted with the regency of Macedonia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Shipley-183">[182]</a></sup>
</p><p>Arrian and Plutarch claimed that Alexander was speechless by this point, implying that this was an apocryphal story.<sup><a href="#cite_note-184">[183]</a></sup> Diodorus, Curtius and Justin offered the more plausible story that Alexander passed his <a href="/wiki/Seal_(device)">signet ring</a> to <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas">Perdiccas</a>, a bodyguard and leader of the companion cavalry, in front of witnesses, thereby nominating him.<sup><a href="#cite_note-DSXVII117-150">[149]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200724–26-182">[181]</a></sup>
</p><p>Perdiccas initially did not claim power, instead suggesting that Roxane's baby would be king, if male; with himself, <a href="/wiki/Craterus">Craterus</a>, Leonnatus, and Antipater as guardians. However, the infantry, under the command of <a href="/wiki/Meleager_(general)">Meleager</a>, rejected this arrangement since they had been excluded from the discussion. Instead, they supported Alexander's half-brother Philip Arrhidaeus. Eventually, the two sides reconciled, and after the birth of Alexander IV, he and Philip III were appointed joint kings, albeit in name only.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200726–29-185">[184]</a></sup>
</p><p>Dissension and rivalry soon affected the Macedonians, however. The satrapies handed out by Perdiccas at the <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Babylon">Partition of Babylon</a> became power bases each general used to bid for power. After the assassination of Perdiccas in 321 BC, Macedonian unity collapsed, and 40 years of war between "The Successors" (<i><a href="/wiki/Diadochi">Diadochi</a></i>) ensued before the Hellenistic world settled into four stable power blocs: <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom">Ptolemaic Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire">Seleucid Mesopotamia and Central Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Attalid_dynasty">Attalid Anatolia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Antigonid_dynasty">Antigonid Macedon</a>. In the process, both Alexander IV and Philip III were murdered.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200729–34-186">[185]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Last plans</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:KINGS_of_MACEDON_Alexander_III_the_Great_336-323_BC.jpg"></a></p><div><p>A coin of Alexander the Great struck by <a href="/wiki/Balakros">Balakros</a> or his successor <a href="/wiki/Menes_of_Pella">Menes</a>, both former <i><a href="/wiki/Somatophylakes">somatophylakes</a></i> (bodyguards) of Alexander, when they held the position of <a href="/wiki/Satrap">satrap</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cilicia">Cilicia</a> in the lifetime of Alexander, <abbr>c.</abbr> 333-327 BC. The obverse shows <a href="/wiki/Heracles">Heracles</a>, ancestor of the Macedonian royal line and the reverse shows a seated Zeus Aëtophoros.<sup><a href="#cite_note-187">[186]</a></sup></p></div></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus">Diodorus</a> stated that Alexander had given detailed written instructions to <a href="/wiki/Craterus">Craterus</a> some time before his death, which are known as Alexander's "last plans".<sup><a href="#cite_note-DSXVIII4-188">[187]</a></sup> Craterus started to carry out Alexander's commands, but the successors chose not to further implement them, on the grounds they were impractical and extravagant.<sup><a href="#cite_note-DSXVIII4-188">[187]</a></sup> Furthermore, <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas">Perdiccas</a> had read the notebooks containing Alexander's last plans to the Macedonian troops in Babylon, who voted not to carry them out.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_199-63">[62]</a></sup>
</p><p>According to Diodorus, Alexander's last plans called for military expansion into the southern and western Mediterranean, monumental constructions, and the intermixing of Eastern and Western populations. It included:
</p>
<ul><li>Construction of 1,000 ships larger than triremes, along with harbours and a road running along the African coast all the way to the <a href="/wiki/Pillars_of_Hercules">Pillars of Hercules</a>, to be used for an invasion of Carthage and the western Mediterranean;<sup><a href="#cite_note-Bad-189">[188]</a></sup></li>
<li>Erection of great temples in <a href="/wiki/Delos">Delos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delphi">Delphi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dodona">Dodona</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dium">Dium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amphipolis">Amphipolis</a>, all costing 1,500 <a href="/wiki/Attic_talent">talents</a>, and a monumental temple to <a href="/wiki/Athena">Athena</a> at <a href="/wiki/Troy">Troy</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_199-63">[62]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Bad-189">[188]</a></sup></li>
<li>Amalgamation of small settlements into larger cities ("<a href="/wiki/Synoecism">synoecisms</a>") and the "transplant of populations from Asia to Europe and in the opposite direction from Europe to Asia, in order to bring the largest continent to common unity and to friendship by means of intermarriage and family ties"<sup><a href="#cite_note-190">[189]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Bad-189">[188]</a></sup></li>
<li>Construction of a monumental tomb for his father Philip, "to match the greatest of the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramids">pyramids of Egypt</a>"<sup><a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_199-63">[62]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Bad-189">[188]</a></sup></li>
<li>Conquest of Arabia<sup><a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_199-63">[62]</a></sup></li>
<li>Circumnavigation of Africa<sup><a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_199-63">[62]</a></sup></li></ul>
<p>The enormous scale of these plans has led many scholars to doubt their historicity. <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Badian">Ernst Badian</a> argued that they were exaggerated by Perdiccas in order to ensure that the Macedonian troops voted not to carry them out.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Bad-189">[188]</a></sup> Other scholars have proposed that they were invented by later authors within the tradition of the <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Romance">Alexander Romance</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-191">[190]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Character</h2>
<h3>Generalship</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_granicus.png"></a></p></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_issus_decisive.png"></a></p></div>
<p>Alexander perhaps earned the epithet "the Great" due to his unparalleled success as a military commander; he never lost a battle, despite typically being outnumbered.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidlkYFVJ3U-BICpgPA192_192]-192">[191]</a></sup> This was due to use of terrain, <a href="/wiki/Phalanx">phalanx</a> and cavalry tactics, bold strategy, and the fierce loyalty of his troops.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_193-193">[192]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_phalanx">Macedonian phalanx</a>, armed with the <a href="/wiki/Sarissa">sarissa</a>, a spear 6 metres (20 ft) long, had been developed and perfected by Philip II through rigorous training, and Alexander used its speed and manoeuvrability to great effect against larger but more disparate Persian forces.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996110-194">[193]</a></sup> Alexander also recognized the potential for disunity among his diverse army, which employed various languages and weapons. He overcame this by being personally involved in battle,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996121-90">[89]</a></sup> in the manner of a Macedonian king.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_193-193">[192]</a></sup>
</p><p>In his first battle in Asia, at Granicus, Alexander used only a small part of his forces, perhaps 13,000 infantry with 5,000 cavalry, against a much larger Persian force of 40,000.<sup><a href="#cite_note-195">[194]</a></sup> Alexander placed the phalanx at the center and cavalry and archers on the wings, so that his line matched the length of the Persian cavalry line, about 3 km (1.86 mi). By contrast, the Persian infantry was stationed behind its cavalry. This ensured that Alexander would not be outflanked, while his phalanx, armed with long pikes, had a considerable advantage over the Persians' <a href="/wiki/Scimitars">scimitars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Javelins">javelins</a>. Macedonian losses were negligible compared to those of the Persians.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996122-196">[195]</a></sup>
</p><p>At Issus in 333 BC, his first confrontation with Darius, he used the same deployment, and again the central phalanx pushed through.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996122-196">[195]</a></sup> Alexander personally led the charge in the center, routing the opposing army.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010193-197">[196]</a></sup> At the decisive encounter with Darius at Gaugamela, Darius equipped his chariots with scythes on the wheels to break up the phalanx and equipped his cavalry with pikes. Alexander arranged a double phalanx, with the center advancing at an angle, parting when the chariots bore down and then reforming. The advance was successful and broke Darius's center, causing the latter to flee once again.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996122-196">[195]</a></sup>
</p><p>When faced with opponents who used unfamiliar fighting techniques, such as in Central Asia and India, Alexander adapted his forces to his opponents' style. Thus, in <a href="/wiki/Bactria">Bactria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sogdiana">Sogdiana</a>, Alexander successfully used his javelin throwers and archers to prevent outflanking movements, while massing his cavalry at the center.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010193-197">[196]</a></sup> In India, confronted by Porus's elephant corps, the Macedonians opened their ranks to envelop the elephants and used their sarissas to strike upwards and dislodge the elephants' handlers.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_194-142">[141]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Physical appearance</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:AlexanderCameo.JPG"></a></p></div>
<p>Historical sources frequently give conflicting accounts of Alexander's appearance, and the earliest sources are the most scant in their detail.<sup><a href="#cite_note-198">[197]</a></sup> During his lifetime, Alexander carefully curated his image by commissioning works from famous and great artists of the time. This included commissioning sculptures by <a href="/wiki/Lysippos">Lysippos</a>, paintings by <a href="/wiki/Apelles">Apelles</a> and gem engravings by <a href="/wiki/Pyrgoteles">Pyrgoteles</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Alexander_the_Great-199">[198]</a></sup> Ancient authors recorded that Alexander was so pleased with portraits of himself created by Lysippos that he forbade other sculptors from crafting his image; scholars today, however, find the claim dubious.<sup><a href="#cite_note-200">[199]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Alexander_the_Great-199">[198]</a></sup> Nevertheless, Andrew Stewart highlights the fact that artistic portraits, not least because of who they are commissioned by, are always partisan, and that artistic portrayals of Alexander "seek to legitimize him (or, by extension, his Successors), to interpret him to their audiences, to answer their critiques, and to persuade them of his greatness", and thus should be considered within a framework of "praise and blame", in the same way sources such as praise poetry are.<sup><a href="#cite_note-201">[200]</a></sup> Despite those caveats, Lysippos's sculpture, famous for its naturalism, as opposed to a stiffer, more static pose, is thought to be the most faithful depiction.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworth198819–20-202">[201]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus">Curtius Rufus</a>, a Roman historian from the first century AD, who wrote the <i><a href="/wiki/Histories_of_Alexander_the_Great">Histories of Alexander the Great</a></i>, gives this account of Alexander sitting on the throne of <a href="/wiki/Darius_III">Darius III</a>:
</p>
<blockquote><p>Then Alexander seating himself on the royal throne, which was far too high for his bodily stature. Therefore, since his feet did not reach its lowest step, once of the royal pages placed a table under his feet.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERolfe19465.2.13-203">[202]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>Both Curtius and <a href="/wiki/Diodorus">Diodorus</a> report a story that when <a href="/wiki/Darius_III">Darius III</a>'s mother, <a href="/wiki/Sisygambis">Sisygambis</a>, first met Alexander and <a href="/wiki/Hephaestion">Hephaestion</a>, she assumed that the latter was Alexander because he was the taller and more handsome of the two.<sup><a href="#cite_note-204">[203]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander-lysippus1-1.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Details from the <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Sarcophagus">Alexander Sarcophagus</a> show that he had a fair complexion with ruddy cheeks. This is in line with the description of him given by the Greek biographer <a href="/wiki/Plutarch">Plutarch</a> (<abbr>c.</abbr>  45 – c. 120 AD):
</p>
<blockquote><p>The outward appearance of Alexander is best represented by the statues of him which Lysippus made, and it was by this artist alone that Alexander himself thought it fit that he should be modelled. For those peculiarities which many of his successors and friends afterwards tried to imitate, namely, the poise of the neck, which was bent slightly to the left, and the melting glance of his eyes, this artist has accurately observed. Apelles, however, in painting him as wielder of the thunder-bolt, did not reproduce his complexion, but made it too dark and swarthy. Whereas he was of a fair colour, as they say, and his fairness passed into ruddiness on his breast particularly, and in his face. Moreover, that a very pleasant odour exhaled from his skin and that there was a fragrance about his mouth and all his flesh, so that his garments were filled with it, this we have read in the <i>Memoirs of Aristoxenus</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1919[httpswwwperseustuftseduhoppertextdocPerseustext1999010243chapter4highlightlysippus_IV,_1]-205">[204]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Detail_of_fresco_depicting_Alexander_the_Great.jpg"></a></p><div><p>A fresco depicting a hunt scene at the tomb of <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon">Philip II</a>, Alexander's father, at the Archaeological Site of <a href="/wiki/Aegae_(Macedonia)">Aigai</a>, the only known depiction of Alexander made during his lifetime, 330s BC</p></div></div>
<p>Historians have understood the detail of the pleasant odour attributed to Alexander as stemming from a belief in ancient Greece that pleasant scents are characteristic of gods and heroes.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Alexander_the_Great-199">[198]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Mosaic">Alexander Mosaic</a> and contemporary coins portray Alexander with "a straight nose, a slightly protruding jaw, full lips and eyes deep set beneath a strongly pronounced forehead".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Alexander_the_Great-199">[198]</a></sup> The ancient historian <a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus">Aelian</a> (<abbr>c.</abbr> 175 – <abbr>c.</abbr> 235 AD), in his <i>Varia Historia</i> (12.14), describes Alexander's hair color as "<i>ξανθὴν</i>", that could mean yellowish, reddish or brownish.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiddellScott1940[httpswwwperseustuftseduhoppertextdocPerseustext1999040057entrycanqos_ξανθός]-206">[205]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-207">[206]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-208">[207]</a></sup>
</p><p>Many scholars and historians attribute <a href="/wiki/Heterochromia">heterochromia</a> to him. He is described as having one eye light and one eye dark.<sup><a href="#cite_note-209">[208]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-210">[209]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-211">[210]</a></sup> In <i><a href="/wiki/The_Anabasis_of_Alexander">The Anabasis of Alexander</a></i>, Arrian is quoted as saying, "he had one eye dark as the night, and one blue as the sky".<sup><a href="#cite_note-212">[211]</a></sup> However, some have denied this claim as being used to emphasise the otherworldly and heroic qualities of Alexander.<sup><a href="#cite_note-213">[212]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-214">[213]</a></sup> Reconstruction of the original <a href="/wiki/Polychromy">polychromy</a> of the relief with Alexander on the <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Sarcophagus">sarcophagus</a> shows him with brown eyes and chestnut brown hair.<sup><a href="#cite_note-215">[214]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Personality</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Lion_hunt_mosaic_from_Pella.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Both of Alexander's parents encouraged his ambitions. His father Philip was probably Alexander's most immediate and influential role model, as the young Alexander watched him campaign practically every year, winning victory after victory while ignoring severe wounds.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010190-51">[50]</a></sup> Alexander's relationship with his father "forged" the competitive side of his personality; he had a need to outdo his father, illustrated by his reckless behavior in battle.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200715–16-217">[216]</a></sup> While Alexander worried that his father would leave him "no great or brilliant achievement to be displayed to the world",<sup><a href="#cite_note-PA5-218">[217]</a></sup> he also downplayed his father's achievements to his companions.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200715–16-217">[216]</a></sup> Alexander's mother Olympia similarly had huge ambitions, and encouraged her son to believe it was his destiny to conquer the Persian Empire.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200715–16-217">[216]</a></sup> She instilled a sense of destiny in him,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen20074-219">[218]</a></sup> and Plutarch tells how his ambition "kept his spirit serious and lofty in advance of his years".<sup><a href="#cite_note-PA4-220">[219]</a></sup>
</p><p>According to Plutarch, Alexander also had a violent temper and rash, impulsive nature,<sup><a href="#cite_note-AVII29-221">[220]</a></sup> and this could influence his decision making.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200715–16-217">[216]</a></sup> Although Alexander was stubborn and did not respond well to orders from his father, he was open to reasoned debate.<sup><a href="#cite_note-PA7-222">[221]</a></sup> He had a calmer side—perceptive, logical, and calculating. He had a great desire for knowledge, a love for philosophy, and was an avid reader.<sup><a href="#cite_note-PA8-223">[222]</a></sup> This was no doubt in part due to Aristotle's tutelage; Alexander was intelligent and quick to learn.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200715–16-217">[216]</a></sup> His intelligent and rational side was amply demonstrated by his ability and success as a general.<sup><a href="#cite_note-AVII29-221">[220]</a></sup> He had great self-restraint in "pleasures of the body", in contrast with his lack of <a href="/wiki/Self-control">self-control</a> with alcohol.<sup><a href="#cite_note-AVII28-224">[223]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_the_Great_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN574_n1.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Alexander was erudite and patronized both arts and sciences.<sup><a href="#cite_note-PA4-220">[219]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-PA8-223">[222]</a></sup> However, he had little interest in sports or the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Olympic_Games">Olympic Games</a> (unlike his father), seeking only the <a href="/wiki/Homeric">Homeric</a> ideals of honour (<i>timê</i>) and glory (<i>kudos</i>).<sup><a href="#cite_note-225">[224]</a></sup> He had great <a href="/wiki/Charisma">charisma</a> and force of personality, characteristics which made him a great leader.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200724–26-182">[181]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-AVII29-221">[220]</a></sup> His unique abilities were further demonstrated by the inability of any of his generals to unite Macedonia and retain the Empire after his death—only Alexander had the ability to do so.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200724–26-182">[181]</a></sup>
</p><p>During his final years, and especially after the death of Hephaestion, Alexander began to exhibit signs of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/megalomania">megalomania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paranoia">paranoia</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200723–24-154">[153]</a></sup> His extraordinary achievements, coupled with his own ineffable sense of destiny and the flattery of his companions, may have combined to produce this effect.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200720–21-226">[225]</a></sup> His <a href="/wiki/Delusions_of_grandeur">delusions of grandeur</a> are readily visible in his <a href="#Will">will</a> and in his desire to conquer the world,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200723–24-154">[153]</a></sup> in as much as he is by various sources described as having <i>boundless ambition</i>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-227">[226]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-228">[227]</a></sup> an epithet, the meaning of which has descended into a historical cliché.<sup><a href="#cite_note-229">[228]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-230">[229]</a></sup>
</p><p>He appears to have believed himself a deity, or at least sought to deify himself.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200723–24-154">[153]</a></sup> Olympias always insisted to him that he was the son of Zeus,<sup><a href="#cite_note-PA3-231">[230]</a></sup> a theory apparently confirmed to him by the oracle of Amun at <a href="/wiki/Siwa_Oasis">Siwa</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-P27-232">[231]</a></sup> He began to identify himself as the son of Zeus-Ammon.<sup><a href="#cite_note-P27-232">[231]</a></sup> Alexander adopted elements of Persian dress and customs at court, notably <i><a href="/wiki/Proskynesis">proskynesis</a></i>, which was one aspect of Alexander's broad strategy aimed at securing the aid and support of the Iranian upper classes;<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant1985827–830-103">[102]</a></sup> however the practise of <i>proskynesis</i> was disapproved by the Macedonians, and they were unwilling to perform it.<sup><a href="#cite_note-AVII11-107">[106]</a></sup> This behaviour cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen.<sup><a href="#cite_note-PA45-233">[232]</a></sup> However, Alexander also was a pragmatic ruler who understood the difficulties of ruling culturally disparate peoples, many of whom lived in kingdoms where the king was divine.<sup><a href="#cite_note-234">[233]</a></sup> Thus, rather than megalomania, his behaviour may have been a practical attempt at strengthening his rule and keeping his empire together.<sup><a href="#cite_note-235">[234]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Personal relationships</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Marriage_of_Alexander_and_Statira_as_Ares_and_Aphrodite,_fresco,_ca._69_d._C.,_copy_after_Aetion._Antiquarim,_Pompeii.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Alexander married three times: <a href="/wiki/Roxana">Roxana</a>, daughter of the <a href="/wiki/Sogdia">Sogdian</a> nobleman <a href="/wiki/Oxyartes">Oxyartes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bactria">Bactria</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-236">[235]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-237">[236]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-238">[237]</a></sup> out of love;<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1919[httpswwwperseustuftseduhoppertextdocPerseus3Atext3A19990102433Achapter3D47_LXVII,_1]-239">[238]</a></sup> and the Persian princesses <a href="/wiki/Stateira_(wife_of_Alexander_the_Great)">Stateira</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parysatis_II">Parysatis</a>, the former a daughter of <a href="/wiki/Darius_III">Darius III</a> and the latter a daughter of <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III">Artaxerxes III</a>, for political reasons.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Carney-240">[239]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1936[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsPlutarchMoraliaFortuna_Alexandri2html_II,_6]-241">[240]</a></sup> He apparently had two sons, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_IV_of_Macedon">Alexander IV of Macedon</a> by Roxana and, possibly, <a href="/wiki/Heracles_of_Macedon">Heracles of Macedon</a> from his mistress <a href="/wiki/Barsine">Barsine</a>. He lost another child when Roxana miscarried at Babylon.<sup><a href="#cite_note-242">[241]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERenault2001100-243">[242]</a></sup>
</p><p>Alexander also had a close relationship with his friend, general, and bodyguard <a href="/wiki/Hephaestion">Hephaestion</a>, the son of a Macedonian noble.<sup><a href="#cite_note-AVII14-145">[144]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200715–16-217">[216]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-DSXVII114-244">[243]</a></sup> Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander.<sup><a href="#cite_note-AVII14-145">[144]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-P72-245">[244]</a></sup> This event may have contributed to Alexander's failing health and detached <a href="/wiki/Mental_health">mental state</a> during his final months.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200723–24-154">[153]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-AMD-163">[162]</a></sup>
</p><p>Alexander's sexuality has been the subject of speculation and controversy in modern times.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOgden2009204-246">[245]</a></sup> The Roman era writer <a href="/wiki/Athenaeus">Athenaeus</a> says, based on the scholar <a href="/wiki/Dicaearchus">Dicaearchus</a>, who was Alexander's contemporary, that the king "was quite excessively keen on boys", and that Alexander kissed the eunuch Bagoas in public.<sup><a href="#cite_note-247">[246]</a></sup> This episode is also told by Plutarch, probably based on the same source. None of Alexander's contemporaries, however, are known to have explicitly described Alexander's relationship with Hephaestion as sexual, though the pair was often compared to <a href="/wiki/Achilles_and_Patroclus">Achilles and Patroclus</a>, whom classical Greek culture painted as a couple. Aelian writes of Alexander's visit to <a href="/wiki/Troy">Troy</a> where "Alexander garlanded the tomb of Achilles, and Hephaestion that of <a href="/wiki/Patroclus">Patroclus</a>, the latter hinting that he was a beloved of Alexander, in just the same way as Patroclus was of Achilles."<sup><a href="#cite_note-AelXII7-248">[247]</a></sup> Some modern historians (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Robin_Lane_Fox">Robin Lane Fox</a>) believe not only that Alexander's youthful relationship with Hephaestion was sexual, but that their sexual contacts may have continued into adulthood, which went against the social norms of at least some Greek cities, such as Athens,<sup><a href="#cite_note-249">[248]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESacks199516-250">[249]</a></sup> though some modern researchers have tentatively proposed that Macedonia (or at least the Macedonian court) may have been more tolerant of homosexuality between adults.<sup><a href="#cite_note-251">[250]</a></sup>
</p><p>Green argues that there is little evidence in ancient sources that Alexander had much carnal interest in women; he did not produce an heir until the very end of his life.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200715–16-217">[216]</a></sup> However, Ogden calculates that Alexander, who impregnated his partners thrice in eight years, had a higher matrimonial record than his father at the same age.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOgden2009208-252">[251]</a></sup> Two of these pregnancies — Stateira's and Barsine's — are of dubious legitimacy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-253">[252]</a></sup>
</p><p>According to Diodorus Siculus, Alexander accumulated a harem in the style of Persian kings, but he used it rather sparingly, "not wishing to offend the Macedonians",<sup><a href="#cite_note-DSXVII77-254">[253]</a></sup> showing great self-control in "pleasures of the body".<sup><a href="#cite_note-AVII28-224">[223]</a></sup> Nevertheless, Plutarch described how Alexander was infatuated by Roxana while complimenting him on not forcing himself on her.<sup><a href="#cite_note-255">[254]</a></sup> Green suggested that, in the context of the period, Alexander formed quite strong friendships with women, including <a href="/wiki/Ada_of_Caria">Ada of Caria</a>, who adopted him, and even Darius's mother <a href="/wiki/Sisygambis">Sisygambis</a>, who supposedly died from grief upon hearing of Alexander's death.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200715–16-217">[216]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Battle record</h2>
<h2>Legacy</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Mappa_di_Eratostene.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Alexander's legacy extended beyond his military conquests, and his reign marked a turning point in European and Asian history.<sup><a href="#cite_note-257">[256]</a></sup> His campaigns greatly increased contacts and trade between <a href="/wiki/Eastern_world">East</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_world">West</a>, and vast areas to the east were significantly exposed to <a href="/wiki/Greek_civilization">Greek civilization</a> and influence.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010186-18">[17]</a></sup> Some of the cities he founded became major cultural centers, many surviving into the 21st century. His chroniclers recorded valuable information about the areas through which he marched, while the Greeks themselves got a sense of belonging to a world beyond the Mediterranean.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010186-18">[17]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Hellenistic kingdoms</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Plan_of_Alexandria_c_30_BC_Otto_Puchstein_1890s_EN.svg"></a></p><div><p>Plan of Alexandria <abbr>c.</abbr> 30 BC</p></div></div>
<p>Alexander's most immediate legacy was the introduction of Macedonian rule to huge new swathes of Asia. At the time of his death, Alexander's empire covered some 5,200,000 km<sup>2</sup> (2,000,000 sq mi),<sup><a href="#cite_note-uconn-258">[257]</a></sup> and was the largest state of its time. Many of these areas remained in Macedonian hands or under Greek influence for the next 200–300 years. The <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period#The_successors">successor states</a> that emerged were, at least initially, dominant forces, and these 300 years are often referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period">Hellenistic period</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2007xii–xix-259">[258]</a></sup>
</p><p>The eastern borders of Alexander's empire began to collapse even during his lifetime.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200724–26-182">[181]</a></sup> However, the power vacuum he left in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent directly gave rise to one of the most powerful Indian dynasties in history, the <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire">Maurya Empire</a>. Taking advantage of this power vacuum, <a href="/wiki/Chandragupta_Maurya">Chandragupta Maurya</a> (referred to in Greek sources as "Sandrokottos"), of relatively humble origin, took control of the <a href="/wiki/Punjab_region">Punjab</a>, and with that power base proceeded to conquer the <a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire">Nanda Empire</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeay200182–85-260">[259]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Founding of cities</h3>
<p>Over the course of his conquests, Alexander founded some <a href="/wiki/Alexandria_(disambiguation)#West_and_Central_Asia">twenty cities that bore his name</a>, most of them east of the <a href="/wiki/Tigris">Tigris</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996111-108">[107]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-livius-261">[260]</a></sup> The first, and greatest, was <a href="/wiki/Alexandria">Alexandria</a> in Egypt, which would become one of the leading Mediterranean cities.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996111-108">[107]</a></sup> The cities' locations reflected trade routes as well as defensive positions. At first, the cities must have been inhospitable, little more than defensive garrisons.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996111-108">[107]</a></sup> Following Alexander's death, many Greeks who had settled there tried to return to Greece.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996111-108">[107]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-livius-261">[260]</a></sup> However, a century or so after Alexander's death, many of the Alexandrias were thriving, with elaborate public buildings and substantial populations that included both Greek and local peoples.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996111-108">[107]</a></sup>
</p><p>The foundation of the "new" <a href="/wiki/Smyrna">Smyrna</a> was also associated with Alexander. According to the legend, after Alexander hunted on the <a href="/wiki/Mount_Pagus">Mount Pagus</a>, he slept under a <a href="/wiki/Plane_tree">plane tree</a> at the sanctuary of <a href="/wiki/Nemesis">Nemesis</a>. While he was sleeping, the goddess appeared and told him to found a city there and move into it the Smyrnaeans from the "old" city. The Smyrnaeans sent ambassadors to the oracle at <a href="/wiki/Clarus">Clarus</a> to ask about this, and after the response from the oracle they decided to move to the "new" city.<sup><a href="#cite_note-paus75-262">[261]</a></sup>
</p><p>The city of <a href="/wiki/Pella,_Jordan">Pella</a>, in modern <a href="/wiki/Jordan">Jordan</a>, was founded by veterans of Alexander's army, and named it after the city of <a href="/wiki/Pella">Pella</a>, in Greece, which was the birthplace of Alexander.<sup><a href="#cite_note-263">[262]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Funding of temples</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Dedication_of_Alexander_the_Great_to_Athena_Polias_at_Priene.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>In 334 BC, Alexander the Great donated funds for the completion of the new temple of <a href="/wiki/Athena_Polias">Athena Polias</a> in <a href="/wiki/Priene">Priene</a>, in modern-day western Turkey.<sup><a href="#cite_note-BritishMuseum-265">[264]</a></sup> An <a href="/wiki/Priene_Inscription">inscription from the temple</a>, now housed in the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum">British Museum</a>, declares: "King Alexander dedicated [this temple] to Athena Polias."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Burn-264">[263]</a></sup> This inscription is one of the few independent archaeological discoveries confirming an episode from Alexander's life.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Burn-264">[263]</a></sup> The temple was designed by <a href="/wiki/Pythius_of_Priene">Pytheos</a>, one of the architects of the <a href="/wiki/Mausoleum_at_Halicarnassus">Mausoleum at Halicarnassus</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Burn-264">[263]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-BritishMuseum-265">[264]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-266">[265]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Libanius">Libanius</a> wrote that Alexander founded the temple of Zeus Bottiaios (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language">Ancient Greek</a>: Βοττιαίου Δῖός), in the place where later the city of <a href="/wiki/Antioch">Antioch</a> was built.<sup><a href="#cite_note-267">[266]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-268">[267]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Suda">Suda</a> wrote that Alexander built a big temple to <a href="/wiki/Sarapis">Sarapis</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-269">[268]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Hellenization</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander-Empire_323bc.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Alexander's empire was the largest state of its time, covering approximately 5.2 million square km.</p></div></div>
<p><i>Hellenization</i> was coined by the German historian <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gustav_Droysen">Johann Gustav Droysen</a> to denote the spread of Greek language, culture, and population into the former Persian empire after Alexander's conquest.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2007xii–xix-259">[258]</a></sup> This process can be seen in such great Hellenistic cities as <a href="/wiki/Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antioch">Antioch</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200756–59-270">[269]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Seleucia">Seleucia</a> (south of modern <a href="/wiki/Baghdad">Baghdad</a>).<sup><a href="#cite_note-271">[270]</a></sup> Alexander sought to insert Greek elements into <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Iran">Persian culture</a> and to hybridize Greek and Persian culture, homogenizing the populations of Asia and Europe. Although his successors explicitly rejected such policies, Hellenization occurred throughout the region, accompanied by a distinct and opposite 'Orientalization' of the successor states.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200721,_56–59-272">[271]</a></sup>
</p><p>The core of the Hellenistic culture promulgated by the conquests was essentially <a href="/wiki/Athenian">Athenian</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-273">[272]</a></sup> The close association of men from across Greece in Alexander's army directly led to the emergence of the largely <a href="/wiki/Attic_Greek">Attic</a>-based "<a href="/wiki/Koine">koine</a>", or "common" Greek dialect.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrison197151-274">[273]</a></sup> Koine spread throughout the Hellenistic world, becoming the <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca">lingua franca</a> of Hellenistic lands and eventually the ancestor of <a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek">modern Greek</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrison197151-274">[273]</a></sup> Furthermore, <a href="/wiki/Urban_planning">town planning</a>, education, local government, and art current in the Hellenistic period were all based on Classical Greek ideals, evolving into distinct new forms commonly grouped as Hellenistic. Also, the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament">New Testament</a> was written in the <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek">Koine Greek</a> language.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200756–59-270">[269]</a></sup> Aspects of Hellenistic culture were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century.<sup><a href="#cite_note-275">[274]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Hellenization in South and Central Asia</h4>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg"></a></p></div>
<p>Some of the most pronounced effects of Hellenization can be seen in Afghanistan and India, in the region of the relatively late-rising <a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom">Greco-Bactrian Kingdom</a> (250–125 BC) (in modern <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greeks">Indo-Greek Kingdom</a> (180 BC – 10 AD) in modern Afghanistan and India.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeay2001101–09-276">[275]</a></sup> On the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road">Silk Road</a> trade routes, Hellenistic culture hybridized with Iranian and <a href="/wiki/Buddhist">Buddhist</a> cultures. The cosmopolitan art and mythology of <a href="/wiki/Gandhara">Gandhara</a> (a region spanning the upper confluence of the Indus, Swat and Kabul rivers in modern Pakistan) of the ~3rd century BC to the ~5th century AD are most evident of the direct contact between Hellenistic civilization and South Asia, as are the <a href="/wiki/Edicts_of_Ashoka">Edicts of Ashoka</a>, which directly mention the Greeks within Ashoka's dominion as converting to Buddhism and the reception of Buddhist emissaries by Ashoka's contemporaries in the Hellenistic world.<sup><a href="#cite_note-277">[276]</a></sup> The resulting <a href="/wiki/Syncretism">syncretism</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a> influenced the development of Buddhism<sup><a href="#cite_note-278">[277]</a></sup> and created a culture of <a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhist_art">Greco-Buddhist art</a>. These Greco-Buddhist kingdoms sent some of the first Buddhist missionaries to <a href="/wiki/China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> and Hellenistic Asia and Europe (<a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhist_monasticism">Greco-Buddhist monasticism</a>).
</p><p>Some of the first and most influential figurative portrayals of the <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha">Buddha</a> appeared at this time, perhaps modelled on Greek statues of <a href="/wiki/Apollo">Apollo</a> in the Greco-Buddhist style.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeay2001101–09-276">[275]</a></sup> Several Buddhist traditions may have been influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion">ancient Greek religion</a>: the concept of <a href="/wiki/Boddhisatvas">Boddhisatvas</a> is reminiscent of Greek divine heroes,<sup><a href="#cite_note-279">[278]</a></sup> and some <a href="/wiki/Mahayana">Mahayana</a> <a href="/wiki/Offering_(Buddhism)">ceremonial practices</a> (burning <a href="/wiki/Incense">incense</a>, gifts of flowers, and food placed on altars) are similar to those practised by the ancient Greeks; however, similar practices were also observed amongst the native Indic culture. One Greek king, <a href="/wiki/Menander_I">Menander I</a>, probably became Buddhist, and was immortalized in <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts">Buddhist literature</a> as 'Milinda'.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeay2001101–09-276">[275]</a></sup> The process of Hellenization also spurred trade between the east and west.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Pingree_(1978),_533,_554f.-280">[279]</a></sup> For example, Greek astronomical instruments dating to the 3rd century BC were found in the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian">Greco-Bactrian</a> city of <a href="/wiki/Ai_Khanoum">Ai Khanoum</a> in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-281">[280]</a></sup> while the Greek concept of a <a href="/wiki/Spherical_Earth">spherical Earth</a> surrounded by the spheres of planets eventually supplanted the long-standing Indian cosmological belief of a disc consisting of four continents grouped around a central mountain (Mount Meru) like the petals of a flower.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Pingree_(1978),_533,_554f.-280">[279]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-282">[281]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Hayashi08Aryabhata-283">[282]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Yavanajataka">Yavanajataka</a> (lit. Greek astronomical treatise) and <a href="/wiki/Paulisa_Siddhanta">Paulisa Siddhanta</a> texts depict the influence of Greek astronomical ideas on Indian astronomy.
</p><p>Following the conquests of Alexander the Great in the east, <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_influence_on_Indian_art">Hellenistic influence on Indian art</a> was far-ranging. In the area of <a href="/wiki/Architecture">architecture</a>, a few examples of the <a href="/wiki/Ionic_order">Ionic order</a> can be found as far as <a href="/wiki/Pakistan">Pakistan</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Jandial">Jandial temple</a> near <a href="/wiki/Taxila">Taxila</a>. Several examples of <a href="/wiki/Capital_(architecture)">capitals</a> displaying Ionic influences can be seen as far as <a href="/wiki/Patna">Patna</a>, especially with the <a href="/wiki/Pataliputra_capital">Pataliputra capital</a>, dated to the 3rd century BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-284">[283]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Corinthian_order">Corinthian order</a> is also heavily represented in the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhist_art">art of Gandhara</a>, especially through <a href="/wiki/Indo-Corinthian_capital">Indo-Corinthian capitals</a>.
</p>
<h3>Influence on Rome</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_-_Medallion_with_Alexander_the_Great_-_Walters_591_-_Obverse.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans, especially generals, who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Asirvatham-285">[284]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Polybius">Polybius</a> began his <i><a href="/wiki/The_Histories_(Polybius)">Histories</a></i> by reminding Romans of Alexander's achievements, and thereafter Roman leaders saw him as a role model. <a href="/wiki/Pompey_the_Great">Pompey the Great</a> adopted the epithet "Magnus" and even Alexander's anastole-type haircut, and searched the conquered lands of the east for Alexander's 260-year-old cloak, which he then wore as a sign of greatness.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Asirvatham-285">[284]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> dedicated a <a href="/wiki/Lysippus">Lysippean</a> <a href="/wiki/Equestrian_statue">equestrian</a> <a href="/wiki/Bronze">bronze</a> statue but replaced Alexander's head with his own, while <a href="/wiki/Octavian">Octavian</a> visited Alexander's tomb in Alexandria and temporarily changed his seal from a <a href="/wiki/Sphinx">sphinx</a> to Alexander's profile.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Asirvatham-285">[284]</a></sup> The emperor <a href="/wiki/Trajan">Trajan</a> also admired Alexander, as did <a href="/wiki/Nero">Nero</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caracalla">Caracalla</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Asirvatham-285">[284]</a></sup> The Macriani, a Roman family that in the person of <a href="/wiki/Macrinus">Macrinus</a> briefly ascended to the imperial throne, kept images of Alexander on their persons, either on jewellery, or embroidered into their clothes.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolt20033-286">[285]</a></sup>
</p><p>On the other hand, some Roman writers, particularly Republican figures, used Alexander as a cautionary tale of how <a href="/wiki/Autocratic">autocratic</a> tendencies can be kept in check by <a href="/wiki/Roman_republic">republican</a> values.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Asirvatham2-287">[286]</a></sup> Alexander was used by these writers as an example of ruler values such as <i>amicita</i> (friendship) and <i>clementia</i> (clemency), but also <i>iracundia</i> (anger) and <i>cupiditas gloriae</i> (over-desire for glory).<sup><a href="#cite_note-Asirvatham2-287">[286]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)">Emperor Julian</a> in his satire called "The Caesars", describes a contest between the previous Roman emperors, with Alexander the Great called in as an extra contestant, in the presence of the assembled gods.<sup><a href="#cite_note-288">[287]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Itinerarium_Alexandri">Itinerarium Alexandri</a> is a 4th-century Latin <a href="/wiki/Itinerarium">Itinerarium</a> which describes Alexander the Great's campaigns. <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> went to serve his quaestorship in Hispania after his wife's funeral, in the spring or early summer of 69 BC. While there, he encountered a statue of Alexander the Great, and realised with dissatisfaction that he was now at an age when Alexander had the world at his feet, while he had achieved comparatively little.<sup><a href="#cite_note-289">[288]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-290">[289]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Pompey">Pompey</a> posed as the "new Alexander" since he was his boyhood hero.<sup><a href="#cite_note-291">[290]</a></sup>
</p><p>After Caracalla concluded his campaign against the Alamanni, it became evident that he was inordinately preoccupied with Alexander the Great.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:02-292">[291]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-:92-293">[292]</a></sup> He began openly mimicking Alexander in his personal style. In planning his invasion of the Parthian Empire, Caracalla decided to arrange 16,000 of his men in Macedonian-style <a href="/wiki/Phalanx">phalanxes</a>, despite the Roman army having made the phalanx an obsolete tactical formation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:02-292">[291]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-:92-293">[292]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-:292-294">[293]</a></sup> The historian Christopher Matthew mentions that the term <i>Phalangarii</i> has two possible meanings, both with military connotations. The first refers merely to the Roman battle line and does not specifically mean that the men were armed with <a href="/wiki/Pike_(weapon)">pikes</a>, and the second bears similarity to the 'Marian Mules' of the late <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic">Roman Republic</a> who carried their equipment suspended from a long pole, which were in use until at least the 2nd century AD.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:292-294">[293]</a></sup> As a consequence, the <i>Phalangarii</i> of <a href="/wiki/Legio_II_Parthica">Legio II Parthica</a> may not have been pikemen, but rather standard battle line troops or possibly <i><a href="/wiki/Triarii">Triarii</a></i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:292-294">[293]</a></sup>
</p><p>Caracalla's mania for Alexander went so far that Caracalla visited Alexandria while preparing for his Persian invasion and persecuted philosophers of the <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism">Aristotelian</a> school based on a legend that <a href="/wiki/Aristotle">Aristotle</a> had poisoned Alexander. This was a sign of Caracalla's increasingly erratic behaviour. But this mania for Alexander, strange as it was, was overshadowed by subsequent events in Alexandria.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:92-293">[292]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 39, Caligula performed a spectacular stunt by ordering a temporary <a href="/wiki/Pontoon_bridge">floating bridge</a> to be built using ships as <a href="/wiki/Pontoon_(boat)">pontoons</a>, stretching for over two miles from the resort of <a href="/wiki/Baiae">Baiae</a> to the neighbouring port of <a href="/wiki/Puteoli">Puteoli</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-295">[294]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-seutonius-calig-19-296">[295]</a></sup> It was said that the bridge was to rival the Persian king <a href="/wiki/Xerxes%27_Pontoon_Bridges">Xerxes' pontoon bridge</a> crossing of the Hellespont.<sup><a href="#cite_note-seutonius-calig-19-296">[295]</a></sup> Caligula, who could not swim,<sup><a href="#cite_note-297">[296]</a></sup> then proceeded to ride his favourite horse <a href="/wiki/Incitatus">Incitatus</a> across, wearing the breastplate of <a href="#After_death">Alexander the Great</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-seutonius-calig-19-296">[295]</a></sup> This act was in defiance of a prediction by Tiberius's soothsayer <a href="/wiki/Thrasyllus_of_Mendes">Thrasyllus of Mendes</a> that Caligula had "no more chance of becoming emperor than of riding a horse across the Bay of Baiae".<sup><a href="#cite_note-seutonius-calig-19-296">[295]</a></sup>
</p><p>The diffusion of Greek culture and language cemented by Alexander's conquests in West Asia and North Africa served as a "precondition" for the <a href="/wiki/Mithridatic_Wars">later Roman expansion</a> into these territories and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greeks">entire basis</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, according to <a href="/wiki/Robert_Malcolm_Errington">Errington</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-298">[297]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Unsuccessful plan to cut a canal through the Anatolian isthmus</h3>
<p><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)">Pausanias</a> writes that Alexander wanted to dig through the Mimas mountain (in today's <a href="/wiki/Karaburun">Karaburun</a> area), but didn't succeed. He says this was Alexander's only unsuccessful project.<sup><a href="#cite_note-299">[298]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> adds that the planned distance was 12 kilometres (7.5 mi), and the purpose was to cut a canal through the isthmus to connect the Caystrian and Hermaean bays.<sup><a href="#cite_note-300">[299]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-301">[300]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Naming of the Icarus island in the Persian Gulf</h3>
<p><a href="/wiki/Arrian">Arrian</a> wrote that <a href="/wiki/Aristobulus_of_Cassandreia">Aristobulus</a> said that Alexander named <a href="/wiki/Ikaros_(Failaka_Island)">Icarus island</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Failaka_Island">Failaka Island</a>) in the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> after <a href="/wiki/Icaria">Icarus island</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea">Aegean</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-302">[301]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-303">[302]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Letters</h3>
<p>Alexander wrote and received numerous letters, but no <a href="/wiki/Autograph_manuscript">originals</a> survive. A few official letters addressed to the Greek cities survive in copies inscribed in stone and the content of others is sometimes reported in historical sources. These only occasionally quote the letters and it is an open question how reliable such quotations are. Several fictitious letters, some perhaps based on actual letters, made their way into the <i>Romance</i> tradition.<sup><a href="#cite_note-LICP-304">[303]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>In legend</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_romance._Armenian_illuminated_manuscript_of_XIV_century_(Venice,_San_Lazzaro,_424)_(1).jpg"></a></p><div><p>Alexander in a 14th-century Armenian manuscript</p></div></div>
<p>Many of the legends about Alexander derive from his own lifetime, probably encouraged by Alexander himself.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010187-305">[304]</a></sup> His court historian Callisthenes portrayed the sea in <a href="/wiki/Cilicia">Cilicia</a> as drawing back from him in proskynesis. Writing shortly after Alexander's death, <a href="/wiki/Onesicritus">Onesicritus</a> invented a tryst between Alexander and <a href="/wiki/Thalestris">Thalestris</a>, queen of the mythical <a href="/wiki/Amazons">Amazons</a>. He reportedly read this passage to his patron King <a href="/wiki/Lysimachus">Lysimachus</a>, who had been one of Alexander's generals and who quipped, "I wonder where I was at the time."<sup><a href="#cite_note-PA46-306">[305]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the first centuries after Alexander's death, probably in Alexandria, a quantity of the legendary material coalesced into a text known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Romance">Alexander Romance</a></i>, later falsely ascribed to Callisthenes and therefore known as <i>Pseudo-Callisthenes</i>. This text underwent numerous expansions and revisions throughout Antiquity and the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-307">[306]</a></sup> containing many dubious stories,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010187-305">[304]</a></sup> and was translated into numerous languages.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010117-308">[307]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>In ancient and modern culture</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Byzantine_Greek_Alexander_Manuscript_Cataphract_(cropped).JPG"></a></p><div><p>Alexander in a 14th-century Byzantine manuscript</p></div></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_the_Great_conquering_the_air.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Alexander conquering the air. <a href="/wiki/Jean_Wauquelin">Jean Wauquelin</a>, <i>Les faits et conquêtes d'Alexandre le Grand</i>, 1448–1449</p></div></div>
<p>Alexander the Great's accomplishments and legacy have been depicted in many cultures. Alexander has figured in both high and popular culture beginning in his own era to the present day. The <i>Alexander Romance</i>, in particular, has had a significant impact on portrayals of Alexander in later cultures, from Persian to medieval European to modern Greek.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010117-308">[307]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Khalili_Collection_Hajj_and_Arts_of_Pilgrimage_mss-0771_CROP.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Folio from the <i><a href="/wiki/Shahnameh">Shahnameh</a></i> showing Alexander praying at the <a href="/wiki/Kaaba">Kaaba</a>, mid-16th century</p></div></div><p>
Alexander features prominently in modern Greek folklore, more so than any other ancient figure.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Fermor-309">[308]</a></sup> The colloquial form of his name in modern Greek ("O Megalexandros") is a household name, and he is the only ancient hero to appear in the <a href="/wiki/Karagiozis">Karagiozis</a> shadow play.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Fermor-309">[308]</a></sup> One well-known fable among Greek seamen involves a solitary <a href="/wiki/Mermaid">mermaid</a> who would grasp a ship's prow during a storm and ask the captain "Is King Alexander alive?" The correct answer is "He is alive and well and rules the world!" causing the mermaid to vanish and the sea to calm. Any other answer would cause the mermaid to turn into a raging <a href="/wiki/Gorgon">Gorgon</a> who would drag the ship to the bottom of the sea, all hands aboard.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Fermor-309">[308]</a></sup></p><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Submerge2.JPG"></a></p></div>
<p>In pre-Islamic <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian_language">Middle Persian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian">Zoroastrian</a>) literature, Alexander is referred to by the epithet <i>gujastak</i>, meaning "accursed", and is accused of destroying temples and burning the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism.<sup><a href="#cite_note-310">[309]</a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam">Sunni Islamic</a> Persia, under the influence of the <i><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Romance">Alexander Romance</a></i> (in <a href="/wiki/Persian_language">Persian</a>: اسکندرنامه <i><a href="/wiki/Iskandarnamah">Iskandarnamah</a></i>), a more positive portrayal of Alexander emerges.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010120-311">[310]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Firdausi">Firdausi</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Shahnameh">Shahnameh</a></i> ("The Book of Kings") includes Alexander in a line of legitimate Persian <a href="/wiki/Shah">shahs</a>, a mythical figure who explored the far reaches of the world in search of the <a href="/wiki/Fountain_of_Youth">Fountain of Youth</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-312">[311]</a></sup> In the <i>Shahnameh</i>, Alexander's first journey is to <a href="/wiki/Mecca">Mecca</a> to pray at the <a href="/wiki/Kaaba">Kaaba</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-313">[312]</a></sup> Alexander was depicted as performing a <a href="/wiki/Hajj">Hajj</a> (pilgrimage to Mecca) many times in subsequent Islamic art and literature.<sup><a href="#cite_note-314">[313]</a></sup> Later Persian writers associate him with philosophy, portraying him at a symposium with figures such as <a href="/wiki/Socrates">Socrates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plato">Plato</a> and Aristotle, in search of immortality.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010120-311">[310]</a></sup>
</p><p>The figure of <a href="/wiki/Dhul-Qarnayn">Dhul-Qarnayn</a> (literally "the Two-Horned One") mentioned in the <a href="/wiki/Quran">Quran</a> is believed by scholars to be based on later legends of Alexander.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010120-311">[310]</a></sup> In this tradition, he was a heroic figure who built a wall to defend against the nations of <a href="/wiki/Gog_and_Magog">Gog and Magog</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010122-315">[314]</a></sup> He then travelled the known world in search of the Water of Life and Immortality, eventually becoming a prophet.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010122-315">[314]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language">Syriac</a> version of the <i>Alexander Romance</i> portrays him as an ideal Christian world conqueror who prayed to "the one true God".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010120-311">[310]</a></sup> In Egypt, Alexander was portrayed as the son of <a href="/wiki/Nectanebo_II">Nectanebo II</a>, the last <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh">pharaoh</a> before the Persian conquest.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010122-315">[314]</a></sup> His defeat of Darius was depicted as Egypt's salvation, "proving" Egypt was still ruled by an Egyptian.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010120-311">[310]</a></sup>
</p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Josephus">Josephus</a>, Alexander was shown the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Daniel">Book of Daniel</a> when he entered Jerusalem, which described a mighty Greek king who would conquer the Persian Empire. This is cited as a reason for sparing Jerusalem.<sup><a href="#cite_note-316">[315]</a></sup>
</p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Hindi">Hindi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urdu">Urdu</a>, the name "<a href="/wiki/Iskandar">Sikandar</a>", derived from the Persian name for Alexander, denotes a rising young talent, and the <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a> ruler <a href="/wiki/Alauddin_Khalji">Aladdin Khalji</a> stylized himself as "Sikandar-i-Sani" (the Second Alexander the Great).<sup><a href="#cite_note-317">[316]</a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Medieval_India">medieval India</a>, Turkic and Afghan sovereigns from the Iranian-cultured region of Central Asia brought positive cultural connotations of Alexander to the Indian subcontinent, resulting in the efflorescence of <i>Sikandernameh</i> (<a href="/wiki/Alexander_romance">Alexander Romances</a>) written by Indo-Persian poets such as <a href="/wiki/Amir_Khusrow">Amir Khusrow</a> and the prominence of Alexander the Great as a popular subject in Mughal-era Persian miniatures.<sup><a href="#cite_note-318">[317]</a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages">medieval Europe</a>, Alexander the Great was revered as a member of the <a href="/wiki/Nine_Worthies">Nine Worthies</a>, a group of heroes whose lives were believed to encapsulate all the ideal qualities of <a href="/wiki/Chivalry">chivalry</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-319">[318]</a></sup> During the first <a href="/wiki/Italian_campaigns_of_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars">Italian campaign of the French Revolutionary Wars</a>, in a question from Bourrienne, asking whether he gave his preference to Alexander or Caesar, <a href="/wiki/Napoleon">Napoleon</a> said that he places Alexander The Great in the first rank, the main reason being his campaign on Asia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-320">[319]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the <i><a href="/wiki/Greek_Anthology">Greek Anthology</a></i>, there are poems referring to Alexander.<sup><a href="#cite_note-321">[320]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-322">[321]</a></sup>
</p><p>Throughout time, art objects related to Alexander were being created. In addition to speech works, sculptures and paintings, in modern times Alexander is still the subject of musical and cinematic works. The song 'Alexander the Great' by the British heavy metal band <a href="/wiki/Iron_Maiden">Iron Maiden</a> is indicative. Some films that have been shot with the theme of Alexander are:
</p>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Sikandar_(1941_film)">Sikandar</a></i> (1941), an Indian production directed by <a href="/wiki/Sohrab_Modi">Sohrab Modi</a> about the conquest of India by Alexander<sup><a href="#cite_note-323">[322]</a></sup></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great_(1956_film)">Alexander the Great</a></i> (1956), produced by MGM and starring <a href="/wiki/Richard_Burton">Richard Burton</a></li>
<li><i>Sikandar-e-Azam</i> (1965), an Indian production directed by Kedar Kapoor</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Alexander_(2004_film)">Alexander</a></i> (2004), directed by <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Stone">Oliver Stone</a>, starring <a href="/wiki/Colin_Farrell">Colin Farrell</a></li></ul>
<p>There are also many references to other movies and TV series.
</p><p>Newer novels about Alexander are:
</p><p>The trilogy "Alexander the Great" by <a href="/wiki/Valerio_Massimo_Manfredi">Valerio Massimo Manfredi</a> consisting of "The son of the dream", "The sand of Amon", and "The ends of the world".
The trilogy of <a href="/wiki/Mary_Renault">Mary Renault</a> consisting of "<a href="/wiki/Fire_from_Heaven">Fire from Heaven</a>", "<a href="/wiki/The_Persian_Boy">The Persian Boy</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Funeral_Games_(novel)">Funeral Games</a>".
</p>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Virtues_of_War">The Virtues of War</a></i>, about Alexander the Great (2004), <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0385500998">0385500998</a> and "* <i><a href="/wiki/The_Afghan_Campaign">The Afghan Campaign</a></i>, about Alexander the Great's conquests in Afghanistan (2006), <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/038551641X">038551641X</a>" by <a href="/wiki/Steven_Pressfield">Steven Pressfield</a>.</li></ul>
<p>Irish playwright <a href="/wiki/Aubrey_Thomas_de_Vere">Aubrey Thomas de Vere</a> wrote <i><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great,_a_Dramatic_Poem">Alexander the Great, a Dramatic Poem</a></i>.
</p>
<h2>Historiography</h2>
<p>Apart from a few inscriptions and fragments, texts written by people who actually knew Alexander or who gathered information from men who served with Alexander were all lost.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010186-18">[17]</a></sup> Contemporaries who wrote accounts of his life included Alexander's campaign historian Callisthenes; Alexander's generals Ptolemy and <a href="/wiki/Nearchus">Nearchus</a>; <a href="/wiki/Aristobulus_of_Cassandreia">Aristobulus</a>, a junior officer on the campaigns; and Onesicritus, Alexander's chief helmsman. Their works are lost, but later works based on these <a href="/wiki/Primary_source">original sources</a> have survived. The earliest of these is <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a> (1st century BC), followed by Quintus Curtius Rufus (mid-to-late 1st century AD), Arrian (1st to 2nd century AD), the biographer Plutarch (1st to 2nd century AD), and finally <a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)">Justin</a>, whose work dated as late as the 4th century.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010186-18">[17]</a></sup> Of these, Arrian is generally considered the most reliable, given that he used Ptolemy and Aristobulus as his sources, closely followed by Diodorus.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010186-18">[17]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army">Ancient Macedonian army</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Military_tactics_of_Alexander_the_Great">Military tactics of Alexander the Great</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bucephalus">Bucephalus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_European_exploration_of_Asia">Chronology of European exploration of Asia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_Alexander_the_Great_in_the_Quran">Theories about Alexander the Great in the Quran</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_cult_of_Alexander_the_Great">Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gates_of_Alexander">Gates of Alexander</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biblical_figures_identified_in_extra-biblical_sources">List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_known_as_The_Great">List of people known as The Great</a></li></ul>
<h2>References</h2>
<h3>Notes</h3>
<div><ol>
<li><b><a href="#ref_a_1">^</a></b> <p>Macedon was an Ancient Greek polity. The Macedonians were a Greek tribe.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Macedonians-324">[323]</a></sup> </p></li>
<li><b><a href="#ref_b_1">^</a></b> <p> By the time of his death, he had conquered the entire <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire">Achaemenid Persian Empire</a>, adding it to Macedon's European territories; according to some modern writers, this was most of the world then known to the ancient Greeks (the '<a href="/wiki/Ecumene#Ancient_world">Ecumene</a>').<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanforth199738,_49,_167-325">[324]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman20042-326">[325]</a></sup> An approximate view of the world known to Alexander can be seen in <a href="/wiki/Hecataeus_of_Miletus">Hecataeus of Miletus</a>'s map; see <a href="/wiki/File:Hecataeus_world_map-en.svg">Hecataeus world map</a>. </p></li>
<li><b><a href="#ref_c_1">^</a></b> <p> For instance, <a href="/wiki/Hannibal">Hannibal</a> supposedly ranked Alexander as the greatest general;<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2003327–28-327">[326]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> wept on seeing a statue of Alexander, since he had achieved so little by the same age;<sup><a href="#cite_note-Plutarch,_Caesar,_11-328">[327]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pompey">Pompey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alauddin_Khalji">Alauddin Khalji</a> consciously posed as the 'new Alexander';<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2003176–83-329">[328]</a></sup> the young <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte">Napoleon Bonaparte</a> also encouraged comparisons with Alexander. Napoleon also placed Alexander in the first rank.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnett199745-330">[329]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Caracalla">Caracalla</a> believed himself to be the actual reincarnation of Alexander.<sup><a href="#cite_note-331">[330]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-332">[331]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-333">[332]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Caligula">Caligula</a> wore the breastplate of Alexander in order to show his power.<sup><a href="#cite_note-334">[333]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-335">[334]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Fidel_Castro">Fidel Castro</a>'s hero was Alexander the Great, whose Spanish equivalent <i>Alejandro</i> he adopted as his <i>nom de guerre</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-336">[335]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_the_Conqueror">Mehmed the Conqueror</a>'s heroes were Alexander and <a href="/wiki/Achilles">Achilles</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-337">[336]</a></sup></p></li>
<li><b><a href="#ref_d_1">^</a></b> <p> The name Ἀλέξανδρος derives from the Greek verb ἀλέξω (<i>aléxō</i>, <abbr><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation">lit.</a></abbr> 'ward off, avert, defend')<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1919[httpswwwperseustuftseduhoppertextdocPerseus3Atext3A19990400573Aentry3Da29le2Fcw_IV,_57]-338">[337]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiddellScott1940-339">[338]</a></sup> and ἀνδρ- (<i>andr-</i>), the stem of ἀνήρ (<i>anḗr</i>, <abbr>lit.</abbr> 'man'),<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1919[httpswwwperseustuftseduhoppertextdocPerseus3Atext3A19990400573Aentry3Da29nh2Fr_IV,_57]-340">[339]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiddellScott1940-339">[338]</a></sup> and means "protector of men".<sup><a href="#cite_note-341">[340]</a></sup> </p></li>
<li><b><a href="#ref_e_1">^</a></b> <p> There have been, since the time, many suspicions that Pausanias was actually hired to murder Philip. Suspicion has fallen upon Alexander, Olympias and even the newly crowned Persian Emperor, Darius III. All three of these people had motive to have Philip murdered.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELane_Fox198072–73-342">[341]</a></sup> </p></li>
<li><b><a href="#ref_f_1">^</a></b> <p> However, <a href="/wiki/Arrian">Arrian</a>, who used <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter">Ptolemy</a> as a source, said that Alexander crossed with more than 5,000 horse and 30,000 foot; <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus">Diodorus</a> quoted the same totals, but listed 5,100 horse and 32,000 foot. Diodorus also referred to an advance force already present in Asia, which <a href="/wiki/Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a>, in his Stratagems of War (5.44.4), said numbered 10,000 men.</p></li>
</ol></div>
<div><ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Plautus_2-0">^</a></b> The first known person to call Alexander "the Great" was a Roman playwright named <a href="/wiki/Plautus">Plautus</a> (254–184 BC) in his play <i><a href="/wiki/Mostellaria">Mostellaria</a></i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h3>Citations</h3>
<div><ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b> <cite>Diana Spencer (22 November 2019). <a href="https://oxfordre.com/classics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-8048">"Alexander the Great, reception of"</a>. <i>Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics</i>. <i>Oxford Research Encyclopedias</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.013.8048">10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.8048</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-938113-5"><bdi>978-0-19-938113-5</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211110030827/https://oxfordre.com/classics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-8048">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2021. Retrieved 9 November 2021. <q>Alexander enjoys the epithet the Great for the first time in Plautus's Roman comedy Mostellaria (775–777).</q></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b> Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair, Sheila S. (2009) <i>The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture: Mosul to Zirid, Volume 3</i>. (Oxford University Press Incorporated, 2009), 385; "[Khojand, Tajikistan]; As the easternmost outpost of the empire of Alexander the Great, the city was renamed Alexandria Eschate ("furthest Alexandria") in 329 BCE."Golden, Peter B. <i>Central Asia in World History</i> (Oxford University Press, 2011), 25;"[...] his campaigns in Central Asia brought Khwarazm, Sogdia and Bactria under Graeco-Macedonian rule. As elsewhere, Alexander founded or renamed a number of cities, such as Alexandria Eschate ("Outernmost Alexandria", near modern Khojent in Tajikistan)."
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYenne2010159_4-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFYenne2010">Yenne 2010</a>, p. 159.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.britannica.com/summary/Alexander-the-Greats-Achievements">"Alexander the Great's Achievements"</a>. <i>Britannica</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210702234248/https://www.britannica.com/summary/Alexander-the-Greats-Achievements">Archived</a> from the original on 2 July 2021. Retrieved 19 August 2021.</cite> "Alexander the Great was one of the greatest military strategists and leaders in world history."
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeckelTritle200999_6-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHeckelTritle2009">Heckel &amp; Tritle 2009</a>, p. 99.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b> <cite>Burger, Michael (2008). <i>The Shaping of Western Civilization: From Antiquity to the Enlightenment</i>. University of Toronto Press. p. 76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55111-432-3"><bdi>978-1-55111-432-3</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYenne2010viii_8-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFYenne2010">Yenne 2010</a>, p. viii.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b> <cite>Green, Peter (1970), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g6Wl4AKGQkIC&amp;pg=PA559"><i>Alexander of Macedon, 356–323 B.C.: a historical biography</i></a>, Hellenistic culture and society (illustrated, revised reprint ed.), University of California Press, p. xxxiii, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07165-0"><bdi>978-0-520-07165-0</bdi></a>, retrieved 20 June 2015, <q>356 – Alexander born in Pella. The exact date is not known, but probably either 20 or 26 July.</q></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b> Plutarch, <i>Life of Alexander</i> 3.5: <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320180439/https://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_t32.html">"The birth of Alexander the Great"</a>. <i>Livius</i>. Archived from <a href="https://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_t32.html#7">the original</a> on 20 March 2015. Retrieved 16 December 2011. <q>Alexander was born the sixth of <a href="/wiki/Attic_calendar">Hekatombaion</a>.</q></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b> <cite>David George Hogarth (1897). <a href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924028251217/page/n321/mode/2up?view=theater"><i>Philip and Alexander of Macedon : two essays in biography</i></a>. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 286–287. Retrieved 9 November 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMcCarty2004">McCarty 2004</a>, p. 10, <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, p. 28, <a href="#CITEREFDurant1966">Durant 1966</a>, p. 538
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010171_13-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010">Roisman &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 171.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010188_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010188_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010188_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010188_14-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010">Roisman &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 188.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-PA2_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PA2_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1919">Plutarch 1919</a>, <a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0243%3Achapter%3D3%3Asection%3D2">III, 2</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, p. 28, <a href="#CITEREFBose2003">Bose 2003</a>, p. 21
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERenault200133–34_17-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, pp. 33–34.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010186_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010186_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010186_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010186_18-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010186_18-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010186_18-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010186_18-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010">Roisman &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 186.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-PA6_19-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1919">Plutarch 1919</a>, <a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0243%3Achapter%3D6%3Asection%3D5">VI, 5</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDurant1966">Durant 1966</a>, p. 538, <a href="#CITEREFLane_Fox1980">Lane Fox 1980</a>, p. 64, <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, p. 39
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLane_Fox1980">Lane Fox 1980</a>, pp. 65–66, <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, p. 44, <a href="#CITEREFMcCarty2004">McCarty 2004</a>, p. 15
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLane_Fox1980">Lane Fox 1980</a>, pp. 65–66, <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, pp. 45–47, <a href="#CITEREFMcCarty2004">McCarty 2004</a>, p. 16
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-RLF_23-0">^</a></b> <cite>Lane Fox, Robin (1986). <i>Alexander the Great</i>. Penguin Group. p. 48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-008878-4"><bdi>0-14-008878-4</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-JM_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JM_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Morgan, Janett (2016). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=49JVDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA271"><i>Greek Perspectives on the Achaemenid Empire: Persia Through the Looking Glass</i></a>. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 271–72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-4724-8"><bdi>978-0-7486-4724-8</bdi></a>. Retrieved 23 February 2019.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLane_Fox1980">Lane Fox 1980</a>, p. 68, <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, p. 47, <a href="#CITEREFBose2003">Bose 2003</a>, p. 43
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERenault200147–49_32-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, pp. 47–49.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, pp. 50–51, <a href="#CITEREFBose2003">Bose 2003</a>, pp. 44–45, <a href="#CITEREFMcCarty2004">McCarty 2004</a>, p. 23
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, p. 51, <a href="#CITEREFBose2003">Bose 2003</a>, p. 47, <a href="#CITEREFMcCarty2004">McCarty 2004</a>, p. 24
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-DiodXVI_35-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDiodorus_Siculus1989">Diodorus Siculus 1989</a>, <a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Diod.+16.86">XVI, 86</a>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010305205126/http://www.sikyon.com/Sparta/history_eg.html">"History of Ancient Sparta"</a>. <i>Sikyon</i>. Archived from <a href="http://www.sikyon.com/sparta/history_eg.html">the original</a> on 5 March 2001. Retrieved 14 November 2009.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERenault200154_37-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, p. 54.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCarty200426_38-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMcCarty2004">McCarty 2004</a>, p. 26.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b> <cite>Green, Peter (1991). "Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age (Hellenistic Culture and Society)". <i>The American Historical Review</i>. Berkeley &amp; Los Angeles: University of California Press. <b>1</b>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2Fahr%2F96.5.1515">10.1086/ahr/96.5.1515</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1937-5239">1937-5239</a>.</cite>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010179_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010179_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010">Roisman &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 179.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCarty200427_41-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMcCarty2004">McCarty 2004</a>, p. 27.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-PA9_42-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1919">Plutarch 1919</a>, <a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0243%3Achapter%3D9">IX, 1</a>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010180_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010180_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010180_43-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010180_43-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010180_43-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010180_43-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010">Roisman &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 180.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b> A History of Macedonia: Volume III: 336–167 B.C. By N. G. L. Hammond, F. W. Walbank
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBose2003">Bose 2003</a>, p. 75, <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, p. 56
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMcCarty2004">McCarty 2004</a>, p. 27, <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, p. 59, <a href="#CITEREFLane_Fox1980">Lane Fox 1980</a>, p. 71
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-bare_url_a_47-0">^</a></b> <cite>Chugg, Andrew (2006). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S-cTfNjEhrcC&amp;pg=PA78"><i>Alexander's Lovers</i></a>. pp. 78–79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4116-9960-1"><bdi>978-1-4116-9960-1</bdi></a>. Retrieved 7 December 2019.</cite>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCarty200430–31_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCarty200430–31_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFMcCarty2004">McCarty 2004</a>, pp. 30–31.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, pp. 61–62
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fox_1980_72_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fox_1980_72_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFLane_Fox1980">Lane Fox 1980</a>, p. 72
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010190_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010190_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010190_51-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010">Roisman &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 190.
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Green_2007_5–6_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Green_2007_5–6_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFGreen2007">Green 2007</a>, pp. 5–6
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, pp. 70–71
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMcCarty2004">McCarty 2004</a>, p. 31, <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, p. 72, <a href="#CITEREFLane_Fox1980">Lane Fox 1980</a>, p. 104, <a href="#CITEREFBose2003">Bose 2003</a>, p. 95
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman200421_55-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFStoneman2004">Stoneman 2004</a>, p. 21.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDillon2004187–88_56-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDillon2004">Dillon 2004</a>, pp. 187–88.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, p. 72, <a href="#CITEREFBose2003">Bose 2003</a>, p. 96
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-I,_1_58-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, <a href="http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book1a.asp">I, 1</a>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, I, 2
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, I, 3–4, <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, pp. 73–74
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, I, 5–6, <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, p. 77
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010192_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010192_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010192_62-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010192_62-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010">Roisman &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 192.
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Roisman_2010_199_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roisman_2010_199_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roisman_2010_199_63-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roisman_2010_199_63-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roisman_2010_199_63-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roisman_2010_199_63-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roisman_2010_199_63-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roisman_2010_199_63-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roisman_2010_199_63-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roisman_2010_199_63-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010">Roisman &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 199
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-PB_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PB_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Briant, Pierre (2002). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lxQ9W6F1oSYC&amp;pg=PA817"><i>From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire</i></a>. Eisenbrauns. p. 817. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-120-7"><bdi>978-1-57506-120-7</bdi></a>. Retrieved 21 February 2019.</cite>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-WH_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WH_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Heckel, Waldemar (2008). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NR4Wn9VU8vkC&amp;pg=PT205"><i>Who's Who in the Age of Alexander the Great: Prosopography of Alexander's Empire</i></a>. John Wiley &amp; Sons. p. 205. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-5469-7"><bdi>978-1-4051-5469-7</bdi></a>. Retrieved 21 February 2019.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, I, 11
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, I, 20–23
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Arrian_1976_loc=I,_23_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arrian_1976_loc=I,_23_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, I, 23
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, I, 27–28
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, I, 3
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGreen2007">Green 2007</a>, p. 351
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, I, 11–12
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/46976/46976-h/46976-h.htm">"The Project Gutenberg eBook of Anabasis of Alexander, by Arrian"</a>. <i>www.gutenberg.org</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180326221313/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/46976/46976-h/46976-h.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 26 March 2018. Retrieved 11 January 2018.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, II, 16–24
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGunther2007">Gunther 2007</a>, p. 84
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, II, 26
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_79-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_79-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Strudwick, Helen (2006). <i>The Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt</i>. New York: Sterling Publishing Co., Inc. pp. 96–97. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4351-4654-9"><bdi>978-1-4351-4654-9</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRingSalkinBerneySchellinger1994">Ring et al. 1994</a>, pp. 49, 320
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworth198871–74_81-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBosworth1988">Bosworth 1988</a>, pp. 71–74.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, III, 1
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, III 7–15; also in a <a href="https://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_t40.html">contemporary Babylonian account of the battle of Gaugamela</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170224083355/http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_t40.html">Archived</a> 24 February 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b> <cite>Hanson, Victor Davis (18 December 2007). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XGr16-CxpH8C"><i>Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power</i></a>. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-42518-8"><bdi>978-0-307-42518-8</bdi></a>. Retrieved 5 September 2020.</cite>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-AIII16_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AIII16_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, <a href="http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book3b.asp">III, 16</a>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.livius.org/sources/content/oriental-varia/a-contemporary-account-of-the-battle-of-gaugamela/">"a contemporary account of the battle of Gaugamela"</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210812155458/https://www.livius.org/sources/content/oriental-varia/a-contemporary-account-of-the-battle-of-gaugamela/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 August 2021. Retrieved 16 July 2021.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, III, 18
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFForeman2004">Foreman 2004</a>, p. 152
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996121_90-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996121_90-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFMorkot1996">Morkot 1996</a>, p. 121.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammond198372–73_91-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHammond1983">Hammond 1983</a>, pp. 72–73.
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYenne2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkngnd0GlUc4CpgPA99_99]_92-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYenne2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkngnd0GlUc4CpgPA99_99]_92-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYenne2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkngnd0GlUc4CpgPA99_99]_92-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYenne2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkngnd0GlUc4CpgPA99_99]_92-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFYenne2010">Yenne 2010</a>, p. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kngnd0GlUc4C&amp;pg=PA99">99</a>.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b> <cite>O'Brien, John Maxwell (1994). <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexandergreatin00obri_0/page/104"><i>Alexander the Great: The Invisible Enemy: A Biography</i></a>. Psychology Press. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexandergreatin00obri_0/page/104">104</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-10617-7"><bdi>978-0-415-10617-7</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.khalilicollections.org/collections/aramaic-documents/khalili-collection-aramaic-documents-a-long-list-of-supplies-disbursed-ia17/">"A Long List of Supplies Disbursed"</a>. <i>Khalili Collections</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190815095632/https://www.khalilicollections.org/collections/aramaic-documents/khalili-collection-aramaic-documents-a-long-list-of-supplies-disbursed-ia17/">Archived</a> from the original on 15 August 2019. Retrieved 6 January 2021.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1976III,_19–20_97-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, III, 19–20.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1976III,_21_98-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, III, 21.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1976III,_21,_25_99-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, III, 21, 25.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1976III,_22_100-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, III, 22.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGergel200481_101-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGergel2004">Gergel 2004</a>, p. 81.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160316211044/http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander10.html">"The end of Persia"</a>. Livius. Archived from <a href="https://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander10.html">the original</a> on 16 March 2016. Retrieved 16 November 2009.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1976III,_23–25,_27–30;_IV,_1–7_104-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, III, 23–25, 27–30; IV, 1–7.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1976III,_30_105-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, III, 30.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1976IV,_5–6,_16–17_106-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, IV, 5–6, 16–17.
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-AVII11_107-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AVII11_107-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, <a href="http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book7a.asp">VII, 11</a>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996111_108-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996111_108-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996111_108-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996111_108-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996111_108-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996111_108-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFMorkot1996">Morkot 1996</a>, p. 111.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGergel200499_109-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGergel2004">Gergel 2004</a>, p. 99.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://archive.org/details/cu31924026460752">"The Anabasis of Alexander; or, The history of the wars and conquests of Alexander the Great. Literally translated, with a commentary, from the Greek of Arrian, the Nicomedian"</a>. London, Hodder and Stoughton. 18 January 1884 – via Internet Archive.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHeckelTritle2009">Heckel &amp; Tritle 2009</a>, pp. 47–48
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010">Roisman &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 201
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010">Roisman &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 202
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010">Roisman &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 203
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010">Roisman &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 205
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b> Arrian, Anabasis VII, 3
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-LE_RIDER_2003,_p153-214_117-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LE_RIDER_2003,_p153-214_117-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LE_RIDER_2003,_p153-214_117-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LE_RIDER_2003,_p153-214_117-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> G. LE RIDER, Alexandre le Grand : Monnaie, finances et politique, Chapitre V, "Histoire", PUF, 2003, p153-214
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b> GERIN Dominique, GRANDJEAN Catherine, AMANDRY Michel, DE CALLATAY François, La monnaie grecque, "L'Antiquité : une histoire", Ellipse, 2001. p117-119.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b> BRIANT Pierre, Alexandre Le Grand, "Que sais-je ?", PUF, 2011.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b> Lane Fox 1973
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFNarain1965">Narain 1965</a>, pp. 155–65
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b> <cite>McCrindle, J. W. (1997). "Curtius". In Singh, Fauja; Joshi, L. M. (eds.). <i>History of Punjab</i>. Vol. I. Patiala: <a href="/wiki/Punjabi_University">Punjabi University</a>. p. 229.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETripathi1999124–25_125-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFTripathi1999">Tripathi 1999</a>, pp. 124–25.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_126-0">^</a></b> p. xl, Historical Dictionary of Ancient Greek Warfare, J, Woronoff &amp; I. Spence
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_127-0">^</a></b> Arrian Anabasis of Alexander, V.29.2
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGergel2004120_129-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGergel2004">Gergel 2004</a>, p. 120.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWorthington2003">Worthington 2003</a>, p. 175
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0638.tlg001.perseus-grc1:2.12">"Philostratus the Athenian, Vita Apollonii, book 2, chapter 12"</a>. <i>www.perseus.tufts.edu</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225081128/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0638.tlg001.perseus-grc1:2.12">Archived</a> from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 20 February 2021.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKosmin201434_132-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKosmin2014">Kosmin 2014</a>, p. 34.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETripathi1999129–30_133-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFTripathi1999">Tripathi 1999</a>, pp. 129–30.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-PA62_134-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1919">Plutarch 1919</a>, <a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0243:chapter=62&amp;highlight=ganges">LXII, 1</a>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETripathi1999137–38_135-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFTripathi1999">Tripathi 1999</a>, pp. 137–38.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETripathi1999141_136-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFTripathi1999">Tripathi 1999</a>, p. 141.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMorkot1996">Morkot 1996</a>, p. 9
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b> Alexander Demandt: <i>Alexander der Große. Leben und Legende.</i>, München 2009, p. 236f; Robin Lane Fox: <i>Alexander der Große. Eroberer der Welt.</i>, Stuttgart 2004, p. 61; Elizabeth D. Carney: <i>Woman in Alexander's Court</i>, in: Roisman, Joseph (Hg.): <i>Brill's Companion to Alexander the Great</i>, Leiden, Boston 2003, p. 243
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-AVI27_139-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, <a href="http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book6b.asp">VI, 27</a>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-AVI29_143-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, <a href="http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book6b.asp">II, 29</a>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen20071–2_151-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGreen2007">Green 2007</a>, pp. 1–2.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-PA5_218-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1919">Plutarch 1919</a>, <a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0243%3Achapter%3D5%3Asection%3D2">V, 2</a>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen20074_219-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGreen2007">Green 2007</a>, p. 4.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-PA4_220-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PA4_220-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1919">Plutarch 1919</a>, <a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0243%3Achapter%3D4%3Asection%3D4">IV, 4</a>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-AVII29_221-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AVII29_221-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AVII29_221-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, <a href="http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book7b.asp">VII, 29</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-PA7_222-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1919">Plutarch 1919</a>, <a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0243%3Achapter%3D7%3Asection%3D1">VII, 1</a>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-PA8_223-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PA8_223-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1919">Plutarch 1919</a>, <a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0243%3Achapter%3D8%3Asection%3D1">VIII, 1</a>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-AVII28_224-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AVII28_224-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, VII, 28
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010">Roisman &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 190, <a href="#CITEREFGreen2007">Green 2007</a>, p. 4
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen200720–21_226-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGreen2007">Green 2007</a>, pp. 20–21.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a></b> M Wood (edited by T Gergel) – <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5kxoAAAAMAAJ">Alexander: Selected Texts from Arrian, Curtius and Plutarch</a> Penguin, 2004 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-101312-5">0-14-101312-5</a> [Retrieved 8 April 2015]
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a></b> <cite>Maddox, Donald; Sturm-Maddox, Sara (February 2012). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TUqQbemlo80C&amp;pg=PA7"><i>Medieval French Alexander, the</i></a>. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-8832-4"><bdi>978-0-7914-8832-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 17 October 2016.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a></b> G Highet – <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KRbBTeM9M2oC&amp;pg=PA68">The Classical Tradition: Greek and Roman Influences on Western Literature: Greek and Roman Influences on Western Literature</a>, Oxford University Press, 31 December 1949 p. 68 [Retrieved 2015-04-08] (ed. c.f. – <a href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/clich%C3%A9">Merriam-webster.com</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150626135648/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/clich%C3%A9">Archived</a> 26 June 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a></b> Merriam-Webster <a href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/epithet">– epithet</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326115024/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/epithet">Archived</a> 26 March 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> [Retrieved 8 April 2015]
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-PA3_231-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1919">Plutarch 1919</a>, <a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0243%3Achapter%3D9%3Asection%3D4">IX, IV</a>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-P27_232-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-P27_232-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1919">Plutarch 1919</a>, <a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0243%3Achapter%3D27">XXVII, 1</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-PA45_233-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1919">Plutarch 1919</a>, <a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0243%3Achapter%3D45">LXV, 1</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMorkot1996">Morkot 1996</a>, p. 111, <a href="#CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010">Roisman &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 195
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMorkot1996">Morkot 1996</a>, p. 121, <a href="#CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010">Roisman &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 195
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a></b> Ahmed, S. Z. (2004), <i>Chaghatai: the Fabulous Cities and People of the Silk Road</i>, West Conshokoken: Infinity Publishing, p. 61.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a></b> Strachan, Edward and Roy Bolton (2008), <i>Russia and Europe in the Nineteenth Century</i>, London: Sphinx Fine Art, p. 87, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-907200-02-1">978-1-907200-02-1</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a></b> Livius.org. "<a href="https://www.livius.org/articles/person/roxane/">Roxane</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414100829/https://www.livius.org/articles/person/roxane/">Archived</a> 14 April 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>." <i>Articles on Ancient History</i>. Retrieved on 30 August 2016.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1919[httpswwwperseustuftseduhoppertextdocPerseus3Atext3A19990102433Achapter3D47_LXVII,_1]_239-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1919">Plutarch 1919</a>, <a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0243%3Achapter%3D47">LXVII, 1</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Carney_240-0">^</a></b> <cite>Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly (2000), <i>Women and Monarchy in Macedonia</i>, Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3212-9"><bdi>978-0-8061-3212-9</bdi></a></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1936[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsPlutarchMoraliaFortuna_Alexandri2html_II,_6]_241-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1936">Plutarch 1936</a>, <a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Fortuna_Alexandri*/2.html">II, 6</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130924230104/http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander01/alexander_iv.html">"Alexander IV"</a>. Livius. Archived from <a href="https://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander01/alexander_iv.html">the original</a> on 24 September 2013. Retrieved 13 December 2009.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERenault2001100_243-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, p. 100.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-DSXVII114_244-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDiodorus_Siculus1989">Diodorus Siculus 1989</a>, <a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Diod.+17.114.1">XVII, 114</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-P72_245-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1919">Plutarch 1919</a>, <a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0243%3Achapter%3D72">LXXII, 1</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOgden2009204_246-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFOgden2009">Ogden 2009</a>, p. 204.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a></b> <cite>Thomas K. Hubbard, ed. (2003). <a href="https://archive.org/details/homosexualitygre00hubb"><i>Homosexuality in Greece and Rome: A Sourcebook of Basic Documents</i></a>. University of California Press. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/homosexualitygre00hubb/page/n97">79</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-23430-7"><bdi>978-0-520-23430-7</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-AelXII7_248-0">^</a></b> <cite>Aelian, <a href="http://penelope.uchicago.edu/aelian/varhist12.xhtml#chap7">"7"</a>, <i>Varia Historia</i>, vol. XII</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a></b> <cite>Marilyn Skinner (2013). <i>Sexuality in Greek and Roman Culture (Ancient Cultures), 2nd edition</i>. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 190. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-4986-3"><bdi>978-1-4443-4986-3</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESacks199516_250-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSacks1995">Sacks 1995</a>, p. 16.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a></b> <cite>Thomas Hubbard (2014). "Chapter 8: Peer Homosexuality". In Hubbard, Thomas (ed.). <i>A Companion to Greek and Roman Sexualities</i>. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. p. 143. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9572-0"><bdi>978-1-4051-9572-0</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOgden2009208_252-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFOgden2009">Ogden 2009</a>, p. 208... three attested pregnancies in eight years produces an attested impregnation rate of one every 2.7 years, which is actually superior to that of his father.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Mary_Renault">Mary Renault</a> (1979). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Nature_of_Alexander">The Nature of Alexander</a></i>. Pantheon. p. 110. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-73825-3"><bdi>978-0-394-73825-3</bdi></a>. <q>No record at all exists of such a woman [ie, Barsine] accompanying his march; nor of any claim by her, or her powerful kin, that she had borne him offspring. Yet twelve years after his death a boy was produced, seventeen years old, born therefore five years after Damascus, her alleged son "brought up in Pergamon"; a claimant and shortlived pawn in the succession wars, chosen probably for a physical resemblance to Alexander. That he actually did marry another Barsine must have helped both to launch and preserve the story; but no source reports any notice whatever taken by him of a child who, Roxane's being posthumous, would have been during his lifetime his only son, by a near-royal mother. In a man who named cities after his horse and dog, this strains credulity.</q></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-DSXVII77_254-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDiodorus_Siculus1989">Diodorus Siculus 1989</a>, <a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Diod.+17.77.1">XVII, 77</a>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a></b> <cite>Plutarch (1936). <a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Fortuna_Alexandri*/2.html">"Moralia"</a>. University of Chicago. I, 11. Retrieved 19 February 2021.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ancient%20Web%20Pages/112.html">"World map according to Eratosthenes (194 B.C.)"</a>. <i>henry-davis.com</i>. Henry Davis Consulting. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180929075759/http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ancient">Archived</a> from the original on 29 September 2018. Retrieved 16 December 2011.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.britannica.com/summary/Alexander-the-Greats-Achievements">"Alexander the Great's Achievements"</a>. <i>Britannica</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210702234248/https://www.britannica.com/summary/Alexander-the-Greats-Achievements">Archived</a> from the original on 2 July 2021. Retrieved 19 August 2021.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-uconn_258-0">^</a></b> Peter Turchin, Thomas D. Hall and Jonathan M. Adams, "<a href="http://jwsr.ucr.edu/archive/vol12/number2/pdf/jwsr-v12n2-tah.pdf">East-West Orientation of Historical Empires</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070222011511/http://jwsr.ucr.edu/archive/vol12/number2/pdf/jwsr-v12n2-tah.pdf">Archived</a> 22 February 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", <i>Journal of World-Systems Research</i> Vol. 12 (no. 2), pp. 219–29 (2006).
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2007xii–xix_259-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2007xii–xix_259-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFGreen2007">Green 2007</a>, pp. xii–xix.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeay200182–85_260-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKeay2001">Keay 2001</a>, pp. 82–85.
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-livius_261-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-livius_261-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150503150242/http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_z2.html">"Alexander the Great: his towns"</a>. livius.org. Archived from <a href="https://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_z2.html">the original</a> on 3 May 2015. Retrieved 13 December 2009.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-paus75_262-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+7.5">"Pausanias, Description of Greece, 7.5"</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210624204431/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+7.5">Archived</a> from the original on 24 June 2021. Retrieved 23 June 2021.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0006:alphabetic+letter=P:entry+group=3:entry=pella-2">"The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, Pella (Khirbet Fahil) Jordan"</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210221123829/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0006:alphabetic+letter=P:entry+group=3:entry=pella-2">Archived</a> from the original on 21 February 2021. Retrieved 2 August 2021.</cite>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Burn_264-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burn_264-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burn_264-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burn_264-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Burn, Lucilla (2004). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TmhjC_AdoNsC&amp;pg=PA10"><i>Hellenistic Art: From Alexander the Great to Augustus</i></a>. London, England: The British Museum Press. pp. 10–11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89236-776-4"><bdi>978-0-89236-776-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 15 December 2017.</cite>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-BritishMuseum_265-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritishMuseum_265-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=437260&amp;partId=1&amp;searchText=athena+polias&amp;people=72426&amp;page=1">"Collection online"</a>. <a href="/wiki/British_Museum">British Museum</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171215221426/http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=437260&amp;partId=1&amp;searchText=athena+polias&amp;people=72426&amp;page=1">Archived</a> from the original on 15 December 2017. Retrieved 15 December 2017.</cite> "Marble wall block from the temple of Athena at Priene, inscribed on two sides. The inscription on the front records the gift of funds from Alexander the Great to complete the temple."
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details/collection_image_gallery.aspx?partid=1&amp;assetid=457544001&amp;objectid=437260">"Priene Inscription"</a>. <a href="/wiki/British_Museum">British Museum</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171215221617/http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details/collection_image_gallery.aspx?partid=1&amp;assetid=457544001&amp;objectid=437260">Archived</a> from the original on 15 December 2017. Retrieved 15 December 2017.</cite> "Marble wall block from the temple of Athena at Priene, inscribed. Part of the marble wall of the temple of Athena at Priene. Above: "King Alexander dedicated the temple to Athena Polias."
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://cts.perseids.org/read/greekLit/tlg2200/tlg00411/opp-grc1/88">"Capitains Nemo"</a>. <i>cts.perseids.org</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200815194836/http://cts.perseids.org/read/greekLit/tlg2200/tlg00411/opp-grc1/88">Archived</a> from the original on 15 August 2020. Retrieved 23 May 2020.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/chapter/1708741/pdf">"Project MUSE - Ancient Antioch"</a>. <i>muse.jhu.edu</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225181903/https://muse.jhu.edu/chapter/1708741/pdf">Archived</a> from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 23 May 2020.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-entries/sigma/117">"Suda, sigma, 117"</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211014070448/https://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-entries/sigma/117">Archived</a> from the original on 14 October 2021. Retrieved 12 August 2021.</cite>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen200756–59_270-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen200756–59_270-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFGreen2007">Green 2007</a>, pp. 56–59.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a></b> <cite>Waterman, Leroy; McDowell, Robert H.; Hopkins, Clark (1998). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120104113121/http://www.umich.edu/~kelseydb/Excavation/Seleucia.html">"Seleucia on the Tigris, Iraq"</a>. <i>umich.edu</i>. The Kelsey Online. Archived from <a href="http://www.umich.edu/~kelseydb/Excavation/Seleucia.html">the original</a> on 4 January 2012. Retrieved 16 December 2011.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen200721,_56–59_272-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGreen2007">Green 2007</a>, pp. 21, 56–59.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGreen2007">Green 2007</a>, pp. 56–59, <a href="#CITEREFMcCarty2004">McCarty 2004</a>, p. 17
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrison197151_274-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrison197151_274-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFHarrison1971">Harrison 1971</a>, p. 51.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-275">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBaynes2007">Baynes 2007</a>, p. 170, <a href="#CITEREFGabriel2002">Gabriel 2002</a>, p. 277
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeay2001101–09_276-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeay2001101–09_276-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeay2001101–09_276-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFKeay2001">Keay 2001</a>, pp. 101–09.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-277">^</a></b> <cite>Proser, Adriana (2011). <i>The Buddhist Heritage of Pakistan: Art of Gandhara</i>. Asia Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87848-112-5"><bdi>978-0-87848-112-5</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://neosalexandria.org/syncretism/greco-buddhism-a-brief-history/">"Greco-Buddhism: A Brief History"</a>. <i>Neosalexandria</i>. 11 November 2010. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210226133605/https://neosalexandria.org/syncretism/greco-buddhism-a-brief-history/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 February 2021. Retrieved 19 March 2021.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-279">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLuniya1978">Luniya 1978</a>, p. 312
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pingree_(1978),_533,_554f._280-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pingree_(1978),_533,_554f._280-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFPingree1978">Pingree 1978</a>, pp. 533, 554ff
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a></b> <cite>Cambon, Pierre; Jarrige, Jean-François (2006). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xJFtQgAACAAJ"><i>Afghanistan, les trésors retrouvés: Collections du Musée national de Kaboul</i></a> [<i>Afghanistan, the treasures found: collections of the Kabul national museum</i>] (in French). Réunion des musées nationaux. p. 269. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7118-5218-5"><bdi>978-2-7118-5218-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 5 September 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGlickLiveseyWallis2005">Glick, Livesey &amp; Wallis 2005</a>, p. 463
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hayashi08Aryabhata_283-0">^</a></b> Hayashi (2008), <i>Aryabhata I</i>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a></b> <cite>Brown, Rebecca M.; Hutton, Deborah S. (22 June 2015). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7DX-CAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA438"><i>A Companion to Asian Art and Architecture</i></a>. p. 438. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-119-01953-4"><bdi>978-1-119-01953-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 3 February 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Asirvatham_285-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Asirvatham_285-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Asirvatham_285-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Asirvatham_285-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010">Roisman &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, Chapter 6, p. 114
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolt20033_286-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHolt2003">Holt 2003</a>, p. 3.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Asirvatham2_287-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Asirvatham2_287-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010">Roisman &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, Chapter 6, p. 115
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.attalus.org/translate/caesars.html">"Julian: Caesars - translation"</a>. <i>www.attalus.org</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200226035227/http://www.attalus.org/translate/caesars.html">Archived</a> from the original on 26 February 2020. Retrieved 29 March 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a></b> Goldsworthy, 100
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a></b> Plutarch 1919, XI, 2
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-291">^</a></b> Leach, John. Pompey the Great. p. 29.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-:02_292-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_292-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). <a href="https://archive.org/details/howromefelldeath0000gold/page/74"><i>How Rome Fell: death of a superpower</i></a>. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. <a href="https://archive.org/details/howromefelldeath0000gold/page/74">74</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-16426-8"><bdi>978-0-300-16426-8</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-:92_293-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:92_293-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:92_293-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Brauer, G. (1967). <i>The Decadent Emperors: Power and Depravity in Third-Century Rome</i>. p. 75.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-:292_294-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:292_294-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:292_294-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Christopher, Matthew (2015). <i>An Invincible Beast: Understanding the Hellenistic Pike Phalanx in Action</i>. Casemate Publishers. p. 403.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-295">^</a></b> <cite>Wardle, David (2007). "Caligula's Bridge of Boats – AD 39 or 40?". <i>Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte</i>. <b>56</b> (1): 118–120. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.25162%2Fhistoria-2007-0009">10.25162/historia-2007-0009</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0018-2311">0018-2311</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/25598379">25598379</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164017284">164017284</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-seutonius-calig-19_296-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-seutonius-calig-19_296-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-seutonius-calig-19_296-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-seutonius-calig-19_296-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> Suetonius, <i>The Lives of Twelve Caesars</i>, Life of Caligula <a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Caligula*.html#19">19</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-297">^</a></b> Suetonius, <i>The Lives of Twelve Caesars</i>, Life of Caligula <a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Caligula*.html#54">54</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-298">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 249.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-299">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0525.tlg001.perseus-grc1:2.1.5">"Pausanias, Description of Greece, *korinqiaka/, chapter 1, section 5"</a>. <i>www.perseus.tufts.edu</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210306030705/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0525.tlg001.perseus-grc1:2.1.5">Archived</a> from the original on 6 March 2021. Retrieved 20 February 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-300">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Plin.+Nat.+5.31&amp;lang=original">"Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, BOOK V. AN ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS, HAVENS, MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, DISTANCES, AND PEOPLES WHO NOW EXIST OR FORMERLY EXISTED., CHAP. 31.—IONIA"</a>. <i>www.perseus.tufts.edu</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414074750/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Plin.+Nat.+5.31&amp;lang=original">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 20 February 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-301">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0064:entry=mimas-geo">"Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854), MIMAS"</a>. <i>www.perseus.tufts.edu</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210227192827/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0064:entry=mimas-geo">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2021. Retrieved 20 February 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-302">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0074.tlg001.perseus-grc1:7.20">"Arrian, Anabasis, book 7, chapter 20"</a>. <i>www.perseus.tufts.edu</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225043845/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0074.tlg001.perseus-grc1:7.20">Archived</a> from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 20 February 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-303">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://topostext.org/work/205#7.20">"ToposText"</a>. <i>topostext.org</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211215071231/https://topostext.org/work/205#7.20">Archived</a> from the original on 15 December 2021. Retrieved 22 March 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-LICP_304-0">^</a></b> <a href="/wiki/Lionel_I._C._Pearson">Lionel I. C. Pearson</a> (1955), "The Diary and the Letters of Alexander the Great", <i>Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte</i> <b>3</b>(4): 429–455, at 443–450. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4434421">4434421</a>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010187_305-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010187_305-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010">Roisman &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 187.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-PA46_306-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1919">Plutarch 1919</a>, <a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0243:chapter=46&amp;highlight=lysimachus%2Conesicritus">LXVI, 1</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-307">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFStoneman1996">Stoneman 1996</a>, <i>passim</i>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010117_308-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010117_308-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010">Roisman &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 117.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fermor_309-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fermor_309-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fermor_309-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFFermor2006">Fermor 2006</a>, p. 215
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-310">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFCurtisTallisAndre-Salvini2005">Curtis, Tallis &amp; Andre-Salvini 2005</a>, p. 154
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010120_311-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010120_311-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010120_311-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010120_311-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010120_311-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010">Roisman &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 120.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-312">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFischer2004">Fischer 2004</a>, p. 66
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-313">^</a></b> <cite>Kennedy, Hugh (2012). "Journey to Mecca: A History". In Porter, Venetia (ed.). <i>Hajj : journey to the heart of Islam</i>. Cambridge, Mass.: The British Museum. p. 131. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-06218-4"><bdi>978-0-674-06218-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/709670348">709670348</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-314">^</a></b> <cite>Webb, Peter (2013). "The Hajj before Muhammad: Journeys to Mecca in Muslim Narratives of Pre-Islamic History". In Porter, Venetia; Saif, Liana (eds.). <i>The Hajj : collected essays</i>. London: The British Museum. pp. 14 footnote 72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86159-193-0"><bdi>978-0-86159-193-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/857109543">857109543</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010122_315-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010122_315-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010122_315-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010">Roisman &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 122.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-316">^</a></b> Josephus, <a href="/wiki/Antiquities_of_the_Jews">Jewish Antiquities</a>, XI, 337 <a href="http://lexundria.com/j_aj/11.304-12.0/wst">viii, 5</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-317">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFConnerney2009">Connerney 2009</a>, p. 68
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-318">^</a></b> <cite>Donde, Dipanwita (2014). <a href="https://www.academia.edu/6097802">"The Mughal Sikander: Influence of the Romance of Alexander on Mughal Manuscript Painting"</a>. <i>International Conference of Greek Studies: An Asian Perspective</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210812151906/https://www.academia.edu/6097802">Archived</a> from the original on 12 August 2021. Retrieved 19 April 2019 – via Academia.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-319">^</a></b> <cite>Noll, Thomas (2016). "The Visual Image of Alexander the Great". In Stock, Markus (ed.). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2nqMCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA258"><i>Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives</i></a>. Translated by Boettcher, Susan. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press. p. 258. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-4466-3"><bdi>978-1-4426-4466-3</bdi></a>. Retrieved 21 November 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-320">^</a></b> Louis Antoine Fauvelet de Bourrienne, Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte, pp 158
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-321">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://topostext.org/work/534#9.699">"ToposText"</a>. <i>topostext.org</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210201022239/https://topostext.org/work/534#9.699">Archived</a> from the original on 1 February 2021. Retrieved 18 August 2019.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-322">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://topostext.org/work/748#122">"ToposText"</a>. <i>topostext.org</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210201022206/https://topostext.org/work/748#122">Archived</a> from the original on 1 February 2021. Retrieved 18 August 2019.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-323">^</a></b> <cite>Dwyer, Rachel (December 2005). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tk5gBAAAQBAJ&amp;q=Sikandar+1941+Prithviraj+Kapoor&amp;pg=PT165"><i>100 Bollywood Films</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788174369901"><bdi>9788174369901</bdi></a>. Retrieved 6 April 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Macedonians_324-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHornblower2008">Hornblower 2008</a>, pp. 55–58; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 3–4; <a href="#CITEREFFine1983">Fine 1983</a>, pp. 607–08; <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001</a>, p. 11; <a href="#CITEREFJones2001">Jones 2001</a>, p. 21; Osborne 2004, p. 127; <a href="#CITEREFHammond1989">Hammond 1989</a>, pp. 12–13; <a href="#CITEREFHammond1993">Hammond 1993</a>, p. 97; <a href="#CITEREFStarr1991">Starr 1991</a>, pp. 260, 367; <a href="#CITEREFToynbee1981">Toynbee 1981</a>, p. 67; <a href="#CITEREFWorthington2008">Worthington 2008</a>, pp. 8, 219; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, p. 22; Perlman 1973, p. 78; Hamilton 1974, Chapter 2: The Macedonian Homeland, p. 23; <a href="#CITEREFBryant1996">Bryant 1996</a>, p. 306; <a href="#CITEREFO'Brien1994">O'Brien 1994</a>, p. 25.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanforth199738,_49,_167_325-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDanforth1997">Danforth 1997</a>, pp. 38, 49, 167.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman20042_326-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFStoneman2004">Stoneman 2004</a>, p. 2.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2003327–28_327-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy2003">Goldsworthy 2003</a>, pp. 327–28.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Plutarch,_Caesar,_11_328-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1919">Plutarch 1919</a>, <a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0244:chapter=11&amp;highlight=alexander">XI, 2</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2003176–83_329-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHolland2003">Holland 2003</a>, pp. 176–83.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnett199745_330-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBarnett1997">Barnett 1997</a>, p. 45.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-331">^</a></b> Ronald H. Fritze, Egyptomania: A History of Fascination, Obsession and Fantasy, p 103.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-332">^</a></b> Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell: death of a superpower. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 74. ISBN 978-0-300-16426-8.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-333">^</a></b> Brauer, G. (1967). The Decadent Emperors: Power and Depravity in Third-Century Rome. p. 75.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-334">^</a></b> Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 19.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-335">^</a></b> Geoff W. Adams, The Roman Emperor Gaius "Caligula" and His Hellenistic Aspirations, pp 46
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-336">^</a></b> Leycester Coltman, The Real Fidel Castro, p 220.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-337">^</a></b> Nicolle, David (2000). Constantinople 1453: The End of Byzantium. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-84176-091-9.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1919[httpswwwperseustuftseduhoppertextdocPerseus3Atext3A19990400573Aentry3Da29le2Fcw_IV,_57]_338-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1919">Plutarch 1919</a>, <a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29le%2Fcw">IV, 57</a>: 'ἀλέξω'.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiddellScott1940_339-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiddellScott1940_339-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFLiddellScott1940">Liddell &amp; Scott 1940</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1919[httpswwwperseustuftseduhoppertextdocPerseus3Atext3A19990400573Aentry3Da29nh2Fr_IV,_57]_340-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1919">Plutarch 1919</a>, <a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29nh%2Fr">IV, 57</a>: 'ἀνήρ'.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-341">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=Alexander&amp;searchmode=none">"Alexander"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090920175420/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=Alexander&amp;searchmode=none">Archived</a> from the original on 20 September 2009. Retrieved 11 December 2009.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELane_Fox198072–73_342-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLane_Fox1980">Lane Fox 1980</a>, pp. 72–73.
</li>
</ol></div>
<h3>Sources</h3>
<div>
<h4>Primary sources</h4>
<ul><li><cite><a href="/wiki/Arrian">Arrian</a> (1976). <a href="/wiki/Aubrey_de_S%C3%A9lincourt">de Sélincourt, Aubrey</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Anabasis_Alexandri"><i>Anabasis Alexandri (The Campaigns of Alexander)</i></a>. Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044253-3"><bdi>978-0-14-044253-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Rolfe, John, ed. (1946). "<a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a>". <a href="http://www.attalus.org/info/curtius.html"><i>History of Alexander</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Loeb_Classical_Library">Loeb Classical Library</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150923180024/http://www.attalus.org/info/curtius.html">Archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 28 April 2015.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus">Siculus, Diodorus</a> (1989). <a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0060.tlg001.perseus-grc2:18.4.4">"Library of History"</a>. CH Oldfather, translator. <a href="/wiki/Perseus_Project">Perseus Project</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924214821/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0060.tlg001.perseus-grc2:18.4.4">Archived</a> from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 14 November 2009.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Plutarch">Plutarch</a> (1919). Perrin, Bernadotte (ed.). <a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0243"><i>Plutarch, Alexander</i></a>. Perseus Project. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111021034907/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.01.0243">Archived</a> from the original on 21 October 2011. Retrieved 6 December 2011.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Plutarch (1936). Babbitt, Frank Cole (ed.). <a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Fortuna_Alexandri*/"><i>On the Fortune of Alexander</i></a>. Vol. IV. <a href="/wiki/Loeb_Classical_Library">Loeb Classical Library</a>. pp. 379–487. Retrieved 26 November 2011.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Trogus, Pompeius (1853). Justin (ed.). <a href="http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/english/">"Epitome of the Philippic History"</a>. Rev. John Selby Watson, translator. Forum romanum. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131108235820/http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/english/">Archived</a> from the original on 8 November 2013. Retrieved 14 November 2009.</cite>.</li></ul>
<h4>Secondary sources</h4>
<ul><li><cite>Barnett, C. (1997). <i>Bonaparte</i>. Wordsworth. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85326-678-2"><bdi>978-1-85326-678-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Baynes, Norman G (2007). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HdHiVlZ3ErIC">"Byzantine art"</a>. <i>Byzantium: An Introduction to East Roman Civilization</i>. Baynes. p. 170. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4067-5659-3"><bdi>978-1-4067-5659-3</bdi></a>. Retrieved 5 September 2020.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Berkley, Grant (2006). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N7mj2NhCGNYC"><i>Moses in the Hieroglyphs</i></a>. Trafford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4120-5600-7"><bdi>978-1-4120-5600-7</bdi></a>. Retrieved 13 January 2011.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Bose, Partha (2003). <i>Alexander the Great's Art of Strategy</i>. Crows Nest, NSW: Allen &amp; Unwin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-74114-113-9"><bdi>978-1-74114-113-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Bosworth, A. B. (1988). <a href="https://archive.org/details/conquestempire00abbo"><i>Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great</i></a>. New York: Cambridge University Press.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Briant">Briant, P.</a> (1985). <a href="https://iranicaonline.org/articles/alexander-the-great-356-23-bc">"ALEXANDER THE GREAT"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Ehsan_Yarshater">Yarshater, Ehsan</a> (ed.). <i>Encyclopædia Iranica, Volume I/8: Alafrank–Alp Arslan</i>. London and New York: Routledge &amp; Kegan Paul. pp. 827–830. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-71009-097-3"><bdi>978-0-71009-097-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Bryant, Joseph M. (1996). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bCM9D9fyCoQC"><i>Moral Codes and Social Structure in Ancient Greece: A Sociology of Greek Ethics from Homer to the Epicureans and Stoics</i></a>. Albany, NY: <a href="/wiki/State_University_of_New_York_Press">State University of New York Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-3042-1"><bdi>0-7914-3042-1</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201109042906/https://books.google.com/books?id=bCM9D9fyCoQC">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2020. Retrieved 3 October 2020.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/George_Cawkwell">Cawkwell, George</a> (1978). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k-mUQgAACAAJ"><i>Philip of Macedon</i></a>. London, UK: <a href="/wiki/Faber_%26_Faber">Faber and Faber</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-571-10958-6"><bdi>0-571-10958-6</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917114805/https://books.google.com/books?id=k-mUQgAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 17 September 2020. Retrieved 3 October 2020.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Cawthorne, Nigel (2004). <i>Alexander the Great</i>. Haus. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-904341-56-7"><bdi>978-1-904341-56-7</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Connerney, R. D. (2009). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4WadcncjsRUC"><i>The upside-down tree: India's changing culture</i></a>. Algora. p. 214. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87586-649-9"><bdi>978-0-87586-649-9</bdi></a>. Retrieved 5 September 2020.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Curtis, J.; Tallis, N; Andre-Salvini, B (2005). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJnaKu9DdNEC"><i>Forgotten empire: the world of ancient Persia</i></a>. University of California Press. p. 154. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24731-4"><bdi>978-0-520-24731-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Dahmen, Karsten (2007). <i>The Legend of Alexander the Great on Greek and Roman Coins</i>. Taylor &amp; Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-39451-2"><bdi>978-0-415-39451-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Danforth, Loring M. (1997). <i>The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-04356-2"><bdi>978-0-691-04356-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Dillon, John M. (2004). <i>Morality and custom in ancient Greece</i>. Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-34526-4"><bdi>978-0-253-34526-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Will_Durant">Durant, Will</a> (1966). <a href="https://archive.org/details/lifeofgreece02dura"><i>The Story of Civilization: The Life of Greece</i></a>. Simon &amp; Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-671-41800-7"><bdi>978-0-671-41800-7</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Robert_Malcolm_Errington">Errington, Robert Malcolm</a> (1990). <a href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_PYgkqP_s1PQC"><i>A History of Macedonia</i></a>. Translated by Catherine Errington. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06319-8"><bdi>978-0-520-06319-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Fine, John Van Antwerp (1983). <a href="https://archive.org/details/ancientgreeks00john"><i>The Ancient Greeks: A Critical History</i></a>. Cambridge, MA: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-03314-0"><bdi>0-674-03314-0</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Fermor, Patrick Leigh (2006). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8V5QBkD7IIYC"><i>Mani: Travels in the Southern Peloponnese</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/New_York_Book_Review">New York Book Review</a>. p. 358. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59017-188-2"><bdi>978-1-59017-188-2</bdi></a>. Retrieved 5 September 2020.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Fischer, M. M. J. (2004). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KibBH6cI8BgC"><i>Mute dreams, blind owls, and dispersed knowledges: Persian poesis in the transnational circuitry</i></a>. Duke University Press. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-3298-5"><bdi>978-0-8223-3298-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 5 September 2020.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Joann_Fletcher">Fletcher, Joann</a> (2008). <a href="https://archive.org/details/cleopatragreatwo00flet"><i>Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend</i></a>. New York: Harper. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-058558-7"><bdi>978-0-06-058558-7</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Foreman, Laura (2004). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rVEa4nzLkT4C"><i>Alexander the conqueror: the epic story of the warrior king</i></a>. Da Capo Press. p. 217. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-81293-4"><bdi>978-0-306-81293-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Gabriel, Richard A (2002). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y1ngxn_xTOIC">"The army of Byzantium"</a>. <i>The Great Armies of Antiquity</i>. Greenwood. p. 277. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-97809-9"><bdi>978-0-275-97809-9</bdi></a>. Retrieved 5 September 2020.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Gergel, Tania, ed. (2004). <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexandergreatse00gerg"><i>The Brief Life and Towering Exploits of History's Greatest Conqueror as Told By His Original Biographers</i></a>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-200140-0"><bdi>978-0-14-200140-0</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Gerin, Dominique; Grandjean, Catherine; Amandry, Michel; DE CALLATAY, François (2001). <i>La monnaie grecque</i> (Ellipse, "L'Antiquité : une histoire" ed.).</cite></li>
<li><cite>Glick, Thomas F.; Livesey, Steven John; Wallis, Faith, eds. (2005). <i>Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia</i>. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-96930-7"><bdi>978-0-415-96930-7</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Goldsworthy, A. (2003). <i>The Fall of Carthage</i>. Cassel. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-304-36642-2"><bdi>978-0-304-36642-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Grafton, Anthony (2010). Most, Glenn W; Settis, Salvatore (eds.). <i>The Classical Tradition</i>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03572-0"><bdi>978-0-674-03572-0</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Peter_Green_(historian)">Green, Peter</a> (2007). <i>Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age</i>. London: Phoenix. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7538-2413-9"><bdi>978-0-7538-2413-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Gunther, John (2007). <i>Alexander the Great</i>. Sterling. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4027-4519-5"><bdi>978-1-4027-4519-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/N._G._L._Hammond">Hammond, NGL</a> (1983). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gay_i14p9oEC"><i>Sources for Alexander the Great</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-71471-6"><bdi>978-0-521-71471-6</bdi></a>. Retrieved 5 September 2020.</cite></li>
<li><cite>——— (1986). <i>A History of Greece to 323 BC</i>. Cambridge University.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (1993). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TWwiAQAAIAAJ"><i>Studies concerning Epirus and Macedonia before Alexander</i></a>. Amsterdam: Hakkert. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-256-1050-0"><bdi>978-90-256-1050-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 3 October 2020.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/N._G._L._Hammond">Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière</a>; <a href="/wiki/F._W._Walbank">Walbank, Frank William</a> (2001). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qpb3JdwuDQIC"><i>A History of Macedonia: 336–167 B.C.</i></a> Vol. 3 (reprint ed.). Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Clarendon_Press">Clarendon Press</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-814815-1"><bdi>0-19-814815-1</bdi></a>. Retrieved 3 October 2020.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Harrison, E. F. (1971). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qh7b4o6JQpIC"><i>The language of the New Testament</i></a>. Wm B Eerdmans. p. 508. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-4786-7"><bdi>978-0-8028-4786-7</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414133402/https://books.google.com/books?id=qh7b4o6JQpIC">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 5 September 2020.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Heckel, Waldemar; Tritle, Lawrence A, eds. (2009). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jbaPwpvt8ZQC"><i>Alexander the Great: A New History</i></a>. Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3082-0"><bdi>978-1-4051-3082-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 5 September 2020.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Holland, Tom (2003). <i>Rubicon: Triumph and Tragedy in the Roman Republic</i>. Abacus. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-349-11563-4"><bdi>978-0-349-11563-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Holt, Frank Lee (2003). <i>Alexander the Great and The Mystery of the Elephant Medallions</i>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-23881-7"><bdi>978-0-520-23881-7</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Hornblower, Simon (2008). "Greek Identity in the Archaic and Classical Periods". In Zacharia, K. (ed.). <a href="https://archive.org/details/hellenismscultur00zach"><i>Hellenisms: Culture, Identity and Ethnicity from Antiquity to Modernity</i></a>. Ashgate. pp. <a href="https://archive.org/details/hellenismscultur00zach/page/n53">37</a>–58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-6525-0"><bdi>978-0-7546-6525-0</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Jones, Archer (2001). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z2FRzcz2W0oC"><i>The Art of War in the Western World</i></a>. Champaign, IL: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Press">University of Illinois Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-252-06966-8"><bdi>0-252-06966-8</bdi></a>. Retrieved 3 October 2020.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Keay, John (2001). <i>India: A History</i>. Grove Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8021-3797-5"><bdi>978-0-8021-3797-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Paul_J._Kosmin">Kosmin, Paul J.</a> (2014), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9UWdAwAAQBAJ"><i>The Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in Seleucid Empire</i></a>, Harvard University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-72882-0"><bdi>978-0-674-72882-0</bdi></a>, retrieved 24 August 2017</cite></li>
<li><cite>Lane Fox, Robin (1980). <a href="https://archive.org/details/searchforalexand00lane"><i>The Search for Alexander</i></a>. Boston: Little Brown &amp; Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-316-29108-8"><bdi>978-0-316-29108-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>——— (2006). <i>Alexander the Great</i>. ePenguin. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)">ASIN</a> <a href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B002RI9DYW">B002RI9DYW</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>LE RIDER, George (2003). <i>Alexandre le Grand : Monnaie, finances et politique</i> (Histoire ed.). PUF. p. Chapter V.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1940). Jones, Sir Henry Stuart; McKenzie, Roderick (eds.). <i>A Greek-English Lexicon on Perseus Digital Library</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Luniya, Bhanwarlal Nathuram (1978). <i>Life and Culture in Ancient India: From the Earliest Times to 1000 AD</i>. Lakshmi Narain Agarwal. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)">LCCN</a> <a href="//lccn.loc.gov/78907043">78907043</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>McCarty, Nick (2004). <i>Alexander the Great</i>. Camberwell, Victoria: Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-04268-5"><bdi>978-0-670-04268-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>McKechnie, Paul (1989). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lMoOAAAAQAAJ"><i>Outsiders in the Greek cities in the fourth century BC</i></a>. Taylor &amp; Francis. p. 54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-00340-7"><bdi>978-0-415-00340-7</bdi></a>. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Morkot, Robert (1996). <i>The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Greece</i>. Penguin.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Narain, A. K. (1965). <i>Alexander the Great: Greece and Rome–12</i>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Ogden, Daniel (2009). "Alexander's Sex Life". In Heckel, Alice; Heckel, Waldemar; Tritle, Lawrence A (eds.). <i>Alexander the Great: A New History</i>. Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3082-0"><bdi>978-1-4051-3082-0</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Pingree, D. (1978). "History of Mathematical Astronomy in India". <i>Dictionary of Scientific Biography</i>. Vol. 15. pp. 533–633.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Pratt, James Bissett (1996). <i>The Pilgrimage of Buddhism and a Buddhist Pilgrimage</i>. Laurier Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-206-1196-2"><bdi>978-81-206-1196-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Rebuffat, Françoise (1996). <i>La monnaie dans l'Antiquité</i>. Picard.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Renault, Mary (2001). <i>The Nature of Alexander the Great</i>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-139076-5"><bdi>978-0-14-139076-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Ring, Trudy; Salkin, Robert M; Berney, KA; Schellinger, Paul E, eds. (1994). <i>International dictionary of historic places</i>. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1994–1996. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-884964-04-6"><bdi>978-1-884964-04-6</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (2010). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lkYFVJ3U-BIC"><i>A Companion to Ancient Macedonia</i></a>. John Wiley &amp; Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7936-2</bdi></a>. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Sabin, P; van Wees, H; Whitby, M (2007). <i>The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare: Greece, the Hellenistic World and the Rise of Rome</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-78273-9"><bdi>978-0-521-78273-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Sacks, David (1995). <i>Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World</i>. Constable &amp; Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-09-475270-2"><bdi>978-0-09-475270-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Starr, Chester G. (1991). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bA3kgtZU1iMC"><i>A History of the Ancient World</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-506628-6"><bdi>0-19-506628-6</bdi></a>. Retrieved 3 October 2020.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Stoneman, Richard (2004). <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexandergreat0000ston"><i>Alexander the Great</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-31932-4"><bdi>978-0-415-31932-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Stoneman, Richard (1996). "The Metamorphoses of Alexander Romance". In Schmeling, Gareth L (ed.). <a href="https://archive.org/details/novelancientworl00schm"><i>The Novel in the Ancient World</i></a>. Brill. pp. <a href="https://archive.org/details/novelancientworl00schm/page/n602">601</a>–12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09630-1"><bdi>978-90-04-09630-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Studniczka, Franz (1894). <i>Achäologische Jahrbook 9</i>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Tripathi, Rama Shankar (1999). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WbrcVcT-GbUC"><i>History of Ancient India</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0018-2"><bdi>978-81-208-0018-2</bdi></a>. Retrieved 5 September 2020.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Toynbee, Arnold Joseph (1981). <a href="https://archive.org/details/greekstheirheri00toyn"><i>The Greeks and Their Heritages</i></a>. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-215256-5"><bdi>978-0-19-215256-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Wood, Michael (2001). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5wDWn1dL6HMC"><i>In the Footsteps of Alexander the Great: A Journey from Greece to Asia</i></a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-23192-4"><bdi>978-0-520-23192-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 5 September 2020.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Worthington, Ian (2003). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OiM51I7_A1gC"><i>Alexander the Great: A Reader</i></a>. Routledge. p. 332. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-29187-3"><bdi>978-0-415-29187-3</bdi></a>. Retrieved 5 September 2020.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Worthington, Ian (2008). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CZsTAQAAIAAJ"><i>Philip II of Macedonia</i></a>. New Haven, CT: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12079-0"><bdi>978-0-300-12079-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Yenne, Bill (2010). <i>Alexander the Great: Lessons From History's Undefeated General</i>. Palgrave MacMillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-61915-9"><bdi>978-0-230-61915-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li></ul>
</div>
<h2>Further reading</h2>
<div>
<ul><li><cite><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Badian">Badian, Ernst</a> (1958). "Alexander the Great and the Unity of Mankind". <i>Historia</i>. <b>7</b>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/J._D._Beazley">Beazley, JD</a>; <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Ashmole">Ashmole, B</a> (1932). <i>Greek Sculpture and Painting</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-04131-7"><bdi>978-0-521-04131-7</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Bowra">Bowra, Maurice</a> (1994). <i>The Greek Experience</i>. Phoenix. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85799-122-2"><bdi>978-1-85799-122-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/John_Boardman_(art_historian)">Boardman, John</a> (2019). <i>Alexander the Great: From His Death to the Present Day</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-18175-2"><bdi>978-0-691-18175-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Burn, AR (1951). <i>Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Empire</i> (2 ed.). London: English Universities Press.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Rufus, Quintus Curtius. <a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Curtius/home.html">"Quintus Curtius Rufus, History of Alexander the Great"</a> (in Latin). U Chicago. Retrieved 16 November 2009.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Paul_Cartledge">Cartledge, Paul</a> (2004). <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexandergreatth00cart"><i>Alexander the Great</i></a>. Overlook. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781585675654"><bdi>9781585675654</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Paul_C._Doherty">Doherty, Paul</a> (2004). <a href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780786713400"><i>The Death of Alexander the Great</i></a>. Carroll &amp; Graf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780786713400"><bdi>9780786713400</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Engels, Donald W (1978). <i>Alexander the Great and the Logistics of the Macedonian Army</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Fawcett, Bill, ed. (2006). <a href="https://archive.org/details/howtolosebattlef0000unse"><i>How To Lose A Battle: Foolish Plans and Great Military Blunders</i></a>. Harper. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-076024-3"><bdi>978-0-06-076024-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/J._F._C._Fuller">Fuller, JFC</a> (1958). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q3M0NE2RJgYC"><i>The Generalship of Alexander the Great</i></a>. London: Eyre &amp; Spottiswoode. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-80371-0"><bdi>978-0-306-80371-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Peter_Green_(historian)">Green, Peter</a> (1992). <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderofmaced0000gree"><i>Alexander of Macedon: 356–323 BC. A Historical Biography</i></a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07166-7"><bdi>978-0-520-07166-7</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Robert_Greene_(American_author)">Greene, Robert</a> (2000). <a href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780670881468"><i>The 48 Laws of Power</i></a>. Penguin. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780670881468/page/351">351</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-028019-7"><bdi>978-0-14-028019-7</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/N._G._L._Hammond">Hammond, NGL</a> (1989). <i>The Macedonian State: Origins, Institutions, and History</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814883-8"><bdi>978-0-19-814883-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Hammond, NGL (1994). <i>Alexander the Great: King, Commander, and Statesman</i> (3 ed.). London: Bristol Classical Press.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Hammond, NGL (1997). <a href="https://archive.org/details/geniusofalexande00nglh"><i>The Genius of Alexander the Great</i></a>. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Robin_Lane_Fox">Lane Fox, Robin</a> (1973). <i>Alexander the Great</i>. London: Allen Lane. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-008878-4"><bdi>0-14-008878-4</bdi></a>.</cite>, also (1974) New York: E. P. Dutton and (1986) London: <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books">Penguin Books</a>.</li>
<li><cite>Mercer, Charles (1962). <i>The Way of Alexander the Great</i> (1 ed.). Boston: American Heritage Inc.</cite></li>
<li><cite>McCrindle, J. W. (1893). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A9YNAAAAIAAJ"><i>The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great as Described by Arrian, Q Curtius, Diodorus, Plutarch, and Justin</i></a>. Westminster: Archibald Constable &amp; Co. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Murphy, James Jerome; Katula, Richard A; Hill, Forbes I; Ochs, Donovan J (2003). <i>A Synoptic History of Classical Rhetoric</i>. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. p. 17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-880393-35-2"><bdi>978-1-880393-35-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Nandan, Y; Bhavan, BV (2003). <i>British Death March Under Asiatic Impulse: Epic of Anglo-Indian Tragedy in Afghanistan</i>. Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7276-301-5"><bdi>978-81-7276-301-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>O'Brien, John Maxwell (1992). <i>Alexander the Great: The Invisible Enemy</i>. London: Routledge.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Pomeroy, S; Burstein, S; Dolan, W; Roberts, J (1998). <a href="https://archive.org/details/ancientgreecepol00sara"><i>Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509742-9"><bdi>978-0-19-509742-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/John_Prevas">Prevas, John</a> (2004). <a href="https://archive.org/details/envyofgodsalexan00prev"><i>Envy of the Gods: Alexander the Great's Ill-Fated Journey Across Asia</i></a> (3 ed.). Da Capo. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780306812682"><bdi>9780306812682</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Roisman, Joseph, ed. (1995). <i>Alexander the Great Ancient and Modern Perspectives</i>. Problems in European Civilization. Lexington, MA: DC Heath.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Rowson, Alex (2022). <i>The Young Alexander: The Making of Alexander the Great</i> (Hardcover). London: William Collins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0008284398"><bdi>978-0008284398</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/L">Savill, Agnes</a> (1959). <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexandergreathi0000savi_n3m7"><i>Alexander the Great and His Time</i></a> (3 ed.). London: Barrie &amp; Rockliff.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Stewart, Andrew (1993). <i>Faces of Power: Alexander's Image and Hellenistic Politics</i>. Hellenistic Culture and Society. Vol. 11. Berkeley: University of California Press.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Stoneman, Richard (2008). <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexandergreatli00ston"><i>Alexander the Great: A Life in Legend</i></a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-11203-0"><bdi>978-0-300-11203-0</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/William_Woodthorpe_Tarn">Tarn, WW</a> (1948). <a href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.499219"><i>Alexander the Great</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Ide_Wheeler">Wheeler, Benjamin Ide</a> (1900). <a href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.173405"><i>Alexander the Great; the merging of East and West in universal history</i></a>. New York: GP Putnam's sons.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Ulrich_Wilcken">Wilcken, Ulrich</a> (1997) [1932]. <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexandergreat00wilc"><i>Alexander the Great</i></a>. New York: WW Norton &amp; Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-00381-9"><bdi>978-0-393-00381-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Worthington, Ian (2004). <i>Alexander the Great: Man And God</i>. Pearson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4058-0162-1"><bdi>978-1-4058-0162-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li></ul>
</div>
<h2>External links</h2>
<ul><li><cite><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Delamarche">Delamarche, Félix</a> (1833), <a href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11738/"><i>The Empire and Expeditions of Alexander the Great</i></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Romm, James; <a href="/wiki/Paul_Cartledge">Cartledge, Paul</a>, "Two Great Historians On Alexander the Great", <i>Forbes</i> (conversations)</cite> <a href="https://blogs.forbes.com/booked/2010/12/12/two-great-historians-on-alexander-the-great-part-one/">Part 1</a>, <a href="https://blogs.forbes.com/booked/2010/12/17/two-great-historians-on-alexander-the-great-part-two/">Part 2</a>, <a href="https://blogs.forbes.com/booked/2010/12/20/two-historians-talk-alexander-the-great-part-3/">Part 3</a>, <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/booked/2011/01/03/two-great-historians-talk-alexander-the-great-part-4/">Part 4</a>, <a href="https://blogs.forbes.com/booked/2011/01/10/how-great-a-general-was-alexander/">Part 5</a>, <a href="https://blogs.forbes.com/booked/2011/01/28/two-great-historians-talk-alexander-the-great-part-6/">Part 6</a>.</li>
<li><a href="https://curlie.org/Society/History/By_Time_Period/Ancient/Greece/People/Alexander_the_Great/">Alexander the Great</a> at <a href="/wiki/Curlie">Curlie</a></li>
<li><cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161204170928/http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_z1b.html"><i>Alexander the Great: An annotated list of primary sources</i></a>, Livius, archived from <a href="https://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_z1b.html">the original</a> on 4 December 2016, retrieved 26 March 2020</cite>.</li>
<li><cite><a href="http://www.archaeology.org/online/features/alexander/tomb.html"><i>The Elusive Tomb of Alexander the Great</i></a>, Archæology</cite>.</li>
<li><cite><a href="http://www.sherlockian-sherlock.com/alexander-the-great-and-sherlock-holmes.php"><i>Alexander the Great and Sherlock Holmes</i></a>, Sherlockian Sherlock</cite>.</li>
<li><a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b06d9bkx">In Our Time: Alexander the Great</a> BBC discussion with Paul Cartledge, Diana Spencer and Rachel Mairs hosted by Melvyn Bragg, first broadcast 1 October 2015.</li>
<li><a href="http://www.kireetjoshiarchives.com/teachers-training/alexander-the-great.html"><i>Alexander the Great</i></a> by Kireet Joshi</li></ul>
<table>
<tbody><tr>
<td><p>Alexander the Great </p><div><p><b><a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty">Argead dynasty</a></b></p></div><b>Born:</b> 356 BC <b>Died:</b> 323 BC
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th>Regnal titles
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>Preceded by<div><p><a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon">Philip II</a></p></div>
</td>
<td><b> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Macedon">King of Macedon</a> </b><br />336–323 BC
</td>
<td>Succeeded by<div><p><a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Macedon">Philip III</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Alexander_IV_of_Macedon">Alexander IV</a></p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Preceded by<div><p><a href="/wiki/Darius_III">Darius III</a></p></div>
</td>
<td><b> <a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Persia#Macedonian_rulers,_330-129_BC">King of Persia</a> </b><br />330–323 BC
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b> <a href="/wiki/List_of_pharaohs#Argead_Dynasty">Pharaoh of Egypt</a> </b><br />332–323 BC
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b>New creation</b>
</td>
<td><b> Lord of Asia </b><br />331–323 BC
</td></tr></tbody></table>
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 Contents

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 * (Top)
 * 1 Early life
 + 1.1 Lineage and childhood
 + 1.2 Education
 * 2 Heir of Philip II
 + 2.1 Regency and ascent of Macedon
 + 2.2 Exile and return
 * 3 King of Macedon
 + 3.1 Accession
 + 3.2 Consolidation of power
 + 3.3 Balkan campaign
 + 3.4 Destruction of Thebes
 * 4 Conquest of the Achaemenid Persian Empire
 + 4.1 Asia Minor
 + 4.2 The Levant and Syria
 + 4.3 Egypt
 + 4.4 Assyria and Babylonia
 + 4.5 Persia
 + 4.6 Fall of the Persian Empire and the East
 + 4.7 Problems and plots
 + 4.8 Macedon in Alexander's absence
 + 4.9 Coinage
 * 5 Indian campaign
 + 5.1 Forays into the Indian subcontinent
 + 5.2 Revolt of the Hellenic army
 * 6 Last years in Persia
 * 7 Death and succession
 + 7.1 Post-death events
 + 7.2 Division of the Macedonian Empire
 + 7.3 Last plans
 * 8 Character
 + 8.1 Generalship
 + 8.2 Physical appearance
 + 8.3 Personality
 + 8.4 Personal relationships
 * 9 Battle record
 * 10 Legacy
 + 10.1 Hellenistic kingdoms
 + 10.2 Founding of cities
 + 10.3 Funding of temples
 + 10.4 Hellenization
 o 10.4.1 Hellenization in South and Central Asia
 + 10.5 Influence on Rome
 + 10.6 Unsuccessful plan to cut a canal through the Anatolian isthmus
 + 10.7 Naming of the Icarus island in the Persian Gulf
 + 10.8 Letters
 + 10.9 In legend
 + 10.10 In ancient and modern culture
 * 11 Historiography
 * 12 See also
 * 13 References
 + 13.1 Notes
 + 13.2 Citations
 + 13.3 Sources
 o 13.3.1 Primary sources
 o 13.3.2 Secondary sources
 * 14 Further reading
 * 15 External links
 Toggle the table of contents

 Alexander the Great

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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 This article is about the ancient king of Macedonia. For other uses, see Alexander the Great (disambiguation).

 Alexander the Great  
 Alexander the Great in the Alexander Mosaic at the National Archaeological Museum, Naples, Italy
 King of Macedonia  
 Reign  336–323 BC  
 Predecessor  Philip II  
 Successor  * Alexander IV  
  * Philip III  
 Hegemon of the Hellenic League  
 Reign  336–323 BC  
 Predecessor  Philip II  
 Successor  Demetrius Poliorcetes  
 Pharaoh of Egypt  
 Reign  332–323 BC  
 Predecessor  Darius III  
  * Alexander IV  
  * Philip III  
  Royal titulary  
  Prenomen (Praenomen)  
  * stp.n-rꜤ mrj-jmn  
  * Setepenre meryamun  
  * Chosen by Ra, beloved by Amun 
  *  
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
  *  
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
  Nomen  
  * Ꜥlwksjndrs  
  * Aluksindres  
  * Alexandros  
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
  Horus name  
  * mk-kmt  
  * Mekemet  
  * Protector of Egypt  
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
  Second Horus name:  
  * ḥḳꜢ-ḳnj tkn-ḫꜢswt  
  * Heqaqeni tekenkhasut  
  * The brave ruler who has attacked foreign lands 
    
    
 Successor   
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
  Third Horus name:  
  * ḥḳꜢ ḥḳꜢw nw tꜢ (r) ḏr-f  
  * Heqa heqau nu ta (er) djeref 
  * The ruler of the rulers of the entire land 
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
  Fourth Horus name:  
  * ṯmꜢ-Ꜥ  
  * Tjema'a  
  * The sturdy-armed one  
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
  Nebty name  
  * mꜢj wr-pḥty jṯ ḏww tꜢw ḫꜢswt 
  * Mai werpehty itj dju tau khasut 
  * The lion, great of might, who takes possession of mountains, lands, and deserts 
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
  Golden Horus  
  * kꜢ (nḫt) ḫwj bꜢḳ(t) ḥḳꜢ wꜢḏ(-wr) šnw n jtn 
  * Ka (nakht) khui baq(et) heqa wadj(wer) shenu en Aten 
  * The (strong) bull who protects Egypt, the ruler of the sea and of what the sun encircles
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
 King of Persia  
 Reign  330–323 BC  
 Predecessor  Darius III  
 Successor  * Alexander IV  
  * Philip III  
  
 Born  20 or 21 July 356 BC  
  Pella, Macedon  
 Died  10 or 11 June 323 BC (aged 32)  
  Babylon, Mesopotamia  
  * Roxana  
 Spouse  * Stateira  
  * Parysatis  
 Issue  * Alexander IV  
  * Heracles (alleged illegitimate son) 
 Names  
 Alexander III of Macedon  
  
 Greek  Ἀλέξανδρος [d]  
 Dynasty  Argead  
 Father  Philip II of Macedon  
 Mother  Olympias of Epirus  
 Religion  Ancient Greek religion  
 
 This article is part of 
 a series about 
 Alexander the Great 
 
 * Early life 
 * Education 
 * Personal relationships 
 Early rule 
 * Consolidation of power 
 * Balkan campaign 
 + Pelium 
 + Thebes 
 Conquest of the Persian Empire
 * Asia Minor 
 + Granicus 
 + Halicarnassus 
 * Syria 
 + Issus 
 + Tyre 
 * Egypt 
 + Gaza 
 * Mesopotamia 
 + Gaugamela 
 * Persia 
 + Persian Gate 
 + Persepolis 
 * Bactria 
 + Cyropolis 
 + Sogdian Rock 
 Expedition into India 
 * Indian campaigns 
 * 
 + Cophen 
 + Aornos 
 + Hydaspes 
 + Mallian 
 Death and legacy 
 * Death 
 * Tomb 
 * Hellenistic period 
 * Cities 
 * Cult 
 Cultural impact 
 * Legends 
 + Alexander Romance 
 * Historiography 
 + Anabasis 
 + Chronology 
 * Cultural depictions 
 + Islamic theories 
 * v 
 * t 
 * e 
 

 Alexander III of Macedon (Ancient Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος, romanized: Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great,[a] was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon.[a] He succeeded his father Philip II to the throne in 336 BC at the age of 20, and spent most of his ruling years conducting a lengthy military campaign throughout Western Asia and Egypt. By the age of 30, he had created one of the largest empires in history, stretching from Greece to northwestern India.[2] He was undefeated in battle and is widely considered to be one of history's greatest and most successful military commanders.[3][4]

 Until the age of 16, Alexander was tutored by Aristotle. In 335 BC, shortly after his assumption of kingship over Macedon, he campaigned in the Balkans and reasserted control over Thrace and Illyria before marching on the city of Thebes, which was subsequently destroyed in battle. Alexander then led the League of Corinth, and used his authority to launch the pan-Hellenic project envisaged by his father, assuming leadership over all Greeks in their conquest of Persia.[5][6]

 In 334 BC, he invaded the Achaemenid Persian Empire and began a series of campaigns that lasted for 10 years. Following his conquest of Asia Minor, Alexander broke the power of Achaemenid Persia in a series of decisive battles, including those at Issus and Gaugamela; he subsequently overthrew Darius III and conquered the Achaemenid Empire in its entirety.[b] After the fall of Persia, the Macedonian Empire held a vast swath of territory between the Adriatic Sea and the Indus River. Alexander endeavored to reach the "ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea" and invaded India in 326 BC, achieving an important victory over Porus, an ancient Indian king of present-day Punjab, at the Battle of the Hydaspes. Due to the demand of his homesick troops, he eventually turned back at the Beas River and later died in 323 BC in Babylon, the city of Mesopotamia that he had planned to establish as his empire's capital. Alexander's death left unexecuted an additional series of planned military and mercantile campaigns that would have begun with a Greek invasion of Arabia. In the years following his death, a series of civil wars broke out across the Macedonian Empire, eventually leading to its disintegration at the hands of the Diadochi.

 With his death marking the start of the Hellenistic period, Alexander's legacy includes the cultural diffusion and syncretism that his conquests engendered, such as Greco-Buddhism and Hellenistic Judaism. He founded more than twenty cities, with the most prominent being the city of Alexandria in Egypt. Alexander's settlement of Greek colonists and the resulting spread of Greek culture led to the overwhelming dominance of Hellenistic civilization and influence as far east as the Indian subcontinent. The Hellenistic period developed through the Roman Empire into modern Western culture; the Greek language became the lingua franca of the region and was the predominant language of the Byzantine Empire up until its collapse in the mid-15th century AD. Greek-speaking communities in central Anatolia and in far-eastern Anatolia survived until the Greek genocide and Greek–Turkish population exchanges of the early 20th century AD. Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mould of Achilles, featuring prominently in the historical and mythical traditions of both Greek and non-Greek cultures. His military achievements and unprecedented enduring successes in battle made him the measure against which many later military leaders would compare themselves,[c] and his tactics remain a significant subject of study in military academies worldwide.[7]

 Early life

 Lineage and childhood

 Map of The Kingdom of Macedon in 336 BC, birthplace of Alexander

 Alexander III was born in Pella, the capital of the Kingdom of Macedon,[8] on the sixth day of the ancient Greek month of Hekatombaion, which probably corresponds to 20 July 356 BC (although the exact date is uncertain).[9][10] He was the son of the erstwhile king of Macedon, Philip II, and his fourth wife, Olympias (daughter of Neoptolemus I, king of Epirus).[11] Although Philip had seven or eight wives, Olympias was his principal wife for some time, likely because she gave birth to Alexander.[12]

 Roman medallion depicting Olympias, Alexander's mother

 Several legends surround Alexander's birth and childhood.[13] According to the ancient Greek biographer Plutarch, on the eve of the consummation of her marriage to Philip, Olympias dreamed that her womb was struck by a thunderbolt that caused a flame to spread "far and wide" before dying away. Sometime after the wedding, Philip is said to have seen himself, in a dream, securing his wife's womb with a seal engraved with a lion's image.[14] Plutarch offered a variety of interpretations for these dreams: that Olympias was pregnant before her marriage, indicated by the sealing of her womb; or that Alexander's father was Zeus. Ancient commentators were divided about whether the ambitious Olympias promulgated the story of Alexander's divine parentage, variously claiming that she had told Alexander, or that she dismissed the suggestion as impious.[14]

 On the day Alexander was born, Philip was preparing a siege on the city of Potidea on the peninsula of Chalcidice. That same day, Philip received news that his general Parmenion had defeated the combined Illyrian and Paeonian armies and that his horses had won at the Olympic Games. It was also said that on this day, the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, burnt down. This led Hegesias of Magnesia to say that it had burnt down because Artemis was away, attending the birth of Alexander.[15] Such legends may have emerged when Alexander was king, and possibly at his instigation, to show that he was superhuman and destined for greatness from conception.[13]

 Archaeological Site of Pella, Greece, Alexander's birthplace

 In his early years, Alexander was raised by a nurse, Lanike, sister of Alexander's future general Cleitus the Black. Later in his childhood, Alexander was tutored by the strict Leonidas, a relative of his mother, and by Lysimachus of Acarnania.[16] Alexander was raised in the manner of noble Macedonian youths, learning to read, play the lyre, ride, fight, and hunt.[17] When Alexander was ten years old, a trader from Thessaly brought Philip a horse, which he offered to sell for thirteen talents. The horse refused to be mounted, and Philip ordered it away. Alexander, however, detecting the horse's fear of its own shadow, asked to tame the horse, which he eventually managed.[13] Plutarch stated that Philip, overjoyed at this display of courage and ambition, kissed his son tearfully, declaring: "My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedon is too small for you", and bought the horse for him.[18] Alexander named it Bucephalas, meaning "ox-head". Bucephalas carried Alexander as far as India. When the animal died (because of old age, according to Plutarch, at age thirty), Alexander named a city after him, Bucephala.[19]

 Education

 A Hellenistic bust of a young Alexander the Great, possibly from Ptolemaic Egypt, 2nd–1st century BC, now in the British Museum

 When Alexander was 13, Philip began to search for a tutor, and considered such academics as Isocrates and Speusippus, the latter offering to resign from his stewardship of the Academy to take up the post. In the end, Philip chose Aristotle and provided the Temple of the Nymphs at Mieza as a classroom. In return for teaching Alexander, Philip agreed to rebuild Aristotle's hometown of Stageira, which Philip had razed, and to repopulate it by buying and freeing the ex-citizens who were slaves, or pardoning those who were in exile.[20]

 Mieza was like a boarding school for Alexander and the children of Macedonian nobles, such as Ptolemy, Hephaistion, and Cassander. Many of these students would become his friends and future generals, and are often known as the "Companions". Aristotle taught Alexander and his companions about medicine, philosophy, morals, religion, logic, and art. Under Aristotle's tutelage, Alexander developed a passion for the works of Homer, and in particular the Iliad; Aristotle gave him an annotated copy, which Alexander later carried on his campaigns.[21]

 Alexander was able to quote Euripides from memory.[22]

 During his youth, Alexander was also acquainted with Persian exiles at the Macedonian court, who received the protection of Philip II for several years as they opposed Artaxerxes III.[23][24][25] Among them were Artabazos II and his daughter Barsine, possible future mistress of Alexander, who resided at the Macedonian court from 352 to 342 BC, as well as Amminapes, future satrap of Alexander, or a Persian nobleman named Sisines.[23][26][27][28] This gave the Macedonian court a good knowledge of Persian issues, and may even have influenced some of the innovations in the management of the Macedonian state.[26]

 Suda writes that Anaximenes of Lampsacus was one of Alexander's teachers, and that Anaximenes also accompanied Alexander on his campaigns.[29]

 Heir of Philip II

 Regency and ascent of Macedon

 Main articles: Philip II of Macedon and Rise of Macedon
 Further information: History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
 Philip II of Macedon, Alexander's father

 At the age of 16, Alexander's education under Aristotle ended. Philip II had waged war against the Thracians to the north, which left Alexander in charge as regent and heir apparent.[13] During Philip's absence, the Thracian tribe of Maedi revolted against Macedonia. Alexander responded quickly and drove them from their territory. The territory was colonized, and a city, named Alexandropolis, was founded.[30]

 Upon Philip's return, Alexander was dispatched with a small force to subdue the revolts in southern Thrace. Campaigning against the Greek city of Perinthus, Alexander reportedly saved his father's life. Meanwhile, the city of Amphissa began to work lands that were sacred to Apollo near Delphi, a sacrilege that gave Philip the opportunity to further intervene in Greek affairs. While Philip was occupied in Thrace, Alexander was ordered to muster an army for a campaign in southern Greece. Concerned that other Greek states might intervene, Alexander made it look as though he was preparing to attack Illyria instead. During this turmoil, the Illyrians invaded Macedonia, only to be repelled by Alexander.[31]

 Philip and his army joined his son in 338 BC, and they marched south through Thermopylae, taking it after stubborn resistance from its Theban garrison. They went on to occupy the city of Elatea, only a few days' march from both Athens and Thebes. The Athenians, led by Demosthenes, voted to seek alliance with Thebes against Macedonia. Both Athens and Philip sent embassies to win Thebes's favour, but Athens won the contest.[32] Philip marched on Amphissa (ostensibly acting on the request of the Amphictyonic League), capturing the mercenaries sent there by Demosthenes and accepting the city's surrender. Philip then returned to Elatea, sending a final offer of peace to Athens and Thebes, who both rejected it.[33]

 Battle plan from the Battle of Chaeronea

 As Philip marched south, his opponents blocked him near Chaeronea, Boeotia. During the ensuing Battle of Chaeronea, Philip commanded the right wing and Alexander the left, accompanied by a group of Philip's trusted generals. According to the ancient sources, the two sides fought bitterly for some time. Philip deliberately commanded his troops to retreat, counting on the untested Athenian hoplites to follow, thus breaking their line. Alexander was the first to break the Theban lines, followed by Philip's generals. Having damaged the enemy's cohesion, Philip ordered his troops to press forward and quickly routed them. With the Athenians lost, the Thebans were surrounded. Left to fight alone, they were defeated.[34]

 After the victory at Chaeronea, Philip and Alexander marched unopposed into the Peloponnese, welcomed by all cities; however, when they reached Sparta, they were refused, but did not resort to war.[35] At Corinth, Philip established a "Hellenic Alliance" (modelled on the old anti-Persian alliance of the Greco-Persian Wars), which included most Greek city-states except Sparta. Philip was then named Hegemon (often translated as "Supreme Commander") of this league (known by modern scholars as the League of Corinth), and announced his plans to attack the Persian Empire.[36][37]

 Exile and return

 When Philip returned to Pella, he fell in love with and married Cleopatra Eurydice in 338 BC,[38] the niece of his general Attalus.[39] The marriage made Alexander's position as heir less secure, since any son of Cleopatra Eurydice would be a fully Macedonian heir, while Alexander was only half-Macedonian.[40] During the wedding banquet, a drunken Attalus publicly prayed to the gods that the union would produce a legitimate heir.[39]

 At the wedding of Cleopatra, whom Philip fell in love with and married, she being much too young for him, her uncle Attalus in his drink desired the Macedonians would implore the gods to give them a lawful successor to the kingdom by his niece. This so irritated Alexander, that throwing one of the cups at his head, "You villain," said he, "what, am I then a bastard?" Then Philip, taking Attalus's part, rose up and would have run his son through; but by good fortune for them both, either his over-hasty rage, or the wine he had drunk, made his foot slip, so that he fell down on the floor. At which Alexander reproachfully insulted over him: "See there," said he, "the man who makes preparations to pass out of Europe into Asia, overturned in passing from one seat to another."

 — Plutarch, describing the feud at Philip's wedding.[41]

 In 337 BC, Alexander fled Macedon with his mother, dropping her off with her brother, King Alexander I of Epirus in Dodona, capital of the Molossians.[42] He continued to Illyria,[42] where he sought refuge with one or more Illyrian kings, perhaps with Glaukias, and was treated as a guest, despite having defeated them in battle a few years before.[43] However, it appears Philip never intended to disown his politically and militarily trained son.[42] Accordingly, Alexander returned to Macedon after six months due to the efforts of a family friend, Demaratus, who mediated between the two parties.[44]

 In the following year, the Persian satrap (governor) of Caria, Pixodarus, offered his eldest daughter to Alexander's half-brother, Philip Arrhidaeus.[42] Olympias and several of Alexander's friends suggested this showed Philip intended to make Arrhidaeus his heir.[42] Alexander reacted by sending an actor, Thessalus of Corinth, to tell Pixodarus that he should not offer his daughter's hand to an illegitimate son, but instead to Alexander. When Philip heard of this, he stopped the negotiations and scolded Alexander for wishing to marry the daughter of a Carian, explaining that he wanted a better bride for him.[42] Philip exiled four of Alexander's friends, Harpalus, Nearchus, Ptolemy and Erigyius, and had the Corinthians bring Thessalus to him in chains.[45]

 King of Macedon

 Accession

 Further information: Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
 Pausanius assassinates Philip II, Alexander's father, during his procession into the theatre
 The emblema of the Stag Hunt Mosaic, c. 300 BC , from Pella; the figure on the right is possibly Alexander the Great due to the date of the mosaic along with the depicted upsweep of his centrally-parted hair (anastole); the figure on the left wielding a double-edged axe (associated with Hephaistos) is perhaps Hephaestion, one of Alexander's loyal companions.[46]

 In summer 336 BC, while at Aegae attending the wedding of his daughter Cleopatra to Olympias's brother, Alexander I of Epirus, Philip was assassinated by the captain of his bodyguards, Pausanias.[e] As Pausanias tried to escape, he tripped over a vine and was killed by his pursuers, including two of Alexander's companions, Perdiccas and Leonnatus. Alexander was proclaimed king on the spot by the nobles and army at the age of 20.[47][48][49]

 Consolidation of power

 Alexander began his reign by eliminating potential rivals to the throne. He had his cousin, the former Amyntas IV, executed.[50] He also had two Macedonian princes from the region of Lyncestis killed for having been involved in his father's assassination, but spared a third, Alexander Lyncestes. Olympias had Cleopatra Eurydice, and Europa, her daughter by Philip, burned alive. When Alexander learned about this, he was furious. Alexander also ordered the murder of Attalus,[50] who was in command of the advance guard of the army in Asia Minor and Cleopatra's uncle.[51]

 Attalus was at that time corresponding with Demosthenes, regarding the possibility of defecting to Athens. Attalus also had severely insulted Alexander, and following Cleopatra's murder, Alexander may have considered him too dangerous to leave alive.[51] Alexander spared Arrhidaeus, who was by all accounts mentally disabled, possibly as a result of poisoning by Olympias.[47][49][52]

 News of Philip's death roused many states into revolt, including Thebes, Athens, Thessaly, and the Thracian tribes north of Macedon. When news of the revolts reached Alexander, he responded quickly. Though advised to use diplomacy, Alexander mustered 3,000 Macedonian cavalry and rode south towards Thessaly. He found the Thessalian army occupying the pass between Mount Olympus and Mount Ossa, and ordered his men to ride over Mount Ossa. When the Thessalians awoke the next day, they found Alexander in their rear and promptly surrendered, adding their cavalry to Alexander's force. He then continued south towards the Peloponnese.[53]

 Alexander stopped at Thermopylae, where he was recognized as the leader of the Amphictyonic League before heading south to Corinth. Athens sued for peace and Alexander pardoned the rebels. The famous encounter between Alexander and Diogenes the Cynic occurred during Alexander's stay in Corinth. When Alexander asked Diogenes what he could do for him, the philosopher disdainfully asked Alexander to stand a little to the side, as he was blocking the sunlight.[54] This reply apparently delighted Alexander, who is reported to have said "But verily, if I were not Alexander, I would like to be Diogenes."[55] At Corinth, Alexander took the title of Hegemon ("leader") and, like Philip, was appointed commander for the coming war against Persia. He also received news of a Thracian uprising.[56]

 Balkan campaign

 Main article: Alexander's Balkan campaign
 The Macedonian phalanx at the "Battle of the Carts" against the Thracians in 335 BC

 Before crossing to Asia, Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders. In the spring of 335 BC, he advanced to suppress several revolts. Starting from Amphipolis, he travelled east into the country of the "Independent Thracians"; and at Mount Haemus, the Macedonian army attacked and defeated the Thracian forces manning the heights.[57] The Macedonians marched into the country of the Triballi, and defeated their army near the Lyginus river[58] (a tributary of the Danube). Alexander then marched for three days to the Danube, encountering the Getae tribe on the opposite shore. Crossing the river at night, he surprised them and forced their army to retreat after the first cavalry skirmish.[59]

 News then reached Alexander that the Illyrian chieftain Cleitus and King Glaukias of the Taulantii were in open revolt against his authority. Marching west into Illyria, Alexander defeated each in turn, forcing the two rulers to flee with their troops. With these victories, he secured his northern frontier.[60]

 Destruction of Thebes

 While Alexander campaigned north, the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once again. Alexander immediately headed south.[61] While the other cities again hesitated, Thebes decided to fight. The Theban resistance was ineffective, and Alexander razed the city and divided its territory between the other Boeotian cities. The end of Thebes cowed Athens, leaving all of Greece temporarily at peace.[61] Alexander then set out on his Asian campaign, leaving Antipater as regent.[62]

 Conquest of the Achaemenid Persian Empire

 Main articles: Wars of Alexander the Great and Chronology of the expedition of Alexander the Great into Asia

 Asia Minor

 Map of Alexander's empire and his route
 Alexander the Great
 [Interactive fullscreen map]
 Further information: Battle of the Granicus, Siege of Halicarnassus, and Siege of Miletus
 Gérard Audran after Charles LeBrun, 'Alexander Entering Babylon,' original print first published 1675, engraving, Department of Image Collections, National Gallery of Art Library, Washington, DC.
 Alexander Cuts the Gordian Knot (1767) by Jean-Simon Berthélemy

 After his victory at the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC), Philip II began the work of establishing himself as hēgemṓn (Greek: ἡγεμών ) of a league which according to Diodorus was to wage a campaign against the Persians for the sundry grievances Greece suffered in 480 and free the Greek cities of the western coast and islands from Achaemenid rule. In 336 he sent Parmenion, with Amyntas, Andromenes and Attalus, and an army of 10,000 men into Anatolia to make preparations for an invasion.[63][64] At first, all went well. The Greek cities on the western coast of Anatolia revolted until the news arrived that Philip had been murdered and had been succeeded by his young son Alexander. The Macedonians were demoralized by Philip's death and were subsequently defeated near Magnesia by the Achaemenids under the command of the mercenary Memnon of Rhodes.[63][64]

 Taking over the invasion project of Philip II, Alexander's army crossed the Hellespont in 334 BC with approximately 48,100 soldiers, 6,100 cavalry and a fleet of 120 ships with crews numbering 38,000,[61] drawn from Macedon and various Greek city-states, mercenaries, and feudally raised soldiers from Thrace, Paionia, and Illyria.[65][f] He showed his intent to conquer the entirety of the Persian Empire by throwing a spear into Asian soil and saying he accepted Asia as a gift from the gods. This also showed Alexander's eagerness to fight, in contrast to his father's preference for diplomacy.[61]

 After an initial victory against Persian forces at the Battle of the Granicus, Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of Sardis; he then proceeded along the Ionian coast, granting autonomy and democracy to the cities. Miletus, held by Achaemenid forces, required a delicate siege operation, with Persian naval forces nearby. Further south, at Halicarnassus, in Caria, Alexander successfully waged his first large-scale siege, eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captain Memnon of Rhodes and the Persian satrap of Caria, Orontobates, to withdraw by sea.[66] Alexander left the government of Caria to a member of the Hecatomnid dynasty, Ada, who adopted Alexander.[67]

 From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainous Lycia and the Pamphylian plain, asserting control over all coastal cities to deny the Persians naval bases. From Pamphylia onwards the coast held no major ports and Alexander moved inland. At Termessos, Alexander humbled but did not storm the Pisidian city.[68] At the ancient Phrygian capital of Gordium, Alexander "undid" the hitherto unsolvable Gordian Knot, a feat said to await the future "king of Asia".[69] According to the story, Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone and hacked it apart with his sword.[70]

 The Levant and Syria

 Further information: Battle of Issus and Siege of Tyre (332 BC)

 In spring 333 BC, Alexander crossed the Taurus into Cilicia. After a long pause due to an illness, he marched on towards Syria. Though outmanoeuvered by Darius's significantly larger army, he marched back to Cilicia, where he defeated Darius at Issus. Darius fled the battle, causing his army to collapse, and left behind his wife, his two daughters, his mother Sisygambis, and a fabulous treasure.[71] He offered a peace treaty that included the lands he had already lost, and a ransom of 10,000 talents for his family. Alexander replied that since he was now king of Asia, it was he alone who decided territorial divisions.[72] Alexander proceeded to take possession of Syria, and most of the coast of the Levant.[67] In the following year, 332 BC, he was forced to attack Tyre, which he captured after a long and difficult siege.[73][74] The men of military age were massacred and the women and children sold into slavery.[75]

 Egypt

 Further information: Siege of Gaza
 Name of Alexander the Great in Egyptian hieroglyphs (written from right to left), c. 332 BC , Egypt. Louvre Museum.

 When Alexander destroyed Tyre, most of the towns on the route to Egypt quickly capitulated. However, Alexander was met with resistance at Gaza. The stronghold was heavily fortified and built on a hill, requiring a siege. When "his engineers pointed out to him that because of the height of the mound it would be impossible... this encouraged Alexander all the more to make the attempt".[76] After three unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold fell, but not before Alexander had received a serious shoulder wound. As in Tyre, men of military age were put to the sword and the women and children were sold into slavery.[77]

 Egypt was only one of a large number of territories taken by Alexander from the Persians. After his trip to Siwa, Alexander was crowned in the temple of Ptah at Memphis. It appears that the Egyptian people did not find it disturbing that he was a foreigner - nor that he was absent for virtually his entire reign.[78] Alexander restored the temples neglected by the Persians and dedicated new monuments to the Egyptian gods. In the temple of Luxor, near Karnak, he built a chapel for the sacred barge. During his brief months in Egypt, he reformed the taxation system on the Greek models and organized the military occupation of the country, but, early in 331 BC, he left for Asia in pursuit of the Persians.[78]

 Alexander advanced on Egypt in later 332 BC, where he was regarded as a liberator.[79] To legitimize taking power and be recognized as the descendant of the long line of pharaohs, Alexander made sacrifices to the gods at Memphis and went to consult the famous oracle of Amun-Ra at the Siwa Oasis.[78] He was pronounced son of the deity Amun at the Oracle of Siwa Oasis in the Libyan desert.[80] Henceforth, Alexander often referred to Zeus-Ammon as his true father, and after his death, currency depicted him adorned with the Horns of Ammon as a symbol of his divinity.[81] The Greeks interpreted this message - one that the gods addressed to all pharaohs - as a prophecy.[78]

 During his stay in Egypt, he founded Alexandria, which would become the prosperous capital of the Ptolemaic Kingdom after his death.[82] Control of Egypt passed to Ptolemy I (son of Lagos), the founder of the Ptolemaic Dynasty (305-30 BC) after the death of Alexander.

 Assyria and Babylonia

 Further information: Battle of Gaugamela

 Leaving Egypt in 331 BC, Alexander marched eastward into Achaemenid Assyria in Upper Mesopotamia (now northern Iraq) and defeated Darius again at the Battle of Gaugamela.[83] Darius once more fled the field, and Alexander chased him as far as Arbela. Gaugamela would be the final and decisive encounter between the two.[84] Darius fled over the mountains to Ecbatana (modern Hamadan) while Alexander captured Babylon.[85]

 Babylonian astronomical diaries say that "the king of the world, Alexander" sent his scouts with a message to the people of Babylon before entering the city: "I shall not enter your houses".[86]

 Persia

 Further information: Battle of the Persian Gate
 Site of the Persian Gate in modern-day Iran; the road was built in the 1990s.

 From Babylon, Alexander went to Susa, one of the Achaemenid capitals, and captured its treasury.[85] He sent the bulk of his army to the Persian ceremonial capital of Persepolis via the Persian Royal Road. Alexander himself took selected troops on the direct route to the city. He then stormed the pass of the Persian Gates (in the modern Zagros Mountains) which had been blocked by a Persian army under Ariobarzanes and then hurried to Persepolis before its garrison could loot the treasury.[87]

 On entering Persepolis, Alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for several days.[88] Alexander stayed in Persepolis for five months.[89] During his stay a fire broke out in the eastern palace of Xerxes I and spread to the rest of the city. Possible causes include a drunken accident or deliberate revenge for the burning of the Acropolis of Athens during the Second Persian War by Xerxes;[90] Plutarch and Diodorus allege that Alexander's companion, the hetaera Thaïs, instigated and started the fire. Even as he watched the city burn, Alexander immediately began to regret his decision.[91][92][93] Plutarch claims that he ordered his men to put out the fires,[91] but that the flames had already spread to most of the city.[91] Curtius claims that Alexander did not regret his decision until the next morning.[91] Plutarch recounts an anecdote in which Alexander pauses and talks to a fallen statue of Xerxes as if it were a live person:

 Shall I pass by and leave you lying there because of the expeditions you led against Greece, or shall I set you up again because of your magnanimity and your virtues in other respects?[94]

 Fall of the Persian Empire and the East

 Administrative document from Bactria dated to the seventh year of Alexander's reign (324 BC), bearing the first known use of the "Alexandros" form of his name, Khalili Collection of Aramaic Documents[95]

 Alexander then chased Darius, first into Media, and then Parthia.[96] The Persian king no longer controlled his own destiny, and was taken prisoner by Bessus, his Bactrian satrap and kinsman.[97] As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men fatally stab the Great King and then declared himself Darius's successor as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia to launch a guerrilla campaign against Alexander.[98] Alexander buried Darius's remains next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a regal funeral.[99] He claimed that, while dying, Darius had named him as his successor to the Achaemenid throne.[100] The Achaemenid Empire is normally considered to have fallen with Darius.[101] However, as basic forms of community life and the general structure of government were maintained and resuscitated by Alexander under his own rule, he, in the words of the Iranologist Pierre Briant "may therefore be considered to have acted in many ways as the last of the Achaemenids."[102]

 Alexander viewed Bessus as a usurper and set out to defeat him. This campaign, initially against Bessus, turned into a grand tour of central Asia. Alexander founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including modern Kandahar in Afghanistan, and Alexandria Eschate ("The Furthest") in modern Tajikistan. The campaign took Alexander through Media, Parthia, Aria (West Afghanistan), Drangiana, Arachosia (South and Central Afghanistan), Bactria (North and Central Afghanistan), and Scythia.[103]

 In 329 BC, Spitamenes, who held an undefined position in the satrapy of Sogdiana, betrayed Bessus to Ptolemy, one of Alexander's trusted companions, and Bessus was executed.[104] However, when, at some point later, Alexander was on the Jaxartes dealing with an incursion by a horse nomad army, Spitamenes raised Sogdiana in revolt. Alexander personally defeated the Scythians at the Battle of Jaxartes and immediately launched a campaign against Spitamenes, defeating him in the Battle of Gabai. After the defeat, Spitamenes was killed by his own men, who then sued for peace.[105]

 Problems and plots

 The Killing of Cleitus, by André Castaigne (1898–1899)

 During this time, Alexander adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court, notably the custom of proskynesis, either a symbolic kissing of the hand, or prostration on the ground, that Persians showed to their social superiors.[106] This was one aspect of Alexander's broad strategy aimed at securing the aid and support of the Iranian upper classes.[102] The Greeks however regarded the gesture of proskynesis as the province of deities and believed that Alexander meant to deify himself by requiring it. This cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen, and he eventually abandoned it.[107]

 During the long rule of the Achaemenids, the elite positions in many segments of the empire including the central government, the army, and the many satrapies were specifically reserved for Iranians and to a major degree Persian noblemen.[102] The latter were in many cases additionally connected through marriage alliances with the royal Achaemenid family.[102] This created a problem for Alexander as to whether he had to make use of the various segments and people that had given the empire its solidity and unity for a lengthy period of time.[102] Pierre Briant explains that Alexander realized that it was insufficient to merely exploit the internal contradictions within the imperial system as in Asia Minor, Babylonia or Egypt; he also had to (re)create a central government with or without the support of the Iranians.[102] As early as 334 BC he demonstrated awareness of this, when he challenged incumbent King Darius III "by appropriating the main elements of the Achaemenid monarchy's ideology, particularly the theme of the king who protects the lands and the peasants".[102] Alexander wrote a letter in 332 BC to Darius III, wherein he argued that he was worthier than Darius "to succeed to the Achaemenid throne".[102] However, Alexander's eventual decision to burn the Achaemenid palace at Persepolis in conjunction with the major rejection and opposition of the "entire Persian people" made it impracticable for him to pose himself as Darius' legitimate successor.[102] Against Bessus (Artaxerxes V) however, Briant adds, Alexander reasserted "his claim to legitimacy as the avenger of Darius III".[102]

 A plot against his life was revealed, and one of his officers, Philotas, was executed for failing to alert Alexander. The death of the son necessitated the death of the father, and thus Parmenion, who had been charged with guarding the treasury at Ecbatana, was assassinated at Alexander's command, to prevent attempts at vengeance. Most infamously, Alexander personally killed the man who had saved his life at Granicus, Cleitus the Black, during a violent drunken altercation at Maracanda (modern day Samarkand in Uzbekistan), in which Cleitus accused Alexander of several judgmental mistakes and most especially, of having forgotten the Macedonian ways in favour of a corrupt oriental lifestyle.[108]

 Later, in the Central Asian campaign, a second plot against his life was revealed, this one instigated by his own royal pages. His official historian, Callisthenes of Olynthus, was implicated in the plot, and in the Anabasis of Alexander, Arrian states that Callisthenes and the pages were then tortured on the rack as punishment, and likely died soon after.[109] It remains unclear if Callisthenes was actually involved in the plot, for prior to his accusation he had fallen out of favour by leading the opposition to the attempt to introduce proskynesis.[110]

 Macedon in Alexander's absence

 When Alexander set out for Asia, he left his general Antipater, an experienced military and political leader and part of Philip II's "Old Guard", in charge of Macedon.[62] Alexander's sacking of Thebes ensured that Greece remained quiet during his absence.[62] The one exception was a call to arms by Spartan king Agis III in 331 BC, whom Antipater defeated and killed in the battle of Megalopolis.[62] Antipater referred the Spartans' punishment to the League of Corinth, which then deferred to Alexander, who chose to pardon them.[111] There was also considerable friction between Antipater and Olympias, and each complained to Alexander about the other.[112]

 In general, Greece enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity during Alexander's campaign in Asia.[113] Alexander sent back vast sums from his conquest, which stimulated the economy and increased trade across his empire.[114] However, Alexander's constant demands for troops and the migration of Macedonians throughout his empire depleted Macedon's strength, greatly weakening it in the years after Alexander, and ultimately led to its subjugation by Rome after the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC).[17]

 Coinage

 Silver tetradrachm of Alexander the Great found in Byblos (ca 330–300 bc.) (BnF 1998–859; 17,33g; Byblos, Price 3426b)

 The conquest by Philip II of Pangaeum and then of the island of Thasos between 356 and 342 BC brought rich gold and silver mines under Macedonian control.[115]

 Alexander appears to have introduced a new coinage in Cilicia in Tarsus, after the Battle of Issus in 333 BC, which went on to become the main coinage of the empire.[116] Alexander minted gold staters, silver tetradrachms and drachims, and various fractional bronze coins. The types of these coins remained constant in his empire. The gold series had the head of Athena on the obverse and a winged Nike (Victory) on the reverse.[117] The silver coinage had a beardless head of Heracles wearing a lionskin headdress on the obverse and Zeus aetophoros ('eagle bearer') enthroned with a scepter in his left hand, on the reverse.[118] There are both Greek and non-Greek aspects to this design. Heracles and Zeus were important deities for the Macedonians, with Heracles considered to be the ancestor of the Temenid dynasty and Zeus the patron of the main Macedonian sanctuary, Dium.[116] However, the lion was also the symbolic animal of the Anatolian god Sandas, worshipped at Tarsus.[116] The reverse design of Alexander's tetradrachms is closely modelled on the depiction of the god Baaltars (Baal of Tarsus), on the silver staters minted at Tarsus by the Persian satrap Mazaeus before Alexander's conquest.[116]

 Alexander did not attempt to impose uniform imperial coinage throughout his new conquests. Persian coins continued to circulate in all the satrapies of the empire.[119]

 Indian campaign

 Main article: Indian campaign of Alexander the Great

 Forays into the Indian subcontinent

 The Phalanx Attacking the Centre in the Battle of the Hydaspes by André Castaigne (1898–1899)
 Alexander's invasion of the Indian subcontinent

 After the death of Spitamenes and his marriage to Roxana (Raoxshna in Old Iranian) to cement relations with his new satrapies, Alexander turned to the Indian subcontinent. He invited the chieftains of the former satrapy of Gandhara (a region presently straddling eastern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan), to come to him and submit to his authority. Omphis (Indian name Ambhi), the ruler of Taxila, whose kingdom extended from the Indus to the Hydaspes (Jhelum), complied, but the chieftains of some hill clans, including the Aspasioi and Assakenoi sections of the Kambojas (known in Indian texts also as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas), refused to submit.[120] Ambhi hastened to relieve Alexander of his apprehension and met him with valuable presents, placing himself and all his forces at his disposal. Alexander not only returned Ambhi his title and the gifts but he also presented him with a wardrobe of "Persian robes, gold and silver ornaments, 30 horses and 1,000 talents in gold". Alexander was emboldened to divide his forces, and Ambhi assisted Hephaestion and Perdiccas in constructing a bridge over the Indus where it bends at Hund,[121] supplied their troops with provisions, and received Alexander himself, and his whole army, in his capital city of Taxila, with every demonstration of friendship and the most liberal hospitality.

 On the subsequent advance of the Macedonian king, Taxiles accompanied him with a force of 5,000 men and took part in the battle of the Hydaspes River. After that victory he was sent by Alexander in pursuit of Porus, to whom he was charged to offer favourable terms, but narrowly escaped losing his life at the hands of his old enemy. Subsequently, however, the two rivals were reconciled by the personal mediation of Alexander; and Taxiles, after having contributed zealously to the equipment of the fleet on the Hydaspes, was entrusted by the king with the government of the whole territory between that river and the Indus. A considerable accession of power was granted him after the death of Philip, son of Machatas; and he was allowed to retain his authority at the death of Alexander himself (323 BC), as well as in the subsequent partition of the provinces at Triparadisus, 321 BC.

 In the winter of 327/326 BC, Alexander personally led a campaign against the Aspasioi of Kunar valleys, the Guraeans of the Guraeus valley, and the Assakenoi of the Swat and Buner valleys.[122] A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi in which Alexander was wounded in the shoulder by a dart, but eventually the Aspasioi lost. Alexander then faced the Assakenoi, who fought against him from the strongholds of Massaga, Ora and Aornos.[120]

 The fort of Massaga was reduced only after days of bloody fighting, in which Alexander was wounded seriously in the ankle. According to Curtius, "Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubble."[123] A similar slaughter followed at Ora. In the aftermath of Massaga and Ora, numerous Assakenians fled to the fortress of Aornos. Alexander followed close behind and captured the strategic hill-fort after four bloody days.[120]

 Porus surrenders to Alexander

 After Aornos, Alexander crossed the Indus and fought and won an epic battle against King Porus, who ruled a region lying between the Hydaspes and the Acesines (Chenab), in what is now the Punjab, in the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC.[124] Alexander was impressed by Porus's bravery, and made him an ally. He appointed Porus as satrap, and added to Porus's territory land that he did not previously own, towards the south-east, up to the Hyphasis (Beas).[125][126] Choosing a local helped him control these lands so distant from Greece.[127] Alexander founded two cities on opposite sides of the Hydaspes river, naming one Bucephala, in honour of his horse, who died around this time.[128] The other was Nicaea (Victory), thought to be located at the site of modern-day Mong, Punjab.[129] Philostratus the Elder in the Life of Apollonius of Tyana writes that in the army of Porus there was an elephant who fought brave against Alexander's army and Alexander dedicated it to the Helios (Sun) and named it Ajax, because he thought that a so great animal deserved a great name. The elephant had gold rings around its tusks and an inscription was on them written in Greek: "Alexander the son of Zeus dedicates Ajax to the Helios" (ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΣ Ο ΔΙΟΣ ΤΟΝ ΑΙΑΝΤΑ ΤΩΙ ΗΛΙΩΙ).[130]

 Revolt of the Hellenic army

 Asia in 323 BC, the Nanda Empire and the Gangaridai of the Indian subcontinent, in relation to Alexander's Empire and neighbours

 East of Porus's kingdom, near the Ganges River, was the Nanda Empire of Magadha, and further east, the Gangaridai Empire of Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent. Fearing the prospect of facing other large armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, Alexander's army mutinied at the Hyphasis River (Beas), refusing to march farther east.[131] This river thus marks the easternmost extent of Alexander's conquests.[132]

 As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed their further advance into India. For having had all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river Ganges also, the width of which, as they learned, was thirty-two furlongs [6.4 km], its depth one hundred fathoms [180 m], while its banks on the further side were covered with multitudes of men-at-arms and horsemen and elephants. For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand war elephants.[133]

 Alexander tried to persuade his soldiers to march farther, but his general Coenus pleaded with him to change his opinion and return; the men, he said, "longed to again see their parents, their wives and children, their homeland". Alexander eventually agreed and turned south, marching along the Indus. Along the way his army conquered the Malhi (in modern-day Multan) and other Indian tribes and Alexander sustained an injury during the siege.[134]

 Alexander sent much of his army to Carmania (modern southern Iran) with general Craterus, and commissioned a fleet to explore the Persian Gulf shore under his admiral Nearchus, while he led the rest back to Persia through the more difficult southern route along the Gedrosian Desert and Makran.[135] Alexander reached Susa in 324 BC, but not before losing many men to the harsh desert.[136]

 Last years in Persia

 Alexander (left) and Hephaestion (right): Both were connected by a tight man-to-man friendship[137]

 Discovering that many of his satraps and military governors had misbehaved in his absence, Alexander executed several of them as examples on his way to Susa.[138][139] As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers, and announced that he would send over-aged and disabled veterans back to Macedon, led by Craterus. His troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at the town of Opis. They refused to be sent away and criticized his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units.[140]

 After three days, unable to persuade his men to back down, Alexander gave Persians command posts in the army and conferred Macedonian military titles upon Persian units. The Macedonians quickly begged forgiveness, which Alexander accepted, and held a great banquet with several thousand of his men.[141] In an attempt to craft a lasting harmony between his Macedonian and Persian subjects, Alexander held a mass marriage of his senior officers to Persian and other noblewomen at Susa, but few of those marriages seem to have lasted much beyond a year.[139]

 Alexander at the Tomb of Cyrus the Great, by Pierre-Henri de Valenciennes (1796)

 Meanwhile, upon his return to Persia, Alexander learned that guards of the tomb of Cyrus the Great in Pasargadae had desecrated it, and swiftly executed them.[142] Alexander admired Cyrus the Great, from an early age reading Xenophon's Cyropaedia, which described Cyrus's heroism in battle and governance as a king and legislator.[143] During his visit to Pasargadae, Alexander ordered his architect Aristobulus to decorate the interior of the sepulchral chamber of Cyrus's tomb.[143]

 Afterwards, Alexander travelled to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure. There, his closest friend, Hephaestion, died of illness or poisoning.[144] Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander and he ordered the preparation of an expensive funeral pyre in Babylon along with a decree for public mourning.[144] Back in Babylon, Alexander planned a series of new campaigns, beginning with an invasion of Arabia, but he would not have a chance to realize them, as he died shortly after Hephaestion.[145]

 Death and succession

 Main article: Death of Alexander the Great
 A Babylonian astronomical diary (c. 323–322 BC) recording the death of Alexander (British Museum, London)

 On either 10 or 11 June 323 BC, Alexander died in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II, in Babylon, at age 32.[146] There are two different versions of Alexander's death, differing slightly in details. Plutarch's account is that roughly 14 days before his death, Alexander entertained admiral Nearchus and spent the night and next day drinking with Medius of Larissa.[147] Alexander developed a fever, which worsened until he was unable to speak. The common soldiers, anxious about his health, were granted the right to file past him as he silently waved at them.[148] In the second account, Diodorus recounts that Alexander was struck with pain after downing a large bowl of unmixed wine in honour of Heracles followed by 11 days of weakness; he did not develop a fever, instead dying after some agony.[149] Arrian also mentioned this as an alternative, but Plutarch specifically denied this claim.[147]

 Given the propensity of the Macedonian aristocracy to assassination,[150] foul play featured in multiple accounts of his death. Diodorus, Plutarch, Arrian and Justin all mentioned the theory that Alexander was poisoned. Justin stated that Alexander was the victim of a poisoning conspiracy, Plutarch dismissed it as a fabrication,[151] while both Diodorus and Arrian noted that they mentioned it only for the sake of completeness.[149][152] The accounts were nevertheless fairly consistent in designating Antipater, recently removed as Macedonian viceroy and at odds with Olympias, as the head of the alleged plot. Perhaps taking his summons to Babylon as a death sentence[153] and having seen the fate of Parmenion and Philotas,[154] Antipater purportedly arranged for Alexander to be poisoned by his son Iollas, who was Alexander's wine-pourer.[152][154] There was even a suggestion that Aristotle may have participated.[152]

 The strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days passed between the start of his illness and his death; such long-acting poisons were probably not available.[155] However, in a 2003 BBC documentary investigating the death of Alexander, Leo Schep from the New Zealand National Poisons Centre proposed that the plant white hellebore (Veratrum album), which was known in antiquity, may have been used to poison Alexander.[156][157][158] In a 2014 manuscript in the journal Clinical Toxicology, Schep suggested Alexander's wine was spiked with Veratrum album, and that this would produce poisoning symptoms that match the course of events described in the Alexander Romance.[159] Veratrum album poisoning can have a prolonged course and it was suggested that if Alexander was poisoned, Veratrum album offers the most plausible cause.[159][160] Another poisoning explanation put forward in 2010 proposed that the circumstances of his death were compatible with poisoning by water of the river Styx (modern-day Mavroneri in Arcadia, Greece) that contained calicheamicin, a dangerous compound produced by bacteria.[161]

 Several natural causes (diseases) have been suggested, including malaria and typhoid fever. A 1998 article in the New England Journal of Medicine attributed his death to typhoid fever complicated by bowel perforation and ascending paralysis.[162] Another recent analysis suggested pyogenic (infectious) spondylitis or meningitis.[163] Other illnesses fit the symptoms, including acute pancreatitis, West Nile virus,[164][165] and Guillain-Barré syndrome.[166] Natural-cause theories also tend to emphasize that Alexander's health may have been in general decline after years of heavy drinking and severe wounds. The anguish that Alexander felt after Hephaestion's death may also have contributed to his declining health.[162]

 Post-death events

 See also: Tomb of Alexander the Great

 Alexander's body was laid in a gold anthropoid sarcophagus that was filled with honey, which was in turn placed in a gold casket.[167][168] According to Aelian, a seer called Aristander foretold that the land where Alexander was laid to rest "would be happy and unvanquishable forever".[169] Perhaps more likely, the successors may have seen possession of the body as a symbol of legitimacy, since burying the prior king was a royal prerogative.[170]

 19th-century depiction of Alexander's funeral procession, based on the description by Diodorus Siculus

 While Alexander's funeral cortege was on its way to Macedon, Ptolemy seized it and took it temporarily to Memphis.[167][169] His successor, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, transferred the sarcophagus to Alexandria, where it remained until at least late Antiquity. Ptolemy IX Lathyros, one of Ptolemy's final successors, replaced Alexander's sarcophagus with a glass one so he could convert the original to coinage.[171] The recent discovery of an enormous tomb in northern Greece, at Amphipolis, dating from the time of Alexander the Great[172] has given rise to speculation that its original intent was to be the burial place of Alexander. This would fit with the intended destination of Alexander's funeral cortege. However, the memorial was found to be dedicated to the dearest friend of Alexander the Great, Hephaestion.[173][174]

 Detail of Alexander on the Alexander Sarcophagus

 Pompey, Julius Caesar and Augustus all visited the tomb in Alexandria, where Augustus, allegedly, accidentally knocked the nose off. Caligula was said to have taken Alexander's breastplate from the tomb for his own use. Around AD 200, Emperor Septimius Severus closed Alexander's tomb to the public. His son and successor, Caracalla, a great admirer, visited the tomb during his own reign. After this, details on the fate of the tomb are hazy.[171]

 The so-called "Alexander Sarcophagus", discovered near Sidon and now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum, is so named not because it was thought to have contained Alexander's remains, but because its bas-reliefs depict Alexander and his companions fighting the Persians and hunting. It was originally thought to have been the sarcophagus of Abdalonymus (died 311 BC), the king of Sidon appointed by Alexander immediately following the battle of Issus in 331.[175][176] However, more recently, it has been suggested that it may date from earlier than Abdalonymus's death.

 Demades likened the Macedonian army, after the death of Alexander, to the blinded Cyclops, due to the many random and disorderly movements that it made.[177][178][179] In addition, Leosthenes, also, likened the anarchy between the generals, after Alexander's death, to the blinded Cyclops "who after he had lost his eye went feeling and groping about with his hands before him, not knowing where to lay them".[180]

 Division of the Macedonian Empire

 Main articles: Partition of Babylon and Diadochi
 Kingdoms of the Diadochi in 301 BC: the Ptolemaic Kingdom (dark blue), the Seleucid Empire (yellow), Kingdom of Pergamon (orange), and Kingdom of Macedon (green). Also shown are the Roman Republic (light blue), the Carthaginian Republic (purple), and the Kingdom of Epirus (red).

 Alexander's death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached Greece, they were not immediately believed.[62] Alexander had no obvious or legitimate heir, his son Alexander IV by Roxane being born after Alexander's death.[181] According to Diodorus, Alexander's companions asked him on his deathbed to whom he bequeathed his kingdom; his laconic reply was "tôi kratistôi"—"to the strongest".[149] Another theory is that his successors wilfully or erroneously misheard "tôi Kraterôi"—"to Craterus", the general leading his Macedonian troops home and newly entrusted with the regency of Macedonia.[182]

 Arrian and Plutarch claimed that Alexander was speechless by this point, implying that this was an apocryphal story.[183] Diodorus, Curtius and Justin offered the more plausible story that Alexander passed his signet ring to Perdiccas, a bodyguard and leader of the companion cavalry, in front of witnesses, thereby nominating him.[149][181]

 Perdiccas initially did not claim power, instead suggesting that Roxane's baby would be king, if male; with himself, Craterus, Leonnatus, and Antipater as guardians. However, the infantry, under the command of Meleager, rejected this arrangement since they had been excluded from the discussion. Instead, they supported Alexander's half-brother Philip Arrhidaeus. Eventually, the two sides reconciled, and after the birth of Alexander IV, he and Philip III were appointed joint kings, albeit in name only.[184]

 Dissension and rivalry soon affected the Macedonians, however. The satrapies handed out by Perdiccas at the Partition of Babylon became power bases each general used to bid for power. After the assassination of Perdiccas in 321 BC, Macedonian unity collapsed, and 40 years of war between "The Successors" (Diadochi) ensued before the Hellenistic world settled into four stable power blocs: Ptolemaic Egypt, Seleucid Mesopotamia and Central Asia, Attalid Anatolia, and Antigonid Macedon. In the process, both Alexander IV and Philip III were murdered.[185]

 Last plans

 A coin of Alexander the Great struck by Balakros or his successor Menes, both former somatophylakes (bodyguards) of Alexander, when they held the position of satrap of Cilicia in the lifetime of Alexander, c. 333-327 BC . The obverse shows Heracles, ancestor of the Macedonian royal line and the reverse shows a seated Zeus Aëtophoros.[186]

 Diodorus stated that Alexander had given detailed written instructions to Craterus some time before his death, which are known as Alexander's "last plans".[187] Craterus started to carry out Alexander's commands, but the successors chose not to further implement them, on the grounds they were impractical and extravagant.[187] Furthermore, Perdiccas had read the notebooks containing Alexander's last plans to the Macedonian troops in Babylon, who voted not to carry them out.[62]

 According to Diodorus, Alexander's last plans called for military expansion into the southern and western Mediterranean, monumental constructions, and the intermixing of Eastern and Western populations. It included:

 * Construction of 1,000 ships larger than triremes, along with harbours and a road running along the African coast all the way to the Pillars of Hercules, to be used for an invasion of Carthage and the western Mediterranean;[188]
 * Erection of great temples in Delos, Delphi, Dodona, Dium, Amphipolis, all costing 1,500 talents, and a monumental temple to Athena at Troy[62][188]
 * Amalgamation of small settlements into larger cities ("synoecisms") and the "transplant of populations from Asia to Europe and in the opposite direction from Europe to Asia, in order to bring the largest continent to common unity and to friendship by means of intermarriage and family ties"[189][188]
 * Construction of a monumental tomb for his father Philip, "to match the greatest of the pyramids of Egypt"[62][188]
 * Conquest of Arabia[62]
 * Circumnavigation of Africa[62]

 The enormous scale of these plans has led many scholars to doubt their historicity. Ernst Badian argued that they were exaggerated by Perdiccas in order to ensure that the Macedonian troops voted not to carry them out.[188] Other scholars have proposed that they were invented by later authors within the tradition of the Alexander Romance.[190]

 Character

 Generalship

 Further information: Military tactics of Alexander the Great
 The Battle of the Granicus, 334 BC
 The Battle of Issus, 333 BC

 Alexander perhaps earned the epithet "the Great" due to his unparalleled success as a military commander; he never lost a battle, despite typically being outnumbered.[191] This was due to use of terrain, phalanx and cavalry tactics, bold strategy, and the fierce loyalty of his troops.[192] The Macedonian phalanx, armed with the sarissa, a spear 6 metres (20 ft) long, had been developed and perfected by Philip II through rigorous training, and Alexander used its speed and manoeuvrability to great effect against larger but more disparate Persian forces.[193] Alexander also recognized the potential for disunity among his diverse army, which employed various languages and weapons. He overcame this by being personally involved in battle,[89] in the manner of a Macedonian king.[192]

 In his first battle in Asia, at Granicus, Alexander used only a small part of his forces, perhaps 13,000 infantry with 5,000 cavalry, against a much larger Persian force of 40,000.[194] Alexander placed the phalanx at the center and cavalry and archers on the wings, so that his line matched the length of the Persian cavalry line, about 3 km (1.86 mi). By contrast, the Persian infantry was stationed behind its cavalry. This ensured that Alexander would not be outflanked, while his phalanx, armed with long pikes, had a considerable advantage over the Persians' scimitars and javelins. Macedonian losses were negligible compared to those of the Persians.[195]

 At Issus in 333 BC, his first confrontation with Darius, he used the same deployment, and again the central phalanx pushed through.[195] Alexander personally led the charge in the center, routing the opposing army.[196] At the decisive encounter with Darius at Gaugamela, Darius equipped his chariots with scythes on the wheels to break up the phalanx and equipped his cavalry with pikes. Alexander arranged a double phalanx, with the center advancing at an angle, parting when the chariots bore down and then reforming. The advance was successful and broke Darius's center, causing the latter to flee once again.[195]

 When faced with opponents who used unfamiliar fighting techniques, such as in Central Asia and India, Alexander adapted his forces to his opponents' style. Thus, in Bactria and Sogdiana, Alexander successfully used his javelin throwers and archers to prevent outflanking movements, while massing his cavalry at the center.[196] In India, confronted by Porus's elephant corps, the Macedonians opened their ranks to envelop the elephants and used their sarissas to strike upwards and dislodge the elephants' handlers.[141]

 Physical appearance

 Alexander Cameo by Pyrgoteles

 Historical sources frequently give conflicting accounts of Alexander's appearance, and the earliest sources are the most scant in their detail.[197] During his lifetime, Alexander carefully curated his image by commissioning works from famous and great artists of the time. This included commissioning sculptures by Lysippos, paintings by Apelles and gem engravings by Pyrgoteles.[198] Ancient authors recorded that Alexander was so pleased with portraits of himself created by Lysippos that he forbade other sculptors from crafting his image; scholars today, however, find the claim dubious.[199][198] Nevertheless, Andrew Stewart highlights the fact that artistic portraits, not least because of who they are commissioned by, are always partisan, and that artistic portrayals of Alexander "seek to legitimize him (or, by extension, his Successors), to interpret him to their audiences, to answer their critiques, and to persuade them of his greatness", and thus should be considered within a framework of "praise and blame", in the same way sources such as praise poetry are.[200] Despite those caveats, Lysippos's sculpture, famous for its naturalism, as opposed to a stiffer, more static pose, is thought to be the most faithful depiction.[201]

 Curtius Rufus, a Roman historian from the first century AD, who wrote the Histories of Alexander the Great, gives this account of Alexander sitting on the throne of Darius III:

 Then Alexander seating himself on the royal throne, which was far too high for his bodily stature. Therefore, since his feet did not reach its lowest step, once of the royal pages placed a table under his feet.[202]

 Both Curtius and Diodorus report a story that when Darius III's mother, Sisygambis, first met Alexander and Hephaestion, she assumed that the latter was Alexander because he was the taller and more handsome of the two.[203]

 Alexander portrayal by Lysippos

 Details from the Alexander Sarcophagus show that he had a fair complexion with ruddy cheeks. This is in line with the description of him given by the Greek biographer Plutarch (c. 45 – c. 120 AD ):

 The outward appearance of Alexander is best represented by the statues of him which Lysippus made, and it was by this artist alone that Alexander himself thought it fit that he should be modelled. For those peculiarities which many of his successors and friends afterwards tried to imitate, namely, the poise of the neck, which was bent slightly to the left, and the melting glance of his eyes, this artist has accurately observed. Apelles, however, in painting him as wielder of the thunder-bolt, did not reproduce his complexion, but made it too dark and swarthy. Whereas he was of a fair colour, as they say, and his fairness passed into ruddiness on his breast particularly, and in his face. Moreover, that a very pleasant odour exhaled from his skin and that there was a fragrance about his mouth and all his flesh, so that his garments were filled with it, this we have read in the Memoirs of Aristoxenus.[204]

 A fresco depicting a hunt scene at the tomb of Philip II, Alexander's father, at the Archaeological Site of Aigai, the only known depiction of Alexander made during his lifetime, 330s BC

 Historians have understood the detail of the pleasant odour attributed to Alexander as stemming from a belief in ancient Greece that pleasant scents are characteristic of gods and heroes.[198]

 The Alexander Mosaic and contemporary coins portray Alexander with "a straight nose, a slightly protruding jaw, full lips and eyes deep set beneath a strongly pronounced forehead".[198] The ancient historian Aelian (c. 175 – c. 235 AD ), in his Varia Historia (12.14), describes Alexander's hair color as "ξανθὴν", that could mean yellowish, reddish or brownish.[205][206][207]

 Many scholars and historians attribute heterochromia to him. He is described as having one eye light and one eye dark.[208][209][210] In The Anabasis of Alexander, Arrian is quoted as saying, "he had one eye dark as the night, and one blue as the sky".[211] However, some have denied this claim as being used to emphasise the otherworldly and heroic qualities of Alexander.[212][213] Reconstruction of the original polychromy of the relief with Alexander on the sarcophagus shows him with brown eyes and chestnut brown hair.[214]

 Personality

 Alexander (left), wearing a kausia and fighting an Asiatic lion with his friend Craterus (detail); late 4th century BC mosaic,[215] Pella Museum

 Both of Alexander's parents encouraged his ambitions. His father Philip was probably Alexander's most immediate and influential role model, as the young Alexander watched him campaign practically every year, winning victory after victory while ignoring severe wounds.[50] Alexander's relationship with his father "forged" the competitive side of his personality; he had a need to outdo his father, illustrated by his reckless behavior in battle.[216] While Alexander worried that his father would leave him "no great or brilliant achievement to be displayed to the world",[217] he also downplayed his father's achievements to his companions.[216] Alexander's mother Olympia similarly had huge ambitions, and encouraged her son to believe it was his destiny to conquer the Persian Empire.[216] She instilled a sense of destiny in him,[218] and Plutarch tells how his ambition "kept his spirit serious and lofty in advance of his years".[219]

 According to Plutarch, Alexander also had a violent temper and rash, impulsive nature,[220] and this could influence his decision making.[216] Although Alexander was stubborn and did not respond well to orders from his father, he was open to reasoned debate.[221] He had a calmer side—perceptive, logical, and calculating. He had a great desire for knowledge, a love for philosophy, and was an avid reader.[222] This was no doubt in part due to Aristotle's tutelage; Alexander was intelligent and quick to learn.[216] His intelligent and rational side was amply demonstrated by his ability and success as a general.[220] He had great self-restraint in "pleasures of the body", in contrast with his lack of self-control with alcohol.[223]

 A Roman copy of an original 3rd century BC Greek bust depicting Alexander the Great, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen

 Alexander was erudite and patronized both arts and sciences.[219][222] However, he had little interest in sports or the Olympic Games (unlike his father), seeking only the Homeric ideals of honour (timê) and glory (kudos).[224] He had great charisma and force of personality, characteristics which made him a great leader.[181][220] His unique abilities were further demonstrated by the inability of any of his generals to unite Macedonia and retain the Empire after his death—only Alexander had the ability to do so.[181]

 During his final years, and especially after the death of Hephaestion, Alexander began to exhibit signs of megalomania and paranoia.[153] His extraordinary achievements, coupled with his own ineffable sense of destiny and the flattery of his companions, may have combined to produce this effect.[225] His delusions of grandeur are readily visible in his will and in his desire to conquer the world,[153] in as much as he is by various sources described as having boundless ambition,[226][227] an epithet, the meaning of which has descended into a historical cliché.[228][229]

 He appears to have believed himself a deity, or at least sought to deify himself.[153] Olympias always insisted to him that he was the son of Zeus,[230] a theory apparently confirmed to him by the oracle of Amun at Siwa.[231] He began to identify himself as the son of Zeus-Ammon.[231] Alexander adopted elements of Persian dress and customs at court, notably proskynesis, which was one aspect of Alexander's broad strategy aimed at securing the aid and support of the Iranian upper classes;[102] however the practise of proskynesis was disapproved by the Macedonians, and they were unwilling to perform it.[106] This behaviour cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen.[232] However, Alexander also was a pragmatic ruler who understood the difficulties of ruling culturally disparate peoples, many of whom lived in kingdoms where the king was divine.[233] Thus, rather than megalomania, his behaviour may have been a practical attempt at strengthening his rule and keeping his empire together.[234]

 Personal relationships

 Main article: Personal relationships of Alexander the Great
 A mural in Pompeii, depicting the marriage of Alexander to Barsine (Stateira) in 324 BC; the couple are apparently dressed as Ares and Aphrodite.

 Alexander married three times: Roxana, daughter of the Sogdian nobleman Oxyartes of Bactria,[235][236][237] out of love;[238] and the Persian princesses Stateira and Parysatis, the former a daughter of Darius III and the latter a daughter of Artaxerxes III, for political reasons.[239][240] He apparently had two sons, Alexander IV of Macedon by Roxana and, possibly, Heracles of Macedon from his mistress Barsine. He lost another child when Roxana miscarried at Babylon.[241][242]

 Alexander also had a close relationship with his friend, general, and bodyguard Hephaestion, the son of a Macedonian noble.[144][216][243] Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander.[144][244] This event may have contributed to Alexander's failing health and detached mental state during his final months.[153][162]

 Alexander's sexuality has been the subject of speculation and controversy in modern times.[245] The Roman era writer Athenaeus says, based on the scholar Dicaearchus, who was Alexander's contemporary, that the king "was quite excessively keen on boys", and that Alexander kissed the eunuch Bagoas in public.[246] This episode is also told by Plutarch, probably based on the same source. None of Alexander's contemporaries, however, are known to have explicitly described Alexander's relationship with Hephaestion as sexual, though the pair was often compared to Achilles and Patroclus, whom classical Greek culture painted as a couple. Aelian writes of Alexander's visit to Troy where "Alexander garlanded the tomb of Achilles, and Hephaestion that of Patroclus, the latter hinting that he was a beloved of Alexander, in just the same way as Patroclus was of Achilles."[247] Some modern historians (e.g., Robin Lane Fox) believe not only that Alexander's youthful relationship with Hephaestion was sexual, but that their sexual contacts may have continued into adulthood, which went against the social norms of at least some Greek cities, such as Athens,[248][249] though some modern researchers have tentatively proposed that Macedonia (or at least the Macedonian court) may have been more tolerant of homosexuality between adults.[250]

 Green argues that there is little evidence in ancient sources that Alexander had much carnal interest in women; he did not produce an heir until the very end of his life.[216] However, Ogden calculates that Alexander, who impregnated his partners thrice in eight years, had a higher matrimonial record than his father at the same age.[251] Two of these pregnancies — Stateira's and Barsine's — are of dubious legitimacy.[252]

 According to Diodorus Siculus, Alexander accumulated a harem in the style of Persian kings, but he used it rather sparingly, "not wishing to offend the Macedonians",[253] showing great self-control in "pleasures of the body".[223] Nevertheless, Plutarch described how Alexander was infatuated by Roxana while complimenting him on not forcing himself on her.[254] Green suggested that, in the context of the period, Alexander formed quite strong friendships with women, including Ada of Caria, who adopted him, and even Darius's mother Sisygambis, who supposedly died from grief upon hearing of Alexander's death.[216]

 Battle record

 Outcome Record Date War Action Opponent/s Type Country Rank 
   (present day) 
 Victory 1–0 2 August 338 BC Philip II's submission of Greece Battle of Chaeronea Thebans, Athenians and other Greek cities Battle Greece Prince
    
 Victory 2–0 335 BC Balkan Campaign Battle of Mount Haemus Getae, Thracians Battle Bulgaria King 
    
 Victory 3–0 December 335 BC Balkan Campaign Siege of Pelium Illyrians Siege Albania King 
    
 Victory 4–0 December 335 BC Balkan Campaign Battle of Thebes Thebans Battle Greece King 
    
 Victory 5–0 May 334 BC Persian Campaign Battle of the Granicus Achaemenid Empire Battle Turkey King 
    
 Victory 6–0 334 BC Persian Campaign Siege of Miletus Achaemenid Empire, Milesians Siege Turkey King 
    
 Victory 7–0 334 BC Persian Campaign Siege of Halicarnassus Achaemenid Empire Siege Turkey King 
    
 Victory 8–0 5 November 333 BC Persian Campaign Battle of Issus Achaemenid Empire Battle Turkey King 
    
 Victory 9–0 January–July 332 BC Persian Campaign Siege of Tyre Achaemenid Empire, Tyrians Siege Lebanon King 
    
 Victory 10–0 October 332 BC Persian Campaign Siege of Gaza Achaemenid Empire Siege Palestine King 
    
 Victory 11–0 1 October 331 BC Persian Campaign Battle of Gaugamela Achaemenid Empire Battle Iraq King 
    
 Victory 12–0 December 331 BC Persian Campaign Battle of the Uxian Defile Uxians Battle Iran King 
    
 Victory 13–0 20 January 330 BC Persian Campaign Battle of the Persian Gate Achaemenid Empire Battle Iran King 
    
 Victory 14–0 329 BC Persian Campaign Siege of Cyropolis Sogdians Siege Turkmenistan King 
    
 Victory 15–0 October 329 BC Persian Campaign Battle of Jaxartes Scythians Battle Uzbekistan King 
    
 Victory 16–0 327 BC Persian Campaign Siege of the Sogdian Rock Sogdians Siege Uzbekistan King 
    
 Victory 17–0 May 327 – March 326 BC Indian Campaign Cophen campaign Aspasians Expedition Afghanistan and Pakistan King 
    
 Victory 18–0 April 326 BC Indian Campaign Siege of Aornos Aśvaka Siege Pakistan King 
    
 Victory 19–0 May 326 BC Indian Campaign Battle of the Hydaspes Porus Battle Pakistan King 
    
 Victory 20–0 November 326 – February 325 BC Indian Campaign Siege of Multan Malli Siege Pakistan King 
    
 

 Legacy

 The Hellenistic world view: world map of Eratosthenes (276–194 BC), using information from the campaigns of Alexander and his successors[255]

 Alexander's legacy extended beyond his military conquests, and his reign marked a turning point in European and Asian history.[256] His campaigns greatly increased contacts and trade between East and West, and vast areas to the east were significantly exposed to Greek civilization and influence.[17] Some of the cities he founded became major cultural centers, many surviving into the 21st century. His chroniclers recorded valuable information about the areas through which he marched, while the Greeks themselves got a sense of belonging to a world beyond the Mediterranean.[17]

 Hellenistic kingdoms

 Main article: Hellenistic period
 Plan of Alexandria c. 30 BC

 Alexander's most immediate legacy was the introduction of Macedonian rule to huge new swathes of Asia. At the time of his death, Alexander's empire covered some 5,200,000 km2 (2,000,000 sq mi),[257] and was the largest state of its time. Many of these areas remained in Macedonian hands or under Greek influence for the next 200–300 years. The successor states that emerged were, at least initially, dominant forces, and these 300 years are often referred to as the Hellenistic period.[258]

 The eastern borders of Alexander's empire began to collapse even during his lifetime.[181] However, the power vacuum he left in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent directly gave rise to one of the most powerful Indian dynasties in history, the Maurya Empire. Taking advantage of this power vacuum, Chandragupta Maurya (referred to in Greek sources as "Sandrokottos"), of relatively humble origin, took control of the Punjab, and with that power base proceeded to conquer the Nanda Empire.[259]

 Founding of cities

 Main article: List of cities founded by Alexander the Great

 Over the course of his conquests, Alexander founded some twenty cities that bore his name, most of them east of the Tigris.[107][260] The first, and greatest, was Alexandria in Egypt, which would become one of the leading Mediterranean cities.[107] The cities' locations reflected trade routes as well as defensive positions. At first, the cities must have been inhospitable, little more than defensive garrisons.[107] Following Alexander's death, many Greeks who had settled there tried to return to Greece.[107][260] However, a century or so after Alexander's death, many of the Alexandrias were thriving, with elaborate public buildings and substantial populations that included both Greek and local peoples.[107]

 The foundation of the "new" Smyrna was also associated with Alexander. According to the legend, after Alexander hunted on the Mount Pagus, he slept under a plane tree at the sanctuary of Nemesis. While he was sleeping, the goddess appeared and told him to found a city there and move into it the Smyrnaeans from the "old" city. The Smyrnaeans sent ambassadors to the oracle at Clarus to ask about this, and after the response from the oracle they decided to move to the "new" city.[261]

 The city of Pella, in modern Jordan, was founded by veterans of Alexander's army, and named it after the city of Pella, in Greece, which was the birthplace of Alexander.[262]

 Funding of temples

 Dedication of Alexander the Great to Athena Polias at Priene, now housed in the British Museum[263]

 In 334 BC, Alexander the Great donated funds for the completion of the new temple of Athena Polias in Priene, in modern-day western Turkey.[264] An inscription from the temple, now housed in the British Museum, declares: "King Alexander dedicated [this temple] to Athena Polias."[263] This inscription is one of the few independent archaeological discoveries confirming an episode from Alexander's life.[263] The temple was designed by Pytheos, one of the architects of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus.[263][264][265]

 Libanius wrote that Alexander founded the temple of Zeus Bottiaios (Ancient Greek: Βοττιαίου Δῖός ), in the place where later the city of Antioch was built.[266][267]

 Suda wrote that Alexander built a big temple to Sarapis.[268]

 Hellenization

 Main article: Hellenization
 Alexander's empire was the largest state of its time, covering approximately 5.2 million square km.

 Hellenization was coined by the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen to denote the spread of Greek language, culture, and population into the former Persian empire after Alexander's conquest.[258] This process can be seen in such great Hellenistic cities as Alexandria, Antioch[269] and Seleucia (south of modern Baghdad).[270] Alexander sought to insert Greek elements into Persian culture and to hybridize Greek and Persian culture, homogenizing the populations of Asia and Europe. Although his successors explicitly rejected such policies, Hellenization occurred throughout the region, accompanied by a distinct and opposite 'Orientalization' of the successor states.[271]

 The core of the Hellenistic culture promulgated by the conquests was essentially Athenian.[272] The close association of men from across Greece in Alexander's army directly led to the emergence of the largely Attic-based "koine", or "common" Greek dialect.[273] Koine spread throughout the Hellenistic world, becoming the lingua franca of Hellenistic lands and eventually the ancestor of modern Greek.[273] Furthermore, town planning, education, local government, and art current in the Hellenistic period were all based on Classical Greek ideals, evolving into distinct new forms commonly grouped as Hellenistic. Also, the New Testament was written in the Koine Greek language.[269] Aspects of Hellenistic culture were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century.[274]

 Hellenization in South and Central Asia

 Main articles: Indo-Greek Kingdom, Indo-Greek art, and Greco-Buddhism
 The Buddha, in Greco-Buddhist style, 1st to 2nd century AD, Gandhara, northern Pakistan. Tokyo National Museum.

 Some of the most pronounced effects of Hellenization can be seen in Afghanistan and India, in the region of the relatively late-rising Greco-Bactrian Kingdom (250–125 BC) (in modern Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Tajikistan) and the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BC – 10 AD) in modern Afghanistan and India.[275] On the Silk Road trade routes, Hellenistic culture hybridized with Iranian and Buddhist cultures. The cosmopolitan art and mythology of Gandhara (a region spanning the upper confluence of the Indus, Swat and Kabul rivers in modern Pakistan) of the ~3rd century BC to the ~5th century AD are most evident of the direct contact between Hellenistic civilization and South Asia, as are the Edicts of Ashoka, which directly mention the Greeks within Ashoka's dominion as converting to Buddhism and the reception of Buddhist emissaries by Ashoka's contemporaries in the Hellenistic world.[276] The resulting syncretism known as Greco-Buddhism influenced the development of Buddhism[277] and created a culture of Greco-Buddhist art. These Greco-Buddhist kingdoms sent some of the first Buddhist missionaries to China, Sri Lanka and Hellenistic Asia and Europe (Greco-Buddhist monasticism).

 Some of the first and most influential figurative portrayals of the Buddha appeared at this time, perhaps modelled on Greek statues of Apollo in the Greco-Buddhist style.[275] Several Buddhist traditions may have been influenced by the ancient Greek religion: the concept of Boddhisatvas is reminiscent of Greek divine heroes,[278] and some Mahayana ceremonial practices (burning incense, gifts of flowers, and food placed on altars) are similar to those practised by the ancient Greeks; however, similar practices were also observed amongst the native Indic culture. One Greek king, Menander I, probably became Buddhist, and was immortalized in Buddhist literature as 'Milinda'.[275] The process of Hellenization also spurred trade between the east and west.[279] For example, Greek astronomical instruments dating to the 3rd century BC were found in the Greco-Bactrian city of Ai Khanoum in modern-day Afghanistan,[280] while the Greek concept of a spherical Earth surrounded by the spheres of planets eventually supplanted the long-standing Indian cosmological belief of a disc consisting of four continents grouped around a central mountain (Mount Meru) like the petals of a flower.[279][281][282] The Yavanajataka (lit. Greek astronomical treatise) and Paulisa Siddhanta texts depict the influence of Greek astronomical ideas on Indian astronomy.

 Following the conquests of Alexander the Great in the east, Hellenistic influence on Indian art was far-ranging. In the area of architecture, a few examples of the Ionic order can be found as far as Pakistan with the Jandial temple near Taxila. Several examples of capitals displaying Ionic influences can be seen as far as Patna, especially with the Pataliputra capital, dated to the 3rd century BC.[283] The Corinthian order is also heavily represented in the art of Gandhara, especially through Indo-Corinthian capitals.

 Influence on Rome

 This medallion was produced in Imperial Rome, demonstrating the influence of Alexander's memory. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore.

 Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans, especially generals, who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements.[284] Polybius began his Histories by reminding Romans of Alexander's achievements, and thereafter Roman leaders saw him as a role model. Pompey the Great adopted the epithet "Magnus" and even Alexander's anastole-type haircut, and searched the conquered lands of the east for Alexander's 260-year-old cloak, which he then wore as a sign of greatness.[284] Julius Caesar dedicated a Lysippean equestrian bronze statue but replaced Alexander's head with his own, while Octavian visited Alexander's tomb in Alexandria and temporarily changed his seal from a sphinx to Alexander's profile.[284] The emperor Trajan also admired Alexander, as did Nero and Caracalla.[284] The Macriani, a Roman family that in the person of Macrinus briefly ascended to the imperial throne, kept images of Alexander on their persons, either on jewellery, or embroidered into their clothes.[285]

 On the other hand, some Roman writers, particularly Republican figures, used Alexander as a cautionary tale of how autocratic tendencies can be kept in check by republican values.[286] Alexander was used by these writers as an example of ruler values such as amicita (friendship) and clementia (clemency), but also iracundia (anger) and cupiditas gloriae (over-desire for glory).[286]

 Emperor Julian in his satire called "The Caesars", describes a contest between the previous Roman emperors, with Alexander the Great called in as an extra contestant, in the presence of the assembled gods.[287]

 The Itinerarium Alexandri is a 4th-century Latin Itinerarium which describes Alexander the Great's campaigns. Julius Caesar went to serve his quaestorship in Hispania after his wife's funeral, in the spring or early summer of 69 BC. While there, he encountered a statue of Alexander the Great, and realised with dissatisfaction that he was now at an age when Alexander had the world at his feet, while he had achieved comparatively little.[288][289]

 Pompey posed as the "new Alexander" since he was his boyhood hero.[290]

 After Caracalla concluded his campaign against the Alamanni, it became evident that he was inordinately preoccupied with Alexander the Great.[291][292] He began openly mimicking Alexander in his personal style. In planning his invasion of the Parthian Empire, Caracalla decided to arrange 16,000 of his men in Macedonian-style phalanxes, despite the Roman army having made the phalanx an obsolete tactical formation.[291][292][293] The historian Christopher Matthew mentions that the term Phalangarii has two possible meanings, both with military connotations. The first refers merely to the Roman battle line and does not specifically mean that the men were armed with pikes, and the second bears similarity to the 'Marian Mules' of the late Roman Republic who carried their equipment suspended from a long pole, which were in use until at least the 2nd century AD.[293] As a consequence, the Phalangarii of Legio II Parthica may not have been pikemen, but rather standard battle line troops or possibly Triarii.[293]

 Caracalla's mania for Alexander went so far that Caracalla visited Alexandria while preparing for his Persian invasion and persecuted philosophers of the Aristotelian school based on a legend that Aristotle had poisoned Alexander. This was a sign of Caracalla's increasingly erratic behaviour. But this mania for Alexander, strange as it was, was overshadowed by subsequent events in Alexandria.[292]

 In 39, Caligula performed a spectacular stunt by ordering a temporary floating bridge to be built using ships as pontoons, stretching for over two miles from the resort of Baiae to the neighbouring port of Puteoli.[294][295] It was said that the bridge was to rival the Persian king Xerxes' pontoon bridge crossing of the Hellespont.[295] Caligula, who could not swim,[296] then proceeded to ride his favourite horse Incitatus across, wearing the breastplate of Alexander the Great.[295] This act was in defiance of a prediction by Tiberius's soothsayer Thrasyllus of Mendes that Caligula had "no more chance of becoming emperor than of riding a horse across the Bay of Baiae".[295]

 The diffusion of Greek culture and language cemented by Alexander's conquests in West Asia and North Africa served as a "precondition" for the later Roman expansion into these territories and entire basis for the Byzantine Empire, according to Errington.[297]

 Unsuccessful plan to cut a canal through the Anatolian isthmus

 Pausanias writes that Alexander wanted to dig through the Mimas mountain (in today's Karaburun area), but didn't succeed. He says this was Alexander's only unsuccessful project.[298] Pliny the Elder adds that the planned distance was 12 kilometres (7.5 mi), and the purpose was to cut a canal through the isthmus to connect the Caystrian and Hermaean bays.[299][300]

 Naming of the Icarus island in the Persian Gulf

 Arrian wrote that Aristobulus said that Alexander named Icarus island (modern Failaka Island) in the Persian Gulf after Icarus island in the Aegean.[301][302]

 Letters

 Main article: Letters of Alexander the Great

 Alexander wrote and received numerous letters, but no originals survive. A few official letters addressed to the Greek cities survive in copies inscribed in stone and the content of others is sometimes reported in historical sources. These only occasionally quote the letters and it is an open question how reliable such quotations are. Several fictitious letters, some perhaps based on actual letters, made their way into the Romance tradition.[303]

 In legend

 Alexander in a 14th-century Armenian manuscript
 Main article: Alexander the Great in legend

 Many of the legends about Alexander derive from his own lifetime, probably encouraged by Alexander himself.[304] His court historian Callisthenes portrayed the sea in Cilicia as drawing back from him in proskynesis. Writing shortly after Alexander's death, Onesicritus invented a tryst between Alexander and Thalestris, queen of the mythical Amazons. He reportedly read this passage to his patron King Lysimachus, who had been one of Alexander's generals and who quipped, "I wonder where I was at the time."[305]

 In the first centuries after Alexander's death, probably in Alexandria, a quantity of the legendary material coalesced into a text known as the Alexander Romance, later falsely ascribed to Callisthenes and therefore known as Pseudo-Callisthenes. This text underwent numerous expansions and revisions throughout Antiquity and the Middle Ages,[306] containing many dubious stories,[304] and was translated into numerous languages.[307]

 In ancient and modern culture

 Main articles: Cultural depictions of Alexander the Great and Alexander the Great in the Quran
 Alexander in a 14th-century Byzantine manuscript
 Alexander conquering the air. Jean Wauquelin, Les faits et conquêtes d'Alexandre le Grand, 1448–1449

 Alexander the Great's accomplishments and legacy have been depicted in many cultures. Alexander has figured in both high and popular culture beginning in his own era to the present day. The Alexander Romance, in particular, has had a significant impact on portrayals of Alexander in later cultures, from Persian to medieval European to modern Greek.[307]

 Folio from the Shahnameh showing Alexander praying at the Kaaba, mid-16th century

 Alexander features prominently in modern Greek folklore, more so than any other ancient figure.[308] The colloquial form of his name in modern Greek ("O Megalexandros") is a household name, and he is the only ancient hero to appear in the Karagiozis shadow play.[308] One well-known fable among Greek seamen involves a solitary mermaid who would grasp a ship's prow during a storm and ask the captain "Is King Alexander alive?" The correct answer is "He is alive and well and rules the world!" causing the mermaid to vanish and the sea to calm. Any other answer would cause the mermaid to turn into a raging Gorgon who would drag the ship to the bottom of the sea, all hands aboard.[308]

 Detail of a 16th-century Islamic painting depicting Alexander being lowered in a glass submersible

 In pre-Islamic Middle Persian (Zoroastrian) literature, Alexander is referred to by the epithet gujastak, meaning "accursed", and is accused of destroying temples and burning the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism.[309] In Sunni Islamic Persia, under the influence of the Alexander Romance (in Persian: اسکندرنامه Iskandarnamah), a more positive portrayal of Alexander emerges.[310] Firdausi's Shahnameh ("The Book of Kings") includes Alexander in a line of legitimate Persian shahs, a mythical figure who explored the far reaches of the world in search of the Fountain of Youth.[311] In the Shahnameh, Alexander's first journey is to Mecca to pray at the Kaaba.[312] Alexander was depicted as performing a Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) many times in subsequent Islamic art and literature.[313] Later Persian writers associate him with philosophy, portraying him at a symposium with figures such as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, in search of immortality.[310]

 The figure of Dhul-Qarnayn (literally "the Two-Horned One") mentioned in the Quran is believed by scholars to be based on later legends of Alexander.[310] In this tradition, he was a heroic figure who built a wall to defend against the nations of Gog and Magog.[314] He then travelled the known world in search of the Water of Life and Immortality, eventually becoming a prophet.[314]

 The Syriac version of the Alexander Romance portrays him as an ideal Christian world conqueror who prayed to "the one true God".[310] In Egypt, Alexander was portrayed as the son of Nectanebo II, the last pharaoh before the Persian conquest.[314] His defeat of Darius was depicted as Egypt's salvation, "proving" Egypt was still ruled by an Egyptian.[310]

 According to Josephus, Alexander was shown the Book of Daniel when he entered Jerusalem, which described a mighty Greek king who would conquer the Persian Empire. This is cited as a reason for sparing Jerusalem.[315]

 In Hindi and Urdu, the name "Sikandar", derived from the Persian name for Alexander, denotes a rising young talent, and the Delhi Sultanate ruler Aladdin Khalji stylized himself as "Sikandar-i-Sani" (the Second Alexander the Great).[316] In medieval India, Turkic and Afghan sovereigns from the Iranian-cultured region of Central Asia brought positive cultural connotations of Alexander to the Indian subcontinent, resulting in the efflorescence of Sikandernameh (Alexander Romances) written by Indo-Persian poets such as Amir Khusrow and the prominence of Alexander the Great as a popular subject in Mughal-era Persian miniatures.[317] In medieval Europe, Alexander the Great was revered as a member of the Nine Worthies, a group of heroes whose lives were believed to encapsulate all the ideal qualities of chivalry.[318] During the first Italian campaign of the French Revolutionary Wars, in a question from Bourrienne, asking whether he gave his preference to Alexander or Caesar, Napoleon said that he places Alexander The Great in the first rank, the main reason being his campaign on Asia.[319]

 In the Greek Anthology, there are poems referring to Alexander.[320][321]

 Throughout time, art objects related to Alexander were being created. In addition to speech works, sculptures and paintings, in modern times Alexander is still the subject of musical and cinematic works. The song 'Alexander the Great' by the British heavy metal band Iron Maiden is indicative. Some films that have been shot with the theme of Alexander are:

 * Sikandar (1941), an Indian production directed by Sohrab Modi about the conquest of India by Alexander[322]
 * Alexander the Great (1956), produced by MGM and starring Richard Burton
 * Sikandar-e-Azam (1965), an Indian production directed by Kedar Kapoor
 * Alexander (2004), directed by Oliver Stone, starring Colin Farrell

 There are also many references to other movies and TV series.

 Newer novels about Alexander are:

 The trilogy "Alexander the Great" by Valerio Massimo Manfredi consisting of "The son of the dream", "The sand of Amon", and "The ends of the world". The trilogy of Mary Renault consisting of "Fire from Heaven", "The Persian Boy" and "Funeral Games".

 * The Virtues of War, about Alexander the Great (2004), ISBN 0385500998 and "* The Afghan Campaign, about Alexander the Great's conquests in Afghanistan (2006), ISBN 038551641X" by Steven Pressfield.

 Irish playwright Aubrey Thomas de Vere wrote Alexander the Great, a Dramatic Poem.

 Historiography

 Main article: Historiography of Alexander the Great

 Apart from a few inscriptions and fragments, texts written by people who actually knew Alexander or who gathered information from men who served with Alexander were all lost.[17] Contemporaries who wrote accounts of his life included Alexander's campaign historian Callisthenes; Alexander's generals Ptolemy and Nearchus; Aristobulus, a junior officer on the campaigns; and Onesicritus, Alexander's chief helmsman. Their works are lost, but later works based on these original sources have survived. The earliest of these is Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC), followed by Quintus Curtius Rufus (mid-to-late 1st century AD), Arrian (1st to 2nd century AD), the biographer Plutarch (1st to 2nd century AD), and finally Justin, whose work dated as late as the 4th century.[17] Of these, Arrian is generally considered the most reliable, given that he used Ptolemy and Aristobulus as his sources, closely followed by Diodorus.[17]

 See also

 * History portal
 * Greece portal
 * Iran portal
 * Egypt portal
 * War portal
 * Ancient Macedonian army
 * Military tactics of Alexander the Great
 * Bucephalus
 * Chronology of European exploration of Asia
 * Theories about Alexander the Great in the Quran
 * Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great
 * Gates of Alexander
 * List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources
 * List of people known as The Great

 References

 Notes

 1. ^ Macedon was an Ancient Greek polity. The Macedonians were a Greek tribe.[323]
 2. ^ By the time of his death, he had conquered the entire Achaemenid Persian Empire, adding it to Macedon's European territories; according to some modern writers, this was most of the world then known to the ancient Greeks (the 'Ecumene').[324][325] An approximate view of the world known to Alexander can be seen in Hecataeus of Miletus's map; see Hecataeus world map.
 3. ^ For instance, Hannibal supposedly ranked Alexander as the greatest general;[326] Julius Caesar wept on seeing a statue of Alexander, since he had achieved so little by the same age;[327] Pompey and Alauddin Khalji consciously posed as the 'new Alexander';[328] the young Napoleon Bonaparte also encouraged comparisons with Alexander. Napoleon also placed Alexander in the first rank.[329] Caracalla believed himself to be the actual reincarnation of Alexander.[330][331][332] Caligula wore the breastplate of Alexander in order to show his power.[333][334] Fidel Castro's hero was Alexander the Great, whose Spanish equivalent Alejandro he adopted as his nom de guerre.[335] Mehmed the Conqueror's heroes were Alexander and Achilles.[336]
 4. ^ The name Ἀλέξανδρος derives from the Greek verb ἀλέξω (aléxō, lit. 'ward off, avert, defend')[337][338] and ἀνδρ- (andr-), the stem of ἀνήρ (anḗr, lit. 'man'),[339][338] and means "protector of men".[340]
 5. ^ There have been, since the time, many suspicions that Pausanias was actually hired to murder Philip. Suspicion has fallen upon Alexander, Olympias and even the newly crowned Persian Emperor, Darius III. All three of these people had motive to have Philip murdered.[341]
 6. ^ However, Arrian, who used Ptolemy as a source, said that Alexander crossed with more than 5,000 horse and 30,000 foot; Diodorus quoted the same totals, but listed 5,100 horse and 32,000 foot. Diodorus also referred to an advance force already present in Asia, which Polyaenus, in his Stratagems of War (5.44.4), said numbered 10,000 men.
 1. ^ The first known person to call Alexander "the Great" was a Roman playwright named Plautus (254–184 BC) in his play Mostellaria . [1]

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 Further reading

 * Badian, Ernst (1958). "Alexander the Great and the Unity of Mankind". Historia. 7.
 * Beazley, JD; Ashmole, B (1932). Greek Sculpture and Painting. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-04131-7.
 * Bowra, Maurice (1994). The Greek Experience. Phoenix. ISBN 978-1-85799-122-2.
 * Boardman, John (2019). Alexander the Great: From His Death to the Present Day. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-18175-2.
 * Burn, AR (1951). Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Empire (2 ed.). London: English Universities Press.
 * Rufus, Quintus Curtius. "Quintus Curtius Rufus, History of Alexander the Great" (in Latin). U Chicago . Retrieved 16 November 2009 .
 * Cartledge, Paul (2004). Alexander the Great. Overlook. ISBN 9781585675654.
 * Doherty, Paul (2004). The Death of Alexander the Great. Carroll & Graf. ISBN 9780786713400.
 * Engels, Donald W (1978). Alexander the Great and the Logistics of the Macedonian Army. Berkeley: University of California Press.
 * Fawcett, Bill, ed. (2006). How To Lose A Battle: Foolish Plans and Great Military Blunders. Harper. ISBN 978-0-06-076024-3.
 * Fuller, JFC (1958). The Generalship of Alexander the Great. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode. ISBN 978-0-306-80371-0 . Retrieved 20 June 2015 .
 * Green, Peter (1992). Alexander of Macedon: 356–323 BC. A Historical Biography. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-07166-7.
 * Greene, Robert (2000). The 48 Laws of Power. Penguin. p. 351. ISBN 978-0-14-028019-7.
 * Hammond, NGL (1989). The Macedonian State: Origins, Institutions, and History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814883-8.
 * Hammond, NGL (1994). Alexander the Great: King, Commander, and Statesman (3 ed.). London: Bristol Classical Press.
 * Hammond, NGL (1997). The Genius of Alexander the Great. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
 * Lane Fox, Robin (1973). Alexander the Great. London: Allen Lane. ISBN 0-14-008878-4., also (1974) New York: E. P. Dutton and (1986) London: Penguin Books.
 * Mercer, Charles (1962). The Way of Alexander the Great (1 ed.). Boston: American Heritage Inc.
 * McCrindle, J. W. (1893). The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great as Described by Arrian, Q Curtius, Diodorus, Plutarch, and Justin. Westminster: Archibald Constable & Co . Retrieved 20 June 2015 .
 * Murphy, James Jerome; Katula, Richard A; Hill, Forbes I; Ochs, Donovan J (2003). A Synoptic History of Classical Rhetoric. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-880393-35-2.
 * Nandan, Y; Bhavan, BV (2003). British Death March Under Asiatic Impulse: Epic of Anglo-Indian Tragedy in Afghanistan. Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. ISBN 978-81-7276-301-5.
 * O'Brien, John Maxwell (1992). Alexander the Great: The Invisible Enemy. London: Routledge.
 * Pomeroy, S; Burstein, S; Dolan, W; Roberts, J (1998). Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509742-9.
 * Prevas, John (2004). Envy of the Gods: Alexander the Great's Ill-Fated Journey Across Asia (3 ed.). Da Capo. ISBN 9780306812682.
 * Roisman, Joseph, ed. (1995). Alexander the Great Ancient and Modern Perspectives. Problems in European Civilization. Lexington, MA: DC Heath.
 * Rowson, Alex (2022). The Young Alexander: The Making of Alexander the Great (Hardcover). London: William Collins. ISBN 978-0008284398.
 * Savill, Agnes (1959). Alexander the Great and His Time (3 ed.). London: Barrie & Rockliff.
 * Stewart, Andrew (1993). Faces of Power: Alexander's Image and Hellenistic Politics. Hellenistic Culture and Society. Vol. 11. Berkeley: University of California Press.
 * Stoneman, Richard (2008). Alexander the Great: A Life in Legend. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11203-0.
 * Tarn, WW (1948). Alexander the Great. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 * Wheeler, Benjamin Ide (1900). Alexander the Great; the merging of East and West in universal history. New York: GP Putnam's sons.
 * Wilcken, Ulrich (1997) [1932]. Alexander the Great. New York: WW Norton & Co. ISBN 978-0-393-00381-9.
 * Worthington, Ian (2004). Alexander the Great: Man And God. Pearson. ISBN 978-1-4058-0162-1.

 External links

 Alexander the Great at Wikipedia's sister projects
 * Definitions from Wiktionary
 * Media from Commons
 * Quotations from Wikiquote
 * Texts from Wikisource
 * Textbooks from Wikibooks
 * Travel information from Wikivoyage
 * Resources from Wikiversity
 Library resources about 
 Alexander the Great 
 * Online books 
 * Resources in your library 
 * Resources in other libraries
 
 * Delamarche, Félix (1833), The Empire and Expeditions of Alexander the Great.
 * Romm, James; Cartledge, Paul, "Two Great Historians On Alexander the Great", Forbes (conversations) Part 1, Part 2, Part 3, Part 4, Part 5, Part 6.
 * Alexander the Great at Curlie
 * Alexander the Great: An annotated list of primary sources, Livius, archived from the original on 4 December 2016 , retrieved 26 March 2020 .
 * The Elusive Tomb of Alexander the Great, Archæology.
 * Alexander the Great and Sherlock Holmes, Sherlockian Sherlock.
 * In Our Time: Alexander the Great BBC discussion with Paul Cartledge, Diana Spencer and Rachel Mairs hosted by Melvyn Bragg, first broadcast 1 October 2015.
 * Alexander the Great by Kireet Joshi
 Alexander the Great 
 Argead dynasty 
 Born: 356 BC Died: 323 BC
 Regnal titles 
 Preceded by King of Macedon Succeeded by 
 Philip II 336–323 BC Philip III 
  Alexander IV
 Preceded by King of Persia 
 Darius III 330–323 BC 
 Pharaoh of Egypt 
 332–323 BC 
 New creation Lord of Asia 
 331–323 BC 
 
 * v 
 * t 
 * e 
 Kings of Macedon
 * Caranus 
 * Coenus 
 * Tyrimmas 
 * Perdiccas I 
 * Argaeus I 
 * Philip I 
 * Aeropus I 
 * Alcetas I 
 * Amyntas I 
 * Alexander I 
 * Alcetas II 
 * Perdiccas II 
 Argead * Archelaus I 
 * Orestes / Aeropus II 
 * Archelaus II 
 * Amyntas II 
 * Pausanias 
 * Argaeus II 
 * Amyntas III 
 * Alexander II 
 * Perdiccas III 
 * Amyntas IV 
 * Philip II 
 * Alexander III (the Great) 
 * Philip III 
 * Alexander IV 
 * Cassander 
 Antipatrid * Philip IV 
 * Antipater I 
 * Alexander V 
 * Demetrius I 
 * Pyrrhus 
 * Lysimachus 
 * Seleucus 
 Dynastic conflict * Ptolemy 
 * Meleager 
 * Antipater II 
 * Sosthenes 
 * Antigonus II 
 * Pyrrhus 
 * Antigonus II 
 * Demetrius II 
 * Antigonus III 
 Antigonid * Philip V 
 * Perseus 
 * Andriscus (Philip VI) 
 * Pseudo-Alexander (Alexander VI)
 
 * v  
 * t  
 * e  
 Hellenistic rulers  
  * Philip II 
 Argeads  * Alexander III the Great 
  * Philip III Arrhidaeus 
  * Alexander IV 
  * Cassander 
  * Philip IV 
 Antipatrids  * Alexander V 
  * Antipater II 
  * Antipater Etesias 
  * Sosthenes 
  * Antigonus I Monophthalmus 
  * Demetrius I Poliorcetes 
  * Antigonus II Gonatas 
 Antigonids  * Demetrius II Aetolicus 
  * Antigonus III Doson 
  * Philip V 
  * Perseus 
  * Philip VI (pretender) 
  * Ptolemy I Soter 
  * Ptolemy Keraunos 
  * Ptolemy II Philadelphus 
  * Ptolemy III Euergetes 
  * Ptolemy IV Philopator 
  * Ptolemy V Epiphanes 
  * Cleopatra I Syra (regent) 
  * Ptolemy VI Philometor 
  * Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator 
  * Cleopatra II Philometor Soter 
  * Ptolemy VIII Physcon 
 Ptolemies  * Cleopatra III 
  * Ptolemy IX Lathyros 
  * Ptolemy X Alexander 
  * Berenice III 
  * Ptolemy XI Alexander 
  * Ptolemy XII Auletes 
  * Cleopatra VI Tryphaena 
  * Berenice IV Epiphanea 
  * Ptolemy XIII 
  * Ptolemy XIV 
  * Cleopatra VII Philopator 
  * Ptolemy XV Caesarion 
  * Magas 
 Kings of Cyrene  * Demetrius the Fair 
  * Ptolemy VIII Physcon 
  * Ptolemy Apion 
  * Seleucus I Nicator 
  * Antiochus I Soter 
  * Antiochus II Theos 
  * Seleucus II Callinicus 
  * Seleucus III Ceraunus 
  * Antiochus III the Great 
  * Seleucus IV Philopator 
  * Antiochus IV Epiphanes 
  * Antiochus V Eupator 
  * Demetrius I Soter 
  * Alexander I Balas 
  * Demetrius II Nicator 
  * Antiochus VI Dionysus 
 Seleucids  * Diodotus Tryphon 
  * Antiochus VII Sidetes 
  * Alexander II Zabinas 
  * Seleucus V Philometor 
  * Antiochus VIII Grypus 
  * Antiochus IX Cyzicenus 
  * Seleucus VI Epiphanes 
  * Antiochus X Eusebes 
  * Antiochus XI Epiphanes 
  * Demetrius III Eucaerus 
  * Philip I Philadelphus 
  * Antiochus XII Dionysus 
  * Antiochus XIII Asiaticus 
  * Philip II Philoromaeus 
 Lysimachids  * Lysimachus 
  * Ptolemy Epigonos 
  * Philetaerus 
  * Eumenes I 
  * Attalus I 
 Attalids  * Eumenes II 
  * Attalus II 
  * Attalus III 
  * Eumenes III 
  * Diodotus I 
  * Diodotus II 
  * Euthydemus I 
  * Demetrius I 
  * Euthydemus II 
  * Antimachus I 
 Greco-Bactrians  * Pantaleon 
  * Agathocles 
  * Demetrius II 
  * Eucratides I 
  * Plato 
  * Eucratides II 
  * Heliocles I 
  * Demetrius I 
  * Antimachus I 
  * Pantaleon 
  * Agathocles 
  * Apollodotus I 
  * Demetrius II 
  * Antimachus II 
  * Menander I 
  * Zoilos I 
  * Agathokleia 
  * Lysias 
  * Strato I 
  * Antialcidas 
  * Heliokles II 
  * Polyxenos 
  * Demetrius III 
  * Philoxenus 
 Indo-Greeks  * Diomedes 
  * Amyntas 
  * Epander 
  * Theophilos 
  * Peukolaos 
  * Thraso 
  * Nicias 
  * Menander II 
  * Artemidoros 
  * Hermaeus 
  * Archebius 
  * Telephos 
  * Apollodotus II 
  * Hippostratos 
  * Dionysios 
  * Zoilos II 
  * Apollophanes 
  * Strato II 
  * Strato III 
  * Boteiras 
  * Bas 
  * Zipoetes I 
  * Nicomedes I 
  * Zipoetes II 
  * Etazeta (regent) 
 Kings of Bithynia  * Ziaelas 
  * Prusias I 
  * Prusias II 
  * Nicomedes II 
  * Nicomedes III 
  * Nicomedes IV 
  * Socrates Chrestus 
  * Mithridates I Ctistes 
  * Ariobarzanes 
  * Mithridates II 
  * Mithridates III 
  * Pharnaces I 
  * Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos 
 Kings of Pontus  * Mithridates V Euergetes 
  * Mithridates VI Eupator 
  * Pharnaces II 
  * Darius 
  * Arsaces 
  * Polemon I 
  * Pythodorida 
  * Polemon II 
  * Ptolemaeus 
  * Sames II 
  * Mithridates I 
  * Antiochus I 
 Kings of Commagene  * Mithridates II 
  * Antiochus II 
  * Mithridates III 
  * Antiochus III 
  * Antiochus IV 
  * Ariarathes I 
  * Ariarathes II 
  * Ariamnes II 
  * Ariarathes III 
  * Ariarathes IV 
  * Ariarathes V 
  * Orophernes 
 Kings of Cappadocia  * Ariarathes VI 
  * Ariarathes VII 
  * Ariarathes VIII 
  * Ariarathes IX 
  * Ariobarzanes I 
  * Ariobarzanes II 
  * Ariobarzanes III 
  * Ariarathes X 
  * Archelaus 
  * Paerisades I 
  * Satyros II 
  * Prytanis 
  * Eumelos 
  * Spartokos III 
  * Hygiainon (regent) 
  * Paerisades II 
  * Spartokos IV 
  * Leukon II 
  * Spartokos V 
  * Kamasarye 
  * Paerisades III 
 Kings of the  * Paerisades IV 
 Cimmerian Bosporus  * Paerisades V 
  * Mithridates I 
  * Pharnaces 
  * Asander with Dynamis 
  * Mithridates II 
  * Asander with Dynamis 
  * Scribonius’s attempted rule with Dynamis
  * Dynamis with Polemon 
  * Polemon with Pythodorida 
  * Aspurgus 
  * Gepaepyris 
  * Mithridates III 
  * Cotys I 
  * Admetus 
  * Tharrhypas 
  * Alcetas I 
  * Neoptolemus I 
  * Arybbas 
  * Alexander I 
  * Aeacides 
 Kings of Epirus  * Neoptolemus II 
  * Alcetas II 
  * Pyrrhus I 
  * Alexander II 
  * Olympias II (regent) 
  * Pyrrhus II 
  * Ptolemy 
  * Pyrrhus III 
  * Deidamia 
 Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories.
 
 * v 
 * t 
 * e 
 Pharaohs 
 Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period (<3150–2040 BC) 
 * Pharaohs 
 Dynasty + male 
 Period + female♀ 
 * uncertain 
  
 * Hedju Hor 
 * Ny-Hor 
 * Ni-Neith 
 * Hsekiu 
 * Khayu 
 * Tiu 
 Lower * Thesh 
 * Neheb 
 * Wazner 
 * Hat Hor 
 * Mekh 
 * Double Falcon 
 * Wash 
 Protodynastic * A 
 (pre-3150 BC) * Finger Snail 
 * Fish 
 * Pen-Abu 
 * Animal 
 * Stork 
 Upper * Canide 
 * Bull 
 * Scorpion I 
 * Shendjw 
 * Iry-Hor 
 * Ka 
 * Scorpion II 
 * Narmer / Menes 
  
 * Narmer / Menes 
 * Hor-Aha 
 * Djer 
 * Djet 
 I * Den 
 * Anedjib 
 * Semerkhet 
 * Qa'a 
 * Sneferka 
 * Horus Bird 
 * Hotepsekhemwy 
 * Nebra 
 Early Dynastic * Nynetjer 
 (3150–2686 BC) * Ba 
 * Nubnefer 
 * Horus Sa 
 * Weneg-Nebty 
 II * Wadjenes 
 * Senedj 
 * Seth-Peribsen 
 * Sekhemib-Perenmaat 
 * Neferkara I 
 * Neferkasokar 
 * Hudjefa I 
 * Khasekhemwy 
  
 * Djoser 
 * Sekhemkhet 
 * Sanakht 
 III * Nebka 
 * Khaba 
 * Sedjes 
 * Qahedjet 
 * Huni 
 * Snefru 
 * Khufu 
 * Djedefre 
 IV * Khafre 
 * Bikheris 
 * Menkaure 
 * Shepseskaf 
 * Thamphthis 
 Old Kingdom * Userkaf 
 (2686–2181 BC) * Sahure 
 * Neferirkare Kakai 
 * Neferefre 
 V * Shepseskare 
 * Nyuserre Ini 
 * Menkauhor Kaiu 
 * Djedkare Isesi 
 * Unas 
 * Teti 
 * Userkare 
 * Pepi I 
 * Merenre Nemtyemsaf I 
 VI * Pepi II 
 * Merenre Nemtyemsaf II 
 * Netjerkare Siptah 
 * Neferka 
 * Nefer 
  
 * Menkare 
 * Neferkare II 
 * Neferkare III Neby 
 * Djedkare Shemai 
 * Neferkare IV Khendu 
 * Merenhor 
 * Neferkamin 
 * Nikare 
 * Neferkare V Tereru 
 VII/VIII * Neferkahor 
 * Neferkare VI Pepiseneb 
 * Neferkamin Anu 
 * Qakare Iby 
 1st Intermediate * Neferkaure 
 (2181–2040 BC) * Neferkauhor 
 * Neferirkare 
 * Wadjkare 
 * Khuiqer 
 * Khui 
 * Iytjenu 
 * Meryibre Khety 
 IX * Neferkare VII 
 * Nebkaure Khety 
 * Setut 
 * Meryhathor 
 X * Neferkare VIII 
 * Wahkare Khety 
 * Merykare 
  
  
  
 Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period (2040–1550 BC)
 * Pharaohs 
 Dynasty + male 
 Period + female♀ 
 * uncertain 
  
 * Mentuhotep I 
 * Intef I 
 * Intef II 
 XI * Intef III 
 * Mentuhotep II 
 * Mentuhotep III 
 * Mentuhotep IV 
 * Segerseni 
 Nubia * Qakare Ini 
 Middle Kingdom * Iyibkhentre 
 (2040–1802 BC) * Amenemhat I 
 * Senusret I 
 * Amenemhat II 
 * Senusret II 
 XII * Senusret III 
 * Amenemhat III 
 * Amenemhat IV 
 * Sobekneferu♀ 
 * Seankhibtawy Seankhibra 
  
 * Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep 
 * Sonbef 
 * Nerikare 
 * Sekhemkare Amenemhat V 
 * Ameny Qemau 
 * Hotepibre 
 * Iufni 
 * Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI 
 * Semenkare Nebnuni 
 * Sehetepibre 
 * Sewadjkare 
 * Nedjemibre 
 * Khaankhre Sobekhotep 
 * Renseneb 
 * Hor 
 * Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw 
 * Djedkheperew 
 * Sebkay 
 * Sedjefakare 
 * Wegaf 
 * Khendjer 
 XIII * Imyremeshaw 
 * Sehetepkare Intef 
 * Seth Meribre 
 * Sobekhotep III 
 * Neferhotep I 
 * Sihathor 
 * Sobekhotep IV 
 * Merhotepre Sobekhotep 
 * Khahotepre Sobekhotep 
 * Wahibre Ibiau 
 * Merneferre Ay 
 * Merhotepre Ini 
 * Sankhenre Sewadjtu 
 * Mersekhemre Ined 
 * Sewadjkare Hori 
 * Merkawre Sobekhotep 
 * Mershepsesre Ini II 
 * Sewahenre Senebmiu 
 * Merkheperre 
 * Merkare 
 * Sewadjare Mentuhotep 
 * Seheqenre Sankhptahi 
 * Yakbim Sekhaenre 
 * Ya'ammu Nubwoserre 
 * Qareh Khawoserre 
 * 'Ammu Ahotepre 
 * Maaibre Sheshi 
 * Nehesy 
 * Khakherewre 
 * Nebefawre 
 * Sehebre 
 2nd Intermediate * Merdjefare 
 (1802–1550 BC) * Sewadjkare III 
 * Nebdjefare 
 XIV * Webenre 
 * Nebsenre 
 * Sekheperenre 
 * Djedkherewre 
 * Bebnum 
 * 'Apepi 
 * Nuya 
 * Wazad 
 * Sheneh 
 * Shenshek 
 * Khamure 
 * Yakareb 
 * Yaqub-Har 
 * Sharek 
 * Semqen 
 * 'Aper-'Anati 
 * Salitis 
 XV * Sakir-Har 
 * Khyan 
 * Yanassi 
 * Apepi 
 * Khamudi 
 * Djehuti 
 * Sobekhotep VIII 
 * Neferhotep III 
 * Mentuhotepi 
 * Nebiryraw I 
 * Nebiriau II 
 * Semenre 
 XVI * Bebiankh 
 * Sekhemre Shedwast 
 * Dedumose I 
 * Dedumose II 
 * Montuemsaf 
 * Merankhre Mentuhotep 
 * Senusret IV 
 * Pepi III 
 * Senebkay 
 Abydos * Wepwawetemsaf 
 * Pantjeny 
 * Snaaib 
 * Rahotep 
 * Nebmaatre 
 * Sobekemsaf I 
 * Sobekemsaf II 
 XVII * Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef 
 * Nubkheperre Intef 
 * Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef 
 * Senakhtenre Ahmose 
 * Seqenenre Tao 
 * Kamose 
  
  
  
 New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period (1550–664 BC) 
  * Pharaohs (male 
 Period Dynasty * female ♀ ) 
  * uncertain 
  
 * Ahmose I 
 * Amenhotep I 
 * Thutmose I 
 * Thutmose II 
 * Hatshepsut♀ 
 * Thutmose III 
 * Amenhotep II 
 XVIII * Thutmose IV 
 * Amenhotep III 
 * Akhenaten 
 * Smenkhkare 
 * Neferneferuaten♀ 
 * Tutankhamun 
 * Ay 
 * Horemheb 
 * Ramesses I 
 New Kingdom * Seti I 
 (1550–1070 BC) * Ramesses II 
 XIX * Merneptah 
 * Amenmesses 
 * Seti II 
 * Siptah 
 * Twosret♀ 
 * Setnakhte 
 * Ramesses III 
 * Ramesses IV 
 * Ramesses V 
 XX * Ramesses VI 
 * Ramesses VII 
 * Ramesses VIII 
 * Ramesses IX 
 * Ramesses X 
 * Ramesses XI 
  
 * Smendes 
 * Amenemnisu 
 * Psusennes I 
 XXI * Amenemope 
 * Osorkon the Elder 
 * Siamun 
 * Psusennes II 
 * Shoshenq I 
 * Osorkon I 
 * Shoshenq II 
 * Tutkheperre Shoshenq 
 * Takelot I 
 XXII * Osorkon II 
 * Shoshenq III 
 * Shoshenq IV 
 * Pami 
 * Shoshenq V 
 3rd Intermediate * Pedubast II 
 (1069–664 BC) * Osorkon IV 
 * Harsiese A 
 * Takelot II 
 * Pedubast I 
 * Shoshenq VI 
 XXIII * Osorkon III 
 * Takelot III 
 * Rudamun 
 * Shoshenq VII 
 * Menkheperre Ini 
 XXIV * Tefnakht 
 * Bakenranef 
 * Piye 
 * Shebitku 
 XXV * Shabaka 
 * Taharqa 
 * Tanutamun 
  
  
  
 Late Period and Hellenistic Period (664–30 BC) 
 * Pharaohs 
 Dynasty + male 
 Period + female♀ 
 * uncertain 
  
 * Necho I 
 * Psamtik I 
 * Necho II 
 XXVI * Psamtik II 
 * Wahibre 
 * Ahmose II 
 * Psamtik III 
 * Cambyses II 
 * Petubastis III 
 * Darius I 
 XXVII * Psammetichus IV 
 * Xerxes 
 Late * Artaxerxes I 
 (664–332 BC) * Darius II 
 XXVIII * Amyrtaeus 
 * Nepherites I 
 XXIX * Hakor 
 * Psammuthes 
 * Nepherites II 
 * Nectanebo I 
 XXX * Teos 
 * Nectanebo II 
 * Artaxerxes III 
 XXXI * Khabash 
 * Arses 
 * Darius III 
  
 * Alexander the Great 
 Argead * Philip III Arrhidaeus 
 * Alexander IV 
 * Ptolemy I Soter 
 * Ptolemy II Philadelphus 
 * Arsinoe II♀ 
 * Ptolemy III Euergetes 
 * Berenice II Euergetes♀ 
 * Ptolemy IV Philopator 
 * Arsinoe III Philopator♀ 
 * Ptolemy V Epiphanes 
 * Cleopatra I Syra♀ 
 * Ptolemy VI Philometor 
 * Cleopatra II♀ 
 * Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator 
 Hellenistic * Ptolemy VIII Euergetes 
 (332–30 BC) Ptolemaic * Cleopatra III♀ 
 * Ptolemy IX Soter 
 * Cleopatra IV♀ 
 * Ptolemy X Alexander I 
 * Berenice III♀ 
 * Ptolemy XI Alexander II 
 * Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos 
 * Cleopatra V♀ 
 * Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ 
 * Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ 
 * Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ 
 * Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator 
 * Arsinoe IV♀ 
 * Ptolemy XIV Philopator 
 * Ptolemy XV Caesarion 
  
  
  
 Dynastic genealogies 
 * 1st 
 * 2nd 
 * 3rd 
 * 4th 
 * 11th 
 * 12th 
 * 18th 
 * 19th 
 * 20th 
 * 21st to 23rd 
 * 24th 
 * 25th 
 * 26th 
 * 27th 
 * 30th 
 * 31st 
 * Ptolemaic 
  
 List of pharaohs 
 
 * v 
 * t 
 * e 
 Shahnameh of Ferdowsi
  * Keyumars 
  * Hushang 
  * Tahmuras 
  * Jamshid 
 Pishdadian * Fereydun 
  * Iraj 
  * Manuchehr 
  * Nowzar 
  * Zaav 
  * Garshasp 
  * Kay Kawād 
  * Kay Kāvus 
  * Kay Khosrow 
  * Kay Lohrasp 
 Kayanian * Goshtasb 
  * Kay Bahman 
  * Humay Chehrzad 
  * Kay Darab 
  * Dara II 
  * Jamasp 
  * Siamak 
  * Shahrasp 
  * Abtin 
  * Kayanoush 
  * Kāve 
  * Arash 
  * Salm 
  * Tur 
  * Qobád 
  * Qaren 
  * Tous 
  * Gostaham 
  * Gershasp 
  * Nariman 
  * Sām 
  * Zāl 
  * Rostam 
  * Sohrab 
 Male characters * Esfandiyār 
  * Pashotan 
  * Faramarz 
  * Fariborz 
  * Siyâvash 
  * Farud 
  * Zangay-i Shavaran 
  * Kashvad 
 Characters * Goudarz 
  * Giv 
  * Bizhan 
  * Rohham 
  * Bahram 
  * Hojir 
  * Gorgin 
  * Zavara 
  * Shaghad 
  * Rostam Farrokhzād 
  * Barbad 
  * Eskandar (Alexander) 
  * Faranak 
  * Arnavāz 
  * Shahrnāz 
  * Sindukht 
  * Rudaba 
 Female characters * Sudabeh 
  * Tahmina 
  * Banu Goshasp 
  * Gordafarid 
  * Farangis 
  * Manizheh 
  * Katāyoun 
  * Mardas 
 Tazian * Zahhak 
  * Mehrab Kaboli 
  * Zadashm 
  * Pashang 
  * Aghrirat 
  * Garsivaz 
  * Afrasiab 
  * Tageuo 
 Turanian * Shideh 
  * Arjasp 
  * Viseh 
  * Piran 
  * Houman 
  * Barman 
  * Nastihan 
  * Biderafsh 
  * Kashvadian 
  * House of Goudarz 
 Clans and * House of Viseh 
 families * House of Nowzar 
  * House of Sasan 
  * House of Sām 
  
 * Akvan Div 
 * Kharvazan Div 
 * Arzhang Div 
 * Div-e Sepid 
 Creatures * Koulad-Ghandi 
 and animals * Huma bird 
 * Simurgh 
 * Rakhsh 
 * Shabdiz 
 * Shabrang 
 * White Elephant 
 * Iran 
 * Turan 
 * Zabulistan 
 * Sistan 
 * Kabul 
 * Balkh 
 Places * Ctesiphon 
 * Estakhr 
 * Mazandaran 
 * Alborzkouh 
 * Mount Damavand 
 * Tammisha 
 * Kasa-Roud 
 * Other locations... 
 * Gonbadan Castle (Dez-i Gonbadan) 
 * Roein Castle (Dez-i Roein) 
 Structures * Sepid Castle (Dezh-i Sepid 
 * Bahman Castle (Dezh-i Bahman) 
 * Alanan Castle (Dezh-i Alanan 
 * Gang Castle (Gang-Dez) 
 * Florence Shahnameh 
 * Great Mongol Shahnameh (or Demotte) 
 * Baysonghor Shahnameh 
 Manuscripts * Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp 
 * Shahnameh of Rashida 
 * Windsor Shahnameh 
 * Davari Shahnameh 
 * Daqiqi 
 * Abu-Mansuri Shahnameh 
 * Derafsh Kaviani 
 * Babr-e Bayan 
 * Zal and Rudabeh 
 Related * Rostam and Sohrab 
 * Rostam and Esfandiyar 
 * Rostam's Seven Labours 
 * Davazdah Rokh 
 * Khosrow and Shirin 
 * Bijan and Manijeh 
 * Persian mythology 
 * Category 
 
 * v  
 * t  
 * e  
 Ancient Greece 
 * Timeline 
 * History 
 * Geography 
 * Cycladic civilization 
 * Minoan civilization 
 * Mycenaean civilization 
 Periods * Greek Dark Ages 
 * Archaic period 
 * Classical Greece 
 * Hellenistic Greece 
 * Roman Greece 
 * Aegean Sea 
 * Aeolis 
 * Crete 
 * Cyrenaica 
 * Cyprus 
 * Doris 
 * Epirus 
 Geography * Hellespont 
 * Ionia 
 * Ionian Sea 
 * Macedonia 
 * Magna Graecia 
 * Peloponnesus 
 * Pontus 
 * Taurica 
 * Ancient Greek colonies 
  
  
 * City states 
 * Politics 
 * Military 
 * Argos 
 * Athens 
 * Byzantion 
 * Chalcis 
 * Corinth 
 * Ephesus 
 * Miletus 
 * Pergamon 
 * Eretria 
 City states * Kerkyra 
 * Larissa 
 * Megalopolis 
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Alexander the Great       Alexander the Great in the Alexander Mosaic at the National Archaeological Museum, Naples, Italy      King of Macedonia    Reign 336–323 BC   Predecessor  Philip II    Successor  
  Alexander IV 
 Philip III  
     Hegemon of the Hellenic League    Reign 336–323 BC   Predecessor  Philip II    Successor  Demetrius Poliorcetes     Pharaoh of Egypt    Reign 332–323 BC   Predecessor  Darius III    Successor  
 Alexander IV
Philip III 
    Royal titulary        King of Persia    Reign 330–323 BC   Predecessor Darius III   Successor  
 Alexander IV
Philip III 
        Born 20 or 21 July 356 BC Pella, Macedon    Died 10 or 11 June 323 BC (aged 32) Babylon, Mesopotamia    Spouse  
  Roxana 
 Stateira 
 Parysatis  
    Issue  
  Alexander IV 
 Heracles (alleged illegitimate son) 
        Names   Alexander III of Macedon        Greek  Ἀλέξανδρος [d]      Dynasty   Argead    Father  Philip II of Macedon    Mother  Olympias of Epirus    Religion  Ancient Greek religion    
 Alexander III of Macedon (Ancient Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος,  romanized:  Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great, [a]  was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon. [a]  He succeeded his father Philip II to the throne in 336 BC at the age of 20, and spent most of his ruling years conducting a lengthy military campaign throughout Western Asia and Egypt. By the age of 30, he had created one of the largest empires in history, stretching from Greece to northwestern India. [2]  He was undefeated in battle and is widely considered to be one of history's greatest and most successful military commanders. [3]   [4] 
 Until the age of 16, Alexander was tutored by Aristotle. In 335 BC, shortly after his assumption of kingship over Macedon, he campaigned in the Balkans and reasserted control over Thrace and Illyria before marching on the city of Thebes, which was subsequently destroyed in battle. Alexander then led the League of Corinth, and used his authority to launch the pan-Hellenic project envisaged by his father, assuming leadership over all Greeks in their conquest of Persia. [5]   [6] 
 In 334 BC, he invaded the Achaemenid Persian Empire and began a series of campaigns that lasted for 10 years. Following his conquest of Asia Minor, Alexander broke the power of Achaemenid Persia in a series of decisive battles, including those at Issus and Gaugamela; he subsequently overthrew Darius III and conquered the Achaemenid Empire in its entirety. [b]  After the fall of Persia, the Macedonian Empire held a vast swath of territory between the Adriatic Sea and the Indus River. Alexander endeavored to reach the "ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea" and invaded India in 326 BC, achieving an important victory over Porus, an ancient Indian king of present-day Punjab, at the Battle of the Hydaspes. Due to the demand of his homesick troops, he eventually turned back at the Beas River and later died in 323 BC in Babylon, the city of Mesopotamia that he had planned to establish as his empire's capital. Alexander's death left unexecuted an additional series of planned military and mercantile campaigns that would have begun with a Greek invasion of Arabia. In the years following his death, a series of civil wars broke out across the Macedonian Empire, eventually leading to its disintegration at the hands of the Diadochi.
 With his death marking the start of the Hellenistic period, Alexander's legacy includes the cultural diffusion and syncretism that his conquests engendered, such as Greco-Buddhism and Hellenistic Judaism. He founded more than twenty cities, with the most prominent being the city of Alexandria in Egypt. Alexander's settlement of Greek colonists and the resulting spread of Greek culture led to the overwhelming dominance of Hellenistic civilization and influence as far east as the Indian subcontinent. The Hellenistic period developed through the Roman Empire into modern Western culture; the Greek language became the  lingua franca  of the region and was the predominant language of the Byzantine Empire up until its collapse in the mid-15th century AD. Greek-speaking communities in central Anatolia and in far-eastern Anatolia survived until the Greek genocide and Greek–Turkish population exchanges of the early 20th century AD. Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mould of Achilles, featuring prominently in the historical and mythical traditions of both Greek and non-Greek cultures. His military achievements and unprecedented enduring successes in battle made him the measure against which many later military leaders would compare themselves, [c]  and his tactics remain a significant subject of study in military academies worldwide. [7] 
Early life
Lineage and childhood
     
Alexander III was born in Pella, the capital of the Kingdom of Macedon, [8]  on the sixth day of the ancient Greek month of Hekatombaion, which probably corresponds to 20 July 356 BC (although the exact date is uncertain). [9]   [10]  He was the son of the erstwhile king of Macedon, Philip II, and his fourth wife, Olympias (daughter of Neoptolemus I, king of Epirus). [11]  Although Philip had seven or eight wives, Olympias was his principal wife for some time, likely because she gave birth to Alexander. [12] 
      Roman medallion depicting Olympias, Alexander's mother  
Several legends surround Alexander's birth and childhood. [13]  According to the ancient Greek biographer Plutarch, on the eve of the consummation of her marriage to Philip, Olympias dreamed that her womb was struck by a thunderbolt that caused a flame to spread "far and wide" before dying away. Sometime after the wedding, Philip is said to have seen himself, in a dream, securing his wife's womb with a seal engraved with a lion's image. [14]  Plutarch offered a variety of interpretations for these dreams: that Olympias was pregnant before her marriage, indicated by the sealing of her womb; or that Alexander's father was Zeus. Ancient commentators were divided about whether the ambitious Olympias promulgated the story of Alexander's divine parentage, variously claiming that she had told Alexander, or that she dismissed the suggestion as impious. [14] 
 On the day Alexander was born, Philip was preparing a siege on the city of Potidea on the peninsula of Chalcidice. That same day, Philip received news that his general Parmenion had defeated the combined Illyrian and Paeonian armies and that his horses had won at the Olympic Games. It was also said that on this day, the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, burnt down. This led Hegesias of Magnesia to say that it had burnt down because Artemis was away, attending the birth of Alexander. [15]  Such legends may have emerged when Alexander was king, and possibly at his instigation, to show that he was superhuman and destined for greatness from conception. [13] 
      Archaeological Site of Pella, Greece, Alexander's birthplace  
In his early years, Alexander was raised by a nurse, Lanike, sister of Alexander's future general Cleitus the Black. Later in his childhood, Alexander was tutored by the strict Leonidas, a relative of his mother, and by Lysimachus of Acarnania. [16]  Alexander was raised in the manner of noble Macedonian youths, learning to read, play the lyre, ride, fight, and hunt. [17] 
When Alexander was ten years old, a trader from Thessaly brought Philip a horse, which he offered to sell for thirteen talents. The horse refused to be mounted, and Philip ordered it away. Alexander, however, detecting the horse's fear of its own shadow, asked to tame the horse, which he eventually managed. [13]  Plutarch stated that Philip, overjoyed at this display of courage and ambition, kissed his son tearfully, declaring: "My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedon is too small for you", and bought the horse for him. [18]  Alexander named it Bucephalas, meaning "ox-head". Bucephalas carried Alexander as far as India. When the animal died (because of old age, according to Plutarch, at age thirty), Alexander named a city after him, Bucephala. [19] 
Education
     
When Alexander was 13, Philip began to search for a tutor, and considered such academics as Isocrates and Speusippus, the latter offering to resign from his stewardship of the Academy to take up the post. In the end, Philip chose Aristotle and provided the Temple of the Nymphs at Mieza as a classroom. In return for teaching Alexander, Philip agreed to rebuild Aristotle's hometown of Stageira, which Philip had razed, and to repopulate it by buying and freeing the ex-citizens who were slaves, or pardoning those who were in exile. [20] 
 Mieza was like a boarding school for Alexander and the children of Macedonian nobles, such as Ptolemy, Hephaistion, and Cassander. Many of these students would become his friends and future generals, and are often known as the "Companions". Aristotle taught Alexander and his companions about medicine, philosophy, morals, religion, logic, and art. Under Aristotle's tutelage, Alexander developed a passion for the works of Homer, and in particular the  Iliad ; Aristotle gave him an annotated copy, which Alexander later carried on his campaigns. [21] 
 Alexander was able to quote Euripides from memory. [22] 
 During his youth, Alexander was also acquainted with Persian exiles at the Macedonian court, who received the protection of Philip II for several years as they opposed Artaxerxes III. [23]   [24]   [25]  Among them were Artabazos II and his daughter Barsine, possible future mistress of Alexander, who resided at the Macedonian court from 352 to 342 BC, as well as Amminapes, future satrap of Alexander, or a Persian nobleman named Sisines. [23]   [26]   [27]   [28]  This gave the Macedonian court a good knowledge of Persian issues, and may even have influenced some of the innovations in the management of the Macedonian state. [26] 
  Suda writes that Anaximenes of Lampsacus was one of Alexander's teachers, and that Anaximenes also accompanied Alexander on his campaigns. [29] 
Heir of Philip II
Regency and ascent of Macedon
     
At the age of 16, Alexander's education under Aristotle ended. Philip II had waged war against the Thracians to the north, which left Alexander in charge as regent and heir apparent. [13]  During Philip's absence, the Thracian tribe of Maedi revolted against Macedonia. Alexander responded quickly and drove them from their territory. The territory was colonized, and a city, named Alexandropolis, was founded. [30] 
 Upon Philip's return, Alexander was dispatched with a small force to subdue the revolts in southern Thrace. Campaigning against the Greek city of Perinthus, Alexander reportedly saved his father's life. Meanwhile, the city of Amphissa began to work lands that were sacred to Apollo near Delphi, a sacrilege that gave Philip the opportunity to further intervene in Greek affairs. While Philip was occupied in Thrace, Alexander was ordered to muster an army for a campaign in southern Greece. Concerned that other Greek states might intervene, Alexander made it look as though he was preparing to attack Illyria instead. During this turmoil, the Illyrians invaded Macedonia, only to be repelled by Alexander. [31] 
 Philip and his army joined his son in 338 BC, and they marched south through Thermopylae, taking it after stubborn resistance from its Theban garrison. They went on to occupy the city of Elatea, only a few days' march from both Athens and Thebes. The Athenians, led by Demosthenes, voted to seek alliance with Thebes against Macedonia. Both Athens and Philip sent embassies to win Thebes's favour, but Athens won the contest. [32]  Philip marched on Amphissa (ostensibly acting on the request of the Amphictyonic League), capturing the mercenaries sent there by Demosthenes and accepting the city's surrender. Philip then returned to Elatea, sending a final offer of peace to Athens and Thebes, who both rejected it. [33] 
     
As Philip marched south, his opponents blocked him near Chaeronea, Boeotia. During the ensuing Battle of Chaeronea, Philip commanded the right wing and Alexander the left, accompanied by a group of Philip's trusted generals. According to the ancient sources, the two sides fought bitterly for some time. Philip deliberately commanded his troops to retreat, counting on the untested Athenian hoplites to follow, thus breaking their line. Alexander was the first to break the Theban lines, followed by Philip's generals. Having damaged the enemy's cohesion, Philip ordered his troops to press forward and quickly routed them. With the Athenians lost, the Thebans were surrounded. Left to fight alone, they were defeated. [34] 
 After the victory at Chaeronea, Philip and Alexander marched unopposed into the Peloponnese, welcomed by all cities; however, when they reached Sparta, they were refused, but did not resort to war. [35]  At Corinth, Philip established a "Hellenic Alliance" (modelled on the old anti-Persian alliance of the Greco-Persian Wars), which included most Greek city-states except Sparta. Philip was then named  Hegemon  (often translated as "Supreme Commander") of this league (known by modern scholars as the League of Corinth), and announced his plans to attack the Persian Empire. [36]   [37] 
Exile and return
When Philip returned to Pella, he fell in love with and married Cleopatra Eurydice in 338 BC, [38]  the niece of his general Attalus. [39]  The marriage made Alexander's position as heir less secure, since any son of Cleopatra Eurydice would be a fully Macedonian heir, while Alexander was only half-Macedonian. [40]  During the wedding banquet, a drunken Attalus publicly prayed to the gods that the union would produce a legitimate heir. [39] 
 At the wedding of Cleopatra, whom Philip fell in love with and married, she being much too young for him, her uncle Attalus in his drink desired the Macedonians would implore the gods to give them a lawful successor to the kingdom by his niece. This so irritated Alexander, that throwing one of the cups at his head, "You villain," said he, "what, am I then a bastard?" Then Philip, taking Attalus's part, rose up and would have run his son through; but by good fortune for them both, either his over-hasty rage, or the wine he had drunk, made his foot slip, so that he fell down on the floor. At which Alexander reproachfully insulted over him: "See there," said he, "the man who makes preparations to pass out of Europe into Asia, overturned in passing from one seat to another." — Plutarch, describing the feud at Philip's wedding. [41]    
In 337 BC, Alexander fled Macedon with his mother, dropping her off with her brother, King Alexander I of Epirus in Dodona, capital of the Molossians. [42]  He continued to Illyria, [42]  where he sought refuge with one or more Illyrian kings, perhaps with Glaukias, and was treated as a guest, despite having defeated them in battle a few years before. [43]  However, it appears Philip never intended to disown his politically and militarily trained son. [42]  Accordingly, Alexander returned to Macedon after six months due to the efforts of a family friend, Demaratus, who mediated between the two parties. [44] 
 In the following year, the Persian satrap (governor) of Caria, Pixodarus, offered his eldest daughter to Alexander's half-brother, Philip Arrhidaeus. [42]  Olympias and several of Alexander's friends suggested this showed Philip intended to make Arrhidaeus his heir. [42]  Alexander reacted by sending an actor, Thessalus of Corinth, to tell Pixodarus that he should not offer his daughter's hand to an illegitimate son, but instead to Alexander. When Philip heard of this, he stopped the negotiations and scolded Alexander for wishing to marry the daughter of a Carian, explaining that he wanted a better bride for him. [42]  Philip exiled four of Alexander's friends, Harpalus, Nearchus, Ptolemy and Erigyius, and had the Corinthians bring Thessalus to him in chains. [45] 
King of Macedon
Accession
      Pausanius assassinates Philip II, Alexander's father, during his procession into the theatre  
      The emblema of the Stag Hunt Mosaic, c. 300 BC, from Pella; the figure on the right is possibly Alexander the Great due to the date of the mosaic along with the depicted upsweep of his centrally-parted hair (anastole); the figure on the left wielding a double-edged axe (associated with Hephaistos) is perhaps Hephaestion, one of Alexander's loyal companions. [46]    
In summer 336 BC, while at Aegae attending the wedding of his daughter Cleopatra to Olympias's brother, Alexander I of Epirus, Philip was assassinated by the captain of his bodyguards, Pausanias. [e]  As Pausanias tried to escape, he tripped over a vine and was killed by his pursuers, including two of Alexander's companions, Perdiccas and Leonnatus. Alexander was proclaimed king on the spot by the nobles and army at the age of 20. [47]   [48]   [49] 
Consolidation of power
Alexander began his reign by eliminating potential rivals to the throne. He had his cousin, the former Amyntas IV, executed. [50]  He also had two Macedonian princes from the region of Lyncestis killed for having been involved in his father's assassination, but spared a third, Alexander Lyncestes. Olympias had Cleopatra Eurydice, and Europa, her daughter by Philip, burned alive. When Alexander learned about this, he was furious. Alexander also ordered the murder of Attalus, [50]  who was in command of the advance guard of the army in Asia Minor and Cleopatra's uncle. [51] 
 Attalus was at that time corresponding with Demosthenes, regarding the possibility of defecting to Athens. Attalus also had severely insulted Alexander, and following Cleopatra's murder, Alexander may have considered him too dangerous to leave alive. [51]  Alexander spared Arrhidaeus, who was by all accounts mentally disabled, possibly as a result of poisoning by Olympias. [47]   [49]   [52] 
 News of Philip's death roused many states into revolt, including Thebes, Athens, Thessaly, and the Thracian tribes north of Macedon. When news of the revolts reached Alexander, he responded quickly. Though advised to use diplomacy, Alexander mustered 3,000 Macedonian cavalry and rode south towards Thessaly. He found the Thessalian army occupying the pass between Mount Olympus and Mount Ossa, and ordered his men to ride over Mount Ossa. When the Thessalians awoke the next day, they found Alexander in their rear and promptly surrendered, adding their cavalry to Alexander's force. He then continued south towards the Peloponnese. [53] 
 Alexander stopped at Thermopylae, where he was recognized as the leader of the Amphictyonic League before heading south to Corinth. Athens sued for peace and Alexander pardoned the rebels. The famous encounter between Alexander and Diogenes the Cynic occurred during Alexander's stay in Corinth. When Alexander asked Diogenes what he could do for him, the philosopher disdainfully asked Alexander to stand a little to the side, as he was blocking the sunlight. [54]  This reply apparently delighted Alexander, who is reported to have said "But verily, if I were not Alexander, I would like to be Diogenes." [55]  At Corinth, Alexander took the title of Hegemon ("leader") and, like Philip, was appointed commander for the coming war against Persia. He also received news of a Thracian uprising. [56] 
Balkan campaign
      The Macedonian phalanx at the "Battle of the Carts" against the Thracians in 335 BC  
Before crossing to Asia, Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders. In the spring of 335 BC, he advanced to suppress several revolts. Starting from Amphipolis, he travelled east into the country of the "Independent Thracians"; and at Mount Haemus, the Macedonian army attacked and defeated the Thracian forces manning the heights. [57]  The Macedonians marched into the country of the Triballi, and defeated their army near the Lyginus river [58]  (a tributary of the Danube). Alexander then marched for three days to the Danube, encountering the Getae tribe on the opposite shore. Crossing the river at night, he surprised them and forced their army to retreat after the first cavalry skirmish. [59] 
 News then reached Alexander that the Illyrian chieftain Cleitus and King Glaukias of the Taulantii were in open revolt against his authority. Marching west into Illyria, Alexander defeated each in turn, forcing the two rulers to flee with their troops. With these victories, he secured his northern frontier. [60] 
Destruction of Thebes
While Alexander campaigned north, the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once again. Alexander immediately headed south. [61]  While the other cities again hesitated, Thebes decided to fight. The Theban resistance was ineffective, and Alexander razed the city and divided its territory between the other Boeotian cities. The end of Thebes cowed Athens, leaving all of Greece temporarily at peace. [61]  Alexander then set out on his Asian campaign, leaving Antipater as regent. [62] 
Conquest of the Achaemenid Persian Empire
Asia Minor
      Map of Alexander's empire and his route  
     
     
After his victory at the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC), Philip II began the work of establishing himself as hēgemṓn (Greek: ἡγεμών) of a league which according to Diodorus was to wage a campaign against the Persians for the sundry grievances Greece suffered in 480 and free the Greek cities of the western coast and islands from Achaemenid rule. In 336 he sent Parmenion, with Amyntas, Andromenes and Attalus, and an army of 10,000 men into Anatolia to make preparations for an invasion. [63]   [64]  At first, all went well. The Greek cities on the western coast of Anatolia revolted until the news arrived that Philip had been murdered and had been succeeded by his young son Alexander. The Macedonians were demoralized by Philip's death and were subsequently defeated near Magnesia by the Achaemenids under the command of the mercenary Memnon of Rhodes. [63]   [64] 
 Taking over the invasion project of Philip II, Alexander's army crossed the Hellespont in 334 BC with approximately 48,100 soldiers, 6,100 cavalry and a fleet of 120 ships with crews numbering 38,000, [61]  drawn from Macedon and various Greek city-states, mercenaries, and feudally raised soldiers from Thrace, Paionia, and Illyria. [65]   [f]  He showed his intent to conquer the entirety of the Persian Empire by throwing a spear into Asian soil and saying he accepted Asia as a gift from the gods. This also showed Alexander's eagerness to fight, in contrast to his father's preference for diplomacy. [61] 
 After an initial victory against Persian forces at the Battle of the Granicus, Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of Sardis; he then proceeded along the Ionian coast, granting autonomy and democracy to the cities. Miletus, held by Achaemenid forces, required a delicate siege operation, with Persian naval forces nearby. Further south, at Halicarnassus, in Caria, Alexander successfully waged his first large-scale siege, eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captain Memnon of Rhodes and the Persian satrap of Caria, Orontobates, to withdraw by sea. [66]  Alexander left the government of Caria to a member of the Hecatomnid dynasty, Ada, who adopted Alexander. [67] 
 From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainous Lycia and the Pamphylian plain, asserting control over all coastal cities to deny the Persians naval bases. From Pamphylia onwards the coast held no major ports and Alexander moved inland. At Termessos, Alexander humbled but did not storm the Pisidian city. [68]  At the ancient Phrygian capital of Gordium, Alexander "undid" the hitherto unsolvable Gordian Knot, a feat said to await the future "king of Asia". [69]  According to the story, Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone and hacked it apart with his sword. [70] 
The Levant and Syria
In spring 333 BC, Alexander crossed the Taurus into Cilicia. After a long pause due to an illness, he marched on towards Syria. Though outmanoeuvered by Darius's significantly larger army, he marched back to Cilicia, where he defeated Darius at Issus. Darius fled the battle, causing his army to collapse, and left behind his wife, his two daughters, his mother Sisygambis, and a fabulous treasure. [71]  He offered a peace treaty that included the lands he had already lost, and a ransom of 10,000 talents for his family. Alexander replied that since he was now king of Asia, it was he alone who decided territorial divisions. [72] 
Alexander proceeded to take possession of Syria, and most of the coast of the Levant. [67]  In the following year, 332 BC, he was forced to attack Tyre, which he captured after a long and difficult siege. [73]   [74]  The men of military age were massacred and the women and children sold into slavery. [75] 
Egypt
     
When Alexander destroyed Tyre, most of the towns on the route to Egypt quickly capitulated. However, Alexander was met with resistance at Gaza. The stronghold was heavily fortified and built on a hill, requiring a siege. When "his engineers pointed out to him that because of the height of the mound it would be impossible... this encouraged Alexander all the more to make the
attempt". [76]  After three unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold fell, but not before Alexander had received a serious shoulder wound. As in Tyre, men of military age were put to the sword and the women and children were sold into slavery. [77] 
 Egypt was only one of a large number of territories taken by Alexander from the Persians. After his trip to Siwa, Alexander was crowned in the temple of Ptah at Memphis. It appears that the Egyptian people did not find it disturbing that he was a foreigner - nor that he was absent for virtually his entire reign. [78]  Alexander restored the temples neglected by the Persians and dedicated new monuments to the Egyptian gods. In the temple of Luxor, near Karnak, he built a chapel for the sacred barge. During his brief months in Egypt, he reformed the taxation system on the Greek models and organized the military occupation of the country, but, early in 331 BC, he left for Asia in pursuit of the Persians. [78] 
 Alexander advanced on Egypt in later 332 BC, where he was regarded as a liberator. [79]  To legitimize taking power and be recognized as the descendant of the long line of pharaohs, Alexander made sacrifices to the gods at Memphis and went to consult the famous oracle of Amun-Ra at the Siwa Oasis. [78]  He was pronounced son of the deity Amun at the Oracle of Siwa Oasis in the Libyan desert. [80]  Henceforth, Alexander often referred to Zeus-Ammon as his true father, and after his death, currency depicted him adorned with the Horns of Ammon as a symbol of his divinity. [81]  The Greeks interpreted this message - one that the gods addressed to all pharaohs - as a prophecy. [78] 
 During his stay in Egypt, he founded Alexandria, which would become the prosperous capital of the Ptolemaic Kingdom after his death. [82]  Control of Egypt passed to Ptolemy I (son of Lagos), the founder of the Ptolemaic Dynasty (305-30 BC) after the death of Alexander.
Assyria and Babylonia
Leaving Egypt in 331 BC, Alexander marched eastward into Achaemenid Assyria in Upper Mesopotamia (now northern Iraq) and defeated Darius again at the Battle of Gaugamela. [83]  Darius once more fled the field, and Alexander chased him as far as Arbela. Gaugamela would be the final and decisive encounter between the two. [84]  Darius fled over the mountains to Ecbatana (modern Hamadan) while Alexander captured Babylon. [85] 
  Babylonian astronomical diaries say that "the king of the world, Alexander" sent his scouts with a message to the people of Babylon before entering the city: "I shall not enter your houses". [86] 
Persia
     
From Babylon, Alexander went to Susa, one of the Achaemenid capitals, and captured its treasury. [85]  He sent the bulk of his army to the Persian ceremonial capital of Persepolis via the Persian Royal Road. Alexander himself took selected troops on the direct route to the city. He then stormed the pass of the Persian Gates (in the modern Zagros Mountains) which had been blocked by a Persian army under Ariobarzanes and then hurried to Persepolis before its garrison could loot the treasury. [87] 
 On entering Persepolis, Alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for several days. [88]  Alexander stayed in Persepolis for five months. [89]  During his stay a fire broke out in the eastern palace of Xerxes I and spread to the rest of the city. Possible causes include a drunken accident or deliberate revenge for the burning of the Acropolis of Athens during the Second Persian War by Xerxes; [90]  Plutarch and Diodorus allege that Alexander's companion, the hetaera Thaïs, instigated and started the fire. Even as he watched the city burn, Alexander immediately began to regret his decision. [91]   [92]   [93]  Plutarch claims that he ordered his men to put out the fires, [91]  but that the flames had already spread to most of the city. [91]  Curtius claims that Alexander did not regret his decision until the next morning. [91]  Plutarch recounts an anecdote in which Alexander pauses and talks to a fallen statue of Xerxes as if it were a live person:
 Shall I pass by and leave you lying there because of the expeditions you led against Greece, or shall I set you up again because of your magnanimity and your virtues in other respects? [94]   
Fall of the Persian Empire and the East
     
Alexander then chased Darius, first into Media, and then Parthia. [96]  The Persian king no longer controlled his own destiny, and was taken prisoner by Bessus, his Bactrian satrap and kinsman. [97]  As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men fatally stab the Great King and then declared himself Darius's successor as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia to launch a guerrilla campaign against Alexander. [98]  Alexander buried Darius's remains next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a regal funeral. [99]  He claimed that, while dying, Darius had named him as his successor to the Achaemenid throne. [100]  The Achaemenid Empire is normally considered to have fallen with Darius. [101]  However, as basic forms of community life and the general structure of government were maintained and resuscitated by Alexander under his own rule, he, in the words of the Iranologist Pierre Briant "may therefore be considered to have acted in many ways as the last of the Achaemenids." [102] 
 Alexander viewed Bessus as a usurper and set out to defeat him. This campaign, initially against Bessus, turned into a grand tour of central Asia. Alexander founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including modern Kandahar in Afghanistan, and Alexandria Eschate ("The Furthest") in modern Tajikistan. The campaign took Alexander through Media, Parthia, Aria (West Afghanistan), Drangiana, Arachosia (South and Central Afghanistan), Bactria (North and Central Afghanistan), and Scythia. [103] 
 In 329 BC, Spitamenes, who held an undefined position in the satrapy of Sogdiana, betrayed Bessus to Ptolemy, one of Alexander's trusted companions, and Bessus was executed. [104]  However, when, at some point later, Alexander was on the Jaxartes dealing with an incursion by a horse nomad army, Spitamenes raised Sogdiana in revolt. Alexander personally defeated the Scythians at the Battle of Jaxartes and immediately launched a campaign against Spitamenes, defeating him in the Battle of Gabai. After the defeat, Spitamenes was killed by his own men, who then sued for peace. [105] 
Problems and plots
      
During this time, Alexander adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court, notably the custom of  proskynesis , either a symbolic kissing of the hand, or prostration on the ground, that Persians showed to their social superiors. [106]  This was one aspect of Alexander's broad strategy aimed at securing the aid and support of the Iranian upper classes. [102]  The Greeks however regarded the gesture of proskynesis as the province of deities and believed that Alexander meant to deify himself by requiring it. This cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen, and he eventually abandoned it. [107] 
 During the long rule of the Achaemenids, the elite positions in many segments of the empire including the central government, the army, and the many satrapies were specifically reserved for Iranians and to a major degree Persian noblemen. [102]  The latter were in many cases additionally connected through marriage alliances with the royal Achaemenid family. [102]  This created a problem for Alexander as to whether he had to make use of the various segments and people that had given the empire its solidity and unity for a lengthy period of time. [102]  Pierre Briant explains that Alexander realized that it was insufficient to merely exploit the internal contradictions within the imperial system as in Asia Minor, Babylonia or Egypt; he also had to (re)create a central government with or without the support of the Iranians. [102]  As early as 334 BC he demonstrated awareness of this, when he challenged incumbent King Darius III "by appropriating the main elements of the Achaemenid monarchy's ideology, particularly the theme of the king who protects the lands and the peasants". [102]  Alexander wrote a letter in 332 BC to Darius III, wherein he argued that he was worthier than Darius "to succeed to the Achaemenid throne". [102]  However, Alexander's eventual decision to burn the Achaemenid palace at Persepolis in conjunction with the major rejection and opposition of the "entire Persian people" made it impracticable for him to pose himself as Darius' legitimate successor. [102]  Against Bessus (Artaxerxes V) however, Briant adds, Alexander reasserted "his claim to legitimacy as the avenger of Darius III". [102] 
 A plot against his life was revealed, and one of his officers, Philotas, was executed for failing to alert Alexander. The death of the son necessitated the death of the father, and thus Parmenion, who had been charged with guarding the treasury at Ecbatana, was assassinated at Alexander's command, to prevent attempts at vengeance. Most infamously, Alexander personally killed the man who had saved his life at Granicus, Cleitus the Black, during a violent drunken altercation at Maracanda (modern day Samarkand in Uzbekistan), in which Cleitus accused Alexander of several judgmental mistakes and most especially, of having forgotten the Macedonian ways in favour of a corrupt oriental lifestyle. [108] 
 Later, in the Central Asian campaign, a second plot against his life was revealed, this one instigated by his own royal pages. His official historian, Callisthenes of Olynthus, was implicated in the plot, and in the  Anabasis of Alexander , Arrian states that Callisthenes and the pages were then tortured on the rack as punishment, and likely died soon after. [109]  It remains unclear if Callisthenes was actually involved in the plot, for prior to his accusation he had fallen out of favour by leading the opposition to the attempt to introduce proskynesis. [110] 
Macedon in Alexander's absence
When Alexander set out for Asia, he left his general Antipater, an experienced military and political leader and part of Philip II's "Old Guard", in charge of Macedon. [62]  Alexander's sacking of Thebes ensured that Greece remained quiet during his absence. [62]  The one exception was a call to arms by Spartan king Agis III in 331 BC, whom Antipater defeated and killed in the battle of Megalopolis. [62]  Antipater referred the Spartans' punishment to the League of Corinth, which then deferred to Alexander, who chose to pardon them. [111]  There was also considerable friction between Antipater and Olympias, and each complained to Alexander about the other. [112] 
 In general, Greece enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity during Alexander's campaign in Asia. [113]  Alexander sent back vast sums from his conquest, which stimulated the economy and increased trade across his empire. [114]  However, Alexander's constant demands for troops and the migration of Macedonians throughout his empire depleted Macedon's strength, greatly weakening it in the years after Alexander, and ultimately led to its subjugation by Rome after the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC). [17] 
Coinage
      Silver tetradrachm of Alexander the Great found in Byblos (ca 330–300 bc.) (BnF 1998–859; 17,33g; Byblos, Price 3426b)  
The conquest by Philip II of Pangaeum and then of the island of Thasos between 356 and 342 BC brought rich gold and silver mines under Macedonian control. [115] 
 Alexander appears to have introduced a new coinage in Cilicia in Tarsus, after the Battle of Issus in 333 BC, which went on to become the main coinage of the empire. [116]  Alexander minted gold staters, silver tetradrachms and drachims, and various fractional bronze coins. The types of these coins remained constant in his empire. The gold series had the head of Athena on the obverse and a winged Nike (Victory) on the reverse. [117]  The silver coinage had a beardless head of Heracles wearing a lionskin headdress on the obverse and Zeus aetophoros ('eagle bearer') enthroned with a scepter in his left hand, on the reverse. [118]  There are both Greek and non-Greek aspects to this design. Heracles and Zeus were important deities for the Macedonians, with Heracles considered to be the ancestor of the Temenid dynasty and Zeus the patron of the main Macedonian sanctuary, Dium. [116]  However, the lion was also the symbolic animal of the Anatolian god Sandas, worshipped at Tarsus. [116]  The reverse design of Alexander's tetradrachms is closely modelled on the depiction of the god Baaltars (Baal of Tarsus), on the silver staters minted at Tarsus by the Persian satrap Mazaeus before Alexander's conquest. [116] 
 Alexander did not attempt to impose uniform imperial coinage throughout his new conquests. Persian coins continued to circulate in all the satrapies of the empire. [119] 
Indian campaign
Forays into the Indian subcontinent
      
      Alexander's invasion of the Indian subcontinent  
After the death of Spitamenes and his marriage to Roxana (Raoxshna in Old Iranian) to cement relations with his new satrapies, Alexander turned to the Indian subcontinent. He invited the chieftains of the former satrapy of Gandhara (a region presently straddling eastern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan), to come to him and submit to his authority. Omphis (Indian name Ambhi), the ruler of Taxila, whose kingdom extended from the Indus to the Hydaspes (Jhelum), complied, but the chieftains of some hill clans, including the Aspasioi and Assakenoi sections of the Kambojas (known in Indian texts also as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas), refused to submit. [120]  Ambhi hastened to relieve Alexander of his apprehension and met him with valuable presents, placing himself and all his forces at his disposal. Alexander not only returned Ambhi his title and the gifts but he also presented him with a wardrobe of "Persian robes, gold and silver ornaments, 30 horses and 1,000 talents in gold". Alexander was emboldened to divide his forces, and Ambhi assisted Hephaestion and Perdiccas in constructing a bridge over the Indus where it bends at Hund, [121]  supplied their troops with provisions, and received Alexander himself, and his whole army, in his capital city of Taxila, with every demonstration of friendship and the most liberal hospitality.
 On the subsequent advance of the Macedonian king, Taxiles accompanied him with a force of 5,000 men and took part in the battle of the Hydaspes River. After that victory he was sent by Alexander in pursuit of Porus, to whom he was charged to offer favourable terms, but narrowly escaped losing his life at the hands of his old enemy. Subsequently, however, the two rivals were reconciled by the personal mediation of Alexander; and Taxiles, after having contributed zealously to the equipment of the fleet on the Hydaspes, was entrusted by the king with the government of the whole territory between that river and the Indus. A considerable accession of power was granted him after the death of Philip, son of Machatas; and he was allowed to retain his authority at the death of Alexander himself (323 BC), as well as in the subsequent partition of the provinces at Triparadisus, 321 BC.
 In the winter of 327/326 BC, Alexander personally led a campaign against the Aspasioi of Kunar valleys, the Guraeans of the Guraeus valley, and the Assakenoi of the Swat and Buner valleys. [122]  A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi in which Alexander was wounded in the shoulder by a dart, but eventually the Aspasioi lost. Alexander then faced the Assakenoi, who fought against him from the strongholds of Massaga, Ora and Aornos. [120] 
 The fort of Massaga was reduced only after days of bloody fighting, in which Alexander was wounded seriously in the ankle. According to Curtius, "Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubble." [123]  A similar slaughter followed at Ora. In the aftermath of Massaga and Ora, numerous Assakenians fled to the fortress of Aornos. Alexander followed close behind and captured the strategic hill-fort after four bloody days. [120] 
        Porus surrenders to Alexander   
After Aornos, Alexander crossed the Indus and fought and won an epic battle against King Porus, who ruled a region lying between the Hydaspes and the Acesines (Chenab), in what is now the Punjab, in the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC. [124]  Alexander was impressed by Porus's bravery, and made him an ally. He appointed Porus as satrap, and added to Porus's territory land that he did not previously own, towards the south-east, up to the Hyphasis (Beas). [125]   [126]  Choosing a local helped him control these lands so distant from Greece. [127]  Alexander founded two cities on opposite sides of the Hydaspes river, naming one Bucephala, in honour of his horse, who died around this time. [128]  The other was Nicaea (Victory), thought to be located at the site of modern-day Mong, Punjab. [129]  Philostratus the Elder in the Life of Apollonius of Tyana writes that in the army of Porus there was an elephant who fought brave against Alexander's army and Alexander dedicated it to the Helios (Sun) and named it Ajax, because he thought that a so great animal deserved a great name. The elephant had gold rings around its tusks and an inscription was on them written in Greek: "Alexander the son of Zeus dedicates Ajax to the Helios" (ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΣ Ο ΔΙΟΣ ΤΟΝ ΑΙΑΝΤΑ ΤΩΙ ΗΛΙΩΙ). [130] 
Revolt of the Hellenic army
     
East of Porus's kingdom, near the Ganges River, was the Nanda Empire of Magadha, and further east, the Gangaridai Empire of Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent. Fearing the prospect of facing other large armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, Alexander's army mutinied at the Hyphasis River (Beas), refusing to march farther east. [131]  This river thus marks the easternmost extent of Alexander's conquests. [132] 
 As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed their further advance into India. For having had all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river Ganges also, the width of which, as they learned, was thirty-two furlongs [6.4 km], its depth one hundred fathoms [180 m], while its banks on the further side were covered with multitudes of men-at-arms and horsemen and elephants. For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand war elephants. [133]   
Alexander tried to persuade his soldiers to march farther, but his general Coenus pleaded with him to change his opinion and return; the men, he said, "longed to again see their parents, their wives and children, their homeland". Alexander eventually agreed and turned south, marching along the Indus. Along the way his army conquered the Malhi (in modern-day Multan) and other Indian tribes and Alexander sustained an injury during the siege. [134] 
 Alexander sent much of his army to Carmania (modern southern Iran) with general Craterus, and commissioned a fleet to explore the Persian Gulf shore under his admiral Nearchus, while he led the rest back to Persia through the more difficult southern route along the Gedrosian Desert and Makran. [135]  Alexander reached Susa in 324 BC, but not before losing many men to the harsh desert. [136] 
Last years in Persia
      Alexander (left) and Hephaestion (right): Both were connected by a tight man-to-man friendship [137]    
Discovering that many of his satraps and military governors had misbehaved in his absence, Alexander executed several of them as examples on his way to Susa. [138]   [139]  As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers, and announced that he would send over-aged and disabled veterans back to Macedon, led by Craterus. His troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at the town of Opis. They refused to be sent away and criticized his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units. [140] 
 After three days, unable to persuade his men to back down, Alexander gave Persians command posts in the army and conferred Macedonian military titles upon Persian units. The Macedonians quickly begged forgiveness, which Alexander accepted, and held a great banquet with several thousand of his men. [141]  In an attempt to craft a lasting harmony between his Macedonian and Persian subjects, Alexander held a mass marriage of his senior officers to Persian and other noblewomen at Susa, but few of those marriages seem to have lasted much beyond a year. [139] 
     
Meanwhile, upon his return to Persia, Alexander learned that guards of the tomb of Cyrus the Great in Pasargadae had desecrated it, and swiftly executed them. [142]  Alexander admired Cyrus the Great, from an early age reading Xenophon's  Cyropaedia , which described Cyrus's heroism in battle and governance as a king and legislator. [143]  During his visit to Pasargadae, Alexander ordered his architect Aristobulus to decorate the interior of the sepulchral chamber of Cyrus's tomb. [143] 
 Afterwards, Alexander travelled to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure. There, his closest friend, Hephaestion, died of illness or poisoning. [144]  Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander and he ordered the preparation of an expensive funeral pyre in Babylon along with a decree for public mourning. [144]  Back in Babylon, Alexander planned a series of new campaigns, beginning with an invasion of Arabia, but he would not have a chance to realize them, as he died shortly after Hephaestion. [145] 
Death and succession
     
On either 10 or 11 June 323 BC, Alexander died in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II, in Babylon, at age 32. [146]  There are two different versions of Alexander's death, differing slightly in details. Plutarch's account is that roughly 14 days before his death, Alexander entertained admiral Nearchus and spent the night and next day drinking with Medius of Larissa. [147]  Alexander developed a fever, which worsened until he was unable to speak. The common soldiers, anxious about his health, were granted the right to file past him as he silently waved at them. [148]  In the second account, Diodorus recounts that Alexander was struck with pain after downing a large bowl of unmixed wine in honour of Heracles followed by 11 days of weakness; he did not develop a fever, instead dying after some agony. [149]  Arrian also mentioned this as an alternative, but Plutarch specifically denied this claim. [147] 
 Given the propensity of the Macedonian aristocracy to assassination, [150]  foul play featured in multiple accounts of his death. Diodorus, Plutarch, Arrian and Justin all mentioned the theory that Alexander was poisoned. Justin stated that Alexander was the victim of a poisoning conspiracy, Plutarch dismissed it as a fabrication, [151]  while both Diodorus and Arrian noted that they mentioned it only for the sake of completeness. [149]   [152]  The accounts were nevertheless fairly consistent in designating Antipater, recently removed as Macedonian viceroy and at odds with Olympias, as the head of the alleged plot. Perhaps taking his summons to Babylon as a death sentence [153]  and having seen the fate of Parmenion and Philotas, [154]  Antipater purportedly arranged for Alexander to be poisoned by his son Iollas, who was Alexander's wine-pourer. [152]   [154]  There was even a suggestion that Aristotle may have participated. [152] 
 The strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days passed between the start of his illness and his death; such long-acting poisons were probably not available. [155]  However, in a 2003 BBC documentary investigating the death of Alexander, Leo Schep from the New Zealand National Poisons Centre proposed that the plant white hellebore ( Veratrum album ), which was known in antiquity, may have been used to poison Alexander. [156]   [157]   [158]  In a 2014 manuscript in the journal  Clinical Toxicology , Schep suggested Alexander's wine was spiked with Veratrum album, and that this would produce poisoning symptoms that match the course of events described in the  Alexander Romance . [159]  Veratrum album poisoning can have a prolonged course and it was suggested that if Alexander was poisoned, Veratrum album offers the most plausible cause. [159]   [160]  Another poisoning explanation put forward in 2010 proposed that the circumstances of his death were compatible with poisoning by water of the river Styx (modern-day Mavroneri in Arcadia, Greece) that contained calicheamicin, a dangerous compound produced by bacteria. [161] 
 Several natural causes (diseases) have been suggested, including malaria and typhoid fever. A 1998 article in the  New England Journal of Medicine  attributed his death to typhoid fever complicated by bowel perforation and ascending paralysis. [162]  Another recent analysis suggested pyogenic (infectious) spondylitis or meningitis. [163]  Other illnesses fit the symptoms, including acute pancreatitis, West Nile virus, [164]   [165]  and Guillain-Barré syndrome. [166]  Natural-cause theories also tend to emphasize that Alexander's health may have been in general decline after years of heavy drinking and severe wounds. The anguish that Alexander felt after Hephaestion's death may also have contributed to his declining health. [162] 
Post-death events
Alexander's body was laid in a gold anthropoid sarcophagus that was filled with honey, which was in turn placed in a gold casket. [167]   [168]  According to Aelian, a seer called Aristander foretold that the land where Alexander was laid to rest "would be happy and unvanquishable forever". [169]  Perhaps more likely, the successors may have seen possession of the body as a symbol of legitimacy, since burying the prior king was a royal prerogative. [170] 
      19th-century depiction of Alexander's funeral procession, based on the description by Diodorus Siculus   
While Alexander's funeral cortege was on its way to Macedon, Ptolemy seized it and took it temporarily to Memphis. [167]   [169]  His successor, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, transferred the sarcophagus to Alexandria, where it remained until at least late Antiquity. Ptolemy IX Lathyros, one of Ptolemy's final successors, replaced Alexander's sarcophagus with a glass one so he could convert the original to coinage. [171]  The recent discovery of an enormous tomb in northern Greece, at Amphipolis, dating from the time of Alexander the Great [172]  has given rise to speculation that its original intent was to be the burial place of Alexander. This would fit with the intended destination of Alexander's funeral cortege. However, the memorial was found to be dedicated to the dearest friend of Alexander the Great, Hephaestion. [173]   [174] 
     
 Pompey, Julius Caesar and Augustus all visited the tomb in Alexandria, where Augustus, allegedly, accidentally knocked the nose off. Caligula was said to have taken Alexander's breastplate from the tomb for his own use. Around AD 200, Emperor Septimius Severus closed Alexander's tomb to the public. His son and successor, Caracalla, a great admirer, visited the tomb during his own reign. After this, details on the fate of the tomb are hazy. [171] 
 The so-called "Alexander Sarcophagus", discovered near Sidon and now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum, is so named not because it was thought to have contained Alexander's remains, but because its bas-reliefs depict Alexander and his companions fighting the Persians and hunting. It was originally thought to have been the sarcophagus of Abdalonymus (died 311 BC), the king of Sidon appointed by Alexander immediately following the battle of Issus in 331. [175]   [176]  However, more recently, it has been suggested that it may date from earlier than Abdalonymus's death.
  Demades likened the Macedonian army, after the death of Alexander, to the blinded Cyclops, due to the many random and disorderly movements that it made. [177]   [178]   [179]  In addition, Leosthenes, also, likened the anarchy between the generals, after Alexander's death, to the blinded Cyclops "who after he had lost his eye went feeling and groping about with his hands before him, not knowing where to lay them". [180] 
Division of the Macedonian Empire
     
Alexander's death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached Greece, they were not immediately believed. [62]  Alexander had no obvious or legitimate heir, his son Alexander IV by Roxane being born after Alexander's death. [181]  According to Diodorus, Alexander's companions asked him on his deathbed to whom he bequeathed his kingdom; his laconic reply was "tôi kratistôi"—"to the strongest". [149]  Another theory is that his successors wilfully or erroneously misheard "tôi Kraterôi"—"to Craterus", the general leading his Macedonian troops home and newly entrusted with the regency of Macedonia. [182] 
 Arrian and Plutarch claimed that Alexander was speechless by this point, implying that this was an apocryphal story. [183]  Diodorus, Curtius and Justin offered the more plausible story that Alexander passed his signet ring to Perdiccas, a bodyguard and leader of the companion cavalry, in front of witnesses, thereby nominating him. [149]   [181] 
 Perdiccas initially did not claim power, instead suggesting that Roxane's baby would be king, if male; with himself, Craterus, Leonnatus, and Antipater as guardians. However, the infantry, under the command of Meleager, rejected this arrangement since they had been excluded from the discussion. Instead, they supported Alexander's half-brother Philip Arrhidaeus. Eventually, the two sides reconciled, and after the birth of Alexander IV, he and Philip III were appointed joint kings, albeit in name only. [184] 
 Dissension and rivalry soon affected the Macedonians, however. The satrapies handed out by Perdiccas at the Partition of Babylon became power bases each general used to bid for power. After the assassination of Perdiccas in 321 BC, Macedonian unity collapsed, and 40 years of war between "The Successors" ( Diadochi ) ensued before the Hellenistic world settled into four stable power blocs: Ptolemaic Egypt, Seleucid Mesopotamia and Central Asia, Attalid Anatolia, and Antigonid Macedon. In the process, both Alexander IV and Philip III were murdered. [185] 
Last plans
      A coin of Alexander the Great struck by Balakros or his successor Menes, both former  somatophylakes  (bodyguards) of Alexander, when they held the position of satrap of Cilicia in the lifetime of Alexander, c. 333-327 BC. The obverse shows Heracles, ancestor of the Macedonian royal line and the reverse shows a seated Zeus Aëtophoros. [186]    
 Diodorus stated that Alexander had given detailed written instructions to Craterus some time before his death, which are known as Alexander's "last plans". [187]  Craterus started to carry out Alexander's commands, but the successors chose not to further implement them, on the grounds they were impractical and extravagant. [187]  Furthermore, Perdiccas had read the notebooks containing Alexander's last plans to the Macedonian troops in Babylon, who voted not to carry them out. [62] 
 According to Diodorus, Alexander's last plans called for military expansion into the southern and western Mediterranean, monumental constructions, and the intermixing of Eastern and Western populations. It included:
 Construction of 1,000 ships larger than triremes, along with harbours and a road running along the African coast all the way to the Pillars of Hercules, to be used for an invasion of Carthage and the western Mediterranean; [188]  
Erection of great temples in Delos, Delphi, Dodona, Dium, Amphipolis, all costing 1,500 talents, and a monumental temple to Athena at Troy  [62]   [188]  
Amalgamation of small settlements into larger cities ("synoecisms") and the "transplant of populations from Asia to Europe and in the opposite direction from Europe to Asia, in order to bring the largest continent to common unity and to friendship by means of intermarriage and family ties" [189]   [188]  
Construction of a monumental tomb for his father Philip, "to match the greatest of the pyramids of Egypt" [62]   [188]  
Conquest of Arabia [62]  
Circumnavigation of Africa [62]   
The enormous scale of these plans has led many scholars to doubt their historicity. Ernst Badian argued that they were exaggerated by Perdiccas in order to ensure that the Macedonian troops voted not to carry them out. [188]  Other scholars have proposed that they were invented by later authors within the tradition of the Alexander Romance. [190] 
Character
Generalship
     
     
Alexander perhaps earned the epithet "the Great" due to his unparalleled success as a military commander; he never lost a battle, despite typically being outnumbered. [191]  This was due to use of terrain, phalanx and cavalry tactics, bold strategy, and the fierce loyalty of his troops. [192]  The Macedonian phalanx, armed with the sarissa, a spear 6 metres (20 ft) long, had been developed and perfected by Philip II through rigorous training, and Alexander used its speed and manoeuvrability to great effect against larger but more disparate Persian forces. [193]  Alexander also recognized the potential for disunity among his diverse army, which employed various languages and weapons. He overcame this by being personally involved in battle, [89]  in the manner of a Macedonian king. [192] 
 In his first battle in Asia, at Granicus, Alexander used only a small part of his forces, perhaps 13,000 infantry with 5,000 cavalry, against a much larger Persian force of 40,000. [194]  Alexander placed the phalanx at the center and cavalry and archers on the wings, so that his line matched the length of the Persian cavalry line, about 3 km (1.86 mi). By contrast, the Persian infantry was stationed behind its cavalry. This ensured that Alexander would not be outflanked, while his phalanx, armed with long pikes, had a considerable advantage over the Persians' scimitars and javelins. Macedonian losses were negligible compared to those of the Persians. [195] 
 At Issus in 333 BC, his first confrontation with Darius, he used the same deployment, and again the central phalanx pushed through. [195]  Alexander personally led the charge in the center, routing the opposing army. [196]  At the decisive encounter with Darius at Gaugamela, Darius equipped his chariots with scythes on the wheels to break up the phalanx and equipped his cavalry with pikes. Alexander arranged a double phalanx, with the center advancing at an angle, parting when the chariots bore down and then reforming. The advance was successful and broke Darius's center, causing the latter to flee once again. [195] 
 When faced with opponents who used unfamiliar fighting techniques, such as in Central Asia and India, Alexander adapted his forces to his opponents' style. Thus, in Bactria and Sogdiana, Alexander successfully used his javelin throwers and archers to prevent outflanking movements, while massing his cavalry at the center. [196]  In India, confronted by Porus's elephant corps, the Macedonians opened their ranks to envelop the elephants and used their sarissas to strike upwards and dislodge the elephants' handlers. [141] 
Physical appearance
     
Historical sources frequently give conflicting accounts of Alexander's appearance, and the earliest sources are the most scant in their detail. [197]  During his lifetime, Alexander carefully curated his image by commissioning works from famous and great artists of the time. This included commissioning sculptures by Lysippos, paintings by Apelles and gem engravings by Pyrgoteles. [198]  Ancient authors recorded that Alexander was so pleased with portraits of himself created by Lysippos that he forbade other sculptors from crafting his image; scholars today, however, find the claim dubious. [199]   [198]  Nevertheless, Andrew Stewart highlights the fact that artistic portraits, not least because of who they are commissioned by, are always partisan, and that artistic portrayals of Alexander "seek to legitimize him (or, by extension, his Successors), to interpret him to their audiences, to answer their critiques, and to persuade them of his greatness", and thus should be considered within a framework of "praise and blame", in the same way sources such as praise poetry are. [200]  Despite those caveats, Lysippos's sculpture, famous for its naturalism, as opposed to a stiffer, more static pose, is thought to be the most faithful depiction. [201] 
  Curtius Rufus, a Roman historian from the first century AD, who wrote the  Histories of Alexander the Great , gives this account of Alexander sitting on the throne of Darius III:
 Then Alexander seating himself on the royal throne, which was far too high for his bodily stature. Therefore, since his feet did not reach its lowest step, once of the royal pages placed a table under his feet. [202]   
Both Curtius and Diodorus report a story that when Darius III's mother, Sisygambis, first met Alexander and Hephaestion, she assumed that the latter was Alexander because he was the taller and more handsome of the two. [203] 
     
Details from the Alexander Sarcophagus show that he had a fair complexion with ruddy cheeks. This is in line with the description of him given by the Greek biographer Plutarch (c.  45 – c. 120 AD):
 The outward appearance of Alexander is best represented by the statues of him which Lysippus made, and it was by this artist alone that Alexander himself thought it fit that he should be modelled. For those peculiarities which many of his successors and friends afterwards tried to imitate, namely, the poise of the neck, which was bent slightly to the left, and the melting glance of his eyes, this artist has accurately observed. Apelles, however, in painting him as wielder of the thunder-bolt, did not reproduce his complexion, but made it too dark and swarthy. Whereas he was of a fair colour, as they say, and his fairness passed into ruddiness on his breast particularly, and in his face. Moreover, that a very pleasant odour exhaled from his skin and that there was a fragrance about his mouth and all his flesh, so that his garments were filled with it, this we have read in the Memoirs of Aristoxenus. [204]   
      A fresco depicting a hunt scene at the tomb of Philip II, Alexander's father, at the Archaeological Site of Aigai, the only known depiction of Alexander made during his lifetime, 330s BC  
Historians have understood the detail of the pleasant odour attributed to Alexander as stemming from a belief in ancient Greece that pleasant scents are characteristic of gods and heroes. [198] 
 The Alexander Mosaic and contemporary coins portray Alexander with "a straight nose, a slightly protruding jaw, full lips and eyes deep set beneath a strongly pronounced forehead". [198]  The ancient historian Aelian (c. 175 – c. 235 AD), in his Varia Historia (12.14), describes Alexander's hair color as "ξανθὴν", that could mean yellowish, reddish or brownish. [205]   [206]   [207] 
 Many scholars and historians attribute heterochromia to him. He is described as having one eye light and one eye dark. [208]   [209]   [210]  In  The Anabasis of Alexander , Arrian is quoted as saying, "he had one eye dark as the night, and one blue as the sky". [211]  However, some have denied this claim as being used to emphasise the otherworldly and heroic qualities of Alexander. [212]   [213]  Reconstruction of the original polychromy of the relief with Alexander on the sarcophagus shows him with brown eyes and chestnut brown hair. [214] 
Personality
     
Both of Alexander's parents encouraged his ambitions. His father Philip was probably Alexander's most immediate and influential role model, as the young Alexander watched him campaign practically every year, winning victory after victory while ignoring severe wounds. [50]  Alexander's relationship with his father "forged" the competitive side of his personality; he had a need to outdo his father, illustrated by his reckless behavior in battle. [216]  While Alexander worried that his father would leave him "no great or brilliant achievement to be displayed to the world", [217]  he also downplayed his father's achievements to his companions. [216]  Alexander's mother Olympia similarly had huge ambitions, and encouraged her son to believe it was his destiny to conquer the Persian Empire. [216]  She instilled a sense of destiny in him, [218]  and Plutarch tells how his ambition "kept his spirit serious and lofty in advance of his years". [219] 
 According to Plutarch, Alexander also had a violent temper and rash, impulsive nature, [220]  and this could influence his decision making. [216]  Although Alexander was stubborn and did not respond well to orders from his father, he was open to reasoned debate. [221]  He had a calmer side—perceptive, logical, and calculating. He had a great desire for knowledge, a love for philosophy, and was an avid reader. [222]  This was no doubt in part due to Aristotle's tutelage; Alexander was intelligent and quick to learn. [216]  His intelligent and rational side was amply demonstrated by his ability and success as a general. [220]  He had great self-restraint in "pleasures of the body", in contrast with his lack of self-control with alcohol. [223] 
     
Alexander was erudite and patronized both arts and sciences. [219]   [222]  However, he had little interest in sports or the Olympic Games (unlike his father), seeking only the Homeric ideals of honour (timê) and glory (kudos). [224]  He had great charisma and force of personality, characteristics which made him a great leader. [181]   [220]  His unique abilities were further demonstrated by the inability of any of his generals to unite Macedonia and retain the Empire after his death—only Alexander had the ability to do so. [181] 
 During his final years, and especially after the death of Hephaestion, Alexander began to exhibit signs of megalomania and paranoia. [153]  His extraordinary achievements, coupled with his own ineffable sense of destiny and the flattery of his companions, may have combined to produce this effect. [225]  His delusions of grandeur are readily visible in his will and in his desire to conquer the world, [153]  in as much as he is by various sources described as having boundless ambition, [226]   [227]  an epithet, the meaning of which has descended into a historical cliché. [228]   [229] 
 He appears to have believed himself a deity, or at least sought to deify himself. [153]  Olympias always insisted to him that he was the son of Zeus, [230]  a theory apparently confirmed to him by the oracle of Amun at Siwa. [231]  He began to identify himself as the son of Zeus-Ammon. [231]  Alexander adopted elements of Persian dress and customs at court, notably  proskynesis , which was one aspect of Alexander's broad strategy aimed at securing the aid and support of the Iranian upper classes; [102]  however the practise of proskynesis was disapproved by the Macedonians, and they were unwilling to perform it. [106]  This behaviour cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen. [232]  However, Alexander also was a pragmatic ruler who understood the difficulties of ruling culturally disparate peoples, many of whom lived in kingdoms where the king was divine. [233]  Thus, rather than megalomania, his behaviour may have been a practical attempt at strengthening his rule and keeping his empire together. [234] 
Personal relationships
     
Alexander married three times: Roxana, daughter of the Sogdian nobleman Oxyartes of Bactria, [235]   [236]   [237]  out of love; [238]  and the Persian princesses Stateira and Parysatis, the former a daughter of Darius III and the latter a daughter of Artaxerxes III, for political reasons. [239]   [240]  He apparently had two sons, Alexander IV of Macedon by Roxana and, possibly, Heracles of Macedon from his mistress Barsine. He lost another child when Roxana miscarried at Babylon. [241]   [242] 
 Alexander also had a close relationship with his friend, general, and bodyguard Hephaestion, the son of a Macedonian noble. [144]   [216]   [243]  Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander. [144]   [244]  This event may have contributed to Alexander's failing health and detached mental state during his final months. [153]   [162] 
 Alexander's sexuality has been the subject of speculation and controversy in modern times. [245]  The Roman era writer Athenaeus says, based on the scholar Dicaearchus, who was Alexander's contemporary, that the king "was quite excessively keen on boys", and that Alexander kissed the eunuch Bagoas in public. [246]  This episode is also told by Plutarch, probably based on the same source. None of Alexander's contemporaries, however, are known to have explicitly described Alexander's relationship with Hephaestion as sexual, though the pair was often compared to Achilles and Patroclus, whom classical Greek culture painted as a couple. Aelian writes of Alexander's visit to Troy where "Alexander garlanded the tomb of Achilles, and Hephaestion that of Patroclus, the latter hinting that he was a beloved of Alexander, in just the same way as Patroclus was of Achilles." [247]  Some modern historians (e.g., Robin Lane Fox) believe not only that Alexander's youthful relationship with Hephaestion was sexual, but that their sexual contacts may have continued into adulthood, which went against the social norms of at least some Greek cities, such as Athens, [248]   [249]  though some modern researchers have tentatively proposed that Macedonia (or at least the Macedonian court) may have been more tolerant of homosexuality between adults. [250] 
 Green argues that there is little evidence in ancient sources that Alexander had much carnal interest in women; he did not produce an heir until the very end of his life. [216]  However, Ogden calculates that Alexander, who impregnated his partners thrice in eight years, had a higher matrimonial record than his father at the same age. [251]  Two of these pregnancies — Stateira's and Barsine's — are of dubious legitimacy. [252] 
 According to Diodorus Siculus, Alexander accumulated a harem in the style of Persian kings, but he used it rather sparingly, "not wishing to offend the Macedonians", [253]  showing great self-control in "pleasures of the body". [223]  Nevertheless, Plutarch described how Alexander was infatuated by Roxana while complimenting him on not forcing himself on her. [254]  Green suggested that, in the context of the period, Alexander formed quite strong friendships with women, including Ada of Caria, who adopted him, and even Darius's mother Sisygambis, who supposedly died from grief upon hearing of Alexander's death. [216] 
Battle record
Legacy
     
Alexander's legacy extended beyond his military conquests, and his reign marked a turning point in European and Asian history. [256]  His campaigns greatly increased contacts and trade between East and West, and vast areas to the east were significantly exposed to Greek civilization and influence. [17]  Some of the cities he founded became major cultural centers, many surviving into the 21st century. His chroniclers recorded valuable information about the areas through which he marched, while the Greeks themselves got a sense of belonging to a world beyond the Mediterranean. [17] 
Hellenistic kingdoms
      Plan of Alexandria c. 30 BC  
Alexander's most immediate legacy was the introduction of Macedonian rule to huge new swathes of Asia. At the time of his death, Alexander's empire covered some 5,200,000 km2 (2,000,000 sq mi), [257]  and was the largest state of its time. Many of these areas remained in Macedonian hands or under Greek influence for the next 200–300 years. The successor states that emerged were, at least initially, dominant forces, and these 300 years are often referred to as the Hellenistic period. [258] 
 The eastern borders of Alexander's empire began to collapse even during his lifetime. [181]  However, the power vacuum he left in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent directly gave rise to one of the most powerful Indian dynasties in history, the Maurya Empire. Taking advantage of this power vacuum, Chandragupta Maurya (referred to in Greek sources as "Sandrokottos"), of relatively humble origin, took control of the Punjab, and with that power base proceeded to conquer the Nanda Empire. [259] 
Founding of cities
Over the course of his conquests, Alexander founded some twenty cities that bore his name, most of them east of the Tigris. [107]   [260]  The first, and greatest, was Alexandria in Egypt, which would become one of the leading Mediterranean cities. [107]  The cities' locations reflected trade routes as well as defensive positions. At first, the cities must have been inhospitable, little more than defensive garrisons. [107]  Following Alexander's death, many Greeks who had settled there tried to return to Greece. [107]   [260]  However, a century or so after Alexander's death, many of the Alexandrias were thriving, with elaborate public buildings and substantial populations that included both Greek and local peoples. [107] 
 The foundation of the "new" Smyrna was also associated with Alexander. According to the legend, after Alexander hunted on the Mount Pagus, he slept under a plane tree at the sanctuary of Nemesis. While he was sleeping, the goddess appeared and told him to found a city there and move into it the Smyrnaeans from the "old" city. The Smyrnaeans sent ambassadors to the oracle at Clarus to ask about this, and after the response from the oracle they decided to move to the "new" city. [261] 
 The city of Pella, in modern Jordan, was founded by veterans of Alexander's army, and named it after the city of Pella, in Greece, which was the birthplace of Alexander. [262] 
Funding of temples
     
In 334 BC, Alexander the Great donated funds for the completion of the new temple of Athena Polias in Priene, in modern-day western Turkey. [264]  An inscription from the temple, now housed in the British Museum, declares: "King Alexander dedicated [this temple] to Athena Polias." [263]  This inscription is one of the few independent archaeological discoveries confirming an episode from Alexander's life. [263]  The temple was designed by Pytheos, one of the architects of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. [263]   [264]   [265] 
  Libanius wrote that Alexander founded the temple of Zeus Bottiaios (Ancient Greek: Βοττιαίου Δῖός), in the place where later the city of Antioch was built. [266]   [267] 
  Suda wrote that Alexander built a big temple to Sarapis. [268] 
Hellenization
      Alexander's empire was the largest state of its time, covering approximately 5.2 million square km.  
 Hellenization was coined by the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen to denote the spread of Greek language, culture, and population into the former Persian empire after Alexander's conquest. [258]  This process can be seen in such great Hellenistic cities as Alexandria, Antioch  [269]  and Seleucia (south of modern Baghdad). [270]  Alexander sought to insert Greek elements into Persian culture and to hybridize Greek and Persian culture, homogenizing the populations of Asia and Europe. Although his successors explicitly rejected such policies, Hellenization occurred throughout the region, accompanied by a distinct and opposite 'Orientalization' of the successor states. [271] 
 The core of the Hellenistic culture promulgated by the conquests was essentially Athenian. [272]  The close association of men from across Greece in Alexander's army directly led to the emergence of the largely Attic-based "koine", or "common" Greek dialect. [273]  Koine spread throughout the Hellenistic world, becoming the lingua franca of Hellenistic lands and eventually the ancestor of modern Greek. [273]  Furthermore, town planning, education, local government, and art current in the Hellenistic period were all based on Classical Greek ideals, evolving into distinct new forms commonly grouped as Hellenistic. Also, the New Testament was written in the Koine Greek language. [269]  Aspects of Hellenistic culture were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century. [274] 
Hellenization in South and Central Asia
     
Some of the most pronounced effects of Hellenization can be seen in Afghanistan and India, in the region of the relatively late-rising Greco-Bactrian Kingdom (250–125 BC) (in modern Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Tajikistan) and the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BC – 10 AD) in modern Afghanistan and India. [275]  On the Silk Road trade routes, Hellenistic culture hybridized with Iranian and Buddhist cultures. The cosmopolitan art and mythology of Gandhara (a region spanning the upper confluence of the Indus, Swat and Kabul rivers in modern Pakistan) of the ~3rd century BC to the ~5th century AD are most evident of the direct contact between Hellenistic civilization and South Asia, as are the Edicts of Ashoka, which directly mention the Greeks within Ashoka's dominion as converting to Buddhism and the reception of Buddhist emissaries by Ashoka's contemporaries in the Hellenistic world. [276]  The resulting syncretism known as Greco-Buddhism influenced the development of Buddhism [277]  and created a culture of Greco-Buddhist art. These Greco-Buddhist kingdoms sent some of the first Buddhist missionaries to China, Sri Lanka and Hellenistic Asia and Europe (Greco-Buddhist monasticism).
 Some of the first and most influential figurative portrayals of the Buddha appeared at this time, perhaps modelled on Greek statues of Apollo in the Greco-Buddhist style. [275]  Several Buddhist traditions may have been influenced by the ancient Greek religion: the concept of Boddhisatvas is reminiscent of Greek divine heroes, [278]  and some Mahayana ceremonial practices (burning incense, gifts of flowers, and food placed on altars) are similar to those practised by the ancient Greeks; however, similar practices were also observed amongst the native Indic culture. One Greek king, Menander I, probably became Buddhist, and was immortalized in Buddhist literature as 'Milinda'. [275]  The process of Hellenization also spurred trade between the east and west. [279]  For example, Greek astronomical instruments dating to the 3rd century BC were found in the Greco-Bactrian city of Ai Khanoum in modern-day Afghanistan, [280]  while the Greek concept of a spherical Earth surrounded by the spheres of planets eventually supplanted the long-standing Indian cosmological belief of a disc consisting of four continents grouped around a central mountain (Mount Meru) like the petals of a flower. [279]   [281]   [282]  The Yavanajataka (lit. Greek astronomical treatise) and Paulisa Siddhanta texts depict the influence of Greek astronomical ideas on Indian astronomy.
 Following the conquests of Alexander the Great in the east, Hellenistic influence on Indian art was far-ranging. In the area of architecture, a few examples of the Ionic order can be found as far as Pakistan with the Jandial temple near Taxila. Several examples of capitals displaying Ionic influences can be seen as far as Patna, especially with the Pataliputra capital, dated to the 3rd century BC. [283]  The Corinthian order is also heavily represented in the art of Gandhara, especially through Indo-Corinthian capitals.
Influence on Rome
     
Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans, especially generals, who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements. [284]  Polybius began his  Histories  by reminding Romans of Alexander's achievements, and thereafter Roman leaders saw him as a role model. Pompey the Great adopted the epithet "Magnus" and even Alexander's anastole-type haircut, and searched the conquered lands of the east for Alexander's 260-year-old cloak, which he then wore as a sign of greatness. [284]  Julius Caesar dedicated a Lysippean equestrian bronze statue but replaced Alexander's head with his own, while Octavian visited Alexander's tomb in Alexandria and temporarily changed his seal from a sphinx to Alexander's profile. [284]  The emperor Trajan also admired Alexander, as did Nero and Caracalla. [284]  The Macriani, a Roman family that in the person of Macrinus briefly ascended to the imperial throne, kept images of Alexander on their persons, either on jewellery, or embroidered into their clothes. [285] 
 On the other hand, some Roman writers, particularly Republican figures, used Alexander as a cautionary tale of how autocratic tendencies can be kept in check by republican values. [286]  Alexander was used by these writers as an example of ruler values such as amicita (friendship) and clementia (clemency), but also iracundia (anger) and cupiditas gloriae (over-desire for glory). [286] 
  Emperor Julian in his satire called "The Caesars", describes a contest between the previous Roman emperors, with Alexander the Great called in as an extra contestant, in the presence of the assembled gods. [287] 
 The Itinerarium Alexandri is a 4th-century Latin Itinerarium which describes Alexander the Great's campaigns. Julius Caesar went to serve his quaestorship in Hispania after his wife's funeral, in the spring or early summer of 69 BC. While there, he encountered a statue of Alexander the Great, and realised with dissatisfaction that he was now at an age when Alexander had the world at his feet, while he had achieved comparatively little. [288]   [289] 
  Pompey posed as the "new Alexander" since he was his boyhood hero. [290] 
 After Caracalla concluded his campaign against the Alamanni, it became evident that he was inordinately preoccupied with Alexander the Great. [291]   [292]  He began openly mimicking Alexander in his personal style. In planning his invasion of the Parthian Empire, Caracalla decided to arrange 16,000 of his men in Macedonian-style phalanxes, despite the Roman army having made the phalanx an obsolete tactical formation. [291]   [292]   [293]  The historian Christopher Matthew mentions that the term Phalangarii has two possible meanings, both with military connotations. The first refers merely to the Roman battle line and does not specifically mean that the men were armed with pikes, and the second bears similarity to the 'Marian Mules' of the late Roman Republic who carried their equipment suspended from a long pole, which were in use until at least the 2nd century AD. [293]  As a consequence, the Phalangarii of Legio II Parthica may not have been pikemen, but rather standard battle line troops or possibly  Triarii . [293] 
 Caracalla's mania for Alexander went so far that Caracalla visited Alexandria while preparing for his Persian invasion and persecuted philosophers of the Aristotelian school based on a legend that Aristotle had poisoned Alexander. This was a sign of Caracalla's increasingly erratic behaviour. But this mania for Alexander, strange as it was, was overshadowed by subsequent events in Alexandria. [292] 
 In 39, Caligula performed a spectacular stunt by ordering a temporary floating bridge to be built using ships as pontoons, stretching for over two miles from the resort of Baiae to the neighbouring port of Puteoli. [294]   [295]  It was said that the bridge was to rival the Persian king Xerxes' pontoon bridge crossing of the Hellespont. [295]  Caligula, who could not swim, [296]  then proceeded to ride his favourite horse Incitatus across, wearing the breastplate of Alexander the Great. [295]  This act was in defiance of a prediction by Tiberius's soothsayer Thrasyllus of Mendes that Caligula had "no more chance of becoming emperor than of riding a horse across the Bay of Baiae". [295] 
 The diffusion of Greek culture and language cemented by Alexander's conquests in West Asia and North Africa served as a "precondition" for the later Roman expansion into these territories and entire basis for the Byzantine Empire, according to Errington. [297] 
Unsuccessful plan to cut a canal through the Anatolian isthmus
 Pausanias writes that Alexander wanted to dig through the Mimas mountain (in today's Karaburun area), but didn't succeed. He says this was Alexander's only unsuccessful project. [298]  Pliny the Elder adds that the planned distance was 12 kilometres (7.5 mi), and the purpose was to cut a canal through the isthmus to connect the Caystrian and Hermaean bays. [299]   [300] 
Naming of the Icarus island in the Persian Gulf
 Arrian wrote that Aristobulus said that Alexander named Icarus island (modern Failaka Island) in the Persian Gulf after Icarus island in the Aegean. [301]   [302] 
Letters
Alexander wrote and received numerous letters, but no originals survive. A few official letters addressed to the Greek cities survive in copies inscribed in stone and the content of others is sometimes reported in historical sources. These only occasionally quote the letters and it is an open question how reliable such quotations are. Several fictitious letters, some perhaps based on actual letters, made their way into the Romance tradition. [303] 
In legend
      Alexander in a 14th-century Armenian manuscript  
Many of the legends about Alexander derive from his own lifetime, probably encouraged by Alexander himself. [304]  His court historian Callisthenes portrayed the sea in Cilicia as drawing back from him in proskynesis. Writing shortly after Alexander's death, Onesicritus invented a tryst between Alexander and Thalestris, queen of the mythical Amazons. He reportedly read this passage to his patron King Lysimachus, who had been one of Alexander's generals and who quipped, "I wonder where I was at the time." [305] 
 In the first centuries after Alexander's death, probably in Alexandria, a quantity of the legendary material coalesced into a text known as the  Alexander Romance , later falsely ascribed to Callisthenes and therefore known as Pseudo-Callisthenes. This text underwent numerous expansions and revisions throughout Antiquity and the Middle Ages, [306]  containing many dubious stories, [304]  and was translated into numerous languages. [307] 
In ancient and modern culture
      Alexander in a 14th-century Byzantine manuscript  
      Alexander conquering the air. Jean Wauquelin, Les faits et conquêtes d'Alexandre le Grand, 1448–1449  
Alexander the Great's accomplishments and legacy have been depicted in many cultures. Alexander has figured in both high and popular culture beginning in his own era to the present day. The Alexander Romance, in particular, has had a significant impact on portrayals of Alexander in later cultures, from Persian to medieval European to modern Greek. [307] 
      Folio from the  Shahnameh  showing Alexander praying at the Kaaba, mid-16th century   
Alexander features prominently in modern Greek folklore, more so than any other ancient figure. [308]  The colloquial form of his name in modern Greek ("O Megalexandros") is a household name, and he is the only ancient hero to appear in the Karagiozis shadow play. [308]  One well-known fable among Greek seamen involves a solitary mermaid who would grasp a ship's prow during a storm and ask the captain "Is King Alexander alive?" The correct answer is "He is alive and well and rules the world!" causing the mermaid to vanish and the sea to calm. Any other answer would cause the mermaid to turn into a raging Gorgon who would drag the ship to the bottom of the sea, all hands aboard. [308]        
In pre-Islamic Middle Persian (Zoroastrian) literature, Alexander is referred to by the epithet gujastak, meaning "accursed", and is accused of destroying temples and burning the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism. [309]  In Sunni Islamic Persia, under the influence of the  Alexander Romance  (in Persian: اسکندرنامه  Iskandarnamah ), a more positive portrayal of Alexander emerges. [310]  Firdausi's  Shahnameh  ("The Book of Kings") includes Alexander in a line of legitimate Persian shahs, a mythical figure who explored the far reaches of the world in search of the Fountain of Youth. [311]  In the Shahnameh, Alexander's first journey is to Mecca to pray at the Kaaba. [312]  Alexander was depicted as performing a Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) many times in subsequent Islamic art and literature. [313]  Later Persian writers associate him with philosophy, portraying him at a symposium with figures such as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, in search of immortality. [310] 
 The figure of Dhul-Qarnayn (literally "the Two-Horned One") mentioned in the Quran is believed by scholars to be based on later legends of Alexander. [310]  In this tradition, he was a heroic figure who built a wall to defend against the nations of Gog and Magog. [314]  He then travelled the known world in search of the Water of Life and Immortality, eventually becoming a prophet. [314] 
 The Syriac version of the Alexander Romance portrays him as an ideal Christian world conqueror who prayed to "the one true God". [310]  In Egypt, Alexander was portrayed as the son of Nectanebo II, the last pharaoh before the Persian conquest. [314]  His defeat of Darius was depicted as Egypt's salvation, "proving" Egypt was still ruled by an Egyptian. [310] 
 According to Josephus, Alexander was shown the Book of Daniel when he entered Jerusalem, which described a mighty Greek king who would conquer the Persian Empire. This is cited as a reason for sparing Jerusalem. [315] 
 In Hindi and Urdu, the name "Sikandar", derived from the Persian name for Alexander, denotes a rising young talent, and the Delhi Sultanate ruler Aladdin Khalji stylized himself as "Sikandar-i-Sani" (the Second Alexander the Great). [316]  In medieval India, Turkic and Afghan sovereigns from the Iranian-cultured region of Central Asia brought positive cultural connotations of Alexander to the Indian subcontinent, resulting in the efflorescence of Sikandernameh (Alexander Romances) written by Indo-Persian poets such as Amir Khusrow and the prominence of Alexander the Great as a popular subject in Mughal-era Persian miniatures. [317]  In medieval Europe, Alexander the Great was revered as a member of the Nine Worthies, a group of heroes whose lives were believed to encapsulate all the ideal qualities of chivalry. [318]  During the first Italian campaign of the French Revolutionary Wars, in a question from Bourrienne, asking whether he gave his preference to Alexander or Caesar, Napoleon said that he places Alexander The Great in the first rank, the main reason being his campaign on Asia. [319] 
 In the  Greek Anthology , there are poems referring to Alexander. [320]   [321] 
 Throughout time, art objects related to Alexander were being created. In addition to speech works, sculptures and paintings, in modern times Alexander is still the subject of musical and cinematic works. The song 'Alexander the Great' by the British heavy metal band Iron Maiden is indicative. Some films that have been shot with the theme of Alexander are:
   Sikandar  (1941), an Indian production directed by Sohrab Modi about the conquest of India by Alexander [322]  
  Alexander the Great  (1956), produced by MGM and starring Richard Burton 
 Sikandar-e-Azam (1965), an Indian production directed by Kedar Kapoor
  Alexander  (2004), directed by Oliver Stone, starring Colin Farrell  
There are also many references to other movies and TV series.
 Newer novels about Alexander are:
 The trilogy "Alexander the Great" by Valerio Massimo Manfredi consisting of "The son of the dream", "The sand of Amon", and "The ends of the world".
The trilogy of Mary Renault consisting of "Fire from Heaven", "The Persian Boy" and "Funeral Games".
   The Virtues of War , about Alexander the Great (2004), ISBN 0385500998 and "*  The Afghan Campaign , about Alexander the Great's conquests in Afghanistan (2006), ISBN 038551641X" by Steven Pressfield. 
Irish playwright Aubrey Thomas de Vere wrote  Alexander the Great, a Dramatic Poem .
Historiography
Apart from a few inscriptions and fragments, texts written by people who actually knew Alexander or who gathered information from men who served with Alexander were all lost. [17]  Contemporaries who wrote accounts of his life included Alexander's campaign historian Callisthenes; Alexander's generals Ptolemy and Nearchus; Aristobulus, a junior officer on the campaigns; and Onesicritus, Alexander's chief helmsman. Their works are lost, but later works based on these original sources have survived. The earliest of these is Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC), followed by Quintus Curtius Rufus (mid-to-late 1st century AD), Arrian (1st to 2nd century AD), the biographer Plutarch (1st to 2nd century AD), and finally Justin, whose work dated as late as the 4th century. [17]  Of these, Arrian is generally considered the most reliable, given that he used Ptolemy and Aristobulus as his sources, closely followed by Diodorus. [17] 
See also
  Ancient Macedonian army 
 Military tactics of Alexander the Great 
 Bucephalus 
 Chronology of European exploration of Asia 
 Theories about Alexander the Great in the Quran 
 Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great 
 Gates of Alexander 
 List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources 
 List of people known as The Great  
References
Notes
 
  ^  Macedon was an Ancient Greek polity. The Macedonians were a Greek tribe. [323]   
  ^   By the time of his death, he had conquered the entire Achaemenid Persian Empire, adding it to Macedon's European territories; according to some modern writers, this was most of the world then known to the ancient Greeks (the 'Ecumene'). [324]   [325]  An approximate view of the world known to Alexander can be seen in Hecataeus of Miletus's map; see Hecataeus world map.  
  ^   For instance, Hannibal supposedly ranked Alexander as the greatest general; [326]  Julius Caesar wept on seeing a statue of Alexander, since he had achieved so little by the same age; [327]  Pompey and Alauddin Khalji consciously posed as the 'new Alexander'; [328]  the young Napoleon Bonaparte also encouraged comparisons with Alexander. Napoleon also placed Alexander in the first rank. [329]  Caracalla believed himself to be the actual reincarnation of Alexander. [330]   [331]   [332]  Caligula wore the breastplate of Alexander in order to show his power. [333]   [334]  Fidel Castro's hero was Alexander the Great, whose Spanish equivalent Alejandro he adopted as his nom de guerre. [335]  Mehmed the Conqueror's heroes were Alexander and Achilles. [336]   
  ^   The name Ἀλέξανδρος derives from the Greek verb ἀλέξω (aléxō,  lit.  'ward off, avert, defend') [337]   [338]  and ἀνδρ- (andr-), the stem of ἀνήρ (anḗr, lit. 'man'), [339]   [338]  and means "protector of men". [340]   
  ^   There have been, since the time, many suspicions that Pausanias was actually hired to murder Philip. Suspicion has fallen upon Alexander, Olympias and even the newly crowned Persian Emperor, Darius III. All three of these people had motive to have Philip murdered. [341]   
  ^   However, Arrian, who used Ptolemy as a source, said that Alexander crossed with more than 5,000 horse and 30,000 foot; Diodorus quoted the same totals, but listed 5,100 horse and 32,000 foot. Diodorus also referred to an advance force already present in Asia, which Polyaenus, in his Stratagems of War (5.44.4), said numbered 10,000 men. 
 
 
  ^  The first known person to call Alexander "the Great" was a Roman playwright named Plautus (254–184 BC) in his play  Mostellaria . [1] 
 
Citations
 
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  ^  Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair, Sheila S. (2009) The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture: Mosul to Zirid, Volume 3. (Oxford University Press Incorporated, 2009), 385; "[Khojand, Tajikistan]; As the easternmost outpost of the empire of Alexander the Great, the city was renamed Alexandria Eschate ("furthest Alexandria") in 329 BCE."Golden, Peter B. Central Asia in World History (Oxford University Press, 2011), 25;"[...] his campaigns in Central Asia brought Khwarazm, Sogdia and Bactria under Graeco-Macedonian rule. As elsewhere, Alexander founded or renamed a number of cities, such as Alexandria Eschate ("Outernmost Alexandria", near modern Khojent in Tajikistan)."
  ^  Yenne 2010, p. 159.
  ^   "Alexander the Great's Achievements". Britannica. Archived from the original on 2 July 2021. Retrieved 19 August 2021. "Alexander the Great was one of the greatest military strategists and leaders in world history."
  ^  Heckel &amp; Tritle 2009, p. 99.
  ^  Burger, Michael (2008). The Shaping of Western Civilization: From Antiquity to the Enlightenment. University of Toronto Press. p. 76. ISBN  978-1-55111-432-3 .
  ^  Yenne 2010, p. viii.
  ^  Green, Peter (1970),  Alexander of Macedon, 356–323 B.C.: a historical biography , Hellenistic culture and society (illustrated, revised reprint ed.), University of California Press, p. xxxiii, ISBN  978-0-520-07165-0 , retrieved 20 June 2015, 356 – Alexander born in Pella. The exact date is not known, but probably either 20 or 26 July. 
  ^  Plutarch, Life of Alexander 3.5:  "The birth of Alexander the Great". Livius. Archived from the original on 20 March 2015. Retrieved 16 December 2011. Alexander was born the sixth of Hekatombaion. 
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^    a       b       c       d    Roisman &amp; Worthington 2010, p. 188.
^    a       b    Plutarch 1919, III, 2
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^    a       b       c       d       e       f    Roisman &amp; Worthington 2010, p. 180.
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^    a       b    Lane Fox 1980, p. 72
^    a       b       c    Roisman &amp; Worthington 2010, p. 190.
^    a       b    Green 2007, pp. 5–6
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  ^  Stoneman 2004, p. 21.
  ^  Dillon 2004, pp. 187–88.
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  ^  Arrian 1976, I, 2
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  ^  Arrian 1976, I, 5–6, Renault 2001, p. 77
^    a       b       c       d    Roisman &amp; Worthington 2010, p. 192.
^    a       b       c       d       e       f       g       h       i       j    Roisman &amp; Worthington 2010, p. 199
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^    a       b    Heckel, Waldemar (2008).  Who's Who in the Age of Alexander the Great: Prosopography of Alexander's Empire . John Wiley &amp; Sons. p. 205. ISBN  978-1-4051-5469-7 . Retrieved 21 February 2019.
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 Heckel, Waldemar; Tritle, Lawrence A, eds. (2009).  Alexander the Great: A New History . Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN  978-1-4051-3082-0 . Retrieved 5 September 2020. 
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 Yenne, Bill (2010). Alexander the Great: Lessons From History's Undefeated General. Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN  978-0-230-61915-9 .  
Further reading
   Badian, Ernst (1958). "Alexander the Great and the Unity of Mankind". Historia. 7. 
  Beazley, JD; Ashmole, B (1932). Greek Sculpture and Painting. Cambridge University Press. ISBN  978-0-521-04131-7 . 
  Bowra, Maurice (1994). The Greek Experience. Phoenix. ISBN  978-1-85799-122-2 . 
  Boardman, John (2019). Alexander the Great: From His Death to the Present Day. Princeton University Press. ISBN  978-0-691-18175-2 . 
 Burn, AR (1951). Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Empire (2 ed.). London: English Universities Press. 
 Rufus, Quintus Curtius. "Quintus Curtius Rufus, History of Alexander the Great" (in Latin). U Chicago. Retrieved 16 November 2009. 
  Cartledge, Paul (2004).  Alexander the Great . Overlook. ISBN  9781585675654 . 
  Doherty, Paul (2004).  The Death of Alexander the Great . Carroll &amp; Graf. ISBN  9780786713400 . 
 Engels, Donald W (1978). Alexander the Great and the Logistics of the Macedonian Army. Berkeley: University of California Press. 
 Fawcett, Bill, ed. (2006).  How To Lose A Battle: Foolish Plans and Great Military Blunders . Harper. ISBN  978-0-06-076024-3 . 
  Fuller, JFC (1958).  The Generalship of Alexander the Great . London: Eyre &amp; Spottiswoode. ISBN  978-0-306-80371-0 . Retrieved 20 June 2015. 
  Green, Peter (1992).  Alexander of Macedon: 356–323 BC. A Historical Biography . University of California Press. ISBN  978-0-520-07166-7 . 
  Greene, Robert (2000).  The 48 Laws of Power . Penguin. p. 351. ISBN  978-0-14-028019-7 . 
  Hammond, NGL (1989). The Macedonian State: Origins, Institutions, and History. Oxford University Press. ISBN  978-0-19-814883-8 . 
 Hammond, NGL (1994). Alexander the Great: King, Commander, and Statesman (3 ed.). London: Bristol Classical Press. 
 Hammond, NGL (1997).  The Genius of Alexander the Great . Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 
  Lane Fox, Robin (1973). Alexander the Great. London: Allen Lane. ISBN  0-14-008878-4 ., also (1974) New York: E. P. Dutton and (1986) London: Penguin Books.
 Mercer, Charles (1962). The Way of Alexander the Great (1 ed.). Boston: American Heritage Inc. 
 McCrindle, J. W. (1893).  The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great as Described by Arrian, Q Curtius, Diodorus, Plutarch, and Justin . Westminster: Archibald Constable &amp; Co. Retrieved 20 June 2015. 
 Murphy, James Jerome; Katula, Richard A; Hill, Forbes I; Ochs, Donovan J (2003). A Synoptic History of Classical Rhetoric. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. p. 17. ISBN  978-1-880393-35-2 . 
 Nandan, Y; Bhavan, BV (2003). British Death March Under Asiatic Impulse: Epic of Anglo-Indian Tragedy in Afghanistan. Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. ISBN  978-81-7276-301-5 . 
 O'Brien, John Maxwell (1992). Alexander the Great: The Invisible Enemy. London: Routledge. 
 Pomeroy, S; Burstein, S; Dolan, W; Roberts, J (1998).  Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History . Oxford University Press. ISBN  978-0-19-509742-9 . 
  Prevas, John (2004).  Envy of the Gods: Alexander the Great's Ill-Fated Journey Across Asia  (3 ed.). Da Capo. ISBN  9780306812682 . 
 Roisman, Joseph, ed. (1995). Alexander the Great Ancient and Modern Perspectives. Problems in European Civilization. Lexington, MA: DC Heath. 
 Rowson, Alex (2022). The Young Alexander: The Making of Alexander the Great (Hardcover). London: William Collins. ISBN  978-0008284398 . 
  Savill, Agnes (1959).  Alexander the Great and His Time  (3 ed.). London: Barrie &amp; Rockliff. 
 Stewart, Andrew (1993). Faces of Power: Alexander's Image and Hellenistic Politics. Hellenistic Culture and Society. Vol. 11. Berkeley: University of California Press. 
 Stoneman, Richard (2008).  Alexander the Great: A Life in Legend . Yale University Press. ISBN  978-0-300-11203-0 . 
  Tarn, WW (1948).  Alexander the Great . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 
  Wheeler, Benjamin Ide (1900).  Alexander the Great; the merging of East and West in universal history . New York: GP Putnam's sons. 
  Wilcken, Ulrich (1997) [1932].  Alexander the Great . New York: WW Norton &amp; Co. ISBN  978-0-393-00381-9 . 
 Worthington, Ian (2004). Alexander the Great: Man And God. Pearson. ISBN  978-1-4058-0162-1 .  
External links
   Delamarche, Félix (1833),  The Empire and Expeditions of Alexander the Great  .
 Romm, James; Cartledge, Paul, "Two Great Historians On Alexander the Great", Forbes (conversations) Part 1, Part 2, Part 3, Part 4, Part 5, Part 6.
 Alexander the Great at Curlie 
   Alexander the Great: An annotated list of primary sources , Livius, archived from the original on 4 December 2016, retrieved 26 March 2020.
   The Elusive Tomb of Alexander the Great , Archæology.
   Alexander the Great and Sherlock Holmes , Sherlockian Sherlock.
 In Our Time: Alexander the Great BBC discussion with Paul Cartledge, Diana Spencer and Rachel Mairs hosted by Melvyn Bragg, first broadcast 1 October 2015.
  Alexander the Great  by Kireet Joshi 
 
 Alexander the Great     Argead dynasty    Born: 356 BC Died: 323 BC
 
Regnal titles
 
Preceded by  Philip II  
  King of Macedon  336–323 BC
Succeeded by  Philip III  Alexander IV  
 
Preceded by  Darius III  
  King of Persia  330–323 BC
 
  Pharaoh of Egypt  332–323 BC
 
 New creation
  Lord of Asia  331–323 BC
Alexander the Great - Wikipedia
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Alexander the Great | Biography, Empire, Death, & Facts
1998-07-20
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 Alexander the Great
 Table of Contents
 Alexander the Great
 * Introduction & Top Questions
 * Life
 + Beginnings of the Persian expedition
 + Asia Minor and the Battle of Issus
 + Conquest of the Mediterranean coast and Egypt
 + Campaign eastward to Central Asia
 + Invasion of India
 + Consolidation of the empire
 * Evaluation
 Fast Facts
 * Alexander the Great summary
 * Alexander the Great Timeline
 * Alexander the Great’s Achievements
 * Top Questions
 + Why is Alexander the Great famous?
 + What was Alexander the Great’s childhood like?
 + How did Alexander the Great die?
 + What was Alexander the Great like?
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 Home Politics, Law & Government World Leaders Kings

 Alexander the Great

 king of Macedonia
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 Alternate titles: Alexander III, Alexander of Macedonia
 Written by
 Frank W. Walbank
 Rathbone Professor Emeritus of Ancient History and Classical Archaeology, University of Liverpool. Author of A Historical Commentary on Polybius and others.
 Frank W. Walbank
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 Alexander the Great
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 Born: 356 BCE Pella Greece ...(Show more) Died: June 13, 323 BCE Babylon Iraq ...(Show more) Title / Office: king (336BC-323BC) , Macedonia ...(Show more) House / Dynasty: Argead dynasty ...(Show more) Notable Family Members: spouse Roxana father Philip II mother Olympias ...(Show more)
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 Top Questions

 Why is Alexander the Great famous?

 Although king of ancient Macedonia for less than 13 years, Alexander the Great changed the course of history. One of the world’s greatest military generals, he created a vast empire that stretched from Macedonia to Egypt and from Greece to part of India. This allowed for Hellenistic culture to become widespread.

 What was Alexander the Great’s childhood like?

 Alexander was the son of Philip II and Olympias (daughter of King Neoptolemus of Epirus). From age 13 to 16 he was taught by the Greek philosopher Aristotle, who inspired his interest in philosophy, medicine, and scientific investigation. As a teenager, Alexander became known for his exploits on the battlefield.

 How did Alexander the Great die?

 While in Babylon, Alexander became ill after a prolonged banquet and drinking bout, and on June 13, 323, he died at age 33. There was much speculation about the cause of death, and the most popular theories claim that he either contracted malaria or typhoid fever or that he was poisoned.

 What was Alexander the Great like?

 While he could be ruthless and impulsive, Alexander was also charismatic and sensible. His troops were extremely loyal, believing in him throughout all hardships. Hugely ambitious, Alexander drew inspiration from the gods Achilles, Heracles, and Dionysus. He also displayed a deep interest in learning and encouraged the spread of Hellenistic culture.

 Summary

 Read a brief summary of this topic

 Alexander the Great, also known as Alexander III or Alexander of Macedonia, (born 356 bce , Pella, Macedonia [northwest of Thessaloníki, Greece]—died June 13, 323 bce , Babylon [near Al-Ḥillah, Iraq]), king of Macedonia (336–323 bce ), who overthrew the Persian empire, carried Macedonian arms to India, and laid the foundations for the Hellenistic world of territorial kingdoms. Already in his lifetime the subject of fabulous stories, he later became the hero of a full-scale legend bearing only the sketchiest resemblance to his historical career.

 Life

 He was born in 356 bce at Pella in Macedonia, the son of Philip II and Olympias (daughter of King Neoptolemus of Epirus). From age 13 to 16 he was taught by Aristotle, who inspired him with an interest in philosophy, medicine, and scientific investigation, but he was later to advance beyond his teacher’s narrow precept that non-Greeks should be treated as slaves. Left in charge of Macedonia in 340 during Philip’s attack on Byzantium, Alexander defeated the Maedi, a Thracian people. Two years later he commanded the left wing at the Battle of Chaeronea, in which Philip defeated the allied Greek states, and displayed personal courage in breaking the Sacred Band of Thebes, an elite military corps composed of 150 pairs of lovers. A year later Philip divorced Olympias, and, after a quarrel at a feast held to celebrate his father’s new marriage, Alexander and his mother fled to Epirus, and Alexander later went to Illyria. Shortly afterward, father and son were reconciled and Alexander returned, but his position as heir was jeopardized.

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 In 336, however, on Philip’s assassination, Alexander, acclaimed by the army, succeeded without opposition. He at once executed the princes of Lyncestis, alleged to be behind Philip’s murder, along with all possible rivals and the whole of the faction opposed to him. He then marched south, recovered a wavering Thessaly, and at an assembly of the Greek League of Corinth was appointed generalissimo for the forthcoming invasion of Asia, already planned and initiated by Philip. Returning to Macedonia by way of Delphi (where the Pythian priestess acclaimed him “invincible”), he advanced into Thrace in spring 335 and, after forcing the Shipka Pass and crushing the Triballi, crossed the Danube to disperse the Getae; turning west, he then defeated and shattered a coalition of Illyrians who had invaded Macedonia. Meanwhile, a rumour of his death had precipitated a revolt of Theban democrats; other Greek states favoured Thebes, and the Athenians, urged on by Demosthenes, voted help. In 14 days Alexander marched 240 miles from Pelion (near modern Korçë, Albania) in Illyria to Thebes. When the Thebans refused to surrender, he made an entry and razed their city to the ground, sparing only temples and Pindar’s house; 6,000 were killed and all survivors sold into slavery. The other Greek states were cowed by this severity, and Alexander could afford to treat Athens leniently. Macedonian garrisons were left in Corinth, Chalcis, and the Cadmea (the citadel of Thebes).

 Beginnings of the Persian expedition

 Pompeii: mosaic of Alexander the Great

 From his accession Alexander had set his mind on the Persian expedition. He had grown up to the idea. Moreover, he needed the wealth of Persia if he was to maintain the army built by Philip and pay off the 500 talents he owed. The exploits of the Ten Thousand, Greek soldiers of fortune, and of Agesilaus of Sparta, in successfully campaigning in Persian territory had revealed the vulnerability of the Persian empire. With a good cavalry force Alexander could expect to defeat any Persian army. In spring 334 he crossed the Dardanelles, leaving Antipater, who had already faithfully served his father, as his deputy in Europe with over 13,000 men; he himself commanded about 30,000 foot and over 5,000 cavalry, of whom nearly 14,000 were Macedonians and about 7,000 allies sent by the Greek League. This army was to prove remarkable for its balanced combination of arms. Much work fell on the lightarmed Cretan and Macedonian archers, Thracians, and the Agrianian javelin men. But in pitched battle the striking force was the cavalry, and the core of the army, should the issue still remain undecided after the cavalry charge, was the infantry phalanx, 9,000 strong, armed with 13-foot spears and shields, and the 3,000 men of the royal battalions, the hypaspists. Alexander’s second in command was Parmenio, who had secured a foothold in Asia Minor during Philip’s lifetime; many of his family and supporters were entrenched in positions of responsibility. The army was accompanied by surveyors, engineers, architects, scientists, court officials, and historians; from the outset Alexander seems to have envisaged an unlimited operation.

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 After visiting Ilium (Troy), a romantic gesture inspired by Homer, he confronted his first Persian army, led by three satraps, at the Granicus (modern Kocabaş) River, near the Sea of Marmara (May/June 334). The Persian plan to tempt Alexander across the river and kill him in the melee almost succeeded; but the Persian line broke, and Alexander’s victory was complete. Darius’s Greek mercenaries were largely massacred, but 2,000 survivors were sent back to Macedonia in chains. This victory exposed western Asia Minor to the Macedonians, and most cities hastened to open their gates. The tyrants were expelled and (in contrast to Macedonian policy in Greece) democracies were installed. Alexander thus underlined his Panhellenic policy, already symbolized in the sending of 300 panoplies (sets of armour) taken at the Granicus as an offering dedicated to Athena at Athens by “Alexander son of Philip and the Greeks (except the Spartans) from the barbarians who inhabit Asia.” (This formula, cited by the Greek historian Arrian in his history of Alexander’s campaigns, is noteworthy for its omission of any reference to Macedonia.) But the cities remained de facto under Alexander, and his appointment of Calas as satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia reflected his claim to succeed the Great King of Persia. When Miletus, encouraged by the proximity of the Persian fleet, resisted, Alexander took it by assault, but, refusing a naval battle, he disbanded his own costly navy and announced that he would “defeat the Persian fleet on land,” by occupying the coastal cities. In Caria, Halicarnassus resisted and was stormed, but Ada, the widow and sister of the satrap Idrieus, adopted Alexander as her son and, after expelling her brother Pixodarus, Alexander restored her to her satrapy. Some parts of Caria held out, however, until 332.

 Asia Minor and the Battle of Issus

 Battle of Issus

 In winter 334–333 Alexander conquered western Asia Minor, subduing the hill tribes of Lycia and Pisidia, and in spring 333 he advanced along the coastal road to Perga, passing the cliffs of Mount Climax, thanks to a fortunate change of wind. The fall in the level of the sea was interpreted as a mark of divine favour by Alexander’s flatterers, including the historian Callisthenes. At Gordium in Phrygia, tradition records his cutting of the Gordian knot, which could only be loosed by the man who was to rule Asia; but this story may be apocryphal or at least distorted. At this point Alexander benefitted from the sudden death of Memnon, the competent Greek commander of the Persian fleet. From Gordium he pushed on to Ancyra (modern Ankara) and thence south through Cappadocia and the Cilician Gates (modern Külek Boğazi); a fever held him up for a time in Cilicia. Meanwhile, Darius with his Grand Army had advanced northward on the eastern side of Mount Amanus. Intelligence on both sides was faulty, and Alexander was already encamped by Myriandrus (near modern İskenderun, Turkey) when he learned that Darius was astride his line of communications at Issus, north of Alexander’s position (autumn 333). Turning, Alexander found Darius drawn up along the Pinarus River. In the battle that followed, Alexander won a decisive victory. The struggle turned into a Persian rout and Darius fled, leaving his family in Alexander’s hands; the women were treated with chivalrous care.

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 Conquest of the Mediterranean coast and Egypt

 From Issus Alexander marched south into Syria and Phoenicia, his object being to isolate the Persian fleet from its bases and so to destroy it as an effective fighting force. The Phoenician cities Marathus and Aradus came over quietly, and Parmenio was sent ahead to secure Damascus and its rich booty, including Darius’s war chest. In reply to a letter from Darius offering peace, Alexander replied arrogantly, recapitulating the historic wrongs of Greece and demanding unconditional surrender to himself as lord of Asia. After taking Byblos (modern Jubayl) and Sidon (Arabic Ṣaydā), he met with a check at Tyre, where he was refused entry into the island city. He thereupon prepared to use all methods of siegecraft to take it, but the Tyrians resisted, holding out for seven months. In the meantime (winter 333–332) the Persians had counterattacked by land in Asia Minor—where they were defeated by Antigonus, the satrap of Greater Phrygia—and by sea, recapturing a number of cities and islands.

 While the siege of Tyre was in progress, Darius sent a new offer: he would pay a huge ransom of 10,000 talents for his family and cede all his lands west of the Euphrates. “I would accept,” Parmenio is reported to have said, “were I Alexander”; “I too,” was the famous retort, “were I Parmenio.” The storming of Tyre in July 332 was Alexander’s greatest military achievement; it was attended with great carnage and the sale of the women and children into slavery. Leaving Parmenio in Syria, Alexander advanced south without opposition until he reached Gaza on its high mound; there bitter resistance halted him for two months, and he sustained a serious shoulder wound during a sortie. There is no basis for the tradition that he turned aside to visit Jerusalem.

 In November 332 he reached Egypt. The people welcomed him as their deliverer, and the Persian satrap Mazaces wisely surrendered. At Memphis Alexander sacrificed to Apis, the Greek term for Hapi, the sacred Egyptian bull, and was crowned with the traditional double crown of the pharaohs; the native priests were placated and their religion encouraged. He spent the winter organizing Egypt, where he employed Egyptian governors, keeping the army under a separate Macedonian command. He founded the city of Alexandria near the western arm of the Nile on a fine site between the sea and Lake Mareotis, protected by the island of Pharos, and had it laid out by the Rhodian architect Deinocrates. He is also said to have sent an expedition to discover the causes of the flooding of the Nile. From Alexandria he marched along the coast to Paraetonium and from there inland to visit the celebrated oracle of the god Amon (at Sīwah); the difficult journey was later embroidered with flattering legends. On his reaching the oracle in its oasis, the priest gave him the traditional salutation of a pharaoh, as son of Amon; Alexander consulted the god on the success of his expedition but revealed the reply to no one. Later the incident was to contribute to the story that he was the son of Zeus and, thus, to his “deification.” In spring 331 he returned to Tyre, appointed a Macedonian satrap for Syria, and prepared to advance into Mesopotamia. His conquest of Egypt had completed his control of the whole eastern Mediterranean coast.

 In July 331 Alexander was at Thapsacus on the Euphrates. Instead of taking the direct route down the river to Babylon, he made across northern Mesopotamia toward the Tigris, and Darius, learning of this move from an advance force sent under Mazaeus to the Euphrates crossing, marched up the Tigris to oppose him. The decisive battle of the war was fought on October 31, on the plain of Gaugamela between Nineveh and Arbela. Alexander pursued the defeated Persian forces for 35 miles to Arbela, but Darius escaped with his Bactrian cavalry and Greek mercenaries into Media.

 Alexander now occupied Babylon, city and province; Mazaeus, who surrendered it, was confirmed as satrap in conjunction with a Macedonian troop commander, and quite exceptionally was granted the right to coin. As in Egypt, the local priesthood was encouraged. Susa, the capital, also surrendered, releasing huge treasures amounting to 50,000 gold talents; here Alexander established Darius’s family in comfort. Crushing the mountain tribe of the Ouxians, he now pressed on over the Zagros range into Persia proper and, successfully turning the Pass of the Persian Gates, held by the satrap Ariobarzanes, he entered Persepolis and Pasargadae. At Persepolis he ceremonially burned down the palace of Xerxes, as a symbol that the Panhellenic war of revenge was at an end; for such seems the probable significance of an act that tradition later explained as a drunken frolic inspired by Thaïs, an Athenian courtesan. In spring 330 Alexander marched north into Media and occupied its capital. The Thessalians and Greek allies were sent home; henceforward he was waging a purely personal war.

 As Mazaeus’s appointment indicated, Alexander’s views on the empire were changing. He had come to envisage a joint ruling people consisting of Macedonians and Persians, and this served to augment the misunderstanding that now arose between him and his people. Before continuing his pursuit of Darius, who had retreated into Bactria, he assembled all the Persian treasure and entrusted it to Harpalus, who was to hold it at Ecbatana as chief treasurer. Parmenio was also left behind in Media to control communications; the presence of this older man had perhaps become irksome.

 In midsummer 330 Alexander set out for the eastern provinces at a high speed via Rhagae (modern Rayy, near Tehrān) and the Caspian Gates, where he learned that Bessus, the satrap of Bactria, had deposed Darius. After a skirmish near modern Shāhrūd, the usurper had Darius stabbed and left him to die. Alexander sent his body for burial with due honours in the royal tombs at Persepolis.

 Campaign eastward to Central Asia

 Darius’s death left no obstacle to Alexander’s claim to be Great King, and a Rhodian inscription of this year (330) calls him “lord of Asia”—i.e., of the Persian empire; soon afterward his Asian coins carry the title of king. Crossing the Elburz Mountains to the Caspian, he seized Zadracarta in Hyrcania and received the submission of a group of satraps and Persian notables, some of whom he confirmed in their offices; in a diversion westward, perhaps to modern Āmol, he reduced the Mardi, a mountain people who inhabited the Elburz Mountains. He also accepted the surrender of Darius’s Greek mercenaries. His advance eastward was now rapid. In Aria he reduced Satibarzanes, who had offered submission only to revolt, and he founded Alexandria of the Arians (modern Herāt). At Phrada in Drangiana (either near modern Nad-e ʿAli in Seistan or farther north at Farah), he at last took steps to destroy Parmenio and his family. Philotas, Parmenio’s son, commander of the elite Companion cavalry, was implicated in an alleged plot against Alexander’s life, condemned by the army, and executed; and a secret message was sent to Cleander, Parmenio’s second in command, who obediently assassinated him. This ruthless action excited widespread horror but strengthened Alexander’s position relative to his critics and those whom he regarded as his father’s men. All Parmenio’s adherents were now eliminated and men close to Alexander promoted. The Companion cavalry was reorganized in two sections, each containing four squadrons (now known as hipparchies); one group was commanded by Alexander’s oldest friend, Hephaestion, the other by Cleitus, an older man. From Phrada, Alexander pressed on during the winter of 330–329 up the valley of the Helmand River, through Arachosia, and over the mountains past the site of modern Kābul into the country of the Paropamisadae, where he founded Alexandria by the Caucasus.

 Bessus was now in Bactria raising a national revolt in the eastern satrapies with the usurped title of Great King. Crossing the Hindu Kush northward over the Khawak Pass (11,650 feet [3,550 metres]), Alexander brought his army, despite food shortages, to Drapsaca (sometimes identified with modern Banu [Andarab], probably farther north at Qunduz); outflanked, Bessus fled beyond the Oxus (modern Amu Darya), and Alexander, marching west to Bactra-Zariaspa (modern Balkh [Wazirabad] in Afghanistan), appointed loyal satraps in Bactria and Aria. Crossing the Oxus, he sent his general Ptolemy in pursuit of Bessus, who had meanwhile been overthrown by the Sogdian Spitamenes. Bessus was captured, flogged, and sent to Bactra, where he was later mutilated after the Persian manner (losing his nose and ears); in due course he was publicly executed at Ecbatana.

 From Maracanda (modern Samarkand) Alexander advanced by way of Cyropolis to the Jaxartes (modern Syrdarya), the boundary of the Persian empire. There he broke the opposition of the Scythian nomads by his use of catapults and, after defeating them in a battle on the north bank of the river, pursued them into the interior. On the site of modern Leninabad (Khojent) on the Jaxartes, he founded a city, Alexandria Eschate, “the farthest.” Meanwhile, Spitamenes had raised all Sogdiana in revolt behind him, bringing in the Massagetai, a people of the Shaka confederacy. It took Alexander until the autumn of 328 to crush the most determined opponent he encountered in his campaigns. Later in the same year he attacked Oxyartes and the remaining barons who held out in the hills of Paraetacene (modern Tajikistan); volunteers seized the crag on which Oxyartes had his stronghold, and among the captives was his daughter, Roxana. In reconciliation Alexander married her, and the rest of his opponents were either won over or crushed.

 An incident that occurred at Maracanda widened the breach between Alexander and many of his Macedonians. He murdered Cleitus, one of his most-trusted commanders, in a drunken quarrel, but his excessive display of remorse led the army to pass a decree convicting Cleitus posthumously of treason. The event marked a step in Alexander’s progress toward Eastern absolutism, and this growing attitude found its outward expression in his use of Persian royal dress. Shortly afterward, at Bactra, he attempted to impose the Persian court ceremonial, involving prostration (proskynesis), on the Greeks and Macedonians too, but to them this custom, habitual for Persians entering the king’s presence, implied an act of worship and was intolerable before a human. Even Callisthenes, historian and nephew of Aristotle, whose ostentatious flattery had perhaps encouraged Alexander to see himself in the role of a god, refused to abase himself. Macedonian laughter caused the experiment to founder, and Alexander abandoned it. Shortly afterward, however, Callisthenes was held to be privy to a conspiracy among the royal pages and was executed (or died in prison; accounts vary); resentment of this action alienated sympathy from Alexander within the Peripatetic school of philosophers, with which Callisthenes had close connections.

 Invasion of India

 In early summer 327 Alexander left Bactria with a reinforced army under a reorganized command. If Plutarch’s figure of 120,000 men has any reality, however, it must include all kinds of auxiliary services, together with muleteers, camel drivers, medical corps, peddlers, entertainers, women, and children; the fighting strength perhaps stood at about 35,000. Recrossing the Hindu Kush, probably by Bamiyan and the Ghorband Valley, Alexander divided his forces. Half the army with the baggage under Hephaestion and Perdiccas, both cavalry commanders, was sent through the Khyber Pass, while he himself led the rest, together with his siege train, through the hills to the north. His advance through Swāt and Gandhāra was marked by the storming of the almost impregnable pinnacle of Aornos, the modern Pir-Sar, a few miles west of the Indus and north of the Buner River, an impressive feat of siegecraft. In spring 326, crossing the Indus near Attock, Alexander entered Taxila, whose ruler, Taxiles, furnished elephants and troops in return for aid against his rival Porus, who ruled the lands between the Hydaspes (modern Jhelum) and the Acesines (modern Chenāb). In June Alexander fought his last great battle on the left bank of the Hydaspes. He founded two cities there, Alexandria Nicaea (to celebrate his victory) and Bucephala (named after his horse Bucephalus, which died there); and Porus became his ally.

 How much Alexander knew of India beyond the Hyphasis (probably the modern Beas) is uncertain; there is no conclusive proof that he had heard of the Ganges. But he was anxious to press on farther, and he had advanced to the Hyphasis when his army mutinied, refusing to go farther in the tropical rain; they were weary in body and spirit, and Coenus, one of Alexander’s four chief marshals, acted as their spokesman. On finding the army adamant, Alexander agreed to turn back.

 On the Hyphasis he erected 12 altars to the 12 Olympian gods, and on the Hydaspes he built a fleet of 800 to 1,000 ships. Leaving Porus, he then proceeded down the river and into the Indus, with half his forces on shipboard and half marching in three columns down the two banks. The fleet was commanded by Nearchus, and Alexander’s own captain was Onesicritus; both later wrote accounts of the campaign. The march was attended with much fighting and heavy, pitiless slaughter; at the storming of one town of the Malli near the Hydraotes (Ravi) River, Alexander received a severe wound which left him weakened.

 On reaching Patala, located at the head of the Indus delta, he built a harbour and docks and explored both arms of the Indus, which probably then ran into the Rann of Kachchh. He planned to lead part of his forces back by land, while the rest in perhaps 100 to 150 ships under the command of Nearchus, a Cretan with naval experience, made a voyage of exploration along the Persian Gulf. Local opposition led Nearchus to set sail in September (325), and he was held up for three weeks until he could pick up the northeast monsoon in late October. In September Alexander too set out along the coast through Gedrosia (modern Baluchistan), but he was soon compelled by mountainous country to turn inland, thus failing in his project to establish food depots for the fleet. Craterus, a high-ranking officer, already had been sent off with the baggage and siege train, the elephants, and the sick and wounded, together with three battalions of the phalanx, by way of the Mulla Pass, Quetta, and Kandahar into the Helmand Valley; from there he was to march through Drangiana to rejoin the main army on the Amanis (modern Minab) River in Carmania. Alexander’s march through Gedrosia proved disastrous; waterless desert and shortage of food and fuel caused great suffering, and many, especially women and children, perished in a sudden monsoon flood while encamped in a wadi. At length, at the Amanis, he was rejoined by Nearchus and the fleet, which also had suffered losses.

 Consolidation of the empire

 Alexander the Great's empire

 Alexander now proceeded farther with the policy of replacing senior officials and executing defaulting governors on which he had already embarked before leaving India. Between 326 and 324 over a third of his satraps were superseded and six were put to death, including the Persian satraps of Persis, Susiana, Carmania, and Paraetacene; three generals in Media, including Cleander, the brother of Coenus (who had died a little earlier), were accused of extortion and summoned to Carmania, where they were arrested, tried, and executed. How far the rigour that from now onward Alexander displayed against his governors represents exemplary punishment for gross maladministration during his absence and how far the elimination of men he had come to distrust (as in the case of Philotas and Parmenio) is debatable; but the ancient sources generally favourable to him comment adversely on his severity.

 In spring 324 he was back in Susa, capital of Elam and administrative centre of the Persian empire; the story of his journey through Carmania in a drunken revel, dressed as Dionysus, is embroidered, if not wholly apocryphal. He found that his treasurer, Harpalus, evidently fearing punishment for peculation, had absconded with 6,000 mercenaries and 5,000 talents to Greece; arrested in Athens, he escaped and later was murdered in Crete. At Susa Alexander held a feast to celebrate the seizure of the Persian empire, at which, in furtherance of his policy of fusing Macedonians and Persians into one master race, he and 80 of his officers took Persian wives; he and Hephaestion married Darius’s daughters Barsine (also called Stateira) and Drypetis, respectively, and 10,000 of his soldiers with native wives were given generous dowries.

 This policy of racial fusion brought increasing friction to Alexander’s relations with his Macedonians, who had no sympathy for his changed concept of the empire. His determination to incorporate Persians on equal terms in the army and the administration of the provinces was bitterly resented. This discontent was now fanned by the arrival of 30,000 native youths who had received a Macedonian military training and by the introduction of Asian peoples from Bactria, Sogdiana, Arachosia, and other parts of the empire into the Companion cavalry; whether Asians had previously served with the Companions is uncertain, but if so they must have formed separate squadrons. In addition, Persian nobles had been accepted into the royal cavalry bodyguard. Peucestas, the new governor of Persis, gave this policy full support to flatter Alexander; but most Macedonians saw it as a threat to their own privileged position.

 The issue came to a head at Opis (324), when Alexander’s decision to send home Macedonian veterans under Craterus was interpreted as a move toward transferring the seat of power to Asia. There was an open mutiny involving all but the royal bodyguard; but when Alexander dismissed his whole army and enrolled Persians instead, the opposition broke down. An emotional scene of reconciliation was followed by a vast banquet with 9,000 guests to celebrate the ending of the misunderstanding and the partnership in government of Macedonians and Persians—but not, as has been argued, the incorporation of all the subject peoples as partners in the commonwealth. Ten thousand veterans were now sent back to Macedonia with gifts, and the crisis was surmounted.

 In summer 324 Alexander attempted to solve another problem, that of the wandering mercenaries, of whom there were thousands in Asia and Greece, many of them political exiles from their own cities. A decree brought by Nicanor to Europe and proclaimed at Olympia (September 324) required the Greek cities of the Greek League to receive back all exiles and their families (except the Thebans), a measure that implied some modification of the oligarchic regimes maintained in the Greek cities by Alexander’s governor Antipater. Alexander now planned to recall Antipater and supersede him by Craterus, but he was to die before this could be done.

 In autumn 324 Hephaestion died in Ecbatana, and Alexander indulged in extravagant mourning for his closest friend; he was given a royal funeral in Babylon with a pyre costing 10,000 talents. His post of chiliarch (grand vizier) was left unfilled. It was probably in connection with a general order now sent out to the Greeks to honour Hephaestion as a hero that Alexander linked the demand that he himself should be accorded divine honours. For a long time his mind had dwelt on ideas of godhead. Greek thought drew no very decided line of demarcation between god and man, for legend offered more than one example of men who, by their achievements, acquired divine status. Alexander had on several occasions encouraged favourable comparison of his own accomplishments with those of Dionysus or Heracles. He now seems to have become convinced of the reality of his own divinity and to have required its acceptance by others. There is no reason to assume that his demand had any political background (divine status gave its possessor no particular rights in a Greek city); it was rather a symptom of growing megalomania and emotional instability. The cities perforce complied, but often ironically: the Spartan decree read, “Since Alexander wishes to be a god, let him be a god.”

 In the winter of 324 Alexander carried out a savage punitive expedition against the Cossaeans in the hills of Luristan. The following spring at Babylon he received complimentary embassies from the Libyans and from the Bruttians, Etruscans, and Lucanians of Italy; but the story that embassies also came from more distant peoples, such as Carthaginians, Celts, Iberians, and even Romans, is a later invention. Representatives of the cities of Greece also came, garlanded as befitted Alexander’s divine status. Following up Nearchus’s voyage, he now founded an Alexandria at the mouth of the Tigris and made plans to develop sea communications with India, for which an expedition along the Arabian coast was to be a preliminary. He also dispatched Heracleides, an officer, to explore the Hyrcanian (i.e., Caspian) Sea. Suddenly, in Babylon, while busy with plans to improve the irrigation of the Euphrates and to settle the coast of the Persian Gulf, Alexander was taken ill after a prolonged banquet and drinking bout; 10 days later, on June 13, 323, he died in his 33rd year; he had reigned for 12 years and eight months. His body, diverted to Egypt by Ptolemy, the later king, was eventually placed in a golden coffin in Alexandria. Both in Egypt and elsewhere in the Greek cities he received divine honours.

 No heir had been appointed to the throne, and his generals adopted Philip II’s half-witted illegitimate son, Philip Arrhidaeus, and Alexander’s posthumous son by Roxana, Alexander IV, as kings, sharing out the satrapies among themselves, after much bargaining. The empire could hardly survive Alexander’s death as a unit. Both kings were murdered, Arrhidaeus in 317 and Alexander in 310/309. The provinces became independent kingdoms, and the generals, following Antigonus’s lead in 306, took the title of king.

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Alexander the Great | Biography, Empire, Death, & Facts
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alexander-the-Great
<div><div><h2>Where Was Alexander the Great From?</h2><p>Alexander III was born in Pella, <a href="https://www.history.com/topics/macedonia">Macedonia</a>, in 356 B.C. to King Philip II and Queen Olympias—although legend had it his father was none other than Zeus, the ruler of the <a href="https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-history/greek-mythology">Greek gods</a>.</p><p>Philip II was an impressive military man in his own right. He turned Macedonia (a region on the northern part of the Greek peninsula) into a force to be reckoned with, and he fantasized about conquering the massive <a href="https://www.history.com/topics/persian-empire">Persian Empire</a>.</p><h2>Bucephalus</h2><p>At age 12, Alexander showed impressive courage when he tamed the wild horse Bucephalus, an enormous stallion with a furious demeanor. The horse became his battle companion for most of Alexander’s life.</p><p>When Alexander was 13, Philip called on the great philosopher <a href="http://www.history.com/topics/ancient-history/aristotle">Aristotle</a> to tutor his son. Aristotle sparked and fostered Alexander’s interest in literature, science, medicine and philosophy.</p><p>Alexander was just 16 when Philip went off to battle and left his son in charge of Macedonia. In 338 B.C., Alexander saw the opportunity to prove his military worth and led a cavalry against the Sacred Band of Thebes—a supposedly unbeatable, select army made up entirely of male lovers—during the Battle of Chaeronea.</p><p>Alexander put his vigor and bravery on display, and his cavalry decimated the Sacred Band of Thebes.</p><div><div><figure><p><span><span></span></span></p></figure></div><div><h3>Ancient Empires</h3><p>Watch the three-episode documentary event, <strong>Ancient Empires</strong>. Available to stream now.</p></div></div><h2>Alexander Becomes King</h2><p>In 336 B.C., Alexander’s father Philip was assassinated by his bodyguard Pausanias. Just 20 years old, Alexander claimed the Macedonian throne and killed his rivals before they could challenge his sovereignty.</p><p>He also quashed rebellions for independence in northern Greece. Once he’d cleaned house, Alexander left to follow in his father’s footsteps and continue Macedonia’s world domination.</p><p>Alexander appointed the general Antipater as regent and headed for Persia with his army. They crossed the Hellespont, a narrow strait between the Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara, and faced Persian and Greek forces at the Granicus River. Victory went to Alexander and the Macedonians.</p><p>Alexander then headed south and easily took the city of Sardes. But his army encountered resistance in the cities of Miletus, Mylasa and Halicarnassus. Under siege yet not beaten, Halicarnassus held out long enough for King Darius III, the newest Persian king, to amass a substantial army.</p><h2>Gordian Knot</h2><p>From Halicarnassus, Alexander headed north to Gordium, home of the fabled <a href="http://www.history.com/news/ask-history/what-was-the-gordian-knot">Gordian knot</a>, a group of tightly-entwined knots yoked to an ancient wagon. Legend had it whoever unwound the knot would conquer all of Asia.</p><p>As the story goes, Alexander took on the challenge but was unable to unravel the knot by hand. He took another approach and sliced through the knot with his sword, claiming triumph.</p><h2>Battle of Issus</h2><p>In 333 B.C., Alexander and his men encountered a massive Persian army led by King Darius III near the town of Issus in southern Turkey. Alexander’s forces were greatly outnumbered in men but not in experience or the determination for revenge and to claim Persia’s great wealth, much of it plundered.</p><p>As it became clear Alexander would win the Battle of Issus, Darius fled with what remained of his troops, leaving his wife and family behind. His mother, Sisygambis, was so upset she disowned him and adopted Alexander as her son.</p><p>By now it was clear that Alexander was a shrewd, ruthless and brilliant military leader—in fact, he never lost a battle in his life. He would build an empire on the back of his motto, “there is nothing impossible to him who will try.”</p><h2>Battle of Tyre</h2><p>Next, Alexander took over the Phoenician cities of Marathus and Aradus. He rejected a plea from Darius for peace and took the towns of Byblos and Sidon.</p><p>He then laid siege to the heavily fortified island of Tyre in January 332 B.C., after the Tyrians refused him entry. But Alexander had no navy to speak of and Tyre was surrounded by water.</p><p>Alexander instructed his men to build a causeway to reach Tyre. All went well until they came within striking distance of the Tyrians. Again and again, Tyrian forces thwarted Alexander’s clever attempts to gain entry, and he realized he needed a strong navy to penetrate their defenses.</p><p>He amassed a large fleet, finally breached the city’s walls in July 332 B.C. and executed thousands of Tyrians for daring to defy him; many others were sold into slavery.</p><h2>Alexander Enters Egypt</h2><p>After rejecting another peace offer from Darius, Alexander set out for <a href="http://www.history.com/topics/ancient-history/ancient-egypt">Egypt</a>. He was sidelined at Gaza, however, and forced to endure another lengthy siege. After several weeks, he took the town and entered Egypt where he established the city that still bears his name: Alexandria.</p><p>Alexander traveled to the desert to consult the oracle of Ammon, a god of supposed good counsel. Legends abound about what transpired at the oracle, but Alexander kept mum about the experience. Still, the visit furthered speculation Alexander was a deity.</p><h2>Alexander Becomes King of Persia</h2><p>After conquering Egypt, Alexander faced Darius and his massive troops at Gaugamela in October 331 B.C. Following fierce fighting and heavy losses on both sides, Darius fled and was assassinated by his own troops. It’s said Alexander was sad when he found Darius’s body and he gave him a royal burial.</p><p>Finally rid of Darius, Alexander proclaimed himself King of Persia. But another Persian leader, Bessus (also thought to be Darius’s murderer), had also claimed the Persian throne. Alexander couldn’t let the claim stand.</p><p>After relentless pursuit by Alexander, Bessus’s troops handed Bessus over to Ptolemy, Alexander’s good friend, and he was mutilated and executed. With Bessus out of the way, Alexander had full control of Persia.</p><h2>Proskynesis</h2><p>To gain credibility with the Persians, Alexander took on many Persian customs. He began dressing like a Persian and adopted the practice of proskynesis, a Persian court custom that involved bowing down and kissing the hand of others, depending on their rank.</p><p>The Macedonians were less than thrilled with the changes in Alexander and his attempt to be viewed as a deity. They refused to practice proskynesis and some plotted his death.</p><p>Increasingly paranoid, Alexander ordered the death of one of his most esteemed generals, Parmenio, in 330 B.C., after Parmenio's son Philotas was convicted of plotting an assassination attempt against Alexander (and also killed).</p><h2>Alexander Kills Cleitus</h2><p>In 328 B.C., Cleitus, another general and close friend of Alexander, also met a violent end. Fed up with Alexander’s new Persian-like persona, a drunk Cleitus continually insulted Alexander and minimized his achievements.</p><p>Pushed too far, Alexander killed Cleitus with a spear, a spontaneous act of violence that anguished him. Some historians believe Alexander killed his general in a fit of drunkenness—a persistent problem that plagued him through much of his life.</p><p>Alexander struggled to capture Sogdia, a region of the Persian Empire that remained loyal to Bessus. The Sogdians found a refuge at the pinnacle of a rock and refused Alexander’s demand to surrender.</p><p>Not one to take “no” for an answer, Alexander sent some of his men to scale the rock and take the Sogdians by surprise. Supposedly, one of those on the rock was a girl named Roxane.</p><p>As the story goes, Alexander fell in love with Roxane on sight. He married her despite her Sogdian heritage and she joined him on his journey.</p><h2>Alexander Enters India</h2><p>In 327 B.C., Alexander marched on Punjab, India. Some tribes surrendered peacefully; others did not. In 326 B.C., Alexander met King Porus of Paurava at the Hydaspes River.</p><p>Porus’s army was less experienced than Alexander’s, but they had a secret weapon—elephants. Even so, after a fierce battle in a raging thunderstorm, Porus was defeated.</p><p>One event took place at Hydaspes which devastated Alexander: the death of his beloved horse, Bucephalus. It’s unclear if he died from battle wounds or of old age, but Alexander named the city of Bucephala after him.</p><p>Alexander wanted to press on and attempt to conquer all of India, but his war-weary soldiers refused, and his officers convinced him to return to Persia. So Alexander led his troops down the Indus River and was severely wounded during a battle with the Malli.</p><p>After recovering, he divided his troops, sending half of them back to Persia and half to Gedrosia, a desolate area west of the Indus River.</p><h2>A Mass Wedding</h2><p>In early 324 B.C., Alexander reached the city of Susa in Persia. Wanting to unite the Persians and Macedonians and create a new race loyal only to him, he ordered many of his officers to marry Persian princesses at a mass wedding. He also took two more wives for himself.</p><p>The Macedonian army resented Alexander’s attempt to change their culture and many mutinied. But after Alexander took a firm stand and replaced Macedonian officers and troops with Persians, his army backed down.</p><p>To further diffuse the situation, Alexander returned their titles and hosted a huge reconciliation banquet.</p><h2>How Did Alexander the Great Die?</h2><p>By 323 B.C., Alexander was head of an enormous empire and had recovered from the devastating loss of his friend Hephaestion—who was also reputed to be one of Alexander’s homosexual male lovers.</p><p>Thanks to his insatiable urge for world supremacy, he started plans to conquer Arabia. But he’d never live to see it happen. Some historians say Alexander died of malaria or other natural causes; others believe he was poisoned. Either way, he never named a successor.</p><p>His death—and the bloody infighting for control that happened afterwards—unraveled the empire he’d fought so hard to create.</p><h2>How Old Was Alexander the Great When He Died?</h2><p>After surviving battle after fierce battle, Alexander the Great died in June 323 B.C. at age 32.</p><p>Many conquered lands retained the Greek influence Alexander introduced, and several cities he founded remain important cultural centers even today. The period of history from his death to 31 B.C., when his empire folded, would come to be known as the <a href="https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-history/hellenistic-greece">Hellenistic period</a>, from “Hellazein,” which means, “to speak Greek or identify with the Greeks.” Alexander the Great is revered as one of the most powerful and influential leaders the ancient world ever produced.</p><h2>Sources</h2><p>Alexander the Great. <a href="https://www.ancient.eu/Alexander_the_Great/">Ancient History Encyclopedia.</a><br/>Alexander the Great. <a href="https://www.ancient.eu/Alexander_the_Great/">Livius.org.</a><br/>Alexander the Great of Macedon Biography. <a href="http://www.historyofmacedonia.org/AncientMacedonia/AlexandertheGreat.html">Historyofmacedonia.org</a>.<br/>Alexander of Macedonia. <a href="http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/alexandergreat.htm">San Jose State University</a>.<br/>Bucephalus. <a href="https://www.ancient.eu/Bucephalus/">Ancient History Encyclopedia.</a><br/>The Battle of Issus. <a href="http://www.livius.org/sources/content/diodorus/the-battle-of-issus/">Livius.org.</a><br/>The Sacred Band of Thebes, from Plutarch, <em>Life of Pelopidas</em>. <a href="https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/halsall/pwh/sacredband.asp">Fordham University</a>.<br/>The Siege of Tyre (332 BCE). <a href="http://www.livius.org/articles/battle/tyre-332-bce/">Livius.org.</a></p></div></div>||||I||||  Skip to content
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     4. Alexander the Great

        Alexander the Great

          By: History.com Editors

          Updated: February 5, 2024 | Original: November 9, 2009

          copy page link Print Page

  CM Dixon/Print Collector/Getty Images

        Alexander the Great was an ancient Macedonian ruler and one of history’s greatest military minds who, as King of Macedonia and Persia, established the largest empire the ancient world had ever seen. By turns charismatic and ruthless, brilliant and power hungry, diplomatic and bloodthirsty, Alexander inspired such loyalty in his men they’d follow him anywhere and, if necessary, die in the process. Though Alexander the Great died before realizing his dream of uniting a new realm, his influence on Greek and Asian culture was so profound that it inspired a new historical epoch—the Hellenistic Period.

      Where Was Alexander the Great From?

      Alexander III was born in Pella, Macedonia, in 356 B.C. to King Philip II and Queen Olympias—although legend had it his father was none other than Zeus, the ruler of the Greek gods.

      Philip II was an impressive military man in his own right. He turned Macedonia (a region on the northern part of the Greek peninsula) into a force to be reckoned with, and he fantasized about conquering the massive Persian Empire.

              History Lists: Ancient Empire Builders

      Bucephalus

      At age 12, Alexander showed impressive courage when he tamed the wild horse Bucephalus, an enormous stallion with a furious demeanor. The horse became his battle companion for most of Alexander’s life.

      When Alexander was 13, Philip called on the great philosopher Aristotle to tutor his son. Aristotle sparked and fostered Alexander’s interest in literature, science, medicine and philosophy.

      Alexander was just 16 when Philip went off to battle and left his son in charge of Macedonia. In 338 B.C., Alexander saw the opportunity to prove his military worth and led a cavalry against the Sacred Band of Thebes—a supposedly unbeatable, select army made up entirely of male lovers—during the Battle of Chaeronea.

      Alexander put his vigor and bravery on display, and his cavalry decimated the Sacred Band of Thebes.

            Ancient Empires

            Watch the three-episode documentary event, Ancient Empires. Available to stream now.

              WATCH NOW

      Alexander Becomes King

      In 336 B.C., Alexander’s father Philip was assassinated by his bodyguard Pausanias. Just 20 years old, Alexander claimed the Macedonian throne and killed his rivals before they could challenge his sovereignty.

      He also quashed rebellions for independence in northern Greece. Once he’d cleaned house, Alexander left to follow in his father’s footsteps and continue Macedonia’s world domination.

      Alexander appointed the general Antipater as regent and headed for Persia with his army. They crossed the Hellespont, a narrow strait between the Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara, and faced Persian and Greek forces at the Granicus River. Victory went to Alexander and the Macedonians.

      Alexander then headed south and easily took the city of Sardes. But his army encountered resistance in the cities of Miletus, Mylasa and Halicarnassus. Under siege yet not beaten, Halicarnassus held out long enough for King Darius III, the newest Persian king, to amass a substantial army.

      Gordian Knot

      From Halicarnassus, Alexander headed north to Gordium, home of the fabled Gordian knot, a group of tightly-entwined knots yoked to an ancient wagon. Legend had it whoever unwound the knot would conquer all of Asia.

      As the story goes, Alexander took on the challenge but was unable to unravel the knot by hand. He took another approach and sliced through the knot with his sword, claiming triumph.

      Battle of Issus

      In 333 B.C., Alexander and his men encountered a massive Persian army led by King Darius III near the town of Issus in southern Turkey. Alexander’s forces were greatly outnumbered in men but not in experience or the determination for revenge and to claim Persia’s great wealth, much of it plundered.

      As it became clear Alexander would win the Battle of Issus, Darius fled with what remained of his troops, leaving his wife and family behind. His mother, Sisygambis, was so upset she disowned him and adopted Alexander as her son.

      By now it was clear that Alexander was a shrewd, ruthless and brilliant military leader—in fact, he never lost a battle in his life. He would build an empire on the back of his motto, “there is nothing impossible to him who will try.”

      Battle of Tyre

      Next, Alexander took over the Phoenician cities of Marathus and Aradus. He rejected a plea from Darius for peace and took the towns of Byblos and Sidon.

      He then laid siege to the heavily fortified island of Tyre in January 332 B.C., after the Tyrians refused him entry. But Alexander had no navy to speak of and Tyre was surrounded by water.

      Alexander instructed his men to build a causeway to reach Tyre. All went well until they came within striking distance of the Tyrians. Again and again, Tyrian forces thwarted Alexander’s clever attempts to gain entry, and he realized he needed a strong navy to penetrate their defenses.

      He amassed a large fleet, finally breached the city’s walls in July 332 B.C. and executed thousands of Tyrians for daring to defy him; many others were sold into slavery.

      Alexander Enters Egypt

              Ancient Empires: Alexander and Egypt

      After rejecting another peace offer from Darius, Alexander set out for Egypt. He was sidelined at Gaza, however, and forced to endure another lengthy siege. After several weeks, he took the town and entered Egypt where he established the city that still bears his name: Alexandria.

      Alexander traveled to the desert to consult the oracle of Ammon, a god of supposed good counsel. Legends abound about what transpired at the oracle, but Alexander kept mum about the experience. Still, the visit furthered speculation Alexander was a deity.

      Alexander Becomes King of Persia

      After conquering Egypt, Alexander faced Darius and his massive troops at Gaugamela in October 331 B.C. Following fierce fighting and heavy losses on both sides, Darius fled and was assassinated by his own troops. It’s said Alexander was sad when he found Darius’s body and he gave him a royal burial.

      Finally rid of Darius, Alexander proclaimed himself King of Persia. But another Persian leader, Bessus (also thought to be Darius’s murderer), had also claimed the Persian throne. Alexander couldn’t let the claim stand.

      After relentless pursuit by Alexander, Bessus’s troops handed Bessus over to Ptolemy, Alexander’s good friend, and he was mutilated and executed. With Bessus out of the way, Alexander had full control of Persia.

      Proskynesis

      To gain credibility with the Persians, Alexander took on many Persian customs. He began dressing like a Persian and adopted the practice of proskynesis, a Persian court custom that involved bowing down and kissing the hand of others, depending on their rank.

      The Macedonians were less than thrilled with the changes in Alexander and his attempt to be viewed as a deity. They refused to practice proskynesis and some plotted his death.

      Increasingly paranoid, Alexander ordered the death of one of his most esteemed generals, Parmenio, in 330 B.C., after Parmenio's son Philotas was convicted of plotting an assassination attempt against Alexander (and also killed).

      Alexander Kills Cleitus

      In 328 B.C., Cleitus, another general and close friend of Alexander, also met a violent end. Fed up with Alexander’s new Persian-like persona, a drunk Cleitus continually insulted Alexander and minimized his achievements.

      Pushed too far, Alexander killed Cleitus with a spear, a spontaneous act of violence that anguished him. Some historians believe Alexander killed his general in a fit of drunkenness—a persistent problem that plagued him through much of his life.

      Alexander struggled to capture Sogdia, a region of the Persian Empire that remained loyal to Bessus. The Sogdians found a refuge at the pinnacle of a rock and refused Alexander’s demand to surrender.

      Not one to take “no” for an answer, Alexander sent some of his men to scale the rock and take the Sogdians by surprise. Supposedly, one of those on the rock was a girl named Roxane.

      As the story goes, Alexander fell in love with Roxane on sight. He married her despite her Sogdian heritage and she joined him on his journey.

      Alexander Enters India

              Ancient Empires: Alexander in India

      In 327 B.C., Alexander marched on Punjab, India. Some tribes surrendered peacefully; others did not. In 326 B.C., Alexander met King Porus of Paurava at the Hydaspes River.

      Porus’s army was less experienced than Alexander’s, but they had a secret weapon—elephants. Even so, after a fierce battle in a raging thunderstorm, Porus was defeated.

      One event took place at Hydaspes which devastated Alexander: the death of his beloved horse, Bucephalus. It’s unclear if he died from battle wounds or of old age, but Alexander named the city of Bucephala after him.

      Alexander wanted to press on and attempt to conquer all of India, but his war-weary soldiers refused, and his officers convinced him to return to Persia. So Alexander led his troops down the Indus River and was severely wounded during a battle with the Malli.

      After recovering, he divided his troops, sending half of them back to Persia and half to Gedrosia, a desolate area west of the Indus River.

      A Mass Wedding

      In early 324 B.C., Alexander reached the city of Susa in Persia. Wanting to unite the Persians and Macedonians and create a new race loyal only to him, he ordered many of his officers to marry Persian princesses at a mass wedding. He also took two more wives for himself.

      The Macedonian army resented Alexander’s attempt to change their culture and many mutinied. But after Alexander took a firm stand and replaced Macedonian officers and troops with Persians, his army backed down.

      To further diffuse the situation, Alexander returned their titles and hosted a huge reconciliation banquet.

      How Did Alexander the Great Die?

      By 323 B.C., Alexander was head of an enormous empire and had recovered from the devastating loss of his friend Hephaestion—who was also reputed to be one of Alexander’s homosexual male lovers.

      Thanks to his insatiable urge for world supremacy, he started plans to conquer Arabia. But he’d never live to see it happen. Some historians say Alexander died of malaria or other natural causes; others believe he was poisoned. Either way, he never named a successor.

      His death—and the bloody infighting for control that happened afterwards—unraveled the empire he’d fought so hard to create.

      How Old Was Alexander the Great When He Died?

      After surviving battle after fierce battle, Alexander the Great died in June 323 B.C. at age 32.

      Why Was Alexander the Great ‘Great’?

      Many conquered lands retained the Greek influence Alexander introduced, and several cities he founded remain important cultural centers even today. The period of history from his death to 31 B.C., when his empire folded, would come to be known as the Hellenistic period, from “Hellazein,” which means, “to speak Greek or identify with the Greeks.” Alexander the Great is revered as one of the most powerful and influential leaders the ancient world ever produced.

      Sources

      Alexander the Great. Ancient History Encyclopedia.
      Alexander the Great. Livius.org.
      Alexander the Great of Macedon Biography. Historyofmacedonia.org.
      Alexander of Macedonia. San Jose State University.
      Bucephalus. Ancient History Encyclopedia.
      The Battle of Issus. Livius.org.
      The Sacred Band of Thebes, from Plutarch, Life of Pelopidas. Fordham University.
      The Siege of Tyre (332 BCE). Livius.org.

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            By: History.com Editors

            HISTORY.com works with a wide range of writers and editors to create accurate and informative content. All articles are regularly reviewed and updated by the HISTORY.com team. Articles with the “HISTORY.com Editors” byline have been written or edited by the HISTORY.com editors, including Amanda Onion, Missy Sullivan, Matt Mullen and Christian Zapata.

        Citation Information

          Article TitleAlexander the Great
          AuthorHistory.com Editors
          Website NameHISTORY
          URLhttps://www.history.com/topics/ancient-greece/alexander-the-great
          Date AccessedJune 28, 2024
          PublisherA&E Television Networks
          Last UpdatedFebruary 5, 2024
          Original Published DateNovember 9, 2009

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     1. Home
     2. Topics
     3. Ancient Greece
     4. Alexander the Great
        Alexander the Great
          By: History.com Editors
          Updated: February 5, 2024 | Original: November 9, 2009
          copy page link Print Page
  CM Dixon/Print Collector/Getty Images
        Alexander the Great was an ancient Macedonian ruler and one of history’s greatest military minds who, as King of Macedonia and Persia, established the largest empire the ancient world had ever seen. By turns charismatic and ruthless, brilliant and power hungry, diplomatic and bloodthirsty, Alexander inspired such loyalty in his men they’d follow him anywhere and, if necessary, die in the process. Though Alexander the Great died before realizing his dream of uniting a new realm, his influence on Greek and Asian culture was so profound that it inspired a new historical epoch—the Hellenistic Period.
      Where Was Alexander the Great From?
      Alexander III was born in Pella, Macedonia, in 356 B.C. to King Philip II and Queen Olympias—although legend had it his father was none other than Zeus, the ruler of the Greek gods.
      Philip II was an impressive military man in his own right. He turned Macedonia (a region on the northern part of the Greek peninsula) into a force to be reckoned with, and he fantasized about conquering the massive Persian Empire.
              History Lists: Ancient Empire Builders
      Bucephalus
      At age 12, Alexander showed impressive courage when he tamed the wild horse Bucephalus, an enormous stallion with a furious demeanor. The horse became his battle companion for most of Alexander’s life.
      When Alexander was 13, Philip called on the great philosopher Aristotle to tutor his son. Aristotle sparked and fostered Alexander’s interest in literature, science, medicine and philosophy.
      Alexander was just 16 when Philip went off to battle and left his son in charge of Macedonia. In 338 B.C., Alexander saw the opportunity to prove his military worth and led a cavalry against the Sacred Band of Thebes—a supposedly unbeatable, select army made up entirely of male lovers—during the Battle of Chaeronea.
      Alexander put his vigor and bravery on display, and his cavalry decimated the Sacred Band of Thebes.
            Ancient Empires
            Watch the three-episode documentary event, Ancient Empires. Available to stream now.
              WATCH NOW
      Alexander Becomes King
      In 336 B.C., Alexander’s father Philip was assassinated by his bodyguard Pausanias. Just 20 years old, Alexander claimed the Macedonian throne and killed his rivals before they could challenge his sovereignty.
      He also quashed rebellions for independence in northern Greece. Once he’d cleaned house, Alexander left to follow in his father’s footsteps and continue Macedonia’s world domination.
      Alexander appointed the general Antipater as regent and headed for Persia with his army. They crossed the Hellespont, a narrow strait between the Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara, and faced Persian and Greek forces at the Granicus River. Victory went to Alexander and the Macedonians.
      Alexander then headed south and easily took the city of Sardes. But his army encountered resistance in the cities of Miletus, Mylasa and Halicarnassus. Under siege yet not beaten, Halicarnassus held out long enough for King Darius III, the newest Persian king, to amass a substantial army.
      Gordian Knot
      From Halicarnassus, Alexander headed north to Gordium, home of the fabled Gordian knot, a group of tightly-entwined knots yoked to an ancient wagon. Legend had it whoever unwound the knot would conquer all of Asia.
      As the story goes, Alexander took on the challenge but was unable to unravel the knot by hand. He took another approach and sliced through the knot with his sword, claiming triumph.
      Battle of Issus
      In 333 B.C., Alexander and his men encountered a massive Persian army led by King Darius III near the town of Issus in southern Turkey. Alexander’s forces were greatly outnumbered in men but not in experience or the determination for revenge and to claim Persia’s great wealth, much of it plundered.
      As it became clear Alexander would win the Battle of Issus, Darius fled with what remained of his troops, leaving his wife and family behind. His mother, Sisygambis, was so upset she disowned him and adopted Alexander as her son.
      By now it was clear that Alexander was a shrewd, ruthless and brilliant military leader—in fact, he never lost a battle in his life. He would build an empire on the back of his motto, “there is nothing impossible to him who will try.”
      Battle of Tyre
      Next, Alexander took over the Phoenician cities of Marathus and Aradus. He rejected a plea from Darius for peace and took the towns of Byblos and Sidon.
      He then laid siege to the heavily fortified island of Tyre in January 332 B.C., after the Tyrians refused him entry. But Alexander had no navy to speak of and Tyre was surrounded by water.
      Alexander instructed his men to build a causeway to reach Tyre. All went well until they came within striking distance of the Tyrians. Again and again, Tyrian forces thwarted Alexander’s clever attempts to gain entry, and he realized he needed a strong navy to penetrate their defenses.
      He amassed a large fleet, finally breached the city’s walls in July 332 B.C. and executed thousands of Tyrians for daring to defy him; many others were sold into slavery.
      Alexander Enters Egypt
              Ancient Empires: Alexander and Egypt
      After rejecting another peace offer from Darius, Alexander set out for Egypt. He was sidelined at Gaza, however, and forced to endure another lengthy siege. After several weeks, he took the town and entered Egypt where he established the city that still bears his name: Alexandria.
      Alexander traveled to the desert to consult the oracle of Ammon, a god of supposed good counsel. Legends abound about what transpired at the oracle, but Alexander kept mum about the experience. Still, the visit furthered speculation Alexander was a deity.
      Alexander Becomes King of Persia
      After conquering Egypt, Alexander faced Darius and his massive troops at Gaugamela in October 331 B.C. Following fierce fighting and heavy losses on both sides, Darius fled and was assassinated by his own troops. It’s said Alexander was sad when he found Darius’s body and he gave him a royal burial.
      Finally rid of Darius, Alexander proclaimed himself King of Persia. But another Persian leader, Bessus (also thought to be Darius’s murderer), had also claimed the Persian throne. Alexander couldn’t let the claim stand.
      After relentless pursuit by Alexander, Bessus’s troops handed Bessus over to Ptolemy, Alexander’s good friend, and he was mutilated and executed. With Bessus out of the way, Alexander had full control of Persia.
      Proskynesis
      To gain credibility with the Persians, Alexander took on many Persian customs. He began dressing like a Persian and adopted the practice of proskynesis, a Persian court custom that involved bowing down and kissing the hand of others, depending on their rank.
      The Macedonians were less than thrilled with the changes in Alexander and his attempt to be viewed as a deity. They refused to practice proskynesis and some plotted his death.
      Increasingly paranoid, Alexander ordered the death of one of his most esteemed generals, Parmenio, in 330 B.C., after Parmenio's son Philotas was convicted of plotting an assassination attempt against Alexander (and also killed).
      Alexander Kills Cleitus
      In 328 B.C., Cleitus, another general and close friend of Alexander, also met a violent end. Fed up with Alexander’s new Persian-like persona, a drunk Cleitus continually insulted Alexander and minimized his achievements.
      Pushed too far, Alexander killed Cleitus with a spear, a spontaneous act of violence that anguished him. Some historians believe Alexander killed his general in a fit of drunkenness—a persistent problem that plagued him through much of his life.
      Alexander struggled to capture Sogdia, a region of the Persian Empire that remained loyal to Bessus. The Sogdians found a refuge at the pinnacle of a rock and refused Alexander’s demand to surrender.
      Not one to take “no” for an answer, Alexander sent some of his men to scale the rock and take the Sogdians by surprise. Supposedly, one of those on the rock was a girl named Roxane.
      As the story goes, Alexander fell in love with Roxane on sight. He married her despite her Sogdian heritage and she joined him on his journey.
      Alexander Enters India
              Ancient Empires: Alexander in India
      In 327 B.C., Alexander marched on Punjab, India. Some tribes surrendered peacefully; others did not. In 326 B.C., Alexander met King Porus of Paurava at the Hydaspes River.
      Porus’s army was less experienced than Alexander’s, but they had a secret weapon—elephants. Even so, after a fierce battle in a raging thunderstorm, Porus was defeated.
      One event took place at Hydaspes which devastated Alexander: the death of his beloved horse, Bucephalus. It’s unclear if he died from battle wounds or of old age, but Alexander named the city of Bucephala after him.
      Alexander wanted to press on and attempt to conquer all of India, but his war-weary soldiers refused, and his officers convinced him to return to Persia. So Alexander led his troops down the Indus River and was severely wounded during a battle with the Malli.
      After recovering, he divided his troops, sending half of them back to Persia and half to Gedrosia, a desolate area west of the Indus River.
      A Mass Wedding
      In early 324 B.C., Alexander reached the city of Susa in Persia. Wanting to unite the Persians and Macedonians and create a new race loyal only to him, he ordered many of his officers to marry Persian princesses at a mass wedding. He also took two more wives for himself.
      The Macedonian army resented Alexander’s attempt to change their culture and many mutinied. But after Alexander took a firm stand and replaced Macedonian officers and troops with Persians, his army backed down.
      To further diffuse the situation, Alexander returned their titles and hosted a huge reconciliation banquet.
      How Did Alexander the Great Die?
      By 323 B.C., Alexander was head of an enormous empire and had recovered from the devastating loss of his friend Hephaestion—who was also reputed to be one of Alexander’s homosexual male lovers.
      Thanks to his insatiable urge for world supremacy, he started plans to conquer Arabia. But he’d never live to see it happen. Some historians say Alexander died of malaria or other natural causes; others believe he was poisoned. Either way, he never named a successor.
      His death—and the bloody infighting for control that happened afterwards—unraveled the empire he’d fought so hard to create.
      How Old Was Alexander the Great When He Died?
      After surviving battle after fierce battle, Alexander the Great died in June 323 B.C. at age 32.
      Why Was Alexander the Great ‘Great’?
      Many conquered lands retained the Greek influence Alexander introduced, and several cities he founded remain important cultural centers even today. The period of history from his death to 31 B.C., when his empire folded, would come to be known as the Hellenistic period, from “Hellazein,” which means, “to speak Greek or identify with the Greeks.” Alexander the Great is revered as one of the most powerful and influential leaders the ancient world ever produced.
      Sources
      Alexander the Great. Ancient History Encyclopedia.
      Alexander the Great. Livius.org.
      Alexander the Great of Macedon Biography. Historyofmacedonia.org.
      Alexander of Macedonia. San Jose State University.
      Bucephalus. Ancient History Encyclopedia.
      The Battle of Issus. Livius.org.
      The Sacred Band of Thebes, from Plutarch, Life of Pelopidas. Fordham University.
      The Siege of Tyre (332 BCE). Livius.org.
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          Date AccessedJune 28, 2024
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Alexander the Great: Empire & Death | HISTORY
https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-history/alexander-the-great
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle
Aristotle - Wikipedia
2001-11-11
Authority control
<div><div>
<table><tbody><tr><th><p>Aristotle</p></th></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg"></a><p>Roman copy in marble of a Greek bronze bust of Aristotle by <a href="/wiki/Lysippos">Lysippos</a>, c. 330 BC, with modern alabaster mantle</p></td></tr><tr><th>Born</th><td>384 BC<br /><div><p><a href="/wiki/Stagira_(ancient_city)">Stagira</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chalcidian_League">Chalcidian League</a></p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Died</th><td>322 BC (aged 61–62)<br /><div><p><a href="/wiki/Chalcis">Chalcis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Euboea">Euboea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)#Empire">Macedonian Empire</a></p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Education</th><td><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy">Platonic Academy</a></td></tr><tr><th>Notable work</th><td><div>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Organon">Organon</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)"><i>Physics</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)"><i>Metaphysics</i></a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)"><i>Politics</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_(Aristotle)"><i>Rhetoric</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)"><i>Poetics</i></a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><th>Era</th><td><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th>Region</th><td><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy">Western philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy">School</a></th><td><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school">Peripatetic school</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th>Notable students</th><td><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great">Alexander the Great</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aristoxenus">Aristoxenus</a></td></tr><tr><th><p>Main interests</p></th><td><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Logic">Logic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Physis">Natural Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethics">Ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Politics">Politics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics">Poetics</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th><p>Notable ideas</p></th><td><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a>
<div>
<div><p>Theoretical philosophy</p></div>
<ul><li> <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_logic">Aristotelian logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syllogism">syllogism</a>
</li><li> <a href="/wiki/Four_causes">Four causes</a>
</li><li> <a href="/wiki/Genus%E2%80%93differentia_definition">Genus and differentia</a>
</li><li> <a href="/wiki/Hylomorphism">Hylomorphism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Substance_theory">substance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Essence">essence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Accident_(philosophy)">accident</a>
</li><li> <a href="/wiki/Hypokeimenon">Hypokeimenon</a>
</li><li> <a href="/wiki/Potentiality_and_actuality">Potentiality and actuality</a>
</li><li> <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_theory_of_universals">Theory of universals</a>
</li><li> <a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover">Unmoved mover</a>
</li></ul>
</div>
<div>
<div><p>Natural philosophy</p></div>
<ul><li> <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_biology">Aristotelian biology</a>
</li><li> <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics">Aristotelian physics</a>
</li><li> <a href="/wiki/Common_sense">Common sense</a>
</li><li> <a href="/wiki/Eternity_of_the_world">Eternity of the world</a>
</li><li> <a href="/wiki/Five_wits">Five wits</a>
</li><li> <i><a href="/wiki/Horror_vacui_(physics)">Horror vacui</a></i>
</li><li> <a href="/wiki/Classical_elements#Aristotle">Theory of elements</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aether_(classical_element)">aether</a>
</li><li> <a href="/wiki/Rational_animal">Rational animal</a>
</li></ul>
</div>
<div>
<div><p>Practical philosophy</p></div>
<ul><li> <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_ethics">Aristotelian ethics</a>
</li><li> <a href="/wiki/Catharsis">Catharsis</a>
</li><li> <a href="/wiki/Deliberative_rhetoric">Deliberative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epideictic">epideictic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Forensic_rhetoric">forensic</a> <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric">rhetoric</a> 
</li><li> <a href="/wiki/Enthymeme">Enthymeme</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paradeigma">Paradeigma</a>
</li><li> <a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state">Family as a model for the state</a>
</li><li> <a href="/wiki/Golden_mean_(philosophy)">Golden mean</a>
</li><li> <a href="/wiki/Kyklos#Aristotle">Kyklos</a>
</li><li> <a href="/wiki/Magnanimity">Magnanimity</a>
</li><li> <a href="/wiki/Mimesis">Mimesis</a>
</li><li> <a href="/wiki/Natural_slavery">Natural slavery</a>
</li><li> <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_virtue">Intellectual virtues</a>: <a href="/wiki/Sophia_(wisdom)">sophia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Episteme">episteme</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nous">nous</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phronesis">phronesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Techne">techne</a>
</li><li> <a href="/wiki/Three_appeals">Three appeals</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ethos">ethos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logos">logos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pathos">pathos</a>
</li><li> <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_views_on_women">Views on women</a>
</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td><div>
<div><p>Influences</p></div>
<ul><li><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Socrates">Socrates</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empedocles">Empedocles</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phaleas_of_Chalcedon">Phaleas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hippodamus_of_Miletus">Hippodamus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hippias">Hippias</a></li></ul>
</div></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td><div>
<div><p>Influenced</p></div>
<ul><li><div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Averroism">Averroism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avicennism">Avicennism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neo-Aristotelianism_(literature)">Literary Neo-Aristotelianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maimonideanism">Maimonideanism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Objectivism">Objectivism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peripatetics">Peripatetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Llullism">Llullism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism">Neo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scotism">Scotism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_scholasticism">Second</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomism">Thomism</a>, etc.), additionally <a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism">Middle Platonism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a>.
</p><p>See: <a href="/wiki/List_of_writers_influenced_by_Aristotle">List of writers influenced by Aristotle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Commentaries_on_Aristotle">Commentaries on Aristotle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Aristotle">Pseudo-Aristotle</a>
</p>
</div></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Aristotle</b> (;<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins_English_Dictionary-1">[1]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Greek_language">Greek</a>: Ἀριστοτέλης <i>Aristotélēs</i>, <small>pronounced </small><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek">[aristotélɛːs]</a>; 384–322 BC) was an <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece">Ancient Greek</a> <a href="/wiki/Philosopher">philosopher</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polymath">polymath</a>. His writings cover a broad range of subjects including <a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biology">biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zoology">zoology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethics">ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)">aesthetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poetry">poetry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drama">drama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Music">music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric">rhetoric</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linguistics">linguistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economics">economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Politics">politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meteorology">meteorology</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_geology">geology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Government">government</a>. As the founder of the <a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school">Peripatetic school</a> of philosophy in the <a href="/wiki/Lyceum_(classical)">Lyceum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Athens">Athens</a>, he began the wider <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism">Aristotelian</a> tradition that followed, which set the groundwork for the development of modern <a href="/wiki/Science">science</a>. 
</p><p>Little is known about Aristotle's life. He was born in the city of <a href="/wiki/Stagira_(ancient_city)">Stagira</a> in <a href="/wiki/Northern_Greece">Northern Greece</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece">Classical period</a>. His father, <a href="/wiki/Nicomachus_(father_of_Aristotle)">Nicomachus</a>, died when Aristotle was a child, and he was brought up by a guardian. At seventeen or eighteen years of age he joined <a href="/wiki/Plato">Plato's</a> <a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy">Academy</a> in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven (<abbr>c.</abbr> 347 BC). Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a>, tutored his son <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great">Alexander the Great</a> beginning in 343 BC. He established a library in the Lyceum which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books on <a href="/wiki/Papyrus">papyrus</a> <a href="/wiki/Scrolls">scrolls</a>. 
</p><p>Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues for publication, only around <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Aristotelicum">a third of his original output has survived</a>, none of it intended for publication. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him. It was above all from his teachings that <a href="/wiki/Western_culture">the West</a> inherited its intellectual <a href="/wiki/Lexicon">lexicon</a>, as well as problems and methods of inquiry. As a result, his philosophy has exerted a unique influence on almost every form of knowledge in the West and it continues to be a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion.
</p><p>Aristotle's views profoundly shaped <a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy">medieval scholarship</a>. The influence of <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics">physical science</a> extended from <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages">Early Middle Ages</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, and were not replaced systematically until <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment">the Enlightenment</a> and theories such as <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics">classical mechanics</a> were developed. Some of Aristotle's zoological observations found in <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology">his biology</a>, such as on the <a href="/wiki/Hectocotylus">hectocotyl (reproductive) arm</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Octopus">octopus</a>, were disbelieved until the 19th century. He also influenced <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)">Judeo-Islamic philosophies</a> during the Middle Ages, as well as <a href="/wiki/Christian_theology">Christian theology</a>, especially the <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Early_Church">Early Church</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism">scholastic</a> tradition of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church">Catholic Church</a>. Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as "The First Teacher", and among medieval Christians like <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> as simply "The Philosopher", while the poet <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri">Dante</a> called him "the master of those who know". His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, and were studied by medieval scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard">Peter Abelard</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Buridan">John Buridan</a>. Aristotle's influence on logic continued well into the 19th century. In addition, his <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_ethics">ethics</a>, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of <a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics">virtue ethics</a>. 
</p>
<h2>Life</h2>
<p>In general, the details of Aristotle's life are not well-established. The biographies written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points.<sup><a href="#cite_note-2">[A]</a></sup>
</p><p>Aristotle was born in 384 BC<sup><a href="#cite_note-3">[B]</a></sup> in <a href="/wiki/Stagira_(ancient_city)">Stagira</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chalcidice">Chalcidice</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAristotle_(Greek_philosopher)-4">[2]</a></sup> about 55 km (34 miles) east of modern-day <a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki">Thessaloniki</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeisch19995-5">[3]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAristoteles-Park_in_Stagira-6">[4]</a></sup> His father, <a href="/wiki/Nicomachus_(father_of_Aristotle)">Nicomachus</a>, was the personal physician to <a href="/wiki/Amyntas_III_of_Macedon">King Amyntas of Macedon</a>. While he was young, Aristotle learned about biology and medical information, which was taught by his father.<sup><a href="#cite_note-7">[5]</a></sup> Both of Aristotle's parents died when he was about thirteen, and <a href="/wiki/Proxenus_of_Atarneus">Proxenus of Atarneus</a> became his guardian.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall201814-8">[6]</a></sup> Although little information about Aristotle's childhood has survived, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)#Kingship_and_the_royal_court">Macedonian monarchy</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnagnostopoulos20134-9">[7]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:20160518_092_mieza_nympheum.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at <a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy">Plato's Academy</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlits199958–63-10">[8]</a></sup> He probably experienced the <a href="/wiki/Eleusinian_Mysteries">Eleusinian Mysteries</a> as he wrote when describing the sights one viewed at the Eleusinian Mysteries, "to experience is to learn" [παθείν μαθεĩν].<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2006-11">[9]</a></sup> Aristotle remained in Athens for nearly twenty years before leaving in 348/47 BC. The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the Academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew <a href="/wiki/Speusippus">Speusippus</a>, although it is possible that he feared the anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens at that time and left before Plato died.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAristotle1984Introduction-12">[10]</a></sup> Aristotle then accompanied <a href="/wiki/Xenocrates">Xenocrates</a> to the court of his friend <a href="/wiki/Hermias_of_Atarneus">Hermias of Atarneus</a> in <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor">Asia Minor</a>. After the death of Hermias, Aristotle travelled with his pupil <a href="/wiki/Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a> to the island of <a href="/wiki/Lesbos">Lesbos</a>, where together they researched the <a href="/wiki/Botany">botany</a> and zoology of the island and its sheltered lagoon. While in Lesbos, Aristotle married <a href="/wiki/Pythias">Pythias</a>, either Hermias's adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. In 343 BC, Aristotle was invited by <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a> to become the tutor to his son <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great">Alexander</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShields2016-13">[11]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell1972-14">[12]</a></sup>
</p><p>Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of <a href="/wiki/Macedon">Macedon</a>. During Aristotle's time in the Macedonian court, he gave lessons not only to Alexander but also to two other future kings: <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter">Ptolemy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cassander">Cassander</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen199158–59-15">[13]</a></sup> Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and Aristotle's own attitude towards <a href="/wiki/Persia">Persia</a> was unabashedly <a href="/wiki/Ethnocentricism">ethnocentric</a>. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen199158–59-15">[13]</a></sup> By 335 BC, Aristotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the <a href="/wiki/Lyceum_(classical)">Lyceum</a>. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with <a href="/wiki/Herpyllis">Herpyllis</a> of Stagira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, <a href="/wiki/Nicomachus_(son_of_Aristotle)">Nicomachus</a>. If the <i><a href="/wiki/Suda">Suda</a></i> – an uncritical compilation from the Middle Ages – is accurate, he may also have had an <i><a href="/wiki/Eromenos">erômenos</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Palaephatus">Palaephatus of Abydus</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith200788-16">[14]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Aristoteles_Louvre.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell1972-14">[12]</a></sup> He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in <a href="/wiki/Treatise">treatise</a> form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include <i><a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)">Physics</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)">Politics</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Soul">On the Soul</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)">Poetics</a></i>. Aristotle studied and made significant contributions to "logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance, and theatre."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphreys2009-17">[15]</a></sup>
</p><p>Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander's relationship with Persia and Persians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an <a href="/wiki/Hagnothemis">unlikely claim</a> made some six years after the death.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen1991460-18">[16]</a></sup> Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322 BC, Demophilus and <a href="/wiki/Eurymedon_the_Hierophant">Eurymedon the Hierophant</a> reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFilonik201372–73-19">[17]</a></sup> prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in <a href="/wiki/Chalcis">Chalcis, on Euboea</a>, at which occasion he was said to have stated: "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy"<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1980216-20">[18]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGigon201741-21">[19]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDüring1957T44a-e-22">[20]</a></sup> – a reference to Athens's <a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Socrates">trial and execution of Socrates</a>. He died in Chalcis, Euboea<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAristotle_(Greek_philosopher)-4">[2]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-23">[21]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphreys2009-17">[15]</a></sup> of natural causes later that same year, having named his student <a href="/wiki/Antipater">Antipater</a> as his chief <a href="/wiki/Executor">executor</a> and leaving a <a href="/wiki/Will_(law)">will</a> in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaase19923862-24">[22]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Theoretical philosophy</h2>
<h3>Logic</h3>
<p>With the <i><a href="/wiki/Prior_Analytics">Prior Analytics</a></i>, Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDegnan199481–89-25">[23]</a></sup> and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th-century advances in <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic">mathematical logic</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECorcoran20091–20-26">[24]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant">Kant</a> stated in the <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i> that with Aristotle logic reached its completion.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1787Preface-27">[25]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><i>Organon</i></h4>
<table>
<caption>One of Aristotle's <a href="/wiki/Syllogism#Types">types of syllogism</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-29">[C]</a></sup>
</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<th>In words</th>
<th>In<br /> terms<sup><a href="#cite_note-30">[D]</a></sup></th>
<th>In equations<sup><a href="#cite_note-32">[E]</a></sup>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>    All men are mortal.<p>    All Greeks are men.</p><p><a href="/wiki/Therefore_sign">∴</a> All Greeks are mortal.</p></td>
<td>M a P<p>S a M</p><p>S a P</p></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Modus_Barbara_Equations.svg"></a>
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>What is today called <i>Aristotelian logic</i> with its <a href="/wiki/Syllogism#Types">types of syllogism</a> (methods of logical argument),<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELagerlund2016-28">[26]</a></sup> Aristotle himself would have labelled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean <i>dialectics</i>. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into a set of six books called the <i><a href="/wiki/Organon">Organon</a></i> around 40 BC by <a href="/wiki/Andronicus_of_Rhodes">Andronicus of Rhodes</a> or others among his followers.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPickover200952-33">[28]</a></sup> The books are:
</p>
<ol><li><i><a href="/wiki/Categories_(Aristotle)">Categories</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Interpretation">On Interpretation</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Prior_Analytics">Prior Analytics</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Posterior_Analytics">Posterior Analytics</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Topics_(Aristotle)">Topics</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Sophistical_Refutations">On Sophistical Refutations</a></i></li></ol>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the <i>Categories,</i> the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in <i>On Interpretation</i>, to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the <i>Analytics</i>)<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrior_Analytics24b18–20-36">[31]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBobzien2015-37">[32]</a></sup> and dialectics (in the <i>Topics</i> and <i>Sophistical Refutations</i>). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory <i>stricto sensu</i>: the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. The <i>Rhetoric</i> is not conventionally included, but it states that it relies on the <i>Topics</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2017-38">[33]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Metaphysics</h3>
<p>The word "metaphysics" appears to have been coined by the first century AD editor who assembled various small selections of Aristotle's works to the treatise we know by the name <i>Metaphysics</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen2000-39">[34]</a></sup> Aristotle called it "first philosophy", and distinguished it from mathematics and natural science (physics) as the contemplative (<i>theoretikē</i>) philosophy which is "theological" and studies the divine. He wrote in his <i>Metaphysics</i> (1026a16):
</p>
<blockquote><p> if there were no other independent things besides the composite natural ones, the study of nature would be the primary kind of knowledge; but if there is some motionless independent thing, the knowledge of this precedes it and is first philosophy, and it is universal <i>in just this way</i>, because it is first. And it belongs to this sort of philosophy to study being as being, both what it is and what belongs to it just by virtue of being.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAristotle1999111-40">[35]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<h4>Substance</h4>
<p>Aristotle examines the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Substance_theory">substance</a> (<i>ousia</i>) and <a href="/wiki/Essence">essence</a> (<i>to ti ên einai</i>, "the what it was to be") in his <i>Metaphysics</i> (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form, a philosophical theory called <a href="/wiki/Hylomorphism">hylomorphism</a>. In Book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the <a href="/wiki/Material_substratum">substratum</a>, or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers, etc., or whatever constitutes the <i>potential</i> house, while the form of the substance is the <i>actual</i> house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other <a href="/wiki/Genus-differentia_definition">differentia</a> that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetaphysicsVIII_1043a_10–30-41">[36]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen2000-39">[34]</a></sup>
</p>
<h5>Immanent realism</h5>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Platonic_and_Aristotelian_Forms.svg"></a></p></div>
<p>Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_universals">universal</a>. Aristotle's <a href="/wiki/Ontology">ontology</a> places the universal (<i>katholou</i>) in <a href="/wiki/Particular">particulars</a> (<i>kath' hekaston</i>), things in the world, whereas for Plato the universal is a separately existing form which actual things imitate. For Aristotle, "form" is still what <a href="/wiki/Phenomena">phenomena</a> are based on, but is "instantiated" in a particular substance.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen2000-39">[34]</a></sup>
</p><p>Plato argued that all things have a <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms">universal form</a>, which could be either a property or a relation to other things. When one looks at an apple, for example, one sees an apple, and one can also analyse a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, one can place an apple next to a book, so that one can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other. Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but "good" is still a proper universal form. Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated at some period of time, and that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. Where Plato spoke of the forms as existing separately from the things that participate in them, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen2000-39">[34]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd196843–47-42">[37]</a></sup>
</p>
<h5>Potentiality and actuality</h5>
<p>Concerning the nature of change (<i><a href="/wiki/Potentiality_and_actuality">kinesis</a></i>) and its causes, as he outlines in his <i><a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)">Physics</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/On_Generation_and_Corruption">On Generation and Corruption</a> (</i>319b–320a), he distinguishes coming-to-be (<i>genesis</i>, also translated as 'generation') from:
</p>
<ol><li>growth and diminution, which is change in quantity;</li>
<li>locomotion, which is change in space; and</li>
<li>alteration, which is change in quality.</li></ol>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Flute-player_dolphin_Alcesti_Group_MAN.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Coming-to-be is a change where the substrate of the thing that has undergone the change has itself changed. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality (<i><a href="/wiki/Dunamis">dynamis</a></i>) and actuality (<i><a href="/wiki/Entelecheia">entelecheia</a></i>) in association with the matter and the form. Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing or being acted upon if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something else. For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (<i>dynamei</i>) a plant, and if it is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' (<i>poiein</i>) or 'be acted upon' (<i>paschein</i>), which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate – being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise – acting). Actuality is the fulfilment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end (<i>telos</i>) is the principle of every change, and potentiality exists for the sake of the end, actuality, accordingly, is the end. Referring then to the previous example, it can be said that an actuality is when a plant does one of the activities that plants do.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen2000-39">[34]</a></sup>
</p>
<blockquote><p> For that for the sake of which (<i>to hou heneka</i>) a thing is, is its principle, and the becoming is for the sake of the end; and the actuality is the end, and it is for the sake of this that the potentiality is acquired. For animals do not see in order that they may have sight, but they have sight that they may see.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetaphysicsIX_1050a_5–10-43">[38]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a <a href="/wiki/Final_cause">final cause</a> or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality. With this definition of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, for example, "what is it that makes a man one"? Since, according to <a href="/wiki/Plato">Plato</a> there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen2000-39">[34]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetaphysicsVIII_1045a–b-44">[39]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Epistemology</h3>
<p>Aristotle's immanent realism means his <a href="/wiki/Epistemology">epistemology</a> is based on the study of things that exist or happen in the world, and rises to knowledge of the universal, whereas for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Forms">Forms</a> (or ideas) and descends to knowledge of particular imitations of these.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2017-38">[33]</a></sup> Aristotle uses <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning">induction</a> from examples alongside <a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning">deduction</a>, whereas Plato relies on deduction from <i><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori">a priori</a></i> principles.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2017-38">[33]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Natural philosophy</h2>
<p>Aristotle's "natural philosophy" spans a wide range of natural phenomena including those now covered by physics, biology and other natural sciences.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWildberg2016-45">[40]</a></sup> In Aristotle's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. Aristotle's work encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. Aristotle makes philosophy in the broad sense coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as "science". However, his use of the term <i>science</i> carries a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method". For Aristotle, "all science (<i>dianoia</i>) is either practical, poetical or theoretical" (<i>Metaphysics</i> 1025b25). His practical science includes ethics and politics; his poetical science means the study of fine arts including poetry; his theoretical science covers physics, mathematics and metaphysics.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWildberg2016-45">[40]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Physics</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Four_Classical_Elements_in_Burning_Log.svg"></a></p><div><p>The four <a href="/wiki/Classical_element">classical elements</a> (fire, air, water, earth) of <a href="/wiki/Empedocles">Empedocles</a> and Aristotle illustrated with a burning log. The log releases all four elements as it is destroyed.</p></div></div>
<h4>Five elements</h4>
<p>In his <i><a href="/wiki/On_Generation_and_Corruption">On Generation and Corruption</a></i>, Aristotle related each of the four elements proposed earlier by <a href="/wiki/Empedocles">Empedocles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Earth_(classical_element)">earth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water_(classical_element)">water</a>, <a href="/wiki/Air_(classical_element)">air</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fire_(classical_element)">fire</a>, to two of the four sensible qualities, hot, cold, wet, and dry. In the Empedoclean scheme, all matter was made of the four elements, in differing proportions. Aristotle's scheme added the heavenly <a href="/wiki/Aether_(classical_element)">aether</a>, the divine substance of the <a href="/wiki/Celestial_spheres">heavenly spheres</a>, stars and planets.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1968133–139,_166–169-46">[41]</a></sup>
</p>
<table>
<caption><a href="/wiki/Classical_element">Aristotle's elements</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1968133–139,_166–169-46">[41]</a></sup>
</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Element</th>
<th>Hot/Cold</th>
<th>Wet/Dry</th>
<th>Motion</th>
<th>Modern <a href="/wiki/State_of_matter">state<br />of matter</a>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td><b><a href="/wiki/Earth_(classical_element)">Earth</a></b></td>
<td>Cold</td>
<td>Dry</td>
<td>Down</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Solid">Solid</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b><a href="/wiki/Water_(classical_element)">Water</a></b></td>
<td>Cold</td>
<td>Wet</td>
<td>Down</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Liquid">Liquid</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b><a href="/wiki/Air_(classical_element)">Air</a></b></td>
<td>Hot</td>
<td>Wet</td>
<td>Up</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Gas">Gas</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b><a href="/wiki/Fire_(classical_element)">Fire</a></b></td>
<td>Hot</td>
<td>Dry</td>
<td>Up</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)">Plasma</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b><a href="/wiki/Aether_(classical_element)">Aether</a></b></td>
<td>(divine<br />substance)</td>
<td>—</td>
<td>Circular<br />(in heavens)</td>
<td>—
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h4>Motion</h4>
<p>Aristotle describes two kinds of motion: "violent" or "unnatural motion", such as that of a thrown stone, in the <i>Physics</i> (254b10), and "natural motion", such as of a falling object, in <i>On the Heavens</i> (300a20). In violent motion, as soon as the agent stops causing it, the motion stops also: in other words, the natural state of an object is to be at rest,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllain2016-47">[42]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-48">[F]</a></sup> since Aristotle does not address <a href="/wiki/Friction">friction</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrabkin193860–84-49">[43]</a></sup> With this understanding, it can be observed that, as Aristotle stated, heavy objects (on the ground, say) require more force to make them move; and objects pushed with greater force move faster.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESusskind2011-50">[44]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-51">[G]</a></sup> This would imply the equation<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESusskind2011-50">[44]</a></sup>
</p>
<dl><dd><dl><dd>,</dd></dl></dd></dl>
<p>incorrect in modern physics.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESusskind2011-50">[44]</a></sup>
</p><p>Natural motion depends on the element concerned: the aether naturally moves in a circle around the heavens,<sup><a href="#cite_note-53">[H]</a></sup> while the 4 Empedoclean elements move vertically up (like fire, as is observed) or down (like earth) towards their natural resting places.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERovelli201523–40-52">[45]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrabkin193860–84-49">[43]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-54">[I]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle%27s_laws_of_motion.svg"></a></p><div><p>Aristotle's laws of motion. In <i><a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)">Physics</a></i> he states that objects fall at a speed proportional to their weight and inversely proportional to the density of the fluid they are immersed in.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrabkin193860–84-49">[43]</a></sup> This is a correct approximation for objects in Earth's gravitational field moving in air or water.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERovelli201523–40-52">[45]</a></sup></p></div></div>
<p>In the <i>Physics</i> (215a25), Aristotle effectively states a quantitative law, that the speed, v, of a falling body is proportional (say, with constant c) to its weight, W, and inversely proportional to the density,<sup><a href="#cite_note-55">[J]</a></sup> ρ, of the fluid in which it is falling:;<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERovelli201523–40-52">[45]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrabkin193860–84-49">[43]</a></sup>
</p>
<dl><dd><dl><dd></dd></dl></dd></dl>
<p>Aristotle implies that in a <a href="/wiki/Vacuum">vacuum</a> the speed of fall would become infinite, and concludes from this apparent absurdity that a vacuum is not possible.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERovelli201523–40-52">[45]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrabkin193860–84-49">[43]</a></sup> Opinions have varied on whether Aristotle intended to state quantitative laws. Henri Carteron held the "extreme view"<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrabkin193860–84-49">[43]</a></sup> that Aristotle's concept of force was basically qualitative,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarteron19231–32_and_passim-56">[46]</a></sup> but other authors reject this.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrabkin193860–84-49">[43]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Archimedes">Archimedes</a> corrected Aristotle's theory that bodies move towards their natural resting places; metal boats can float if they <a href="/wiki/Archimedes%27_principle">displace enough water</a>; floating depends in Archimedes' scheme on the mass and volume of the object, not, as Aristotle thought, its elementary composition.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERovelli201523–40-52">[45]</a></sup>
</p><p>Aristotle's writings on motion remained influential until the <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern">Early Modern</a> period. <a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus">John Philoponus</a> (in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei">Galileo</a> are said to have shown by experiment that Aristotle's claim that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWildberg2016-45">[40]</a></sup> A contrary opinion is given by <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Rovelli">Carlo Rovelli</a>, who argues that Aristotle's physics of motion is correct within its domain of validity, that of objects in the <a href="/wiki/Earth">Earth</a>'s gravitational field immersed in a fluid such as air. In this system, heavy bodies in steady fall indeed travel faster than light ones (whether friction is ignored, or not<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERovelli201523–40-52">[45]</a></sup>), and they do fall more slowly in a denser medium.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESusskind2011-50">[44]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-57">[K]</a></sup>
</p><p>Newton's "forced" motion corresponds to Aristotle's "violent" motion with its external agent, but Aristotle's assumption that the agent's effect stops immediately it stops acting (e.g., the ball leaves the thrower's hand) has awkward consequences: he has to suppose that surrounding fluid helps to push the ball along to make it continue to rise even though the hand is no longer acting on it, resulting in the Medieval <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_impetus">theory of impetus</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERovelli201523–40-52">[45]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Four causes</h4>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle%27s_Four_Causes_of_a_Table.svg"></a></p></div>
<p>Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active factors. His term <i>aitia</i> is traditionally translated as "cause", but it does not always refer to temporal sequence; it might be better translated as "explanation", but the traditional rendering will be employed here.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd199696–100,_106–107-59">[48]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHankinson1998159-60">[49]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Material_cause">Material cause</a> describes the material out of which something is composed. Thus the material cause of a table is wood. It is not about action. It does not mean that one domino knocks over another domino.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd199696–100,_106–107-59">[48]</a></sup></li>
<li>The <a href="/wiki/Formal_cause">formal cause</a> is its form, i.e., the arrangement of that matter. It tells one what a thing is, that a thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part causation. Plainly put, the formal cause is the idea in the mind of the sculptor that brings the sculpture into being. A simple example of the formal cause is the mental image or idea that allows an artist, architect, or engineer to create a drawing.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd199696–100,_106–107-59">[48]</a></sup></li>
<li>The <a href="/wiki/Efficient_cause">efficient cause</a> is "the primary source", or that from which the change under consideration proceeds. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, non-living or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. In the case of two dominoes, when the first is knocked over it causes the second also to fall over.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd199696–100,_106–107-59">[48]</a></sup> In the case of animals, this agency is a combination of <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology">how it develops from the egg</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Physiology">how its body functions</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroi201591–92,_369–373-61">[50]</a></sup></li>
<li>The <a href="/wiki/Final_cause">final cause</a> (<i>telos</i>) is its purpose, the reason why a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause is the purpose or function that something is supposed to serve. This covers modern ideas of motivating causes, such as volition.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd199696–100,_106–107-59">[48]</a></sup> In the case of living things, it implies <a href="/wiki/Adaptation">adaptation</a> to a particular way of life.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroi201591–92,_369–373-61">[50]</a></sup></li></ul>
<h4>Optics</h4>
<p>Aristotle describes experiments in <a href="/wiki/Optics">optics</a> using a <a href="/wiki/Camera_obscura">camera obscura</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Problems_(Aristotle)">Problems</a></i>, book 15. The apparatus consisted of a dark chamber with a small <a href="/wiki/Aperture">aperture</a> that let light in. With it, he saw that whatever shape he made the hole, the sun's image always remained circular. He also noted that increasing the distance between the aperture and the image surface magnified the image.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELahanas-62">[51]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Chance and spontaneity</h4>
<p>According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause such as simple necessity. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of <a href="/wiki/Accident_(philosophy)">accidental things</a>, "from what is spontaneous". There is also more a specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names "luck", that only applies to people's moral choices.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhysics2.6-63">[52]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1973204–213-64">[53]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Astronomy</h3>
<p>In <a href="/wiki/Astronomy">astronomy</a>, Aristotle refuted <a href="/wiki/Democritus">Democritus</a>'s claim that the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way">Milky Way</a> was made up of "those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays," pointing out correctly that if "the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeteorology1._8-65">[54]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Geology and natural sciences</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:DenglerSW-Stromboli-20040928-1230x800.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Aristotle was one of the first people to record any <a href="/wiki/Geology">geological</a> observations. He stated that <a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism">geological change</a> was too slow to be observed in one person's lifetime.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore195613-66">[55]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeteorologyBook_1,_Part_14-67">[56]</a></sup>
The geologist <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lyell">Charles Lyell</a> noted that Aristotle described such change, including "lakes that had dried up" and "deserts that had become watered by rivers", giving as examples the growth of the <a href="/wiki/Nile_delta">Nile delta</a> since the time of <a href="/wiki/Homer">Homer</a>, and "the upheaving of one of the <a href="/wiki/Aeolian_islands">Aeolian islands</a>, previous to a <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_eruption">volcanic eruption</a>."'<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyell183217-68">[57]</a></sup>
Aristotle also made many observations about the hydrologic cycle and meteorology (including his major writings "Meteorologica"). For example, he made some of the earliest observations about desalination: he observed early – and correctly – that when seawater is heated, freshwater evaporates and that the oceans are then replenished by the cycle of rainfall and river runoff ("I have proved by experiment that salt water evaporated forms fresh and the vapor does not when it condenses condense into sea water again.")<sup><a href="#cite_note-69">[58]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Biology</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Tremoctopus_violaceus5.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Among many pioneering zoological observations, Aristotle described the reproductive <a href="/wiki/Hectocotylus">hectocotyl arm</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Octopus">octopus</a> (bottom left).</p></div></div>
<h4>Empirical research</h4>
<p>Aristotle was the first person to study biology systematically,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroi20157-70">[59]</a></sup> and biology forms a large part of his writings. He spent two years observing and describing the zoology of <a href="/wiki/Lesbos">Lesbos</a> and the surrounding seas, including in particular the Pyrrha lagoon in the centre of Lesbos.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroi201514-71">[60]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson1910Prefatory_Note-72">[61]</a></sup> His data in <i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Animals">History of Animals</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Generation_of_Animals">Generation of Animals</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Movement_of_Animals">Movement of Animals</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Parts_of_Animals">Parts of Animals</a></i> are assembled from his own observations,<sup><a href="#cite_note-73">[62]</a></sup> statements given by people with specialized knowledge such as beekeepers and fishermen, and less accurate accounts provided by travellers from overseas.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroi2015196,_248-74">[63]</a></sup> His apparent emphasis on animals rather than plants is a historical accident: his works on <a href="/wiki/Botany">botany</a> have been lost, but two books on plants by his pupil Theophrastus have survived.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay20135805–5816-75">[64]</a></sup>
</p><p>Aristotle reports on the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and the catches of fishermen. He describes the <a href="/wiki/Catfish">catfish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electric_ray">electric ray</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Frogfish">frogfish</a> in detail, as well as <a href="/wiki/Cephalopod">cephalopods</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Octopus">octopus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paper_nautilus">paper nautilus</a>. His description of the <a href="/wiki/Hectocotylus">hectocotyl arm</a> of cephalopods, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until the 19th century.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroi201566–74,_137-76">[65]</a></sup> He gives accurate descriptions of the four-chambered fore-stomachs of <a href="/wiki/Ruminant">ruminants</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroi2015118–119-77">[66]</a></sup> and of the <a href="/wiki/Ovoviviparity">ovoviviparous</a> embryological development of the <a href="/wiki/Hound_shark">hound shark</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroi201573-78">[67]</a></sup>
</p><p>He notes that an animal's structure is well matched to function, so, among birds, the <a href="/wiki/Heron">heron</a>, which lives in marshes with soft mud and lives by catching fish, has a long neck and long legs, and a sharp spear-like beak, whereas <a href="/wiki/Duck">ducks</a> that swim have short legs and webbed feet.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroi2015135–136-79">[68]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin">Darwin</a>, too, noted these sorts of differences between similar kinds of animal, but unlike Aristotle used the data to come to the theory of <a href="/wiki/Evolution">evolution</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroi2015206-80">[69]</a></sup> Aristotle's writings can seem to modern readers close to implying evolution, but while Aristotle was aware that new mutations or <a href="/wiki/Hybridisation_(biology)">hybridizations</a> could occur, he saw these as rare accidents. For Aristotle, accidents, like heat waves in winter, must be considered distinct from natural causes. He was thus critical of Empedocles's materialist theory of a "survival of the fittest" origin of living things and their organs, and ridiculed the idea that accidents could lead to orderly results.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESedley2007189-81">[70]</a></sup> To put his views into modern terms, he nowhere says that different species can have a <a href="/wiki/Common_descent">common ancestor</a>, or that one kind can <a href="/wiki/Speciation">change into another</a>, or that kinds can become <a href="/wiki/Extinction">extinct</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroi2015273-82">[71]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Scientific style</h4>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Two_of_Aristotle%27s_Growth_Laws.svg"></a></p><div><p>Aristotle inferred growth laws from his observations on animals, including that <a href="/wiki/Brood_size">brood size</a> decreases with body mass, whereas <a href="/wiki/Gestation">gestation</a> period increases. He was correct in these predictions, at least for mammals: data are shown for mouse and elephant.</p></div></div>
<p>Aristotle did not do experiments in the modern sense.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor192242-83">[72]</a></sup> He used the ancient Greek term <i>pepeiramenoi</i> to mean observations, or at most investigative procedures like dissection.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroi2015361–365-84">[73]</a></sup> In <i>Generation of Animals</i>, he finds a fertilized hen's egg of a suitable stage and opens it to see the embryo's heart beating inside.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroi2011-85">[74]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroi2015197–200-86">[75]</a></sup>
</p><p>Instead, he practiced a different style of science: systematically gathering data, discovering patterns common to whole groups of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these.;<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroi2015365–368-87">[76]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor192249-88">[77]</a></sup> This style is common in modern biology when large amounts of data become available in a new field, such as <a href="/wiki/Genomics">genomics</a>. It does not result in the same certainty as experimental science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed. In this sense, <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology">Aristotle's biology</a> is scientific.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroi2015365–368-87">[76]</a></sup>
</p><p>
From the data he collected and documented, Aristotle inferred quite a number of <a href="/wiki/Biological_rules">rules</a> relating the life-history features of the live-bearing tetrapods (terrestrial placental mammals) that he studied. Among these correct predictions are the following. Brood size decreases with (adult) body mass, so that an elephant has fewer young (usually just one) per brood than a mouse. <a href="/wiki/Life_expectancy">Lifespan</a> increases with <a href="/wiki/Gestation_period">gestation period</a>, and also with body mass, so that elephants live longer than mice, have a longer period of gestation, and are heavier. As a final example, <a href="/wiki/Fecundity">fecundity</a> decreases with lifespan, so long-lived kinds like elephants have fewer young in total than short-lived kinds like mice.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroi2015408-89">[78]</a></sup></p>
<h4>Classification of living things</h4>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Scyliorhinus_retifer_embryo.JPG"></a></p><div><p>Aristotle recorded that the <a href="/wiki/Embryo">embryo</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mustelus_canis">a dogfish</a> was attached by a cord to a kind of placenta (the <a href="/wiki/Yolk_sac">yolk sac</a>), like a higher animal; this formed an exception to the linear scale from highest to lowest.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroi201572–74-90">[79]</a></sup></p></div></div>
<p>Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of <a href="/wiki/Animal">animals</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergstromDugatkin201235-91">[80]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes19747-92">[81]</a></sup> arranging these in the <i>History of Animals</i> in a graded scale of perfection, a nonreligious version of the <i><a href="/wiki/Scala_naturae">scala naturae</a></i>, with man at the top. His system had eleven grades of animal, from highest potential to lowest, expressed in their form at birth: the highest gave <a href="/wiki/Viviparity">live birth</a> to hot and wet creatures, the lowest laid cold, dry mineral-like eggs. Animals came above <a href="/wiki/Plant">plants</a>, and these in turn were above minerals.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMayr1982201–202-93">[82]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELovejoy1976-94">[83]</a></sup> He grouped what the modern zoologist would call <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate">vertebrates</a> as the hotter "animals with blood", and below them the colder <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate">invertebrates</a> as "animals without blood". Those with blood were divided into the live-bearing (<a href="/wiki/Mammal">mammals</a>), and the egg-laying (<a href="/wiki/Bird">birds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reptile">reptiles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fish">fish</a>). Those without blood were insects, crustacea (non-shelled – cephalopods, and <a href="/wiki/Crustacea">shelled</a>) and the hard-shelled <a href="/wiki/Mollusc">molluscs</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bivalve">bivalves</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gastropod">gastropods</a>). He recognised that animals did not exactly fit into a linear scale, and noted various exceptions, such as that sharks had a <a href="/wiki/Placenta">placenta</a> like the tetrapods. To a modern biologist, the explanation, not available to Aristotle, is <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution">convergent evolution</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroi2015111–119-95">[84]</a></sup> Philosophers of science have generally concluded that Aristotle was not interested in taxonomy,<sup><a href="#cite_note-96">[85]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-97">[86]</a></sup> but zoologists who studied this question recently think otherwise.<sup><a href="#cite_note-98">[87]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-99">[88]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-100">[89]</a></sup> He believed that purposive final causes guided all natural processes; this <a href="/wiki/Teleological">teleological</a> view justified his observed data as an expression of formal design.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMason197943–44-101">[90]</a></sup>
</p>
<table>
<caption>Aristotle's <i><a href="/wiki/Scala_naturae">Scala naturae</a></i> (highest to lowest)
</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Group</th>
<th>Examples<br />(given by Aristotle)</th>
<th>Blood</th>
<th>Legs</th>
<th>Souls<br />(Rational,<br />Sensitive,<br />Vegetative)</th>
<th>Qualities<br />(Hot–Cold,<br />Wet–Dry)
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>Man</td>
<td>Man</td>
<td>with blood</td>
<td>2 legs</td>
<td>R, S, V</td>
<td>Hot, Wet
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Mammal">Live-bearing tetrapods</a></td>
<td>Cat, <a href="/wiki/Hare">hare</a></td>
<td>with blood</td>
<td>4 legs</td>
<td>S, V</td>
<td>Hot, Wet
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Cetaceans">Cetaceans</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Dolphin">Dolphin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Whale">whale</a></td>
<td>with blood</td>
<td>none</td>
<td>S, V</td>
<td>Hot, Wet
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Birds">Birds</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Bee-eater">Bee-eater</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nightjar">nightjar</a></td>
<td>with blood</td>
<td>2 legs</td>
<td>S, V</td>
<td>Hot, Wet, except Dry eggs
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Reptile">Egg-laying tetrapods</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Chameleon">Chameleon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crocodile">crocodile</a></td>
<td>with blood</td>
<td>4 legs</td>
<td>S, V</td>
<td>Cold, Wet except scales, eggs
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Snakes">Snakes</a></td>
<td>Water snake, <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_viper">Ottoman viper</a></td>
<td>with blood</td>
<td>none</td>
<td>S, V</td>
<td>Cold, Wet except scales, eggs
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Egg-laying <a href="/wiki/Fish">fishes</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Sea_bass">Sea bass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sparisoma_cretense">parrotfish</a></td>
<td>with blood</td>
<td>none</td>
<td>S, V</td>
<td>Cold, Wet, including eggs
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>(Among the egg-laying fishes):<br />placental <a href="/wiki/Selachian">selachians</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Shark">Shark</a>, <a href="/wiki/Skate_(fish)">skate</a></td>
<td>with blood</td>
<td>none</td>
<td>S, V</td>
<td>Cold, Wet, but <a href="/wiki/Placenta">placenta</a> like tetrapods
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Crustaceans">Crustaceans</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Shrimp">Shrimp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crab">crab</a></td>
<td>without</td>
<td>many legs</td>
<td>S, V</td>
<td>Cold, Wet except shell
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Cephalopods">Cephalopods</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Squid">Squid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Octopus">octopus</a></td>
<td>without</td>
<td>tentacles</td>
<td>S, V</td>
<td>Cold, Wet
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Mollusc">Hard-shelled animals</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Cockle_(bivalve)">Cockle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charonia_variegata">trumpet snail</a></td>
<td>without</td>
<td>none</td>
<td>S, V</td>
<td>Cold, Dry (mineral shell)
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Larva-bearing insects</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Ant">Ant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cicada">cicada</a></td>
<td>without</td>
<td>6 legs</td>
<td>S, V</td>
<td>Cold, Dry
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_generation">Spontaneously generating</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Sponges">Sponges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Worm">worms</a></td>
<td>without</td>
<td>none</td>
<td>S, V</td>
<td>Cold, Wet or Dry, from earth
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Plants">Plants</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Common_fig">Fig</a></td>
<td>without</td>
<td>none</td>
<td>V</td>
<td>Cold, Dry
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Mineral">Minerals</a></td>
<td>Iron</td>
<td>without</td>
<td>none</td>
<td>none</td>
<td>Cold, Dry
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h3>Psychology</h3>
<h4>Soul</h4>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotelian_Soul.png"></a></p><div><p>Aristotle proposed a three-part <a href="/wiki/Soul#Aristotle">structure for souls</a> of plants, animals, and humans, making humans unique in having all three types of soul.</p></div></div>
<p>Aristotle's <a href="/wiki/Psychology">psychology</a>, given in his treatise <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Soul">On the Soul</a></i> (<i>peri psychēs</i>), posits three kinds of <a href="/wiki/Soul">soul</a> ("psyches"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have a rational soul. The human soul incorporates the powers of the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul it can grow and nourish itself; like the sensitive soul it can experience sensations and move locally. The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and to compare them using the <i><a href="/wiki/Nous#Aristotle">nous</a></i> (intellect) and <i>logos</i> (reason).<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroi2015156–163-102">[91]</a></sup>
</p><p>For Aristotle, the soul is the <a href="/wiki/Hylomorphism#Body–soul_hylomorphism">form</a> of a living being. Because all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement).<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShields2016-13">[11]</a></sup> In contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, he placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMason197945-103">[92]</a></sup> Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally differed from the concepts of previous philosophers, with the exception of <a href="/wiki/Alcmaeon_of_Croton">Alcmaeon</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuthrie2010348-104">[93]</a></sup>
</p><p>In <i>On the Soul</i>, Aristotle famously criticizes Plato's theory of the soul and develops his own in response to Plato's. The first criticism is against Plato's view of the soul in the <i>Timaeus</i> that the soul takes up space and is able to come into physical contact with bodies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-105">[94]</a></sup> 20th-century scholarship overwhelmingly opposed Aristotle's interpretation of Plato and maintained that he had misunderstood Plato.<sup><a href="#cite_note-106">[95]</a></sup> Today's scholars have tended to re-assess Aristotle's interpretation and have warmed up to it.<sup><a href="#cite_note-107">[96]</a></sup> Aristotle's other criticism is that Plato's view of reincarnation entails that it is possible for a soul and its body to be mis-matched; in principle, Aristotle alleges, any soul can go with any body, according to Plato's theory.<sup><a href="#cite_note-108">[97]</a></sup> Aristotle's claim that the soul is the form of a living being is meant to eliminate that possibility and thus rule out reincarnation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-109">[98]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Memory</h4>
<p>According to Aristotle in <i>On the Soul</i>, memory is the ability to hold a perceived experience in the mind and to distinguish between the internal "appearance" and an occurrence in the past.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBloch200712-110">[99]</a></sup> In other words, a memory is a mental picture (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/phantasm">phantasm</a>) that can be recovered. Aristotle believed an impression is left on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when <a href="/wiki/Stimulus_(psychology)">stimuli</a> such as sights or sounds are so complex that the nervous system cannot receive all the impressions at once. These changes are the same as those involved in the operations of sensation, Aristotelian '<a href="/wiki/Common_sense">common sense</a>', and thinking.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBloch200761-111">[100]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarruthers200716-112">[101]</a></sup>
</p><p>Aristotle uses the term 'memory' for the actual retaining of an experience in the impression that can develop from sensation, and for the intellectual anxiety that comes with the impression because it is formed at a particular time and processing specific contents. Memory is of the past, prediction is of the future, and sensation is of the present. Retrieval of impressions cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is needed and located in past experiences, both for previous experience and present experience.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBloch200725-113">[102]</a></sup>
</p><p>Because Aristotle believes people receive all kinds of sense perceptions and perceive them as impressions, people are continually weaving together new impressions of experiences. To search for these impressions, people search the memory itself.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren192130-114">[103]</a></sup> Within the memory, if one experience is offered instead of a specific memory, that person will reject this experience until they find what they are looking for. Recollection occurs when one retrieved experience naturally follows another. If the chain of "images" is needed, one memory will stimulate the next. When people recall experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences until they reach the one that is needed.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren192125-115">[104]</a></sup> Recollection is thus the self-directed activity of retrieving the information stored in a memory impression.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarruthers200719-116">[105]</a></sup> Only humans can remember impressions of intellectual activity, such as numbers and words. Animals that have perception of time can retrieve memories of their past observations. Remembering involves only perception of the things remembered and of the time passed.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren1921296-117">[106]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle_Senses_Perception_Memory_Dreams_Action.svg"></a></p><div><p>Senses, perception, memory, dreams, action in Aristotle's psychology. Impressions are stored in the <a href="/wiki/Sensorium">sensorium</a> (the heart), linked by his <a href="/wiki/Laws_of_association">laws of association</a> (similarity, contrast, and <a href="/wiki/Contiguity_(psychology)">contiguity</a>).</p></div></div>
<p>Aristotle believed the chain of thought, which ends in recollection of certain impressions, was connected systematically in relationships such as similarity, contrast, and <a href="/wiki/Contiguity_(psychology)">contiguity</a>, described in his <a href="/wiki/Laws_of_association">laws of association</a>. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within the mind. A force operates to awaken the hidden material to bring up the actual experience. According to Aristotle, association is the power innate in a mental state, which operates upon the unexpressed remains of former experiences, allowing them to rise and be recalled.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren1921259-118">[107]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESorabji200654-119">[108]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Dreams</h4>
<p>Aristotle describes sleep in <i>On Sleep and Wakefulness</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolowchak1996405–423-120">[109]</a></sup> Sleep takes place as a result of overuse of the senses<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShute1941115–118-121">[110]</a></sup> or of digestion,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolowchak1996405–23-122">[111]</a></sup> so it is vital to the body.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShute1941115–118-121">[110]</a></sup> While a person is asleep, the critical activities, which include thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, do not function as they do during wakefulness. Since a person cannot sense during sleep they cannot have desire, which is the result of sensation. However, the senses are able to work during sleep,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShute1941115–18-123">[112]</a></sup> albeit differently,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolowchak1996405–423-120">[109]</a></sup> unless they are weary.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShute1941115–118-121">[110]</a></sup>
</p><p>Dreams do not involve actually sensing a stimulus. In dreams, sensation is still involved, but in an altered manner.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShute1941115–118-121">[110]</a></sup> Aristotle explains that when a person stares at a moving stimulus such as the waves in a body of water, and then looks away, the next thing they look at appears to have a wavelike motion. When a person perceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focus of their attention, it leaves an impression.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolowchak1996405–423-120">[109]</a></sup> When the body is awake and the senses are functioning properly, a person constantly encounters new stimuli to sense and so the impressions of previously perceived stimuli are ignored.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShute1941115–118-121">[110]</a></sup> However, during sleep the impressions made throughout the day are noticed as there are no new distracting sensory experiences.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolowchak1996405–423-120">[109]</a></sup> So, dreams result from these lasting impressions. Since impressions are all that are left and not the exact stimuli, dreams do not resemble the actual waking experience.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEModrak2009169–181-124">[113]</a></sup> During sleep, a person is in an altered state of mind. Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who is overtaken by strong feelings toward a stimulus. For example, a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may begin to think they see that person everywhere because they are so overtaken by their feelings. Since a person sleeping is in a suggestible state and unable to make judgements, they become easily deceived by what appears in their dreams, like the infatuated person.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolowchak1996405–423-120">[109]</a></sup> This leads the person to believe the dream is real, even when the dreams are absurd in nature.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolowchak1996405–423-120">[109]</a></sup> In <i>De Anima</i> iii 3, Aristotle ascribes the ability to create, to store, and to recall images in the absence of perception to the faculty of imagination, <i>phantasia</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShields2016-13">[11]</a></sup>
</p><p>One component of Aristotle's theory of dreams disagrees with previously held beliefs. He claimed that dreams are not foretelling and not sent by a divine being. Aristotle reasoned naturalistically that instances in which dreams do resemble future events are simply coincidences.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWebb1990174–184-125">[114]</a></sup> Aristotle claimed that a dream is first established by the fact that the person is asleep when they experience it. If a person had an image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they were awake when it occurred. Secondly, any sensory experience that is perceived while a person is asleep does not qualify as part of a dream. For example, if, while a person is sleeping, a door shuts and in their dream they hear a door is shut, this sensory experience is not part of the dream. Lastly, the images of dreams must be a result of lasting impressions of waking sensory experiences.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEModrak2009169–181-124">[113]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Practical philosophy</h2>
<p>Aristotle's practical philosophy covers areas such as <a href="/wiki/Ethics">ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Politics">politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economics">economics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric">rhetoric</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWildberg2016-45">[40]</a></sup>
</p>
<table>
<caption>Virtues and their accompanying vices<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphreys2009-17">[15]</a></sup>
</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Too little</th>
<th>Virtuous mean</th>
<th>Too much
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>Humbleness</td>
<td>High-mindedness</td>
<td>Vainglory
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Lack of purpose</td>
<td>Right ambition</td>
<td>Over-ambition
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Spiritlessness</td>
<td>Good temper</td>
<td>Irascibility
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Rudeness</td>
<td>Civility</td>
<td>Obsequiousness
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Cowardice</td>
<td>Courage</td>
<td>Rashness
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Insensibility</td>
<td>Self-control</td>
<td>Intemperance
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Sarcasm</td>
<td>Sincerity</td>
<td>Boastfulness
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Boorishness</td>
<td>Wit</td>
<td>Buffoonery
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Shamelessness</td>
<td>Modesty</td>
<td>Shyness
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Callousness</td>
<td>Just resentment</td>
<td>Spitefulness
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Pettiness</td>
<td>Generosity</td>
<td>Vulgarity
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Meanness</td>
<td>Liberality</td>
<td>Wastefulness
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h3>Ethics</h3>
<p>Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, most notably including the <i><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKraut2001-126">[115]</a></sup>
</p><p>Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (<i>ergon</i>) of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the <i><a href="/wiki/De_Anima">psuchē</a></i> (<i>soul</i>) in accordance with reason (<i><a href="/wiki/Logos">logos</a></i>). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity (the virtuous mean, between the accompanying vices of excess or deficiency<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphreys2009-17">[15]</a></sup>) of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, <i><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia">eudaimonia</a></i>, generally translated as "happiness" or sometimes "well-being". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (<i>ēthikē</i> <i><a href="/wiki/Arete_(moral_virtue)">aretē</a></i>), often translated as moral or ethical virtue or excellence.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicomachean_Ethics-127">[116]</a></sup>
</p><p>Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom (<i><a href="/wiki/Phronesis">phronesis</a></i>) and their intellect (<i><a href="/wiki/Nous">nous</a></i>) can develop with each other towards the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom of an accomplished theoretical or speculative thinker, or in other words, a philosopher.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicomachean_EthicsBook_VI-128">[117]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Politics</h3>
<p>In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled <i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)">Politics</a></i>. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family, which in turn is prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolitics1253a19–124-129">[118]</a></sup> He famously stated that "man is by nature a political animal" and argued that humanity's defining factor among others in the animal kingdom is its rationality.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAristotle2009320–321-130">[119]</a></sup> Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbensteinEbenstein200259-131">[120]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle%27s_constitutions.svg"></a></p><div><p>Aristotle's classifications of political constitutions</p></div></div>
<p>The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city (<i><a href="/wiki/Polis">polis</a></i>) which functions as a political "community" or "partnership" (<i>koinōnia</i>). The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: "The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together." This is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with <a href="/wiki/Social_contract">social contract</a> theory, according to which individuals leave the <a href="/wiki/State_of_nature">state of nature</a> because of "fear of violent death" or its "inconveniences".<sup><a href="#cite_note-132">[L]</a></sup>
</p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Protrepticus_(Aristotle)">Protrepticus</a></i>, the character 'Aristotle' states:<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHutchinsonJohnson201522-133">[121]</a></sup>
</p>
<blockquote><p> For we all agree that the most excellent man should rule, i.e., the supreme by nature, and that the law rules and alone is authoritative; but the law is a kind of intelligence, i.e. a discourse based on intelligence. And again, what standard do we have, what criterion of good things, that is more precise than the intelligent man? For all that this man will choose, if the choice is based on his knowledge, are good things and their contraries are bad. And since everybody chooses most of all what conforms to their own proper dispositions (a just man choosing to live justly, a man with bravery to live bravely, likewise a self-controlled man to live with self-control), it is clear that the intelligent man will choose most of all to be intelligent; for this is the function of that capacity. Hence it's evident that, according to the most authoritative judgment, intelligence is supreme among goods.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHutchinsonJohnson201522-133">[121]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>As Plato's disciple Aristotle was rather critical concerning democracy and, following the outline of certain ideas from Plato's <i><a href="/wiki/Statesman_(dialogue)">Statesman</a></i>, he developed a coherent theory of integrating various forms of power into a so-called mixed state:
</p>
<blockquote><p> It is … constitutional to take … from oligarchy that offices are to be elected, and from democracy that this is not to be on a property-qualification. This then is the mode of the mixture; and the mark of a good mixture of democracy and oligarchy is when it is possible to speak of the same constitution as a democracy and as an oligarchy. </p><p>— <cite>Aristotle. <i>Politics</i>, Book 4, 1294b.10–18</cite></p></blockquote>
<p>To illustrate this approach, Aristotle proposed a first-of-its-kind mathematical model of voting, albeit textually described, where the democratic principle of "one voter–one vote" is combined with the oligarchic "merit-weighted voting"; for relevant quotes and their translation into mathematical formulas see.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETangian202035–38-134">[122]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Economics</h3>
<p>Aristotle made substantial contributions to <a href="/wiki/Economics">economic thought</a>, especially to thought in the Middle Ages.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobbins200020–24-135">[123]</a></sup> In <i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)">Politics</a></i>, Aristotle addresses the city, <a href="/wiki/Property">property</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Trade">trade</a>. His response to criticisms of <a href="/wiki/Private_property">private property</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Lionel_Robbins">Lionel Robbins</a>'s view, anticipated later proponents of private property among philosophers and economists, as it related to the overall <a href="/wiki/Utility">utility</a> of social arrangements.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobbins200020–24-135">[123]</a></sup> Aristotle believed that although communal arrangements may seem beneficial to society, and that although private property is often blamed for social strife, such evils in fact come from <a href="/wiki/Human_nature">human nature</a>. In <i>Politics</i>, Aristotle offers one of the earliest accounts of the origin of <a href="/wiki/Money">money</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobbins200020–24-135">[123]</a></sup> Money came into use because people became dependent on one another, importing what they needed and exporting the surplus. For the sake of convenience, people then agreed to deal in something that is intrinsically useful and easily applicable, such as iron or <a href="/wiki/Silver">silver</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAristotle194816–28-136">[124]</a></sup>
</p><p>Aristotle's discussions on <a href="/wiki/Retail">retail</a> and <a href="/wiki/Interest">interest</a> was a major influence on economic thought in the Middle Ages. He had a low opinion of retail, believing that contrary to using money to procure things one needs in managing the household, retail trade seeks to make a <a href="/wiki/Profit_(economics)">profit</a>. It thus uses goods as a means to an end, rather than as an end unto itself. He believed that retail trade was in this way unnatural. Similarly, Aristotle considered making a profit through interest unnatural, as it makes a gain out of the money itself, and not from its use.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAristotle194816–28-136">[124]</a></sup>
</p><p>Aristotle gave a summary of the function of money that was perhaps remarkably precocious for his time. He wrote that because it is impossible to determine the value of every good through a count of the number of other goods it is worth, the necessity arises of a single universal standard of measurement. Money thus allows for the association of different goods and makes them "commensurable".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAristotle194816–28-136">[124]</a></sup> He goes on to state that money is also useful for future exchange, making it a sort of security. That is, "if we do not want a thing now, we shall be able to get it when we do want it".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAristotle194816–28-136">[124]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Rhetoric and poetics</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:B%C3%A9nigne_Gagneraux,_The_Blind_Oedipus_Commending_his_Children_to_the_Gods.jpg"></a></p><div><p><i>The Blind Oedipus Commending his Children to the Gods</i> (1784) by <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9nigne_Gagneraux">Bénigne Gagneraux</a>. In his <i><a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)">Poetics</a></i>, Aristotle uses the tragedy <i><a href="/wiki/Oedipus_Rex">Oedipus Tyrannus</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Sophocles">Sophocles</a> as an example of how the perfect tragedy should be structured, with a generally good protagonist who starts the play prosperous, but loses everything through some <i><a href="/wiki/Hamartia">hamartia</a></i> (fault).<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann196856–60-137">[125]</a></sup></p></div></div>
<p>Aristotle's <i>Rhetoric</i> proposes that a speaker can use three basic kinds of appeals to persuade his audience: <i><a href="/wiki/Ethos">ethos</a></i> (an appeal to the speaker's character), <i><a href="/wiki/Pathos">pathos</a></i> (an appeal to the audience's emotion), and <i><a href="/wiki/Logos">logos</a></i> (an appeal to logical reasoning).<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarver1994109–110-138">[126]</a></sup> He also categorizes rhetoric into three genres: <a href="/wiki/Epideictic">epideictic</a> (ceremonial speeches dealing with praise or blame), <a href="/wiki/Forensic_rhetoric">forensic</a> (judicial speeches over guilt or innocence), and <a href="/wiki/Deliberative_rhetoric">deliberative</a> (speeches calling on an audience to make a decision on an issue).<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERorty19963–7-139">[127]</a></sup> Aristotle also outlines two kinds of rhetorical <a href="/wiki/Proof_(truth)">proofs</a>: <i><a href="/wiki/Enthymeme">enthymeme</a></i> (proof by <a href="/wiki/Syllogism">syllogism</a>) and <i><a href="/wiki/Paradeigma">paradeigma</a></i> (proof by example).<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrimaldi199871-140">[128]</a></sup>
</p><p>Aristotle writes in his <i>Poetics</i> that <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry">epic poetry</a>, tragedy, comedy, <a href="/wiki/Dithyramb">dithyrambic poetry</a>, painting, sculpture, music, and dance are all fundamentally acts of <i><a href="/wiki/Mimesis">mimesis</a></i> ("imitation"), each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalliwell2002152–159-141">[129]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoeticsI_1447a-142">[130]</a></sup> He applies the term <i>mimesis</i> both as a property of a work of art and also as the product of the artist's intention<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalliwell2002152–159-141">[129]</a></sup> and contends that the audience's realisation of the <i>mimesis</i> is vital to understanding the work itself.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalliwell2002152–159-141">[129]</a></sup> Aristotle states that <i>mimesis</i> is a natural instinct of humanity that separates humans from animals<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalliwell2002152–159-141">[129]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoeticsIV-143">[131]</a></sup> and that all human artistry "follows the pattern of nature".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalliwell2002152–159-141">[129]</a></sup> Because of this, Aristotle believed that each of the mimetic arts possesses what <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Halliwell_(academic)">Stephen Halliwell</a> calls "highly structured procedures for the achievement of their purposes."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalliwell2002152–59-144">[132]</a></sup> For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoeticsIII-145">[133]</a></sup>
</p><p>While it is believed that Aristotle's <i>Poetics</i> originally comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoeticsVI-146">[134]</a></sup> The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the <a href="/wiki/Catharsis">catharsis</a> of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes <i>Poetics</i> with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoeticsXXVI-147">[135]</a></sup> Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the <a href="/wiki/Pythia">Delphic Oracle</a> and studied the fables of <a href="/wiki/Aesop">Aesop</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAesop1998Introduction,_xi–xii-148">[136]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Views on women</h3>
<p>Aristotle's analysis of procreation describes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element. The biological differences are a result of the fact that the female body is well-suited for reproduction, which changes her body temperature, which in turn makes her, in Aristotle's view, incapable of participating in political life.<sup><a href="#cite_note-149">[137]</a></sup> On this ground, proponents of <a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics">feminist metaphysics</a> have accused Aristotle of <a href="/wiki/Misogyny">misogyny</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreeland1998-150">[138]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Sexism">sexism</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorsink197983–112-151">[139]</a></sup> However, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his <i>Rhetoric</i> that the things that lead to happiness need to be in women as well as men.<sup><a href="#cite_note-153">[M]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Influence</h2>
<p>More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroi20158-154">[141]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAristotle's_Influence2018-155">[142]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-156">[143]</a></sup> He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge then in existence, and he was the founder of many new fields. According to the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Bryan_Magee">Bryan Magee</a>, "it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagee201034-157">[144]</a></sup> Among countless other achievements, Aristotle was the founder of <a href="/wiki/Formal_logic">formal logic</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuthrie1990156-158">[145]</a></sup> pioneered the study of <a href="/wiki/Zoology">zoology</a>, and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAristotle_(Greek_philosopher)-4">[2]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurant200692-159">[146]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKukkonen201070–77-160">[147]</a></sup> Taneli Kukkonen, writing in <i>The Classical Tradition</i>, observes that his achievement in founding two sciences is unmatched, and his reach in influencing "every branch of intellectual enterprise" including Western ethical and political theory, theology, rhetoric and literary analysis is equally long. As a result, Kukkonen argues, any analysis of reality today "will almost certainly carry Aristotelian overtones ... evidence of an exceptionally forceful mind."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKukkonen201070–77-160">[147]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Barnes">Jonathan Barnes</a> wrote that "an account of Aristotle's intellectual afterlife would be little less than a history of European thought".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnes198286-161">[148]</a></sup>Aristotle has been called the father of logic, biology, political science, zoology, embryology, natural law, scientific method, rhetoric, psychology, realism, criticism, individualism, teleology, and meteorology.<sup><a href="#cite_note-LitList-163">[150]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>On his successor, Theophrastus</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:161Theophrastus_161_frontespizio.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Aristotle's pupil and successor, <a href="/wiki/Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a>, wrote the <i><a href="/wiki/Historia_Plantarum_(Theophrastus)">History of Plants</a></i>, a pioneering work in botany. Some of his technical terms remain in use, such as <a href="/wiki/Carpel">carpel</a> from <i>carpos</i>, fruit, and <a href="/wiki/Pericarp">pericarp</a>, from <i>pericarpion</i>, seed chamber.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHooker1831219-164">[151]</a></sup>
Theophrastus was much less concerned with formal causes than Aristotle was, instead pragmatically describing how plants functioned.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMayr198290–91-165">[152]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMason197946-166">[153]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>On later Greek philosophers</h3>
<p>The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the <a href="/wiki/Lyceum">Lyceum</a> grew into the <a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school">Peripatetic school</a>. Aristotle's students included <a href="/wiki/Aristoxenus">Aristoxenus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dicaearchus">Dicaearchus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_of_Phalerum">Demetrius of Phalerum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eudemos_of_Rhodes">Eudemos of Rhodes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harpalus">Harpalus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hephaestion">Hephaestion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mnason_of_Phocis">Mnason of Phocis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicomachus_(son_of_Aristotle)">Nicomachus</a>, and Theophrastus. Aristotle's influence over <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great">Alexander the Great</a> is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about <a href="/wiki/Persian_people">Persian</a> customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?"<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1919Part_1,_7:7-167">[154]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>On Hellenistic science</h3>
<p>After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnnas2001252-168">[155]</a></sup> It is not until the age of <a href="/wiki/Alexandria">Alexandria</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom">Ptolemies</a> that advances in biology can be again found.
</p><p>The first medical teacher at Alexandria, <a href="/wiki/Herophilos">Herophilus of Chalcedon</a>, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between <a href="/wiki/Vein">veins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Artery">arteries</a>, noting that the latter <a href="/wiki/Pulse">pulse</a> while the former do not.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMason197956-169">[156]</a></sup> Though a few ancient <a href="/wiki/Atomism">atomists</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Lucretius">Lucretius</a> challenged the <a href="/wiki/Teleology">teleological</a> viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, <a href="/wiki/Teleology">teleology</a> (and after the rise of Christianity, <a href="/wiki/Natural_theology">natural theology</a>) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr">Ernst Mayr</a> states that there was "nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and <a href="/wiki/Galen">Galen</a> until the Renaissance."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMayr198590–94-170">[157]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>On Byzantine scholars</h3>
<p>Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek language manuscripts of the corpus. The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were Philoponus, Elias, and David in the sixth century, and <a href="/wiki/Stephen_of_Alexandria">Stephen of Alexandria</a> in the early seventh century.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESorabji199020,_28,_35–36-171">[158]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus">John Philoponus</a> stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle's views on the eternity of the world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelian thought.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESorabji1990233–724-172">[159]</a></sup> Philoponus questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, noting its flaws and introducing the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_impetus">theory of impetus</a> to explain his observations.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg1992162-173">[160]</a></sup>
</p><p>After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and <a href="/wiki/Michael_of_Ephesus">Michael of Ephesus</a> reappeared in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by <a href="/wiki/Anna_Comnena">Anna Comnena</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESorabji199020–21,_28–29,_393–406,_407–408-174">[161]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>On the medieval Islamic world</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Arabic_aristotle.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Islamic portrayal of Aristotle, c. 1220</p></div></div>
<p>Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers in early <a href="/wiki/Islamic_theology">Islamic theology</a>. Most of the still extant works of Aristotle,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy-Day1998-175">[162]</a></sup> as well as a number of the original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by Muslim philosophers, scientists and scholars. <a href="/wiki/Averroes">Averroes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avicenna">Avicenna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alpharabius">Alpharabius</a>, who wrote on Aristotle in great depth, also influenced <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. <a href="/wiki/Alkindus">Alkindus</a> greatly admired Aristotle's philosophy,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStaley1989-176">[163]</a></sup> and Averroes spoke of Aristotle as the "exemplar" for all future philosophers.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAverroes1953III,_2,_43-177">[164]</a></sup> Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as the "First Teacher".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy-Day1998-175">[162]</a></sup> The title was later used by Western philosophers (as in the famous poem of <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri">Dante</a>) who were influenced by the tradition of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy">Islamic philosophy</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENasr199659–60-178">[165]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>On medieval Europe</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle_and_Phyllis.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early <a href="/wiki/Medieval">medieval</a> Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from c. AD 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of the <i>Organon</i> made by <a href="/wiki/Boethius">Boethius</a>. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by <a href="/wiki/Gerard_of_Cremona">Gerard of Cremona</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHasse2014-180">[167]</a></sup> and from the original Greek, such as those by <a href="/wiki/James_of_Venice">James of Venice</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_of_Moerbeke">William of Moerbeke</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism">Scholastic</a> Thomas Aquinas wrote his <i><a href="/wiki/Summa_Theologica">Summa Theologica</a></i>, working from Moerbeke's translations and calling Aristotle "The Philosopher",<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAquinas2013-181">[168]</a></sup> the demand for Aristotle's writings grew, and the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language">Greek</a> manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance">Renaissance</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhn2018-182">[169]</a></sup> These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. Scholars such as Boethius, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard">Peter Abelard</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Buridan">John Buridan</a> worked on Aristotelian logic.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELagerlund-183">[170]</a></sup>
</p><p>The medieval English poet <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer">Chaucer</a> describes his student as being happy by having
</p>
<blockquote> <p>at his beddes heed<br />
Twenty bookes, clad in blak or reed,<br />
Of aristotle and his philosophie,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllenFisher201117-184">[171]</a></sup>
</p></blockquote>
<p>A <a href="/wiki/The_tale_of_Phyllis_and_Aristotle">cautionary medieval tale</a> held that Aristotle advised his pupil Alexander to avoid the king's seductive mistress, Phyllis, but was himself captivated by her, and allowed her to ride him. Phyllis had secretly told Alexander what to expect, and he witnessed Phyllis proving that a woman's charms could overcome even the greatest philosopher's male intellect. Artists such as <a href="/wiki/Hans_Baldung">Hans Baldung</a> produced a series of illustrations of the popular theme.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAristotle_Phyllis-185">[172]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhyllis_and_Aristotle-179">[166]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Italian poet Dante says of Aristotle in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Divine_Comedy">The Divine Comedy</a></i>:
</p>
<table>
<caption>
</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<th><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri">Dante</a><br /><i>L'Inferno</i>, Canto IV. 131–135</th>
<th>Translation<br /><i>Hell</i>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td><p><i>vidi 'l maestro di color che sanno<br />
seder tra filosofica famiglia.<br />
Tutti lo miran, tutti onor li fanno:<br />
quivi vid'ïo Socrate e Platone<br />
che 'nnanzi a li altri più presso li stanno;</i>
</p></td>
<td><p>I saw the Master there of those who know,<br />
Amid the philosophic family,<br />
By all admired, and by all reverenced;<br />
There Plato too I saw, and Socrates,<br />
Who stood beside him closer than the rest.
</p>
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>Besides Dante's fellow poets, the classical figure that most influenced the <a href="/wiki/Divine_Comedy"><i>Comedy</i></a> is Aristotle. Dante built up the philosophy of the <i>Comedy</i> with the works of Aristotle as a foundation, just as the scholastics used Aristotle as the basis for their thinking. Dante knew Aristotle directly from Latin translations of his works and indirectly through quotations in the works of <a href="/wiki/Albert_Magnus">Albert Magnus</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-186">[173]</a></sup> Dante even acknowledges Aristotle's influence explicitly in the poem, specifically when Virgil justifies the Inferno's structure by citing the <i><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-187">[174]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>On medieval Judaism</h3>
<p><a href="/wiki/Maimonides">Moses Maimonides</a> (considered to be the foremost intellectual figure of medieval Judaism)<sup><a href="#cite_note-188">[175]</a></sup> adopted Aristotelianism from the Islamic scholars and based his <i><a href="/wiki/Guide_for_the_Perplexed">Guide for the Perplexed</a></i> on it and that became the basis of Jewish <a href="/wiki/Scholastic_philosophy">scholastic philosophy</a>. Maimonides also considered Aristotle to be the greatest philosopher that ever lived, and styled him as the "chief of the philosophers".<sup><a href="#cite_note-189">[176]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-190">[177]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-191">[178]</a></sup> Also, in his letter to <a href="/wiki/Samuel_ibn_Tibbon">Samuel ibn Tibbon</a>, Maimonides observes that there is no need for Samuel to study the writings of philosophers who preceded Aristotle because the works of the latter are "sufficient by themselves and [superior] to all that were written before them. His intellect, Aristotle's is the extreme limit of human intellect, apart from him upon whom the divine emanation has flowed forth to such an extent that they reach the level of prophecy, there being no level higher".<sup><a href="#cite_note-192">[179]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>On Early Modern scientists</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:William_Harvey_(1578-1657)_Venenbild.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>In the <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern">Early Modern</a> period, scientists such as <a href="/wiki/William_Harvey">William Harvey</a> in England and <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> in Italy reacted against the theories of Aristotle and other classical era thinkers like <a href="/wiki/Galen">Galen</a>, establishing new theories based to some degree on observation and experiment. Harvey demonstrated the <a href="/wiki/Circulation_of_the_blood">circulation of the blood</a>, establishing that the heart functioned as a pump rather than being the seat of the soul and the controller of the body's heat, as Aristotle thought.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAird2011118–29-193">[180]</a></sup> Galileo used more doubtful arguments to displace Aristotle's physics, proposing that bodies all fall at the same speed whatever their weight.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMachamer2017-194">[181]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>On 18th/19th-century thinkers</h3>
<p>The 19th-century German philosopher <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a> has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurant200686-195">[182]</a></sup> Aristotle rigidly separated action from production, and argued for the deserved subservience of some people ("natural slaves"),<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeslauriersDestrée2013102,_106–107-196">[183]</a></sup> and the natural superiority (virtue, <i>arete</i>) of others. It was <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a>, not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESikka1997265-197">[184]</a></sup>
</p><p>The English mathematician <a href="/wiki/George_Boole">George Boole</a> fully accepted Aristotle's logic, but decided "to go under, over, and beyond" it with his system of <a href="/wiki/Boolean_algebra">algebraic logic</a> in his 1854 book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Laws_of_Thought">The Laws of Thought</a></i>. This gives logic a mathematical foundation with equations, enables it to solve equations as well as check <a href="/wiki/Validity_(logic)">validity</a>, and allows it to handle a wider class of problems by expanding propositions of any number of terms, not just two.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoole2003-198">[185]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> regarded Aristotle as the most important contributor to the subject of biology. In an 1882 letter he wrote that "Linnaeus and Cuvier have been my two gods, though in very different ways, but they were mere schoolboys to old Aristotle".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Wilkins_2009-199">[186]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Pasipoularides_2010-200">[187]</a></sup> Also, in later editions of the book "<a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species">On the Origin of Species</a>', Darwin traced evolutionary ideas as far back as Aristotle;<sup><a href="#cite_note-201">[188]</a></sup> the text he cites is a summary by Aristotle of the ideas of the earlier Greek philosopher <a href="/wiki/Empedocles">Empedocles</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-202">[189]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/James_Joyce">James Joyce</a>'s favoured philosopher was Aristotle, whom he considered to be "the greatest thinker of all times".<sup><a href="#cite_note-203">[190]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge">Samuel Taylor Coleridge</a> said: Everybody is born either a Platonist or an Aristotelian.<sup><a href="#cite_note-204">[191]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand">Ayn Rand</a> acknowledged Aristotle as her greatest influence<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns20092-205">[192]</a></sup> and remarked that in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy">history of philosophy</a> she could only recommend "three A's"—Aristotle, Aquinas, and Ayn Rand.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESciabarra199512-206">[193]</a></sup> She also regarded Aristotle as the greatest of all philosophers.<sup><a href="#cite_note-207">[194]</a></sup>
<a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx">Karl Marx</a> considered Aristotle to be the "greatest thinker of antiquity", and called him a "giant thinker", a "genius", and "the great scholar".<sup><a href="#cite_note-208">[195]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-209">[196]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-210">[197]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Modern rejection and rehabilitation</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_and_Aristotle.jpg"></a></p><div><p>"That most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKukkonen201070–77-160">[147]</a></sup> Illustration by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Charles_Laplante&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1">Charles Laplante</a> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Laplante">fr</a>], 1866</p></div></div>
<p>During the 20th century, Aristotle's work was widely criticized. The philosopher <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell">Bertrand Russell</a>
argued that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell called Aristotle's ethics "repulsive", and labelled his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell stated that these errors made it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembered what an advance he made upon all of his predecessors.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell1972-14">[12]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Dutch historian of science <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Jan_Dijksterhuis">Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis</a> wrote that Aristotle and his predecessors showed the difficulty of science by "proceed[ing] so readily to frame a theory of such a general character" on limited evidence from their senses.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDijksterhuis196972-211">[198]</a></sup> In 1985, the biologist <a href="/wiki/Peter_Medawar">Peter Medawar</a> could still state in "pure seventeenth century"<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroi2015353-212">[199]</a></sup> tones that Aristotle had assembled "a strange and generally speaking rather tiresome farrago of hearsay, imperfect observation, wishful thinking and credulity amounting to downright gullibility".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroi2015353-212">[199]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedawarMedawar198428-213">[200]</a></sup>
</p><p>By the start of the 21st century, however, Aristotle was taken more seriously: Kukkonen noted that "In the best 20th-century scholarship Aristotle comes alive as a thinker wrestling with the full weight of the Greek philosophical tradition."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKukkonen201070–77-160">[147]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a> has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnight2007''passim''-214">[201]</a></sup> Kukkonen observed, too, that "that most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander" remained current, as in the 2004 film <i><a href="/wiki/Alexander_(2004_film)">Alexander</a></i>, while the "firm rules" of Aristotle's theory of drama have ensured a role for the <i>Poetics</i> in <a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_States">Hollywood</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKukkonen201070–77-160">[147]</a></sup>
</p><p>Biologists continue to be interested in Aristotle's thinking. <a href="/wiki/Armand_Marie_Leroi">Armand Marie Leroi</a> has reconstructed Aristotle's biology,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroi2015-215">[202]</a></sup> while <a href="/wiki/Tinbergen%27s_four_questions">Niko Tinbergen's four questions</a>, based on Aristotle's four causes, are used to analyse <a href="/wiki/Animal_behaviour">animal behaviour</a>; they examine <a href="/wiki/Function_(biology)">function</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phylogeny">phylogeny</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mechanism_(biology)">mechanism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ontogeny">ontogeny</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacDougall-Shackleton20112076–2085-216">[203]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHladkýHavlíček2013-217">[204]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Surviving works</h2>
<h3>Corpus Aristotelicum</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotelis_De_Moribus_ad_Nicomachum.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnes19959-218">[205]</a></sup> Reference to them is made according to the organization of <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Bekker">Immanuel Bekker</a>'s Royal Prussian Academy edition (<i>Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica</i>, Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAristotelis_Opera-219">[206]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Loss and preservation</h3>
<p>
Aristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls, the common writing medium of that era.<sup><a href="#cite_note-221">[N]</a></sup> His writings are divisible into two groups: the "<a href="/wiki/Exoteric">exoteric</a>", intended for the public, and the "<a href="/wiki/Esoteric">esoteric</a>", for use within the <a href="/wiki/Lyceum_(classical)">Lyceum</a> school.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnes199512-222">[208]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-223">[O]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHouse195635-224">[209]</a></sup> Aristotle's "lost" works stray considerably in characterization from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with a view to subsequent publication, the surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes not intended for publication.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrwinFine1996xi–xii-225">[210]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnes199512-222">[208]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cicero">Cicero</a>'s description of Aristotle's literary style as "a river of gold" must have applied to the published works, not the surviving notes.<sup><a href="#cite_note-227">[P]</a></sup> A major question in the history of Aristotle's works is how the exoteric writings were all lost, and how the ones now possessed came to be found.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnesGriffin19991–69-228">[212]</a></sup> The consensus is that Andronicus of Rhodes collected the esoteric works of Aristotle's school which existed in the form of smaller, separate works, distinguished them from those of Theophrastus and other Peripatetics, edited them, and finally compiled them into the more cohesive, larger works as they are known today.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnagnostopoulos201316-229">[213]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnes199510–15-230">[214]</a></sup></p>
<h2>Legacy</h2>
<h3>Depictions</h3>
<dl><dt>Paintings</dt></dl>
<p>Aristotle has been depicted by major artists including <a href="/wiki/Lucas_Cranach_the_Elder">Lucas Cranach the Elder</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELucas_Cranach_the_Elder-231">[215]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Justus_van_Gent">Justus van Gent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raphael">Raphael</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paolo_Veronese">Paolo Veronese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jusepe_de_Ribera">Jusepe de Ribera</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeRobinson2005-232">[216]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Rembrandt">Rembrandt</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAristotle_with_Bust2002-233">[217]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Hayez">Francesco Hayez</a> over the centuries. Among the best-known depictions is Raphael's <a href="/wiki/Fresco">fresco</a> <i><a href="/wiki/The_School_of_Athens">The School of Athens</a></i>, in the <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Palace">Vatican's Apostolic Palace</a>, where the figures of Plato and Aristotle are central to the image, at the architectural <a href="/wiki/Vanishing_point">vanishing point</a>, reflecting their importance.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhelan2002-234">[218]</a></sup> Rembrandt's <i><a href="/wiki/Aristotle_with_a_Bust_of_Homer">Aristotle with a Bust of Homer</a></i>, too, is a celebrated work, showing the knowing philosopher and the blind Homer from an earlier age: as the art critic <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Jones_(journalist)">Jonathan Jones</a> writes, "this painting will remain one of the greatest and most mysterious in the world, ensnaring us in its musty, glowing, pitch-black, terrible knowledge of time."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeld1969-235">[219]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2002-236">[220]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul>
	<li></li>
	<li></li>
	<li></li>
	<li><div>
	<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Biblioteka_Marciana,_Aristotel.jpg"></a></p></div>
	<p><i>Aristotle</i> by <a href="/wiki/Paolo_Veronese">Paolo Veronese</a>, Biblioteka Marciana. Oil on canvas, 1560s
</p>
	</div></li>
	<li></li>
	<li></li>
	<li></li>
	<li></li>
	<li></li>
</ul>
<dl><dt>Sculptures</dt></dl>
<ul>
	<li></li>
	<li><div>
	<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:DSC00218_-_Aristotele_-_Copia_romana_del_117-138_dC._-_Foto_di_G._Dall%27Orto.jpg"></a></p></div>
	<p>Roman copy of 117-138 AD of Greek original. Palermo Regional Archeology Museum
</p>
	</div></li>
	<li></li>
	<li></li>
	<li></li>
</ul>
<h3>Eponyms</h3>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Aristotle_Mountains">Aristotle Mountains</a> in <a href="/wiki/Antarctica">Antarctica</a> are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to conjecture, in his book <i><a href="/wiki/Meteorology_(Aristotle)">Meteorology</a></i>, the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region and called it <i>Antarctica</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAristotle_Mountains-238">[221]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Aristoteles_(crater)">Aristoteles</a> is a crater on the <a href="/wiki/Moon">Moon</a> bearing the classical form of Aristotle's name.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAristoteles-239">[222]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_Society">Aristotelian Society</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conimbricenses">Conimbricenses</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Perfectionism_(philosophy)">Perfectionism</a></li></ul>
<h2>References</h2>
<h3>Notes</h3>
<div>
<ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b> See <a href="#CITEREFShields2012">Shields 2012</a>, pp. 3–16; <a href="#CITEREFDüring1957">Düring 1957</a> covers ancient biographies of Aristotle.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b> That these dates (the first half of the Olympiad year 384/383 BC, and in 322 shortly before the death of Demosthenes) are correct was shown by <a href="/wiki/August_Boeckh">August Boeckh</a> (<i>Kleine Schriften</i> VI 195); for further discussion, see <a href="/wiki/Felix_Jacoby">Felix Jacoby</a> on <i><a href="/wiki/FGrHist">FGrHist</a></i> 244 F 38. Ingemar Düring, <i>Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition</i>, Göteborg, 1957, p. 253
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b> This <a href="/wiki/Syllogism#Types">type of syllogism</a>, with all three terms in 'a', is known by the traditional (medieval) <a href="/wiki/Mnemonic">mnemonic</a> <a href="/wiki/Baralipton">Barbara</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELagerlund2016-28">[26]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b> M is the Middle (here, Men), S is the Subject (Greeks), P is the Predicate (mortal).<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELagerlund2016-28">[26]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b> The first equation can be read as 'It is not true that there exists an x such that x is a man and that x is not mortal.'<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPredicate_Logic-31">[27]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b> Rhett Allain notes that <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_First_Law">Newton's First Law</a> is "essentially a direct reply to Aristotle, that the natural state is <i>not to change</i> motion.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllain2016-47">[42]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b> Leonard Susskind comments that Aristotle had clearly never gone <a href="/wiki/Ice_skating">ice skating</a> or he would have seen that it takes force to stop an object.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESusskind2011-50">[44]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b> For heavenly bodies like the Sun, Moon, and stars, the observed motions are "to a very good approximation" circular around the Earth's centre, (for example, the apparent rotation of the sky because of the rotation of the Earth, and the rotation of the moon around the Earth) as Aristotle stated.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERovelli201523–40-52">[45]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b> Drabkin quotes numerous passages from <i>Physics</i> and <i>On the Heavens</i> (<i>De Caelo</i>) which state Aristotle's laws of motion.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrabkin193860–84-49">[43]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b> Drabkin agrees that density is treated quantitatively in this passage, but without a sharp definition of density as weight per unit volume.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrabkin193860–84-49">[43]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b> Philoponus and Galileo correctly objected that for the transient phase (still increasing in speed) with heavy objects falling a short distance, the law does not apply: Galileo used balls on a short incline to show this. Rovelli notes that "Two heavy balls with the same shape and different weight do fall at different speeds from an aeroplane, confirming Aristotle's theory, not Galileo's."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERovelli201523–40-52">[45]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b> For a different reading of social and economic processes in the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> and <i>Politics</i> see Polanyi, Karl (1957) "Aristotle Discovers the Economy" in <i>Primitive, Archaic and Modern Economies: Essays of Karl Polanyi</i> ed. G. Dalton, Boston 1971, 78–115.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b> "Where, as among the Lacedaemonians, the state of women is bad, almost half of human life is spoilt."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhetoricBook_I,_Chapter_5-152">[140]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a></b> "When the Roman dictator Sulla invaded Athens in 86 BC, he brought back to Rome a fantastic prize – Aristotle's library. Books then were papyrus rolls, from 10 to 20 feet long, and since Aristotle's death in 322 BC, worms and damp had done their worst. The rolls needed repairing, and the texts clarifying and copying on to new papyrus (imported from Egypt – Moses' bulrushes). The man in Rome who put Aristotle's library in order was a Greek scholar, Tyrannio."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhen_libraries_were2001-220">[207]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a></b> Aristotle: <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> 1102a26–27. Aristotle himself never uses the term "esoteric" or "acroamatic". For other passages where Aristotle speaks of <i>exōterikoi logoi</i>, see <a href="/wiki/W.D._Ross">W.D. Ross</a>, <i>Aristotle's Metaphysics</i> (1953), vol. 2 pp= 408–410. Ross defends an interpretation according to which the phrase, at least in Aristotle's own works, usually refers generally to "discussions not peculiar to the <a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school">Peripatetic school</a>", rather than to specific works of Aristotle's own.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a></b> "<i>veniet flumen orationis aureum fundens Aristoteles</i>", (Google translation: "Aristotle will come pouring forth a golden stream of eloquence").<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECicero1874-226">[211]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a></b> Compare the medieval tale of Phyllis and Alexander above.
</li>
</ol></div>
<h3>Citations</h3>
<div>
<ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollins_English_Dictionary_1-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFCollins_English_Dictionary">Collins English Dictionary</a>.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAristotle_(Greek_philosopher)_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAristotle_(Greek_philosopher)_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAristotle_(Greek_philosopher)_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFAristotle_(Greek_philosopher)">Aristotle (Greek philosopher)</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLeisch19995_5-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMcLeisch1999">McLeisch 1999</a>, p. 5.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAristoteles-Park_in_Stagira_6-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAristoteles-Park_in_Stagira">Aristoteles-Park in Stagira</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b> <cite>Borchers, Timothy A.; Hundley, Heather (2018). <i>Rhetorical theory : an introduction</i> (Second ed.). Long Grove, Illinois. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4786-3580-2"><bdi>978-1-4786-3580-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/1031145493">1031145493</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall201814_8-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHall2018">Hall 2018</a>, p. 14.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnagnostopoulos20134_9-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAnagnostopoulos2013">Anagnostopoulos 2013</a>, p. 4.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlits199958–63_10-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBlits1999">Blits 1999</a>, pp. 58–63.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans2006_11-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEvans2006">Evans 2006</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAristotle1984Introduction_12-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAristotle1984">Aristotle 1984</a>, pp. Introduction.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShields2016_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShields2016_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShields2016_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFShields2016">Shields 2016</a>.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell1972_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell1972_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell1972_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFRussell1972">Russell 1972</a>.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen199158–59_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen199158–59_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFGreen1991">Green 1991</a>, pp. 58–59.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith200788_16-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSmith2007">Smith 2007</a>, p. 88.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHumphreys2009_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHumphreys2009_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHumphreys2009_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHumphreys2009_17-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFHumphreys2009">Humphreys 2009</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen1991460_18-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGreen1991">Green 1991</a>, p. 460.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFilonik201372–73_19-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFilonik2013">Filonik 2013</a>, pp. 72–73.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1980216_20-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFJones1980">Jones 1980</a>, p. 216.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGigon201741_21-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGigon2017">Gigon 2017</a>, p. 41.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDüring1957T44a-e_22-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDüring1957">Düring 1957</a>, p. T44a-e.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b> <cite>Britton, Bianca (27 May 2016). <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2016/05/27/europe/greece-aristotle-tomb/index.html">"Is this Aristotle's tomb?"</a>. <i>CNN</i>. Retrieved 21 January 2023.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaase19923862_24-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHaase1992">Haase 1992</a>, p. 3862.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDegnan199481–89_25-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDegnan1994">Degnan 1994</a>, pp. 81–89.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECorcoran20091–20_26-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFCorcoran2009">Corcoran 2009</a>, pp. 1–20.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1787Preface_27-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKant1787">Kant 1787</a>, pp. Preface.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELagerlund2016_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELagerlund2016_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELagerlund2016_28-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFLagerlund2016">Lagerlund 2016</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPredicate_Logic_31-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPredicate_Logic">Predicate Logic</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPickover200952_33-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPickover2009">Pickover 2009</a>, p. 52.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchool_of_Athens_34-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchool_of_Athens">School of Athens</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2019_35-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFStewart2019">Stewart 2019</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrior_Analytics24b18–20_36-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPrior_Analytics">Prior Analytics</a>, pp. 24b18–20.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBobzien2015_37-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBobzien2015">Bobzien 2015</a>.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2017_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2017_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2017_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith2017">Smith 2017</a>.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohen2000_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohen2000_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohen2000_39-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohen2000_39-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohen2000_39-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohen2000_39-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFCohen2000">Cohen 2000</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAristotle1999111_40-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAristotle1999">Aristotle 1999</a>, p. 111.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetaphysicsVIII_1043a_10–30_41-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMetaphysics">Metaphysics</a>, p. VIII 1043a 10–30.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd196843–47_42-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLloyd1968">Lloyd 1968</a>, pp. 43–47.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetaphysicsIX_1050a_5–10_43-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMetaphysics">Metaphysics</a>, p. IX 1050a 5–10.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetaphysicsVIII_1045a–b_44-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMetaphysics">Metaphysics</a>, p. VIII 1045a–b.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWildberg2016_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWildberg2016_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWildberg2016_45-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWildberg2016_45-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFWildberg2016">Wildberg 2016</a>.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1968133–139,_166–169_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1968133–139,_166–169_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFLloyd1968">Lloyd 1968</a>, pp. 133–139, 166–169.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllain2016_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllain2016_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFAllain2016">Allain 2016</a>.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrabkin193860–84_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrabkin193860–84_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrabkin193860–84_49-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrabkin193860–84_49-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrabkin193860–84_49-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrabkin193860–84_49-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrabkin193860–84_49-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrabkin193860–84_49-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrabkin193860–84_49-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFDrabkin1938">Drabkin 1938</a>, pp. 60–84.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESusskind2011_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESusskind2011_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESusskind2011_50-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESusskind2011_50-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESusskind2011_50-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFSusskind2011">Susskind 2011</a>.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERovelli201523–40_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERovelli201523–40_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERovelli201523–40_52-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERovelli201523–40_52-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERovelli201523–40_52-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERovelli201523–40_52-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERovelli201523–40_52-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERovelli201523–40_52-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERovelli201523–40_52-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFRovelli2015">Rovelli 2015</a>, pp. 23–40.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarteron19231–32_and_passim_56-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFCarteron1923">Carteron 1923</a>, pp. 1–32 and passim.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi201588–90_58-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLeroi2015">Leroi 2015</a>, pp. 88–90.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd199696–100,_106–107_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd199696–100,_106–107_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd199696–100,_106–107_59-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd199696–100,_106–107_59-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd199696–100,_106–107_59-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFLloyd1996">Lloyd 1996</a>, pp. 96–100, 106–107.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHankinson1998159_60-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHankinson1998">Hankinson 1998</a>, p. 159.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi201591–92,_369–373_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi201591–92,_369–373_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFLeroi2015">Leroi 2015</a>, pp. 91–92, 369–373.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELahanas_62-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLahanas">Lahanas</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhysics2.6_63-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPhysics">Physics</a>, p. 2.6.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1973204–213_64-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1973">Miller 1973</a>, pp. 204–213.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeteorology1._8_65-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMeteorology">Meteorology</a>, p. 1. 8.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoore195613_66-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMoore1956">Moore 1956</a>, p. 13.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeteorologyBook_1,_Part_14_67-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMeteorology">Meteorology</a>, p. Book 1, Part 14.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyell183217_68-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLyell1832">Lyell 1832</a>, p. 17.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b> <cite>Aristotle (1952). <a href="http://archive.org/details/L397AristotleMeteorologica"><i>Meteorologica, Chapter II</i></a>. Translated by Lee, H.D.P. (Loeb Classical Library ed.). Cambridge, MA: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press">Harvard University Press</a>. p. 156. Retrieved 22 January 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi20157_70-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLeroi2015">Leroi 2015</a>, p. 7.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi201514_71-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLeroi2015">Leroi 2015</a>, p. 14.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson1910Prefatory_Note_72-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFThompson1910">Thompson 1910</a>, p. Prefatory Note.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/reviews/darwins-ghosts-by-rebecca-stott-7808310.html">"Darwin's Ghosts, By Rebecca Stott"</a>. <i>independent.co.uk</i>. 2 June 2012. Retrieved 19 June 2012.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi2015196,_248_74-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLeroi2015">Leroi 2015</a>, pp. 196, 248.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDay20135805–5816_75-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDay2013">Day 2013</a>, pp. 5805–5816.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi201566–74,_137_76-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLeroi2015">Leroi 2015</a>, pp. 66–74, 137.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi2015118–119_77-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLeroi2015">Leroi 2015</a>, pp. 118–119.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi201573_78-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLeroi2015">Leroi 2015</a>, p. 73.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi2015135–136_79-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLeroi2015">Leroi 2015</a>, pp. 135–136.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi2015206_80-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLeroi2015">Leroi 2015</a>, p. 206.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESedley2007189_81-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSedley2007">Sedley 2007</a>, p. 189.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi2015273_82-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLeroi2015">Leroi 2015</a>, p. 273.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor192242_83-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFTaylor1922">Taylor 1922</a>, p. 42.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi2015361–365_84-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLeroi2015">Leroi 2015</a>, pp. 361–365.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi2011_85-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLeroi2011">Leroi 2011</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi2015197–200_86-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLeroi2015">Leroi 2015</a>, pp. 197–200.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi2015365–368_87-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi2015365–368_87-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFLeroi2015">Leroi 2015</a>, pp. 365–368.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor192249_88-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFTaylor1922">Taylor 1922</a>, p. 49.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi2015408_89-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLeroi2015">Leroi 2015</a>, p. 408.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi201572–74_90-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLeroi2015">Leroi 2015</a>, pp. 72–74.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBergstromDugatkin201235_91-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBergstromDugatkin2012">Bergstrom &amp; Dugatkin 2012</a>, p. 35.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes19747_92-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRhodes1974">Rhodes 1974</a>, p. 7.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMayr1982201–202_93-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMayr1982">Mayr 1982</a>, pp. 201–202.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELovejoy1976_94-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLovejoy1976">Lovejoy 1976</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi2015111–119_95-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLeroi2015">Leroi 2015</a>, pp. 111–119.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b> <cite>Lennox, James G. (2001). <i>Aristotle's Philosophy of Biology: Studies in the Origins of Life Science</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 346. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-65976-0"><bdi>0-521-65976-0</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b> <cite>Sandford, Stella (3 December 2019). <a href="https://doi.org/10.33134/rds.314">"From Aristotle to Contemporary Biological Classification: What Kind of Category is "Sex"?"</a>. <i>Redescriptions: Political Thought, Conceptual History and Feminist Theory</i>. <b>22</b> (1): 4–17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.33134%2Frds.314">10.33134/rds.314</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/2308-0914">2308-0914</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:210140121">210140121</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b> <cite>Voultsiadou, Eleni; Vafidis, Dimitris (1 January 2007). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1163/18759866-07602004">"Marine invertebrate diversity in Aristotle's zoology"</a>. <i>Contributions to Zoology</i>. <b>76</b> (2): 103–120. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F18759866-07602004">10.1163/18759866-07602004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1875-9866">1875-9866</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55152069">55152069</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b> <cite>von Lieven, Alexander Fürst; Humar, Marcel (2008). <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23334371">"A Cladistic Analysis of Aristotle's Animal Groups in the "Historia animalium""</a>. <i>History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences</i>. <b>30</b> (2): 227–262. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0391-9714">0391-9714</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/23334371">23334371</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)">PMID</a> <a href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19203017">19203017</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b> <cite>Laurin, Michel; Humar, Marcel (2022). <a href="https://doi.org/10.5852/cr-palevol2022v21a1">"Phylogenetic signal in characters from Aristotle's History of Animals"</a>. <i>Comptes Rendus Palevol</i> (in French). <b>21</b> (1): 1–16. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.5852%2Fcr-palevol2022v21a1">10.5852/cr-palevol2022v21a1</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:245863171">245863171</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMason197943–44_101-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMason1979">Mason 1979</a>, pp. 43–44.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi2015156–163_102-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLeroi2015">Leroi 2015</a>, pp. 156–163.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMason197945_103-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMason1979">Mason 1979</a>, p. 45.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuthrie2010348_104-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGuthrie2010">Guthrie 2010</a>, p. 348.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b> <i>On the Soul</i> I.3 406b26-407a10. For some scholarship, see Carter, Jason W. 2017. ‘Aristotle’s Criticism of Timaean Psychology’ <i>Rhizomata</i> 5: 51-78 and Douglas R. Campbell. 2022. "Located in Space: Plato’s Theory of Psychic Motion" <i>Ancient Philosophy</i> 42 (2): 419-442.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b> For instance, W.D. Ross argued that Aristotle "may well be criticized as having taken [Plato's] myth as if it were sober prose." See Ross, William D. ed. 1961. <i>Aristotle: De Anima</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. The quotation is from page 189.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b> See, e.g., Douglas R. Campbell, "Located in Space: Plato's Theory of Psychic Motion," <i>Ancient Philosophy</i> 42 (2): 419-442. 2022.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b> <i>On the Soul</i> I.3<i>.</i>407b14–27. Christopher Shields summarizes it thus: "We might think that an old leather-bound edition of Machiavelli’s <i>The Prince</i> could come to bear the departed soul of Richard Nixon. Aristotle regards this sort of view as worthy of ridicule.” See Shields, C. 2016. <i>Aristotle: De Anima</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. The quotation is from page 133.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b> There's a large scholarly discussion of this dialectic between Plato and Aristotle here: Douglas R. Campbell, "The Soul’s Tool: Plato on the Usefulness of the Body," <i>Elenchos</i> 43 (1): 7-27. 2022.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBloch200712_110-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBloch2007">Bloch 2007</a>, p. 12.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBloch200761_111-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBloch2007">Bloch 2007</a>, p. 61.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarruthers200716_112-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFCarruthers2007">Carruthers 2007</a>, p. 16.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBloch200725_113-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBloch2007">Bloch 2007</a>, p. 25.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren192130_114-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWarren1921">Warren 1921</a>, p. 30.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren192125_115-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWarren1921">Warren 1921</a>, p. 25.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarruthers200719_116-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFCarruthers2007">Carruthers 2007</a>, p. 19.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren1921296_117-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWarren1921">Warren 1921</a>, p. 296.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren1921259_118-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWarren1921">Warren 1921</a>, p. 259.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESorabji200654_119-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSorabji2006">Sorabji 2006</a>, p. 54.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolowchak1996405–423_120-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolowchak1996405–423_120-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolowchak1996405–423_120-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolowchak1996405–423_120-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolowchak1996405–423_120-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolowchak1996405–423_120-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFHolowchak1996">Holowchak 1996</a>, pp. 405–423.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShute1941115–118_121-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShute1941115–118_121-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShute1941115–118_121-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShute1941115–118_121-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShute1941115–118_121-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFShute1941">Shute 1941</a>, pp. 115–118.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolowchak1996405–23_122-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHolowchak1996">Holowchak 1996</a>, pp. 405–23.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShute1941115–18_123-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFShute1941">Shute 1941</a>, pp. 115–18.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEModrak2009169–181_124-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEModrak2009169–181_124-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFModrak2009">Modrak 2009</a>, pp. 169–181.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWebb1990174–184_125-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWebb1990">Webb 1990</a>, pp. 174–184.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKraut2001_126-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKraut2001">Kraut 2001</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicomachean_Ethics_127-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFNicomachean_Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a> Book I. See for example chapter 7.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicomachean_EthicsBook_VI_128-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFNicomachean_Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a>, p. Book VI.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPolitics1253a19–124_129-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPolitics">Politics</a>, pp. 1253a19–124.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAristotle2009320–321_130-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAristotle2009">Aristotle 2009</a>, pp. 320–321.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbensteinEbenstein200259_131-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEbensteinEbenstein2002">Ebenstein &amp; Ebenstein 2002</a>, p. 59.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHutchinsonJohnson201522_133-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHutchinsonJohnson201522_133-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFHutchinsonJohnson2015">Hutchinson &amp; Johnson 2015</a>, p. 22.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETangian202035–38_134-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFTangian2020">Tangian 2020</a>, pp. 35–38.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobbins200020–24_135-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobbins200020–24_135-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobbins200020–24_135-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFRobbins2000">Robbins 2000</a>, pp. 20–24.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAristotle194816–28_136-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAristotle194816–28_136-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAristotle194816–28_136-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAristotle194816–28_136-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFAristotle1948">Aristotle 1948</a>, pp. 16–28.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann196856–60_137-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKaufmann1968">Kaufmann 1968</a>, pp. 56–60.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarver1994109–110_138-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGarver1994">Garver 1994</a>, pp. 109–110.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERorty19963–7_139-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRorty1996">Rorty 1996</a>, pp. 3–7.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrimaldi199871_140-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGrimaldi1998">Grimaldi 1998</a>, p. 71.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalliwell2002152–159_141-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalliwell2002152–159_141-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalliwell2002152–159_141-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalliwell2002152–159_141-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalliwell2002152–159_141-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFHalliwell2002">Halliwell 2002</a>, pp. 152–159.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoeticsI_1447a_142-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPoetics">Poetics</a>, p. I 1447a.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoeticsIV_143-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPoetics">Poetics</a>, p. IV.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalliwell2002152–59_144-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHalliwell2002">Halliwell 2002</a>, pp. 152–59.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoeticsIII_145-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPoetics">Poetics</a>, p. III.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoeticsVI_146-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPoetics">Poetics</a>, p. VI.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoeticsXXVI_147-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPoetics">Poetics</a>, p. XXVI.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAesop1998Introduction,_xi–xii_148-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAesop1998">Aesop 1998</a>, pp. Introduction, xi–xii.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b> See Marguerite Deslauriers, "Sexual Difference in Aristotle's Politics and His Biology," <i>Classical World</i> 102 3 (2009): 215-231.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreeland1998_150-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFreeland1998">Freeland 1998</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorsink197983–112_151-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMorsink1979">Morsink 1979</a>, pp. 83–112.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhetoricBook_I,_Chapter_5_152-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRhetoric">Rhetoric</a>, p. Book I, Chapter 5.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi20158_154-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLeroi2015">Leroi 2015</a>, p. 8.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAristotle's_Influence2018_155-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAristotle's_Influence2018">Aristotle's Influence 2018</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b> <cite>Garner., Dwight (14 March 2014). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210401095825/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/16/magazine/whos-more-famous-than-jesus.html">"Who's More Famous Than Jesus?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times">The New York Times</a></i>. Archived from <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/16/magazine/whos-more-famous-than-jesus.html">the original</a> on 1 April 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagee201034_157-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMagee2010">Magee 2010</a>, p. 34.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuthrie1990156_158-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGuthrie1990">Guthrie 1990</a>, p. 156.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurant200692_159-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDurant2006">Durant 2006</a>, p. 92.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKukkonen201070–77_160-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKukkonen201070–77_160-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKukkonen201070–77_160-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKukkonen201070–77_160-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKukkonen201070–77_160-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFKukkonen2010">Kukkonen 2010</a>, pp. 70–77.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnes198286_161-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBarnes1982">Barnes 1982</a>, p. 86.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi2015352_162-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLeroi2015">Leroi 2015</a>, p. 352.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-LitList_163-0">^</a></b> * "the father of logic": Wentzel Van Huyssteen, Encyclopedia of Science and Religion: A-I, p. 27
<ul><li>"the father of biology": S. C. Datt, S. B. Srivastava, Science and society, p. 93.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroi2015352-162">[149]</a></sup></li>
<li>"the father of political science": N. Jayapalan, Aristotle, p. 12, Jonathan Wolff, Lectures on the History of Moral and Political Philosophy, p. 48.</li>
<li>the "father of zoology": Josef Rudolf Winkler, A Book of Beetles, p. 12</li>
<li>"the father of embryology": D.R. Khanna, Text Book Of Embryology, p. 2</li>
<li>"the father of natural law": <cite>Shellens, Max Solomon (1959). <a href="https://scholarship.law.nd.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1039&amp;context=nd_naturallaw_forum">"Aristotle on Natural Law"</a>. <i>Natural Law Forum</i>. <b>4</b> (1): 72–100. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fajj%2F4.1.72">10.1093/ajj/4.1.72</a>.</cite></li>
<li>"the father of scientific method": <cite>Shuttleworth, Martyn. <a href="https://explorable.com/history-of-the-scientific-method/">"History of the Scientific Method"</a>. <i>Explorable</i>.</cite>, Riccardo Pozzo (2004) <a href="https://books.google.com/?id=vayp8jxcPr0C&amp;pg=PA41"><i>The impact of Aristotelianism on modern philosophy</i></a>. CUA Press. p. 41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8132-1347-9">0-8132-1347-9</a></li>
<li>"the father of psychology": Margot Esther Borden, Psychology in the Light of the East, p. 4</li>
<li>"the father of realism": Russell L. Hamm, Philosophy and Education: Alternatives in Theory and Practice, p. 58</li>
<li>"the father of criticism": Nagendra Prasad, Personal Bias in Literary Criticism: Dr. Johnson, Matthew Arnold, T.S. Eliot, p. 70. <a href="/wiki/Henry_Home,_Lord_Kames">Lord Henry Home Kames</a>, Elements of Criticism, p. 237.</li>
<li>"the father of meteorology":<cite><a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/about-us/what/what-is-meteorology">"What is meteorology?"</a>. <i>Meteorological Office</i>.</cite><cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160721205842/http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1994/5/94.05.01.x.html">"94.05.01: Meteorology"</a>. Archived from <a href="http://yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1994/5/94.05.01.x.html">the original</a> on 21 July 2016. Retrieved 16 June 2015.</cite></li>
<li>"the father of individualism": Allan Gotthelf, Gregory Salmieri, A Companion to Ayn Rand, p. 325.</li>
<li>"the father of teleology": Malcolm Owen Slavin, Daniel H. Kriegman, The Adaptive Design of the Human Psyche: Psychoanalysis, Evolutionary Biology, and the Therapeutic Process, p. 292.</li></ul>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHooker1831219_164-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHooker1831">Hooker 1831</a>, p. 219.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMayr198290–91_165-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMayr1982">Mayr 1982</a>, pp. 90–91.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMason197946_166-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMason1979">Mason 1979</a>, p. 46.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1919Part_1,_7:7_167-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1919">Plutarch 1919</a>, p. Part 1, 7:7.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnnas2001252_168-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAnnas2001">Annas 2001</a>, p. 252.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMason197956_169-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMason1979">Mason 1979</a>, p. 56.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMayr198590–94_170-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMayr1985">Mayr 1985</a>, pp. 90–94.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESorabji199020,_28,_35–36_171-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSorabji1990">Sorabji 1990</a>, pp. 20, 28, 35–36.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESorabji1990233–724_172-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSorabji1990">Sorabji 1990</a>, pp. 233–724.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELindberg1992162_173-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLindberg1992">Lindberg 1992</a>, p. 162.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESorabji199020–21,_28–29,_393–406,_407–408_174-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSorabji1990">Sorabji 1990</a>, pp. 20–21, 28–29, 393–406, 407–408.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy-Day1998_175-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy-Day1998_175-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy-Day1998">Kennedy-Day 1998</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStaley1989_176-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFStaley1989">Staley 1989</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAverroes1953III,_2,_43_177-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAverroes1953">Averroes 1953</a>, p. III, 2, 43.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENasr199659–60_178-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFNasr1996">Nasr 1996</a>, pp. 59–60.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhyllis_and_Aristotle_179-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhyllis_and_Aristotle_179-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFPhyllis_and_Aristotle">Phyllis and Aristotle</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHasse2014_180-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHasse2014">Hasse 2014</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAquinas2013_181-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAquinas2013">Aquinas 2013</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhn2018_182-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKuhn2018">Kuhn 2018</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELagerlund_183-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLagerlund">Lagerlund</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllenFisher201117_184-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAllenFisher2011">Allen &amp; Fisher 2011</a>, p. 17.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAristotle_Phyllis_185-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAristotle_Phyllis">Aristotle Phyllis</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a></b> Lafferty, Roger. "<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/40165857.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3A55f6bfc22f02768d5dcdc92005228933">The Philosophy of Dante</a>", pg. 4
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b> <i>Inferno</i>, Canto XI, lines 70-115, Mandelbaum translation.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Moses-Maimonides">"Moses Maimonides"</a>. <i>Britannica</i>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b> Levi ben Gershom, The Wars of the Lord: Book one, Immortality of the soul, p. 35.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b> Leon Simon, Aspects Of The Hebrew Genius: A Volume Of Essays On Jewish Literature And Thought (1910), p. 127.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b> Herbert A. Davidson, Herbert A. |q (Herbert Alan) Davidson, Professor of Hebrew Emeritus Herbert Davidson, Moses Maimonides: The Man and His Works, p. 98.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a></b> Menachem Kellner, Maimonides on Judaism and the Jewish People, p. 77.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAird2011118–29_193-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAird2011">Aird 2011</a>, pp. 118–29.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMachamer2017_194-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMachamer2017">Machamer 2017</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurant200686_195-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDurant2006">Durant 2006</a>, p. 86.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeslauriersDestrée2013102,_106–107_196-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDeslauriersDestrée2013">Deslauriers &amp; Destrée 2013</a>, pp. 102, 106–107.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESikka1997265_197-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSikka1997">Sikka 1997</a>, p. 265.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoole2003_198-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBoole2003">Boole 2003</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wilkins_2009_199-0">^</a></b> <cite>Wilkins, John (2009). <i>Species: a history of the idea</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-27139-5"><bdi>978-0-520-27139-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/314379168">314379168</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pasipoularides_2010_200-0">^</a></b> <cite>Pasipoularides, Ares (2010). <i>The heart's vortex: intracardiac blood flow phenomena</i>. Shelton, Connecticut: People's Medical Publishing House. p. 118. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60795-033-2"><bdi>978-1-60795-033-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/680621287">680621287</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDarwin1872">Darwin 1872</a>, p. <a href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&amp;itemID=F391&amp;pageseq=18">xiii</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a></b> <cite>Aristotle, <a href="http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/physics.2.ii.html"><i>Physics</i></a>, translated by Hardie, R. P. and Gayle, R. K. and hosted by MIT's Internet Classics Archive, retrieved 23 April 2009</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a></b> O'Rourke, F. (2009). Philosophy. In J. McCourt (Ed.), James Joyce in Context (Literature in Context, pp. 320-331). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511576072.029">10.1017/CBO9780511576072.029</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a></b> William Robert Wians, Aristotle's Philosophical Development: Problems and Prospects, p. 1.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurns20092_205-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBurns2009">Burns 2009</a>, p. 2.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESciabarra199512_206-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSciabarra1995">Sciabarra 1995</a>, p. 12.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a></b> James P. Sterba, From Rationality to Equality, p. 94.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a></b> F. Novotny, The Posthumous Life of Plato, p. 573
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a></b> Matt Vidal, Tony Smith, Tomás Rotta, Paul Prew, The Oxford Handbook of Karl Marx, p. 215.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a></b> Judith A. Swanson, C. David Corbin, Aristotle's 'Politics': A Reader's Guide, p. 146.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDijksterhuis196972_211-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDijksterhuis1969">Dijksterhuis 1969</a>, p. 72.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi2015353_212-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi2015353_212-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFLeroi2015">Leroi 2015</a>, p. 353.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMedawarMedawar198428_213-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMedawarMedawar1984">Medawar &amp; Medawar 1984</a>, p. 28.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnight2007''passim''_214-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKnight2007">Knight 2007</a>, pp. <i>passim</i>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi2015_215-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLeroi2015">Leroi 2015</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacDougall-Shackleton20112076–2085_216-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMacDougall-Shackleton2011">MacDougall-Shackleton 2011</a>, pp. 2076–2085.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHladkýHavlíček2013_217-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHladkýHavlíček2013">Hladký &amp; Havlíček 2013</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnes19959_218-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBarnes1995">Barnes 1995</a>, p. 9.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAristotelis_Opera_219-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAristotelis_Opera">Aristotelis Opera</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhen_libraries_were2001_220-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWhen_libraries_were2001">When libraries were 2001</a>.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnes199512_222-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnes199512_222-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFBarnes1995">Barnes 1995</a>, p. 12.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHouse195635_224-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHouse1956">House 1956</a>, p. 35.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrwinFine1996xi–xii_225-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFIrwinFine1996">Irwin &amp; Fine 1996</a>, pp. xi–xii.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECicero1874_226-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFCicero1874">Cicero 1874</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnesGriffin19991–69_228-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBarnesGriffin1999">Barnes &amp; Griffin 1999</a>, pp. 1–69.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnagnostopoulos201316_229-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAnagnostopoulos2013">Anagnostopoulos 2013</a>, p. 16.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnes199510–15_230-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBarnes1995">Barnes 1995</a>, pp. 10–15.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELucas_Cranach_the_Elder_231-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLucas_Cranach_the_Elder">Lucas Cranach the Elder</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeRobinson2005_232-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLeeRobinson2005">Lee &amp; Robinson 2005</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAristotle_with_Bust2002_233-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAristotle_with_Bust2002">Aristotle with Bust 2002</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhelan2002_234-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPhelan2002">Phelan 2002</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeld1969_235-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHeld1969">Held 1969</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones2002_236-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFJones2002">Jones 2002</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAristotle_Mountains_238-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAristotle_Mountains">Aristotle Mountains</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAristoteles_239-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAristoteles">Aristoteles</a>.
</li>
</ol></div>
<h3>Sources</h3>
<div>
<ul><li><cite><a href="/wiki/Aesop">Aesop</a> (1998). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZB-rVxPvtPEC&amp;pg=PR3"><i>The Complete Fables By Aesop</i></a>. Translated by Temple, Olivia; Temple, Robert. Penguin Classics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044649-4"><bdi>978-0-14-044649-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
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<li><cite>House, Humphry (1956). <a href="https://archive.org/details/aristotlespoetic032945mbp"><i>Aristotle's Poetics</i></a>. Rupert Hart-Davis.</cite></li>
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<li><cite><a href="http://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/2008/important-old-master-paintings-including-european-works-of-art-n08404/lot.78.html">"Lucas Cranach the Elder| Phyllis and Aristotle"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sotheby%27s">Sotheby's</a>. 2008. Retrieved 23 March 2018.</cite></li>
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<li><cite>Sorabji, R. (2006). <i>Aristotle on Memory</i> (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 54. <q>And this is exactly why we hunt for the successor, starting in our thoughts from the present or from something else, and from something similar, or opposite, or neighbouring. By this means recollection occurs...</q></cite></li>
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<li><cite><a href="/wiki/D%27Arcy_Wentworth_Thompson">Thompson, D'Arcy</a> (1910). Ross, W. D.; Smith, J. A. (eds.). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190809140240/https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/history/index.html"><i>Historia animalium</i></a>. <i>The works of Aristotle translated into English</i>. Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/39273217">39273217</a>. Archived from <a href="https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/history/index.html">the original</a> on 9 August 2019. Retrieved 19 March 2018.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Howard_C._Warren">Warren, Howard C.</a> (1921). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D4IXAAAAYAAJ&amp;q=The+history+of+the+association+of+psychology&amp;pg=PA3"><i>A History of the Association of Psychology</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-598-91975-5"><bdi>978-0-598-91975-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/21010604">21010604</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Webb, Wilse (1990). <a href="https://archive.org/details/dreamtimedreamwo00kriprich"><i>Dreamtime and dreamwork: Decoding the language of the night</i></a>. Jeremy P. Tarcher. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87477-594-5"><bdi>978-0-87477-594-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/4723624/When-libraries-were-on-a-roll.html">"When libraries were on a roll"</a>. <i>The Telegraph</i>. 19 May 2001. <a href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/4723624/When-libraries-were-on-a-roll.html">Archived</a> from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 29 June 2017.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Wildberg (2016). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philoponus/">"John Philoponus"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a>, ed. (2018). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-influence/">"Aristotle's Influence"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i> (Spring 2018 ed.).</cite></li>
<li><cite>Darwin, Charles (1872), <a href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F391&amp;viewtype=text&amp;pageseq=1"><i>The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life</i></a> (6th ed.), London: John Murray, retrieved 9 January 2009</cite></li>
<li><cite>Burns, Jennifer (2009). <a href="/wiki/Goddess_of_the_Market:_Ayn_Rand_and_the_American_Right"><i>Goddess of the Market: Ayn Rand and the American Right</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532487-7"><bdi>978-0-19-532487-7</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Chris_Matthew_Sciabarra">Sciabarra, Chris Matthew</a> (1995). <a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand:_The_Russian_Radical"><i>Ayn Rand: The Russian Radical</i></a>. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-271-01440-1"><bdi>978-0-271-01440-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li></ul>
</div>
<h2>Further reading</h2>
<p>The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following is only a small selection.
</p>
<div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Ackrill">Ackrill, J. L.</a> (1997). <i>Essays on Plato and Aristotle</i>, Oxford University Press.</li>
<li><cite>Ackrill, J.L. (1981). <i>Aristotle the Philosopher</i>. Oxford University Press.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Mortimer_Adler">Adler, Mortimer J.</a> (1978). <a href="/wiki/Aristotle_for_Everybody"><i>Aristotle for Everybody</i></a>. Macmillan.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Ammonius (1991). Cohen, S. Marc; Matthews, Gareth B (eds.). <i>On Aristotle's Categories</i>. Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-2688-9"><bdi>978-0-8014-2688-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Aristotle (1908–1952). <i>The Works of Aristotle Translated into English Under the Editorship of W.D. Ross, 12 vols</i>. <a href="/wiki/Clarendon_Press">Clarendon Press</a>.</cite> These translations are available in several places online; see External links.</li>
<li>Bakalis, Nikolaos. (2005). <i>Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments</i>, Trafford Publishing, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4120-4843-9">978-1-4120-4843-9</a>.</li>
<li><cite>Bocheński, I. M. (1951). <i>Ancient Formal Logic</i>. North-Holland.</cite></li>
<li>Bolotin, David (1998). <i>An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing.</i> Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scientific works.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Myles_Burnyeat">Burnyeat, Myles F.</a> <i>et al.</i> (1979). <i>Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics</i>. Oxford: Sub-faculty of Philosophy.</li>
<li><cite>Cantor, Norman F.; Klein, Peter L., eds. (1969). <i>Ancient Thought: Plato and Aristotle</i>. Monuments of Western Thought. Vol. 1. Blaisdell.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Chappell, V. (1973). "Aristotle's Conception of Matter". <i>Journal of Philosophy</i>. <b>70</b> (19): 679–696. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2025076">10.2307/2025076</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/2025076">2025076</a>.</cite></li>
<li>Code, Alan (1995). Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 76.</li>
<li><cite>Cohen, S. Marc; Reeve, C. D. C. (21 November 2020). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2020/entries/aristotle-metaphysics/">"Aristotle's Metaphysics"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Winter 2020 ed.).</cite></li>
<li><cite>Ferguson, John (1972). <a href="https://archive.org/details/aristotle0000ferg"><i>Aristotle</i></a>. Twayne Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8057-2064-8"><bdi>978-0-8057-2064-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li>De Groot, Jean (2014). <i>Aristotle's Empiricism: Experience and Mechanics in the 4th century BC</i>, Parmenides Publishing, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-930972-83-4">978-1-930972-83-4</a>.</li>
<li>Frede, Michael (1987). <i>Essays in Ancient Philosophy</i>. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Apthorp_Gould_Fuller">Fuller, B.A.G.</a> (1923). <i>Aristotle</i>. History of Greek Philosophy. Vol. 3. Cape.</cite></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Gendlin">Gendlin, Eugene T.</a> (2012). <i><a href="http://www.focusing.org/aristotle/">Line by Line Commentary on Aristotle's De Anima</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170327012857/http://www.focusing.org/aristotle/">Archived</a> 27 March 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>, Volume 1: Books I &amp; II; Volume 2: Book III. The Focusing Institute.</li>
<li>Gill, Mary Louise (1989). <i>Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity</i>. Princeton University Press.</li>
<li><cite>Guthrie, W.K.C. (1981). <i>A History of Greek Philosophy</i>. Vol. 6. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press">Cambridge University Press</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Halper, Edward C. (2009). <i>One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 1: Books Alpha – Delta</i>. Parmenides Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-930972-21-6"><bdi>978-1-930972-21-6</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Halper, Edward C. (2005). <i>One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 2: The Central Books</i>. Parmenides Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-930972-05-6"><bdi>978-1-930972-05-6</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Terence_Irwin">Irwin, Terence H.</a> (1988). <a href="http://www.cyjack.com/cognition/Aristotle%27s%20first%20principles.pdf"><i>Aristotle's First Principles</i></a> (PDF). Oxford: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-824290-5"><bdi>0-19-824290-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Jaeger, Werner (1948). Robinson, Richard (ed.). <i>Aristotle: Fundamentals of the History of His Development</i> (2nd ed.). Clarendon Press.</cite></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alberto_Jori">Jori, Alberto</a> (2003). <i>Aristotele</i>, Bruno Mondadori (Prize 2003 of the "<a href="/wiki/International_Academy_of_the_History_of_Science">International Academy of the History of Science</a>"), <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-424-9737-0">978-88-424-9737-0</a>.</li>
<li><cite>Kiernan, Thomas P., ed. (1962). <i>Aristotle Dictionary</i>. Philosophical Library.</cite></li>
<li>Knight, Kelvin (2007). <i>Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre</i>, Polity Press.</li>
<li>Lewis, Frank A. (1991). <i>Substance and Predication in Aristotle</i>. Cambridge University Press.</li>
<li>Lord, Carnes (1984). <i>Introduction to </i>The Politics<i>, by Aristotle</i>. Chicago University Press.</li>
<li>Loux, Michael J. (1991). Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.</li>
<li>Maso, Stefano (Ed.), Natali, Carlo (Ed.), Seel, Gerhard (Ed.) (2012) <i>Reading Aristotle: Physics</i> VII. 3: <i>What is Alteration?</i> <i>Proceedings of the International ESAP-HYELE Conference</i>, Parmenides Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-930972-73-5">978-1-930972-73-5</a>.</li>
<li><cite>McKeon, Richard (1973). <i>Introduction to Aristotle</i> (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Owen, G. E. L. (1965c). "The Platonism of Aristotle". <i>Proceedings of the British Academy</i>. <b>50</b>: 125–150.</cite> [Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R.R.K. Sorabji, eds.(1975). <i>Articles on Aristotle</i> Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth 14–34.]</li>
<li><cite>Pangle, Lorraine Smith (2002). <i>Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511498282">10.1017/CBO9780511498282</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-49828-2"><bdi>978-0-511-49828-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Plato">Plato</a> (1979). Allen, Harold Joseph; Wilbur, James B (eds.). <i>The Worlds of Plato and Aristotle</i>. Prometheus Books.</cite></li>
<li>Reeve, C. D. C. (2000). <i>Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics</i>. Hackett.</li>
<li><cite>Rose, Lynn E. (1968). <i>Aristotle's Syllogistic</i>. Charles C Thomas.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/W._D._Ross">Ross, Sir David</a> (1995). <i>Aristotle</i> (6th ed.). Routledge.</cite></li>
<li>Scaltsas, T. (1994). <i>Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics</i>. Cornell University Press.</li>
<li>Strauss, Leo (1964). "On Aristotle's <i>Politics</i>", in <i>The City and Man</i>, Rand McNally.</li>
<li><cite>Swanson, Judith (1992). <a href="https://archive.org/details/publicprivateina00swan"><i>The Public and the Private in Aristotle's Political Philosophy</i></a>. Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-2319-2"><bdi>978-0-8014-2319-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Henry_Babcock_Veatch">Veatch, Henry B.</a> (1974). <i>Aristotle: A Contemporary Appreciation</i>. Indiana University Press.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Woods, M. J. (1991b). "Universals and Particular Forms in Aristotle's Metaphysics". <i>Aristotle and the Later Tradition</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_Studies_in_Ancient_Philosophy">Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy</a>. Vol. Suppl. pp. 41–56.</cite></li></ul>
</div>
<h2>External links</h2>
<div>
<p></p>
<div><p>Greek <a href="/wiki/Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article:
</p></div></div>
<ul><li><a href="https://philpapers.org/browse/aristotle">Aristotle</a> at <a href="/wiki/PhilPapers">PhilPapers</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.inphoproject.org/thinker/">2553 Aristotle</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Indiana_Philosophy_Ontology_Project">Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project</a></li>
<li>At the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>:
<dl><dd><div><ul><li><a href="https://www.iep.utm.edu/aristotl/">Aristotle (general article)</a></li><li><a href="https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-bio/">Biology</a></li><li><a href="https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-eth/">Ethics</a></li><li><a href="https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-log/">Logic</a></li><li><a href="https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-met/">Metaphysics</a></li><li><a href="https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-mot/">Motion and its Place in Nature</a></li><li><a href="https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-poe/">Poetics</a></li><li><a href="https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-pol/">Politics</a></li></ul></div></dd></dl></li>
<li>At the <a href="http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index.html">Internet Classics Archive</a></li>
<li>From the <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>:
<dl><dd><div><ul><li><a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle">Aristotle (general article)</a></li><li><a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotelianism-renaissance/">Aristotle in the Renaissance</a></li><li><a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-biology/">Biology</a></li><li><a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-causality/">Causality</a></li><li><a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-commentators/">Commentators on Aristotle</a></li><li><a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/">Ethics</a></li><li><a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-logic/">Logic</a></li><li><a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-mathematics/">Mathematics</a></li><li><a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-metaphysics/">Metaphysics</a></li><li><a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-natphil/">Natural philosophy</a></li><li><a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-noncontradiction/">Non-contradiction</a></li><li><a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-politics/">Political theory</a></li><li><a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-psychology/">Psychology</a></li><li><a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-rhetoric/">Rhetoric</a></li></ul></div></dd></dl></li>
<li><cite>Turner, William (1907). <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Aristotle">"Aristotle" </a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. Vol. 1.</cite></li>
<li> <cite><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius">Laërtius, Diogenes</a> (1925). <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Lives_of_the_Eminent_Philosophers/Book_V#Aristotle">"The Peripatetics: Aristotle" </a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Lives_of_the_Eminent_Philosophers">Lives of the Eminent Philosophers</a></i>. Vol. 1:5. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Drew_Hicks">Hicks, Robert Drew</a> (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library.</cite></li></ul>
<dl><dt>Collections of works</dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/aristotle">Works by Aristotle in eBook form</a> at <a href="/wiki/Standard_Ebooks">Standard Ebooks</a></li>
<li>At <a href="http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index-Aristotle.html">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/2747">Works by Aristotle</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li>
<li><a href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Aristotle%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Aristotle%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Aristotle%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Aristotle%22%29%20OR%20%28%22384-322%22%20AND%20Aristotle%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Aristotle</a> at <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive">Internet Archive</a></li>
<li><a href="https://librivox.org/author/602">Works by Aristotle</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) </li>
<li><a href="//openlibrary.org/authors/OL22105A">Works by Aristotle</a> at <a href="/wiki/Open_Library">Open Library</a></li>
<li>(in English and Greek) <a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/perscoll?.submit=Change&amp;collection=Any&amp;type=text&amp;lang=Any&amp;lookup=Aristotle">Perseus Project</a> at <a href="/wiki/Tufts_University">Tufts University</a></li>
<li>At the <a href="https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/">University of Adelaide</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170215160252/https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/">Archived</a> 15 February 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li>(in Greek and French) <a href="http://remacle.org/bloodwolf/philosophes/Aristote/table.htm">P. Remacle</a></li>
<li>The 11-volume 1837 Bekker edition of <i>Aristotle's Works</i> in Greek (<a href="http://isnature.org/Files/Aristotle/">PDF</a> <b>·</b> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050816192647/http://grid.ceth.rutgers.edu/ancient/greek/aristotle_greek/">DJVU</a>)</li></ul>
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 Contents

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 * (Top)
 * 1 Life
 * 2 Theoretical philosophy
 + 2.1 Logic
 o 2.1.1 Organon
 + 2.2 Metaphysics
 o 2.2.1 Substance
 - 2.2.1.1 Immanent realism
 - 2.2.1.2 Potentiality and actuality
 + 2.3 Epistemology
 * 3 Natural philosophy
 + 3.1 Physics
 o 3.1.1 Five elements
 o 3.1.2 Motion
 o 3.1.3 Four causes
 o 3.1.4 Optics
 o 3.1.5 Chance and spontaneity
 + 3.2 Astronomy
 + 3.3 Geology and natural sciences
 + 3.4 Biology
 o 3.4.1 Empirical research
 o 3.4.2 Scientific style
 o 3.4.3 Classification of living things
 + 3.5 Psychology
 o 3.5.1 Soul
 o 3.5.2 Memory
 o 3.5.3 Dreams
 * 4 Practical philosophy
 + 4.1 Ethics
 + 4.2 Politics
 + 4.3 Economics
 + 4.4 Rhetoric and poetics
 + 4.5 Views on women
 * 5 Influence
 + 5.1 On his successor, Theophrastus
 + 5.2 On later Greek philosophers
 + 5.3 On Hellenistic science
 + 5.4 On Byzantine scholars
 + 5.5 On the medieval Islamic world
 + 5.6 On medieval Europe
 + 5.7 On medieval Judaism
 + 5.8 On Early Modern scientists
 + 5.9 On 18th/19th-century thinkers
 + 5.10 Modern rejection and rehabilitation
 * 6 Surviving works
 + 6.1 Corpus Aristotelicum
 + 6.2 Loss and preservation
 * 7 Legacy
 + 7.1 Depictions
 + 7.2 Eponyms
 * 8 See also
 * 9 References
 + 9.1 Notes
 + 9.2 Citations
 + 9.3 Sources
 * 10 Further reading
 * 11 External links
 Toggle the table of contents

 Aristotle

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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 For other uses, see Aristotle (disambiguation).

 Aristotle    
 Roman copy in marble of a Greek bronze bust of Aristotle by Lysippos, c. 330 BC, with modern alabaster mantle  
 Born    384 BC 
    Stagira, Chalcidian League 
 Died    322 BC (aged 61–62) 
    Chalcis, Euboea, Macedonian Empire 
 Education    Platonic Academy 
    * Organon 
    * Physics 
    * Metaphysics 
 Notable work    * Nicomachean Ethics 
    * Politics 
    * Rhetoric 
    * Poetics 
    
 Era    Ancient Greek philosophy 
 Region    Western philosophy 
 School    * Peripatetic school 
 Notable students    Alexander the Great, Theophrastus, Aristoxenus 
    * Logic 
    * Natural Philosophy 
    * Metaphysics 
 Main interests    * Ethics 
    * Politics 
    * Rhetoric 
    * Poetics 
    Aristotelianism 
    Theoretical philosophy 
    * Aristotelian logic, syllogism 
    * Four causes 
    * Genus and differentia 
    * Hylomorphism, substance, essence, accident 
    * Hypokeimenon 
    * Potentiality and actuality 
    * Theory of universals 
    * Unmoved mover 
    Natural philosophy 
    * Aristotelian biology 
    * Aristotelian physics 
    * Common sense 
    * Eternity of the world 
    * Five wits 
 Notable ideas    * Horror vacui 
    * Theory of elements, aether 
    * Rational animal 
    Practical philosophy 
    * Aristotelian ethics 
    * Catharsis 
    * Deliberative, epideictic and forensic rhetoric 
    * Enthymeme and Paradeigma 
    * Family as a model for the state 
    * Golden mean 
    * Kyklos 
    * Magnanimity 
    * Mimesis 
    * Natural slavery 
    * Intellectual virtues: sophia, episteme, nous, phronesis, techne
    * Three appeals: ethos, logos, pathos 
    * Views on women 
 Influences    
 *    
 + Plato    
 + Socrates   
 + Heraclitus   
 + Parmenides   
 + Empedocles   
 + Phaleas    
 + Hippodamus   
 + Hippias    
 Influenced    
    
 * Averroism, Avicennism, Literary Neo-Aristotelianism, Maimonideanism, Objectivism, Peripatetics, Scholasticism (Llullism, Neo, Scotism, Second, Thomism, etc.), additionally Middle Platonism and Neoplatonism.
    
 See: List of writers influenced by Aristotle, Commentaries on Aristotle, Pseudo-Aristotle  
    
    
 

 Aristotle (/ ˈ ær ɪ s t ɒ t əl /;[1] Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης Aristotélēs, pronounced [aristotélɛːs]; 384–322 BC) was an Ancient Greek philosopher and polymath. His writings cover a broad range of subjects including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic, ethics, aesthetics, poetry, drama, music, rhetoric, psychology, linguistics, economics, politics, meteorology, geology, and government. As the founder of the Peripatetic school of philosophy in the Lyceum in Athens, he began the wider Aristotelian tradition that followed, which set the groundwork for the development of modern science.

 Little is known about Aristotle's life. He was born in the city of Stagira in Northern Greece during the Classical period. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, and he was brought up by a guardian. At seventeen or eighteen years of age he joined Plato's Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven (c. 347 BC ). Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, tutored his son Alexander the Great beginning in 343 BC. He established a library in the Lyceum which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books on papyrus scrolls.

 Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues for publication, only around a third of his original output has survived, none of it intended for publication. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him. It was above all from his teachings that the West inherited its intellectual lexicon, as well as problems and methods of inquiry. As a result, his philosophy has exerted a unique influence on almost every form of knowledge in the West and it continues to be a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion.

 Aristotle's views profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. The influence of physical science extended from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, and were not replaced systematically until the Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics were developed. Some of Aristotle's zoological observations found in his biology, such as on the hectocotyl (reproductive) arm of the octopus, were disbelieved until the 19th century. He also influenced Judeo-Islamic philosophies during the Middle Ages, as well as Christian theology, especially the Neoplatonism of the Early Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as "The First Teacher", and among medieval Christians like Thomas Aquinas as simply "The Philosopher", while the poet Dante called him "the master of those who know". His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, and were studied by medieval scholars such as Peter Abelard and John Buridan. Aristotle's influence on logic continued well into the 19th century. In addition, his ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics.

 Life

 In general, the details of Aristotle's life are not well-established. The biographies written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points.[A]

 Aristotle was born in 384 BC[B] in Stagira, Chalcidice,[2] about 55 km (34 miles) east of modern-day Thessaloniki.[3][4] His father, Nicomachus, was the personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. While he was young, Aristotle learned about biology and medical information, which was taught by his father.[5] Both of Aristotle's parents died when he was about thirteen, and Proxenus of Atarneus became his guardian.[6] Although little information about Aristotle's childhood has survived, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy.[7]

 School of Aristotle in Mieza, Macedonia, Greece

 At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Plato's Academy.[8] He probably experienced the Eleusinian Mysteries as he wrote when describing the sights one viewed at the Eleusinian Mysteries, "to experience is to learn" [παθείν μαθεĩν].[9] Aristotle remained in Athens for nearly twenty years before leaving in 348/47 BC. The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the Academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew Speusippus, although it is possible that he feared the anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens at that time and left before Plato died.[10] Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor. After the death of Hermias, Aristotle travelled with his pupil Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island and its sheltered lagoon. While in Lesbos, Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermias's adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. In 343 BC, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander.[11][12]

 Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During Aristotle's time in the Macedonian court, he gave lessons not only to Alexander but also to two other future kings: Ptolemy and Cassander.[13] Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and Aristotle's own attitude towards Persia was unabashedly ethnocentric. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants".[13] By 335 BC, Aristotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the Lyceum. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stagira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, Nicomachus. If the Suda – an uncritical compilation from the Middle Ages – is accurate, he may also have had an erômenos, Palaephatus of Abydus.[14]

 Portrait bust of Aristotle; an Imperial Roman (1st or 2nd century AD) copy of a lost bronze sculpture made by Lysippos

 This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works.[12] He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, On the Soul and Poetics. Aristotle studied and made significant contributions to "logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance, and theatre."[15]

 Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander's relationship with Persia and Persians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an unlikely claim made some six years after the death.[16] Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322 BC, Demophilus and Eurymedon the Hierophant reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety,[17] prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in Chalcis, on Euboea, at which occasion he was said to have stated: "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy"[18][19][20] – a reference to Athens's trial and execution of Socrates. He died in Chalcis, Euboea[2][21][15] of natural causes later that same year, having named his student Antipater as his chief executor and leaving a will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.[22]

 Theoretical philosophy

 Logic

 Main article: Term logic
 Further information: Non-Aristotelian logic

 With the Prior Analytics, Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic,[23] and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th-century advances in mathematical logic.[24] Kant stated in the Critique of Pure Reason that with Aristotle logic reached its completion.[25]

 Organon

 Main article: Organon
 One of Aristotle's types of syllogism[C]
 In words In In equations[E]
 terms[D] 
 All men are mortal. M a P 
  
 All Greeks are men. S a M 
  
 ∴ All Greeks are mortal. S a P 
 

 What is today called Aristotelian logic with its types of syllogism (methods of logical argument),[26] Aristotle himself would have labelled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean dialectics. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into a set of six books called the Organon around 40 BC by Andronicus of Rhodes or others among his followers.[28] The books are:

 1. Categories
 2. On Interpretation
 3. Prior Analytics
 4. Posterior Analytics
 5. Topics
 6. On Sophistical Refutations
 Plato (left) and Aristotle in Raphael's 1509 fresco, The School of Athens. Aristotle holds his Nicomachean Ethics and gestures to the earth, representing his view in immanent realism, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, indicating his Theory of Forms, and holds his Timaeus.[29][30]

 The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the Categories, the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in On Interpretation, to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the Analytics)[31][32] and dialectics (in the Topics and Sophistical Refutations). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory stricto sensu: the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. The Rhetoric is not conventionally included, but it states that it relies on the Topics.[33]

 Metaphysics

 Main article: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

 The word "metaphysics" appears to have been coined by the first century AD editor who assembled various small selections of Aristotle's works to the treatise we know by the name Metaphysics.[34] Aristotle called it "first philosophy", and distinguished it from mathematics and natural science (physics) as the contemplative (theoretikē) philosophy which is "theological" and studies the divine. He wrote in his Metaphysics (1026a16):

 if there were no other independent things besides the composite natural ones, the study of nature would be the primary kind of knowledge; but if there is some motionless independent thing, the knowledge of this precedes it and is first philosophy, and it is universal in just this way, because it is first. And it belongs to this sort of philosophy to study being as being, both what it is and what belongs to it just by virtue of being.[35]

 Substance

 Further information: Hylomorphism

 Aristotle examines the concepts of substance (ousia) and essence (to ti ên einai, "the what it was to be") in his Metaphysics (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form, a philosophical theory called hylomorphism. In Book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the substratum, or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers, etc., or whatever constitutes the potential house, while the form of the substance is the actual house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other differentia that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.[36][34]

 Immanent realism

 Main article: Aristotle's theory of universals
 Plato's forms exist as universals, like the ideal form of an apple. For Aristotle, both matter and form belong to the individual thing (hylomorphism).

 Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the universal. Aristotle's ontology places the universal (katholou) in particulars (kath' hekaston), things in the world, whereas for Plato the universal is a separately existing form which actual things imitate. For Aristotle, "form" is still what phenomena are based on, but is "instantiated" in a particular substance.[34]

 Plato argued that all things have a universal form, which could be either a property or a relation to other things. When one looks at an apple, for example, one sees an apple, and one can also analyse a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, one can place an apple next to a book, so that one can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other. Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but "good" is still a proper universal form. Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated at some period of time, and that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. Where Plato spoke of the forms as existing separately from the things that participate in them, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms.[34][37]

 Potentiality and actuality

 Concerning the nature of change (kinesis) and its causes, as he outlines in his Physics and On Generation and Corruption (319b–320a), he distinguishes coming-to-be (genesis, also translated as 'generation') from:

 1. growth and diminution, which is change in quantity;
 2. locomotion, which is change in space; and
 3. alteration, which is change in quality.
 Aristotle argued that a capability like playing the flute could be acquired – the potential made actual – by learning.

 Coming-to-be is a change where the substrate of the thing that has undergone the change has itself changed. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality (dynamis) and actuality (entelecheia) in association with the matter and the form. Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing or being acted upon if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something else. For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (dynamei) a plant, and if it is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' (poiein) or 'be acted upon' (paschein), which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate – being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise – acting). Actuality is the fulfilment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end (telos) is the principle of every change, and potentiality exists for the sake of the end, actuality, accordingly, is the end. Referring then to the previous example, it can be said that an actuality is when a plant does one of the activities that plants do.[34]

 For that for the sake of which (to hou heneka) a thing is, is its principle, and the becoming is for the sake of the end; and the actuality is the end, and it is for the sake of this that the potentiality is acquired. For animals do not see in order that they may have sight, but they have sight that they may see.[38]

 In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a final cause or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality. With this definition of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, for example, "what is it that makes a man one"? Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same.[34][39]

 Epistemology

 Aristotle's immanent realism means his epistemology is based on the study of things that exist or happen in the world, and rises to knowledge of the universal, whereas for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal Forms (or ideas) and descends to knowledge of particular imitations of these.[33] Aristotle uses induction from examples alongside deduction, whereas Plato relies on deduction from a priori principles.[33]

 Natural philosophy

 Aristotle's "natural philosophy" spans a wide range of natural phenomena including those now covered by physics, biology and other natural sciences.[40] In Aristotle's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. Aristotle's work encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. Aristotle makes philosophy in the broad sense coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as "science". However, his use of the term science carries a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method". For Aristotle, "all science (dianoia) is either practical, poetical or theoretical" (Metaphysics 1025b25). His practical science includes ethics and politics; his poetical science means the study of fine arts including poetry; his theoretical science covers physics, mathematics and metaphysics.[40]

 Physics

 The four classical elements (fire, air, water, earth) of Empedocles and Aristotle illustrated with a burning log. The log releases all four elements as it is destroyed.
 Main article: Aristotelian physics

 Five elements

 Main article: Classical element

 In his On Generation and Corruption, Aristotle related each of the four elements proposed earlier by Empedocles, earth, water, air, and fire, to two of the four sensible qualities, hot, cold, wet, and dry. In the Empedoclean scheme, all matter was made of the four elements, in differing proportions. Aristotle's scheme added the heavenly aether, the divine substance of the heavenly spheres, stars and planets.[41]

 Aristotle's elements[41]
 Element Hot / Cold Wet / Dry Motion Modern state
 of matter 
 Earth Cold Dry Down Solid 
 Water Cold Wet Down Liquid 
 Air Hot Wet Up Gas 
 Fire Hot Dry Up Plasma 
 Aether (divine — Circular — 
 substance) (in heavens) 
 

 Motion

 Further information: History of classical mechanics

 Aristotle describes two kinds of motion: "violent" or "unnatural motion", such as that of a thrown stone, in the Physics (254b10), and "natural motion", such as of a falling object, in On the Heavens (300a20). In violent motion, as soon as the agent stops causing it, the motion stops also: in other words, the natural state of an object is to be at rest,[42][F] since Aristotle does not address friction.[43] With this understanding, it can be observed that, as Aristotle stated, heavy objects (on the ground, say) require more force to make them move; and objects pushed with greater force move faster.[44][G] This would imply the equation[44]

 ,

 incorrect in modern physics.[44]

 Natural motion depends on the element concerned: the aether naturally moves in a circle around the heavens,[H] while the 4 Empedoclean elements move vertically up (like fire, as is observed) or down (like earth) towards their natural resting places.[45][43][I]

 Aristotle's laws of motion. In Physics he states that objects fall at a speed proportional to their weight and inversely proportional to the density of the fluid they are immersed in.[43] This is a correct approximation for objects in Earth's gravitational field moving in air or water.[45]

 In the Physics (215a25), Aristotle effectively states a quantitative law, that the speed, v, of a falling body is proportional (say, with constant c) to its weight, W, and inversely proportional to the density,[J] ρ, of the fluid in which it is falling:;[45][43]

 Aristotle implies that in a vacuum the speed of fall would become infinite, and concludes from this apparent absurdity that a vacuum is not possible.[45][43] Opinions have varied on whether Aristotle intended to state quantitative laws. Henri Carteron held the "extreme view"[43] that Aristotle's concept of force was basically qualitative,[46] but other authors reject this.[43]

 Archimedes corrected Aristotle's theory that bodies move towards their natural resting places; metal boats can float if they displace enough water; floating depends in Archimedes' scheme on the mass and volume of the object, not, as Aristotle thought, its elementary composition.[45]

 Aristotle's writings on motion remained influential until the Early Modern period. John Philoponus (in the Middle Ages) and Galileo are said to have shown by experiment that Aristotle's claim that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect.[40] A contrary opinion is given by Carlo Rovelli, who argues that Aristotle's physics of motion is correct within its domain of validity, that of objects in the Earth's gravitational field immersed in a fluid such as air. In this system, heavy bodies in steady fall indeed travel faster than light ones (whether friction is ignored, or not[45]), and they do fall more slowly in a denser medium.[44][K]

 Newton's "forced" motion corresponds to Aristotle's "violent" motion with its external agent, but Aristotle's assumption that the agent's effect stops immediately it stops acting (e.g., the ball leaves the thrower's hand) has awkward consequences: he has to suppose that surrounding fluid helps to push the ball along to make it continue to rise even though the hand is no longer acting on it, resulting in the Medieval theory of impetus.[45]

 Four causes

 Main article: Four causes
 Aristotle argued by analogy with woodwork that a thing takes its form from four causes: in the case of a table, the wood used (material cause), its design (formal cause), the tools and techniques used (efficient cause), and its decorative or practical purpose (final cause).[47]

 Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active factors. His term aitia is traditionally translated as "cause", but it does not always refer to temporal sequence; it might be better translated as "explanation", but the traditional rendering will be employed here.[48][49]

 * Material cause describes the material out of which something is composed. Thus the material cause of a table is wood. It is not about action. It does not mean that one domino knocks over another domino.[48]
 * The formal cause is its form, i.e., the arrangement of that matter. It tells one what a thing is, that a thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part causation. Plainly put, the formal cause is the idea in the mind of the sculptor that brings the sculpture into being. A simple example of the formal cause is the mental image or idea that allows an artist, architect, or engineer to create a drawing.[48]
 * The efficient cause is "the primary source", or that from which the change under consideration proceeds. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, non-living or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. In the case of two dominoes, when the first is knocked over it causes the second also to fall over.[48] In the case of animals, this agency is a combination of how it develops from the egg, and how its body functions.[50]
 * The final cause (telos) is its purpose, the reason why a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause is the purpose or function that something is supposed to serve. This covers modern ideas of motivating causes, such as volition.[48] In the case of living things, it implies adaptation to a particular way of life.[50]

 Optics

 Further information: History of optics

 Aristotle describes experiments in optics using a camera obscura in Problems, book 15. The apparatus consisted of a dark chamber with a small aperture that let light in. With it, he saw that whatever shape he made the hole, the sun's image always remained circular. He also noted that increasing the distance between the aperture and the image surface magnified the image.[51]

 Chance and spontaneity

 Further information: Accident (philosophy)

 According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause such as simple necessity. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things, "from what is spontaneous". There is also more a specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names "luck", that only applies to people's moral choices.[52][53]

 Astronomy

 Further information: History of astronomy

 In astronomy, Aristotle refuted Democritus's claim that the Milky Way was made up of "those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays," pointing out correctly that if "the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them."[54]

 Geology and natural sciences

 Further information: History of geology
 Aristotle noted that the ground level of the Aeolian islands changed before a volcanic eruption.

 Aristotle was one of the first people to record any geological observations. He stated that geological change was too slow to be observed in one person's lifetime.[55][56] The geologist Charles Lyell noted that Aristotle described such change, including "lakes that had dried up" and "deserts that had become watered by rivers", giving as examples the growth of the Nile delta since the time of Homer, and "the upheaving of one of the Aeolian islands, previous to a volcanic eruption."'[57] Aristotle also made many observations about the hydrologic cycle and meteorology (including his major writings "Meteorologica"). For example, he made some of the earliest observations about desalination: he observed early – and correctly – that when seawater is heated, freshwater evaporates and that the oceans are then replenished by the cycle of rainfall and river runoff ("I have proved by experiment that salt water evaporated forms fresh and the vapor does not when it condenses condense into sea water again.")[58]

 Biology

 Main article: Aristotle's biology
 Among many pioneering zoological observations, Aristotle described the reproductive hectocotyl arm of the octopus (bottom left).

 Empirical research

 Aristotle was the first person to study biology systematically,[59] and biology forms a large part of his writings. He spent two years observing and describing the zoology of Lesbos and the surrounding seas, including in particular the Pyrrha lagoon in the centre of Lesbos.[60][61] His data in History of Animals, Generation of Animals, Movement of Animals, and Parts of Animals are assembled from his own observations,[62] statements given by people with specialized knowledge such as beekeepers and fishermen, and less accurate accounts provided by travellers from overseas.[63] His apparent emphasis on animals rather than plants is a historical accident: his works on botany have been lost, but two books on plants by his pupil Theophrastus have survived.[64]

 Aristotle reports on the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and the catches of fishermen. He describes the catfish, electric ray, and frogfish in detail, as well as cephalopods such as the octopus and paper nautilus. His description of the hectocotyl arm of cephalopods, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until the 19th century.[65] He gives accurate descriptions of the four-chambered fore-stomachs of ruminants,[66] and of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the hound shark.[67]

 He notes that an animal's structure is well matched to function, so, among birds, the heron, which lives in marshes with soft mud and lives by catching fish, has a long neck and long legs, and a sharp spear-like beak, whereas ducks that swim have short legs and webbed feet.[68] Darwin, too, noted these sorts of differences between similar kinds of animal, but unlike Aristotle used the data to come to the theory of evolution.[69] Aristotle's writings can seem to modern readers close to implying evolution, but while Aristotle was aware that new mutations or hybridizations could occur, he saw these as rare accidents. For Aristotle, accidents, like heat waves in winter, must be considered distinct from natural causes. He was thus critical of Empedocles's materialist theory of a "survival of the fittest" origin of living things and their organs, and ridiculed the idea that accidents could lead to orderly results.[70] To put his views into modern terms, he nowhere says that different species can have a common ancestor, or that one kind can change into another, or that kinds can become extinct.[71]

 Scientific style

 Aristotle inferred growth laws from his observations on animals, including that brood size decreases with body mass, whereas gestation period increases. He was correct in these predictions, at least for mammals: data are shown for mouse and elephant.

 Aristotle did not do experiments in the modern sense.[72] He used the ancient Greek term pepeiramenoi to mean observations, or at most investigative procedures like dissection.[73] In Generation of Animals, he finds a fertilized hen's egg of a suitable stage and opens it to see the embryo's heart beating inside.[74][75]

 Instead, he practiced a different style of science: systematically gathering data, discovering patterns common to whole groups of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these.;[76][77] This style is common in modern biology when large amounts of data become available in a new field, such as genomics. It does not result in the same certainty as experimental science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed. In this sense, Aristotle's biology is scientific.[76]

 From the data he collected and documented, Aristotle inferred quite a number of rules relating the life-history features of the live-bearing tetrapods (terrestrial placental mammals) that he studied. Among these correct predictions are the following. Brood size decreases with (adult) body mass, so that an elephant has fewer young (usually just one) per brood than a mouse. Lifespan increases with gestation period, and also with body mass, so that elephants live longer than mice, have a longer period of gestation, and are heavier. As a final example, fecundity decreases with lifespan, so long-lived kinds like elephants have fewer young in total than short-lived kinds like mice.[78]

 Classification of living things

 Further information: Scala naturae
 Aristotle recorded that the embryo of a dogfish was attached by a cord to a kind of placenta (the yolk sac), like a higher animal; this formed an exception to the linear scale from highest to lowest.[79]

 Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of animals,[80][81] arranging these in the History of Animals in a graded scale of perfection, a nonreligious version of the scala naturae, with man at the top. His system had eleven grades of animal, from highest potential to lowest, expressed in their form at birth: the highest gave live birth to hot and wet creatures, the lowest laid cold, dry mineral-like eggs. Animals came above plants, and these in turn were above minerals.[82][83] He grouped what the modern zoologist would call vertebrates as the hotter "animals with blood", and below them the colder invertebrates as "animals without blood". Those with blood were divided into the live-bearing (mammals), and the egg-laying (birds, reptiles, fish). Those without blood were insects, crustacea (non-shelled – cephalopods, and shelled) and the hard-shelled molluscs (bivalves and gastropods). He recognised that animals did not exactly fit into a linear scale, and noted various exceptions, such as that sharks had a placenta like the tetrapods. To a modern biologist, the explanation, not available to Aristotle, is convergent evolution.[84] Philosophers of science have generally concluded that Aristotle was not interested in taxonomy,[85][86] but zoologists who studied this question recently think otherwise.[87][88][89] He believed that purposive final causes guided all natural processes; this teleological view justified his observed data as an expression of formal design.[90]

 Aristotle's Scala naturae (highest to lowest)
  Souls Qualities 
 Group Examples Blood Legs (Rational, ( Hot – Cold , 
 (given by Aristotle) Sensitive, Wet – Dry ) 
  Vegetative) 
 Man Man with blood 2 legs R, S, V Hot , Wet 
 Live-bearing tetrapods Cat, hare with blood 4 legs S, V Hot , Wet 
 Cetaceans Dolphin, whale with blood none S, V Hot , Wet 
 Birds Bee-eater, nightjar with blood 2 legs S, V Hot , Wet , except Dry eggs 
 Egg-laying tetrapods Chameleon, crocodile with blood 4 legs S, V Cold , Wet except scales, eggs 
 Snakes Water snake, Ottoman viper with blood none S, V Cold , Wet except scales, eggs 
 Egg-laying fishes Sea bass, parrotfish with blood none S, V Cold , Wet , including eggs 
 (Among the egg-laying fishes): Shark, skate with blood none S, V Cold , Wet , but placenta like tetrapods
 placental selachians  
 Crustaceans Shrimp, crab without many legs S, V Cold , Wet except shell 
 Cephalopods Squid, octopus without tentacles S, V Cold , Wet 
 Hard-shelled animals Cockle, trumpet snail without none S, V Cold , Dry (mineral shell) 
 Larva-bearing insects Ant, cicada without 6 legs S, V Cold , Dry 
 Spontaneously generating Sponges, worms without none S, V Cold , Wet or Dry , from earth 
 Plants Fig without none V Cold , Dry 
 Minerals Iron without none none Cold , Dry 
 

 Psychology

 Soul

 Further information: On the Soul
 Aristotle proposed a three-part structure for souls of plants, animals, and humans, making humans unique in having all three types of soul.

 Aristotle's psychology, given in his treatise On the Soul (peri psychēs), posits three kinds of soul ("psyches"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have a rational soul. The human soul incorporates the powers of the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul it can grow and nourish itself; like the sensitive soul it can experience sensations and move locally. The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and to compare them using the nous (intellect) and logos (reason).[91]

 For Aristotle, the soul is the form of a living being. Because all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement).[11] In contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, he placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain.[92] Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally differed from the concepts of previous philosophers, with the exception of Alcmaeon.[93]

 In On the Soul, Aristotle famously criticizes Plato's theory of the soul and develops his own in response to Plato's. The first criticism is against Plato's view of the soul in the Timaeus that the soul takes up space and is able to come into physical contact with bodies.[94] 20th-century scholarship overwhelmingly opposed Aristotle's interpretation of Plato and maintained that he had misunderstood Plato.[95] Today's scholars have tended to re-assess Aristotle's interpretation and have warmed up to it.[96] Aristotle's other criticism is that Plato's view of reincarnation entails that it is possible for a soul and its body to be mis-matched; in principle, Aristotle alleges, any soul can go with any body, according to Plato's theory.[97] Aristotle's claim that the soul is the form of a living being is meant to eliminate that possibility and thus rule out reincarnation.[98]

 Memory

 According to Aristotle in On the Soul, memory is the ability to hold a perceived experience in the mind and to distinguish between the internal "appearance" and an occurrence in the past.[99] In other words, a memory is a mental picture (phantasm) that can be recovered. Aristotle believed an impression is left on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when stimuli such as sights or sounds are so complex that the nervous system cannot receive all the impressions at once. These changes are the same as those involved in the operations of sensation, Aristotelian ' common sense ' , and thinking.[100][101]

 Aristotle uses the term 'memory' for the actual retaining of an experience in the impression that can develop from sensation, and for the intellectual anxiety that comes with the impression because it is formed at a particular time and processing specific contents. Memory is of the past, prediction is of the future, and sensation is of the present. Retrieval of impressions cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is needed and located in past experiences, both for previous experience and present experience.[102]

 Because Aristotle believes people receive all kinds of sense perceptions and perceive them as impressions, people are continually weaving together new impressions of experiences. To search for these impressions, people search the memory itself.[103] Within the memory, if one experience is offered instead of a specific memory, that person will reject this experience until they find what they are looking for. Recollection occurs when one retrieved experience naturally follows another. If the chain of "images" is needed, one memory will stimulate the next. When people recall experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences until they reach the one that is needed.[104] Recollection is thus the self-directed activity of retrieving the information stored in a memory impression.[105] Only humans can remember impressions of intellectual activity, such as numbers and words. Animals that have perception of time can retrieve memories of their past observations. Remembering involves only perception of the things remembered and of the time passed.[106]

 Senses, perception, memory, dreams, action in Aristotle's psychology. Impressions are stored in the sensorium (the heart), linked by his laws of association (similarity, contrast, and contiguity).

 Aristotle believed the chain of thought, which ends in recollection of certain impressions, was connected systematically in relationships such as similarity, contrast, and contiguity, described in his laws of association. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within the mind. A force operates to awaken the hidden material to bring up the actual experience. According to Aristotle, association is the power innate in a mental state, which operates upon the unexpressed remains of former experiences, allowing them to rise and be recalled.[107][108]

 Dreams

 Further information: Dream § Other

 Aristotle describes sleep in On Sleep and Wakefulness.[109] Sleep takes place as a result of overuse of the senses[110] or of digestion,[111] so it is vital to the body.[110] While a person is asleep, the critical activities, which include thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, do not function as they do during wakefulness. Since a person cannot sense during sleep they cannot have desire, which is the result of sensation. However, the senses are able to work during sleep,[112] albeit differently,[109] unless they are weary.[110]

 Dreams do not involve actually sensing a stimulus. In dreams, sensation is still involved, but in an altered manner.[110] Aristotle explains that when a person stares at a moving stimulus such as the waves in a body of water, and then looks away, the next thing they look at appears to have a wavelike motion. When a person perceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focus of their attention, it leaves an impression.[109] When the body is awake and the senses are functioning properly, a person constantly encounters new stimuli to sense and so the impressions of previously perceived stimuli are ignored.[110] However, during sleep the impressions made throughout the day are noticed as there are no new distracting sensory experiences.[109] So, dreams result from these lasting impressions. Since impressions are all that are left and not the exact stimuli, dreams do not resemble the actual waking experience.[113] During sleep, a person is in an altered state of mind. Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who is overtaken by strong feelings toward a stimulus. For example, a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may begin to think they see that person everywhere because they are so overtaken by their feelings. Since a person sleeping is in a suggestible state and unable to make judgements, they become easily deceived by what appears in their dreams, like the infatuated person.[109] This leads the person to believe the dream is real, even when the dreams are absurd in nature.[109] In De Anima iii 3, Aristotle ascribes the ability to create, to store, and to recall images in the absence of perception to the faculty of imagination, phantasia.[11]

 One component of Aristotle's theory of dreams disagrees with previously held beliefs. He claimed that dreams are not foretelling and not sent by a divine being. Aristotle reasoned naturalistically that instances in which dreams do resemble future events are simply coincidences.[114] Aristotle claimed that a dream is first established by the fact that the person is asleep when they experience it. If a person had an image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they were awake when it occurred. Secondly, any sensory experience that is perceived while a person is asleep does not qualify as part of a dream. For example, if, while a person is sleeping, a door shuts and in their dream they hear a door is shut, this sensory experience is not part of the dream. Lastly, the images of dreams must be a result of lasting impressions of waking sensory experiences.[113]

 Practical philosophy

 Aristotle's practical philosophy covers areas such as ethics, politics, economics, and rhetoric.[40]

 Virtues and their accompanying vices[15]
 Too little Virtuous mean Too much 
 Humbleness High-mindedness Vainglory 
 Lack of purpose Right ambition Over-ambition 
 Spiritlessness Good temper Irascibility 
 Rudeness Civility Obsequiousness
 Cowardice Courage Rashness 
 Insensibility Self-control Intemperance 
 Sarcasm Sincerity Boastfulness 
 Boorishness Wit Buffoonery 
 Shamelessness Modesty Shyness 
 Callousness Just resentment Spitefulness 
 Pettiness Generosity Vulgarity 
 Meanness Liberality Wastefulness 
 

 Ethics

 Main article: Aristotelian ethics

 Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, most notably including the Nicomachean Ethics.[115]

 Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (ergon) of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the psuchē (soul) in accordance with reason (logos). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity (the virtuous mean, between the accompanying vices of excess or deficiency[15]) of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, eudaimonia, generally translated as "happiness" or sometimes "well-being". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (ēthikē aretē), often translated as moral or ethical virtue or excellence.[116]

 Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom (phronesis) and their intellect (nous) can develop with each other towards the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom of an accomplished theoretical or speculative thinker, or in other words, a philosopher.[117]

 Politics

 Main article: Politics (Aristotle)

 In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled Politics. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family, which in turn is prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part".[118] He famously stated that "man is by nature a political animal" and argued that humanity's defining factor among others in the animal kingdom is its rationality.[119] Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner.[120]

 Aristotle's classifications of political constitutions

 The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city (polis) which functions as a political "community" or "partnership" (koinōnia). The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: "The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together." This is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with social contract theory, according to which individuals leave the state of nature because of "fear of violent death" or its "inconveniences".[L]

 In Protrepticus, the character 'Aristotle' states:[121]

 For we all agree that the most excellent man should rule, i.e., the supreme by nature, and that the law rules and alone is authoritative; but the law is a kind of intelligence, i.e. a discourse based on intelligence. And again, what standard do we have, what criterion of good things, that is more precise than the intelligent man? For all that this man will choose, if the choice is based on his knowledge, are good things and their contraries are bad. And since everybody chooses most of all what conforms to their own proper dispositions (a just man choosing to live justly, a man with bravery to live bravely, likewise a self-controlled man to live with self-control), it is clear that the intelligent man will choose most of all to be intelligent; for this is the function of that capacity. Hence it's evident that, according to the most authoritative judgment, intelligence is supreme among goods.[121]

 As Plato's disciple Aristotle was rather critical concerning democracy and, following the outline of certain ideas from Plato's Statesman, he developed a coherent theory of integrating various forms of power into a so-called mixed state:

 It is … constitutional to take … from oligarchy that offices are to be elected, and from democracy that this is not to be on a property-qualification. This then is the mode of the mixture; and the mark of a good mixture of democracy and oligarchy is when it is possible to speak of the same constitution as a democracy and as an oligarchy.

 — Aristotle. Politics, Book 4, 1294b.10–18

 To illustrate this approach, Aristotle proposed a first-of-its-kind mathematical model of voting, albeit textually described, where the democratic principle of "one voter–one vote" is combined with the oligarchic "merit-weighted voting"; for relevant quotes and their translation into mathematical formulas see.[122]

 Economics

 Main article: Politics (Aristotle)

 Aristotle made substantial contributions to economic thought, especially to thought in the Middle Ages.[123] In Politics, Aristotle addresses the city, property, and trade. His response to criticisms of private property, in Lionel Robbins's view, anticipated later proponents of private property among philosophers and economists, as it related to the overall utility of social arrangements.[123] Aristotle believed that although communal arrangements may seem beneficial to society, and that although private property is often blamed for social strife, such evils in fact come from human nature. In Politics, Aristotle offers one of the earliest accounts of the origin of money.[123] Money came into use because people became dependent on one another, importing what they needed and exporting the surplus. For the sake of convenience, people then agreed to deal in something that is intrinsically useful and easily applicable, such as iron or silver.[124]

 Aristotle's discussions on retail and interest was a major influence on economic thought in the Middle Ages. He had a low opinion of retail, believing that contrary to using money to procure things one needs in managing the household, retail trade seeks to make a profit. It thus uses goods as a means to an end, rather than as an end unto itself. He believed that retail trade was in this way unnatural. Similarly, Aristotle considered making a profit through interest unnatural, as it makes a gain out of the money itself, and not from its use.[124]

 Aristotle gave a summary of the function of money that was perhaps remarkably precocious for his time. He wrote that because it is impossible to determine the value of every good through a count of the number of other goods it is worth, the necessity arises of a single universal standard of measurement. Money thus allows for the association of different goods and makes them "commensurable".[124] He goes on to state that money is also useful for future exchange, making it a sort of security. That is, "if we do not want a thing now, we shall be able to get it when we do want it".[124]

 Rhetoric and poetics

 Main articles: Rhetoric (Aristotle) and Poetics (Aristotle)
 The Blind Oedipus Commending his Children to the Gods (1784) by Bénigne Gagneraux. In his Poetics, Aristotle uses the tragedy Oedipus Tyrannus by Sophocles as an example of how the perfect tragedy should be structured, with a generally good protagonist who starts the play prosperous, but loses everything through some hamartia (fault).[125]

 Aristotle's Rhetoric proposes that a speaker can use three basic kinds of appeals to persuade his audience: ethos (an appeal to the speaker's character), pathos (an appeal to the audience's emotion), and logos (an appeal to logical reasoning).[126] He also categorizes rhetoric into three genres: epideictic (ceremonial speeches dealing with praise or blame), forensic (judicial speeches over guilt or innocence), and deliberative (speeches calling on an audience to make a decision on an issue).[127] Aristotle also outlines two kinds of rhetorical proofs: enthymeme (proof by syllogism) and paradeigma (proof by example).[128]

 Aristotle writes in his Poetics that epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry, painting, sculpture, music, and dance are all fundamentally acts of mimesis ("imitation"), each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner.[129][130] He applies the term mimesis both as a property of a work of art and also as the product of the artist's intention[129] and contends that the audience's realisation of the mimesis is vital to understanding the work itself.[129] Aristotle states that mimesis is a natural instinct of humanity that separates humans from animals[129][131] and that all human artistry "follows the pattern of nature".[129] Because of this, Aristotle believed that each of the mimetic arts possesses what Stephen Halliwell calls "highly structured procedures for the achievement of their purposes."[132] For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.[133]

 While it is believed that Aristotle's Poetics originally comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry.[134] The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the catharsis of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes Poetics with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic.[135] Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the Delphic Oracle and studied the fables of Aesop.[136]

 Views on women

 Main article: Aristotle's views on women
 Further information: Aristotle's biology § Inheritance

 Aristotle's analysis of procreation describes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element. The biological differences are a result of the fact that the female body is well-suited for reproduction, which changes her body temperature, which in turn makes her, in Aristotle's view, incapable of participating in political life.[137] On this ground, proponents of feminist metaphysics have accused Aristotle of misogyny[138] and sexism.[139] However, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his Rhetoric that the things that lead to happiness need to be in women as well as men.[M]

 Influence

 Further information: List of writers influenced by Aristotle

 More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived.[141][142][143] He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge then in existence, and he was the founder of many new fields. According to the philosopher Bryan Magee, "it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did".[144] Among countless other achievements, Aristotle was the founder of formal logic,[145] pioneered the study of zoology, and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method.[2][146][147] Taneli Kukkonen, writing in The Classical Tradition, observes that his achievement in founding two sciences is unmatched, and his reach in influencing "every branch of intellectual enterprise" including Western ethical and political theory, theology, rhetoric and literary analysis is equally long. As a result, Kukkonen argues, any analysis of reality today "will almost certainly carry Aristotelian overtones ... evidence of an exceptionally forceful mind."[147] Jonathan Barnes wrote that "an account of Aristotle's intellectual afterlife would be little less than a history of European thought".[148]Aristotle has been called the father of logic, biology, political science, zoology, embryology, natural law, scientific method, rhetoric, psychology, realism, criticism, individualism, teleology, and meteorology.[150]

 On his successor, Theophrastus

 Main articles: Theophrastus and Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)
 Frontispiece to a 1644 version of Theophrastus's Historia Plantarum, originally written around 300 BC

 Aristotle's pupil and successor, Theophrastus, wrote the History of Plants, a pioneering work in botany. Some of his technical terms remain in use, such as carpel from carpos, fruit, and pericarp, from pericarpion, seed chamber.[151] Theophrastus was much less concerned with formal causes than Aristotle was, instead pragmatically describing how plants functioned.[152][153]

 On later Greek philosophers

 Further information: Peripatetic school

 The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the Peripatetic school. Aristotle's students included Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Mnason of Phocis, Nicomachus, and Theophrastus. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?"[154]

 On Hellenistic science

 Further information: Ancient Greek medicine

 After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly.[155] It is not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology can be again found.

 The first medical teacher at Alexandria, Herophilus of Chalcedon, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse while the former do not.[156] Though a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, natural theology) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. Ernst Mayr states that there was "nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance."[157]

 On Byzantine scholars

 See also: Commentaries on Aristotle and Byzantine Aristotelianism

 Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek language manuscripts of the corpus. The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were Philoponus, Elias, and David in the sixth century, and Stephen of Alexandria in the early seventh century.[158] John Philoponus stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle's views on the eternity of the world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelian thought.[159] Philoponus questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, noting its flaws and introducing the theory of impetus to explain his observations.[160]

 After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and Michael of Ephesus reappeared in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by Anna Comnena.[161]

 On the medieval Islamic world

 Further information: Logic in Islamic philosophy and Transmission of the Greek Classics
 Islamic portrayal of Aristotle, c. 1220

 Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers in early Islamic theology. Most of the still extant works of Aristotle,[162] as well as a number of the original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by Muslim philosophers, scientists and scholars. Averroes, Avicenna and Alpharabius, who wrote on Aristotle in great depth, also influenced Thomas Aquinas and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. Alkindus greatly admired Aristotle's philosophy,[163] and Averroes spoke of Aristotle as the "exemplar" for all future philosophers.[164] Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as the "First Teacher".[162] The title was later used by Western philosophers (as in the famous poem of Dante) who were influenced by the tradition of Islamic philosophy.[165]

 On medieval Europe

 Woodcut of Aristotle ridden by Phyllis by Hans Baldung, 1515[166]
 Further information: Aristotelianism and Syllogism § Medieval

 With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early medieval Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from c. AD 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of the Organon made by Boethius. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by Gerard of Cremona,[167] and from the original Greek, such as those by James of Venice and William of Moerbeke. After the Scholastic Thomas Aquinas wrote his Summa Theologica, working from Moerbeke's translations and calling Aristotle "The Philosopher",[168] the demand for Aristotle's writings grew, and the Greek manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the Renaissance.[169] These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. Scholars such as Boethius, Peter Abelard, and John Buridan worked on Aristotelian logic.[170]

 The medieval English poet Chaucer describes his student as being happy by having

 at his beddes heed
 Twenty bookes, clad in blak or reed,
 Of aristotle and his philosophie,[171]

 A cautionary medieval tale held that Aristotle advised his pupil Alexander to avoid the king's seductive mistress, Phyllis, but was himself captivated by her, and allowed her to ride him. Phyllis had secretly told Alexander what to expect, and he witnessed Phyllis proving that a woman's charms could overcome even the greatest philosopher's male intellect. Artists such as Hans Baldung produced a series of illustrations of the popular theme.[172][166]

 The Italian poet Dante says of Aristotle in The Divine Comedy:

 Dante Translation 
 L'Inferno, Canto IV. 131–135 Hell 
 vidi 'l maestro di color che sanno I saw the Master there of those who know, 
 seder tra filosofica famiglia. Amid the philosophic family, 
 Tutti lo miran, tutti onor li fanno: By all admired, and by all reverenced; 
 quivi vid'ïo Socrate e Platone There Plato too I saw, and Socrates, 
 che 'nnanzi a li altri più presso li stanno; Who stood beside him closer than the rest.
  
 

 Besides Dante's fellow poets, the classical figure that most influenced the Comedy is Aristotle. Dante built up the philosophy of the Comedy with the works of Aristotle as a foundation, just as the scholastics used Aristotle as the basis for their thinking. Dante knew Aristotle directly from Latin translations of his works and indirectly through quotations in the works of Albert Magnus.[173] Dante even acknowledges Aristotle's influence explicitly in the poem, specifically when Virgil justifies the Inferno's structure by citing the Nicomachean Ethics.[174]

 On medieval Judaism

 Moses Maimonides (considered to be the foremost intellectual figure of medieval Judaism)[175] adopted Aristotelianism from the Islamic scholars and based his Guide for the Perplexed on it and that became the basis of Jewish scholastic philosophy. Maimonides also considered Aristotle to be the greatest philosopher that ever lived, and styled him as the "chief of the philosophers".[176][177][178] Also, in his letter to Samuel ibn Tibbon, Maimonides observes that there is no need for Samuel to study the writings of philosophers who preceded Aristotle because the works of the latter are "sufficient by themselves and [superior] to all that were written before them. His intellect, Aristotle's is the extreme limit of human intellect, apart from him upon whom the divine emanation has flowed forth to such an extent that they reach the level of prophecy, there being no level higher".[179]

 On Early Modern scientists

 William Harvey's De Motu Cordis, 1628, showed that the blood circulated, contrary to classical era thinking.

 In the Early Modern period, scientists such as William Harvey in England and Galileo Galilei in Italy reacted against the theories of Aristotle and other classical era thinkers like Galen, establishing new theories based to some degree on observation and experiment. Harvey demonstrated the circulation of the blood, establishing that the heart functioned as a pump rather than being the seat of the soul and the controller of the body's heat, as Aristotle thought.[180] Galileo used more doubtful arguments to displace Aristotle's physics, proposing that bodies all fall at the same speed whatever their weight.[181]

 On 18th/19th-century thinkers

 The 19th-century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle.[182] Aristotle rigidly separated action from production, and argued for the deserved subservience of some people ("natural slaves"),[183] and the natural superiority (virtue, arete) of others. It was Martin Heidegger, not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition.[184]

 The English mathematician George Boole fully accepted Aristotle's logic, but decided "to go under, over, and beyond" it with his system of algebraic logic in his 1854 book The Laws of Thought. This gives logic a mathematical foundation with equations, enables it to solve equations as well as check validity, and allows it to handle a wider class of problems by expanding propositions of any number of terms, not just two.[185]

 Charles Darwin regarded Aristotle as the most important contributor to the subject of biology. In an 1882 letter he wrote that "Linnaeus and Cuvier have been my two gods, though in very different ways, but they were mere schoolboys to old Aristotle".[186][187] Also, in later editions of the book "On the Origin of Species', Darwin traced evolutionary ideas as far back as Aristotle;[188] the text he cites is a summary by Aristotle of the ideas of the earlier Greek philosopher Empedocles.[189]

 James Joyce's favoured philosopher was Aristotle, whom he considered to be "the greatest thinker of all times".[190] Samuel Taylor Coleridge said: Everybody is born either a Platonist or an Aristotelian.[191] Ayn Rand acknowledged Aristotle as her greatest influence[192] and remarked that in the history of philosophy she could only recommend "three A's"—Aristotle, Aquinas, and Ayn Rand.[193] She also regarded Aristotle as the greatest of all philosophers.[194] Karl Marx considered Aristotle to be the "greatest thinker of antiquity", and called him a "giant thinker", a "genius", and "the great scholar".[195][196][197]

 Modern rejection and rehabilitation

 "That most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander".[147] Illustration by Charles Laplante [ fr ] , 1866

 During the 20th century, Aristotle's work was widely criticized. The philosopher Bertrand Russell argued that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell called Aristotle's ethics "repulsive", and labelled his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell stated that these errors made it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembered what an advance he made upon all of his predecessors.[12]

 The Dutch historian of science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis wrote that Aristotle and his predecessors showed the difficulty of science by "proceed[ing] so readily to frame a theory of such a general character" on limited evidence from their senses.[198] In 1985, the biologist Peter Medawar could still state in "pure seventeenth century"[199] tones that Aristotle had assembled "a strange and generally speaking rather tiresome farrago of hearsay, imperfect observation, wishful thinking and credulity amounting to downright gullibility".[199][200]

 By the start of the 21st century, however, Aristotle was taken more seriously: Kukkonen noted that "In the best 20th-century scholarship Aristotle comes alive as a thinker wrestling with the full weight of the Greek philosophical tradition."[147] Alasdair MacIntyre has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans.[201] Kukkonen observed, too, that "that most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander" remained current, as in the 2004 film Alexander, while the "firm rules" of Aristotle's theory of drama have ensured a role for the Poetics in Hollywood.[147]

 Biologists continue to be interested in Aristotle's thinking. Armand Marie Leroi has reconstructed Aristotle's biology,[202] while Niko Tinbergen's four questions, based on Aristotle's four causes, are used to analyse animal behaviour; they examine function, phylogeny, mechanism, and ontogeny.[203][204]

 Surviving works

 Corpus Aristotelicum

 Main article: Corpus Aristotelicum
 First page of a 1566 edition of the Nicomachean Ethics in Greek and Latin

 The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school.[205] Reference to them is made according to the organization of Immanuel Bekker's Royal Prussian Academy edition (Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica, Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works.[206]

 Loss and preservation

 Further information: Recovery of Aristotle

 Aristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls, the common writing medium of that era.[N] His writings are divisible into two groups: the "exoteric", intended for the public, and the "esoteric", for use within the Lyceum school.[208][O][209] Aristotle's "lost" works stray considerably in characterization from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with a view to subsequent publication, the surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes not intended for publication.[210][208] Cicero's description of Aristotle's literary style as "a river of gold" must have applied to the published works, not the surviving notes.[P] A major question in the history of Aristotle's works is how the exoteric writings were all lost, and how the ones now possessed came to be found.[212] The consensus is that Andronicus of Rhodes collected the esoteric works of Aristotle's school which existed in the form of smaller, separate works, distinguished them from those of Theophrastus and other Peripatetics, edited them, and finally compiled them into the more cohesive, larger works as they are known today.[213][214]

 Legacy

 Depictions

 Paintings

 Aristotle has been depicted by major artists including Lucas Cranach the Elder,[215] Justus van Gent, Raphael, Paolo Veronese, Jusepe de Ribera,[216] Rembrandt,[217] and Francesco Hayez over the centuries. Among the best-known depictions is Raphael's fresco The School of Athens, in the Vatican's Apostolic Palace, where the figures of Plato and Aristotle are central to the image, at the architectural vanishing point, reflecting their importance.[218] Rembrandt's Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, too, is a celebrated work, showing the knowing philosopher and the blind Homer from an earlier age: as the art critic Jonathan Jones writes, "this painting will remain one of the greatest and most mysterious in the world, ensnaring us in its musty, glowing, pitch-black, terrible knowledge of time."[219][220]

 * Nuremberg Chronicle anachronistically shows Aristotle in a medieval scholar's clothing. Ink and watercolour on paper, 1493

 * Aristotle by Justus van Gent. Oil on panel, c. 1476

 * Phyllis and Aristotle by Lucas Cranach the Elder. Oil on panel, 1530

 * Aristotle by Paolo Veronese, Biblioteka Marciana. Oil on canvas, 1560s

 * Aristotle and Campaspe,[Q] Alessandro Turchi (attrib.) Oil on canvas, 1713

 * Aristotle by Jusepe de Ribera. Oil on canvas, 1637

 * Aristotle with a Bust of Homer by Rembrandt. Oil on canvas, 1653

 * Aristotle by Johann Jakob Dorner the Elder. Oil on canvas, by 1813

 * Aristotle by Francesco Hayez. Oil on canvas, 1811

 Sculptures

 * Roman copy of 1st or 2nd century from original bronze by Lysippos. Louvre Museum

 * Roman copy of 117-138 AD of Greek original. Palermo Regional Archeology Museum

 * Relief of Aristotle and Plato by Luca della Robbia, Florence Cathedral, 1437–1439

 * Stone statue in niche, Gladstone's Library, Hawarden, Wales, 1899

 * Bronze statue, University of Freiburg, Germany, 1915

 Eponyms

 The Aristotle Mountains in Antarctica are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to conjecture, in his book Meteorology, the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region and called it Antarctica.[221] Aristoteles is a crater on the Moon bearing the classical form of Aristotle's name.[222]

 See also

 * Aristotelian Society
 * Conimbricenses
 * Perfectionism

 References

 Notes

 1. ^ See Shields 2012 , pp. 3–16; Düring 1957 covers ancient biographies of Aristotle.
 2. ^ That these dates (the first half of the Olympiad year 384/383 BC, and in 322 shortly before the death of Demosthenes) are correct was shown by August Boeckh ( Kleine Schriften VI 195); for further discussion, see Felix Jacoby on FGrHist 244 F 38. Ingemar Düring, Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition , Göteborg, 1957, p. 253
 3. ^ This type of syllogism , with all three terms in 'a', is known by the traditional (medieval) mnemonic Barbara . [26]
 4. ^ M is the Middle (here, Men), S is the Subject (Greeks), P is the Predicate (mortal). [26]
 5. ^ The first equation can be read as 'It is not true that there exists an x such that x is a man and that x is not mortal.' [27]
 6. ^ Rhett Allain notes that Newton's First Law is "essentially a direct reply to Aristotle, that the natural state is not to change motion. [42]
 7. ^ Leonard Susskind comments that Aristotle had clearly never gone ice skating or he would have seen that it takes force to stop an object. [44]
 8. ^ For heavenly bodies like the Sun, Moon, and stars, the observed motions are "to a very good approximation" circular around the Earth's centre, (for example, the apparent rotation of the sky because of the rotation of the Earth, and the rotation of the moon around the Earth) as Aristotle stated. [45]
 9. ^ Drabkin quotes numerous passages from Physics and On the Heavens ( De Caelo ) which state Aristotle's laws of motion. [43]
 10. ^ Drabkin agrees that density is treated quantitatively in this passage, but without a sharp definition of density as weight per unit volume. [43]
 11. ^ Philoponus and Galileo correctly objected that for the transient phase (still increasing in speed) with heavy objects falling a short distance, the law does not apply: Galileo used balls on a short incline to show this. Rovelli notes that "Two heavy balls with the same shape and different weight do fall at different speeds from an aeroplane, confirming Aristotle's theory, not Galileo's." [45]
 12. ^ For a different reading of social and economic processes in the Nicomachean Ethics and Politics see Polanyi, Karl (1957) "Aristotle Discovers the Economy" in Primitive, Archaic and Modern Economies: Essays of Karl Polanyi ed. G. Dalton, Boston 1971, 78–115.
 13. ^ "Where, as among the Lacedaemonians, the state of women is bad, almost half of human life is spoilt." [140]
 14. ^ "When the Roman dictator Sulla invaded Athens in 86 BC, he brought back to Rome a fantastic prize – Aristotle's library. Books then were papyrus rolls, from 10 to 20 feet long, and since Aristotle's death in 322 BC, worms and damp had done their worst. The rolls needed repairing, and the texts clarifying and copying on to new papyrus (imported from Egypt – Moses' bulrushes). The man in Rome who put Aristotle's library in order was a Greek scholar, Tyrannio." [207]
 15. ^ Aristotle: Nicomachean Ethics 1102a26–27. Aristotle himself never uses the term "esoteric" or "acroamatic". For other passages where Aristotle speaks of exōterikoi logoi , see W.D. Ross , Aristotle's Metaphysics (1953), vol. 2 pp= 408–410. Ross defends an interpretation according to which the phrase, at least in Aristotle's own works, usually refers generally to "discussions not peculiar to the Peripatetic school ", rather than to specific works of Aristotle's own.
 16. ^ " veniet flumen orationis aureum fundens Aristoteles ", (Google translation: "Aristotle will come pouring forth a golden stream of eloquence"). [211]
 17. ^ Compare the medieval tale of Phyllis and Alexander above.

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 * Kraut, Richard (1 May 2001). "Aristotle's Ethics". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . Retrieved 19 March 2018 .
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 Further reading

 The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following is only a small selection.

 * Ackrill, J. L. (1997). Essays on Plato and Aristotle, Oxford University Press.
 * Ackrill, J.L. (1981). Aristotle the Philosopher. Oxford University Press.
 * Adler, Mortimer J. (1978). Aristotle for Everybody. Macmillan.
 * Ammonius (1991). Cohen, S. Marc; Matthews, Gareth B (eds.). On Aristotle's Categories. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-2688-9.
 * Aristotle (1908–1952). The Works of Aristotle Translated into English Under the Editorship of W.D. Ross, 12 vols. Clarendon Press. These translations are available in several places online; see External links.
 * Bakalis, Nikolaos. (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4120-4843-9.
 * Bocheński, I. M. (1951). Ancient Formal Logic. North-Holland.
 * Bolotin, David (1998). An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing. Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scientific works.
 * Burnyeat, Myles F. et al. (1979). Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics. Oxford: Sub-faculty of Philosophy.
 * Cantor, Norman F.; Klein, Peter L., eds. (1969). Ancient Thought: Plato and Aristotle. Monuments of Western Thought. Vol. 1. Blaisdell.
 * Chappell, V. (1973). "Aristotle's Conception of Matter". Journal of Philosophy. 70 (19): 679–696. doi:10.2307/2025076. JSTOR 2025076.
 * Code, Alan (1995). Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 76.
 * Cohen, S. Marc; Reeve, C. D. C. (21 November 2020). "Aristotle's Metaphysics". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2020 ed.).
 * Ferguson, John (1972). Aristotle. Twayne Publishers. ISBN 978-0-8057-2064-8.
 * De Groot, Jean (2014). Aristotle's Empiricism: Experience and Mechanics in the 4th century BC, Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-83-4.
 * Frede, Michael (1987). Essays in Ancient Philosophy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
 * Fuller, B.A.G. (1923). Aristotle. History of Greek Philosophy. Vol. 3. Cape.
 * Gendlin, Eugene T. (2012). Line by Line Commentary on Aristotle's De Anima Archived 27 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 1: Books I & II; Volume 2: Book III. The Focusing Institute.
 * Gill, Mary Louise (1989). Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity. Princeton University Press.
 * Guthrie, W.K.C. (1981). A History of Greek Philosophy. Vol. 6. Cambridge University Press.
 * Halper, Edward C. (2009). One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 1: Books Alpha – Delta. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-21-6.
 * Halper, Edward C. (2005). One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 2: The Central Books. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-05-6.
 * Irwin, Terence H. (1988). Aristotle's First Principles (PDF) . Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-824290-5.
 * Jaeger, Werner (1948). Robinson, Richard (ed.). Aristotle: Fundamentals of the History of His Development (2nd ed.). Clarendon Press.
 * Jori, Alberto (2003). Aristotele, Bruno Mondadori (Prize 2003 of the "International Academy of the History of Science"), ISBN 978-88-424-9737-0.
 * Kiernan, Thomas P., ed. (1962). Aristotle Dictionary. Philosophical Library.
 * Knight, Kelvin (2007). Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre, Polity Press.
 * Lewis, Frank A. (1991). Substance and Predication in Aristotle. Cambridge University Press.
 * Lord, Carnes (1984). Introduction to The Politics, by Aristotle. Chicago University Press.
 * Loux, Michael J. (1991). Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
 * Maso, Stefano (Ed.), Natali, Carlo (Ed.), Seel, Gerhard (Ed.) (2012) Reading Aristotle: Physics VII. 3: What is Alteration? Proceedings of the International ESAP-HYELE Conference, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-73-5.
 * McKeon, Richard (1973). Introduction to Aristotle (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press.
 * Owen, G. E. L. (1965c). "The Platonism of Aristotle". Proceedings of the British Academy. 50: 125–150. [Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R.R.K. Sorabji, eds.(1975). Articles on Aristotle Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth 14–34.]
 * Pangle, Lorraine Smith (2002). Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511498282. ISBN 978-0-511-49828-2.
 * Plato (1979). Allen, Harold Joseph; Wilbur, James B (eds.). The Worlds of Plato and Aristotle. Prometheus Books.
 * Reeve, C. D. C. (2000). Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics. Hackett.
 * Rose, Lynn E. (1968). Aristotle's Syllogistic. Charles C Thomas.
 * Ross, Sir David (1995). Aristotle (6th ed.). Routledge.
 * Scaltsas, T. (1994). Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics. Cornell University Press.
 * Strauss, Leo (1964). "On Aristotle's Politics", in The City and Man, Rand McNally.
 * Swanson, Judith (1992). The Public and the Private in Aristotle's Political Philosophy. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-2319-2.
 * Veatch, Henry B. (1974). Aristotle: A Contemporary Appreciation. Indiana University Press.
 * Woods, M. J. (1991b). "Universals and Particular Forms in Aristotle's Metaphysics". Aristotle and the Later Tradition. Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy. Vol. Suppl. pp. 41–56.

 External links

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 Ἀριστοτέλης
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 * Turner, William (1907). "Aristotle" . Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 1.
 * Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). "The Peripatetics: Aristotle" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. Vol. 1:5. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library.
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 * Works by Aristotle in eBook form at Standard Ebooks
 * At Massachusetts Institute of Technology
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 * (in English and Greek) Perseus Project at Tufts University
 * At the University of Adelaide Archived 15 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine
 * (in Greek and French) P. Remacle
 * The 11-volume 1837 Bekker edition of Aristotle's Works in Greek (PDF · DJVU)
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Aristotle       Roman copy in marble of a Greek bronze bust of Aristotle by Lysippos, c. 330 BC, with modern alabaster mantle    Born 384 BC   Stagira, Chalcidian League      Died 322 BC (aged 61–62)   Chalcis, Euboea, Macedonian Empire      Education  Platonic Academy    Notable work  
   Organon  
  Physics  
  Metaphysics  
  Nicomachean Ethics  
  Politics  
  Rhetoric  
  Poetics   
        Era  Ancient Greek philosophy    Region  Western philosophy     School   
  Peripatetic school  
    Notable students  Alexander the Great, Theophrastus, Aristoxenus     Main interests   
  Logic 
 Natural Philosophy 
 Metaphysics 
 Ethics 
 Politics 
 Rhetoric 
 Poetics  
     Notable ideas   Aristotelianism
 Theoretical philosophy 
  Aristotelian logic, syllogism
  Four causes
  Genus and differentia
  Hylomorphism, substance, essence, accident
  Hypokeimenon
  Potentiality and actuality
  Theory of universals
  Unmoved mover
 
 Natural philosophy 
  Aristotelian biology
  Aristotelian physics
  Common sense
  Eternity of the world
  Five wits
   Horror vacui 
  Theory of elements, aether
  Rational animal
 
 Practical philosophy 
  Aristotelian ethics
  Catharsis
  Deliberative, epideictic and forensic rhetoric 
  Enthymeme and Paradeigma
  Family as a model for the state
  Golden mean
  Kyklos
  Magnanimity
  Mimesis
  Natural slavery
  Intellectual virtues: sophia, episteme, nous, phronesis, techne
  Three appeals: ethos, logos, pathos
  Views on women
 
     
 Influences 
  
  Plato 
 Socrates 
 Heraclitus 
 Parmenides 
 Empedocles 
 Phaleas 
 Hippodamus 
 Hippias  
  
     
 Influenced 
  
 Averroism, Avicennism, Literary Neo-Aristotelianism, Maimonideanism, Objectivism, Peripatetics, Scholasticism (Llullism, Neo, Scotism, Second, Thomism, etc.), additionally Middle Platonism and Neoplatonism.
 See: List of writers influenced by Aristotle, Commentaries on Aristotle, Pseudo-Aristotle
  
    
 Aristotle (; [1]  Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης Aristotélēs, pronounced  [aristotélɛːs]; 384–322 BC) was an Ancient Greek philosopher and polymath. His writings cover a broad range of subjects including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic, ethics, aesthetics, poetry, drama, music, rhetoric, psychology, linguistics, economics, politics, meteorology, geology, and government. As the founder of the Peripatetic school of philosophy in the Lyceum in Athens, he began the wider Aristotelian tradition that followed, which set the groundwork for the development of modern science. 
 Little is known about Aristotle's life. He was born in the city of Stagira in Northern Greece during the Classical period. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, and he was brought up by a guardian. At seventeen or eighteen years of age he joined Plato's Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven (c. 347 BC). Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, tutored his son Alexander the Great beginning in 343 BC. He established a library in the Lyceum which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books on papyrus scrolls. 
 Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues for publication, only around a third of his original output has survived, none of it intended for publication. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him. It was above all from his teachings that the West inherited its intellectual lexicon, as well as problems and methods of inquiry. As a result, his philosophy has exerted a unique influence on almost every form of knowledge in the West and it continues to be a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion.
 Aristotle's views profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. The influence of physical science extended from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, and were not replaced systematically until the Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics were developed. Some of Aristotle's zoological observations found in his biology, such as on the hectocotyl (reproductive) arm of the octopus, were disbelieved until the 19th century. He also influenced Judeo-Islamic philosophies during the Middle Ages, as well as Christian theology, especially the Neoplatonism of the Early Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as "The First Teacher", and among medieval Christians like Thomas Aquinas as simply "The Philosopher", while the poet Dante called him "the master of those who know". His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, and were studied by medieval scholars such as Peter Abelard and John Buridan. Aristotle's influence on logic continued well into the 19th century. In addition, his ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. 
Life
In general, the details of Aristotle's life are not well-established. The biographies written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points. [A] 
 Aristotle was born in 384 BC [B]  in Stagira, Chalcidice, [2]  about 55 km (34 miles) east of modern-day Thessaloniki. [3]   [4]  His father, Nicomachus, was the personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. While he was young, Aristotle learned about biology and medical information, which was taught by his father. [5]  Both of Aristotle's parents died when he was about thirteen, and Proxenus of Atarneus became his guardian. [6]  Although little information about Aristotle's childhood has survived, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy. [7] 
     
At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Plato's Academy. [8]  He probably experienced the Eleusinian Mysteries as he wrote when describing the sights one viewed at the Eleusinian Mysteries, "to experience is to learn" [παθείν μαθεĩν]. [9]  Aristotle remained in Athens for nearly twenty years before leaving in 348/47 BC. The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the Academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew Speusippus, although it is possible that he feared the anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens at that time and left before Plato died. [10]  Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor. After the death of Hermias, Aristotle travelled with his pupil Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island and its sheltered lagoon. While in Lesbos, Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermias's adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. In 343 BC, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander. [11]   [12] 
 Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During Aristotle's time in the Macedonian court, he gave lessons not only to Alexander but also to two other future kings: Ptolemy and Cassander. [13]  Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and Aristotle's own attitude towards Persia was unabashedly ethnocentric. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants". [13]  By 335 BC, Aristotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the Lyceum. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stagira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, Nicomachus. If the  Suda  – an uncritical compilation from the Middle Ages – is accurate, he may also have had an  erômenos , Palaephatus of Abydus. [14] 
     
This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works. [12]  He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include  Physics ,  Metaphysics ,  Nicomachean Ethics ,  Politics ,  On the Soul  and  Poetics . Aristotle studied and made significant contributions to "logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance, and theatre." [15] 
 Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander's relationship with Persia and Persians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an unlikely claim made some six years after the death. [16]  Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322 BC, Demophilus and Eurymedon the Hierophant reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety, [17]  prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in Chalcis, on Euboea, at which occasion he was said to have stated: "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy" [18]   [19]   [20]  – a reference to Athens's trial and execution of Socrates. He died in Chalcis, Euboea [2]   [21]   [15]  of natural causes later that same year, having named his student Antipater as his chief executor and leaving a will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife. [22] 
Theoretical philosophy
Logic
With the  Prior Analytics , Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic, [23]  and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th-century advances in mathematical logic. [24]  Kant stated in the  Critique of Pure Reason  that with Aristotle logic reached its completion. [25] 
 Organon 
One of Aristotle's types of syllogism  [C] 
 
In words
In terms [D]  
In equations [E] 
 
    All men are mortal.    All Greeks are men.  ∴ All Greeks are mortal. 
M a PS a M S a P 
  
   
What is today called Aristotelian logic with its types of syllogism (methods of logical argument), [26]  Aristotle himself would have labelled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean dialectics. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into a set of six books called the  Organon  around 40 BC by Andronicus of Rhodes or others among his followers. [28]  The books are:
   Categories  
  On Interpretation  
  Prior Analytics  
  Posterior Analytics  
  Topics  
  On Sophistical Refutations   
     
The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the Categories, the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in On Interpretation, to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the Analytics) [31]   [32]  and dialectics (in the Topics and Sophistical Refutations). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory stricto sensu: the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. The Rhetoric is not conventionally included, but it states that it relies on the Topics. [33] 
Metaphysics
The word "metaphysics" appears to have been coined by the first century AD editor who assembled various small selections of Aristotle's works to the treatise we know by the name Metaphysics. [34]  Aristotle called it "first philosophy", and distinguished it from mathematics and natural science (physics) as the contemplative (theoretikē) philosophy which is "theological" and studies the divine. He wrote in his Metaphysics (1026a16):
  if there were no other independent things besides the composite natural ones, the study of nature would be the primary kind of knowledge; but if there is some motionless independent thing, the knowledge of this precedes it and is first philosophy, and it is universal in just this way, because it is first. And it belongs to this sort of philosophy to study being as being, both what it is and what belongs to it just by virtue of being. [35]   
Substance
Aristotle examines the concepts of substance (ousia) and essence (to ti ên einai, "the what it was to be") in his Metaphysics (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form, a philosophical theory called hylomorphism. In Book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the substratum, or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers, etc., or whatever constitutes the potential house, while the form of the substance is the actual house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other differentia that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form. [36]   [34] 
Immanent realism
     
Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the universal. Aristotle's ontology places the universal (katholou) in particulars (kath' hekaston), things in the world, whereas for Plato the universal is a separately existing form which actual things imitate. For Aristotle, "form" is still what phenomena are based on, but is "instantiated" in a particular substance. [34] 
 Plato argued that all things have a universal form, which could be either a property or a relation to other things. When one looks at an apple, for example, one sees an apple, and one can also analyse a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, one can place an apple next to a book, so that one can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other. Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but "good" is still a proper universal form. Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated at some period of time, and that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. Where Plato spoke of the forms as existing separately from the things that participate in them, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms. [34]   [37] 
Potentiality and actuality
Concerning the nature of change ( kinesis ) and its causes, as he outlines in his  Physics  and  On Generation and Corruption (319b–320a), he distinguishes coming-to-be (genesis, also translated as 'generation') from:
 growth and diminution, which is change in quantity;
locomotion, which is change in space; and
alteration, which is change in quality. 
     
Coming-to-be is a change where the substrate of the thing that has undergone the change has itself changed. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality ( dynamis ) and actuality ( entelecheia ) in association with the matter and the form. Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing or being acted upon if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something else. For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (dynamei) a plant, and if it is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' (poiein) or 'be acted upon' (paschein), which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate – being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise – acting). Actuality is the fulfilment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end (telos) is the principle of every change, and potentiality exists for the sake of the end, actuality, accordingly, is the end. Referring then to the previous example, it can be said that an actuality is when a plant does one of the activities that plants do. [34] 
  For that for the sake of which (to hou heneka) a thing is, is its principle, and the becoming is for the sake of the end; and the actuality is the end, and it is for the sake of this that the potentiality is acquired. For animals do not see in order that they may have sight, but they have sight that they may see. [38]   
In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a final cause or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality. With this definition of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, for example, "what is it that makes a man one"? Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same. [34]   [39] 
Epistemology
Aristotle's immanent realism means his epistemology is based on the study of things that exist or happen in the world, and rises to knowledge of the universal, whereas for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal Forms (or ideas) and descends to knowledge of particular imitations of these. [33]  Aristotle uses induction from examples alongside deduction, whereas Plato relies on deduction from  a priori  principles. [33] 
Natural philosophy
Aristotle's "natural philosophy" spans a wide range of natural phenomena including those now covered by physics, biology and other natural sciences. [40]  In Aristotle's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. Aristotle's work encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. Aristotle makes philosophy in the broad sense coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as "science". However, his use of the term science carries a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method". For Aristotle, "all science (dianoia) is either practical, poetical or theoretical" (Metaphysics 1025b25). His practical science includes ethics and politics; his poetical science means the study of fine arts including poetry; his theoretical science covers physics, mathematics and metaphysics. [40] 
Physics
      The four classical elements (fire, air, water, earth) of Empedocles and Aristotle illustrated with a burning log. The log releases all four elements as it is destroyed.  
Five elements
In his  On Generation and Corruption , Aristotle related each of the four elements proposed earlier by Empedocles, earth, water, air, and fire, to two of the four sensible qualities, hot, cold, wet, and dry. In the Empedoclean scheme, all matter was made of the four elements, in differing proportions. Aristotle's scheme added the heavenly aether, the divine substance of the heavenly spheres, stars and planets. [41] 
 Aristotle's elements  [41] 
 
Element
Hot/Cold
Wet/Dry
Motion
Modern stateof matter
 
  Earth  
Cold
Dry
Down
 Solid
 
  Water  
Cold
Wet
Down
 Liquid
 
  Air  
Hot
Wet
Up
 Gas
 
  Fire  
Hot
Dry
Up
 Plasma
 
  Aether  
(divinesubstance)
—
Circular(in heavens)
—
   
Motion
Aristotle describes two kinds of motion: "violent" or "unnatural motion", such as that of a thrown stone, in the Physics (254b10), and "natural motion", such as of a falling object, in On the Heavens (300a20). In violent motion, as soon as the agent stops causing it, the motion stops also: in other words, the natural state of an object is to be at rest, [42]   [F]  since Aristotle does not address friction. [43]  With this understanding, it can be observed that, as Aristotle stated, heavy objects (on the ground, say) require more force to make them move; and objects pushed with greater force move faster. [44]   [G]  This would imply the equation [44] 
   ,   
incorrect in modern physics. [44] 
 Natural motion depends on the element concerned: the aether naturally moves in a circle around the heavens, [H]  while the 4 Empedoclean elements move vertically up (like fire, as is observed) or down (like earth) towards their natural resting places. [45]   [43]   [I] 
      Aristotle's laws of motion. In  Physics  he states that objects fall at a speed proportional to their weight and inversely proportional to the density of the fluid they are immersed in. [43]  This is a correct approximation for objects in Earth's gravitational field moving in air or water. [45]    
In the Physics (215a25), Aristotle effectively states a quantitative law, that the speed, v, of a falling body is proportional (say, with constant c) to its weight, W, and inversely proportional to the density, [J]  ρ, of the fluid in which it is falling:; [45]   [43] 
       
Aristotle implies that in a vacuum the speed of fall would become infinite, and concludes from this apparent absurdity that a vacuum is not possible. [45]   [43]  Opinions have varied on whether Aristotle intended to state quantitative laws. Henri Carteron held the "extreme view" [43]  that Aristotle's concept of force was basically qualitative, [46]  but other authors reject this. [43] 
  Archimedes corrected Aristotle's theory that bodies move towards their natural resting places; metal boats can float if they displace enough water; floating depends in Archimedes' scheme on the mass and volume of the object, not, as Aristotle thought, its elementary composition. [45] 
 Aristotle's writings on motion remained influential until the Early Modern period. John Philoponus (in the Middle Ages) and Galileo are said to have shown by experiment that Aristotle's claim that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect. [40]  A contrary opinion is given by Carlo Rovelli, who argues that Aristotle's physics of motion is correct within its domain of validity, that of objects in the Earth's gravitational field immersed in a fluid such as air. In this system, heavy bodies in steady fall indeed travel faster than light ones (whether friction is ignored, or not [45] ), and they do fall more slowly in a denser medium. [44]   [K] 
 Newton's "forced" motion corresponds to Aristotle's "violent" motion with its external agent, but Aristotle's assumption that the agent's effect stops immediately it stops acting (e.g., the ball leaves the thrower's hand) has awkward consequences: he has to suppose that surrounding fluid helps to push the ball along to make it continue to rise even though the hand is no longer acting on it, resulting in the Medieval theory of impetus. [45] 
Four causes
     
Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active factors. His term aitia is traditionally translated as "cause", but it does not always refer to temporal sequence; it might be better translated as "explanation", but the traditional rendering will be employed here. [48]   [49] 
  Material cause describes the material out of which something is composed. Thus the material cause of a table is wood. It is not about action. It does not mean that one domino knocks over another domino. [48]  
The formal cause is its form, i.e., the arrangement of that matter. It tells one what a thing is, that a thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part causation. Plainly put, the formal cause is the idea in the mind of the sculptor that brings the sculpture into being. A simple example of the formal cause is the mental image or idea that allows an artist, architect, or engineer to create a drawing. [48]  
The efficient cause is "the primary source", or that from which the change under consideration proceeds. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, non-living or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. In the case of two dominoes, when the first is knocked over it causes the second also to fall over. [48]  In the case of animals, this agency is a combination of how it develops from the egg, and how its body functions. [50]  
The final cause (telos) is its purpose, the reason why a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause is the purpose or function that something is supposed to serve. This covers modern ideas of motivating causes, such as volition. [48]  In the case of living things, it implies adaptation to a particular way of life. [50]   
Optics
Aristotle describes experiments in optics using a camera obscura in  Problems , book 15. The apparatus consisted of a dark chamber with a small aperture that let light in. With it, he saw that whatever shape he made the hole, the sun's image always remained circular. He also noted that increasing the distance between the aperture and the image surface magnified the image. [51] 
Chance and spontaneity
According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause such as simple necessity. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things, "from what is spontaneous". There is also more a specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names "luck", that only applies to people's moral choices. [52]   [53] 
Astronomy
In astronomy, Aristotle refuted Democritus's claim that the Milky Way was made up of "those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays," pointing out correctly that if "the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them." [54] 
Geology and natural sciences
     
Aristotle was one of the first people to record any geological observations. He stated that geological change was too slow to be observed in one person's lifetime. [55]   [56] 
The geologist Charles Lyell noted that Aristotle described such change, including "lakes that had dried up" and "deserts that had become watered by rivers", giving as examples the growth of the Nile delta since the time of Homer, and "the upheaving of one of the Aeolian islands, previous to a volcanic eruption."' [57] 
Aristotle also made many observations about the hydrologic cycle and meteorology (including his major writings "Meteorologica"). For example, he made some of the earliest observations about desalination: he observed early – and correctly – that when seawater is heated, freshwater evaporates and that the oceans are then replenished by the cycle of rainfall and river runoff ("I have proved by experiment that salt water evaporated forms fresh and the vapor does not when it condenses condense into sea water again.") [58] 
Biology
      Among many pioneering zoological observations, Aristotle described the reproductive hectocotyl arm of the octopus (bottom left).  
Empirical research
Aristotle was the first person to study biology systematically, [59]  and biology forms a large part of his writings. He spent two years observing and describing the zoology of Lesbos and the surrounding seas, including in particular the Pyrrha lagoon in the centre of Lesbos. [60]   [61]  His data in  History of Animals ,  Generation of Animals ,  Movement of Animals , and  Parts of Animals  are assembled from his own observations, [62]  statements given by people with specialized knowledge such as beekeepers and fishermen, and less accurate accounts provided by travellers from overseas. [63]  His apparent emphasis on animals rather than plants is a historical accident: his works on botany have been lost, but two books on plants by his pupil Theophrastus have survived. [64] 
 Aristotle reports on the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and the catches of fishermen. He describes the catfish, electric ray, and frogfish in detail, as well as cephalopods such as the octopus and paper nautilus. His description of the hectocotyl arm of cephalopods, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until the 19th century. [65]  He gives accurate descriptions of the four-chambered fore-stomachs of ruminants, [66]  and of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the hound shark. [67] 
 He notes that an animal's structure is well matched to function, so, among birds, the heron, which lives in marshes with soft mud and lives by catching fish, has a long neck and long legs, and a sharp spear-like beak, whereas ducks that swim have short legs and webbed feet. [68]  Darwin, too, noted these sorts of differences between similar kinds of animal, but unlike Aristotle used the data to come to the theory of evolution. [69]  Aristotle's writings can seem to modern readers close to implying evolution, but while Aristotle was aware that new mutations or hybridizations could occur, he saw these as rare accidents. For Aristotle, accidents, like heat waves in winter, must be considered distinct from natural causes. He was thus critical of Empedocles's materialist theory of a "survival of the fittest" origin of living things and their organs, and ridiculed the idea that accidents could lead to orderly results. [70]  To put his views into modern terms, he nowhere says that different species can have a common ancestor, or that one kind can change into another, or that kinds can become extinct. [71] 
Scientific style
      Aristotle inferred growth laws from his observations on animals, including that brood size decreases with body mass, whereas gestation period increases. He was correct in these predictions, at least for mammals: data are shown for mouse and elephant.  
Aristotle did not do experiments in the modern sense. [72]  He used the ancient Greek term pepeiramenoi to mean observations, or at most investigative procedures like dissection. [73]  In Generation of Animals, he finds a fertilized hen's egg of a suitable stage and opens it to see the embryo's heart beating inside. [74]   [75] 
 Instead, he practiced a different style of science: systematically gathering data, discovering patterns common to whole groups of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these.; [76]   [77]  This style is common in modern biology when large amounts of data become available in a new field, such as genomics. It does not result in the same certainty as experimental science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed. In this sense, Aristotle's biology is scientific. [76] 
 
From the data he collected and documented, Aristotle inferred quite a number of rules relating the life-history features of the live-bearing tetrapods (terrestrial placental mammals) that he studied. Among these correct predictions are the following. Brood size decreases with (adult) body mass, so that an elephant has fewer young (usually just one) per brood than a mouse. Lifespan increases with gestation period, and also with body mass, so that elephants live longer than mice, have a longer period of gestation, and are heavier. As a final example, fecundity decreases with lifespan, so long-lived kinds like elephants have fewer young in total than short-lived kinds like mice. [78]  
Classification of living things
      Aristotle recorded that the embryo of a dogfish was attached by a cord to a kind of placenta (the yolk sac), like a higher animal; this formed an exception to the linear scale from highest to lowest. [79]    
Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of animals, [80]   [81]  arranging these in the History of Animals in a graded scale of perfection, a nonreligious version of the  scala naturae , with man at the top. His system had eleven grades of animal, from highest potential to lowest, expressed in their form at birth: the highest gave live birth to hot and wet creatures, the lowest laid cold, dry mineral-like eggs. Animals came above plants, and these in turn were above minerals. [82]   [83]  He grouped what the modern zoologist would call vertebrates as the hotter "animals with blood", and below them the colder invertebrates as "animals without blood". Those with blood were divided into the live-bearing (mammals), and the egg-laying (birds, reptiles, fish). Those without blood were insects, crustacea (non-shelled – cephalopods, and shelled) and the hard-shelled molluscs (bivalves and gastropods). He recognised that animals did not exactly fit into a linear scale, and noted various exceptions, such as that sharks had a placenta like the tetrapods. To a modern biologist, the explanation, not available to Aristotle, is convergent evolution. [84]  Philosophers of science have generally concluded that Aristotle was not interested in taxonomy, [85]   [86]  but zoologists who studied this question recently think otherwise. [87]   [88]   [89]  He believed that purposive final causes guided all natural processes; this teleological view justified his observed data as an expression of formal design. [90] 
Aristotle's  Scala naturae  (highest to lowest)
 
Group
Examples(given by Aristotle)
Blood
Legs
Souls(Rational,Sensitive,Vegetative)
Qualities(Hot–Cold,Wet–Dry)
 
Man
Man
with blood
2 legs
R, S, V
Hot, Wet
 
 Live-bearing tetrapods 
Cat, hare 
with blood
4 legs
S, V
Hot, Wet
 
 Cetaceans 
 Dolphin, whale 
with blood
none
S, V
Hot, Wet
 
 Birds 
 Bee-eater, nightjar 
with blood
2 legs
S, V
Hot, Wet, except Dry eggs
 
 Egg-laying tetrapods 
 Chameleon, crocodile 
with blood
4 legs
S, V
Cold, Wet except scales, eggs
 
 Snakes 
Water snake, Ottoman viper 
with blood
none
S, V
Cold, Wet except scales, eggs
 
Egg-laying fishes 
 Sea bass, parrotfish 
with blood
none
S, V
Cold, Wet, including eggs
 
(Among the egg-laying fishes):placental selachians 
 Shark, skate 
with blood
none
S, V
Cold, Wet, but placenta like tetrapods
 
 Crustaceans 
 Shrimp, crab 
without
many legs
S, V
Cold, Wet except shell
 
 Cephalopods 
 Squid, octopus 
without
tentacles
S, V
Cold, Wet
 
 Hard-shelled animals 
 Cockle, trumpet snail 
without
none
S, V
Cold, Dry (mineral shell)
 
Larva-bearing insects
 Ant, cicada 
without
6 legs
S, V
Cold, Dry
 
 Spontaneously generating 
 Sponges, worms 
without
none
S, V
Cold, Wet or Dry, from earth
 
 Plants 
 Fig 
without
none
V
Cold, Dry
 
 Minerals 
Iron
without
none
none
Cold, Dry
   
Psychology
Soul
      Aristotle proposed a three-part structure for souls of plants, animals, and humans, making humans unique in having all three types of soul.  
Aristotle's psychology, given in his treatise  On the Soul  (peri psychēs), posits three kinds of soul ("psyches"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have a rational soul. The human soul incorporates the powers of the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul it can grow and nourish itself; like the sensitive soul it can experience sensations and move locally. The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and to compare them using the  nous  (intellect) and logos (reason). [91] 
 For Aristotle, the soul is the form of a living being. Because all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement). [11]  In contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, he placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain. [92]  Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally differed from the concepts of previous philosophers, with the exception of Alcmaeon. [93] 
 In On the Soul, Aristotle famously criticizes Plato's theory of the soul and develops his own in response to Plato's. The first criticism is against Plato's view of the soul in the Timaeus that the soul takes up space and is able to come into physical contact with bodies. [94]  20th-century scholarship overwhelmingly opposed Aristotle's interpretation of Plato and maintained that he had misunderstood Plato. [95]  Today's scholars have tended to re-assess Aristotle's interpretation and have warmed up to it. [96]  Aristotle's other criticism is that Plato's view of reincarnation entails that it is possible for a soul and its body to be mis-matched; in principle, Aristotle alleges, any soul can go with any body, according to Plato's theory. [97]  Aristotle's claim that the soul is the form of a living being is meant to eliminate that possibility and thus rule out reincarnation. [98] 
Memory
According to Aristotle in On the Soul, memory is the ability to hold a perceived experience in the mind and to distinguish between the internal "appearance" and an occurrence in the past. [99]  In other words, a memory is a mental picture (phantasm) that can be recovered. Aristotle believed an impression is left on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when stimuli such as sights or sounds are so complex that the nervous system cannot receive all the impressions at once. These changes are the same as those involved in the operations of sensation, Aristotelian 'common sense', and thinking. [100]   [101] 
 Aristotle uses the term 'memory' for the actual retaining of an experience in the impression that can develop from sensation, and for the intellectual anxiety that comes with the impression because it is formed at a particular time and processing specific contents. Memory is of the past, prediction is of the future, and sensation is of the present. Retrieval of impressions cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is needed and located in past experiences, both for previous experience and present experience. [102] 
 Because Aristotle believes people receive all kinds of sense perceptions and perceive them as impressions, people are continually weaving together new impressions of experiences. To search for these impressions, people search the memory itself. [103]  Within the memory, if one experience is offered instead of a specific memory, that person will reject this experience until they find what they are looking for. Recollection occurs when one retrieved experience naturally follows another. If the chain of "images" is needed, one memory will stimulate the next. When people recall experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences until they reach the one that is needed. [104]  Recollection is thus the self-directed activity of retrieving the information stored in a memory impression. [105]  Only humans can remember impressions of intellectual activity, such as numbers and words. Animals that have perception of time can retrieve memories of their past observations. Remembering involves only perception of the things remembered and of the time passed. [106] 
      Senses, perception, memory, dreams, action in Aristotle's psychology. Impressions are stored in the sensorium (the heart), linked by his laws of association (similarity, contrast, and contiguity).  
Aristotle believed the chain of thought, which ends in recollection of certain impressions, was connected systematically in relationships such as similarity, contrast, and contiguity, described in his laws of association. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within the mind. A force operates to awaken the hidden material to bring up the actual experience. According to Aristotle, association is the power innate in a mental state, which operates upon the unexpressed remains of former experiences, allowing them to rise and be recalled. [107]   [108] 
Dreams
Aristotle describes sleep in On Sleep and Wakefulness. [109]  Sleep takes place as a result of overuse of the senses [110]  or of digestion, [111]  so it is vital to the body. [110]  While a person is asleep, the critical activities, which include thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, do not function as they do during wakefulness. Since a person cannot sense during sleep they cannot have desire, which is the result of sensation. However, the senses are able to work during sleep, [112]  albeit differently, [109]  unless they are weary. [110] 
 Dreams do not involve actually sensing a stimulus. In dreams, sensation is still involved, but in an altered manner. [110]  Aristotle explains that when a person stares at a moving stimulus such as the waves in a body of water, and then looks away, the next thing they look at appears to have a wavelike motion. When a person perceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focus of their attention, it leaves an impression. [109]  When the body is awake and the senses are functioning properly, a person constantly encounters new stimuli to sense and so the impressions of previously perceived stimuli are ignored. [110]  However, during sleep the impressions made throughout the day are noticed as there are no new distracting sensory experiences. [109]  So, dreams result from these lasting impressions. Since impressions are all that are left and not the exact stimuli, dreams do not resemble the actual waking experience. [113]  During sleep, a person is in an altered state of mind. Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who is overtaken by strong feelings toward a stimulus. For example, a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may begin to think they see that person everywhere because they are so overtaken by their feelings. Since a person sleeping is in a suggestible state and unable to make judgements, they become easily deceived by what appears in their dreams, like the infatuated person. [109]  This leads the person to believe the dream is real, even when the dreams are absurd in nature. [109]  In De Anima iii 3, Aristotle ascribes the ability to create, to store, and to recall images in the absence of perception to the faculty of imagination, phantasia. [11] 
 One component of Aristotle's theory of dreams disagrees with previously held beliefs. He claimed that dreams are not foretelling and not sent by a divine being. Aristotle reasoned naturalistically that instances in which dreams do resemble future events are simply coincidences. [114]  Aristotle claimed that a dream is first established by the fact that the person is asleep when they experience it. If a person had an image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they were awake when it occurred. Secondly, any sensory experience that is perceived while a person is asleep does not qualify as part of a dream. For example, if, while a person is sleeping, a door shuts and in their dream they hear a door is shut, this sensory experience is not part of the dream. Lastly, the images of dreams must be a result of lasting impressions of waking sensory experiences. [113] 
Practical philosophy
Aristotle's practical philosophy covers areas such as ethics, politics, economics, and rhetoric. [40] 
Virtues and their accompanying vices [15] 
 
Too little
Virtuous mean
Too much
 
Humbleness
High-mindedness
Vainglory
 
Lack of purpose
Right ambition
Over-ambition
 
Spiritlessness
Good temper
Irascibility
 
Rudeness
Civility
Obsequiousness
 
Cowardice
Courage
Rashness
 
Insensibility
Self-control
Intemperance
 
Sarcasm
Sincerity
Boastfulness
 
Boorishness
Wit
Buffoonery
 
Shamelessness
Modesty
Shyness
 
Callousness
Just resentment
Spitefulness
 
Pettiness
Generosity
Vulgarity
 
Meanness
Liberality
Wastefulness
   
Ethics
Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, most notably including the  Nicomachean Ethics . [115] 
 Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (ergon) of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the  psuchē  (soul) in accordance with reason ( logos ). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity (the virtuous mean, between the accompanying vices of excess or deficiency [15] ) of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action,  eudaimonia , generally translated as "happiness" or sometimes "well-being". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (ēthikē  aretē ), often translated as moral or ethical virtue or excellence. [116] 
 Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom ( phronesis ) and their intellect ( nous ) can develop with each other towards the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom of an accomplished theoretical or speculative thinker, or in other words, a philosopher. [117] 
Politics
In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled  Politics . Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family, which in turn is prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part". [118]  He famously stated that "man is by nature a political animal" and argued that humanity's defining factor among others in the animal kingdom is its rationality. [119]  Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner. [120] 
      Aristotle's classifications of political constitutions  
The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city ( polis ) which functions as a political "community" or "partnership" (koinōnia). The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: "The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together." This is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with social contract theory, according to which individuals leave the state of nature because of "fear of violent death" or its "inconveniences". [L] 
 In  Protrepticus , the character 'Aristotle' states: [121] 
  For we all agree that the most excellent man should rule, i.e., the supreme by nature, and that the law rules and alone is authoritative; but the law is a kind of intelligence, i.e. a discourse based on intelligence. And again, what standard do we have, what criterion of good things, that is more precise than the intelligent man? For all that this man will choose, if the choice is based on his knowledge, are good things and their contraries are bad. And since everybody chooses most of all what conforms to their own proper dispositions (a just man choosing to live justly, a man with bravery to live bravely, likewise a self-controlled man to live with self-control), it is clear that the intelligent man will choose most of all to be intelligent; for this is the function of that capacity. Hence it's evident that, according to the most authoritative judgment, intelligence is supreme among goods. [121]   
As Plato's disciple Aristotle was rather critical concerning democracy and, following the outline of certain ideas from Plato's  Statesman , he developed a coherent theory of integrating various forms of power into a so-called mixed state:
  It is … constitutional to take … from oligarchy that offices are to be elected, and from democracy that this is not to be on a property-qualification. This then is the mode of the mixture; and the mark of a good mixture of democracy and oligarchy is when it is possible to speak of the same constitution as a democracy and as an oligarchy.  — Aristotle. Politics, Book 4, 1294b.10–18  
To illustrate this approach, Aristotle proposed a first-of-its-kind mathematical model of voting, albeit textually described, where the democratic principle of "one voter–one vote" is combined with the oligarchic "merit-weighted voting"; for relevant quotes and their translation into mathematical formulas see. [122] 
Economics
Aristotle made substantial contributions to economic thought, especially to thought in the Middle Ages. [123]  In  Politics , Aristotle addresses the city, property, and trade. His response to criticisms of private property, in Lionel Robbins's view, anticipated later proponents of private property among philosophers and economists, as it related to the overall utility of social arrangements. [123]  Aristotle believed that although communal arrangements may seem beneficial to society, and that although private property is often blamed for social strife, such evils in fact come from human nature. In Politics, Aristotle offers one of the earliest accounts of the origin of money. [123]  Money came into use because people became dependent on one another, importing what they needed and exporting the surplus. For the sake of convenience, people then agreed to deal in something that is intrinsically useful and easily applicable, such as iron or silver. [124] 
 Aristotle's discussions on retail and interest was a major influence on economic thought in the Middle Ages. He had a low opinion of retail, believing that contrary to using money to procure things one needs in managing the household, retail trade seeks to make a profit. It thus uses goods as a means to an end, rather than as an end unto itself. He believed that retail trade was in this way unnatural. Similarly, Aristotle considered making a profit through interest unnatural, as it makes a gain out of the money itself, and not from its use. [124] 
 Aristotle gave a summary of the function of money that was perhaps remarkably precocious for his time. He wrote that because it is impossible to determine the value of every good through a count of the number of other goods it is worth, the necessity arises of a single universal standard of measurement. Money thus allows for the association of different goods and makes them "commensurable". [124]  He goes on to state that money is also useful for future exchange, making it a sort of security. That is, "if we do not want a thing now, we shall be able to get it when we do want it". [124] 
Rhetoric and poetics
       The Blind Oedipus Commending his Children to the Gods (1784) by Bénigne Gagneraux. In his  Poetics , Aristotle uses the tragedy  Oedipus Tyrannus  by Sophocles as an example of how the perfect tragedy should be structured, with a generally good protagonist who starts the play prosperous, but loses everything through some  hamartia  (fault). [125]    
Aristotle's Rhetoric proposes that a speaker can use three basic kinds of appeals to persuade his audience:  ethos  (an appeal to the speaker's character),  pathos  (an appeal to the audience's emotion), and  logos  (an appeal to logical reasoning). [126]  He also categorizes rhetoric into three genres: epideictic (ceremonial speeches dealing with praise or blame), forensic (judicial speeches over guilt or innocence), and deliberative (speeches calling on an audience to make a decision on an issue). [127]  Aristotle also outlines two kinds of rhetorical proofs:  enthymeme  (proof by syllogism) and  paradeigma  (proof by example). [128] 
 Aristotle writes in his Poetics that epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry, painting, sculpture, music, and dance are all fundamentally acts of  mimesis  ("imitation"), each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner. [129]   [130]  He applies the term mimesis both as a property of a work of art and also as the product of the artist's intention [129]  and contends that the audience's realisation of the mimesis is vital to understanding the work itself. [129]  Aristotle states that mimesis is a natural instinct of humanity that separates humans from animals [129]   [131]  and that all human artistry "follows the pattern of nature". [129]  Because of this, Aristotle believed that each of the mimetic arts possesses what Stephen Halliwell calls "highly structured procedures for the achievement of their purposes." [132]  For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama. [133] 
 While it is believed that Aristotle's Poetics originally comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry. [134]  The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the catharsis of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes Poetics with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic. [135]  Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the Delphic Oracle and studied the fables of Aesop. [136] 
Views on women
Aristotle's analysis of procreation describes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element. The biological differences are a result of the fact that the female body is well-suited for reproduction, which changes her body temperature, which in turn makes her, in Aristotle's view, incapable of participating in political life. [137]  On this ground, proponents of feminist metaphysics have accused Aristotle of misogyny  [138]  and sexism. [139]  However, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his Rhetoric that the things that lead to happiness need to be in women as well as men. [M] 
Influence
More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived. [141]   [142]   [143]  He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge then in existence, and he was the founder of many new fields. According to the philosopher Bryan Magee, "it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did". [144]  Among countless other achievements, Aristotle was the founder of formal logic, [145]  pioneered the study of zoology, and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method. [2]   [146]   [147]  Taneli Kukkonen, writing in The Classical Tradition, observes that his achievement in founding two sciences is unmatched, and his reach in influencing "every branch of intellectual enterprise" including Western ethical and political theory, theology, rhetoric and literary analysis is equally long. As a result, Kukkonen argues, any analysis of reality today "will almost certainly carry Aristotelian overtones ... evidence of an exceptionally forceful mind." [147]  Jonathan Barnes wrote that "an account of Aristotle's intellectual afterlife would be little less than a history of European thought". [148] Aristotle has been called the father of logic, biology, political science, zoology, embryology, natural law, scientific method, rhetoric, psychology, realism, criticism, individualism, teleology, and meteorology. [150] 
On his successor, Theophrastus
     
Aristotle's pupil and successor, Theophrastus, wrote the  History of Plants , a pioneering work in botany. Some of his technical terms remain in use, such as carpel from carpos, fruit, and pericarp, from pericarpion, seed chamber. [151] 
Theophrastus was much less concerned with formal causes than Aristotle was, instead pragmatically describing how plants functioned. [152]   [153] 
On later Greek philosophers
The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the Peripatetic school. Aristotle's students included Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Mnason of Phocis, Nicomachus, and Theophrastus. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?" [154] 
On Hellenistic science
After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly. [155]  It is not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology can be again found.
 The first medical teacher at Alexandria, Herophilus of Chalcedon, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse while the former do not. [156]  Though a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, natural theology) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. Ernst Mayr states that there was "nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance." [157] 
On Byzantine scholars
Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek language manuscripts of the corpus. The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were Philoponus, Elias, and David in the sixth century, and Stephen of Alexandria in the early seventh century. [158]  John Philoponus stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle's views on the eternity of the world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelian thought. [159]  Philoponus questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, noting its flaws and introducing the theory of impetus to explain his observations. [160] 
 After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and Michael of Ephesus reappeared in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by Anna Comnena. [161] 
On the medieval Islamic world
      Islamic portrayal of Aristotle, c. 1220  
Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers in early Islamic theology. Most of the still extant works of Aristotle, [162]  as well as a number of the original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by Muslim philosophers, scientists and scholars. Averroes, Avicenna and Alpharabius, who wrote on Aristotle in great depth, also influenced Thomas Aquinas and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. Alkindus greatly admired Aristotle's philosophy, [163]  and Averroes spoke of Aristotle as the "exemplar" for all future philosophers. [164]  Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as the "First Teacher". [162]  The title was later used by Western philosophers (as in the famous poem of Dante) who were influenced by the tradition of Islamic philosophy. [165] 
On medieval Europe
     
With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early medieval Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from c. AD 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of the Organon made by Boethius. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by Gerard of Cremona, [167]  and from the original Greek, such as those by James of Venice and William of Moerbeke. After the Scholastic Thomas Aquinas wrote his  Summa Theologica , working from Moerbeke's translations and calling Aristotle "The Philosopher", [168]  the demand for Aristotle's writings grew, and the Greek manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the Renaissance. [169]  These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. Scholars such as Boethius, Peter Abelard, and John Buridan worked on Aristotelian logic. [170] 
 The medieval English poet Chaucer describes his student as being happy by having
 at his beddes heed
Twenty bookes, clad in blak or reed,
Of aristotle and his philosophie, [171] 
 
A cautionary medieval tale held that Aristotle advised his pupil Alexander to avoid the king's seductive mistress, Phyllis, but was himself captivated by her, and allowed her to ride him. Phyllis had secretly told Alexander what to expect, and he witnessed Phyllis proving that a woman's charms could overcome even the greatest philosopher's male intellect. Artists such as Hans Baldung produced a series of illustrations of the popular theme. [172]   [166] 
 The Italian poet Dante says of Aristotle in  The Divine Comedy :
 
 Dante  L'Inferno, Canto IV. 131–135
Translation Hell
 
  vidi 'l maestro di color che sanno
seder tra filosofica famiglia.
Tutti lo miran, tutti onor li fanno:
quivi vid'ïo Socrate e Platone
che 'nnanzi a li altri più presso li stanno;
 
 I saw the Master there of those who know,
Amid the philosophic family,
By all admired, and by all reverenced;
There Plato too I saw, and Socrates,
Who stood beside him closer than the rest.
   
Besides Dante's fellow poets, the classical figure that most influenced the  Comedy  is Aristotle. Dante built up the philosophy of the Comedy with the works of Aristotle as a foundation, just as the scholastics used Aristotle as the basis for their thinking. Dante knew Aristotle directly from Latin translations of his works and indirectly through quotations in the works of Albert Magnus. [173]  Dante even acknowledges Aristotle's influence explicitly in the poem, specifically when Virgil justifies the Inferno's structure by citing the  Nicomachean Ethics . [174] 
On medieval Judaism
 Moses Maimonides (considered to be the foremost intellectual figure of medieval Judaism) [175]  adopted Aristotelianism from the Islamic scholars and based his  Guide for the Perplexed  on it and that became the basis of Jewish scholastic philosophy. Maimonides also considered Aristotle to be the greatest philosopher that ever lived, and styled him as the "chief of the philosophers". [176]   [177]   [178]  Also, in his letter to Samuel ibn Tibbon, Maimonides observes that there is no need for Samuel to study the writings of philosophers who preceded Aristotle because the works of the latter are "sufficient by themselves and [superior] to all that were written before them. His intellect, Aristotle's is the extreme limit of human intellect, apart from him upon whom the divine emanation has flowed forth to such an extent that they reach the level of prophecy, there being no level higher". [179] 
On Early Modern scientists
     
In the Early Modern period, scientists such as William Harvey in England and Galileo Galilei in Italy reacted against the theories of Aristotle and other classical era thinkers like Galen, establishing new theories based to some degree on observation and experiment. Harvey demonstrated the circulation of the blood, establishing that the heart functioned as a pump rather than being the seat of the soul and the controller of the body's heat, as Aristotle thought. [180]  Galileo used more doubtful arguments to displace Aristotle's physics, proposing that bodies all fall at the same speed whatever their weight. [181] 
On 18th/19th-century thinkers
The 19th-century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle. [182]  Aristotle rigidly separated action from production, and argued for the deserved subservience of some people ("natural slaves"), [183]  and the natural superiority (virtue, arete) of others. It was Martin Heidegger, not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition. [184] 
 The English mathematician George Boole fully accepted Aristotle's logic, but decided "to go under, over, and beyond" it with his system of algebraic logic in his 1854 book  The Laws of Thought . This gives logic a mathematical foundation with equations, enables it to solve equations as well as check validity, and allows it to handle a wider class of problems by expanding propositions of any number of terms, not just two. [185] 
  Charles Darwin regarded Aristotle as the most important contributor to the subject of biology. In an 1882 letter he wrote that "Linnaeus and Cuvier have been my two gods, though in very different ways, but they were mere schoolboys to old Aristotle". [186]   [187]  Also, in later editions of the book "On the Origin of Species', Darwin traced evolutionary ideas as far back as Aristotle; [188]  the text he cites is a summary by Aristotle of the ideas of the earlier Greek philosopher Empedocles. [189] 
  James Joyce's favoured philosopher was Aristotle, whom he considered to be "the greatest thinker of all times". [190]  Samuel Taylor Coleridge said: Everybody is born either a Platonist or an Aristotelian. [191]  Ayn Rand acknowledged Aristotle as her greatest influence [192]  and remarked that in the history of philosophy she could only recommend "three A's"—Aristotle, Aquinas, and Ayn Rand. [193]  She also regarded Aristotle as the greatest of all philosophers. [194] 
Karl Marx considered Aristotle to be the "greatest thinker of antiquity", and called him a "giant thinker", a "genius", and "the great scholar". [195]   [196]   [197] 
Modern rejection and rehabilitation
      "That most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander". [147]  Illustration by Charles Laplante [fr], 1866  
During the 20th century, Aristotle's work was widely criticized. The philosopher Bertrand Russell
argued that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell called Aristotle's ethics "repulsive", and labelled his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell stated that these errors made it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembered what an advance he made upon all of his predecessors. [12] 
 The Dutch historian of science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis wrote that Aristotle and his predecessors showed the difficulty of science by "proceed[ing] so readily to frame a theory of such a general character" on limited evidence from their senses. [198]  In 1985, the biologist Peter Medawar could still state in "pure seventeenth century" [199]  tones that Aristotle had assembled "a strange and generally speaking rather tiresome farrago of hearsay, imperfect observation, wishful thinking and credulity amounting to downright gullibility". [199]   [200] 
 By the start of the 21st century, however, Aristotle was taken more seriously: Kukkonen noted that "In the best 20th-century scholarship Aristotle comes alive as a thinker wrestling with the full weight of the Greek philosophical tradition." [147]  Alasdair MacIntyre has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans. [201]  Kukkonen observed, too, that "that most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander" remained current, as in the 2004 film  Alexander , while the "firm rules" of Aristotle's theory of drama have ensured a role for the Poetics in Hollywood. [147] 
 Biologists continue to be interested in Aristotle's thinking. Armand Marie Leroi has reconstructed Aristotle's biology, [202]  while Niko Tinbergen's four questions, based on Aristotle's four causes, are used to analyse animal behaviour; they examine function, phylogeny, mechanism, and ontogeny. [203]   [204] 
Surviving works
Corpus Aristotelicum
     
The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. [205]  Reference to them is made according to the organization of Immanuel Bekker's Royal Prussian Academy edition (Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica, Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works. [206] 
Loss and preservation
Aristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls, the common writing medium of that era. [N]  His writings are divisible into two groups: the "exoteric", intended for the public, and the "esoteric", for use within the Lyceum school. [208]   [O]   [209]  Aristotle's "lost" works stray considerably in characterization from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with a view to subsequent publication, the surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes not intended for publication. [210]   [208]  Cicero's description of Aristotle's literary style as "a river of gold" must have applied to the published works, not the surviving notes. [P]  A major question in the history of Aristotle's works is how the exoteric writings were all lost, and how the ones now possessed came to be found. [212]  The consensus is that Andronicus of Rhodes collected the esoteric works of Aristotle's school which existed in the form of smaller, separate works, distinguished them from those of Theophrastus and other Peripatetics, edited them, and finally compiled them into the more cohesive, larger works as they are known today. [213]   [214]  
Legacy
Depictions
 Paintings 
Aristotle has been depicted by major artists including Lucas Cranach the Elder, [215]  Justus van Gent, Raphael, Paolo Veronese, Jusepe de Ribera, [216]  Rembrandt, [217]  and Francesco Hayez over the centuries. Among the best-known depictions is Raphael's fresco  The School of Athens , in the Vatican's Apostolic Palace, where the figures of Plato and Aristotle are central to the image, at the architectural vanishing point, reflecting their importance. [218]  Rembrandt's  Aristotle with a Bust of Homer , too, is a celebrated work, showing the knowing philosopher and the blind Homer from an earlier age: as the art critic Jonathan Jones writes, "this painting will remain one of the greatest and most mysterious in the world, ensnaring us in its musty, glowing, pitch-black, terrible knowledge of time." [219]   [220] 
	 
	 
	 
	 
	     
	 Aristotle by Paolo Veronese, Biblioteka Marciana. Oil on canvas, 1560s
	 
	 
	 
	 
	 
	 
 Sculptures 
	 
	 
	     
	Roman copy of 117-138 AD of Greek original. Palermo Regional Archeology Museum
	 
	 
	 
	 
Eponyms
The Aristotle Mountains in Antarctica are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to conjecture, in his book  Meteorology , the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region and called it Antarctica. [221]  Aristoteles is a crater on the Moon bearing the classical form of Aristotle's name. [222] 
See also
  Aristotelian Society 
 Conimbricenses 
 Perfectionism  
References
Notes
  ^  See Shields 2012, pp. 3–16; Düring 1957 covers ancient biographies of Aristotle.
  ^  That these dates (the first half of the Olympiad year 384/383 BC, and in 322 shortly before the death of Demosthenes) are correct was shown by August Boeckh (Kleine Schriften VI 195); for further discussion, see Felix Jacoby on  FGrHist  244 F 38. Ingemar Düring, Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition, Göteborg, 1957, p. 253
  ^  This type of syllogism, with all three terms in 'a', is known by the traditional (medieval) mnemonic Barbara. [26] 
  ^  M is the Middle (here, Men), S is the Subject (Greeks), P is the Predicate (mortal). [26] 
  ^  The first equation can be read as 'It is not true that there exists an x such that x is a man and that x is not mortal.' [27] 
  ^  Rhett Allain notes that Newton's First Law is "essentially a direct reply to Aristotle, that the natural state is not to change motion. [42] 
  ^  Leonard Susskind comments that Aristotle had clearly never gone ice skating or he would have seen that it takes force to stop an object. [44] 
  ^  For heavenly bodies like the Sun, Moon, and stars, the observed motions are "to a very good approximation" circular around the Earth's centre, (for example, the apparent rotation of the sky because of the rotation of the Earth, and the rotation of the moon around the Earth) as Aristotle stated. [45] 
  ^  Drabkin quotes numerous passages from Physics and On the Heavens (De Caelo) which state Aristotle's laws of motion. [43] 
  ^  Drabkin agrees that density is treated quantitatively in this passage, but without a sharp definition of density as weight per unit volume. [43] 
  ^  Philoponus and Galileo correctly objected that for the transient phase (still increasing in speed) with heavy objects falling a short distance, the law does not apply: Galileo used balls on a short incline to show this. Rovelli notes that "Two heavy balls with the same shape and different weight do fall at different speeds from an aeroplane, confirming Aristotle's theory, not Galileo's." [45] 
  ^  For a different reading of social and economic processes in the Nicomachean Ethics and Politics see Polanyi, Karl (1957) "Aristotle Discovers the Economy" in Primitive, Archaic and Modern Economies: Essays of Karl Polanyi ed. G. Dalton, Boston 1971, 78–115.
  ^  "Where, as among the Lacedaemonians, the state of women is bad, almost half of human life is spoilt." [140] 
  ^  "When the Roman dictator Sulla invaded Athens in 86 BC, he brought back to Rome a fantastic prize – Aristotle's library. Books then were papyrus rolls, from 10 to 20 feet long, and since Aristotle's death in 322 BC, worms and damp had done their worst. The rolls needed repairing, and the texts clarifying and copying on to new papyrus (imported from Egypt – Moses' bulrushes). The man in Rome who put Aristotle's library in order was a Greek scholar, Tyrannio." [207] 
  ^  Aristotle: Nicomachean Ethics 1102a26–27. Aristotle himself never uses the term "esoteric" or "acroamatic". For other passages where Aristotle speaks of exōterikoi logoi, see W.D. Ross, Aristotle's Metaphysics (1953), vol. 2 pp= 408–410. Ross defends an interpretation according to which the phrase, at least in Aristotle's own works, usually refers generally to "discussions not peculiar to the Peripatetic school", rather than to specific works of Aristotle's own.
  ^  "veniet flumen orationis aureum fundens Aristoteles", (Google translation: "Aristotle will come pouring forth a golden stream of eloquence"). [211] 
  ^  Compare the medieval tale of Phyllis and Alexander above.
 
Citations
  ^  Collins English Dictionary.
^    a       b       c    Aristotle (Greek philosopher).
  ^  McLeisch 1999, p. 5.
  ^  Aristoteles-Park in Stagira.
  ^  Borchers, Timothy A.; Hundley, Heather (2018). Rhetorical theory : an introduction (Second ed.). Long Grove, Illinois. ISBN  978-1-4786-3580-2 . OCLC 1031145493.
  ^  Hall 2018, p. 14.
  ^  Anagnostopoulos 2013, p. 4.
  ^  Blits 1999, pp. 58–63.
  ^  Evans 2006.
  ^  Aristotle 1984, pp. Introduction.
^    a       b       c    Shields 2016.
^    a       b       c    Russell 1972.
^    a       b    Green 1991, pp. 58–59.
  ^  Smith 2007, p. 88.
^    a       b       c       d    Humphreys 2009.
  ^  Green 1991, p. 460.
  ^  Filonik 2013, pp. 72–73.
  ^  Jones 1980, p. 216.
  ^  Gigon 2017, p. 41.
  ^  Düring 1957, p. T44a-e.
  ^  Britton, Bianca (27 May 2016). "Is this Aristotle's tomb?". CNN. Retrieved 21 January 2023.
  ^  Haase 1992, p. 3862.
  ^  Degnan 1994, pp. 81–89.
  ^  Corcoran 2009, pp. 1–20.
  ^  Kant 1787, pp. Preface.
^    a       b       c    Lagerlund 2016.
  ^  Predicate Logic.
  ^  Pickover 2009, p. 52.
  ^  School of Athens.
  ^  Stewart 2019.
  ^  Prior Analytics, pp. 24b18–20.
  ^  Bobzien 2015.
^    a       b       c    Smith 2017.
^    a       b       c       d       e       f    Cohen 2000.
  ^  Aristotle 1999, p. 111.
  ^  Metaphysics, p. VIII 1043a 10–30.
  ^  Lloyd 1968, pp. 43–47.
  ^  Metaphysics, p. IX 1050a 5–10.
  ^  Metaphysics, p. VIII 1045a–b.
^    a       b       c       d    Wildberg 2016.
^    a       b    Lloyd 1968, pp. 133–139, 166–169.
^    a       b    Allain 2016.
^    a       b       c       d       e       f       g       h       i    Drabkin 1938, pp. 60–84.
^    a       b       c       d       e    Susskind 2011.
^    a       b       c       d       e       f       g       h       i    Rovelli 2015, pp. 23–40.
  ^  Carteron 1923, pp. 1–32 and passim.
  ^  Leroi 2015, pp. 88–90.
^    a       b       c       d       e    Lloyd 1996, pp. 96–100, 106–107.
  ^  Hankinson 1998, p. 159.
^    a       b    Leroi 2015, pp. 91–92, 369–373.
  ^  Lahanas.
  ^  Physics, p. 2.6.
  ^  Miller 1973, pp. 204–213.
  ^  Meteorology, p. 1. 8.
  ^  Moore 1956, p. 13.
  ^  Meteorology, p. Book 1, Part 14.
  ^  Lyell 1832, p. 17.
  ^  Aristotle (1952).  Meteorologica, Chapter II . Translated by Lee, H.D.P. (Loeb Classical Library ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 156. Retrieved 22 January 2021.
  ^  Leroi 2015, p. 7.
  ^  Leroi 2015, p. 14.
  ^  Thompson 1910, p. Prefatory Note.
  ^   "Darwin's Ghosts, By Rebecca Stott". independent.co.uk. 2 June 2012. Retrieved 19 June 2012.
  ^  Leroi 2015, pp. 196, 248.
  ^  Day 2013, pp. 5805–5816.
  ^  Leroi 2015, pp. 66–74, 137.
  ^  Leroi 2015, pp. 118–119.
  ^  Leroi 2015, p. 73.
  ^  Leroi 2015, pp. 135–136.
  ^  Leroi 2015, p. 206.
  ^  Sedley 2007, p. 189.
  ^  Leroi 2015, p. 273.
  ^  Taylor 1922, p. 42.
  ^  Leroi 2015, pp. 361–365.
  ^  Leroi 2011.
  ^  Leroi 2015, pp. 197–200.
^    a       b    Leroi 2015, pp. 365–368.
  ^  Taylor 1922, p. 49.
  ^  Leroi 2015, p. 408.
  ^  Leroi 2015, pp. 72–74.
  ^  Bergstrom &amp; Dugatkin 2012, p. 35.
  ^  Rhodes 1974, p. 7.
  ^  Mayr 1982, pp. 201–202.
  ^  Lovejoy 1976.
  ^  Leroi 2015, pp. 111–119.
  ^  Lennox, James G. (2001). Aristotle's Philosophy of Biology: Studies in the Origins of Life Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 346. ISBN  0-521-65976-0 .
  ^  Sandford, Stella (3 December 2019). "From Aristotle to Contemporary Biological Classification: What Kind of Category is "Sex"?". Redescriptions: Political Thought, Conceptual History and Feminist Theory. 22 (1): 4–17. doi:10.33134/rds.314. ISSN 2308-0914. S2CID 210140121.
  ^  Voultsiadou, Eleni; Vafidis, Dimitris (1 January 2007). "Marine invertebrate diversity in Aristotle's zoology". Contributions to Zoology. 76 (2): 103–120. doi:10.1163/18759866-07602004. ISSN 1875-9866. S2CID 55152069.
  ^  von Lieven, Alexander Fürst; Humar, Marcel (2008). "A Cladistic Analysis of Aristotle's Animal Groups in the "Historia animalium"". History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences. 30 (2): 227–262. ISSN 0391-9714. JSTOR 23334371. PMID 19203017.
  ^  Laurin, Michel; Humar, Marcel (2022). "Phylogenetic signal in characters from Aristotle's History of Animals". Comptes Rendus Palevol (in French). 21 (1): 1–16. doi:10.5852/cr-palevol2022v21a1. S2CID 245863171.
  ^  Mason 1979, pp. 43–44.
  ^  Leroi 2015, pp. 156–163.
  ^  Mason 1979, p. 45.
  ^  Guthrie 2010, p. 348.
  ^  On the Soul I.3 406b26-407a10. For some scholarship, see Carter, Jason W. 2017. ‘Aristotle’s Criticism of Timaean Psychology’ Rhizomata 5: 51-78 and Douglas R. Campbell. 2022. "Located in Space: Plato’s Theory of Psychic Motion" Ancient Philosophy 42 (2): 419-442.
  ^  For instance, W.D. Ross argued that Aristotle "may well be criticized as having taken [Plato's] myth as if it were sober prose." See Ross, William D. ed. 1961. Aristotle: De Anima. Oxford: Oxford University Press. The quotation is from page 189.
  ^  See, e.g., Douglas R. Campbell, "Located in Space: Plato's Theory of Psychic Motion," Ancient Philosophy 42 (2): 419-442. 2022.
  ^  On the Soul I.3.407b14–27. Christopher Shields summarizes it thus: "We might think that an old leather-bound edition of Machiavelli’s The Prince could come to bear the departed soul of Richard Nixon. Aristotle regards this sort of view as worthy of ridicule.” See Shields, C. 2016. Aristotle: De Anima. Oxford: Oxford University Press. The quotation is from page 133.
  ^  There's a large scholarly discussion of this dialectic between Plato and Aristotle here: Douglas R. Campbell, "The Soul’s Tool: Plato on the Usefulness of the Body," Elenchos 43 (1): 7-27. 2022.
  ^  Bloch 2007, p. 12.
  ^  Bloch 2007, p. 61.
  ^  Carruthers 2007, p. 16.
  ^  Bloch 2007, p. 25.
  ^  Warren 1921, p. 30.
  ^  Warren 1921, p. 25.
  ^  Carruthers 2007, p. 19.
  ^  Warren 1921, p. 296.
  ^  Warren 1921, p. 259.
  ^  Sorabji 2006, p. 54.
^    a       b       c       d       e       f    Holowchak 1996, pp. 405–423.
^    a       b       c       d       e    Shute 1941, pp. 115–118.
  ^  Holowchak 1996, pp. 405–23.
  ^  Shute 1941, pp. 115–18.
^    a       b    Modrak 2009, pp. 169–181.
  ^  Webb 1990, pp. 174–184.
  ^  Kraut 2001.
  ^  Nicomachean Ethics Book I. See for example chapter 7.
  ^  Nicomachean Ethics, p. Book VI.
  ^  Politics, pp. 1253a19–124.
  ^  Aristotle 2009, pp. 320–321.
  ^  Ebenstein &amp; Ebenstein 2002, p. 59.
^    a       b    Hutchinson &amp; Johnson 2015, p. 22.
  ^  Tangian 2020, pp. 35–38.
^    a       b       c    Robbins 2000, pp. 20–24.
^    a       b       c       d    Aristotle 1948, pp. 16–28.
  ^  Kaufmann 1968, pp. 56–60.
  ^  Garver 1994, pp. 109–110.
  ^  Rorty 1996, pp. 3–7.
  ^  Grimaldi 1998, p. 71.
^    a       b       c       d       e    Halliwell 2002, pp. 152–159.
  ^  Poetics, p. I 1447a.
  ^  Poetics, p. IV.
  ^  Halliwell 2002, pp. 152–59.
  ^  Poetics, p. III.
  ^  Poetics, p. VI.
  ^  Poetics, p. XXVI.
  ^  Aesop 1998, pp. Introduction, xi–xii.
  ^  See Marguerite Deslauriers, "Sexual Difference in Aristotle's Politics and His Biology," Classical World 102 3 (2009): 215-231.
  ^  Freeland 1998.
  ^  Morsink 1979, pp. 83–112.
  ^  Rhetoric, p. Book I, Chapter 5.
  ^  Leroi 2015, p. 8.
  ^  Aristotle's Influence 2018.
  ^  Garner., Dwight (14 March 2014). "Who's More Famous Than Jesus?".  The New York Times . Archived from the original on 1 April 2021.
  ^  Magee 2010, p. 34.
  ^  Guthrie 1990, p. 156.
  ^  Durant 2006, p. 92.
^    a       b       c       d       e    Kukkonen 2010, pp. 70–77.
  ^  Barnes 1982, p. 86.
  ^  Leroi 2015, p. 352.
  ^  * "the father of logic": Wentzel Van Huyssteen, Encyclopedia of Science and Religion: A-I, p. 27
 "the father of biology": S. C. Datt, S. B. Srivastava, Science and society, p. 93. [149]  
"the father of political science": N. Jayapalan, Aristotle, p. 12, Jonathan Wolff, Lectures on the History of Moral and Political Philosophy, p. 48.
the "father of zoology": Josef Rudolf Winkler, A Book of Beetles, p. 12
"the father of embryology": D.R. Khanna, Text Book Of Embryology, p. 2
"the father of natural law": Shellens, Max Solomon (1959). "Aristotle on Natural Law". Natural Law Forum. 4 (1): 72–100. doi:10.1093/ajj/4.1.72. 
"the father of scientific method": Shuttleworth, Martyn. "History of the Scientific Method". Explorable., Riccardo Pozzo (2004)  The impact of Aristotelianism on modern philosophy . CUA Press. p. 41. ISBN 0-8132-1347-9 
"the father of psychology": Margot Esther Borden, Psychology in the Light of the East, p. 4
"the father of realism": Russell L. Hamm, Philosophy and Education: Alternatives in Theory and Practice, p. 58
"the father of criticism": Nagendra Prasad, Personal Bias in Literary Criticism: Dr. Johnson, Matthew Arnold, T.S. Eliot, p. 70. Lord Henry Home Kames, Elements of Criticism, p. 237.
"the father of meteorology": "What is meteorology?". Meteorological Office.  "94.05.01: Meteorology". Archived from the original on 21 July 2016. Retrieved 16 June 2015. 
"the father of individualism": Allan Gotthelf, Gregory Salmieri, A Companion to Ayn Rand, p. 325.
"the father of teleology": Malcolm Owen Slavin, Daniel H. Kriegman, The Adaptive Design of the Human Psyche: Psychoanalysis, Evolutionary Biology, and the Therapeutic Process, p. 292. 
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  ^  Mayr 1982, pp. 90–91.
  ^  Mason 1979, p. 46.
  ^  Plutarch 1919, p. Part 1, 7:7.
  ^  Annas 2001, p. 252.
  ^  Mason 1979, p. 56.
  ^  Mayr 1985, pp. 90–94.
  ^  Sorabji 1990, pp. 20, 28, 35–36.
  ^  Sorabji 1990, pp. 233–724.
  ^  Lindberg 1992, p. 162.
  ^  Sorabji 1990, pp. 20–21, 28–29, 393–406, 407–408.
^    a       b    Kennedy-Day 1998.
  ^  Staley 1989.
  ^  Averroes 1953, p. III, 2, 43.
  ^  Nasr 1996, pp. 59–60.
^    a       b    Phyllis and Aristotle.
  ^  Hasse 2014.
  ^  Aquinas 2013.
  ^  Kuhn 2018.
  ^  Lagerlund.
  ^  Allen &amp; Fisher 2011, p. 17.
  ^  Aristotle Phyllis.
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  ^  Inferno, Canto XI, lines 70-115, Mandelbaum translation.
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  ^  Leon Simon, Aspects Of The Hebrew Genius: A Volume Of Essays On Jewish Literature And Thought (1910), p. 127.
  ^  Herbert A. Davidson, Herbert A. |q (Herbert Alan) Davidson, Professor of Hebrew Emeritus Herbert Davidson, Moses Maimonides: The Man and His Works, p. 98.
  ^  Menachem Kellner, Maimonides on Judaism and the Jewish People, p. 77.
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  ^  Machamer 2017.
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  ^  Darwin 1872, p. xiii
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  ^  Burns 2009, p. 2.
  ^  Sciabarra 1995, p. 12.
  ^  James P. Sterba, From Rationality to Equality, p. 94.
  ^  F. Novotny, The Posthumous Life of Plato, p. 573
  ^  Matt Vidal, Tony Smith, Tomás Rotta, Paul Prew, The Oxford Handbook of Karl Marx, p. 215.
  ^  Judith A. Swanson, C. David Corbin, Aristotle's 'Politics': A Reader's Guide, p. 146.
  ^  Dijksterhuis 1969, p. 72.
^    a       b    Leroi 2015, p. 353.
  ^  Medawar &amp; Medawar 1984, p. 28.
  ^  Knight 2007, pp. passim.
  ^  Leroi 2015.
  ^  MacDougall-Shackleton 2011, pp. 2076–2085.
  ^  Hladký &amp; Havlíček 2013.
  ^  Barnes 1995, p. 9.
  ^  Aristotelis Opera.
  ^  When libraries were 2001.
^    a       b    Barnes 1995, p. 12.
  ^  House 1956, p. 35.
  ^  Irwin &amp; Fine 1996, pp. xi–xii.
  ^  Cicero 1874.
  ^  Barnes &amp; Griffin 1999, pp. 1–69.
  ^  Anagnostopoulos 2013, p. 16.
  ^  Barnes 1995, pp. 10–15.
  ^  Lucas Cranach the Elder.
  ^  Lee &amp; Robinson 2005.
  ^  Aristotle with Bust 2002.
  ^  Phelan 2002.
  ^  Held 1969.
  ^  Jones 2002.
  ^  Aristotle Mountains.
  ^  Aristoteles.
 
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Further reading
The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following is only a small selection.
  Ackrill, J. L. (1997). Essays on Plato and Aristotle, Oxford University Press.
 Ackrill, J.L. (1981). Aristotle the Philosopher. Oxford University Press. 
  Adler, Mortimer J. (1978).  Aristotle for Everybody . Macmillan. 
 Ammonius (1991). Cohen, S. Marc; Matthews, Gareth B (eds.). On Aristotle's Categories. Cornell University Press. ISBN  978-0-8014-2688-9 . 
 Aristotle (1908–1952). The Works of Aristotle Translated into English Under the Editorship of W.D. Ross, 12 vols. Clarendon Press. These translations are available in several places online; see External links.
Bakalis, Nikolaos. (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4120-4843-9.
 Bocheński, I. M. (1951). Ancient Formal Logic. North-Holland. 
Bolotin, David (1998). An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing. Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scientific works.
 Burnyeat, Myles F. et al. (1979). Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics. Oxford: Sub-faculty of Philosophy.
 Cantor, Norman F.; Klein, Peter L., eds. (1969). Ancient Thought: Plato and Aristotle. Monuments of Western Thought. Vol. 1. Blaisdell. 
 Chappell, V. (1973). "Aristotle's Conception of Matter". Journal of Philosophy. 70 (19): 679–696. doi:10.2307/2025076. JSTOR 2025076. 
Code, Alan (1995). Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 76.
 Cohen, S. Marc; Reeve, C. D. C. (21 November 2020). "Aristotle's Metaphysics". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2020 ed.). 
 Ferguson, John (1972).  Aristotle . Twayne Publishers. ISBN  978-0-8057-2064-8 . 
De Groot, Jean (2014). Aristotle's Empiricism: Experience and Mechanics in the 4th century BC, Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-83-4.
Frede, Michael (1987). Essays in Ancient Philosophy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
  Fuller, B.A.G. (1923). Aristotle. History of Greek Philosophy. Vol. 3. Cape. 
 Gendlin, Eugene T. (2012).  Line by Line Commentary on Aristotle's De Anima Archived 27 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine , Volume 1: Books I &amp; II; Volume 2: Book III. The Focusing Institute.
Gill, Mary Louise (1989). Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity. Princeton University Press.
 Guthrie, W.K.C. (1981). A History of Greek Philosophy. Vol. 6. Cambridge University Press. 
 Halper, Edward C. (2009). One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 1: Books Alpha – Delta. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN  978-1-930972-21-6 . 
 Halper, Edward C. (2005). One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 2: The Central Books. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN  978-1-930972-05-6 . 
  Irwin, Terence H. (1988).  Aristotle's First Principles  (PDF). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN  0-19-824290-5 . 
 Jaeger, Werner (1948). Robinson, Richard (ed.). Aristotle: Fundamentals of the History of His Development (2nd ed.). Clarendon Press. 
 Jori, Alberto (2003). Aristotele, Bruno Mondadori (Prize 2003 of the "International Academy of the History of Science"), ISBN 978-88-424-9737-0.
 Kiernan, Thomas P., ed. (1962). Aristotle Dictionary. Philosophical Library. 
Knight, Kelvin (2007). Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre, Polity Press.
Lewis, Frank A. (1991). Substance and Predication in Aristotle. Cambridge University Press.
Lord, Carnes (1984). Introduction to The Politics, by Aristotle. Chicago University Press.
Loux, Michael J. (1991). Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Maso, Stefano (Ed.), Natali, Carlo (Ed.), Seel, Gerhard (Ed.) (2012) Reading Aristotle: Physics VII. 3: What is Alteration? Proceedings of the International ESAP-HYELE Conference, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-73-5.
 McKeon, Richard (1973). Introduction to Aristotle (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. 
 Owen, G. E. L. (1965c). "The Platonism of Aristotle". Proceedings of the British Academy. 50: 125–150. [Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R.R.K. Sorabji, eds.(1975). Articles on Aristotle Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth 14–34.]
 Pangle, Lorraine Smith (2002). Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511498282. ISBN  978-0-511-49828-2 . 
  Plato (1979). Allen, Harold Joseph; Wilbur, James B (eds.). The Worlds of Plato and Aristotle. Prometheus Books. 
Reeve, C. D. C. (2000). Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics. Hackett.
 Rose, Lynn E. (1968). Aristotle's Syllogistic. Charles C Thomas. 
  Ross, Sir David (1995). Aristotle (6th ed.). Routledge. 
Scaltsas, T. (1994). Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics. Cornell University Press.
Strauss, Leo (1964). "On Aristotle's Politics", in The City and Man, Rand McNally.
 Swanson, Judith (1992).  The Public and the Private in Aristotle's Political Philosophy . Cornell University Press. ISBN  978-0-8014-2319-2 . 
  Veatch, Henry B. (1974). Aristotle: A Contemporary Appreciation. Indiana University Press. 
 Woods, M. J. (1991b). "Universals and Particular Forms in Aristotle's Metaphysics". Aristotle and the Later Tradition. Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy. Vol. Suppl. pp. 41–56.  
External links
 
 Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article:
  
  Aristotle at PhilPapers 
 2553 Aristotle at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project 
At the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
     Aristotle (general article)   Biology   Ethics   Logic   Metaphysics   Motion and its Place in Nature   Poetics   Politics      
At the Internet Classics Archive 
From the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
     Aristotle (general article)   Aristotle in the Renaissance   Biology   Causality   Commentators on Aristotle   Ethics   Logic   Mathematics   Metaphysics   Natural philosophy   Non-contradiction   Political theory   Psychology   Rhetoric      
 Turner, William (1907). "Aristotle" .  Catholic Encyclopedia . Vol. 1. 
  Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). "The Peripatetics: Aristotle" .  Lives of the Eminent Philosophers . Vol. 1:5. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library.  
 Collections of works 
  Works by Aristotle in eBook form at Standard Ebooks 
At Massachusetts Institute of Technology 
 Works by Aristotle at Project Gutenberg 
 Works by or about Aristotle at Internet Archive 
 Works by Aristotle at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) 
 Works by Aristotle at Open Library 
(in English and Greek) Perseus Project at Tufts University 
At the University of Adelaide Archived 15 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine 
(in Greek and French) P. Remacle 
The 11-volume 1837 Bekker edition of Aristotle's Works in Greek (PDF · DJVU)
Aristotle - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutoring
Tutoring
2003-08-19
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<div><div>
<p><b>Tutoring</b> is private academic support, usually provided by an expert teacher; someone with deep knowledge or defined expertise in a particular subject or set of subjects. </p><figure><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jan_Lievens_(Dutch_-_Prince_Charles_Louis_of_the_Palatinate_with_his_Tutor_Wolrad_von_Plessen_in_Historical_Dress_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"></a><figcaption>Prince Charles Louis of the Palatinate with his Tutor Wolrad von Plessen in Historical Dress</figcaption></figure>
<figure><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Modern_Tutor.jpg"></a><figcaption>Modern tutor</figcaption></figure>
<p>A <b>tutor</b>, formally also called an <b>academic tutor</b>, is a person who provides assistance or tutelage to one or more people on certain subject areas or skills. The tutor spends a few hours on a daily, weekly, or monthly basis to transfer their expertise on the topic or skill to the student (also called a tutee). Tutoring can take place in different settings.
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<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_education">Formal education</a> is first attested among the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scribe">scribes</a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt">ancient Egypt</a> but, in most fields, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teacher">instruction</a> was traditionally handled on a personal basis, with most <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skill">skills</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profession">professions</a> long handed down within families or via <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apprenticeship">apprenticeship</a> until the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_era">modern era</a>. In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_antiquity">classical antiquity</a>, the lower classes could pay for instruction in group settings like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludus_(ancient_Rome)">ludi</a> but the upper classes preferred personalized home tutoring.<sup><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup> In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_China">ancient China</a>, some <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhou_dynasty_nobility">aristocratic</a> tutors like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucius">Confucius</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mencius">Mencius</a> attracted so many students that they established influential <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_philosophy">philosophies</a>. In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece">ancient Greece</a>, some <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophists">sophists</a> established lucrative careers teaching the important skills of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_speaking">public speaking</a> for the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athenian_Assembly">assembly</a> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_lawyers">courts</a>; in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato">Plato</a>'s <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogues_of_Plato">works</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates">Socrates</a> provides similar services for free while criticizing the sophists for their presumed lack of concern for actual <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth">truth</a> and understanding. In the case of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Romans">ancient Romans</a>, the education of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patricians">patricians</a> and wealthy <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plebeians">plebeians</a> was frequently provided by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greeks">Greek</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome">slaves</a>. 
</p><p><b>Royal tutors</b>, the personal instructors of future <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarch">rulers</a>, have always enjoyed importance and prestige. In particular, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Tutor">Grand Tutor</a> (, <i>tàifù</i>) was one of the three great <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gong_(title)">lords</a> of the royal court of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhou_dynasty">Zhou</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Chinese_dynasties">dynasty</a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_China">ancient China</a>. Similar positions remained in very high importance across <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asia">East Asia</a> into the modern era.
</p><p>By some accounting, methods of tutoring only began to become more structured after the 20th century<sup>[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement"></a> </i>]</sup> through focus and specialization in the training of tutors, application of tutoring, and evaluation of tutors.<sup><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> From the 20th century onwards, with the rapid spread of mainstream education, the demand for tutoring has also increased as a way to supplement formal education.
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<p>In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Britain">British</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland">Irish</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_school">secondary schools</a>, <i>form tutors</i> are given the responsibilities of a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Form_(education)">form</a> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_(education)">class</a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student">students</a> in a particular year group (up to 30 students).<sup>[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"></a></i>]</sup> They usually work in year teams headed by a year leader, year head, or guidance teacher. Form tutors will provide parents with most of the information about their child's progress and any problems they might be experiencing.<sup>[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>In the United Kingdom and Ireland, private tutoring, outside school, is common for students who need extra support in one or more subjects, particularly leading up to exams. In Ireland this is known as <b>grinds</b>.
</p><p>In the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universities_in_the_United_Kingdom">British higher education system</a>, a tutor is a general term for someone delivering tutorials, individually or in small groups. See <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutorial_system">tutorial system</a>.
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<p>A 2012 study by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_Development_Bank">Asian Development Bank</a> and the Comparative Education Research Centre at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Hong_Kong">University of Hong Kong</a> pointed out that private tutoring can dominate the lives of young people and their families, maintain and exacerbate social inequalities, divert needed household income into an unregulated industry, and create inefficiencies in education systems. It can also undermine official statements about fee-free education and create threats to social cohesion.<sup><a href="#cite_note-adb-3">[3]</a></sup>
</p><p>In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea">South Korea</a>, nearly 90% of elementary students receive some sort of shadow education, termed there as Hagwon.<sup><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> In Hong Kong, about 85% of senior secondary students do so.<sup><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> 60% of primary students in West Bengal, India,<sup><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup> and 60% of secondary students in Kazakhstan receive private tutoring.<sup><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup>
</p><p>Demand for tutoring in Asia is exploding; by comparison globally, shadow education is most extensive in Asia. This is partly due to the stratification of education systems, cultural factors, perceptions of shortcomings in regular school systems, and the combination of growing wealth and smaller family sizes.<sup><a href="#cite_note-adb-3">[3]</a></sup> Therefore, the education sector has become a profitable industry which businesses have created different kinds of products and advertisement such as "the king/queen of tutorial", a usual advertisement tactic of Hong Kong tutorial centers that has spread to South Korea, Thailand, Sri Lanka and India where tutors achieve "celebrity-like status".<sup><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> In some cases, successful Southeast Asian tutors will even embrace the title of "tutor". Online private tutor matching platform and online learning platform offering online learning materials are other creations.
</p><p>In Cambodia, most tutoring is provided by teachers,<sup><a href="#cite_note-DawsonWalter-9">[9]</a></sup> whereas in Hong Kong, it is provided by individuals, small companies or large companies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup> In Mongolia, most tutoring is labor-intensive,<sup><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup> while entrepreneurs in South Korea make use of computers and other forms of technology.<sup><a href="#cite_note-adb-3">[3]</a></sup>
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<p>A 2012 study by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_Development_Bank">Asian Development Bank</a> and the Comparative Education Research Centre at the University of Hong Kong recommended policymakers across the region take a closer look at how ‘shadow education’ affects family budgets, children's time, and national education systems. It suggested that in order to reduce the need for private lessons, improvements in mainstream schools should be made. Regulations are also needed to protect citizens.<sup><a href="#cite_note-adb-3">[3]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 24 July 2021, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_Reduction_Policy">the Double reduction policy</a> got promulgated jointly by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Office_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party">General Office of the Chinese Communist Party</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Council_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China">State Council of the People's Republic of China</a>. The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_Reduction_Policy">double reduction policy</a> reclassified tutoring institutions in China as non-profit organizations, which solved the over-reliance of Chinese students on after-school tutoring classes, and reduced the additional financial burden on Chinese families.<sup><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup> Chinese families spend 40 to 50 percent of their total domestic spending on tutoring. The double reduction policy's regulation of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow_education">shadow education</a> has improved the quality of school curriculum during <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compulsory_education">the compulsory education</a> period and relieved the inequality of educational resources caused by the economic gap.
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<p>Some studies have estimated costs associated with "shadow education". In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, expenditures on tutoring per child averaged $3.40 a month in 2011. In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India">India</a>, average spending was lower, but still equated to about $12.51 per month.<sup><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup>
</p><p>In Georgia, household expenditures for private tutoring at the secondary school level was $48 million in 2011.<sup><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup> In Hong Kong, the business of providing private tutoring to secondary schools reached $255 million in 2011.<sup><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup>
</p><p>In India, a 2008 survey estimated the size of the private tutoring sector to be $6.4 billion.<sup><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup> In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan">Japan</a>, families spent $12 billion in 2010 on private tutoring.<sup><a href="#cite_note-DawsonWalter-9">[9]</a></sup>
</p><p>In South Korea, where the government has attempted to cool down the private tutoring market, shadow education costs have nonetheless continually grown, reaching $17.3 billion in 2010. Household expenditures on private tutoring are equivalent to about 80% of government expenditures on public education for primary and secondary students.<sup><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the United States, the tutoring market is fragmented. Some online tutoring marketplaces, however, have managed to aggregate a large number of private tutors on their platform and also tutoring data. For example, one such site has over 34,000 registered tutors in California and made public their tutoring hourly rate data.<sup><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup><sup>[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>In the United Kingdom, the cost of tuition is dependent upon a variety of factors such as subject, level (Key Stages, GCSE or A-Level), tutor experience and whether the lesson takes place virtually or in person. If you are looking to receive online tutoring from a qualified UK teacher with a verified certificate it will cost between £30 &amp; 40 per hour. It is also common in the UK to apply for tutoring sessions through your local school if you are struggling to help subsidise the cost through the National Tuition Programme.<sup><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup>
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<p>Research supports the literature that students who seek and receive tutoring services outperformed their counterparts.<sup><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup> However, private tutoring is not always effective in raising academic achievement; and in some schools students commonly skip classes or sleep through lessons because they are tired after excessive external study. This means that the shadow system can make regular schooling less efficient.<sup><a href="#cite_note-adb-3">[3]</a></sup>
</p><p>In many countries, individuals can become tutors without training. In some countries, including Cambodia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Lao PDR, and Tajikistan, the pattern of classroom teachers supplementing their incomes by tutoring students after school hours is more a necessity than a choice, as many teachers’ salaries hover close to the poverty line.<sup><a href="#cite_note-adb-3">[3]</a></sup>
</p><p>In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea">South Korea</a>, the number of private tutors expanded roughly 7.1% annually on average from 2001 to 2006, and by 2009 the sector was the largest employer of graduates from the humanities and social sciences.<sup><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup>
</p><p>Teachers who spend more time focusing on private lessons than regular classes can cause greater inefficiencies in the mainstream school system. Situations in which teachers provide extra private lessons for pupils for whom they are already responsible in the public system can lead to corruption, particularly when teachers deliberately teach less in their regular classes in order to promote the market for private lessons.<sup><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup>
</p><p>When private tutoring is provided by well trained tutor however the effects can be dramatic, with pupils improving performance by two standard deviations.<sup><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup> See also <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloom%27s_2_Sigma_Problem">Bloom's 2 Sigma Problem</a>.
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<p>There can be an existing overlap between different types of tutoring with respect to the setting or location of tutoring, the size of tutor-learner pairings/groups, and the method of tutoring provided, for example, one-on-one peer tutoring can take place through online tutoring. Tutoring is typically private since it is exists independent of the system of public and private education, that is, one can be enrolled in public/private schooling and attend private tutoring services.
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<p>Academic coaching is a type of mentoring applied to academics. Coaching involves a collaborative approach. Coaches try to help students learn how they best learn and how to operate in an academic environment. Tutors help students learn the material in individual courses while coaches help students learn how to be successful in school. In college, that includes such topics as: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Study_skills">study skills</a>, time management, stress management, effective reading, note-taking, test-taking, and understanding how to use a syllabus. Academic coaches meet with the student regularly throughout the semester. Coaches work with students in all kinds of situations, not just those who are struggling academically. Academic coaching also serves to help students prepare for entrance exams to gain entry to schools or universities, and it is particularly popular in Asia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup> For example, in India, a majority of students, be it of any class or stream, visit a coaching center or a "study circle."<sup><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup>
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<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In-home_tutoring">In-home tutoring</a> is a form of tutoring that occurs in the home. Most often the tutoring relates to an academic subject or test preparation. This is in contrast to tutoring centers or tutoring provided through after-school programs. The service most often involves one-on-one attention provided to the pupil. Due to the informal and private nature of in-home tutoring, there is limited substantial or conclusive information on in-home tutoring.
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<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_tutoring">Online tutoring</a> is another way for a student to receive academic help, either scheduled or on-demand. Sessions are done through an application where a student and tutor can communicate. Common tools include chat, whiteboard, web conferencing, teleconferencing, online videos and other specialized applets which make it easier to convey information back and forth. Online tutoring has relatively recently emerged as a mechanism to provide tutoring services in contrast to more traditional in-person teaching. Paired with in-person tutoring, some of the benefits include the opportunity for learning motivation growth for both the tutor and the tutee.<sup><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup>
</p><p>Online tutoring is now a very popular way for students at top higher education institutions to earn money to support their studies during term time, but not all universities are in favour of this.<sup><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup>
</p><p>One of the potential drawbacks of online tutoring stems from the influx or sensory overload of information from different materials. "For example, material presented in multiple modalities run the risk of interrupting the learner from a coherent learning experience, of imposing a “split attention” effect (the mind cannot concentrate on two things simultaneously), or of overloading the learner's limited supply of cognitive resources."<sup><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup>
</p><p>The tutor ensures the development of individual educational programs for students and accompanies the process of individualization and individual education at school, university, in additional education systems.
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<p>Peer tutoring refers to the method of tutoring that involves members of the same peer group teaching or tutoring one another. The characteristics of a peer tutoring group/pairing vary across age, socioeconomic class, gender, ethnicity. It has been defined as "a class of practices and strategies that employs peers as one-on-one teachers to provide individualized instruction, practice, repetition, and clarification of concepts"<sup><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup>
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<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19">COVID-19</a> negatively affected the academic success of students around the world.<sup><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup> Some countries (and at least one US state) initiated special tutoring programs to reduce this impact. A knock-on was the significant growth of the private online tutoring industry as parents tried to reduce the impact of missed classes.<sup><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup>
</p><p>In May 2020, the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Haslam">Bill and Crissy Haslam</a> Foundation</i>, in partnership with organizations such as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boys_%26_Girls_Clubs_of_America">Boys &amp; Girls Clubs</a> in the State of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennessee">Tennessee</a>, launched the <i>Tennessee Tutoring Corps</i> to recruit at least 1,000 qualified college tutors to help the most vulnerable K-6th grade students.<sup><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup> Some prominent education researchers have called on the U.S. to dramatically expand tutoring programs through organizations such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AmeriCorps">AmeriCorps</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup>
</p><p>In June 2020, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_the_Netherlands">Dutch Government</a> was the first country to announce a plan to allocate the equivalent of $278 million US to provide extra school support such as summer schools, extended school days, and tutoring. The Ministry of Education proposed to recruit specially trained student-teachers to provide the tutoring.<sup><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup>
</p><p>Also in June 2020, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_the_United_Kingdom">British Government</a> announced plans to spend £1 billion on an education "catch-up plan".<sup><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup> State primary and secondary schools will split £650 million in additional funding for the 2020-21 academic year to help their pupils catch up on education missed as a result of the coronavirus pandemic. Schools will have discretion on how the funds are used, however the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_for_Education">Department for Education</a> said it expects them to spend some of it on small group tutoring "for whoever needs it". The remaining £350 million will pay for the establishment of a "National Tutoring Programme", giving schools access to subsidised tutoring sessions and free coaches for up to two million disadvantaged pupils.
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<p>Studies have found that peer tutoring provides academic benefits for learners across the subject areas of "reading, mathematics, science, and social studies"<sup><a href="#cite_note-auto-39">[39]</a></sup> Peer tutoring has also been found to be an effective teaching method in enhancing the reading comprehension skills of students, especially that of students with a low academic performance at the secondary level in schools. Additionally, peer tutoring has been proven especially useful for those with learning disabilities at the elementary level, while there is mixed evidence showing the effectiveness of peer tutoring for those at the secondary level.<sup><a href="#cite_note-auto-39">[39]</a></sup>
</p><p>One study suggests that phonologically based reading instruction for first-graders at risk for learning disability can be delivered by non-teachers. In the study, non-certified tutors gave students intensive one-to-one tutoring for 30 minutes, 4 days a week for one school year. The students outperformed untutored control students on measures of reading, spelling, and decoding; with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effect_size">effect sizes</a> ranging from .42 to 1.24. The tutoring included instruction in phonological skills, letter-sound correspondence, explicit decoding, rime analysis, writing, spelling, and reading phonetically controlled text. Although the effects diminished at the end of second grade, the tutored students continued to significantly outperform untutored students in decoding and spelling.<sup><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup>
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<p>Although certain types of tutoring arrangements can require a salary for the tutor, typically tutoring is free of cost and thus financially affordable for learners. The cost-effectiveness of tutoring can prove to be especially beneficial for learners from low-income backgrounds or resource-strapped regions.<sup><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup> In contrast, paid tutoring arrangements can create or further highlight socioeconomic disparities between low-income, middle-income and high-income populations. A study found that access to private tutoring was less financially affordable for low-income families, who thus benefited less from private tutoring as compared to high-income populations, who had the resources to profit from private tutoring.<sup><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup>
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<p>Tutoring has also emerged as a supplement to public and private schooling in many countries. The supplementary nature of tutoring is a feature in the domain of what some scholars have termed "shadow education".<sup><a href="#cite_note-:3-43">[43]</a></sup> Shadow education has been defined as "a set of educational activities that occur out side formal schooling and are designed to enhance the student's formal school career."<sup><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup> The term "shadow" has four components to it: firstly, the existence of and need for tutoring is produced by the existence of the formal education system; secondly, the formal education system is the mainstream system and thus tutoring is its shadow; thirdly, the focus remains on mainstream education in schools; fourthly, tutoring is largely informal and unstructured as compared to formal or mainstream education.<sup><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup> As a consequence of the popularity of shadow education, private tutoring can sometimes overshadow mainstream education with more priority given to enrolling in private tutoring centers. Mark Bray claims that "Especially near the time of major external examinations, schools in some countries may be perceived by pupils to be less able to cater for their specific needs."<sup><a href="#cite_note-:3-43">[43]</a></sup>
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<p>In a 2009 research performed by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Education_Sciences">Institute of Education Sciences</a>, statistics show that for the 2006–07 years, only 22 percent of students received tutoring services out of the 60 percent of those whose parents reported receiving information about the services. Conversely, only 13 percent of students receive tutoring services out of the 43 percent whose parents reported not receiving information about the services.<sup><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup>
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<p>A <b>tutoring agency</b> is a business that acts as an intermediary between people who are looking for tutors and tutors wishing to offer their services. The term <b>tuition agency</b> is an alternative term, used specifically in Singapore and Malaysia.
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<p>Tutoring agencies are common in many countries including Australia, Canada, Malaysia, Singapore, the UAE, the U.K. and the U.S.A., although it is not regulated in most countries.<sup>[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>In the UK, after much discussion in the media, a limited company was set up in October 2013.<sup>[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"></a></i>]</sup> The Tutors' Association was previously named The London Association Of Certified Financial Analysts.<sup>[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>In Singapore, tutoring agencies, also known as tuition agencies, are not regulated by the Ministry of Education.<sup><a href="#cite_note-unregasiaone-47">[47]</a></sup>
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<p>In Singapore, parents and students have positive as well as negative comments.<sup><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup>
</p><p>Tutoring centers (tuition centers) must be registered with the Singapore Ministry of Education. However, tutoring agencies are not. Instead, tutoring agencies are required to register with the Accounting and Corporate Regulatory Authority (ACRA) under the Business Registration Act. There is a history of poor compliance and consumer complaints.<sup><a href="#cite_note-unregasiaone-47">[47]</a></sup>
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<table>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Name</th>
<th>Short name</th>
<th>Website</th>
<th>Operating area
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>Association for the Coaching and Tutoring Profession</td>
<td>ACTP</td>
<td><a href="https://myatp.org">[1]</a></td>
<td>USA
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>American Tutoring Association</td>
<td>ATA</td>
<td><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201128112753/http://www.americantutoringassociation.org/">[2]</a></td>
<td>USA
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Tutoring_Association">National Tutoring Association</a></td>
<td>NTA</td>
<td><a href="https://www.ntatutor.com">[3]</a></td>
<td>USA
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>The Tutors' Association</td>
<td>TTA</td>
<td><a href="https://thetutorsassociation.org.uk">[4]</a></td>
<td>UK
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Australian Tutoring Association</td>
<td>ATA</td>
<td><a href="https://ata.edu.au">[5]</a></td>
<td>Australia
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h2></h2>
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cram_school">Cram school</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homework_coach">Homework coach</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_by_teaching">Learning by teaching</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mentorship">Mentorship</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer-mediated_instruction">Peer-mediated instruction</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teacher">Teacher</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuition_agency">Tuition agency</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutorial">Tutorial</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_education">Virtual education</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_Reduction_Policy">Double Reduction Policy</a></li></ul>
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</div></div>||||I||||Jump to content
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 Contents

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 * (Top)
 * 1 History
 * 2 British and Irish secondary schools
 * 3 Private tutoring in Asia
 Toggle Private tutoring in Asia subsection
 + 3.1 Policy
 * 4 Costs of tutoring
 * 5 Effectiveness
 * 6 Types of tutoring
 Toggle Types of tutoring subsection
 + 6.1 Academic coaching
 + 6.2 Home-based tutoring
 + 6.3 Online tutoring
 + 6.4 Peer tutoring
 + 6.5 Tutoring response to COVID-19
 * 7 Effects
 Toggle Effects subsection
 + 7.1 Academic performance
 + 7.2 Economic effects
 * 8 Issues
 Toggle Issues subsection
 + 8.1 Tutoring as "shadow education"
 + 8.2 Disproportionate use of tutoring services
 * 9 Tutoring agency
 Toggle Tutoring agency subsection
 + 9.1 Tutoring around the world
 + 9.2 Controversies
 * 10 Professional associations
 * 11 See also
 * 12 References
 Toggle the table of contents

 Tutoring

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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 For other uses, see Tutor (disambiguation).

 Tutoring is private academic support, usually provided by an expert teacher; someone with deep knowledge or defined expertise in a particular subject or set of subjects.

 Prince Charles Louis of the Palatinate with his Tutor Wolrad von Plessen in Historical Dress

 Modern tutor

 A tutor, formally also called an academic tutor, is a person who provides assistance or tutelage to one or more people on certain subject areas or skills. The tutor spends a few hours on a daily, weekly, or monthly basis to transfer their expertise on the topic or skill to the student (also called a tutee). Tutoring can take place in different settings.

 History [ edit ]

 Main articles: History of education and Education of the British royal family

 Formal education is first attested among the scribes of ancient Egypt but, in most fields, instruction was traditionally handled on a personal basis, with most skills and professions long handed down within families or via apprenticeship until the modern era. In classical antiquity, the lower classes could pay for instruction in group settings like ludi but the upper classes preferred personalized home tutoring.[1] In ancient China, some aristocratic tutors like Confucius and Mencius attracted so many students that they established influential philosophies. In ancient Greece, some sophists established lucrative careers teaching the important skills of public speaking for the assembly or courts; in Plato's works, Socrates provides similar services for free while criticizing the sophists for their presumed lack of concern for actual truth and understanding. In the case of the ancient Romans, the education of the patricians and wealthy plebeians was frequently provided by Greek slaves.

 Royal tutors, the personal instructors of future rulers, have always enjoyed importance and prestige. In particular, the Grand Tutor (太傅, tàifù) was one of the three great lords of the royal court of the Zhou dynasty of ancient China. Similar positions remained in very high importance across East Asia into the modern era.

 By some accounting, methods of tutoring only began to become more structured after the 20th century[ dubious – discuss] through focus and specialization in the training of tutors, application of tutoring, and evaluation of tutors.[2] From the 20th century onwards, with the rapid spread of mainstream education, the demand for tutoring has also increased as a way to supplement formal education.

 British and Irish secondary schools [ edit ]

 See also: Teaching assistant (United Kingdom)

 In British and Irish secondary schools, form tutors are given the responsibilities of a form or class of students in a particular year group (up to 30 students).[ citation needed ] They usually work in year teams headed by a year leader, year head, or guidance teacher. Form tutors will provide parents with most of the information about their child's progress and any problems they might be experiencing.[ citation needed ]

 In the United Kingdom and Ireland, private tutoring, outside school, is common for students who need extra support in one or more subjects, particularly leading up to exams. In Ireland this is known as grinds.

 In the British higher education system, a tutor is a general term for someone delivering tutorials, individually or in small groups. See tutorial system.

 Private tutoring in Asia [ edit ]

 A 2012 study by the Asian Development Bank and the Comparative Education Research Centre at the University of Hong Kong pointed out that private tutoring can dominate the lives of young people and their families, maintain and exacerbate social inequalities, divert needed household income into an unregulated industry, and create inefficiencies in education systems. It can also undermine official statements about fee-free education and create threats to social cohesion.[3]

 In South Korea, nearly 90% of elementary students receive some sort of shadow education, termed there as Hagwon.[4] In Hong Kong, about 85% of senior secondary students do so.[5] 60% of primary students in West Bengal, India,[6] and 60% of secondary students in Kazakhstan receive private tutoring.[7]

 Demand for tutoring in Asia is exploding; by comparison globally, shadow education is most extensive in Asia. This is partly due to the stratification of education systems, cultural factors, perceptions of shortcomings in regular school systems, and the combination of growing wealth and smaller family sizes.[3] Therefore, the education sector has become a profitable industry which businesses have created different kinds of products and advertisement such as "the king/queen of tutorial", a usual advertisement tactic of Hong Kong tutorial centers that has spread to South Korea, Thailand, Sri Lanka and India where tutors achieve "celebrity-like status".[8] In some cases, successful Southeast Asian tutors will even embrace the title of "tutor". Online private tutor matching platform and online learning platform offering online learning materials are other creations.

 In Cambodia, most tutoring is provided by teachers,[9] whereas in Hong Kong, it is provided by individuals, small companies or large companies.[10] In Mongolia, most tutoring is labor-intensive,[11] while entrepreneurs in South Korea make use of computers and other forms of technology.[3]

 Policy [ edit ]

 A 2012 study by the Asian Development Bank and the Comparative Education Research Centre at the University of Hong Kong recommended policymakers across the region take a closer look at how ‘shadow education’ affects family budgets, children's time, and national education systems. It suggested that in order to reduce the need for private lessons, improvements in mainstream schools should be made. Regulations are also needed to protect citizens.[3]

 On 24 July 2021, the Double reduction policy got promulgated jointly by the General Office of the Chinese Communist Party and the State Council of the People's Republic of China. The double reduction policy reclassified tutoring institutions in China as non-profit organizations, which solved the over-reliance of Chinese students on after-school tutoring classes, and reduced the additional financial burden on Chinese families.[12][13] Chinese families spend 40 to 50 percent of their total domestic spending on tutoring. The double reduction policy's regulation of shadow education has improved the quality of school curriculum during the compulsory education period and relieved the inequality of educational resources caused by the economic gap.

 Costs of tutoring [ edit ]

 Some studies have estimated costs associated with "shadow education". In Pakistan, expenditures on tutoring per child averaged $3.40 a month in 2011. In India, average spending was lower, but still equated to about $12.51 per month.[14]

 In Georgia, household expenditures for private tutoring at the secondary school level was $48 million in 2011.[15] In Hong Kong, the business of providing private tutoring to secondary schools reached $255 million in 2011.[16]

 In India, a 2008 survey estimated the size of the private tutoring sector to be $6.4 billion.[17] In Japan, families spent $12 billion in 2010 on private tutoring.[9]

 In South Korea, where the government has attempted to cool down the private tutoring market, shadow education costs have nonetheless continually grown, reaching $17.3 billion in 2010. Household expenditures on private tutoring are equivalent to about 80% of government expenditures on public education for primary and secondary students.[18]

 In the United States, the tutoring market is fragmented. Some online tutoring marketplaces, however, have managed to aggregate a large number of private tutors on their platform and also tutoring data. For example, one such site has over 34,000 registered tutors in California and made public their tutoring hourly rate data.[19][ failed verification ]

 In the United Kingdom, the cost of tuition is dependent upon a variety of factors such as subject, level (Key Stages, GCSE or A-Level), tutor experience and whether the lesson takes place virtually or in person. If you are looking to receive online tutoring from a qualified UK teacher with a verified certificate it will cost between £30 & 40 per hour. It is also common in the UK to apply for tutoring sessions through your local school if you are struggling to help subsidise the cost through the National Tuition Programme.[20]

 Effectiveness [ edit ]

 Research supports the literature that students who seek and receive tutoring services outperformed their counterparts.[21] However, private tutoring is not always effective in raising academic achievement; and in some schools students commonly skip classes or sleep through lessons because they are tired after excessive external study. This means that the shadow system can make regular schooling less efficient.[3]

 In many countries, individuals can become tutors without training. In some countries, including Cambodia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Lao PDR, and Tajikistan, the pattern of classroom teachers supplementing their incomes by tutoring students after school hours is more a necessity than a choice, as many teachers’ salaries hover close to the poverty line.[3]

 In South Korea, the number of private tutors expanded roughly 7.1% annually on average from 2001 to 2006, and by 2009 the sector was the largest employer of graduates from the humanities and social sciences.[22]

 Teachers who spend more time focusing on private lessons than regular classes can cause greater inefficiencies in the mainstream school system. Situations in which teachers provide extra private lessons for pupils for whom they are already responsible in the public system can lead to corruption, particularly when teachers deliberately teach less in their regular classes in order to promote the market for private lessons.[23]

 When private tutoring is provided by well trained tutor however the effects can be dramatic, with pupils improving performance by two standard deviations.[24][25] See also Bloom's 2 Sigma Problem.

 Types of tutoring [ edit ]

 There can be an existing overlap between different types of tutoring with respect to the setting or location of tutoring, the size of tutor-learner pairings/groups, and the method of tutoring provided, for example, one-on-one peer tutoring can take place through online tutoring. Tutoring is typically private since it is exists independent of the system of public and private education, that is, one can be enrolled in public/private schooling and attend private tutoring services.

 Academic coaching [ edit ]

 Academic coaching is a type of mentoring applied to academics. Coaching involves a collaborative approach. Coaches try to help students learn how they best learn and how to operate in an academic environment. Tutors help students learn the material in individual courses while coaches help students learn how to be successful in school. In college, that includes such topics as: study skills, time management, stress management, effective reading, note-taking, test-taking, and understanding how to use a syllabus. Academic coaches meet with the student regularly throughout the semester. Coaches work with students in all kinds of situations, not just those who are struggling academically. Academic coaching also serves to help students prepare for entrance exams to gain entry to schools or universities, and it is particularly popular in Asia.[26] For example, in India, a majority of students, be it of any class or stream, visit a coaching center or a "study circle."[27]

 Home-based tutoring [ edit ]

 Main article: In-home tutoring

 In-home tutoring is a form of tutoring that occurs in the home. Most often the tutoring relates to an academic subject or test preparation. This is in contrast to tutoring centers or tutoring provided through after-school programs. The service most often involves one-on-one attention provided to the pupil. Due to the informal and private nature of in-home tutoring, there is limited substantial or conclusive information on in-home tutoring.

 Online tutoring [ edit ]

 Main article: Online tutoring

 Online tutoring is another way for a student to receive academic help, either scheduled or on-demand. Sessions are done through an application where a student and tutor can communicate. Common tools include chat, whiteboard, web conferencing, teleconferencing, online videos and other specialized applets which make it easier to convey information back and forth. Online tutoring has relatively recently emerged as a mechanism to provide tutoring services in contrast to more traditional in-person teaching. Paired with in-person tutoring, some of the benefits include the opportunity for learning motivation growth for both the tutor and the tutee.[28]

 Online tutoring is now a very popular way for students at top higher education institutions to earn money to support their studies during term time, but not all universities are in favour of this.[29]

 One of the potential drawbacks of online tutoring stems from the influx or sensory overload of information from different materials. "For example, material presented in multiple modalities run the risk of interrupting the learner from a coherent learning experience, of imposing a “split attention” effect (the mind cannot concentrate on two things simultaneously), or of overloading the learner's limited supply of cognitive resources."[30]

 The tutor ensures the development of individual educational programs for students and accompanies the process of individualization and individual education at school, university, in additional education systems.

 Peer tutoring [ edit ]

 Peer tutoring refers to the method of tutoring that involves members of the same peer group teaching or tutoring one another. The characteristics of a peer tutoring group/pairing vary across age, socioeconomic class, gender, ethnicity. It has been defined as "a class of practices and strategies that employs peers as one-on-one teachers to provide individualized instruction, practice, repetition, and clarification of concepts"[31]

 Tutoring response to COVID-19 [ edit ]

 COVID-19 negatively affected the academic success of students around the world.[32] Some countries (and at least one US state) initiated special tutoring programs to reduce this impact. A knock-on was the significant growth of the private online tutoring industry as parents tried to reduce the impact of missed classes.[33]

 In May 2020, the Bill and Crissy Haslam Foundation, in partnership with organizations such as the Boys & Girls Clubs in the State of Tennessee, launched the Tennessee Tutoring Corps to recruit at least 1,000 qualified college tutors to help the most vulnerable K-6th grade students.[34] Some prominent education researchers have called on the U.S. to dramatically expand tutoring programs through organizations such as AmeriCorps.[35]

 In June 2020, the Dutch Government was the first country to announce a plan to allocate the equivalent of $278 million US to provide extra school support such as summer schools, extended school days, and tutoring. The Ministry of Education proposed to recruit specially trained student-teachers to provide the tutoring.[36]

 Also in June 2020, the British Government announced plans to spend £1 billion on an education "catch-up plan".[37][38] State primary and secondary schools will split £650 million in additional funding for the 2020-21 academic year to help their pupils catch up on education missed as a result of the coronavirus pandemic. Schools will have discretion on how the funds are used, however the Department for Education said it expects them to spend some of it on small group tutoring "for whoever needs it". The remaining £350 million will pay for the establishment of a "National Tutoring Programme", giving schools access to subsidised tutoring sessions and free coaches for up to two million disadvantaged pupils.

 Effects [ edit ]

 Academic performance [ edit ]

 Studies have found that peer tutoring provides academic benefits for learners across the subject areas of "reading, mathematics, science, and social studies"[39] Peer tutoring has also been found to be an effective teaching method in enhancing the reading comprehension skills of students, especially that of students with a low academic performance at the secondary level in schools. Additionally, peer tutoring has been proven especially useful for those with learning disabilities at the elementary level, while there is mixed evidence showing the effectiveness of peer tutoring for those at the secondary level.[39]

 One study suggests that phonologically based reading instruction for first-graders at risk for learning disability can be delivered by non-teachers. In the study, non-certified tutors gave students intensive one-to-one tutoring for 30 minutes, 4 days a week for one school year. The students outperformed untutored control students on measures of reading, spelling, and decoding; with effect sizes ranging from .42 to 1.24. The tutoring included instruction in phonological skills, letter-sound correspondence, explicit decoding, rime analysis, writing, spelling, and reading phonetically controlled text. Although the effects diminished at the end of second grade, the tutored students continued to significantly outperform untutored students in decoding and spelling.[40]

 Economic effects [ edit ]

 Although certain types of tutoring arrangements can require a salary for the tutor, typically tutoring is free of cost and thus financially affordable for learners. The cost-effectiveness of tutoring can prove to be especially beneficial for learners from low-income backgrounds or resource-strapped regions.[41] In contrast, paid tutoring arrangements can create or further highlight socioeconomic disparities between low-income, middle-income and high-income populations. A study found that access to private tutoring was less financially affordable for low-income families, who thus benefited less from private tutoring as compared to high-income populations, who had the resources to profit from private tutoring.[42]

 Issues [ edit ]

 Tutoring as "shadow education" [ edit ]

 Tutoring has also emerged as a supplement to public and private schooling in many countries. The supplementary nature of tutoring is a feature in the domain of what some scholars have termed "shadow education".[43] Shadow education has been defined as "a set of educational activities that occur out side formal schooling and are designed to enhance the student's formal school career."[44] The term "shadow" has four components to it: firstly, the existence of and need for tutoring is produced by the existence of the formal education system; secondly, the formal education system is the mainstream system and thus tutoring is its shadow; thirdly, the focus remains on mainstream education in schools; fourthly, tutoring is largely informal and unstructured as compared to formal or mainstream education.[45] As a consequence of the popularity of shadow education, private tutoring can sometimes overshadow mainstream education with more priority given to enrolling in private tutoring centers. Mark Bray claims that "Especially near the time of major external examinations, schools in some countries may be perceived by pupils to be less able to cater for their specific needs."[43]

 Disproportionate use of tutoring services [ edit ]

 In a 2009 research performed by the Institute of Education Sciences, statistics show that for the 2006–07 years, only 22 percent of students received tutoring services out of the 60 percent of those whose parents reported receiving information about the services. Conversely, only 13 percent of students receive tutoring services out of the 43 percent whose parents reported not receiving information about the services.[46]

 Tutoring agency [ edit ]

 A tutoring agency is a business that acts as an intermediary between people who are looking for tutors and tutors wishing to offer their services. The term tuition agency is an alternative term, used specifically in Singapore and Malaysia.

 Tutoring around the world [ edit ]

 Tutoring agencies are common in many countries including Australia, Canada, Malaysia, Singapore, the UAE, the U.K. and the U.S.A., although it is not regulated in most countries.[ citation needed ]

 In the UK, after much discussion in the media, a limited company was set up in October 2013.[ citation needed ] The Tutors' Association was previously named The London Association Of Certified Financial Analysts.[ citation needed ]

 In Singapore, tutoring agencies, also known as tuition agencies, are not regulated by the Ministry of Education.[47]

 Controversies [ edit ]

 In Singapore, parents and students have positive as well as negative comments.[48]

 Tutoring centers (tuition centers) must be registered with the Singapore Ministry of Education. However, tutoring agencies are not. Instead, tutoring agencies are required to register with the Accounting and Corporate Regulatory Authority (ACRA) under the Business Registration Act. There is a history of poor compliance and consumer complaints.[47]

 Professional associations [ edit ]

 Name Short name Website Operating area
 Association for the Coaching and Tutoring Profession ACTP [1] USA 
 American Tutoring Association ATA [2] USA 
 National Tutoring Association NTA [3] USA 
 The Tutors' Association TTA [4] UK 
 Australian Tutoring Association ATA [5] Australia 
 

 See also [ edit ]

 * Cram school
 * Homework coach
 * Learning by teaching
 * Mentorship
 * Peer-mediated instruction
 * Teacher
 * Tuition agency
 * Tutorial
 * Virtual education
 * Double Reduction Policy

 References [ edit ]

 1. ^ "Educational Process in Ancient Rome Schools" (PDF) . European Journal of Contemporary Education. 8 (2). 2019-06-12. doi:10.13187/ejced.2019.2.425.
 2. ^ Gardner, Ralph; Nobel, Michele M.; Hessler, Terri; Yawn, Christopher D.; Heron, Timothy E. (2007). "Tutoring System Innovations". Intervention in School and Clinic. 43 (2): 71–81. doi:10.1177/10534512070430020701. S2CID 144344409.
 3. ^ a b c d e f ADB Study Highlights Dark Side of 'Shadow Education' , Shadow Education: Private Supplementary Tutoring and its Implications for Policy Makers in Asia.
 4. ^ Kim, Kyung-Keun. 2010. "Educational Equality", in Lee, Chong Jae; Kim, Seong-yul & Adams, Don (eds.), Sixty Years of Korean Education. Seoul: Seoul National University Press, p.302.
 5. ^ http://klncc.caritas.org.hk/private/document/644.pdf , Caritas, Community & Higher Education Service. 2010. Private Supplementary Tutoring of Secondary Students: Investigation Report. Hong Kong: Caritas.
 6. ^ http://www.pratham.org/aser08/ASER_2010_Report.pdf . , Pratham. 2011. Annual Status of Education Report 2010.
 7. ^ Kalikova, Saule & Zhanar Rakhimzhanova. 2009. "Private Tutoring in Kazakhstan", in Silova, Iveta (Ed.), Private Supplementary Tutoring in Central Asia: New Opportunities and Burdens.
 8. ^ Sharma, Yojana (27 November 2012). "Meet the 'tutor kings and queens'". BBC News . Retrieved 14 June 2016 .
 9. ^ a b Dawson, Walter. 2010. "Private Tutoring and Mass Schooling in East Asia: Reflections of Inequality in Japan, South Korea, and Cambodia." Asia Pacific Education Review 11(1):14-24.
 10. ^ http://www.iias.nl/article/facing-shadow-education-system-hong-kong , Kwo, Ora & Mark Bray. 2011. "Facing the Shadow Education System in Hong Kong." IIAS Newsletter (University of Leiden, International Institute for Asian Studies)
 11. ^ Dong, Alison, Batjargal Ayush, Bolormaa Tsetsgee, & Tumendelger Sengedorj. 2006. "Mongolia". In Iveta Silova, Virginija Būdienė, & Mark Bray (Eds.), Education in a Hidden Marketplace: Monitoring of Private Tutoring. New York: Open Society Institute, pp.257-277
 12. ^ Stevenson, Alexandra (2021-07-26). "China moves against private tutoring companies, causing shares to plunge". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 2023-04-11 .
 13. ^ Lu, Jijian; Tuo, Pan; Pan, Junyan; Zhou, Meimei; Zhang, Mohan; Hu, Shaohua (2023-01-22). "Shadow Education in China and Its Diversified Normative Governance Mechanism: Double Reduction Policy and Internet Public Opinion". Sustainability. 15 (2): 1437. doi:10.3390/su15021437. ISSN 2071-1050.
 14. ^ Aslam, Monazza & Paul Atherton. 2011. "The "Shadow" Education Sector in India and Pakistan: The Determinants, Benefits and Equity Effects of Private Tutoring." Presentation at the UKFIET (United Kingdom Forum for International Education and Training) Conference, University of Oxford, 13–15 September.
 15. ^ EPPM (International Institute of Education Policy, Planning & Management). 2011. Study of Private Tutoring in Georgia. Tbilisi: EPPM, p.29. (In Georgian)
 16. ^ Synovate Limited. 2011. Marketing survey of tutoring businesses in Hong Kong, cited in Modern Education Group Limited (2011), Global Offering (for stock market launch), Hong Kong, p.96.
 17. ^ Vora, Nikhil & Shweta Dewan. 2009. Indian Education Sector: Long Way from Graduation!. Mumbai: IDFC-SSK Securities Ltd., p.60.
 18. ^ Kim, Sunwoong & Ju-Ho Lee. 2010. "Private Tutoring and Demand for Education in South Korea." Economic Development and Cultural Change 58(2), p.261.
 19. ^ "Tutoring Rates in California: An Analysis of over 34,000 Private Tutors". www.findtutorsnearme.com. 2015-11-13 . Retrieved 14 June 2016 .
 20. ^ "National Tutoring Programme: guidance for schools, 2022 to 2023". GOV.UK . Retrieved 2023-08-24 .
 21. ^ Gorrell, Michael Gorrell (2011). "E-books on EBSCOhost: Combining NetLibrary E-books with the EBSCOhost Platform". Information Standards Quarterly. 23 (2): 31. doi:10.3789/isqv23n2.2011.07. ISSN 1041-0031.
 22. ^ Kim, Kyung-Min & Daekwon Park. 2012. "Impacts of Urban Economic Factors on Private Tutoring Industry." Asia Pacific Education Review 13 (20), p.273.
 23. ^ Dawson, Walter (2009). ""The Tricks of the Teacher"". Buying Your Way into Heaven. pp. 51–73. doi:10.1163/9789087907297_005. ISBN 9789087907280.
 24. ^ Bloom, Benjamin S. (1984). "The 2 Sigma Problem: The Search for Methods of Group Instruction as Effective as One-to-One Tutoring" (PDF) . Educational Researcher. 13 (6): 4–16. doi:10.3102/0013189X013006004. S2CID 1714225.
 25. ^ "A Quantitative Synthesis of Research on Programs for Struggling Readers in Elementary Schools, April 24, 2019, Best Evidence Encyclopedia, Johns Hopkins University School of Education's Center for Research and Reform in Education" (PDF) .
 26. ^ Gooch, Liz (2012-08-05). "Tutoring Spreads Beyond Asia's Wealthy". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 2018-04-28 .
 27. ^ "Hey tutors! Leave us kids alone". The Times Of India.
 28. ^ Liu, Ruo-Lan; Li, Yu-Chi (February 2020). "Action Research to Enrich Learning in e-Tutoring for Remote Schools". Systemic Practice and Action Research. 33 (1): 95–110. doi:10.1007/s11213-019-09517-5. ISSN 1094-429X. S2CID 210040639.
 29. ^ "The rise of online tutoring among Cambridge students". www.varsity.co.uk. 2019-02-21 . Retrieved 10 February 2022 .
 30. ^ Sweller, John; Chandler, Paul (1994). "Why Some Material is Difficult to Learn". Cognition and Instruction. 12 (3): 185–233. doi:10.1207/s1532690xci1203_1.
 31. ^ Utley, Cheryl A.; Mortweet, Susan L.; Greenwood, Charles R. (2017). "Peer-Mediated Instruction and Interventions". Focus on Exceptional Children. 29 (5). doi:10.17161/foec.v29i5.6751.
 32. ^ "Unesco". 4 March 2020.
 33. ^ "'UK school closures prompt boom in private tuition', The Guardian, 2020-02-27". The Guardian. 27 March 2020.
 34. ^ "Tennessee Tutoring Corp".
 35. ^ "'Time for innovation': How tutoring could be a key to lifting kids out of 'COVID slide', USAtoday, 2020-08-10". USA Today.
 36. ^ "Are the Dutch Solving the Covid Slide with Tutoring? Robert Slavin blog". 18 June 2020.
 37. ^ "£1bn schools coronavirus 'catch-up' package revealed, Schoolsweek, 2020-06-19". 18 June 2020.
 38. ^ "Robert Slavins blog, 2019-06-19". 25 June 2020.
 39. ^ a b Alzahrani, Turkey; Leko, Melinda (2018). "The Effects of Peer Tutoring on the Reading Comprehension Performance of Secondary Students with Disabilities: A Systematic Review". Reading & Writing Quarterly. 34: 1–17. doi:10.1080/10573569.2017.1302372. S2CID 151801063.
 40. ^ Vadasy, P. F.; Jenkins, J. R.; Pool, K. (2000). "Effects of Tutoring in Phonological and Early Reading Skills on Students at Risk for Reading Disabilities, 2000, Journal of Learning Disabilities". Journal of Learning Disabilities. 33 (6): 579–590. doi:10.1177/002221940003300606. PMID 15495399. S2CID 6507679.
 41. ^ Song, Yang; Loewenstein, George; Shi, Yaojiang (2018). "Heterogeneous effects of peer tutoring: Evidence from rural Chinese middle schools". Research in Economics. 72: 33–48. doi:10.1016/j.rie.2017.05.002.
 42. ^ Chu, Hsiao-Lei (2015). "Private Tutoring, Wealth Constraint and Higher Education". Pacific Economic Review. 20 (4): 608–634. doi:10.1111/1468-0106.12122. S2CID 113397604.
 43. ^ a b Bray, Mark (2013). "Shadow Education: Comparative Perspectives on the Expansion and Implications of Private Supplementary Tutoring". Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. 77: 412–420. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.03.096.
 44. ^ Stevenson, David Lee; Baker, David P. (1992). "Shadow Education and Allocation in Formal Schooling: Transition to University in Japan". American Journal of Sociology. 97 (6): 1639–1657. doi:10.1086/229942. S2CID 143012779.
 45. ^ Bray, Mark (2009). Confronting the Shadow Education System: What Government Policies for What Private Tutoring?. Paris: International Institute for Educational Planning. p. 13. ISBN 978-92-803-1333-8.
 46. ^ "From the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES)". PsycEXTRA Dataset. 2010. doi:10.1037/e607002011-005 . Retrieved 2021-05-12 .
 47. ^ a b Gerrard Lai (7 July 2011). "Tuition agencies largely unregulated". AsiaOne News. Singapore Press Holdings. Archived from the original on July 11, 2011 . Retrieved 22 March 2013 . "The quality of private tutors is not the only complaint made against tuition agencies which, unlike tuition centres, do not have to be registered with the Ministry of Education (MOE) under the Education Act."
 48. ^ "Should the tuition industry be regulated?". Singapore: EdVantage. 4 August 2012. Archived from the original on 22 November 2012 . Retrieved 22 March 2013 . "Complaints against the industry are not uncommon, the Consumers Association of Singapore said"
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Tutoring is private academic support, usually provided by an expert teacher; someone with deep knowledge or defined expertise in a particular subject or set of subjects.     Prince Charles Louis of the Palatinate with his Tutor Wolrad von Plessen in Historical Dress 
   Modern tutor 
A tutor, formally also called an academic tutor, is a person who provides assistance or tutelage to one or more people on certain subject areas or skills. The tutor spends a few hours on a daily, weekly, or monthly basis to transfer their expertise on the topic or skill to the student (also called a tutee). Tutoring can take place in different settings.
 
 Formal education is first attested among the scribes of ancient Egypt but, in most fields, instruction was traditionally handled on a personal basis, with most skills and professions long handed down within families or via apprenticeship until the modern era. In classical antiquity, the lower classes could pay for instruction in group settings like ludi but the upper classes preferred personalized home tutoring. [1]  In ancient China, some aristocratic tutors like Confucius and Mencius attracted so many students that they established influential philosophies. In ancient Greece, some sophists established lucrative careers teaching the important skills of public speaking for the assembly or courts; in Plato's works, Socrates provides similar services for free while criticizing the sophists for their presumed lack of concern for actual truth and understanding. In the case of the ancient Romans, the education of the patricians and wealthy plebeians was frequently provided by Greek slaves. 
  Royal tutors, the personal instructors of future rulers, have always enjoyed importance and prestige. In particular, the Grand Tutor (, tàifù) was one of the three great lords of the royal court of the Zhou dynasty of ancient China. Similar positions remained in very high importance across East Asia into the modern era.
 By some accounting, methods of tutoring only began to become more structured after the 20th century[   ] through focus and specialization in the training of tutors, application of tutoring, and evaluation of tutors. [2]  From the 20th century onwards, with the rapid spread of mainstream education, the demand for tutoring has also increased as a way to supplement formal education.
 
In British and Irish secondary schools, form tutors are given the responsibilities of a form or class of students in a particular year group (up to 30 students).[   ] They usually work in year teams headed by a year leader, year head, or guidance teacher. Form tutors will provide parents with most of the information about their child's progress and any problems they might be experiencing.[   ]
 In the United Kingdom and Ireland, private tutoring, outside school, is common for students who need extra support in one or more subjects, particularly leading up to exams. In Ireland this is known as grinds.
 In the British higher education system, a tutor is a general term for someone delivering tutorials, individually or in small groups. See tutorial system.
 
A 2012 study by the Asian Development Bank and the Comparative Education Research Centre at the University of Hong Kong pointed out that private tutoring can dominate the lives of young people and their families, maintain and exacerbate social inequalities, divert needed household income into an unregulated industry, and create inefficiencies in education systems. It can also undermine official statements about fee-free education and create threats to social cohesion. [3] 
 In South Korea, nearly 90% of elementary students receive some sort of shadow education, termed there as Hagwon. [4]  In Hong Kong, about 85% of senior secondary students do so. [5]  60% of primary students in West Bengal, India, [6]  and 60% of secondary students in Kazakhstan receive private tutoring. [7] 
 Demand for tutoring in Asia is exploding; by comparison globally, shadow education is most extensive in Asia. This is partly due to the stratification of education systems, cultural factors, perceptions of shortcomings in regular school systems, and the combination of growing wealth and smaller family sizes. [3]  Therefore, the education sector has become a profitable industry which businesses have created different kinds of products and advertisement such as "the king/queen of tutorial", a usual advertisement tactic of Hong Kong tutorial centers that has spread to South Korea, Thailand, Sri Lanka and India where tutors achieve "celebrity-like status". [8]  In some cases, successful Southeast Asian tutors will even embrace the title of "tutor". Online private tutor matching platform and online learning platform offering online learning materials are other creations.
 In Cambodia, most tutoring is provided by teachers, [9]  whereas in Hong Kong, it is provided by individuals, small companies or large companies. [10]  In Mongolia, most tutoring is labor-intensive, [11]  while entrepreneurs in South Korea make use of computers and other forms of technology. [3] 
 
A 2012 study by the Asian Development Bank and the Comparative Education Research Centre at the University of Hong Kong recommended policymakers across the region take a closer look at how ‘shadow education’ affects family budgets, children's time, and national education systems. It suggested that in order to reduce the need for private lessons, improvements in mainstream schools should be made. Regulations are also needed to protect citizens. [3] 
 On 24 July 2021, the Double reduction policy got promulgated jointly by the General Office of the Chinese Communist Party and the State Council of the People's Republic of China. The double reduction policy reclassified tutoring institutions in China as non-profit organizations, which solved the over-reliance of Chinese students on after-school tutoring classes, and reduced the additional financial burden on Chinese families. [12]   [13]  Chinese families spend 40 to 50 percent of their total domestic spending on tutoring. The double reduction policy's regulation of shadow education has improved the quality of school curriculum during the compulsory education period and relieved the inequality of educational resources caused by the economic gap.
 
Some studies have estimated costs associated with "shadow education". In Pakistan, expenditures on tutoring per child averaged $3.40 a month in 2011. In India, average spending was lower, but still equated to about $12.51 per month. [14] 
 In Georgia, household expenditures for private tutoring at the secondary school level was $48 million in 2011. [15]  In Hong Kong, the business of providing private tutoring to secondary schools reached $255 million in 2011. [16] 
 In India, a 2008 survey estimated the size of the private tutoring sector to be $6.4 billion. [17]  In Japan, families spent $12 billion in 2010 on private tutoring. [9] 
 In South Korea, where the government has attempted to cool down the private tutoring market, shadow education costs have nonetheless continually grown, reaching $17.3 billion in 2010. Household expenditures on private tutoring are equivalent to about 80% of government expenditures on public education for primary and secondary students. [18] 
 In the United States, the tutoring market is fragmented. Some online tutoring marketplaces, however, have managed to aggregate a large number of private tutors on their platform and also tutoring data. For example, one such site has over 34,000 registered tutors in California and made public their tutoring hourly rate data. [19]  [   ]
 In the United Kingdom, the cost of tuition is dependent upon a variety of factors such as subject, level (Key Stages, GCSE or A-Level), tutor experience and whether the lesson takes place virtually or in person. If you are looking to receive online tutoring from a qualified UK teacher with a verified certificate it will cost between £30 &amp; 40 per hour. It is also common in the UK to apply for tutoring sessions through your local school if you are struggling to help subsidise the cost through the National Tuition Programme. [20] 
 
Research supports the literature that students who seek and receive tutoring services outperformed their counterparts. [21]  However, private tutoring is not always effective in raising academic achievement; and in some schools students commonly skip classes or sleep through lessons because they are tired after excessive external study. This means that the shadow system can make regular schooling less efficient. [3] 
 In many countries, individuals can become tutors without training. In some countries, including Cambodia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Lao PDR, and Tajikistan, the pattern of classroom teachers supplementing their incomes by tutoring students after school hours is more a necessity than a choice, as many teachers’ salaries hover close to the poverty line. [3] 
 In South Korea, the number of private tutors expanded roughly 7.1% annually on average from 2001 to 2006, and by 2009 the sector was the largest employer of graduates from the humanities and social sciences. [22] 
 Teachers who spend more time focusing on private lessons than regular classes can cause greater inefficiencies in the mainstream school system. Situations in which teachers provide extra private lessons for pupils for whom they are already responsible in the public system can lead to corruption, particularly when teachers deliberately teach less in their regular classes in order to promote the market for private lessons. [23] 
 When private tutoring is provided by well trained tutor however the effects can be dramatic, with pupils improving performance by two standard deviations. [24]   [25]  See also Bloom's 2 Sigma Problem.
 
There can be an existing overlap between different types of tutoring with respect to the setting or location of tutoring, the size of tutor-learner pairings/groups, and the method of tutoring provided, for example, one-on-one peer tutoring can take place through online tutoring. Tutoring is typically private since it is exists independent of the system of public and private education, that is, one can be enrolled in public/private schooling and attend private tutoring services.
 
Academic coaching is a type of mentoring applied to academics. Coaching involves a collaborative approach. Coaches try to help students learn how they best learn and how to operate in an academic environment. Tutors help students learn the material in individual courses while coaches help students learn how to be successful in school. In college, that includes such topics as: study skills, time management, stress management, effective reading, note-taking, test-taking, and understanding how to use a syllabus. Academic coaches meet with the student regularly throughout the semester. Coaches work with students in all kinds of situations, not just those who are struggling academically. Academic coaching also serves to help students prepare for entrance exams to gain entry to schools or universities, and it is particularly popular in Asia. [26]  For example, in India, a majority of students, be it of any class or stream, visit a coaching center or a "study circle." [27] 
 
 In-home tutoring is a form of tutoring that occurs in the home. Most often the tutoring relates to an academic subject or test preparation. This is in contrast to tutoring centers or tutoring provided through after-school programs. The service most often involves one-on-one attention provided to the pupil. Due to the informal and private nature of in-home tutoring, there is limited substantial or conclusive information on in-home tutoring.
 
 Online tutoring is another way for a student to receive academic help, either scheduled or on-demand. Sessions are done through an application where a student and tutor can communicate. Common tools include chat, whiteboard, web conferencing, teleconferencing, online videos and other specialized applets which make it easier to convey information back and forth. Online tutoring has relatively recently emerged as a mechanism to provide tutoring services in contrast to more traditional in-person teaching. Paired with in-person tutoring, some of the benefits include the opportunity for learning motivation growth for both the tutor and the tutee. [28] 
 Online tutoring is now a very popular way for students at top higher education institutions to earn money to support their studies during term time, but not all universities are in favour of this. [29] 
 One of the potential drawbacks of online tutoring stems from the influx or sensory overload of information from different materials. "For example, material presented in multiple modalities run the risk of interrupting the learner from a coherent learning experience, of imposing a “split attention” effect (the mind cannot concentrate on two things simultaneously), or of overloading the learner's limited supply of cognitive resources." [30] 
 The tutor ensures the development of individual educational programs for students and accompanies the process of individualization and individual education at school, university, in additional education systems.
 
Peer tutoring refers to the method of tutoring that involves members of the same peer group teaching or tutoring one another. The characteristics of a peer tutoring group/pairing vary across age, socioeconomic class, gender, ethnicity. It has been defined as "a class of practices and strategies that employs peers as one-on-one teachers to provide individualized instruction, practice, repetition, and clarification of concepts" [31] 
 
 COVID-19 negatively affected the academic success of students around the world. [32]  Some countries (and at least one US state) initiated special tutoring programs to reduce this impact. A knock-on was the significant growth of the private online tutoring industry as parents tried to reduce the impact of missed classes. [33] 
 In May 2020, the  Bill and Crissy Haslam Foundation, in partnership with organizations such as the Boys &amp; Girls Clubs in the State of Tennessee, launched the Tennessee Tutoring Corps to recruit at least 1,000 qualified college tutors to help the most vulnerable K-6th grade students. [34]  Some prominent education researchers have called on the U.S. to dramatically expand tutoring programs through organizations such as AmeriCorps. [35] 
 In June 2020, the Dutch Government was the first country to announce a plan to allocate the equivalent of $278 million US to provide extra school support such as summer schools, extended school days, and tutoring. The Ministry of Education proposed to recruit specially trained student-teachers to provide the tutoring. [36] 
 Also in June 2020, the British Government announced plans to spend £1 billion on an education "catch-up plan". [37]   [38]  State primary and secondary schools will split £650 million in additional funding for the 2020-21 academic year to help their pupils catch up on education missed as a result of the coronavirus pandemic. Schools will have discretion on how the funds are used, however the Department for Education said it expects them to spend some of it on small group tutoring "for whoever needs it". The remaining £350 million will pay for the establishment of a "National Tutoring Programme", giving schools access to subsidised tutoring sessions and free coaches for up to two million disadvantaged pupils.
 
 
Studies have found that peer tutoring provides academic benefits for learners across the subject areas of "reading, mathematics, science, and social studies" [39]  Peer tutoring has also been found to be an effective teaching method in enhancing the reading comprehension skills of students, especially that of students with a low academic performance at the secondary level in schools. Additionally, peer tutoring has been proven especially useful for those with learning disabilities at the elementary level, while there is mixed evidence showing the effectiveness of peer tutoring for those at the secondary level. [39] 
 One study suggests that phonologically based reading instruction for first-graders at risk for learning disability can be delivered by non-teachers. In the study, non-certified tutors gave students intensive one-to-one tutoring for 30 minutes, 4 days a week for one school year. The students outperformed untutored control students on measures of reading, spelling, and decoding; with effect sizes ranging from .42 to 1.24. The tutoring included instruction in phonological skills, letter-sound correspondence, explicit decoding, rime analysis, writing, spelling, and reading phonetically controlled text. Although the effects diminished at the end of second grade, the tutored students continued to significantly outperform untutored students in decoding and spelling. [40] 
 
Although certain types of tutoring arrangements can require a salary for the tutor, typically tutoring is free of cost and thus financially affordable for learners. The cost-effectiveness of tutoring can prove to be especially beneficial for learners from low-income backgrounds or resource-strapped regions. [41]  In contrast, paid tutoring arrangements can create or further highlight socioeconomic disparities between low-income, middle-income and high-income populations. A study found that access to private tutoring was less financially affordable for low-income families, who thus benefited less from private tutoring as compared to high-income populations, who had the resources to profit from private tutoring. [42] 
 
 
Tutoring has also emerged as a supplement to public and private schooling in many countries. The supplementary nature of tutoring is a feature in the domain of what some scholars have termed "shadow education". [43]  Shadow education has been defined as "a set of educational activities that occur out side formal schooling and are designed to enhance the student's formal school career." [44]  The term "shadow" has four components to it: firstly, the existence of and need for tutoring is produced by the existence of the formal education system; secondly, the formal education system is the mainstream system and thus tutoring is its shadow; thirdly, the focus remains on mainstream education in schools; fourthly, tutoring is largely informal and unstructured as compared to formal or mainstream education. [45]  As a consequence of the popularity of shadow education, private tutoring can sometimes overshadow mainstream education with more priority given to enrolling in private tutoring centers. Mark Bray claims that "Especially near the time of major external examinations, schools in some countries may be perceived by pupils to be less able to cater for their specific needs." [43] 
 
In a 2009 research performed by the Institute of Education Sciences, statistics show that for the 2006–07 years, only 22 percent of students received tutoring services out of the 60 percent of those whose parents reported receiving information about the services. Conversely, only 13 percent of students receive tutoring services out of the 43 percent whose parents reported not receiving information about the services. [46] 
 
A tutoring agency is a business that acts as an intermediary between people who are looking for tutors and tutors wishing to offer their services. The term tuition agency is an alternative term, used specifically in Singapore and Malaysia.
 
Tutoring agencies are common in many countries including Australia, Canada, Malaysia, Singapore, the UAE, the U.K. and the U.S.A., although it is not regulated in most countries.[   ]
 In the UK, after much discussion in the media, a limited company was set up in October 2013.[   ] The Tutors' Association was previously named The London Association Of Certified Financial Analysts.[   ]
 In Singapore, tutoring agencies, also known as tuition agencies, are not regulated by the Ministry of Education. [47] 
 
In Singapore, parents and students have positive as well as negative comments. [48] 
 Tutoring centers (tuition centers) must be registered with the Singapore Ministry of Education. However, tutoring agencies are not. Instead, tutoring agencies are required to register with the Accounting and Corporate Regulatory Authority (ACRA) under the Business Registration Act. There is a history of poor compliance and consumer complaints. [47] 
 
 
Name
Short name
Website
Operating area
 
Association for the Coaching and Tutoring Profession
ACTP
 [1] 
USA
 
American Tutoring Association
ATA
 [2] 
USA
 
 National Tutoring Association 
NTA
 [3] 
USA
 
The Tutors' Association
TTA
 [4] 
UK
 
Australian Tutoring Association
ATA
 [5] 
Australia
   
 
  Cram school 
 Homework coach 
 Learning by teaching 
 Mentorship 
 Peer-mediated instruction 
 Teacher 
 Tuition agency 
 Tutorial 
 Virtual education 
 Double Reduction Policy
Tutoring
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutoring
https://www.titaniumtutors.co.uk/post/aristotle-famous-tutors-students-from-history-part-2
Famous Tutors/Students from History | Aristotle
2019-02-11
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 + Feb 11, 2019
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 + 3 min read

 Famous Tutors/Students from History | Aristotle

 Updated: Aug 5, 2021

 He tutored hundreds of years ago — find out all about Aristotle in Part 2 of our series about Famous Tutors/Students.

 "The roots of education are bitter, but the fruit is sweet."


 Do you know who famously said this? That's right, Aristole — who also happens to be our famous tutor from history for today's post.


 What did he mean by this? Quite simply that the process of learning isn't always an easy ride. It is typically characterised by hard work, and to become truly adept at something there will inevitably be periods of tedium, self-doubt and quite possibly despair! Sound familiar? Just bear in mind that the key point that Aristotle was making is that it's worth it in the end . Keep plugging away, push through the hard times, and always keep the end point (i.e. the 'sweet fruit') in sight.


 Aristotle made this claim over 2000 years ago, and like most Latin and Ancient Greek tutors I find it fascinating that, no matter how many technological advancements we make as a society, the fundamentals of human experience don't really change. Aristotle's depiction of the process of education rings perfectly true today. We may look to our school teachers and private tutors to make learning more fun, and their inspiration can be a great help in easing the burden, but in the end there are no shortcuts. You have to put in the hard yards to be able to achieve your aims, and to reap the rewards you will need dedication, persistence and motivation. Aristotle also said " pleasure in the job puts perfection in the work ", so he clearly entertained the possibility of pushing past those 'bitter roots' and finding enjoyment in education.


 Maybe that's because he was himself educated by one of 'the greats' — Aristotle's most famous teacher was none other than Plato , founder of the Platonic Academy in Athens and one of the key influencers of Western philosophy. Aristotle studied at the Academy for 20 years (367-347 BC), and was considered to be an extraordinary scholar. He had a close relationship with Plato, and was one of his favourite pupils. For a time, Aristotle was tipped to become Plato's successor as director of the Academy, but this never came to pass as Aristotle didn't fully agree with Plato's approach to philosophy. This might sound surprising given the long stretch of time he spent at the Academy, but Aristotle did after all say that " it is the mark of an educated mind to be able to entertain a thought without accepting it ".


 Although he is best known as an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist, you may be interested to hear that Aristotle was also a private tutor! Arguably his highest profile client was Philip II of Macdeon , who requested that he tutor Alexander the Great . The tutoring started when Alexander was 13 years of age and continued until he was 16 (presumably once Alexander had completed his GCSEs , he was ready to stand on his own two feet!). The content of the lessons remains a bit of a mystery; a text called Rhetoric to Alexander (Τέχνη ῥητορική) has survived but unfortunately the current thinking is that it's a forgery. It can't have hurt Aristotle's CV to have influenced one of history's most successful military commanders — although if he had been a Titanium tutor, Aristotle would have known better than to claim credit for his student's successes!


 A few years later, Aristotle went on to found his own school, the Lyceum . Based in Athens, the Lyceum was a temple and became famous for the particular branch of philosophical thinking which it expounded — namely the ' Peripatetic school ' of philosophy, so named after the peripatoi (colonnades / covered walkways) which could be found in the Lyceum.


 All in all, Aristotle was something of a mover and shaker in the world of education, and if he were around today we'd gladly have him on our books! Sadly he's no longer available for tutoring, but if you do want an inspirational tutor who can help you plough through the bitter roots of education and get you closer to that sweet fruit, be sure to get in touch ...


 If you enjoyed this article, you may also enjoy the previous post in this series, Famous Tutors/Students From History — Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart .


 Blog Post Crafted by Joe


 Subjects Taught: Latin, Ancient Greek


 Background: Joe Hytner owns and runs Titanium Tutors, managing our assessors and staff. Joe graduated from King’s College, Cambridge in 2009 with a degree in Classics and then trained as a teacher at Queens’ College, Cambridge , graduating in 2010. Whilst setting up Titanium Tutors he taught Latin on a part-time basis in three schools — Parkside Federation, Impington Village College and South Lee School (where he started up the Latin department from scratch). Joe has also taught Latin and Ancient Greek to numerous Cambridge University undergraduates .


 Fun Fact: Joe has read Harry Potter in Latin from cover to cover.

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 + Feb 11, 2019
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 + 3 min read
 Famous Tutors/Students from History | Aristotle
 Updated: Aug 5, 2021
 He tutored hundreds of years ago — find out all about Aristotle in Part 2 of our series about Famous Tutors/Students.
 "The roots of education are bitter, but the fruit is sweet."
 Do you know who famously said this? That's right, Aristole — who also happens to be our famous tutor from history for today's post.
 What did he mean by this? Quite simply that the process of learning isn't always an easy ride. It is typically characterised by hard work, and to become truly adept at something there will inevitably be periods of tedium, self-doubt and quite possibly despair! Sound familiar? Just bear in mind that the key point that Aristotle was making is that it's worth it in the end . Keep plugging away, push through the hard times, and always keep the end point (i.e. the 'sweet fruit') in sight.
 Aristotle made this claim over 2000 years ago, and like most Latin and Ancient Greek tutors I find it fascinating that, no matter how many technological advancements we make as a society, the fundamentals of human experience don't really change. Aristotle's depiction of the process of education rings perfectly true today. We may look to our school teachers and private tutors to make learning more fun, and their inspiration can be a great help in easing the burden, but in the end there are no shortcuts. You have to put in the hard yards to be able to achieve your aims, and to reap the rewards you will need dedication, persistence and motivation. Aristotle also said " pleasure in the job puts perfection in the work ", so he clearly entertained the possibility of pushing past those 'bitter roots' and finding enjoyment in education.
 Maybe that's because he was himself educated by one of 'the greats' — Aristotle's most famous teacher was none other than Plato , founder of the Platonic Academy in Athens and one of the key influencers of Western philosophy. Aristotle studied at the Academy for 20 years (367-347 BC), and was considered to be an extraordinary scholar. He had a close relationship with Plato, and was one of his favourite pupils. For a time, Aristotle was tipped to become Plato's successor as director of the Academy, but this never came to pass as Aristotle didn't fully agree with Plato's approach to philosophy. This might sound surprising given the long stretch of time he spent at the Academy, but Aristotle did after all say that " it is the mark of an educated mind to be able to entertain a thought without accepting it ".
 Although he is best known as an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist, you may be interested to hear that Aristotle was also a private tutor! Arguably his highest profile client was Philip II of Macdeon , who requested that he tutor Alexander the Great . The tutoring started when Alexander was 13 years of age and continued until he was 16 (presumably once Alexander had completed his GCSEs , he was ready to stand on his own two feet!). The content of the lessons remains a bit of a mystery; a text called Rhetoric to Alexander (Τέχνη ῥητορική) has survived but unfortunately the current thinking is that it's a forgery. It can't have hurt Aristotle's CV to have influenced one of history's most successful military commanders — although if he had been a Titanium tutor, Aristotle would have known better than to claim credit for his student's successes!
 A few years later, Aristotle went on to found his own school, the Lyceum . Based in Athens, the Lyceum was a temple and became famous for the particular branch of philosophical thinking which it expounded — namely the ' Peripatetic school ' of philosophy, so named after the peripatoi (colonnades / covered walkways) which could be found in the Lyceum.
 All in all, Aristotle was something of a mover and shaker in the world of education, and if he were around today we'd gladly have him on our books! Sadly he's no longer available for tutoring, but if you do want an inspirational tutor who can help you plough through the bitter roots of education and get you closer to that sweet fruit, be sure to get in touch ...
 If you enjoyed this article, you may also enjoy the previous post in this series, Famous Tutors/Students From History — Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart .
 Blog Post Crafted by Joe
 Subjects Taught: Latin, Ancient Greek
 Background: Joe Hytner owns and runs Titanium Tutors, managing our assessors and staff. Joe graduated from King’s College, Cambridge in 2009 with a degree in Classics and then trained as a teacher at Queens’ College, Cambridge , graduating in 2010. Whilst setting up Titanium Tutors he taught Latin on a part-time basis in three schools — Parkside Federation, Impington Village College and South Lee School (where he started up the Latin department from scratch). Joe has also taught Latin and Ancient Greek to numerous Cambridge University undergraduates .
 Fun Fact: Joe has read Harry Potter in Latin from cover to cover.
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Ancient Greek civilization | History, Map, Culture, Politics, Religion, Achievements, & Facts
1999-07-26
Simon Hornblower
<div><div>
	
<div><p>Top Questions</p><div><h3><p>Is ancient Greece a country?</p></h3><h3><p>Where was ancient Greece located?</p></h3><h3><p>Was ancient Greece a democracy?</p></h3><h3><p>When did ancient Greece start and end? </p></h3><h3><p>Why is ancient Greece important?</p></h3></div></div><p>Summary</p>
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 </h3>
 
 </div><section><p><strong>ancient Greek civilization</strong>, the period following <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Mycenae">Mycenaean</a> civilization, which ended about 1200 bce, to the death of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alexander-the-Great">Alexander the Great</a>, in 323 bce. It was a period of political, philosophical, artistic, and scientific achievements that formed a <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/legacy">legacy</a> with unparalleled influence on Western civilization.</p></section> <section><h2>The early Archaic period</h2> <section><h2>The post-Mycenaean period and Lefkandi</h2> <p>The period between the catastrophic end of the Mycenaean civilization and about 900 bce is often called a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Dark-Ages">Dark Age</a>. It was a time about which Greeks of the Classical age had confused and actually false notions. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Thucydides-Greek-historian">Thucydides</a>, the great ancient historian of the 5th century bce, wrote a sketch of Greek <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history">history</a> from the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Trojan-War">Trojan War</a> to his own day, in which he notoriously fails, in the appropriate chapter, to signal any kind of dramatic rupture. (He does, however, speak of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Greece">Greece</a> “settling down gradually” and colonizing <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Italy/The-people#ref26974">Italy</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Sicily">Sicily</a>, and what is now western <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Turkey">Turkey</a>. This surely implies that Greece was settling down after something.) Thucydides does indeed display sound knowledge of the series of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/migration-animal">migrations</a> by which Greece was resettled in the post-Mycenaean period. The most famous of these was the “<a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dorian-invasion">Dorian invasion</a>,” which the Greeks called, or connected with, the legendary “return of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/descendants">descendants</a> of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Heracles">Heracles</a>.” Although much about that invasion is problematic—it left little or no archaeological trace at the point in time where tradition puts it—the problems are of no concern here. Important for the understanding of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/Archaic-period">Archaic</a> and Classical periods, however, is the powerful belief in Dorianism as a linguistic and religious concept. Thucydides casually but significantly mentions soldiers speaking the “Doric dialect” in a narrative about ordinary military matters in the year 426. That is a surprisingly abstract way of looking at the subdivisions of the Greeks, because it would have been more natural for a 5th-century Greek to identify soldiers by home cities. Equally important to the understanding of this period is the hostility to <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dorian">Dorians</a>, usually on the part of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ionian">Ionians</a>, another linguistic and religious subgroup, whose most-famous city was <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Athens">Athens</a>. So extreme was this hostility that Dorians were prohibited from entering Ionian sanctuaries; <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/extant">extant</a> today is a 5th-century example of such a prohibition, an inscription from the island of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Paros">Paros</a>.</p> <p>Phenomena such as the tension between Dorians and Ionians that have their origins in the Dark Age are a reminder that Greek civilization did not emerge either unannounced or uncontaminated by what had gone before. The Dark Age itself is beyond the scope of this article. One is bound to notice, however, that archaeological finds tend to call into question the whole concept of a Dark Age by showing that certain features of Greek civilization once thought not to antedate about 800 bce can actually be pushed back by as much as two centuries. One example, chosen for its relevance to the emergence of the Greek <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/city-state">city-state</a>, or <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/polis">polis</a>, will <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/suffice">suffice</a>. In 1981 <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/archaeology">archaeology</a> pulled back the curtain on the “darkest” phase of all, the Protogeometric Period (<em>c.</em> 1075–900 bce), which takes its name from the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/Proto-Geometric-style">geometric shapes</a> painted on <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/Greek-pottery">pottery</a>. A grave, rich by the standards of any period, was uncovered at a site called Lefkandi on <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Euboea-island-Greece">Euboea</a>, the island along the eastern flank of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Attica-ancient-district-Greece">Attica</a> (the territory controlled by Athens). The grave, which dates to about 1000 bce, contains the (probably cremated) remains of a man and a woman. The large <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/bronze-alloy">bronze</a> vessel in which the man’s ashes were deposited came from <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/gold-chemical-element">gold</a> items buried with the woman are splendid and sophisticated in their workmanship. Remains of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/horse">horses</a> were found as well; the animals had been buried with their snaffle bits. The grave was within a large collapsed house, whose form anticipates that of the Greek <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/temple-building">temples</a> two centuries later. Previously it had been thought that those temples were one of the first <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/manifestations">manifestations</a> of the “monumentalizing” associated with the beginnings of the city-state. Thus, that find and those made in a set of nearby cemeteries in the years before 1980 attesting further contacts between <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Egypt">Egypt</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Cyprus">Cyprus</a> between 1000 and 800 bce are important evidence. They show that one corner of one island of Greece, at least, was neither impoverished nor isolated in a period usually thought to have been both. The difficulty is to know just how exceptional Lefkandi was, but in any view it has revised former ideas about what was and what was not possible at the beginning of the 1st millennium bce.</p></section> <section><h2><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/colonialism-international-relations">Colonization</a> and city-state formation</h2> <p>The term <em>colonization</em>, although it may be convenient and widely used, is misleading. When applied to <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Archaic">Archaic</a> Greece, it should not necessarily be taken to imply the state-sponsored sending out of definite numbers of settlers, as the later Roman origin of the word implies. For one thing, it will be seen that state formation may itself be a product of the colonizing movement.</p> </section></section></div>||||I|||| Search Britannica Click here to search
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 ancient Greek civilization
 Table of Contents
 ancient Greek civilization
 * Introduction & Top Questions
 * The early Archaic period
 + The post-Mycenaean period and Lefkandi
 + Colonization and city-state formation
 o The Olympic Games
 o Overseas projects
 o The beginnings of the polis
 + Early Archaic Greek civilization
 o The sources
 o Society and values
 - Bacchiadae and Eupatridae
 - Symposia and gymnasia
 - Formal relationships
 - The Lelantine War
 * The later Archaic periods
 + The rise of the tyrants
 o The decline of the aristocracy
 o Changes in warfare
 o The early tyrannies
 + Sparta and Athens
 o Sparta
 - The distinctiveness of Sparta
 - The Rhetra
 - The helot factor
 - The Peloponnesian League
 o Athens
 - The distinctiveness of Athens
 - Solon
 - The Peisistratid tyranny
 - The reforms of Cleisthenes
 + The world of the tyrants
 o Intermarriage between the great houses
 o Poetry and art
 o International influences
 * Classical Greek civilization
 + The Persian Wars
 o The Ionian revolt
 o Causes of the Persian Wars
 - Economic factors
 - Political factors
 o Athenian support of Ionia
 o The position of Sparta
 - Sparta’s foreign relations
 - The role of Cleomenes
 o The Battle of Marathon
 o The administration of democracy
 - The appointment of archons
 - The system of ostracism
 o The last Persian Wars
 - Greek preparations for war
 - Greek alliances
 - Thermopylae
 - Salamis
 - Plataea
 + The Athenian empire
 o Emerging Athenian independence
 - The fortification of Athens
 - The ambition of Pausanias
 o The Delian League
 - Paying tribute to Athens
 - Strains on Greek unity
 o Mounting Athenian aggression
 - Cimon’s actions
 - Athens’s moves against other Greeks
 - Athens’s moves northward
 - Sparta’s responses
 o The reforms of Ephialtes
 - Legal reforms
 - Political reforms
 - The rejection of Cimon
 o Athenian expansion
 - Friction between Athens and Corinth
 - The subjugation of Aegina
 - The scale of Athenian ambition
 - Sparta’s resistance
 - Peace with Persia
 o Revolts of Athens’s tributary states
 - Economic sources of resentment
 - Political and legal sources of resentment
 - The Euboean revolt
 o Greek communities in Italy and Sicily
 + The Peloponnesian War
 o Causes
 o The initial phase, 431–425
 - Pericles
 - Sparta’s role
 - Continuing strife
 - Mytilene and Plataea
 - Speculation and unease
 o The years 425–421
 - Spartan calls for peace
 - Cleon’s influence
 - Spartan recovery
 o Athenian aggression outside the Peloponnese
 - Entanglement with Persia
 - Harsh treatment of Melos
 - The Sicilian disaster
 o The second phase of the war, 413–404
 + Greek civilization in the 5th century
 o Intellectual achievements
 - The effect of the Persian Wars on philosophy
 - The rise of democracy
 - Hippocrates and the fluidity of genres
 - Greek tragedy
 o The liturgy system
 o The roles of slaves and women
 - Slaves
 - Women
 o Military technology
 * The 4th century
 + To the King’s Peace (386 bce )
 o Dionysius I of Syracuse
 o The Corinthian War
 o The King’s Peace
 + From 386 bce to the decline of Sparta
 o Spartan adventures
 o The Second Athenian Confederacy
 o Theban expansion
 o Athens and Thebes
 + The rise of Macedon
 + Macedonian supremacy in Greece
 + Alexander the Great
 o Alexander and the Greeks
 o Alexander in Egypt
 o To the Persian Gates
 o The conquest of Bactria and the Indus valley
 o The final phase
 + Greek civilization in the 4th century
 o Historical writings
 o Architecture and sculpture
 o Social and commercial exchanges
 o Organized settlements
 * Conclusion
 Fast Facts
 * ancient Greek civilization summary
 * Top Questions
 + Is ancient Greece a country?
 + Was ancient Greece a democracy?
 + Why is ancient Greece important?
 * Facts & Related Content
 * Quizzes
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 * Videos
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 * PBS LearningMedia - Greek Guide to Greatness: Religion | The Greeks
 * PBS LearningMedia - Greek Guide to Greatness: Economy | The Greeks
 * PBS LearningMedia - The Rise of Alexander the Great
 * Ancient History Encyclopedia - Ancient Greece, Eurasia
 * PBS LearningMedia - The Birth of Democracy | The Greeks
 * PBS LearningMedia - Emergence of Cities and the Prophecies of Oracles | The Greeks
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 Written by
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 Professor of Classics and Ancient History, University of Oxford.
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 Top Questions

 Is ancient Greece a country?

 No, ancient Greece was a civilization. The Greeks had cultural traits, a religion, and a language in common, though they spoke many dialects. The basic political unit was the city-state. Conflict between city-states was common, but they were capable of banding together against a common enemy, as they did during the Persian Wars (492–449 BCE). Powerful city-states such as Athens and Sparta exerted influence beyond their borders but never controlled the entire Greek-speaking world.

 Where was ancient Greece located?

 Ancient Greek civilization was concentrated in what is today Greece and along the western coast of Turkey. However, ancient Greek colonists established cities all around the Mediterranean and along the coast of the Black Sea.

 Was ancient Greece a democracy?

 Each ancient Greek city-state had its own government. Common forms of government included tyranny and oligarchy. In 507 BCE, under the leadership of Cleisthenes, the citizens of Athens began to develop a system of popular rule that they called democracy, which would last nearly two centuries. In their governing body, the Assembly (Ecclesia), all adult male citizens, perhaps 10 to 15 percent of the total population, were eligible to vote.

 When did ancient Greece start and end?

 Ancient Greek civilization flourished from the period following Mycenaean civilization, which ended about 1200 BCE, to the death of Alexander the Great, in 323 BCE. By that time, Greek cultural influence had spread around the Mediterranean and, through Alexander the Great’s campaign of conquest, as far afield as India.

 Why is ancient Greece important?

 The political, philosophical, artistic, and scientific achievements of ancient Greek civilization formed a legacy with unparalleled influence on Western civilization. Greek political ideas have influenced modern forms of government, Greek pottery and sculpture have inspired artists for millennia, and Greek epic, lyric, and dramatic poetry is still read around the world.

 Summary

 Read a brief summary of this topic

 ancient Greek civilization, the period following Mycenaean civilization, which ended about 1200 bce , to the death of Alexander the Great, in 323 bce . It was a period of political, philosophical, artistic, and scientific achievements that formed a legacy with unparalleled influence on Western civilization.

 The early Archaic period

 The post-Mycenaean period and Lefkandi

 ancient Greece

 The period between the catastrophic end of the Mycenaean civilization and about 900 bce is often called a Dark Age. It was a time about which Greeks of the Classical age had confused and actually false notions. Thucydides, the great ancient historian of the 5th century bce , wrote a sketch of Greek history from the Trojan War to his own day, in which he notoriously fails, in the appropriate chapter, to signal any kind of dramatic rupture. (He does, however, speak of Greece “settling down gradually” and colonizing Italy, Sicily, and what is now western Turkey. This surely implies that Greece was settling down after something.) Thucydides does indeed display sound knowledge of the series of migrations by which Greece was resettled in the post-Mycenaean period. The most famous of these was the “Dorian invasion,” which the Greeks called, or connected with, the legendary “return of the descendants of Heracles.” Although much about that invasion is problematic—it left little or no archaeological trace at the point in time where tradition puts it—the problems are of no concern here. Important for the understanding of the Archaic and Classical periods, however, is the powerful belief in Dorianism as a linguistic and religious concept. Thucydides casually but significantly mentions soldiers speaking the “Doric dialect” in a narrative about ordinary military matters in the year 426. That is a surprisingly abstract way of looking at the subdivisions of the Greeks, because it would have been more natural for a 5th-century Greek to identify soldiers by home cities. Equally important to the understanding of this period is the hostility to Dorians, usually on the part of Ionians, another linguistic and religious subgroup, whose most-famous city was Athens. So extreme was this hostility that Dorians were prohibited from entering Ionian sanctuaries; extant today is a 5th-century example of such a prohibition, an inscription from the island of Paros.

 Phenomena such as the tension between Dorians and Ionians that have their origins in the Dark Age are a reminder that Greek civilization did not emerge either unannounced or uncontaminated by what had gone before. The Dark Age itself is beyond the scope of this article. One is bound to notice, however, that archaeological finds tend to call into question the whole concept of a Dark Age by showing that certain features of Greek civilization once thought not to antedate about 800 bce can actually be pushed back by as much as two centuries. One example, chosen for its relevance to the emergence of the Greek city-state, or polis, will suffice. In 1981 archaeology pulled back the curtain on the “darkest” phase of all, the Protogeometric Period (c. 1075–900 bce ), which takes its name from the geometric shapes painted on pottery. A grave, rich by the standards of any period, was uncovered at a site called Lefkandi on Euboea, the island along the eastern flank of Attica (the territory controlled by Athens). The grave, which dates to about 1000 bce , contains the (probably cremated) remains of a man and a woman. The large bronze vessel in which the man’s ashes were deposited came from Cyprus, and the gold items buried with the woman are splendid and sophisticated in their workmanship. Remains of horses were found as well; the animals had been buried with their snaffle bits. The grave was within a large collapsed house, whose form anticipates that of the Greek temples two centuries later. Previously it had been thought that those temples were one of the first manifestations of the “monumentalizing” associated with the beginnings of the city-state. Thus, that find and those made in a set of nearby cemeteries in the years before 1980 attesting further contacts between Egypt and Cyprus between 1000 and 800 bce are important evidence. They show that one corner of one island of Greece, at least, was neither impoverished nor isolated in a period usually thought to have been both. The difficulty is to know just how exceptional Lefkandi was, but in any view it has revised former ideas about what was and what was not possible at the beginning of the 1st millennium bce .

 Colonization and city-state formation

 The term colonization, although it may be convenient and widely used, is misleading. When applied to Archaic Greece, it should not necessarily be taken to imply the state-sponsored sending out of definite numbers of settlers, as the later Roman origin of the word implies. For one thing, it will be seen that state formation may itself be a product of the colonizing movement.

 Britannica Quiz
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Top Questions   Is ancient Greece a country?   Where was ancient Greece located?   Was ancient Greece a democracy?   When did ancient Greece start and end?    Why is ancient Greece important?    Summary
  
 
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    ancient Greek civilization, the period following Mycenaean civilization, which ended about 1200 bce, to the death of Alexander the Great, in 323 bce. It was a period of political, philosophical, artistic, and scientific achievements that formed a legacy with unparalleled influence on Western civilization.   The early Archaic period  The post-Mycenaean period and Lefkandi The period between the catastrophic end of the Mycenaean civilization and about 900 bce is often called a Dark Age. It was a time about which Greeks of the Classical age had confused and actually false notions. Thucydides, the great ancient historian of the 5th century bce, wrote a sketch of Greek history from the Trojan War to his own day, in which he notoriously fails, in the appropriate chapter, to signal any kind of dramatic rupture. (He does, however, speak of Greece “settling down gradually” and colonizing Italy, Sicily, and what is now western Turkey. This surely implies that Greece was settling down after something.) Thucydides does indeed display sound knowledge of the series of migrations by which Greece was resettled in the post-Mycenaean period. The most famous of these was the “Dorian invasion,” which the Greeks called, or connected with, the legendary “return of the descendants of Heracles.” Although much about that invasion is problematic—it left little or no archaeological trace at the point in time where tradition puts it—the problems are of no concern here. Important for the understanding of the Archaic and Classical periods, however, is the powerful belief in Dorianism as a linguistic and religious concept. Thucydides casually but significantly mentions soldiers speaking the “Doric dialect” in a narrative about ordinary military matters in the year 426. That is a surprisingly abstract way of looking at the subdivisions of the Greeks, because it would have been more natural for a 5th-century Greek to identify soldiers by home cities. Equally important to the understanding of this period is the hostility to Dorians, usually on the part of Ionians, another linguistic and religious subgroup, whose most-famous city was Athens. So extreme was this hostility that Dorians were prohibited from entering Ionian sanctuaries; extant today is a 5th-century example of such a prohibition, an inscription from the island of Paros. Phenomena such as the tension between Dorians and Ionians that have their origins in the Dark Age are a reminder that Greek civilization did not emerge either unannounced or uncontaminated by what had gone before. The Dark Age itself is beyond the scope of this article. One is bound to notice, however, that archaeological finds tend to call into question the whole concept of a Dark Age by showing that certain features of Greek civilization once thought not to antedate about 800 bce can actually be pushed back by as much as two centuries. One example, chosen for its relevance to the emergence of the Greek city-state, or polis, will suffice. In 1981 archaeology pulled back the curtain on the “darkest” phase of all, the Protogeometric Period (c. 1075–900 bce), which takes its name from the geometric shapes painted on pottery. A grave, rich by the standards of any period, was uncovered at a site called Lefkandi on Euboea, the island along the eastern flank of Attica (the territory controlled by Athens). The grave, which dates to about 1000 bce, contains the (probably cremated) remains of a man and a woman. The large bronze vessel in which the man’s ashes were deposited came from Cyprus, and the gold items buried with the woman are splendid and sophisticated in their workmanship. Remains of horses were found as well; the animals had been buried with their snaffle bits. The grave was within a large collapsed house, whose form anticipates that of the Greek temples two centuries later. Previously it had been thought that those temples were one of the first manifestations of the “monumentalizing” associated with the beginnings of the city-state. Thus, that find and those made in a set of nearby cemeteries in the years before 1980 attesting further contacts between Egypt and Cyprus between 1000 and 800 bce are important evidence. They show that one corner of one island of Greece, at least, was neither impoverished nor isolated in a period usually thought to have been both. The difficulty is to know just how exceptional Lefkandi was, but in any view it has revised former ideas about what was and what was not possible at the beginning of the 1st millennium bce.    Colonization and city-state formation The term colonization, although it may be convenient and widely used, is misleading. When applied to Archaic Greece, it should not necessarily be taken to imply the state-sponsored sending out of definite numbers of settlers, as the later Roman origin of the word implies. For one thing, it will be seen that state formation may itself be a product of the colonizing movement.
Ancient Greek civilization | History, Map, Culture, Politics, Religion, Achievements, & Facts
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Ancient Greece - Wikipedia
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<div><div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Parthenon_(30276156187).jpg"></a></p><div><p>The <a href="/wiki/Parthenon">Parthenon</a>, a temple dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Athena">Athena</a>, located on the <a href="/wiki/Acropolis">Acropolis</a> in <a href="/wiki/Athens">Athens</a>, is one of the most representative symbols of the culture and sophistication of the ancient Greeks.</p></div></div>
<p><b>Ancient Greece</b> (<a href="/wiki/Greek_language">Greek</a>: Ἑλλάς, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Greek">romanized</a>: </small><i>Hellás</i>) was a northeastern <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea">Mediterranean</a> <a href="/wiki/Civilization">civilization</a>, existing from the <a href="/wiki/Greek_Dark_Ages">Greek Dark Ages</a> of the 12th–9th centuries BC to the end of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Antiquity">classical antiquity</a> (<abbr>c.</abbr> AD 600), that comprised a loose collection of culturally and linguistically related <a href="/wiki/Polis">city-states</a> and other territories. Most of these regions were officially unified only once, for 13 years, under <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great">Alexander the Great</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_empire">empire</a> from 336 to 323 BC (though this excludes a number of Greek city-states free from Alexander's jurisdiction in the western Mediterranean, around the Black Sea, Cyprus, and Cyrenaica). In <a href="/wiki/Western_history">Western history</a>, the era of classical antiquity was immediately followed by the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages">Early Middle Ages</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine">Byzantine</a> period.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Thomas1988-1">[1]</a></sup>
</p><p>Roughly three centuries after the <a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age_collapse">Late Bronze Age collapse</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece">Mycenaean Greece</a>, Greek urban <a href="/wiki/Poleis">poleis</a> began to form in the 8th century BC, ushering in the <a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece">Archaic period</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_colonisation">the colonization</a> of <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Greek_migrations">the Mediterranean Basin</a>. This was followed by the age of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece">Classical Greece</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a> to the 5th to 4th centuries BC, and which included the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Athens">Golden Age of Athens</a>. The conquests of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great">Alexander the Great</a> of <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)">Macedon</a> spread <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_civilization">Hellenistic civilization</a> from the western Mediterranean to <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia">Central Asia</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Greece">Hellenistic period</a> ended with the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_wars_and_battles">conquest</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean">eastern Mediterranean</a> world by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic">Roman Republic</a>, and the annexation of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_province">Roman province</a> of <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(Roman_province)">Macedonia</a> in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Greece">Roman Greece</a>, and later the province of <a href="/wiki/Achaea_(Roman_province)">Achaea</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire">Roman Empire</a>.
</p><p>Classical <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Greece">Greek culture</a>, especially philosophy, had a powerful influence on <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome">ancient Rome</a>, which carried a version of it throughout the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Basin">Mediterranean</a> and much of <a href="/wiki/Europe">Europe</a>. For this reason, Classical Greece is generally considered the cradle of <a href="/wiki/Western_culture">Western civilization</a>, the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/seminal">seminal</a> culture from which the modern West derives many of its founding archetypes and ideas in politics, philosophy, science, and art.<sup><a href="#cite_note-EllynMcGinnis2004-2">[2]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FindlingPelle2004-3">[3]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-ThompsonMullin-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Chronology</h2>
<p><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> in the Mediterranean region is commonly considered to have begun in the 8th century BC<sup><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> (around the time of the earliest recorded poetry of Homer) and ended in the 6th century AD.
</p><p>Classical antiquity in Greece was preceded by the <a href="/wiki/Greek_Dark_Ages">Greek Dark Ages</a> (<abbr>c.</abbr> 1200 – <abbr>c.</abbr> 800 BC), <a href="/wiki/Archaeologically">archaeologically</a> characterised by the <a href="/wiki/Protogeometric_art">protogeometric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geometric_art">geometric styles</a> of designs on pottery. Following the Dark Ages was the <a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece">Archaic Period</a>, beginning around the 8th century BC, which saw early developments in Greek culture and society leading to the <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece">Classical Period</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup> from the Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC until the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> The Classical Period is characterized by a "classical" style, i.e. one which was considered exemplary by later observers, most famously in the <a href="/wiki/Parthenon">Parthenon</a> of Athens. Politically, the Classical Period was dominated by <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens">Athens</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Delian_League">Delian League</a> during the 5th century, but displaced by <a href="/wiki/Spartan_hegemony">Spartan hegemony</a> during the early 4th century BC, before power shifted to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Thebes_(Boeotia)">Thebes</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Boeotian_League">Boeotian League</a> and finally to the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth">League of Corinth</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Macedon">Macedon</a>. This period was shaped by the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War">Peloponnesian War</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_Macedon">Rise of Macedon</a>.
</p><p>Following the Classical period was the Hellenistic period (323–146 BC), during which Greek culture and power expanded into the <a href="/wiki/Near_East">Near</a> and <a href="/wiki/Middle_East">Middle East</a> from the death of Alexander until the Roman conquest. <a href="/wiki/Roman_Greece">Roman Greece</a> is usually counted from the Roman victory over the <a href="/wiki/Corinth">Corinthians</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Corinth_(146_BC)">Battle of Corinth</a> in 146 BC to the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Byzantium">Byzantium</a> by <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I">Constantine</a> as the capital of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire">Roman Empire</a> in AD 330. Finally, <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a> refers to the period of <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Greco-Roman_polytheism">Christianization</a> during the later 4th to early 6th centuries AD, consummated by the closure of the <a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_Academy">Academy of Athens</a> by <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I">Justinian I</a> in 529.<sup><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Historiography</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:L%27atleta_di_Fano.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>The historical period of ancient Greece is unique in world history as the first period attested directly in comprehensive, narrative <a href="/wiki/Historiography">historiography</a>, while earlier ancient history or <a href="/wiki/Protohistory">protohistory</a> is known from much more fragmentary documents such as annals, king lists, and pragmatic <a href="/wiki/Epigraphy">epigraphy</a>.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Herodotus">Herodotus</a> is widely known as the "father of history": his <i><a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)">Histories</a></i> are eponymous of the entire <a href="/wiki/History">field</a>. Written between the 450s and 420s BC, Herodotus' work reaches about a century into the past, discussing 6th century BC historical figures such as <a href="/wiki/Darius_I_of_Persia">Darius I of Persia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cambyses_II">Cambyses II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psamtik_III">Psamtik III</a>, and alluding to some 8th century BC persons such as <a href="/wiki/Candaules">Candaules</a>. The accuracy of Herodotus' works is debated.<sup><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup>
</p><p>Herodotus was succeeded by authors such as <a href="/wiki/Thucydides">Thucydides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xenophon">Xenophon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plato">Plato</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle">Aristotle</a>. Most were either Athenian or pro-Athenian, which is why far more is known about the history and politics of Athens than of many other cities.
Their scope is further limited by a focus on political, military and diplomatic history, ignoring economic and social history.<sup><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>History</h2>
<h3>Archaic period</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Prothesis_Dipylon_Painter_Louvre_A517.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Dipylon Vase of the late Geometric period, or the beginning of the Archaic period, <abbr>c.</abbr> 750 BC.</p></div></div>
<p>In the 8th century BC, Greece began to emerge from the <a href="/wiki/Greek_Dark_Ages">Dark Ages</a>, which followed the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece">Mycenaean civilization</a>. Literacy had been lost and the <a href="/wiki/Linear_B">Mycenaean script</a> forgotten, but the Greeks adopted the <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet">Phoenician alphabet</a>, modifying it to create the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet">Greek alphabet</a>. Objects inscribed with Phoenician writing may have been available in Greece from the 9th century BC, but the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Greek_alphabet">earliest evidence of Greek writing</a> comes from graffiti on Greek pottery from the mid-8th century.<sup><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup> Greece was divided into many small self-governing communities, a pattern largely dictated by its <a href="/wiki/Greek_geography">geography</a>: every island, valley and plain is cut off from its neighbors by the sea or mountain ranges.<sup><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Lelantine_War">Lelantine War</a> (<abbr>c.</abbr> 710 – <abbr>c.</abbr> 650 BC) is the earliest documented war of the ancient Greek period. It was fought between the important <i><a href="/wiki/Polis">poleis</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/City-state">city-states</a>) of <a href="/wiki/Chalcis">Chalcis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eretria">Eretria</a> over the fertile Lelantine plain of <a href="/wiki/Euboea">Euboea</a>. Both cities seem to have declined as a result of the long war, though Chalcis was the nominal victor.
</p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Merchant">mercantile class</a> arose in the first half of the 7th century BC, shown by the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_coinage">coinage</a> in about 680 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Žižek2011-17">[17]</a></sup><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Naming_conventions_(geographic_names)">where?</a></i>]</sup>This seems to have introduced tension to many city-states, as their <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy">aristocratic</a> regimes were threatened by the new wealth of merchants ambitious for political power. From 650 BC onwards, the aristocracies had to fight to maintain themselves against <a href="/wiki/Populism">populist</a> <a href="/wiki/Tyrant">tyrants</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-20">[a]</a></sup> A growing population and a shortage of land also seem to have created internal strife between rich and poor in many city-states.
</p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Sparta">Sparta</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Messenian_Wars_(disambiguation)">Messenian Wars</a> resulted in the conquest of <a href="/wiki/Messenia_(ancient_region)">Messenia</a> and enserfment of the Messenians, beginning in the latter half of the 8th century BC. This was an unprecedented act in ancient Greece, which led to a social revolution<sup><a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a></sup> in which the subjugated population of <a href="/wiki/Helots">helots</a> farmed and labored for Sparta, whilst every Spartan male citizen became a soldier of the <a href="/wiki/Spartan_army">Spartan army</a> permanently in arms. Rich and poor citizens alike were obliged to live and train as soldiers, an equality that defused social conflict. These reforms, attributed to <a href="/wiki/Lycurgus_of_Sparta">Lycurgus of Sparta</a>, were probably complete by 650 BC.
</p><p>Athens suffered a land and agrarian crisis in the late 7th century BC, again resulting in civil strife. The <a href="/wiki/Archon_of_Athens">Archon</a> (chief magistrate) <a href="/wiki/Draco_(lawgiver)">Draco</a> made severe reforms to the law code in 621 BC (hence "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Draconian">draconian</a>"), but these failed to quell the conflict. Eventually, the moderate reforms of <a href="/wiki/Solon">Solon</a> (594 BC), improving the lot of the poor but firmly entrenching the aristocracy in power, gave Athens some stability.
</p><p>By the 6th century BC, several cities had emerged as dominant in Greek affairs: Athens, Sparta, <a href="/wiki/Corinth,_Greece">Corinth</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thebes_(Greece)">Thebes</a>. Each of them had brought the surrounding rural areas and smaller towns under their control, and Athens and Corinth had become major maritime and mercantile powers as well.
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient_colonies.PNG"></a></p></div>
<p>Rapidly increasing population in the 8th and 7th centuries BC had resulted in the emigration of many Greeks to form <a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity">colonies</a> in <a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia">Magna Graecia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Southern_Italy">Southern Italy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sicily">Sicily</a>), <a href="/wiki/Anatolia">Asia Minor</a> and further afield. The emigration effectively ceased in the 6th century BC by which time the Greek world had, culturally and linguistically, become much larger than the area of present-day Greece. <a href="/wiki/Greek_colonisation">Greek colonies</a> were not politically controlled by their founding cities, although they often retained religious and commercial links with them.
</p><p>The Greek colonies of Sicily, especially <a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_Sicily#Greek_period">Syracuse</a>, were soon drawn into prolonged conflicts with the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage">Carthaginians</a>. These conflicts lasted from 600 BC to 265 BC, when the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic">Roman Republic</a> allied with the <a href="/wiki/Mamertines">Mamertines</a> to fend off the new tyrant of Syracuse, <a href="/wiki/Hiero_II_of_Syracuse">Hiero II</a>, and then the Carthaginians. As a result, Rome became the new dominant power against the fading strength of the Sicilian Greek cities and the fading Carthaginian hegemony. One year later, the <a href="/wiki/First_Punic_War">First Punic War</a> erupted.
</p><p>In this period, Greece and its overseas colonies enjoyed huge economic development in commerce and manufacturing, with rising general prosperity. Some studies estimate that the average Greek household grew fivefold between 800 and 300 BC, indicating a large increase in average income.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>In the second half of the 6th century BC, Athens fell under the tyranny of <a href="/wiki/Pisistratus">Pisistratus</a> followed by his sons <a href="/wiki/Hippias_(tyrant)">Hippias</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hipparchus_(brother_of_Hippias)">Hipparchus</a>. However, in 510 BC, at the instigation of the Athenian aristocrat <a href="/wiki/Cleisthenes">Cleisthenes</a>, the Spartan king <a href="/wiki/Cleomenes_I">Cleomenes I</a> helped the Athenians overthrow the tyranny. Sparta and Athens promptly turned on each other, at which point Cleomenes I installed <a href="/wiki/Isagoras">Isagoras</a> as a pro-Spartan archon. Eager to secure Athens' independence from Spartan control, Cleisthenes proposed a political revolution: that all citizens share power, regardless of status, making Athens a "<a href="/wiki/Athenian_democracy">democracy</a>". The democratic enthusiasm of the Athenians swept out Isagoras and threw back the Spartan-led invasion to restore him.<sup><a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a></sup> The advent of democracy cured many of the social ills of Athens and ushered in the <a href="/wiki/Fifth-century_Athens">Golden Age</a>.
</p>
<h3>Classical Greece</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:EarlyAthenianCoin.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Early <a href="/wiki/Athens">Athenian</a> coin, depicting the head of <a href="/wiki/Athena">Athena</a> on the obverse and her owl on the reverse – 5th century BC</p></div></div>
<p>In 499 BC, the <a href="/wiki/Ionia">Ionian</a> city states under Persian rule rebelled against their Persian-supported tyrant rulers.<sup><a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a></sup> Supported by troops sent from Athens and <a href="/wiki/Eretria">Eretria</a>, they advanced as far as <a href="/wiki/Sardis">Sardis</a> and burnt the city before being driven back by a Persian counterattack.<sup><a href="#cite_note-martin2013-24">[23]</a></sup> The revolt continued until 494, when the rebelling Ionians were defeated.<sup><a href="#cite_note-martin2013-24">[23]</a></sup> Darius did not forget that Athens had assisted the Ionian revolt, and in 490 he assembled an armada to retaliate.<sup><a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a></sup> Though heavily outnumbered, the Athenians—supported by their <a href="/wiki/Plataea">Plataean</a> allies—defeated the Persian hordes at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marathon">Battle of Marathon</a>, and the Persian fleet turned tail.<sup><a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg"></a></p><div><p>Map showing events of the first phases of the Greco-Persian Wars.</p></div></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Map_athenian_empire_431_BC-en.svg"></a></p><div><p>Delian League ("Athenian Empire"), immediately before the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War">Peloponnesian War</a> in 431 BC</p></div></div>
<p>Ten years later, a <a href="/wiki/Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece">second invasion</a> was launched by Darius' son <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I">Xerxes</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-martin131-27">[26]</a></sup> The city-states of northern and central Greece submitted to the Persian forces without resistance, but a coalition of 31 Greek city states, including Athens and Sparta, determined to resist the Persian invaders.<sup><a href="#cite_note-martin131-27">[26]</a></sup> At the same time, Greek Sicily was invaded by a Carthaginian force.<sup><a href="#cite_note-martin131-27">[26]</a></sup> In 480 BC, the first major battle of the invasion was fought at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae">Thermopylae</a>, where a small rearguard of Greeks, led by three hundred Spartans, held a crucial pass guarding the heart of Greece for several days; at the same time <a href="/wiki/Gelo">Gelon</a>, tyrant of Syracuse, defeated the Carthaginian invasion at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Himera_(480_BC)">Battle of Himera</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Persians were decisively defeated at sea by a primarily Athenian naval force at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis">Battle of Salamis</a>, and on land in 479 BC at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plataea">Battle of Plataea</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-29">[28]</a></sup> The alliance against Persia continued, initially led by the Spartan <a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(general)">Pausanias</a> but from 477 by Athens,<sup><a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a></sup> and by 460 Persia had been driven out of the Aegean.<sup><a href="#cite_note-31">[30]</a></sup> During this long campaign, the <a href="/wiki/Delian_League">Delian League</a> gradually transformed from a defensive alliance of Greek states into an Athenian empire, as Athens' growing naval power intimidated the other league states.<sup><a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a></sup> Athens ended its campaigns against Persia in 450, after a disastrous defeat in Egypt in 454, and the death of <a href="/wiki/Cimon">Cimon</a> in action against the Persians on Cyprus in 450.<sup><a href="#cite_note-martin147-33">[32]</a></sup>
</p><p>As the Athenian fight against the Persian empire waned, conflict grew between Athens and Sparta. Suspicious of the increasing Athenian power funded by the Delian League, Sparta offered aid to reluctant members of the League to rebel against Athenian domination. These tensions were exacerbated in 462 BC when Athens sent a force to aid Sparta in overcoming a <a href="/wiki/Helot">helot</a> revolt, but this aid was rejected by the Spartans.<sup><a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a></sup> In the 450s, Athens took control of Boeotia, and won victories over <a href="/wiki/Aegina">Aegina</a> and Corinth.<sup><a href="#cite_note-martin147-33">[32]</a></sup> However, Athens failed to win a decisive victory, and in 447 lost Boeotia again.<sup><a href="#cite_note-martin147-33">[32]</a></sup> Athens and Sparta signed the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_Peace">Thirty Years' Peace</a> in the winter of 446/5, ending the conflict.<sup><a href="#cite_note-martin147-33">[32]</a></sup>
</p><p>Despite the treaty, Athenian relations with Sparta declined again in the 430s, and in 431 BC the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War">Peloponnesian War</a> began.<sup><a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Archidamian_War">first phase of the war</a> saw a series of fruitless annual invasions of Attica by Sparta, while Athens successfully fought the Corinthian empire in northwest Greece and defended its own empire, despite a <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Athens">plague</a> which killed the leading Athenian statesman <a href="/wiki/Pericles">Pericles</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-hornblower160-36">[35]</a></sup> The war turned after Athenian victories led by <a href="/wiki/Cleon">Cleon</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pylos">Pylos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sphacteria">Sphakteria</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-hornblower160-36">[35]</a></sup> and Sparta sued for peace, but the Athenians rejected the proposal.<sup><a href="#cite_note-hornblower162-37">[36]</a></sup> The Athenian failure to regain control of Boeotia at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Delium">Delium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brasidas">Brasidas</a>' successes in northern Greece in 424 improved Sparta's position after Sphakteria.<sup><a href="#cite_note-hornblower162-37">[36]</a></sup> After the deaths of Cleon and Brasidas, the strongest proponents of war on each side, <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Nikias">a peace treaty</a> was negoitiated in 421 by the Athenian general <a href="/wiki/Nicias">Nicias</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a></sup>
</p><p>The peace did not last, however. In 418 BC allied forces of Athens and Argos were defeated by Sparta at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mantinea_(418_BC)">Mantinea</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-39">[38]</a></sup> In 415 Athens launched an ambitious naval expedition to dominate Sicily;<sup><a href="#cite_note-40">[39]</a></sup> the expedition ended in disaster at the harbor of <a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_Sicily">Syracuse</a>, with almost the entire army killed, and the ships destroyed.<sup><a href="#cite_note-41">[40]</a></sup> Soon after the Athenian defeat in Syracuse, Athens' Ionian allies began to rebel against the Delian league, while Persia began to once again involve itself in Greek affairs on the Spartan side.<sup><a href="#cite_note-42">[41]</a></sup> Initially the Athenian position continued relatively strong, with important victories at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cyzicus">Cyzicus</a> in 410 and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arginusae">Arginusae</a> in 406.<sup><a href="#cite_note-43">[42]</a></sup> However, in 405 the Spartan <a href="/wiki/Lysander">Lysander</a> defeated Athens in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Aegospotami">Battle of Aegospotami</a>, and began to blockade Athens' harbour;<sup><a href="#cite_note-Martin_2013_205-44">[43]</a></sup> driven by hunger, Athens sued for peace, agreeing to surrender their fleet and join the Spartan-led Peloponnesian League.<sup><a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a></sup> Following the Athenian surrender, Sparta installed an oligarchic regime, the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Tyrants">Thirty Tyrants</a>, in Athens,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Martin_2013_205-44">[43]</a></sup> one of a number of Spartan-backed oligarchies which rose to power after the Peloponnesian war.<sup><a href="#cite_note-46">[45]</a></sup> Spartan predominance did not last: after only a year, the Thirty had been overthrown.<sup><a href="#cite_note-47">[46]</a></sup>
</p><p>The first half of the fourth century saw the major Greek states attempt to dominate the mainland; none were successful, and their resulting weakness led to a power vacuum which would eventually be filled by Macedon under Philip II and then Alexander the Great.<sup><a href="#cite_note-48">[47]</a></sup> In the immediate aftermath of the Peloponnesian war, Sparta attempted to extend their own power, leading Argos, Athens, Corinth, and Thebes to join against them.<sup><a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a></sup> Aiming to prevent any single Greek state gaining the dominance that would allow it to challenge Persia, the Persian king initially joined the alliance against Sparta, before imposing <a href="/wiki/The_King%27s_Peace">the King's Peace</a> which restored Persia's control over the Anatolian Greeks.<sup><a href="#cite_note-50">[49]</a></sup>
</p><p>By 371 BC, Thebes was in the ascendancy, defeating Sparta at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leuctra">Battle of Leuctra</a>, killing the Spartan king <a href="/wiki/Cleombrotus_I">Cleombrotus I</a>, and invading Laconia. Further Theban successes against Sparta in 369 led to Messenia gaining independence; Sparta never recovered from the loss of Messenia's fertile land and the helot workforce it provided.<sup><a href="#cite_note-51">[50]</a></sup> The rising power of Thebes led Sparta and Athens to join forces; in 362 they were defeated by Thebes at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mantinea_(362_BC)">Battle of Mantinea</a>. In the aftermath of Mantinea, none of the major Greek states were able to dominate. Though Thebes had won the battle, their general Epaminondas was killed, and they spent the following decades embroiled in wars with their neighbours; Athens, meanwhile, saw its second naval alliance, formed in 377, collapse in the mid-350s.<sup><a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a></sup>
</p><p>The power vacuum in Greece after the Battle of Mantinea was filled by Macedon, under <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon">Philip II</a>. In 338 BC, he defeated a Greek alliance at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chaeronea_(338_BC)">Battle of Chaeronea</a>, and subsequently formed the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth">League of Corinth</a>. Philip planned to lead the League to invade Persia, but was murdered in 336. His son <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great">Alexander the Great</a> was left to fulfil his father's ambitions.<sup><a href="#cite_note-53">[52]</a></sup> After campaigns against Macedon's western and northern enemies, and those Greek states that had broken from the League of Corinth following the death of Philip, Alexander began his campaign against Persia in 334.<sup><a href="#cite_note-54">[53]</a></sup> He conquered Persia, defeating <a href="/wiki/Darius_III">Darius III</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Issus">Battle of Issus</a> in 333, and after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gaugamela">Battle of Gaugamela</a> in 331 proclaimed himself king of Asia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-55">[54]</a></sup> From 329 he led expeditions to Bactria and then India;<sup><a href="#cite_note-56">[55]</a></sup> further plans to invade Arabia and North Africa were halted by his death in 323.<sup><a href="#cite_note-57">[56]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Hellenistic Greece</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_the_Great_mosaic.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Alexander Mosaic, National Archaeological Museum, Naples.</p></div></div>
<p>The period from the death of Alexander the Great in 323 until the death of <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_VII">Cleopatra VII</a>, the last Macedonian ruler of Egypt, is known as the Hellenistic period. In the early part of this period, a new form of kingship developed based on Macedonian and Near Eastern traditions. The first Hellenistic kings were previously Alexander's generals, and took power in the period following his death, though they were not part of existing royal lineages and lacked historic claims to the territories they controlled.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2013253-58">[57]</a></sup> The most important of these rulers in the decades after Alexander's death were <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_I">Antigonus I</a> and his son <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Macedon">Demetrius</a> in Macedonia and Greece, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> in Eygpt, and <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I">Seleucus I</a> in Syria and the former Persian empire;<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2013254–255-59">[58]</a></sup> smaller Hellenistic kingdoms included the <a href="/wiki/Attalid">Attalids</a> in Anatolia and the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_kingdom">Greco-Bactrian kingdom</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2013256-60">[59]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Diadochen1.png"></a></p></div>
<p>In the early part of the Hellenistic period, the exact borders of the Hellenistic kingdoms were not settled. Antigonus attempted to expand his territory by attacking the other successor kingdoms until they joined against him, and he was killed at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ipsus">Battle of Ipsus</a> in 301 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2013255-61">[60]</a></sup> His son Demetrius spent many years in Seleucid captivity, and his son, <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_II">Antigonus II</a>, only reclaimed the Macedonian throne around 276.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2013255-61">[60]</a></sup> Meanwhile, the Seleucid kingdom gave up territory in the east to the Indian king <a href="/wiki/Chandragupta_Maurya">Chandragupta Maurya</a> in exchange for war elephants, and later lost large parts of Persia to the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_empire">Parthian empire</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2013255-61">[60]</a></sup> By the mid-third century, the kingdoms of Alexander's successors was mostly stable, though there continued to be disputes over border areas.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2013256-60">[59]</a></sup>
</p><p>During the Hellenistic period, the importance of "Greece proper" (the territory of modern Greece) within the Greek-speaking world declined sharply. The great capitals of Hellenistic culture were <a href="/wiki/Alexandria">Alexandria</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antioch">Antioch</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire">Seleucid Empire</a>.
</p><p>The conquests of Alexander had numerous consequences for the Greek city-states. It greatly widened the horizons of the Greeks and led to a steady emigration of the young and ambitious to the new Greek empires in the east.<sup><a href="#cite_note-62">[61]</a></sup> Many Greeks migrated to Alexandria, Antioch and the many other new Hellenistic cities founded in Alexander's wake, as far away as present-day <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom">Greco-Bactrian Kingdom</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom">Indo-Greek Kingdom</a> survived until the end of the first century BC.
</p><p>The city-states within Greece formed themselves into two leagues; the <a href="/wiki/Achaean_League">Achaean League</a> (including Thebes, Corinth and Argos) and the <a href="/wiki/Aetolian_League">Aetolian League</a> (including Sparta and Athens). For much of the period until the Roman conquest, these leagues were at war, often participating in the conflicts between the <a href="/wiki/Diadochi">Diadochi</a> (the successor states to Alexander's empire).
</p><p>The Antigonid Kingdom became involved in a war with the Roman Republic in the late 3rd century. Although the <a href="/wiki/First_Macedonian_War">First Macedonian War</a> was inconclusive, the Romans, in typical fashion, continued to fight Macedon until it was completely absorbed into the Roman Republic (by 149 BC). In the east, the unwieldy Seleucid Empire gradually disintegrated, although a rump survived until 64 BC, whilst the Ptolemaic Kingdom continued in Egypt until 30 BC when it too was conquered by the Romans. The Aetolian league grew wary of Roman involvement in Greece, and sided with the Seleucids in the <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Seleucid_War">Roman–Seleucid War</a>; when the Romans were victorious, the league was effectively absorbed into the Republic. Although the Achaean league outlasted both the Aetolian league and Macedon, it was also soon defeated and absorbed by the Romans in 146 BC, bringing Greek independence to an end.
</p>
<h3>Roman Greece</h3>
<p>The Greek peninsula came under Roman rule during the 146 BC conquest of <a href="/wiki/Greece">Greece</a> after the Battle of Corinth. <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(Roman_province)">Macedonia</a> became a <a href="/wiki/Roman_province">Roman province</a> while southern Greece came under the surveillance of Macedonia's <a href="/wiki/Prefect">prefect</a>; however, some Greek <i>poleis</i> managed to maintain a partial independence and avoid taxation. The <a href="/wiki/Aegean_islands">Aegean islands</a> were added to this territory in 133 BC. <a href="/wiki/Athens">Athens</a> and other Greek cities revolted in 88 BC, and the peninsula was crushed by the Roman general <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Cornelius_Sulla">Sulla</a>. The Roman civil wars devastated the land even further, until <a href="/wiki/Caesar_Augustus">Augustus</a> organized the peninsula as the province of <a href="/wiki/Achaea_(province)">Achaea</a> in 27 BC.
</p><p>Greece was a key eastern province of the Roman Empire, as the <a href="/wiki/Roman_culture">Roman culture</a> had long been in fact <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world">Greco-Roman</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek">Greek language</a> served as a <i><a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca">lingua franca</a></i> in the East and in <a href="/wiki/Italia_(Roman_province)">Italy</a>, and many Greek intellectuals such as <a href="/wiki/Galen">Galen</a> would perform most of their work in <a href="/wiki/Rome">Rome</a>.
</p>
<h2>Geography</h2>
<h3>Regions</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient_Regions_Mainland_Greece.png"></a></p><div><p>Map showing the major regions of mainland ancient Greece and adjacent "barbarian" lands.</p></div></div>
<p>The territory of Greece is mountainous, and as a result, ancient Greece consisted of many smaller regions, each with its own dialect, cultural peculiarities, and identity. Regionalism and regional conflicts were prominent features of ancient Greece. Cities tended to be located in valleys between mountains, or on coastal plains, and dominated a certain area around them.
</p><p>In the south lay the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnese">Peloponnese</a>, consisting of the regions of Laconia (southeast), Messenia (southwest), Elis (west), Achaia (north), Korinthia (northeast), Argolis (east), and Arcadia (center). These names survive to the present day as <a href="/wiki/Regional_units_of_Greece">regional units of modern Greece</a>, though with somewhat different boundaries. Mainland Greece to the north, nowadays known as <a href="/wiki/Central_Greece">Central Greece</a>, consisted of <a href="/wiki/Aetolia">Aetolia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Acarnania">Acarnania</a> in the west, <a href="/wiki/Locris">Locris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doris_(Greece)">Doris</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Phocis_(ancient_region)">Phocis</a> in the center, while in the east lay <a href="/wiki/Boeotia">Boeotia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Attica">Attica</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Megaris">Megaris</a>. Northeast lay <a href="/wiki/Thessaly">Thessaly</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Epirus">Epirus</a> lay to the northwest. Epirus stretched from the <a href="/wiki/Ambracian_Gulf">Ambracian Gulf</a> in the south to the <a href="/wiki/Ceraunian_mountains">Ceraunian mountains</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Aoos">Aoos</a> river in the north, and consisted of <a href="/wiki/Chaonia">Chaonia</a> (north), <a href="/wiki/Molossia">Molossia</a> (center), and Thesprotia (south). In the northeast corner was <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)">Macedonia</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-britannica-63">[62]</a></sup> originally consisting <a href="/wiki/Lower_Macedonia">Lower Macedonia</a> and its regions, such as <a href="/wiki/Elimeia">Elimeia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pieria_(regional_unit)">Pieria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Orestis_(region)">Orestis</a>. Around the time of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Macedon">Alexander I of Macedon</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty">Argead kings of Macedon</a> started to expand into <a href="/wiki/Upper_Macedonia">Upper Macedonia</a>, lands inhabited by independent <a href="/wiki/Ancient_macedonians">Macedonian</a> tribes like the <a href="/wiki/Lynkestis">Lyncestae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orestae">Orestae</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Elimiotis">Elimiotae</a> and to the west, beyond the <a href="/wiki/Axius_river">Axius river</a>, into <a href="/wiki/Eordaia">Eordaia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bottiaea">Bottiaea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mygdonia">Mygdonia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Almopia">Almopia</a>, regions settled by Thracian tribes.<sup><a href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a></sup> To the north of Macedonia lay various non-Greek peoples such as the <a href="/wiki/Paeonians">Paeonians</a> due north, the <a href="/wiki/Thracians">Thracians</a> to the northeast, and the <a href="/wiki/Illyrians">Illyrians</a>, with whom the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians">Macedonians</a> were frequently in conflict, to the northwest. <a href="/wiki/Chalcidice">Chalcidice</a> was settled early on by southern Greek colonists and was considered part of the Greek world, while from the late 2nd millennium BC substantial Greek settlement also occurred on the eastern shores of the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea">Aegean</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia">Anatolia</a>.
</p>
<h3>Colonies</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Griechischen_und_ph%C3%B6nizischen_Kolonien.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Greek cities &amp; colonies <abbr>c.</abbr> 550 BC (in red color)</p></div></div>
<p>During the <a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece">Archaic period</a>, the Greek <a href="/wiki/Classical_demography#Ancient_Greece_and_Greek_colonies">population</a> grew beyond the capacity of the limited <a href="/wiki/Arable_land">arable land</a> of Greece proper, resulting in the large-scale establishment of <a href="/wiki/Greek_colonisation">colonies</a> elsewhere: according to one estimate, the population of the widening area of Greek settlement increased roughly tenfold from 800 BC to 400 BC, from 800,000 to as many as 7+1⁄2-10 million.<sup><a href="#cite_note-65">[64]</a></sup>
</p><p>From about 750 BC the Greeks began 250 years of expansion, settling colonies in all directions. To the east, the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea">Aegean</a> coast of <a href="/wiki/Anatolia">Asia Minor</a> was colonized first, followed by <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history_of_Cyprus">Cyprus</a> and the coasts of <a href="/wiki/Thrace">Thrace</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Marmara">Sea of Marmara</a> and south coast of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea">Black Sea</a>.
</p><p>Eventually, Greek colonization reached as far northeast as present-day <a href="/wiki/Ukraine">Ukraine</a> and Russia (<a href="/wiki/Taganrog">Taganrog</a>). To the west the coasts of <a href="/wiki/Illyria">Illyria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sicily">Sicily</a> and Southern Italy were settled, followed by <a href="/wiki/Southern_France">Southern France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corsica">Corsica</a>, and even eastern <a href="/wiki/Spain">Spain</a>. Greek colonies were also founded in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt">Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Libya">Libya</a>.
</p><p>Modern <a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_Italy">Syracuse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naples">Naples</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marseille">Marseille</a> and <a href="/wiki/Istanbul">Istanbul</a> had their beginnings as the Greek colonies Syracusae (Συράκουσαι), Neapolis (Νεάπολις), Massalia (Μασσαλία) and <a href="/wiki/Byzantium">Byzantion</a> <i>(Βυζάντιον)</i>. These colonies played an important role in the spread of Greek influence throughout Europe and also aided in the establishment of long-distance trading networks between the Greek city-states, boosting the <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_ancient_Greece">economy of ancient Greece</a>.
</p>
<h2>Politics and society</h2>
<h3>Political structure</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Bust_Pericles_Chiaramonti.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Ancient Greece consisted of several hundred relatively independent <a href="/wiki/City-state">city-states</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Poleis">poleis</a></i>). This was a situation unlike that in most other contemporary societies, which were either <a href="/wiki/Tribe">tribal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Realm">kingdoms</a> ruling over relatively large territories. Undoubtedly, the <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Greece">geography of Greece</a>—divided and sub-divided by hills, mountains, and rivers—contributed to the fragmentary nature of ancient Greece. On the one hand, the ancient Greeks had no doubt that they were "one people"; they had the same <a href="/wiki/State_religion">religion</a>, same basic culture, and same language. Furthermore, the Greeks were very aware of their tribal origins; Herodotus was able to extensively categorise the city-states by tribe. Yet, although these higher-level relationships existed, they seem to have rarely had a major role in Greek politics. The independence of the <i>poleis</i> was fiercely defended; unification was something rarely contemplated by the ancient Greeks. Even when, during the second Persian invasion of Greece, a group of city-states allied themselves to defend Greece, the vast majority of <i>poleis</i> remained neutral, and after the Persian defeat, the allies quickly returned to infighting.<sup><a href="#cite_note-67">[66]</a></sup>
</p><p>Thus, the major peculiarities of the ancient Greek political system were its fragmentary nature (and that this does not particularly seem to have tribal origin), and the particular focus on urban centers within otherwise tiny states. The peculiarities of the Greek system are further evidenced by the colonies that they set up throughout the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>, which, though they might count a certain Greek <i>polis</i> as their 'mother' (and remain sympathetic to her), were completely independent of the founding city.
</p><p>Inevitably smaller <i>poleis</i> might be dominated by larger neighbors, but conquest or direct rule by another city-state appears to have been quite rare. Instead the <i>poleis</i> grouped themselves into leagues, membership of which was in a constant state of flux. Later in the Classical period, the leagues would become fewer and larger, be dominated by one city (particularly Athens, Sparta and Thebes); and often <i>poleis</i> would be compelled to join under threat of war (or as part of a peace treaty). Even after Philip II of Macedon "conquered" the heartlands of ancient Greece, he did not attempt to annex the territory or unify it into a new province, but compelled most of the <i>poleis</i> to join his own <a href="/wiki/Corinthian_League">Corinthian League</a>.
</p>
<h3>Government and law</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Law_Code_Gortyn_Louvre_Ma703.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Initially many Greek city-states seem to have been petty kingdoms; there was often a city official carrying some residual, ceremonial functions of the king (<i><a href="/wiki/Basileus">basileus</a></i>), e.g., the <i><a href="/wiki/Archon_basileus">archon basileus</a></i> in Athens.<sup><a href="#cite_note-68">[67]</a></sup> However, by the Archaic period and the first historical consciousness, most had already become aristocratic <a href="/wiki/Oligarchy">oligarchies</a>. It is unclear exactly how this change occurred. For instance, in Athens, the kingship had been reduced to a hereditary, lifelong chief magistracy (<i><a href="/wiki/Archon_of_Athens">archon</a></i>) by <abbr>c.</abbr> 1050 BC; by 753 BC this had become a decennial, elected archonship; and finally by 683 BC an annually elected archonship. Through each stage, more power would have been transferred to the aristocracy as a whole, and away from a single individual.
</p><p>Inevitably, the domination of politics and concomitant aggregation of wealth by small groups of families was apt to cause social unrest in many <i>poleis</i>. In many cities a <a href="/wiki/Tyrant">tyrant</a> (not in the modern sense of repressive autocracies), would at some point seize control and govern according to their own will; often a populist agenda would help sustain them in power. In a system wracked with <a href="/wiki/Class_conflict">class conflict</a>, government by a 'strongman' was often the best solution.
</p><p>Athens fell under a tyranny in the second half of the 6th century BC. When this tyranny was ended, the Athenians founded <a href="/wiki/Athenian_democracy">the world's first democracy</a> as a radical solution to prevent the aristocracy regaining power. A <a href="/wiki/Popular_assembly">citizens' assembly</a> (the <i><a href="/wiki/Ecclesia_(ancient_Athens)">Ecclesia</a></i>), for the discussion of city policy, had existed since the reforms of <a href="/wiki/Draco_(lawgiver)">Draco</a> in 621 BC; all citizens were permitted to attend after the reforms of <a href="/wiki/Solon">Solon</a> (early 6th century), but the poorest citizens could not address the assembly or run for office. With the establishment of the democracy, the assembly became the <i><a href="/wiki/De_jure">de jure</a></i> mechanism of government; all citizens had equal privileges in the assembly. However, non-citizens, such as <a href="/wiki/Metic">metics</a> (foreigners living in Athens) or <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece">slaves</a>, had no political rights at all.
</p><p>After the rise of democracy in Athens, other city-states founded democracies. However, many retained more traditional forms of government. As so often in other matters, Sparta was a notable exception to the rest of Greece, ruled through the whole period by not one, but two hereditary monarchs. This was a form of <a href="/wiki/Diarchy">diarchy</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Sparta">Kings of Sparta</a> belonged to the Agiads and the Eurypontids, descendants respectively of <a href="/wiki/Eurysthenes">Eurysthenes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Procles">Procles</a>. Both dynasties' founders were believed to be twin sons of <a href="/wiki/Aristodemus">Aristodemus</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Heracleidae">Heraclid</a> ruler. However, the powers of these kings were held in check by both a council of elders (the <i><a href="/wiki/Gerousia">Gerousia</a></i>) and magistrates specifically appointed to watch over the kings (the <i><a href="/wiki/Ephor">Ephors</a></i>).
</p>
<h3></h3>
<p>Only free, land-owning, native-born men could be citizens entitled to the full protection of the law in a city-state. In most city-states, unlike the situation in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome">Rome</a>, social prominence did not allow special rights. Sometimes families controlled public religious functions, but this ordinarily did not give any extra power in the government. In Athens, the population was divided into four social classes based on wealth. People could change classes if they made more money. In Sparta, all male citizens were called <i><a href="/wiki/Homoioi">homoioi</a></i>, meaning "peers". However, Spartan kings, who served as the city-state's dual military and religious leaders, came from two families.<sup><a href="#cite_note-69">[68]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Slavery</h4>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Grabstein_einer_Frau_mit_Dienerin.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Gravestone of a woman with her slave child-attendant, <abbr>c.</abbr> 100 BC</p></div></div>
<p>Slaves had no power or status. They had the right to have a family and own property, subject to their master's goodwill and permission, but they had no political rights. By 600 BC, <a href="/wiki/Chattel_slavery">chattel slavery</a> had spread in Greece. By the 5th century BC, slaves made up one-third of the total population in some city-states. Between 40-80% of the population of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens">Classical Athens</a> were slaves.<sup><a href="#cite_note-70">[69]</a></sup> Slaves outside of Sparta almost never revolted because they were made up of too many nationalities and were too scattered to organize. However, unlike later <a href="/wiki/Western_culture">Western culture</a>, the ancient Greeks did not think in terms of <a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)">race</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-71">[70]</a></sup>
</p><p>Most families owned slaves as household servants and laborers, and even poor families might have owned a few slaves. Owners were not allowed to beat or kill their slaves. Owners often promised to free slaves in the future to encourage slaves to work hard. Unlike in Rome, <a href="/wiki/Freedman">freedmen</a> did not become citizens. Instead, they were mixed into the population of <i><a href="/wiki/Metic">metics</a></i>, which included people from foreign countries or other city-states who were officially allowed to live in the state.
</p><p>City-states legally owned slaves. These public slaves had a larger measure of independence than slaves owned by families, living on their own and performing specialized tasks. In Athens, public slaves were trained to look out for <a href="/wiki/Coin_counterfeiting">counterfeit coinage</a>, while temple slaves acted as servants of the temple's <a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_mythological_figures">deity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scythians">Scythian</a> slaves were employed in Athens as a police force corralling citizens to political functions.
</p><p>Sparta had a special type of slaves called <i><a href="/wiki/Helots">helots</a></i>. Helots were <a href="/wiki/Messenia_(ancient_region)">Messenians</a> enslaved en masse during the <a href="/wiki/First_Messenian_War">Messenian Wars</a> by the state and assigned to families where they were forced to stay. Helots raised food and did household chores so that women could concentrate on raising strong children while men could devote their time to training as <a href="/wiki/Hoplite">hoplites</a>. Their masters treated them harshly, and helots <a href="/wiki/Slave_rebellion">revolted</a> against their masters several times. In 370/69 BC, as a result of <a href="/wiki/Epaminondas">Epaminondas</a>' liberation of Messenia from Spartan rule, the helot system there came to an end and the helots won their freedom.<sup><a href="#cite_note-72">[71]</a></sup> However, it did continue to persist in Laconia until the 2nd century BC.
</p>
<h3>Education</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Plato%27s_Academy_mosaic_from_Pompeii.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>For most of Greek history, education was private, except in Sparta. During the Hellenistic period, some city-states established <a href="/wiki/Public_school_(government_funded)">public schools</a>. Only wealthy families could afford a teacher. Boys learned how to read, write and quote literature. They also learned to sing and play one musical instrument and were trained as athletes for military service. They studied not for a job but to become an effective citizen. Girls also learned to read, write and do simple arithmetic so they could manage the household. They almost never received education after childhood.<sup><a href="#cite_note-73">[72]</a></sup>
</p><p>Boys went to school at the age of seven, or went to the barracks, if they lived in Sparta. The three types of teachings were: grammatistes for arithmetic, kitharistes for music and dancing, and Paedotribae for sports.
</p><p>Boys from wealthy families attending the private school lessons were taken care of by a <i>paidagogos</i>, a household slave selected for this task who accompanied the boy during the day. Classes were held in teachers' private houses and included reading, writing, mathematics, singing, and playing the lyre and flute. When the boy became 12 years old the schooling started to include sports such as wrestling, running, and throwing discus and javelin. In Athens, some older youths attended academy for the finer disciplines such as culture, sciences, music, and the arts. The schooling ended at age 18, followed by military training in the army usually for one or two years.<sup><a href="#cite_note-74">[73]</a></sup>
</p><p>Only a small number of boys continued their education after childhood, as in the Spartan <a href="/wiki/Agoge">agoge</a>. A crucial part of a wealthy teenager's education was a mentorship with an elder, which in a few places and times may have included <a href="/wiki/Pederasty">pederasty</a>.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> The teenager learned by watching his mentor talking about politics in the <i><a href="/wiki/Agora">agora</a></i>, helping him perform his public duties, exercising with him in the gymnasium and attending <a href="/wiki/Symposium">symposia</a> with him. The richest students continued their education by studying with famous teachers. Some of Athens' greatest such schools included the <a href="/wiki/Lyceum">Lyceum</a> (the so-called <a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school">Peripatetic school</a> founded by <a href="/wiki/Aristotle">Aristotle</a> of <a href="/wiki/Stageira">Stageira</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy">Platonic Academy</a> (founded by <a href="/wiki/Plato">Plato</a> of Athens). The education system of the wealthy ancient Greeks is also called <a href="/wiki/Paideia">Paideia</a>.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h3>Economy</h3>
<p>At its economic height in the 5th and 4th centuries BC, the free citizenry of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece">Classical Greece</a> represented perhaps the most prosperous society in the ancient world, some economic historians considering Greece one of the most advanced pre-industrial economies. In terms of wheat, wages reached an estimated 7–12 kg daily for an unskilled worker in urban Athens, 2-3 times the 3.75 kg of an unskilled rural labourer in Roman Egypt, though Greek farm incomes too were on average lower than those available to urban workers.<sup><a href="#cite_note-75">[74]</a></sup>
</p><p>While slave conditions varied widely, the institution served to sustain the incomes of the free citizenry: an estimate of economic development drawn from the latter (or derived from urban incomes alone) is therefore likely to overstate the true overall level despite widespread evidence for high living standards.
</p>
<h3>Warfare</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Greek-Persian_duel.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Greek <a href="/wiki/Hoplite">hoplite</a> and Persian warrior depicted fighting, on an ancient kylix, 5th century BC</p></div></div>
<p>At least in the Archaic Period, the fragmentary nature of ancient Greece, with many competing city-states, increased the frequency of conflict but conversely limited the scale of warfare. Unable to maintain professional armies, the city-states relied on their own citizens to fight. This inevitably reduced the potential duration of campaigns, as citizens would need to return to their own professions (especially in the case of, for example, farmers). Campaigns would therefore often be restricted to summer. When battles occurred, they were usually set piece and intended to be decisive. Casualties were slight compared to later battles, rarely amounting to more than five percent of the losing side, but the slain often included the most prominent citizens and generals who led from the front.
</p><p>The scale and scope of warfare in ancient Greece changed dramatically as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a>. To fight the enormous armies of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> was effectively beyond the capabilities of a single city-state. The eventual triumph of the Greeks was achieved by alliances of city-states (the exact composition changing over time), allowing the pooling of resources and division of labor. Although alliances between city-states occurred before this time, nothing on this scale had been seen before. The rise of <a href="/wiki/Athens">Athens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sparta">Sparta</a> as pre-eminent powers during this conflict led directly to the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War">Peloponnesian War</a>, which saw further development of the nature of warfare, strategy and tactics. Fought between leagues of cities dominated by Athens and Sparta, the increased manpower and financial resources increased the scale and allowed the diversification of warfare. Set-piece battles during the Peloponnesian war proved indecisive and instead there was increased reliance on attritionary strategies, naval battles and blockades and sieges. These changes greatly increased the number of casualties and the disruption of Greek society.
</p><p>Athens owned one of the largest war fleets in ancient Greece. It had over 200 <a href="/wiki/Trireme">triremes</a> each powered by 170 oarsmen who were seated in 3 rows on each side of the ship. The city could afford such a large fleet—it had over 34,000 oarsmen—because it owned a lot of silver mines that were worked by slaves.
</p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Ober">Josiah Ober</a>, Greek city-states faced approximately a one-in-three chance of destruction during the archaic and classical period.<sup><a href="#cite_note-76">[75]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Culture</h2>
<h3>Philosophy</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:British_Museum_-_Four_Greek_philosophers.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Ancient Greek philosophy focused on the role of <a href="/wiki/Reason">reason</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inquiry">inquiry</a>. In many ways, it had an important influence on modern <a href="/wiki/Philosophy">philosophy</a>, as well as modern science. Clear unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy">Hellenistic philosophers</a>, to medieval <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy">Muslim philosophers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_science">Islamic scientists</a>, to the European <a href="/wiki/Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>, to the secular sciences of the modern day.
</p><p>Neither reason nor inquiry began with the ancient Greeks. Defining the difference between the Greek quest for knowledge and the quests of the elder civilizations, such as the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt">ancient Egyptians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Babylonia">Babylonians</a>, has long been a topic of study by theorists of civilization.
</p><p>The first known philosophers of Greece were the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic">pre-Socratics</a>, who attempted to provide naturalistic, non-mythical descriptions of the world. They were followed by <a href="/wiki/Socrates">Socrates</a>, one of the first philosophers based in Athens during <a href="/wiki/Fifth-century_Athens">its golden age</a> whose ideas, despite being known by second-hand accounts instead of writings of his own, laid the basis of Western philosophy. Socrates' disciple <a href="/wiki/Plato">Plato</a>, who wrote <i><a href="/wiki/The_Republic_(Plato)">The Republic</a></i> and established a radical difference between ideas and the concrete world, and Plato's disciple <a href="/wiki/Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, who wrote extensively about nature and ethics, are also immensely influential in Western philosophy to this day. The later <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a>, also originating in Greece, is defined by names such as <a href="/wiki/Antisthenes">Antisthenes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)">cynicism</a>), <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium">Zeno of Citium</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stoicism">stoicism</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Plotinus">Plotinus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a>).
</p>
<h3>Literature and theatre</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:The_great_theater_of_Epidaurus,_designed_by_Polykleitos_the_Younger_in_the_4th_century_BC,_Sanctuary_of_Asklepeios_at_Epidaurus,_Greece_(14015010416).jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>The earliest Greek literature was poetry and was composed for performance rather than private consumption.<sup><a href="#cite_note-77">[76]</a></sup> The earliest Greek poet known is <a href="/wiki/Homer">Homer</a>, although he was certainly part of an existing tradition of oral poetry.<sup><a href="#cite_note-78">[77]</a></sup> Homer's poetry, though it was developed around the same time that the Greeks developed writing, would have been composed orally; the first poet to certainly compose their work in writing was <a href="/wiki/Archilochus">Archilochus</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Greek_lyric">lyric poet</a> from the mid-seventh century BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-79">[78]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Greek_tragedy">Tragedy</a> developed around the end of the archaic period, taking elements from across the pre-existing genres of late archaic poetry.<sup><a href="#cite_note-80">[79]</a></sup> Towards the beginning of the classical period, comedy began to develop—the earliest date associated with the genre is 486 BC, when a competition for comedy became an official event at the <a href="/wiki/City_Dionysia">City Dionysia</a> in Athens, though the first preserved ancient comedy is <a href="/wiki/Aristophanes">Aristophanes</a>' <i><a href="/wiki/Acharnians">Acharnians</a></i>, produced in 425.<sup><a href="#cite_note-81">[80]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Hypnos_Thanatos_BM_Vase_D56_full.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Like poetry, Greek prose had its origins in the archaic period, and the earliest writers of Greek philosophy, history, and medical literature all date to the sixth century BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-mcglew79-82">[81]</a></sup> Prose first emerged as the writing style adopted by the <a href="/wiki/Presocratic">presocratic</a> philosophers <a href="/wiki/Anaximander">Anaximander</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Miletus">Anaximenes</a>—though <a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus">Thales of Miletus</a>, considered the first Greek philosopher, apparently wrote nothing.<sup><a href="#cite_note-83">[82]</a></sup> Prose as a genre reached maturity in the classical era,<sup><a href="#cite_note-mcglew79-82">[81]</a></sup> and the major Greek prose genres—philosophy, history, rhetoric, and dialogue—developed in this period.<sup><a href="#cite_note-84">[83]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Hellenistic period saw the literary centre of the Greek world move from Athens, where it had been in the classical period, to Alexandria. At the same time, other Hellenistic kings such as the <a href="/wiki/Antigonids">Antigonids</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Attalids">Attalids</a> were patrons of scholarship and literature, turning <a href="/wiki/Pella">Pella</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pergamon">Pergamon</a> respectively into cultural centres.<sup><a href="#cite_note-85">[84]</a></sup> It was thanks to this cultural patronage by Hellenistic kings, and especially the Museum at Alexandria, that so much ancient Greek literature has survived.<sup><a href="#cite_note-bulloch542-86">[85]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria">Library of Alexandria</a>, part of the Museum, had the previously unenvisaged aim of collecting together copies of all known authors in Greek. Almost all of the surviving non-technical Hellenistic literature is poetry,<sup><a href="#cite_note-bulloch542-86">[85]</a></sup> and Hellenistic poetry tended to be highly intellectual,<sup><a href="#cite_note-87">[86]</a></sup> blending different genres and traditions, and avoiding linear narratives.<sup><a href="#cite_note-88">[87]</a></sup> The Hellenistic period also saw a shift in the ways literature was consumed—while in the archaic and classical periods literature had typically been experienced in public performance, in the Hellenistic period it was more commonly read privately.<sup><a href="#cite_note-89">[88]</a></sup> At the same time, Hellenistic poets began to write for private, rather than public, consumption.<sup><a href="#cite_note-90">[89]</a></sup>
</p><p>With Octavian's victory at Actium in 31 BC, Rome began to become a major centre of Greek literature, as important Greek authors such as <a href="/wiki/Strabo">Strabo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a> came to Rome.<sup><a href="#cite_note-91">[90]</a></sup> The period of greatest innovation in Greek literature under Rome was the "long second century" from approximately AD 80 to around AD 230.<sup><a href="#cite_note-konig113-92">[91]</a></sup> This innovation was especially marked in prose, with the development of the novel and a revival of prominence for display oratory both dating to this period.<sup><a href="#cite_note-konig113-92">[91]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Music and dance</h3>
<p>Music was present almost universally in Greek society, from marriages and funerals to religious ceremonies, theatre, folk music and the ballad-like reciting of epic poetry. There are significant fragments of actual Greek musical notation as well as many literary references to ancient Greek music. Greek art depicts musical instruments and dance. The word <i>music</i> derives from the name of the <a href="/wiki/Muses">Muses</a>, the daughters of <a href="/wiki/Zeus">Zeus</a> who were patron goddesses of the arts.
</p>
<h3>Science and technology</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:0142_-_Archaeological_Museum,_Athens_-_Antikythera_mechanism_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto,_Nov_11_2009.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Ancient Greek mathematics contributed many important developments to the field of <a href="/wiki/Mathematics">mathematics</a>, including the basic rules of <a href="/wiki/Geometry">geometry</a>, the idea of <a href="/wiki/Formal_proof">formal mathematical proof</a>, and discoveries in <a href="/wiki/Number_theory">number theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_analysis">mathematical analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Applied_mathematics">applied mathematics</a>, and approached close to establishing <a href="/wiki/Integral_calculus">integral calculus</a>. The discoveries of several Greek mathematicians, including <a href="/wiki/Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Euclid">Euclid</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Archimedes">Archimedes</a>, are still used in mathematical teaching today.
</p><p>The Greeks developed astronomy, which they treated as a branch of mathematics, to a highly sophisticated level. The first geometrical, three-dimensional models to explain the apparent motion of the planets were developed in the 4th century BC by <a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cnidus">Eudoxus of Cnidus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Callippus_of_Cyzicus">Callippus of Cyzicus</a>. Their younger contemporary <a href="/wiki/Heraclides_Ponticus">Heraclides Ponticus</a> proposed that the Earth rotates around its axis. In the 3rd century BC, <a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos">Aristarchus of Samos</a> was the first to suggest a <a href="/wiki/Heliocentric">heliocentric</a> system. Archimedes in his treatise <a href="/wiki/The_Sand_Reckoner#Estimation_of_the_size_of_the_universe">The Sand Reckoner</a> revives Aristarchus' hypothesis that <i>"the fixed stars and the Sun remain unmoved, while the Earth revolves about the Sun on the circumference of a circle"</i>. Otherwise, only fragmentary descriptions of Aristarchus' idea survive.<sup><a href="#cite_note-93">[92]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Eratosthenes">Eratosthenes</a>, using the angles of shadows created at widely separated regions, estimated the <a href="/wiki/Circumference_of_the_Earth">circumference of the Earth</a> with great accuracy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-94">[93]</a></sup> In the 2nd century BC <a href="/wiki/Hipparchus">Hipparchus of Nicea</a> made a number of contributions, including the first measurement of <a href="/wiki/Precession">precession</a> and the compilation of the first star catalog in which he proposed the modern system of <a href="/wiki/Apparent_magnitude">apparent magnitudes</a>.
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism">Antikythera mechanism</a>, a device for calculating the movements of planets, dates from about 80 BC and was the first ancestor of the astronomical <a href="/wiki/Computer">computer</a>. It was discovered in an ancient shipwreck off the Greek island of <a href="/wiki/Antikythera">Antikythera</a>, between <a href="/wiki/Kythera">Kythera</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crete">Crete</a>. The device became famous for its use of a <a href="/wiki/Differential_gear">differential gear</a>, previously believed to have been invented in the 16th century, and the miniaturization and complexity of its parts, comparable to a clock made in the 18th century. The original mechanism is displayed in the Bronze collection of the <a href="/wiki/National_Archaeological_Museum_of_Athens">National Archaeological Museum of Athens</a>, accompanied by a replica.
</p><p>The ancient Greeks also made important discoveries in the medical field. Hippocrates was a <a href="/wiki/Physician">physician</a> of the Classical period, and is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine">history of medicine</a>. He is referred to as the "<a href="/wiki/List_of_persons_considered_father_or_mother_of_a_field#Natural_and_social_sciences">father of medicine</a>"<sup><a href="#cite_note-95">[94]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-96">[95]</a></sup> in recognition of his lasting contributions to the field as the founder of the Hippocratic school of medicine. This intellectual school revolutionized <a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_ancient_Greece">medicine in ancient Greece</a>, establishing it as a discipline distinct from other fields that it had traditionally been associated with (notably <a href="/wiki/Theurgy">theurgy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy">philosophy</a>), thus making medicine a profession.<sup><a href="#cite_note-garrison9293-97">[96]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-nuland5-98">[97]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Art and architecture</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Sicily_Selinunte_Temple_E_(Hera).JPG"></a></p></div>
<p>The art of ancient Greece has exercised an enormous influence on the culture of many countries from ancient times to the present day, particularly in the areas of <a href="/wiki/Sculpture">sculpture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Architecture">architecture</a>. In the West, the art of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire">Roman Empire</a> was largely derived from Greek models. In the East, Alexander the Great's conquests initiated several centuries of exchange between Greek, Central Asian and <a href="/wiki/India">Indian</a> cultures, resulting in <a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhist_art">Greco-Buddhist art</a>, with ramifications as far as <a href="/wiki/Japan">Japan</a>. Following the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance">Renaissance</a> in Europe, the <a href="/wiki/Humanism">humanist</a> aesthetic and the high technical standards of Greek art inspired generations of European artists. Well into the 19th century, the classical tradition derived from Greece dominated the art of the Western world.
</p>
<h3>Religion</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:%CE%98%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%BC%CE%B5_%CE%B8%CE%B5%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BD_%CE%9F%CE%BB%CF%85%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%BF!.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Religion was a central part of ancient Greek life.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOgden20071-99">[98]</a></sup> Though the Greeks of different cities and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_tribes">tribes</a> worshipped similar gods, religious practices were not uniform and the gods were thought of differently in different places. The Greeks were <a href="/wiki/Polytheistic">polytheistic</a>, worshipping many gods, but as early as the sixth century BC a pantheon of <a href="/wiki/Twelve_Olympians">twelve Olympians</a> began to develop.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowden200741-100">[99]</a></sup> Greek religion was influenced by the practices of the Greeks' near eastern neighbours at least as early as the archaic period, and by the Hellenistic period this influence was seen in both directions.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoegel200721–22-101">[100]</a></sup>
</p><p>The most important religious act in ancient Greece was <a href="/wiki/Animal_sacrifice">animal sacrifice</a>, most commonly of sheep and goats.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremmer2007132–134-102">[101]</a></sup> Sacrifice was accompanied by public prayer,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFurley2007121-103">[102]</a></sup> and prayer and hymns were themselves a major part of ancient Greek religious life.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFurley2007117-104">[103]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Legacy</h2>
<p>The civilization of ancient Greece has been immensely influential on language, politics, educational systems, philosophy, science, and the arts. It became the <i><a href="/wiki/Leitkultur">Leitkultur</a></i> of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire">Roman Empire</a> to the point of marginalizing native <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Italy">Italic</a> traditions. As <a href="/wiki/Horace">Horace</a> put it,
</p>
<dl><dd><i>Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit et artis / intulit agresti Latio</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Epistles_(Horace)">Epistulae</a></i> 2.1.156f.)</dd>
<dd>Captive Greece took captive her uncivilised conqueror and instilled her arts in rustic <a href="/wiki/Latium">Latium</a>.</dd></dl>
<p>Via the Roman Empire, Greek culture came to be foundational to <a href="/wiki/Western_culture">Western culture</a> in general.
The <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> inherited Classical Greek-Hellenistic culture directly, without Latin intermediation, and the preservation of Classical Greek learning in medieval Byzantine tradition further exerted a strong influence on the <a href="/wiki/Slavs">Slavs</a> and later on the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age">Islamic Golden Age</a> and the Western European <a href="/wiki/Renaissance">Renaissance</a>. A modern revival of Classical Greek learning took place in the <a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism">Neoclassicism</a> movement in 18th- and 19th-century Europe and the Americas.
</p>
<h2>See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_writers">List of ancient Greek writers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Greece">Outline of ancient Greece</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Egypt">Outline of ancient Egypt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome">Outline of ancient Rome</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_classical_studies">Outline of classical studies</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_demography">Classical demography</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_in_classical_antiquity">History of science in classical antiquity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_adjectival_and_demonymic_forms_of_place_names#Regions_in_Greco-Roman_antiquity">Regions in Greco-Roman antiquity</a></li></ul></li></ul>
<h2>Notes</h2>
<div><ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b> This word derives from the <a href="/wiki/Pejorative">non-pejorative</a> Greek τύραννος <i>tyrannos</i>, meaning 'illegitimate ruler', and was applicable to both good and bad leaders alike.<sup><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2>References</h2>
<h3>Notes</h3>
<div><ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Thomas1988_1-0">^</a></b> <cite>Carol G. Thomas (1988). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NAwVAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA27"><i>Paths from ancient Greece</i></a>. Brill. pp. 27–50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-08846-7"><bdi>978-90-04-08846-7</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-EllynMcGinnis2004_2-0">^</a></b> <cite>Maura Ellyn; Maura McGinnis (2004). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N69iOTtVHGYC&amp;pg=PT8"><i>Greece: A Primary Source Cultural Guide</i></a>. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8239-3999-2"><bdi>978-0-8239-3999-2</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FindlingPelle2004_3-0">^</a></b> <cite>John E. Findling; Kimberly D. Pelle (2004). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QmXi_-Jujj0C&amp;pg=PR23"><i>Encyclopedia of the Modern Olympic Movement</i></a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32278-5"><bdi>978-0-313-32278-5</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-ThompsonMullin_4-0">^</a></b> <cite>Wayne C. Thompson; Mark H. Mullin (1983). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=serMXIpALD0C"><i>Western Europe, 1983</i></a>. Stryker-Post Publications. p. 337. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780943448114"><bdi>9780943448114</bdi></a>. <q>for ancient Greece was the cradle of Western culture ...</q></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b> <cite>Osborne, Robin (2009). <i>Greece in the Making: 1200–479 BC</i>. London: Routledge. p. xvii.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFShapiro2007">Shapiro 2007</a>, p. 1
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFShapiro2007">Shapiro 2007</a>, pp. 2–3
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b> <cite>Hadas, Moses (1950). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dOht3609JOMC&amp;pg=PA273"><i>A History of Greek Literature</i></a>. Columbia University Press. p. 273. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-01767-1"><bdi>978-0-231-01767-1</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMarincola2001">Marincola (2001)</a>, p. 59
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2011">Roberts (2011)</a>, p. 2
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSparks1998">Sparks (1998)</a>, p. 58
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAsheriLloydCorcella2007">Asheri, Lloyd &amp; Corcella (2007)</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFCameron2004">Cameron (2004)</a>, p. 156
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b> <cite>Grant, Michael (1995). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IUNxvi0kbd8C"><i>Greek and Roman historians: information and misinformation</i></a>. Routledge. p. 74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-11770-8"><bdi>978-0-415-11770-8</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b> <cite>Osborne, Robin (2009). <i>Greece in the Making: 1200–479 BC</i> (2 ed.). London: Routledge. p. 101.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Raphael_Sealey">Sealey, Raphael</a> (1976). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kAvbhZrv4gUC"><i>A history of the Greek city states, ca. 700–338 B.C.</i></a> <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press">University of California Press</a>. pp. 10–11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-22667-3"><bdi>978-0-631-22667-3</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Žižek2011_17-0">^</a></b> <cite>Slavoj Žižek (2011). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MIz6BPT23Q4C&amp;pg=PA218"><i>Living in the End Times</i></a>. Verso. p. 218. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84467-702-3"><bdi>978-1-84467-702-3</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=tyrant">"Online Etymology Dictionary"</a>. Etymonline.com. Retrieved 6 January 2009.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/tyrant">"tyrant – Definitions from Dictionary.com"</a>. Dictionary.reference.com. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090125013700/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Tyrant">Archived</a> from the original on 25 January 2009. Retrieved 6 January 2009.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b> Holland T. <i>Persian Fire</i> pp. 69–70. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-349-11717-1">978-0-349-11717-1</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b> Holland T. <i>Persian Fire</i> pp. 131–38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-349-11717-1">978-0-349-11717-1</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2013">Martin 2013</a>, pp. 126–27
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-martin2013_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-martin2013_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2013">Martin 2013</a>, p. 127
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2013">Martin 2013</a>, p. 128
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2013">Martin 2013</a>, pp. 128–29
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-martin131_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-martin131_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-martin131_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2013">Martin 2013</a>, p. 131
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2013">Martin 2013</a>, pp. 131–33
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2013">Martin 2013</a>, pp. 134–36
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2013">Martin 2013</a>, pp. 137–38
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2013">Martin 2013</a>, p. 140
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2013">Martin 2013</a>, pp. 137–41
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-martin147_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-martin147_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-martin147_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-martin147_33-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2013">Martin 2013</a>, p. 147
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2013">Martin 2013</a>, p. 142
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2013">Martin 2013</a>, p. 149
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-hornblower160_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hornblower160_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFHornblower2011">Hornblower 2011</a>, p. 160
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-hornblower162_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hornblower162_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFHornblower2011">Hornblower 2011</a>, p. 162
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHornblower2011">Hornblower 2011</a>, p. 163
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2013">Martin 2013</a>, pp. 198–99
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2013">Martin 2013</a>, p. 200
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHornblower2011">Hornblower 2011</a>, p. 177
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2013">Martin 2013</a>, pp. 202–03
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHornblower2011">Hornblower 2011</a>, pp. 186–89
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Martin_2013_205_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Martin_2013_205_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2013">Martin 2013</a>, p. 205
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHornblower2011">Hornblower 2011</a>, p. 189
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHornblower2011">Hornblower 2011</a>, p. 203
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHornblower2011">Hornblower 2011</a>, p. 219
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2013">Martin 2013</a>, pp. 221, 226
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2013">Martin 2013</a>, p. 224
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2013">Martin 2013</a>, pp. 224–225
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2013">Martin 2013</a>, pp. 225–226
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2013">Martin 2013</a>, p. 226
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2013">Martin 2013</a>, p. 221
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2013">Martin 2013</a>, pp. 243–245
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2013">Martin 2013</a>, pp. 245–247
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2013">Martin 2013</a>, p. 248
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2013">Martin 2013</a>, p. 250
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartin2013253_58-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2013">Martin 2013</a>, p. 253.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartin2013254–255_59-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2013">Martin 2013</a>, pp. 254–255.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartin2013256_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartin2013256_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2013">Martin 2013</a>, p. 256.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartin2013255_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartin2013255_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartin2013255_61-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2013">Martin 2013</a>, p. 255.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b> <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6930285.stm">Alexander's Gulf outpost uncovered</a>. BBC News. 7 August 2007.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-britannica_63-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/354266/Macedonia">"Macedonia"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2008. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081208092317/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/354266/Macedonia">Archived</a> from the original on 8 December 2008. Retrieved 3 November 2008.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b> <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vx251bK988gC&amp;pg=RA6-PA750#PRA6-PA719-IA4,M1"><i>The Cambridge Ancient History: The fourth century B.C.</i></a> edited by D.M. Lewis et al. I E S Edwards, Cambridge University Press, D.M. Lewis, John Boardman, <a href="/wiki/Cyril_John_Gadd">Cyril John Gadd</a>, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière Hammond, 2000, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-23348-8">0-521-23348-8</a>, pp. 723–24.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.umsystem.edu/upress/fall2006/hansen.htm">Population of the Greek city-states</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070305112612/http://www.umsystem.edu/upress/fall2006/hansen.htm">Archived</a> 5 March 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b> Ruden, Sarah (2003). <i>Lysistrata</i>. Hackett Publishing, p. 80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87220-603-3">0-87220-603-3</a>.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b> Holland, T. <i>Persian Fire</i>, Abacus, pp. 363–70 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-349-11717-1">978-0-349-11717-1</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b> Holland T. <i>Persian Fire</i>, p. 94 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-349-11717-1">978-0-349-11717-1</a>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b> <cite>Powell, Anton (2017). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QqA6DwAAQBAJ"><i>A Companion to Sparta</i></a>. John Wiley &amp; Sons. p. 187. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781119072379"><bdi>9781119072379</bdi></a>. Retrieved 4 July 2022.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b> <a href="http://student.britannica.com/comptons/article-201729/ANCIENT-GREECE">Slavery in Ancient Greece</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081201123710/http://student.britannica.com/comptons/article-201729/ANCIENT-GREECE">Archived</a> 1 December 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>Britannica Student Encyclopædia</i>.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b> <cite>Painter, Nell (2010). <a href="https://archive.org/details/historyofwhitepe00pain/page/5"><i>The History of White People</i></a>. New York: W.W. Norton &amp; Company. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/historyofwhitepe00pain/page/5">5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-04934-3"><bdi>978-0-393-04934-3</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b> <cite>Cartledge, Paul (2002). <i>The Spartans: An Epic History</i>. Pan Macmillan. p. 67.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b> <cite>Bloomer, W. Martin (2016). <i>A Companion to Ancient Education</i>. Malden, MA: Willey-Blackwell. p. 305. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-99741-3"><bdi>978-1-118-99741-3</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b> Angus Konstam: "Historical Atlas of Ancient Greece", pp. 94–95. Thalamus publishing, UK, 2003, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-904668-16-X">1-904668-16-X</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b> W. Schiedel, "Real slave prices and the relative cost of slave labor in the Greco-Roman world", <i>Ancient Society</i>, vol. 35, 2005, p 12.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b> <cite>Ober, Josiah (2010). <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691146249/democracy-and-knowledge"><i>Democracy and Knowledge</i></a>. pp. 81–2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-14624-9"><bdi>978-0-691-14624-9</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPower2016">Power 2016</a>, p. 58
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKirk1985">Kirk 1985</a>, p. 44
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKirk1985">Kirk 1985</a>, p. 45
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPower2016">Power 2016</a>, p. 60
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHandley1985">Handley 1985</a>, p. 355
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-mcglew79_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mcglew79_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFMcGlew2016">McGlew 2016</a>, p. 79
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMcGlew2016">McGlew 2016</a>, p. 81
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMcGlew2016">McGlew 2016</a>, p. 84
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMori2016">Mori 2016</a>, p. 93
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-bulloch542_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bulloch542_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFBulloch1985">Bulloch 1985</a>, p. 542
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBulloch1985">Bulloch 1985</a>, pp. 542–43
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMori2016">Mori 2016</a>, p. 99
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMori2016">Mori 2016</a>, p. 98
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBulloch1985">Bulloch 1985</a>, p. 543
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBowersock1985">Bowersock 1985</a>, pp. 642–43
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-konig113_92-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-konig113_92-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFKönig2016">König 2016</a>, p. 113
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b> Pedersen, <i>Early Physics and Astronomy</i>, pp. 55–56
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b> Pedersen, <i>Early Physics and Astronomy</i>, pp. 45–47
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b> <cite>Grammaticos, P.C.; Diamantis, A. (2008). "Useful known and unknown views of the father of modern medicine, Hippocrates and his teacher Democritus". <i>Hellenic Journal of Nuclear Medicine</i>. <b>11</b> (1): 2–4. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)">PMID</a> <a href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18392218">18392218</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b> <a href="http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761576397/Hippocrates.html">Hippocrates</a>, Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006. Microsoft Corporation. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091029181928/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761576397/Hippocrates.html">Archived</a> 31 October 2009.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-garrison9293_97-0">^</a></b> <cite>Garrison, Fielding H. (1966). <i>History of Medicine</i>. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company. pp. 92–93.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-nuland5_98-0">^</a></b> <cite>Nuland, Sherwin B. (1988). <a href="https://archive.org/details/doctorsbiography00nula/page/5"><i>Doctors</i></a>. Knopf. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/doctorsbiography00nula/page/5">5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-55130-2"><bdi>978-0-394-55130-2</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOgden20071_99-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFOgden2007">Ogden 2007</a>, p. 1.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDowden200741_100-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDowden2007">Dowden 2007</a>, p. 41.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENoegel200721–22_101-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFNoegel2007">Noegel 2007</a>, pp. 21–22.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBremmer2007132–134_102-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBremmer2007">Bremmer 2007</a>, pp. 132–134.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFurley2007121_103-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFurley2007">Furley 2007</a>, p. 121.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFurley2007117_104-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFurley2007">Furley 2007</a>, p. 117.
</li>
</ol></div>
<h3>Bibliography</h3>
<ul><li><cite>Asheri, David; Lloyd, Alan; Corcella, Aldo (2007). <i>A Commentary on Herodotus, Books 1–4</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814956-9"><bdi>978-0-19-814956-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Bowersock, G.W. (1985). "The literature of the Empire". In Easterling, P.E.; Knox, Bernard M.W. (eds.). <i>The Cambridge History of Classical Literature</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Bremmer, Jan M. (2007). "Greek Normative Animal Sacrifice". In Ogden, Daniel (ed.). <i>A Companion to Greek Religion</i>. Blackwell.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Bulloch, A.W. (1985). "Hellenistic Poetry". In Easterling, P.E.; Knox, Bernard M.W. (eds.). <i>The Cambridge History of Classical Literature</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Cameron, Alan (2004). <i>Greek Mythography in the Roman World</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-803821-4"><bdi>978-0-19-803821-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Dowden, Ken (2007). "Olympian Gods, Olympian Pantheon". In Ogden, Daniel (ed.). <i>A Companion to Greek Religion</i>. Blackwell.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Furley, William D. (2007). "Prayers and Hymns". In Ogden, Daniel (ed.). <i>A Companion to Greek Religion</i>. Blackwell.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Handley, E.W. (1985). "Comedy". In Easterling, P.E.; Knox, Bernard M.W. (eds.). <i>The Cambridge History of Classical Literature</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Hornblower, Simon (2011). <i>The Greek World: 479–323 BC</i> (4 ed.). Abingdon: Routledge.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Kirk, G.S. (1985). "Homer". In Easterling, P.E.; Knox, Bernard M.W. (eds.). <i>The Cambridge History of Classical Literature</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</cite></li>
<li><cite>König, Jason (2016). "Literature in the Roman World". In Hose, Martin; Schenker, David (eds.). <i>A Companion to Greek Literature</i>. John Wiley &amp; Sons.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Marincola, John (2001). <i>Greek Historians</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-922501-9"><bdi>978-0-19-922501-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Martin, Thomas R. (2013). <i>Ancient Greece: From Prehistoric to Hellenistic Times</i> (2 ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press.</cite></li>
<li><cite>McGlew, James (2016). "Literature in the Classical Age of Greece". In Hose, Martin; Schenker, David (eds.). <i>A Companion to Greek Literature</i>. John Wiley &amp; Sons.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Mori, Anatole (2016). "Literature in the Hellenistic World". In Hose, Martin; Schenker, David (eds.). <i>A Companion to Greek Literature</i>. John Wiley &amp; Sons.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Noegel, Scott B. (2007). "Greek Religion and the Ancient Near East". In Ogden, Daniel (ed.). <i>A Companion to Greek Religion</i>. Blackwell.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Ogden, Daniel (2007). "Introduction". In Ogden, Daniel (ed.). <i>A Companion to Greek Religion</i>. Blackwell.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Power, Timothy (2016). "Literature in the Archaic Age". In Hose, Martin; Schenker, David (eds.). <i>A Companion to Greek Literature</i>. John Wiley &amp; Sons.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Roberts, Jennifer T. (2011). <i>Herodotus: a Very Short Introduction</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-957599-2"><bdi>978-0-19-957599-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Shapiro, H.A. (2007). "Introduction". In Shapiro, H.A. (ed.). <i>The Cambridge Companion to Archaic Greece</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Sparks, Kenton L. (1998). <i>Ethnicity and Identity in Ancient Israel: Prolegomena to the Study of Ethnic Sentiments and their Expression in the Hebrew Bible</i>. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-033-0"><bdi>978-1-57506-033-0</bdi></a>.</cite></li></ul>
<h2>Further reading</h2>
<ul><li><cite>Shanks, Michael (1996). <a href="https://www.academia.edu/4032788"><i>Classical Archaeology of Greece</i></a>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-203-17197-7"><bdi>0-203-17197-7</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li>Brock, Roger, and Stephen Hodkinson, eds. 2000. <i>Alternatives to Athens: Varieties of political organization and community in ancient Greece</i>. Oxford and New York: Oxford Univ. Press.</li>
<li>Cartledge, Paul, Edward E. Cohen, and Lin Foxhall. 2002. <i>Money, labour and land: Approaches to the economies of ancient Greece</i>. London and New York: Routledge.</li>
<li>Cohen, Edward. 1992. <i>Athenian economy and society: A banking perspective</i>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.</li>
<li>Hurwit, Jeffrey. 1987. <i>The art and culture of early Greece, 1100–480 B.C.</i> Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.</li>
<li>Kinzl, Konrad, ed. 2006. <i>A companion to the Classical Greek world</i>. Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell.</li>
<li>Morris, Ian, ed. 1994. <i>Classical Greece: Ancient histories and modern archaeologies</i>. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.</li>
<li>Pomeroy, Sarah, Stanley M. Burstein, Walter Donlan, and Jennifer Tolbert Roberts. 2008. <i>Ancient Greece: A political, social, and cultural history</i>. 2d ed. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.</li>
<li>Rhodes, Peter J. 2006. <i>A history of the Classical Greek world: 478–323 BC</i>. Blackwell History of the Ancient World. Malden, MA: Blackwell.</li>
<li>Whitley, James. 2001. <i>The archaeology of ancient Greece</i>. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.</li></ul>
<h2>External links</h2>
<ul><li><a href="http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/civil/greece/gr0000e.shtml">The Canadian Museum of Civilization—Greece Secrets of the Past</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.ancientgreece.co.uk/">Ancient Greece</a> website from the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum">British Museum</a></li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060502201333/http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/engen.greece">Economic history of ancient Greece</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.fleur-de-coin.com/currency/drachma-history">The Greek currency history</a></li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511090038/http://www.limenoscope.ntua.gr/index.cgi?lan=en">Limenoscope</a>, an ancient Greek ports database</li>
<li><a href="http://www.whitman.edu/theatre/theatretour/home.htm">The Ancient Theatre Archive</a>, Greek and Roman theatre architecture</li>
<li><a href="http://people.hsc.edu/drjclassics/lectures/history/history.shtm">Illustrated Greek History</a>, Dr. Janice Siegel, Department of Classics, <a href="/wiki/Hampden%E2%80%93Sydney_College">Hampden–Sydney College</a>, Virginia</li></ul>
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 * (Top)
 * 1 Chronology
 * 2 Historiography
 * 3 History
 + 3.1 Archaic period
 + 3.2 Classical Greece
 + 3.3 Hellenistic Greece
 + 3.4 Roman Greece
 * 4 Geography
 + 4.1 Regions
 + 4.2 Colonies
 * 5 Politics and society
 + 5.1 Political structure
 + 5.2 Government and law
 + 5.3 Social structure
 o 5.3.1 Slavery
 + 5.4 Education
 + 5.5 Economy
 + 5.6 Warfare
 * 6 Culture
 + 6.1 Philosophy
 + 6.2 Literature and theatre
 + 6.3 Music and dance
 + 6.4 Science and technology
 + 6.5 Art and architecture
 + 6.6 Religion
 * 7 Legacy
 * 8 See also
 * 9 Notes
 * 10 References
 + 10.1 Notes
 + 10.2 Bibliography
 * 11 Further reading
 * 12 External links
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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 The Parthenon, a temple dedicated to Athena, located on the Acropolis in Athens, is one of the most representative symbols of the culture and sophistication of the ancient Greeks.
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 Ancient Greece (Greek: Ἑλλάς , romanized: Hellás) was a northeastern Mediterranean civilization, existing from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th–9th centuries BC to the end of classical antiquity (c. AD 600), that comprised a loose collection of culturally and linguistically related city-states and other territories. Most of these regions were officially unified only once, for 13 years, under Alexander the Great's empire from 336 to 323 BC (though this excludes a number of Greek city-states free from Alexander's jurisdiction in the western Mediterranean, around the Black Sea, Cyprus, and Cyrenaica). In Western history, the era of classical antiquity was immediately followed by the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine period.[1]

 Roughly three centuries after the Late Bronze Age collapse of Mycenaean Greece, Greek urban poleis began to form in the 8th century BC, ushering in the Archaic period and the colonization of the Mediterranean Basin. This was followed by the age of Classical Greece, from the Greco-Persian Wars to the 5th to 4th centuries BC, and which included the Golden Age of Athens. The conquests of Alexander the Great of Macedon spread Hellenistic civilization from the western Mediterranean to Central Asia. The Hellenistic period ended with the conquest of the eastern Mediterranean world by the Roman Republic, and the annexation of the Roman province of Macedonia in Roman Greece, and later the province of Achaea during the Roman Empire.

 Classical Greek culture, especially philosophy, had a powerful influence on ancient Rome, which carried a version of it throughout the Mediterranean and much of Europe. For this reason, Classical Greece is generally considered the cradle of Western civilization, the seminal culture from which the modern West derives many of its founding archetypes and ideas in politics, philosophy, science, and art.[2][3][4]

 Chronology

 For a chronological guide, see Timeline of ancient Greece.

 Classical antiquity in the Mediterranean region is commonly considered to have begun in the 8th century BC[5] (around the time of the earliest recorded poetry of Homer) and ended in the 6th century AD.

 Classical antiquity in Greece was preceded by the Greek Dark Ages (c. 1200 – c. 800 BC ), archaeologically characterised by the protogeometric and geometric styles of designs on pottery. Following the Dark Ages was the Archaic Period, beginning around the 8th century BC, which saw early developments in Greek culture and society leading to the Classical Period[6] from the Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC until the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC.[7] The Classical Period is characterized by a "classical" style, i.e. one which was considered exemplary by later observers, most famously in the Parthenon of Athens. Politically, the Classical Period was dominated by Athens and the Delian League during the 5th century, but displaced by Spartan hegemony during the early 4th century BC, before power shifted to Thebes and the Boeotian League and finally to the League of Corinth led by Macedon. This period was shaped by the Greco-Persian Wars, the Peloponnesian War, and the Rise of Macedon.

 Following the Classical period was the Hellenistic period (323–146 BC), during which Greek culture and power expanded into the Near and Middle East from the death of Alexander until the Roman conquest. Roman Greece is usually counted from the Roman victory over the Corinthians at the Battle of Corinth in 146 BC to the establishment of Byzantium by Constantine as the capital of the Roman Empire in AD 330. Finally, Late Antiquity refers to the period of Christianization during the later 4th to early 6th centuries AD, consummated by the closure of the Academy of Athens by Justinian I in 529.[8]

 Historiography

 Main article: Greek historiographers
 The Victorious Youth (c. 310 BC) is a rare, water-preserved bronze sculpture from ancient Greece.

 The historical period of ancient Greece is unique in world history as the first period attested directly in comprehensive, narrative historiography, while earlier ancient history or protohistory is known from much more fragmentary documents such as annals, king lists, and pragmatic epigraphy.

 Herodotus is widely known as the "father of history": his Histories are eponymous of the entire field. Written between the 450s and 420s BC, Herodotus' work reaches about a century into the past, discussing 6th century BC historical figures such as Darius I of Persia, Cambyses II and Psamtik III, and alluding to some 8th century BC persons such as Candaules. The accuracy of Herodotus' works is debated.[9][10][11][12][13]

 Herodotus was succeeded by authors such as Thucydides, Xenophon, Demosthenes, Plato and Aristotle. Most were either Athenian or pro-Athenian, which is why far more is known about the history and politics of Athens than of many other cities. Their scope is further limited by a focus on political, military and diplomatic history, ignoring economic and social history.[14]

 History

 For a chronological guide, see Timeline of ancient Greece.
 Further information: History of Greece

 Archaic period

 Main article: Archaic period in Greece
 Dipylon Vase of the late Geometric period, or the beginning of the Archaic period, c. 750 BC .

 In the 8th century BC, Greece began to emerge from the Dark Ages, which followed the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization. Literacy had been lost and the Mycenaean script forgotten, but the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, modifying it to create the Greek alphabet. Objects inscribed with Phoenician writing may have been available in Greece from the 9th century BC, but the earliest evidence of Greek writing comes from graffiti on Greek pottery from the mid-8th century.[15] Greece was divided into many small self-governing communities, a pattern largely dictated by its geography: every island, valley and plain is cut off from its neighbors by the sea or mountain ranges.[16]

 The Lelantine War (c. 710 – c. 650 BC ) is the earliest documented war of the ancient Greek period. It was fought between the important poleis (city-states) of Chalcis and Eretria over the fertile Lelantine plain of Euboea. Both cities seem to have declined as a result of the long war, though Chalcis was the nominal victor.

 A mercantile class arose in the first half of the 7th century BC, shown by the introduction of coinage in about 680 BC.[17][ where? ]This seems to have introduced tension to many city-states, as their aristocratic regimes were threatened by the new wealth of merchants ambitious for political power. From 650 BC onwards, the aristocracies had to fight to maintain themselves against populist tyrants.[a] A growing population and a shortage of land also seem to have created internal strife between rich and poor in many city-states.

 In Sparta, the Messenian Wars resulted in the conquest of Messenia and enserfment of the Messenians, beginning in the latter half of the 8th century BC. This was an unprecedented act in ancient Greece, which led to a social revolution[20] in which the subjugated population of helots farmed and labored for Sparta, whilst every Spartan male citizen became a soldier of the Spartan army permanently in arms. Rich and poor citizens alike were obliged to live and train as soldiers, an equality that defused social conflict. These reforms, attributed to Lycurgus of Sparta, were probably complete by 650 BC.

 Athens suffered a land and agrarian crisis in the late 7th century BC, again resulting in civil strife. The Archon (chief magistrate) Draco made severe reforms to the law code in 621 BC (hence "draconian"), but these failed to quell the conflict. Eventually, the moderate reforms of Solon (594 BC), improving the lot of the poor but firmly entrenching the aristocracy in power, gave Athens some stability.

 By the 6th century BC, several cities had emerged as dominant in Greek affairs: Athens, Sparta, Corinth, and Thebes. Each of them had brought the surrounding rural areas and smaller towns under their control, and Athens and Corinth had become major maritime and mercantile powers as well.

 Colonisation of the Mediterranean by the 6th century BC: Phoenician settlements in red, Greek areas in blue, and other territories as marked.

 Rapidly increasing population in the 8th and 7th centuries BC had resulted in the emigration of many Greeks to form colonies in Magna Graecia (Southern Italy and Sicily), Asia Minor and further afield. The emigration effectively ceased in the 6th century BC by which time the Greek world had, culturally and linguistically, become much larger than the area of present-day Greece. Greek colonies were not politically controlled by their founding cities, although they often retained religious and commercial links with them.

 The Greek colonies of Sicily, especially Syracuse, were soon drawn into prolonged conflicts with the Carthaginians. These conflicts lasted from 600 BC to 265 BC, when the Roman Republic allied with the Mamertines to fend off the new tyrant of Syracuse, Hiero II, and then the Carthaginians. As a result, Rome became the new dominant power against the fading strength of the Sicilian Greek cities and the fading Carthaginian hegemony. One year later, the First Punic War erupted.

 In this period, Greece and its overseas colonies enjoyed huge economic development in commerce and manufacturing, with rising general prosperity. Some studies estimate that the average Greek household grew fivefold between 800 and 300 BC, indicating a large increase in average income.[ citation needed ]

 In the second half of the 6th century BC, Athens fell under the tyranny of Pisistratus followed by his sons Hippias and Hipparchus. However, in 510 BC, at the instigation of the Athenian aristocrat Cleisthenes, the Spartan king Cleomenes I helped the Athenians overthrow the tyranny. Sparta and Athens promptly turned on each other, at which point Cleomenes I installed Isagoras as a pro-Spartan archon. Eager to secure Athens' independence from Spartan control, Cleisthenes proposed a political revolution: that all citizens share power, regardless of status, making Athens a "democracy". The democratic enthusiasm of the Athenians swept out Isagoras and threw back the Spartan-led invasion to restore him.[21] The advent of democracy cured many of the social ills of Athens and ushered in the Golden Age.

 Classical Greece

 Main article: Classical Greece
 Early Athenian coin, depicting the head of Athena on the obverse and her owl on the reverse – 5th century BC

 In 499 BC, the Ionian city states under Persian rule rebelled against their Persian-supported tyrant rulers.[22] Supported by troops sent from Athens and Eretria, they advanced as far as Sardis and burnt the city before being driven back by a Persian counterattack.[23] The revolt continued until 494, when the rebelling Ionians were defeated.[23] Darius did not forget that Athens had assisted the Ionian revolt, and in 490 he assembled an armada to retaliate.[24] Though heavily outnumbered, the Athenians—supported by their Plataean allies—defeated the Persian hordes at the Battle of Marathon, and the Persian fleet turned tail.[25]

 Map showing events of the first phases of the Greco-Persian Wars.
 Delian League ("Athenian Empire"), immediately before the Peloponnesian War in 431 BC

 Ten years later, a second invasion was launched by Darius' son Xerxes.[26] The city-states of northern and central Greece submitted to the Persian forces without resistance, but a coalition of 31 Greek city states, including Athens and Sparta, determined to resist the Persian invaders.[26] At the same time, Greek Sicily was invaded by a Carthaginian force.[26] In 480 BC, the first major battle of the invasion was fought at Thermopylae, where a small rearguard of Greeks, led by three hundred Spartans, held a crucial pass guarding the heart of Greece for several days; at the same time Gelon, tyrant of Syracuse, defeated the Carthaginian invasion at the Battle of Himera.[27]

 The Persians were decisively defeated at sea by a primarily Athenian naval force at the Battle of Salamis, and on land in 479 BC at the Battle of Plataea.[28] The alliance against Persia continued, initially led by the Spartan Pausanias but from 477 by Athens,[29] and by 460 Persia had been driven out of the Aegean.[30] During this long campaign, the Delian League gradually transformed from a defensive alliance of Greek states into an Athenian empire, as Athens' growing naval power intimidated the other league states.[31] Athens ended its campaigns against Persia in 450, after a disastrous defeat in Egypt in 454, and the death of Cimon in action against the Persians on Cyprus in 450.[32]

 As the Athenian fight against the Persian empire waned, conflict grew between Athens and Sparta. Suspicious of the increasing Athenian power funded by the Delian League, Sparta offered aid to reluctant members of the League to rebel against Athenian domination. These tensions were exacerbated in 462 BC when Athens sent a force to aid Sparta in overcoming a helot revolt, but this aid was rejected by the Spartans.[33] In the 450s, Athens took control of Boeotia, and won victories over Aegina and Corinth.[32] However, Athens failed to win a decisive victory, and in 447 lost Boeotia again.[32] Athens and Sparta signed the Thirty Years' Peace in the winter of 446/5, ending the conflict.[32]

 Despite the treaty, Athenian relations with Sparta declined again in the 430s, and in 431 BC the Peloponnesian War began.[34] The first phase of the war saw a series of fruitless annual invasions of Attica by Sparta, while Athens successfully fought the Corinthian empire in northwest Greece and defended its own empire, despite a plague which killed the leading Athenian statesman Pericles.[35] The war turned after Athenian victories led by Cleon at Pylos and Sphakteria,[35] and Sparta sued for peace, but the Athenians rejected the proposal.[36] The Athenian failure to regain control of Boeotia at Delium and Brasidas' successes in northern Greece in 424 improved Sparta's position after Sphakteria.[36] After the deaths of Cleon and Brasidas, the strongest proponents of war on each side, a peace treaty was negoitiated in 421 by the Athenian general Nicias.[37]

 The peace did not last, however. In 418 BC allied forces of Athens and Argos were defeated by Sparta at Mantinea.[38] In 415 Athens launched an ambitious naval expedition to dominate Sicily;[39] the expedition ended in disaster at the harbor of Syracuse, with almost the entire army killed, and the ships destroyed.[40] Soon after the Athenian defeat in Syracuse, Athens' Ionian allies began to rebel against the Delian league, while Persia began to once again involve itself in Greek affairs on the Spartan side.[41] Initially the Athenian position continued relatively strong, with important victories at Cyzicus in 410 and Arginusae in 406.[42] However, in 405 the Spartan Lysander defeated Athens in the Battle of Aegospotami, and began to blockade Athens' harbour;[43] driven by hunger, Athens sued for peace, agreeing to surrender their fleet and join the Spartan-led Peloponnesian League.[44] Following the Athenian surrender, Sparta installed an oligarchic regime, the Thirty Tyrants, in Athens,[43] one of a number of Spartan-backed oligarchies which rose to power after the Peloponnesian war.[45] Spartan predominance did not last: after only a year, the Thirty had been overthrown.[46]

 The first half of the fourth century saw the major Greek states attempt to dominate the mainland; none were successful, and their resulting weakness led to a power vacuum which would eventually be filled by Macedon under Philip II and then Alexander the Great.[47] In the immediate aftermath of the Peloponnesian war, Sparta attempted to extend their own power, leading Argos, Athens, Corinth, and Thebes to join against them.[48] Aiming to prevent any single Greek state gaining the dominance that would allow it to challenge Persia, the Persian king initially joined the alliance against Sparta, before imposing the King's Peace which restored Persia's control over the Anatolian Greeks.[49]

 By 371 BC, Thebes was in the ascendancy, defeating Sparta at the Battle of Leuctra, killing the Spartan king Cleombrotus I, and invading Laconia. Further Theban successes against Sparta in 369 led to Messenia gaining independence; Sparta never recovered from the loss of Messenia's fertile land and the helot workforce it provided.[50] The rising power of Thebes led Sparta and Athens to join forces; in 362 they were defeated by Thebes at the Battle of Mantinea. In the aftermath of Mantinea, none of the major Greek states were able to dominate. Though Thebes had won the battle, their general Epaminondas was killed, and they spent the following decades embroiled in wars with their neighbours; Athens, meanwhile, saw its second naval alliance, formed in 377, collapse in the mid-350s.[51]

 The power vacuum in Greece after the Battle of Mantinea was filled by Macedon, under Philip II. In 338 BC, he defeated a Greek alliance at the Battle of Chaeronea, and subsequently formed the League of Corinth. Philip planned to lead the League to invade Persia, but was murdered in 336. His son Alexander the Great was left to fulfil his father's ambitions.[52] After campaigns against Macedon's western and northern enemies, and those Greek states that had broken from the League of Corinth following the death of Philip, Alexander began his campaign against Persia in 334.[53] He conquered Persia, defeating Darius III at the Battle of Issus in 333, and after the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 proclaimed himself king of Asia.[54] From 329 he led expeditions to Bactria and then India;[55] further plans to invade Arabia and North Africa were halted by his death in 323.[56]

 Hellenistic Greece

 Main articles: Wars of Alexander the Great and Hellenistic period
 Alexander Mosaic, National Archaeological Museum, Naples.

 The period from the death of Alexander the Great in 323 until the death of Cleopatra VII, the last Macedonian ruler of Egypt, is known as the Hellenistic period. In the early part of this period, a new form of kingship developed based on Macedonian and Near Eastern traditions. The first Hellenistic kings were previously Alexander's generals, and took power in the period following his death, though they were not part of existing royal lineages and lacked historic claims to the territories they controlled.[57] The most important of these rulers in the decades after Alexander's death were Antigonus I and his son Demetrius in Macedonia and Greece, Ptolemy in Eygpt, and Seleucus I in Syria and the former Persian empire;[58] smaller Hellenistic kingdoms included the Attalids in Anatolia and the Greco-Bactrian kingdom.[59]

 The major Hellenistic realms included the Diadochi kingdoms:
 Kingdom of Ptolemy I Soter
 Kingdom of Cassander
 Kingdom of Lysimachus
 Kingdom of Seleucus I Nicator
 Epirus
 Also shown on the map:
 Greek colonies
 Carthage (non-Greek)
 Rome (non-Greek)
 The orange areas were often in dispute after 281 BC. The Attalid dynasty occupied some of this area. Not shown: Indo-Greek Kingdom.

 In the early part of the Hellenistic period, the exact borders of the Hellenistic kingdoms were not settled. Antigonus attempted to expand his territory by attacking the other successor kingdoms until they joined against him, and he was killed at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC.[60] His son Demetrius spent many years in Seleucid captivity, and his son, Antigonus II, only reclaimed the Macedonian throne around 276.[60] Meanwhile, the Seleucid kingdom gave up territory in the east to the Indian king Chandragupta Maurya in exchange for war elephants, and later lost large parts of Persia to the Parthian empire.[60] By the mid-third century, the kingdoms of Alexander's successors was mostly stable, though there continued to be disputes over border areas.[59]

 During the Hellenistic period, the importance of "Greece proper" (the territory of modern Greece) within the Greek-speaking world declined sharply. The great capitals of Hellenistic culture were Alexandria in the Ptolemaic Kingdom and Antioch in the Seleucid Empire.

 The conquests of Alexander had numerous consequences for the Greek city-states. It greatly widened the horizons of the Greeks and led to a steady emigration of the young and ambitious to the new Greek empires in the east.[61] Many Greeks migrated to Alexandria, Antioch and the many other new Hellenistic cities founded in Alexander's wake, as far away as present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan, where the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and the Indo-Greek Kingdom survived until the end of the first century BC.

 The city-states within Greece formed themselves into two leagues; the Achaean League (including Thebes, Corinth and Argos) and the Aetolian League (including Sparta and Athens). For much of the period until the Roman conquest, these leagues were at war, often participating in the conflicts between the Diadochi (the successor states to Alexander's empire).

 The Antigonid Kingdom became involved in a war with the Roman Republic in the late 3rd century. Although the First Macedonian War was inconclusive, the Romans, in typical fashion, continued to fight Macedon until it was completely absorbed into the Roman Republic (by 149 BC). In the east, the unwieldy Seleucid Empire gradually disintegrated, although a rump survived until 64 BC, whilst the Ptolemaic Kingdom continued in Egypt until 30 BC when it too was conquered by the Romans. The Aetolian league grew wary of Roman involvement in Greece, and sided with the Seleucids in the Roman–Seleucid War; when the Romans were victorious, the league was effectively absorbed into the Republic. Although the Achaean league outlasted both the Aetolian league and Macedon, it was also soon defeated and absorbed by the Romans in 146 BC, bringing Greek independence to an end.

 Roman Greece

 Main article: Roman Greece
 Further information: Byzantine Greece

 The Greek peninsula came under Roman rule during the 146 BC conquest of Greece after the Battle of Corinth. Macedonia became a Roman province while southern Greece came under the surveillance of Macedonia's prefect; however, some Greek poleis managed to maintain a partial independence and avoid taxation. The Aegean islands were added to this territory in 133 BC. Athens and other Greek cities revolted in 88 BC, and the peninsula was crushed by the Roman general Sulla. The Roman civil wars devastated the land even further, until Augustus organized the peninsula as the province of Achaea in 27 BC.

 Greece was a key eastern province of the Roman Empire, as the Roman culture had long been in fact Greco-Roman. The Greek language served as a lingua franca in the East and in Italy, and many Greek intellectuals such as Galen would perform most of their work in Rome.

 Geography

 Regions

 Main article: Regions of ancient Greece
 Map showing the major regions of mainland ancient Greece and adjacent "barbarian" lands.

 The territory of Greece is mountainous, and as a result, ancient Greece consisted of many smaller regions, each with its own dialect, cultural peculiarities, and identity. Regionalism and regional conflicts were prominent features of ancient Greece. Cities tended to be located in valleys between mountains, or on coastal plains, and dominated a certain area around them.

 In the south lay the Peloponnese, consisting of the regions of Laconia (southeast), Messenia (southwest), Elis (west), Achaia (north), Korinthia (northeast), Argolis (east), and Arcadia (center). These names survive to the present day as regional units of modern Greece, though with somewhat different boundaries. Mainland Greece to the north, nowadays known as Central Greece, consisted of Aetolia and Acarnania in the west, Locris, Doris, and Phocis in the center, while in the east lay Boeotia, Attica, and Megaris. Northeast lay Thessaly, while Epirus lay to the northwest. Epirus stretched from the Ambracian Gulf in the south to the Ceraunian mountains and the Aoos river in the north, and consisted of Chaonia (north), Molossia (center), and Thesprotia (south). In the northeast corner was Macedonia,[62] originally consisting Lower Macedonia and its regions, such as Elimeia, Pieria, and Orestis. Around the time of Alexander I of Macedon, the Argead kings of Macedon started to expand into Upper Macedonia, lands inhabited by independent Macedonian tribes like the Lyncestae, Orestae and the Elimiotae and to the west, beyond the Axius river, into Eordaia, Bottiaea, Mygdonia, and Almopia, regions settled by Thracian tribes.[63] To the north of Macedonia lay various non-Greek peoples such as the Paeonians due north, the Thracians to the northeast, and the Illyrians, with whom the Macedonians were frequently in conflict, to the northwest. Chalcidice was settled early on by southern Greek colonists and was considered part of the Greek world, while from the late 2nd millennium BC substantial Greek settlement also occurred on the eastern shores of the Aegean, in Anatolia.

 Colonies

 See also: Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul, Magna Graecia, and List of ancient cities in Thrace and Dacia § Greek
 Greek cities & colonies c. 550 BC (in red color)

 During the Archaic period, the Greek population grew beyond the capacity of the limited arable land of Greece proper, resulting in the large-scale establishment of colonies elsewhere: according to one estimate, the population of the widening area of Greek settlement increased roughly tenfold from 800 BC to 400 BC, from 800,000 to as many as 7 + 1 ⁄ 2 -10 million.[64]

 From about 750 BC the Greeks began 250 years of expansion, settling colonies in all directions. To the east, the Aegean coast of Asia Minor was colonized first, followed by Cyprus and the coasts of Thrace, the Sea of Marmara and south coast of the Black Sea.

 Eventually, Greek colonization reached as far northeast as present-day Ukraine and Russia (Taganrog). To the west the coasts of Illyria, Sicily and Southern Italy were settled, followed by Southern France, Corsica, and even eastern Spain. Greek colonies were also founded in Egypt and Libya.

 Modern Syracuse, Naples, Marseille and Istanbul had their beginnings as the Greek colonies Syracusae (Συράκουσαι), Neapolis (Νεάπολις), Massalia (Μασσαλία) and Byzantion (Βυζάντιον). These colonies played an important role in the spread of Greek influence throughout Europe and also aided in the establishment of long-distance trading networks between the Greek city-states, boosting the economy of ancient Greece.

 Politics and society

 Political structure

 Further information: History of citizenship § Ancient Greece
 Marble bust of Pericles with a Corinthian helmet, Roman copy of a Greek original, Museo Chiaramonti, Vatican Museums; Pericles was a key populist political figure in the development of the radical Athenian democracy.[65]

 Ancient Greece consisted of several hundred relatively independent city-states (poleis). This was a situation unlike that in most other contemporary societies, which were either tribal or kingdoms ruling over relatively large territories. Undoubtedly, the geography of Greece—divided and sub-divided by hills, mountains, and rivers—contributed to the fragmentary nature of ancient Greece. On the one hand, the ancient Greeks had no doubt that they were "one people"; they had the same religion, same basic culture, and same language. Furthermore, the Greeks were very aware of their tribal origins; Herodotus was able to extensively categorise the city-states by tribe. Yet, although these higher-level relationships existed, they seem to have rarely had a major role in Greek politics. The independence of the poleis was fiercely defended; unification was something rarely contemplated by the ancient Greeks. Even when, during the second Persian invasion of Greece, a group of city-states allied themselves to defend Greece, the vast majority of poleis remained neutral, and after the Persian defeat, the allies quickly returned to infighting.[66]

 Thus, the major peculiarities of the ancient Greek political system were its fragmentary nature (and that this does not particularly seem to have tribal origin), and the particular focus on urban centers within otherwise tiny states. The peculiarities of the Greek system are further evidenced by the colonies that they set up throughout the Mediterranean Sea, which, though they might count a certain Greek polis as their 'mother' (and remain sympathetic to her), were completely independent of the founding city.

 Inevitably smaller poleis might be dominated by larger neighbors, but conquest or direct rule by another city-state appears to have been quite rare. Instead the poleis grouped themselves into leagues, membership of which was in a constant state of flux. Later in the Classical period, the leagues would become fewer and larger, be dominated by one city (particularly Athens, Sparta and Thebes); and often poleis would be compelled to join under threat of war (or as part of a peace treaty). Even after Philip II of Macedon "conquered" the heartlands of ancient Greece, he did not attempt to annex the territory or unify it into a new province, but compelled most of the poleis to join his own Corinthian League.

 Government and law

 Main article: Ancient Greek law
 Inheritance law, part of the Law Code of Gortyn, Crete, fragment of the 11th column. Limestone, 5th century BC

 Initially many Greek city-states seem to have been petty kingdoms; there was often a city official carrying some residual, ceremonial functions of the king (basileus), e.g., the archon basileus in Athens.[67] However, by the Archaic period and the first historical consciousness, most had already become aristocratic oligarchies. It is unclear exactly how this change occurred. For instance, in Athens, the kingship had been reduced to a hereditary, lifelong chief magistracy (archon) by c. 1050 BC; by 753 BC this had become a decennial, elected archonship; and finally by 683 BC an annually elected archonship. Through each stage, more power would have been transferred to the aristocracy as a whole, and away from a single individual.

 Inevitably, the domination of politics and concomitant aggregation of wealth by small groups of families was apt to cause social unrest in many poleis. In many cities a tyrant (not in the modern sense of repressive autocracies), would at some point seize control and govern according to their own will; often a populist agenda would help sustain them in power. In a system wracked with class conflict, government by a 'strongman' was often the best solution.

 Athens fell under a tyranny in the second half of the 6th century BC. When this tyranny was ended, the Athenians founded the world's first democracy as a radical solution to prevent the aristocracy regaining power. A citizens' assembly (the Ecclesia), for the discussion of city policy, had existed since the reforms of Draco in 621 BC; all citizens were permitted to attend after the reforms of Solon (early 6th century), but the poorest citizens could not address the assembly or run for office. With the establishment of the democracy, the assembly became the de jure mechanism of government; all citizens had equal privileges in the assembly. However, non-citizens, such as metics (foreigners living in Athens) or slaves, had no political rights at all.

 After the rise of democracy in Athens, other city-states founded democracies. However, many retained more traditional forms of government. As so often in other matters, Sparta was a notable exception to the rest of Greece, ruled through the whole period by not one, but two hereditary monarchs. This was a form of diarchy. The Kings of Sparta belonged to the Agiads and the Eurypontids, descendants respectively of Eurysthenes and Procles. Both dynasties' founders were believed to be twin sons of Aristodemus, a Heraclid ruler. However, the powers of these kings were held in check by both a council of elders (the Gerousia) and magistrates specifically appointed to watch over the kings (the Ephors).

 Social structure

 Only free, land-owning, native-born men could be citizens entitled to the full protection of the law in a city-state. In most city-states, unlike the situation in Rome, social prominence did not allow special rights. Sometimes families controlled public religious functions, but this ordinarily did not give any extra power in the government. In Athens, the population was divided into four social classes based on wealth. People could change classes if they made more money. In Sparta, all male citizens were called homoioi, meaning "peers". However, Spartan kings, who served as the city-state's dual military and religious leaders, came from two families.[68]

 Slavery

 Main article: Slavery in ancient Greece
 Gravestone of a woman with her slave child-attendant, c. 100 BC

 Slaves had no power or status. They had the right to have a family and own property, subject to their master's goodwill and permission, but they had no political rights. By 600 BC, chattel slavery had spread in Greece. By the 5th century BC, slaves made up one-third of the total population in some city-states. Between 40-80% of the population of Classical Athens were slaves.[69] Slaves outside of Sparta almost never revolted because they were made up of too many nationalities and were too scattered to organize. However, unlike later Western culture, the ancient Greeks did not think in terms of race.[70]

 Most families owned slaves as household servants and laborers, and even poor families might have owned a few slaves. Owners were not allowed to beat or kill their slaves. Owners often promised to free slaves in the future to encourage slaves to work hard. Unlike in Rome, freedmen did not become citizens. Instead, they were mixed into the population of metics, which included people from foreign countries or other city-states who were officially allowed to live in the state.

 City-states legally owned slaves. These public slaves had a larger measure of independence than slaves owned by families, living on their own and performing specialized tasks. In Athens, public slaves were trained to look out for counterfeit coinage, while temple slaves acted as servants of the temple's deity and Scythian slaves were employed in Athens as a police force corralling citizens to political functions.

 Sparta had a special type of slaves called helots. Helots were Messenians enslaved en masse during the Messenian Wars by the state and assigned to families where they were forced to stay. Helots raised food and did household chores so that women could concentrate on raising strong children while men could devote their time to training as hoplites. Their masters treated them harshly, and helots revolted against their masters several times. In 370/69 BC, as a result of Epaminondas' liberation of Messenia from Spartan rule, the helot system there came to an end and the helots won their freedom.[71] However, it did continue to persist in Laconia until the 2nd century BC.

 Education

 Main article: Education in ancient Greece
 Mosaic from Pompeii depicting Plato's academy

 For most of Greek history, education was private, except in Sparta. During the Hellenistic period, some city-states established public schools. Only wealthy families could afford a teacher. Boys learned how to read, write and quote literature. They also learned to sing and play one musical instrument and were trained as athletes for military service. They studied not for a job but to become an effective citizen. Girls also learned to read, write and do simple arithmetic so they could manage the household. They almost never received education after childhood.[72]

 Boys went to school at the age of seven, or went to the barracks, if they lived in Sparta. The three types of teachings were: grammatistes for arithmetic, kitharistes for music and dancing, and Paedotribae for sports.

 Boys from wealthy families attending the private school lessons were taken care of by a paidagogos, a household slave selected for this task who accompanied the boy during the day. Classes were held in teachers' private houses and included reading, writing, mathematics, singing, and playing the lyre and flute. When the boy became 12 years old the schooling started to include sports such as wrestling, running, and throwing discus and javelin. In Athens, some older youths attended academy for the finer disciplines such as culture, sciences, music, and the arts. The schooling ended at age 18, followed by military training in the army usually for one or two years.[73]

 Only a small number of boys continued their education after childhood, as in the Spartan agoge. A crucial part of a wealthy teenager's education was a mentorship with an elder, which in a few places and times may have included pederasty.[ citation needed ] The teenager learned by watching his mentor talking about politics in the agora, helping him perform his public duties, exercising with him in the gymnasium and attending symposia with him. The richest students continued their education by studying with famous teachers. Some of Athens' greatest such schools included the Lyceum (the so-called Peripatetic school founded by Aristotle of Stageira) and the Platonic Academy (founded by Plato of Athens). The education system of the wealthy ancient Greeks is also called Paideia.[ citation needed ]

 Economy

 Main articles: Economy of ancient Greece, Agriculture in ancient Greece, and Slavery in ancient Greece

 At its economic height in the 5th and 4th centuries BC, the free citizenry of Classical Greece represented perhaps the most prosperous society in the ancient world, some economic historians considering Greece one of the most advanced pre-industrial economies. In terms of wheat, wages reached an estimated 7–12 kg daily for an unskilled worker in urban Athens, 2-3 times the 3.75 kg of an unskilled rural labourer in Roman Egypt, though Greek farm incomes too were on average lower than those available to urban workers.[74]

 While slave conditions varied widely, the institution served to sustain the incomes of the free citizenry: an estimate of economic development drawn from the latter (or derived from urban incomes alone) is therefore likely to overstate the true overall level despite widespread evidence for high living standards.

 Warfare

 Main articles: Ancient Greek warfare and Ancient Macedonian army
 Greek hoplite and Persian warrior depicted fighting, on an ancient kylix, 5th century BC

 At least in the Archaic Period, the fragmentary nature of ancient Greece, with many competing city-states, increased the frequency of conflict but conversely limited the scale of warfare. Unable to maintain professional armies, the city-states relied on their own citizens to fight. This inevitably reduced the potential duration of campaigns, as citizens would need to return to their own professions (especially in the case of, for example, farmers). Campaigns would therefore often be restricted to summer. When battles occurred, they were usually set piece and intended to be decisive. Casualties were slight compared to later battles, rarely amounting to more than five percent of the losing side, but the slain often included the most prominent citizens and generals who led from the front.

 The scale and scope of warfare in ancient Greece changed dramatically as a result of the Greco-Persian Wars. To fight the enormous armies of the Achaemenid Empire was effectively beyond the capabilities of a single city-state. The eventual triumph of the Greeks was achieved by alliances of city-states (the exact composition changing over time), allowing the pooling of resources and division of labor. Although alliances between city-states occurred before this time, nothing on this scale had been seen before. The rise of Athens and Sparta as pre-eminent powers during this conflict led directly to the Peloponnesian War, which saw further development of the nature of warfare, strategy and tactics. Fought between leagues of cities dominated by Athens and Sparta, the increased manpower and financial resources increased the scale and allowed the diversification of warfare. Set-piece battles during the Peloponnesian war proved indecisive and instead there was increased reliance on attritionary strategies, naval battles and blockades and sieges. These changes greatly increased the number of casualties and the disruption of Greek society.

 Athens owned one of the largest war fleets in ancient Greece. It had over 200 triremes each powered by 170 oarsmen who were seated in 3 rows on each side of the ship. The city could afford such a large fleet—it had over 34,000 oarsmen—because it owned a lot of silver mines that were worked by slaves.

 According to Josiah Ober, Greek city-states faced approximately a one-in-three chance of destruction during the archaic and classical period.[75]

 Culture

 Philosophy

 Main article: Ancient Greek philosophy
 The carved busts of four ancient Greek philosophers, on display in the British Museum. From left to right: Socrates, Antisthenes, Chrysippus, and Epicurus.

 Ancient Greek philosophy focused on the role of reason and inquiry. In many ways, it had an important influence on modern philosophy, as well as modern science. Clear unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers, to medieval Muslim philosophers and Islamic scientists, to the European Renaissance and Enlightenment, to the secular sciences of the modern day.

 Neither reason nor inquiry began with the ancient Greeks. Defining the difference between the Greek quest for knowledge and the quests of the elder civilizations, such as the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians, has long been a topic of study by theorists of civilization.

 The first known philosophers of Greece were the pre-Socratics, who attempted to provide naturalistic, non-mythical descriptions of the world. They were followed by Socrates, one of the first philosophers based in Athens during its golden age whose ideas, despite being known by second-hand accounts instead of writings of his own, laid the basis of Western philosophy. Socrates' disciple Plato, who wrote The Republic and established a radical difference between ideas and the concrete world, and Plato's disciple Aristotle, who wrote extensively about nature and ethics, are also immensely influential in Western philosophy to this day. The later Hellenistic philosophy, also originating in Greece, is defined by names such as Antisthenes (cynicism), Zeno of Citium (stoicism) and Plotinus (Neoplatonism).

 Literature and theatre

 Main articles: Ancient Greek literature, Ancient Greek comedy, and Theatre of ancient Greece
 The ancient Theatre of Epidaurus, 4th century BC

 The earliest Greek literature was poetry and was composed for performance rather than private consumption.[76] The earliest Greek poet known is Homer, although he was certainly part of an existing tradition of oral poetry.[77] Homer's poetry, though it was developed around the same time that the Greeks developed writing, would have been composed orally; the first poet to certainly compose their work in writing was Archilochus, a lyric poet from the mid-seventh century BC.[78] Tragedy developed around the end of the archaic period, taking elements from across the pre-existing genres of late archaic poetry.[79] Towards the beginning of the classical period, comedy began to develop—the earliest date associated with the genre is 486 BC, when a competition for comedy became an official event at the City Dionysia in Athens, though the first preserved ancient comedy is Aristophanes' Acharnians, produced in 425.[80]

 A scene from the Iliad: Hypnos and Thanatos carrying the body of Sarpedon from the battlefield of Troy; detail from an Attic white-ground lekythos, c. 440 BC.

 Like poetry, Greek prose had its origins in the archaic period, and the earliest writers of Greek philosophy, history, and medical literature all date to the sixth century BC.[81] Prose first emerged as the writing style adopted by the presocratic philosophers Anaximander and Anaximenes—though Thales of Miletus, considered the first Greek philosopher, apparently wrote nothing.[82] Prose as a genre reached maturity in the classical era,[81] and the major Greek prose genres—philosophy, history, rhetoric, and dialogue—developed in this period.[83]

 The Hellenistic period saw the literary centre of the Greek world move from Athens, where it had been in the classical period, to Alexandria. At the same time, other Hellenistic kings such as the Antigonids and the Attalids were patrons of scholarship and literature, turning Pella and Pergamon respectively into cultural centres.[84] It was thanks to this cultural patronage by Hellenistic kings, and especially the Museum at Alexandria, that so much ancient Greek literature has survived.[85] The Library of Alexandria, part of the Museum, had the previously unenvisaged aim of collecting together copies of all known authors in Greek. Almost all of the surviving non-technical Hellenistic literature is poetry,[85] and Hellenistic poetry tended to be highly intellectual,[86] blending different genres and traditions, and avoiding linear narratives.[87] The Hellenistic period also saw a shift in the ways literature was consumed—while in the archaic and classical periods literature had typically been experienced in public performance, in the Hellenistic period it was more commonly read privately.[88] At the same time, Hellenistic poets began to write for private, rather than public, consumption.[89]

 With Octavian's victory at Actium in 31 BC, Rome began to become a major centre of Greek literature, as important Greek authors such as Strabo and Dionysius of Halicarnassus came to Rome.[90] The period of greatest innovation in Greek literature under Rome was the "long second century" from approximately AD 80 to around AD 230.[91] This innovation was especially marked in prose, with the development of the novel and a revival of prominence for display oratory both dating to this period.[91]

 Music and dance

 Main article: Music of ancient Greece

 Music was present almost universally in Greek society, from marriages and funerals to religious ceremonies, theatre, folk music and the ballad-like reciting of epic poetry. There are significant fragments of actual Greek musical notation as well as many literary references to ancient Greek music. Greek art depicts musical instruments and dance. The word music derives from the name of the Muses, the daughters of Zeus who were patron goddesses of the arts.

 Science and technology

 Main articles: List of Graeco-Roman geographers, Greek astronomy, Greek mathematics, Ancient Greek medicine, and Ancient Greek technology
 The Antikythera mechanism was an analog computer from 150 to 100 BC designed to calculate the positions of astronomical objects.

 Ancient Greek mathematics contributed many important developments to the field of mathematics, including the basic rules of geometry, the idea of formal mathematical proof, and discoveries in number theory, mathematical analysis, applied mathematics, and approached close to establishing integral calculus. The discoveries of several Greek mathematicians, including Pythagoras, Euclid, and Archimedes, are still used in mathematical teaching today.

 The Greeks developed astronomy, which they treated as a branch of mathematics, to a highly sophisticated level. The first geometrical, three-dimensional models to explain the apparent motion of the planets were developed in the 4th century BC by Eudoxus of Cnidus and Callippus of Cyzicus. Their younger contemporary Heraclides Ponticus proposed that the Earth rotates around its axis. In the 3rd century BC, Aristarchus of Samos was the first to suggest a heliocentric system. Archimedes in his treatise The Sand Reckoner revives Aristarchus' hypothesis that "the fixed stars and the Sun remain unmoved, while the Earth revolves about the Sun on the circumference of a circle". Otherwise, only fragmentary descriptions of Aristarchus' idea survive.[92] Eratosthenes, using the angles of shadows created at widely separated regions, estimated the circumference of the Earth with great accuracy.[93] In the 2nd century BC Hipparchus of Nicea made a number of contributions, including the first measurement of precession and the compilation of the first star catalog in which he proposed the modern system of apparent magnitudes.

 The Antikythera mechanism, a device for calculating the movements of planets, dates from about 80 BC and was the first ancestor of the astronomical computer. It was discovered in an ancient shipwreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete. The device became famous for its use of a differential gear, previously believed to have been invented in the 16th century, and the miniaturization and complexity of its parts, comparable to a clock made in the 18th century. The original mechanism is displayed in the Bronze collection of the National Archaeological Museum of Athens, accompanied by a replica.

 The ancient Greeks also made important discoveries in the medical field. Hippocrates was a physician of the Classical period, and is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of medicine. He is referred to as the "father of medicine"[94][95] in recognition of his lasting contributions to the field as the founder of the Hippocratic school of medicine. This intellectual school revolutionized medicine in ancient Greece, establishing it as a discipline distinct from other fields that it had traditionally been associated with (notably theurgy and philosophy), thus making medicine a profession.[96][97]

 Art and architecture

 Main articles: Ancient Greek art and Ancient Greek architecture
 The Temple of Hera at Selinunte, Sicily

 The art of ancient Greece has exercised an enormous influence on the culture of many countries from ancient times to the present day, particularly in the areas of sculpture and architecture. In the West, the art of the Roman Empire was largely derived from Greek models. In the East, Alexander the Great's conquests initiated several centuries of exchange between Greek, Central Asian and Indian cultures, resulting in Greco-Buddhist art, with ramifications as far as Japan. Following the Renaissance in Europe, the humanist aesthetic and the high technical standards of Greek art inspired generations of European artists. Well into the 19th century, the classical tradition derived from Greece dominated the art of the Western world.

 Religion

 Main article: Ancient Greek religion
 Mount Olympus, home of the Twelve Olympians

 Religion was a central part of ancient Greek life.[98] Though the Greeks of different cities and tribes worshipped similar gods, religious practices were not uniform and the gods were thought of differently in different places. The Greeks were polytheistic, worshipping many gods, but as early as the sixth century BC a pantheon of twelve Olympians began to develop.[99] Greek religion was influenced by the practices of the Greeks' near eastern neighbours at least as early as the archaic period, and by the Hellenistic period this influence was seen in both directions.[100]

 The most important religious act in ancient Greece was animal sacrifice, most commonly of sheep and goats.[101] Sacrifice was accompanied by public prayer,[102] and prayer and hymns were themselves a major part of ancient Greek religious life.[103]

 Legacy

 Further information: Classics

 The civilization of ancient Greece has been immensely influential on language, politics, educational systems, philosophy, science, and the arts. It became the Leitkultur of the Roman Empire to the point of marginalizing native Italic traditions. As Horace put it,

 Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit et artis / intulit agresti Latio (Epistulae 2.1.156f.) Captive Greece took captive her uncivilised conqueror and instilled her arts in rustic Latium.

 Via the Roman Empire, Greek culture came to be foundational to Western culture in general. The Byzantine Empire inherited Classical Greek-Hellenistic culture directly, without Latin intermediation, and the preservation of Classical Greek learning in medieval Byzantine tradition further exerted a strong influence on the Slavs and later on the Islamic Golden Age and the Western European Renaissance. A modern revival of Classical Greek learning took place in the Neoclassicism movement in 18th- and 19th-century Europe and the Americas.

 See also

 * Ancient Greece portal
 * Civilizations portal
 * History portal
 * List of ancient Greek writers
 * Outline of ancient Greece
 * Outline of ancient Egypt
 * Outline of ancient Rome
 * Outline of classical studies
 + Classical demography
 + History of science in classical antiquity
 + Regions in Greco-Roman antiquity

 Notes

 1. ^ This word derives from the non-pejorative Greek τύραννος tyrannos , meaning 'illegitimate ruler', and was applicable to both good and bad leaders alike. [18][19]

 References

 Notes

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 2. ^ Maura Ellyn; Maura McGinnis (2004). Greece: A Primary Source Cultural Guide. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-8239-3999-2.
 3. ^ John E. Findling; Kimberly D. Pelle (2004). Encyclopedia of the Modern Olympic Movement. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-313-32278-5.
 4. ^ Wayne C. Thompson; Mark H. Mullin (1983). Western Europe, 1983. Stryker-Post Publications. p. 337. ISBN 9780943448114. "for ancient Greece was the cradle of Western culture ..."
 5. ^ Osborne, Robin (2009). Greece in the Making: 1200–479 BC. London: Routledge. p. xvii.
 6. ^ Shapiro 2007 , p. 1
 7. ^ Shapiro 2007 , pp. 2–3
 8. ^ Hadas, Moses (1950). A History of Greek Literature. Columbia University Press. p. 273. ISBN 978-0-231-01767-1.
 9. ^ Marincola (2001) , p. 59
 10. ^ Roberts (2011) , p. 2
 11. ^ Sparks (1998) , p. 58
 12. ^ Asheri, Lloyd & Corcella (2007)
 13. ^ Cameron (2004) , p. 156
 14. ^ Grant, Michael (1995). Greek and Roman historians: information and misinformation. Routledge. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-415-11770-8.
 15. ^ Osborne, Robin (2009). Greece in the Making: 1200–479 BC (2 ed.). London: Routledge. p. 101.
 16. ^ Sealey, Raphael (1976). A history of the Greek city states, ca. 700–338 B.C. University of California Press. pp. 10–11. ISBN 978-0-631-22667-3.
 17. ^ Slavoj Žižek (2011). Living in the End Times. Verso. p. 218. ISBN 978-1-84467-702-3.
 18. ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". Etymonline.com . Retrieved 6 January 2009 .
 19. ^ "tyrant – Definitions from Dictionary.com". Dictionary.reference.com. Archived from the original on 25 January 2009 . Retrieved 6 January 2009 .
 20. ^ Holland T. Persian Fire pp. 69–70. ISBN 978-0-349-11717-1
 21. ^ Holland T. Persian Fire pp. 131–38. ISBN 978-0-349-11717-1
 22. ^ Martin 2013 , pp. 126–27
 23. ^ a b Martin 2013 , p. 127
 24. ^ Martin 2013 , p. 128
 25. ^ Martin 2013 , pp. 128–29
 26. ^ a b c Martin 2013 , p. 131
 27. ^ Martin 2013 , pp. 131–33
 28. ^ Martin 2013 , pp. 134–36
 29. ^ Martin 2013 , pp. 137–38
 30. ^ Martin 2013 , p. 140
 31. ^ Martin 2013 , pp. 137–41
 32. ^ a b c d Martin 2013 , p. 147
 33. ^ Martin 2013 , p. 142
 34. ^ Martin 2013 , p. 149
 35. ^ a b Hornblower 2011 , p. 160
 36. ^ a b Hornblower 2011 , p. 162
 37. ^ Hornblower 2011 , p. 163
 38. ^ Martin 2013 , pp. 198–99
 39. ^ Martin 2013 , p. 200
 40. ^ Hornblower 2011 , p. 177
 41. ^ Martin 2013 , pp. 202–03
 42. ^ Hornblower 2011 , pp. 186–89
 43. ^ a b Martin 2013 , p. 205
 44. ^ Hornblower 2011 , p. 189
 45. ^ Hornblower 2011 , p. 203
 46. ^ Hornblower 2011 , p. 219
 47. ^ Martin 2013 , pp. 221, 226
 48. ^ Martin 2013 , p. 224
 49. ^ Martin 2013 , pp. 224–225
 50. ^ Martin 2013 , pp. 225–226
 51. ^ Martin 2013 , p. 226
 52. ^ Martin 2013 , p. 221
 53. ^ Martin 2013 , pp. 243–245
 54. ^ Martin 2013 , pp. 245–247
 55. ^ Martin 2013 , p. 248
 56. ^ Martin 2013 , p. 250
 57. ^ Martin 2013 , p. 253.
 58. ^ Martin 2013 , pp. 254–255.
 59. ^ a b Martin 2013 , p. 256.
 60. ^ a b c Martin 2013 , p. 255.
 61. ^ Alexander's Gulf outpost uncovered . BBC News. 7 August 2007.
 62. ^ "Macedonia". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2008. Archived from the original on 8 December 2008 . Retrieved 3 November 2008 .
 63. ^ The Cambridge Ancient History: The fourth century B.C. edited by D.M. Lewis et al. I E S Edwards, Cambridge University Press, D.M. Lewis, John Boardman, Cyril John Gadd , Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière Hammond, 2000, ISBN 0-521-23348-8 , pp. 723–24.
 64. ^ Population of the Greek city-states Archived 5 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine
 65. ^ Ruden, Sarah (2003). Lysistrata . Hackett Publishing, p. 80. ISBN 0-87220-603-3 .
 66. ^ Holland, T. Persian Fire , Abacus, pp. 363–70 ISBN 978-0-349-11717-1
 67. ^ Holland T. Persian Fire , p. 94 ISBN 978-0-349-11717-1
 68. ^ Powell, Anton (2017). A Companion to Sparta. John Wiley & Sons. p. 187. ISBN 9781119072379 . Retrieved 4 July 2022 .
 69. ^ Slavery in Ancient Greece Archived 1 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine . Britannica Student Encyclopædia .
 70. ^ Painter, Nell (2010). The History of White People. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-393-04934-3.
 71. ^ Cartledge, Paul (2002). The Spartans: An Epic History. Pan Macmillan. p. 67.
 72. ^ Bloomer, W. Martin (2016). A Companion to Ancient Education. Malden, MA: Willey-Blackwell. p. 305. ISBN 978-1-118-99741-3.
 73. ^ Angus Konstam: "Historical Atlas of Ancient Greece", pp. 94–95. Thalamus publishing, UK, 2003, ISBN 1-904668-16-X
 74. ^ W. Schiedel, "Real slave prices and the relative cost of slave labor in the Greco-Roman world", Ancient Society , vol. 35, 2005, p 12.
 75. ^ Ober, Josiah (2010). Democracy and Knowledge. pp. 81–2. ISBN 978-0-691-14624-9.
 76. ^ Power 2016 , p. 58
 77. ^ Kirk 1985 , p. 44
 78. ^ Kirk 1985 , p. 45
 79. ^ Power 2016 , p. 60
 80. ^ Handley 1985 , p. 355
 81. ^ a b McGlew 2016 , p. 79
 82. ^ McGlew 2016 , p. 81
 83. ^ McGlew 2016 , p. 84
 84. ^ Mori 2016 , p. 93
 85. ^ a b Bulloch 1985 , p. 542
 86. ^ Bulloch 1985 , pp. 542–43
 87. ^ Mori 2016 , p. 99
 88. ^ Mori 2016 , p. 98
 89. ^ Bulloch 1985 , p. 543
 90. ^ Bowersock 1985 , pp. 642–43
 91. ^ a b König 2016 , p. 113
 92. ^ Pedersen, Early Physics and Astronomy , pp. 55–56
 93. ^ Pedersen, Early Physics and Astronomy , pp. 45–47
 94. ^ Grammaticos, P.C.; Diamantis, A. (2008). "Useful known and unknown views of the father of modern medicine, Hippocrates and his teacher Democritus". Hellenic Journal of Nuclear Medicine. 11 (1): 2–4. PMID 18392218.
 95. ^ Hippocrates , Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006. Microsoft Corporation. Archived 31 October 2009.
 96. ^ Garrison, Fielding H. (1966). History of Medicine. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company. pp. 92–93.
 97. ^ Nuland, Sherwin B. (1988). Doctors. Knopf. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-394-55130-2.
 98. ^ Ogden 2007 , p. 1.
 99. ^ Dowden 2007 , p. 41.
 100. ^ Noegel 2007 , pp. 21–22.
 101. ^ Bremmer 2007 , pp. 132–134.
 102. ^ Furley 2007 , p. 121.
 103. ^ Furley 2007 , p. 117.

 Bibliography

 * Asheri, David; Lloyd, Alan; Corcella, Aldo (2007). A Commentary on Herodotus, Books 1–4. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814956-9.
 * Bowersock, G.W. (1985). "The literature of the Empire". In Easterling, P.E.; Knox, Bernard M.W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Classical Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 * Bremmer, Jan M. (2007). "Greek Normative Animal Sacrifice". In Ogden, Daniel (ed.). A Companion to Greek Religion. Blackwell.
 * Bulloch, A.W. (1985). "Hellenistic Poetry". In Easterling, P.E.; Knox, Bernard M.W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Classical Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 * Cameron, Alan (2004). Greek Mythography in the Roman World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-803821-4.
 * Dowden, Ken (2007). "Olympian Gods, Olympian Pantheon". In Ogden, Daniel (ed.). A Companion to Greek Religion. Blackwell.
 * Furley, William D. (2007). "Prayers and Hymns". In Ogden, Daniel (ed.). A Companion to Greek Religion. Blackwell.
 * Handley, E.W. (1985). "Comedy". In Easterling, P.E.; Knox, Bernard M.W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Classical Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 * Hornblower, Simon (2011). The Greek World: 479–323 BC (4 ed.). Abingdon: Routledge.
 * Kirk, G.S. (1985). "Homer". In Easterling, P.E.; Knox, Bernard M.W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Classical Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 * König, Jason (2016). "Literature in the Roman World". In Hose, Martin; Schenker, David (eds.). A Companion to Greek Literature. John Wiley & Sons.
 * Marincola, John (2001). Greek Historians. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-922501-9.
 * Martin, Thomas R. (2013). Ancient Greece: From Prehistoric to Hellenistic Times (2 ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press.
 * McGlew, James (2016). "Literature in the Classical Age of Greece". In Hose, Martin; Schenker, David (eds.). A Companion to Greek Literature. John Wiley & Sons.
 * Mori, Anatole (2016). "Literature in the Hellenistic World". In Hose, Martin; Schenker, David (eds.). A Companion to Greek Literature. John Wiley & Sons.
 * Noegel, Scott B. (2007). "Greek Religion and the Ancient Near East". In Ogden, Daniel (ed.). A Companion to Greek Religion. Blackwell.
 * Ogden, Daniel (2007). "Introduction". In Ogden, Daniel (ed.). A Companion to Greek Religion. Blackwell.
 * Power, Timothy (2016). "Literature in the Archaic Age". In Hose, Martin; Schenker, David (eds.). A Companion to Greek Literature. John Wiley & Sons.
 * Roberts, Jennifer T. (2011). Herodotus: a Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-957599-2.
 * Shapiro, H.A. (2007). "Introduction". In Shapiro, H.A. (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Archaic Greece. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 * Sparks, Kenton L. (1998). Ethnicity and Identity in Ancient Israel: Prolegomena to the Study of Ethnic Sentiments and their Expression in the Hebrew Bible. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1-57506-033-0.

 Further reading

 * Shanks, Michael (1996). Classical Archaeology of Greece. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-203-17197-7.
 * Brock, Roger, and Stephen Hodkinson, eds. 2000. Alternatives to Athens: Varieties of political organization and community in ancient Greece. Oxford and New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
 * Cartledge, Paul, Edward E. Cohen, and Lin Foxhall. 2002. Money, labour and land: Approaches to the economies of ancient Greece. London and New York: Routledge.
 * Cohen, Edward. 1992. Athenian economy and society: A banking perspective. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
 * Hurwit, Jeffrey. 1987. The art and culture of early Greece, 1100–480 B.C. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
 * Kinzl, Konrad, ed. 2006. A companion to the Classical Greek world. Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell.
 * Morris, Ian, ed. 1994. Classical Greece: Ancient histories and modern archaeologies. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
 * Pomeroy, Sarah, Stanley M. Burstein, Walter Donlan, and Jennifer Tolbert Roberts. 2008. Ancient Greece: A political, social, and cultural history. 2d ed. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
 * Rhodes, Peter J. 2006. A history of the Classical Greek world: 478–323 BC. Blackwell History of the Ancient World. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
 * Whitley, James. 2001. The archaeology of ancient Greece. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.

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The Parthenon, a temple dedicated to Athena, located on the Acropolis in Athens, is one of the most representative symbols of the culture and sophistication of the ancient Greeks.  
 Ancient Greece (Greek: Ἑλλάς,  romanized:  Hellás) was a northeastern Mediterranean civilization, existing from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th–9th centuries BC to the end of classical antiquity (c. AD 600), that comprised a loose collection of culturally and linguistically related city-states and other territories. Most of these regions were officially unified only once, for 13 years, under Alexander the Great's empire from 336 to 323 BC (though this excludes a number of Greek city-states free from Alexander's jurisdiction in the western Mediterranean, around the Black Sea, Cyprus, and Cyrenaica). In Western history, the era of classical antiquity was immediately followed by the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine period. [1] 
 Roughly three centuries after the Late Bronze Age collapse of Mycenaean Greece, Greek urban poleis began to form in the 8th century BC, ushering in the Archaic period and the colonization of the Mediterranean Basin. This was followed by the age of Classical Greece, from the Greco-Persian Wars to the 5th to 4th centuries BC, and which included the Golden Age of Athens. The conquests of Alexander the Great of Macedon spread Hellenistic civilization from the western Mediterranean to Central Asia. The Hellenistic period ended with the conquest of the eastern Mediterranean world by the Roman Republic, and the annexation of the Roman province of Macedonia in Roman Greece, and later the province of Achaea during the Roman Empire.
 Classical Greek culture, especially philosophy, had a powerful influence on ancient Rome, which carried a version of it throughout the Mediterranean and much of Europe. For this reason, Classical Greece is generally considered the cradle of Western civilization, the seminal culture from which the modern West derives many of its founding archetypes and ideas in politics, philosophy, science, and art. [2]   [3]   [4] 
Chronology
 Classical antiquity in the Mediterranean region is commonly considered to have begun in the 8th century BC [5]  (around the time of the earliest recorded poetry of Homer) and ended in the 6th century AD.
 Classical antiquity in Greece was preceded by the Greek Dark Ages (c. 1200 – c. 800 BC), archaeologically characterised by the protogeometric and geometric styles of designs on pottery. Following the Dark Ages was the Archaic Period, beginning around the 8th century BC, which saw early developments in Greek culture and society leading to the Classical Period  [6]  from the Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC until the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC. [7]  The Classical Period is characterized by a "classical" style, i.e. one which was considered exemplary by later observers, most famously in the Parthenon of Athens. Politically, the Classical Period was dominated by Athens and the Delian League during the 5th century, but displaced by Spartan hegemony during the early 4th century BC, before power shifted to Thebes and the Boeotian League and finally to the League of Corinth led by Macedon. This period was shaped by the Greco-Persian Wars, the Peloponnesian War, and the Rise of Macedon.
 Following the Classical period was the Hellenistic period (323–146 BC), during which Greek culture and power expanded into the Near and Middle East from the death of Alexander until the Roman conquest. Roman Greece is usually counted from the Roman victory over the Corinthians at the Battle of Corinth in 146 BC to the establishment of Byzantium by Constantine as the capital of the Roman Empire in AD 330. Finally, Late Antiquity refers to the period of Christianization during the later 4th to early 6th centuries AD, consummated by the closure of the Academy of Athens by Justinian I in 529. [8] 
Historiography
     
The historical period of ancient Greece is unique in world history as the first period attested directly in comprehensive, narrative historiography, while earlier ancient history or protohistory is known from much more fragmentary documents such as annals, king lists, and pragmatic epigraphy.
  Herodotus is widely known as the "father of history": his  Histories  are eponymous of the entire field. Written between the 450s and 420s BC, Herodotus' work reaches about a century into the past, discussing 6th century BC historical figures such as Darius I of Persia, Cambyses II and Psamtik III, and alluding to some 8th century BC persons such as Candaules. The accuracy of Herodotus' works is debated. [9]   [10]   [11]   [12]   [13] 
 Herodotus was succeeded by authors such as Thucydides, Xenophon, Demosthenes, Plato and Aristotle. Most were either Athenian or pro-Athenian, which is why far more is known about the history and politics of Athens than of many other cities.
Their scope is further limited by a focus on political, military and diplomatic history, ignoring economic and social history. [14] 
History
Archaic period
      Dipylon Vase of the late Geometric period, or the beginning of the Archaic period, c. 750 BC.  
In the 8th century BC, Greece began to emerge from the Dark Ages, which followed the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization. Literacy had been lost and the Mycenaean script forgotten, but the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, modifying it to create the Greek alphabet. Objects inscribed with Phoenician writing may have been available in Greece from the 9th century BC, but the earliest evidence of Greek writing comes from graffiti on Greek pottery from the mid-8th century. [15]  Greece was divided into many small self-governing communities, a pattern largely dictated by its geography: every island, valley and plain is cut off from its neighbors by the sea or mountain ranges. [16] 
 The Lelantine War (c. 710 – c. 650 BC) is the earliest documented war of the ancient Greek period. It was fought between the important  poleis  (city-states) of Chalcis and Eretria over the fertile Lelantine plain of Euboea. Both cities seem to have declined as a result of the long war, though Chalcis was the nominal victor.
 A mercantile class arose in the first half of the 7th century BC, shown by the introduction of coinage in about 680 BC. [17]  [ where? ]This seems to have introduced tension to many city-states, as their aristocratic regimes were threatened by the new wealth of merchants ambitious for political power. From 650 BC onwards, the aristocracies had to fight to maintain themselves against populist tyrants. [a]  A growing population and a shortage of land also seem to have created internal strife between rich and poor in many city-states.
 In Sparta, the Messenian Wars resulted in the conquest of Messenia and enserfment of the Messenians, beginning in the latter half of the 8th century BC. This was an unprecedented act in ancient Greece, which led to a social revolution [20]  in which the subjugated population of helots farmed and labored for Sparta, whilst every Spartan male citizen became a soldier of the Spartan army permanently in arms. Rich and poor citizens alike were obliged to live and train as soldiers, an equality that defused social conflict. These reforms, attributed to Lycurgus of Sparta, were probably complete by 650 BC.
 Athens suffered a land and agrarian crisis in the late 7th century BC, again resulting in civil strife. The Archon (chief magistrate) Draco made severe reforms to the law code in 621 BC (hence "draconian"), but these failed to quell the conflict. Eventually, the moderate reforms of Solon (594 BC), improving the lot of the poor but firmly entrenching the aristocracy in power, gave Athens some stability.
 By the 6th century BC, several cities had emerged as dominant in Greek affairs: Athens, Sparta, Corinth, and Thebes. Each of them had brought the surrounding rural areas and smaller towns under their control, and Athens and Corinth had become major maritime and mercantile powers as well.
     
Rapidly increasing population in the 8th and 7th centuries BC had resulted in the emigration of many Greeks to form colonies in Magna Graecia (Southern Italy and Sicily), Asia Minor and further afield. The emigration effectively ceased in the 6th century BC by which time the Greek world had, culturally and linguistically, become much larger than the area of present-day Greece. Greek colonies were not politically controlled by their founding cities, although they often retained religious and commercial links with them.
 The Greek colonies of Sicily, especially Syracuse, were soon drawn into prolonged conflicts with the Carthaginians. These conflicts lasted from 600 BC to 265 BC, when the Roman Republic allied with the Mamertines to fend off the new tyrant of Syracuse, Hiero II, and then the Carthaginians. As a result, Rome became the new dominant power against the fading strength of the Sicilian Greek cities and the fading Carthaginian hegemony. One year later, the First Punic War erupted.
 In this period, Greece and its overseas colonies enjoyed huge economic development in commerce and manufacturing, with rising general prosperity. Some studies estimate that the average Greek household grew fivefold between 800 and 300 BC, indicating a large increase in average income.[ citation needed ]
 In the second half of the 6th century BC, Athens fell under the tyranny of Pisistratus followed by his sons Hippias and Hipparchus. However, in 510 BC, at the instigation of the Athenian aristocrat Cleisthenes, the Spartan king Cleomenes I helped the Athenians overthrow the tyranny. Sparta and Athens promptly turned on each other, at which point Cleomenes I installed Isagoras as a pro-Spartan archon. Eager to secure Athens' independence from Spartan control, Cleisthenes proposed a political revolution: that all citizens share power, regardless of status, making Athens a "democracy". The democratic enthusiasm of the Athenians swept out Isagoras and threw back the Spartan-led invasion to restore him. [21]  The advent of democracy cured many of the social ills of Athens and ushered in the Golden Age.
Classical Greece
      Early Athenian coin, depicting the head of Athena on the obverse and her owl on the reverse – 5th century BC  
In 499 BC, the Ionian city states under Persian rule rebelled against their Persian-supported tyrant rulers. [22]  Supported by troops sent from Athens and Eretria, they advanced as far as Sardis and burnt the city before being driven back by a Persian counterattack. [23]  The revolt continued until 494, when the rebelling Ionians were defeated. [23]  Darius did not forget that Athens had assisted the Ionian revolt, and in 490 he assembled an armada to retaliate. [24]  Though heavily outnumbered, the Athenians—supported by their Plataean allies—defeated the Persian hordes at the Battle of Marathon, and the Persian fleet turned tail. [25] 
      Map showing events of the first phases of the Greco-Persian Wars.  
      Delian League ("Athenian Empire"), immediately before the Peloponnesian War in 431 BC  
Ten years later, a second invasion was launched by Darius' son Xerxes. [26]  The city-states of northern and central Greece submitted to the Persian forces without resistance, but a coalition of 31 Greek city states, including Athens and Sparta, determined to resist the Persian invaders. [26]  At the same time, Greek Sicily was invaded by a Carthaginian force. [26]  In 480 BC, the first major battle of the invasion was fought at Thermopylae, where a small rearguard of Greeks, led by three hundred Spartans, held a crucial pass guarding the heart of Greece for several days; at the same time Gelon, tyrant of Syracuse, defeated the Carthaginian invasion at the Battle of Himera. [27] 
 The Persians were decisively defeated at sea by a primarily Athenian naval force at the Battle of Salamis, and on land in 479 BC at the Battle of Plataea. [28]  The alliance against Persia continued, initially led by the Spartan Pausanias but from 477 by Athens, [29]  and by 460 Persia had been driven out of the Aegean. [30]  During this long campaign, the Delian League gradually transformed from a defensive alliance of Greek states into an Athenian empire, as Athens' growing naval power intimidated the other league states. [31]  Athens ended its campaigns against Persia in 450, after a disastrous defeat in Egypt in 454, and the death of Cimon in action against the Persians on Cyprus in 450. [32] 
 As the Athenian fight against the Persian empire waned, conflict grew between Athens and Sparta. Suspicious of the increasing Athenian power funded by the Delian League, Sparta offered aid to reluctant members of the League to rebel against Athenian domination. These tensions were exacerbated in 462 BC when Athens sent a force to aid Sparta in overcoming a helot revolt, but this aid was rejected by the Spartans. [33]  In the 450s, Athens took control of Boeotia, and won victories over Aegina and Corinth. [32]  However, Athens failed to win a decisive victory, and in 447 lost Boeotia again. [32]  Athens and Sparta signed the Thirty Years' Peace in the winter of 446/5, ending the conflict. [32] 
 Despite the treaty, Athenian relations with Sparta declined again in the 430s, and in 431 BC the Peloponnesian War began. [34]  The first phase of the war saw a series of fruitless annual invasions of Attica by Sparta, while Athens successfully fought the Corinthian empire in northwest Greece and defended its own empire, despite a plague which killed the leading Athenian statesman Pericles. [35]  The war turned after Athenian victories led by Cleon at Pylos and Sphakteria, [35]  and Sparta sued for peace, but the Athenians rejected the proposal. [36]  The Athenian failure to regain control of Boeotia at Delium and Brasidas' successes in northern Greece in 424 improved Sparta's position after Sphakteria. [36]  After the deaths of Cleon and Brasidas, the strongest proponents of war on each side, a peace treaty was negoitiated in 421 by the Athenian general Nicias. [37] 
 The peace did not last, however. In 418 BC allied forces of Athens and Argos were defeated by Sparta at Mantinea. [38]  In 415 Athens launched an ambitious naval expedition to dominate Sicily; [39]  the expedition ended in disaster at the harbor of Syracuse, with almost the entire army killed, and the ships destroyed. [40]  Soon after the Athenian defeat in Syracuse, Athens' Ionian allies began to rebel against the Delian league, while Persia began to once again involve itself in Greek affairs on the Spartan side. [41]  Initially the Athenian position continued relatively strong, with important victories at Cyzicus in 410 and Arginusae in 406. [42]  However, in 405 the Spartan Lysander defeated Athens in the Battle of Aegospotami, and began to blockade Athens' harbour; [43]  driven by hunger, Athens sued for peace, agreeing to surrender their fleet and join the Spartan-led Peloponnesian League. [44]  Following the Athenian surrender, Sparta installed an oligarchic regime, the Thirty Tyrants, in Athens, [43]  one of a number of Spartan-backed oligarchies which rose to power after the Peloponnesian war. [45]  Spartan predominance did not last: after only a year, the Thirty had been overthrown. [46] 
 The first half of the fourth century saw the major Greek states attempt to dominate the mainland; none were successful, and their resulting weakness led to a power vacuum which would eventually be filled by Macedon under Philip II and then Alexander the Great. [47]  In the immediate aftermath of the Peloponnesian war, Sparta attempted to extend their own power, leading Argos, Athens, Corinth, and Thebes to join against them. [48]  Aiming to prevent any single Greek state gaining the dominance that would allow it to challenge Persia, the Persian king initially joined the alliance against Sparta, before imposing the King's Peace which restored Persia's control over the Anatolian Greeks. [49] 
 By 371 BC, Thebes was in the ascendancy, defeating Sparta at the Battle of Leuctra, killing the Spartan king Cleombrotus I, and invading Laconia. Further Theban successes against Sparta in 369 led to Messenia gaining independence; Sparta never recovered from the loss of Messenia's fertile land and the helot workforce it provided. [50]  The rising power of Thebes led Sparta and Athens to join forces; in 362 they were defeated by Thebes at the Battle of Mantinea. In the aftermath of Mantinea, none of the major Greek states were able to dominate. Though Thebes had won the battle, their general Epaminondas was killed, and they spent the following decades embroiled in wars with their neighbours; Athens, meanwhile, saw its second naval alliance, formed in 377, collapse in the mid-350s. [51] 
 The power vacuum in Greece after the Battle of Mantinea was filled by Macedon, under Philip II. In 338 BC, he defeated a Greek alliance at the Battle of Chaeronea, and subsequently formed the League of Corinth. Philip planned to lead the League to invade Persia, but was murdered in 336. His son Alexander the Great was left to fulfil his father's ambitions. [52]  After campaigns against Macedon's western and northern enemies, and those Greek states that had broken from the League of Corinth following the death of Philip, Alexander began his campaign against Persia in 334. [53]  He conquered Persia, defeating Darius III at the Battle of Issus in 333, and after the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 proclaimed himself king of Asia. [54]  From 329 he led expeditions to Bactria and then India; [55]  further plans to invade Arabia and North Africa were halted by his death in 323. [56] 
Hellenistic Greece
      Alexander Mosaic, National Archaeological Museum, Naples.  
The period from the death of Alexander the Great in 323 until the death of Cleopatra VII, the last Macedonian ruler of Egypt, is known as the Hellenistic period. In the early part of this period, a new form of kingship developed based on Macedonian and Near Eastern traditions. The first Hellenistic kings were previously Alexander's generals, and took power in the period following his death, though they were not part of existing royal lineages and lacked historic claims to the territories they controlled. [57]  The most important of these rulers in the decades after Alexander's death were Antigonus I and his son Demetrius in Macedonia and Greece, Ptolemy in Eygpt, and Seleucus I in Syria and the former Persian empire; [58]  smaller Hellenistic kingdoms included the Attalids in Anatolia and the Greco-Bactrian kingdom. [59] 
     
In the early part of the Hellenistic period, the exact borders of the Hellenistic kingdoms were not settled. Antigonus attempted to expand his territory by attacking the other successor kingdoms until they joined against him, and he was killed at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC. [60]  His son Demetrius spent many years in Seleucid captivity, and his son, Antigonus II, only reclaimed the Macedonian throne around 276. [60]  Meanwhile, the Seleucid kingdom gave up territory in the east to the Indian king Chandragupta Maurya in exchange for war elephants, and later lost large parts of Persia to the Parthian empire. [60]  By the mid-third century, the kingdoms of Alexander's successors was mostly stable, though there continued to be disputes over border areas. [59] 
 During the Hellenistic period, the importance of "Greece proper" (the territory of modern Greece) within the Greek-speaking world declined sharply. The great capitals of Hellenistic culture were Alexandria in the Ptolemaic Kingdom and Antioch in the Seleucid Empire.
 The conquests of Alexander had numerous consequences for the Greek city-states. It greatly widened the horizons of the Greeks and led to a steady emigration of the young and ambitious to the new Greek empires in the east. [61]  Many Greeks migrated to Alexandria, Antioch and the many other new Hellenistic cities founded in Alexander's wake, as far away as present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan, where the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and the Indo-Greek Kingdom survived until the end of the first century BC.
 The city-states within Greece formed themselves into two leagues; the Achaean League (including Thebes, Corinth and Argos) and the Aetolian League (including Sparta and Athens). For much of the period until the Roman conquest, these leagues were at war, often participating in the conflicts between the Diadochi (the successor states to Alexander's empire).
 The Antigonid Kingdom became involved in a war with the Roman Republic in the late 3rd century. Although the First Macedonian War was inconclusive, the Romans, in typical fashion, continued to fight Macedon until it was completely absorbed into the Roman Republic (by 149 BC). In the east, the unwieldy Seleucid Empire gradually disintegrated, although a rump survived until 64 BC, whilst the Ptolemaic Kingdom continued in Egypt until 30 BC when it too was conquered by the Romans. The Aetolian league grew wary of Roman involvement in Greece, and sided with the Seleucids in the Roman–Seleucid War; when the Romans were victorious, the league was effectively absorbed into the Republic. Although the Achaean league outlasted both the Aetolian league and Macedon, it was also soon defeated and absorbed by the Romans in 146 BC, bringing Greek independence to an end.
Roman Greece
The Greek peninsula came under Roman rule during the 146 BC conquest of Greece after the Battle of Corinth. Macedonia became a Roman province while southern Greece came under the surveillance of Macedonia's prefect; however, some Greek poleis managed to maintain a partial independence and avoid taxation. The Aegean islands were added to this territory in 133 BC. Athens and other Greek cities revolted in 88 BC, and the peninsula was crushed by the Roman general Sulla. The Roman civil wars devastated the land even further, until Augustus organized the peninsula as the province of Achaea in 27 BC.
 Greece was a key eastern province of the Roman Empire, as the Roman culture had long been in fact Greco-Roman. The Greek language served as a  lingua franca  in the East and in Italy, and many Greek intellectuals such as Galen would perform most of their work in Rome.
Geography
Regions
      Map showing the major regions of mainland ancient Greece and adjacent "barbarian" lands.  
The territory of Greece is mountainous, and as a result, ancient Greece consisted of many smaller regions, each with its own dialect, cultural peculiarities, and identity. Regionalism and regional conflicts were prominent features of ancient Greece. Cities tended to be located in valleys between mountains, or on coastal plains, and dominated a certain area around them.
 In the south lay the Peloponnese, consisting of the regions of Laconia (southeast), Messenia (southwest), Elis (west), Achaia (north), Korinthia (northeast), Argolis (east), and Arcadia (center). These names survive to the present day as regional units of modern Greece, though with somewhat different boundaries. Mainland Greece to the north, nowadays known as Central Greece, consisted of Aetolia and Acarnania in the west, Locris, Doris, and Phocis in the center, while in the east lay Boeotia, Attica, and Megaris. Northeast lay Thessaly, while Epirus lay to the northwest. Epirus stretched from the Ambracian Gulf in the south to the Ceraunian mountains and the Aoos river in the north, and consisted of Chaonia (north), Molossia (center), and Thesprotia (south). In the northeast corner was Macedonia, [62]  originally consisting Lower Macedonia and its regions, such as Elimeia, Pieria, and Orestis. Around the time of Alexander I of Macedon, the Argead kings of Macedon started to expand into Upper Macedonia, lands inhabited by independent Macedonian tribes like the Lyncestae, Orestae and the Elimiotae and to the west, beyond the Axius river, into Eordaia, Bottiaea, Mygdonia, and Almopia, regions settled by Thracian tribes. [63]  To the north of Macedonia lay various non-Greek peoples such as the Paeonians due north, the Thracians to the northeast, and the Illyrians, with whom the Macedonians were frequently in conflict, to the northwest. Chalcidice was settled early on by southern Greek colonists and was considered part of the Greek world, while from the late 2nd millennium BC substantial Greek settlement also occurred on the eastern shores of the Aegean, in Anatolia.
Colonies
      Greek cities &amp; colonies c. 550 BC (in red color)  
During the Archaic period, the Greek population grew beyond the capacity of the limited arable land of Greece proper, resulting in the large-scale establishment of colonies elsewhere: according to one estimate, the population of the widening area of Greek settlement increased roughly tenfold from 800 BC to 400 BC, from 800,000 to as many as 7+1⁄2-10 million. [64] 
 From about 750 BC the Greeks began 250 years of expansion, settling colonies in all directions. To the east, the Aegean coast of Asia Minor was colonized first, followed by Cyprus and the coasts of Thrace, the Sea of Marmara and south coast of the Black Sea.
 Eventually, Greek colonization reached as far northeast as present-day Ukraine and Russia (Taganrog). To the west the coasts of Illyria, Sicily and Southern Italy were settled, followed by Southern France, Corsica, and even eastern Spain. Greek colonies were also founded in Egypt and Libya.
 Modern Syracuse, Naples, Marseille and Istanbul had their beginnings as the Greek colonies Syracusae (Συράκουσαι), Neapolis (Νεάπολις), Massalia (Μασσαλία) and Byzantion (Βυζάντιον). These colonies played an important role in the spread of Greek influence throughout Europe and also aided in the establishment of long-distance trading networks between the Greek city-states, boosting the economy of ancient Greece.
Politics and society
Political structure
     
Ancient Greece consisted of several hundred relatively independent city-states ( poleis ). This was a situation unlike that in most other contemporary societies, which were either tribal or kingdoms ruling over relatively large territories. Undoubtedly, the geography of Greece—divided and sub-divided by hills, mountains, and rivers—contributed to the fragmentary nature of ancient Greece. On the one hand, the ancient Greeks had no doubt that they were "one people"; they had the same religion, same basic culture, and same language. Furthermore, the Greeks were very aware of their tribal origins; Herodotus was able to extensively categorise the city-states by tribe. Yet, although these higher-level relationships existed, they seem to have rarely had a major role in Greek politics. The independence of the poleis was fiercely defended; unification was something rarely contemplated by the ancient Greeks. Even when, during the second Persian invasion of Greece, a group of city-states allied themselves to defend Greece, the vast majority of poleis remained neutral, and after the Persian defeat, the allies quickly returned to infighting. [66] 
 Thus, the major peculiarities of the ancient Greek political system were its fragmentary nature (and that this does not particularly seem to have tribal origin), and the particular focus on urban centers within otherwise tiny states. The peculiarities of the Greek system are further evidenced by the colonies that they set up throughout the Mediterranean Sea, which, though they might count a certain Greek polis as their 'mother' (and remain sympathetic to her), were completely independent of the founding city.
 Inevitably smaller poleis might be dominated by larger neighbors, but conquest or direct rule by another city-state appears to have been quite rare. Instead the poleis grouped themselves into leagues, membership of which was in a constant state of flux. Later in the Classical period, the leagues would become fewer and larger, be dominated by one city (particularly Athens, Sparta and Thebes); and often poleis would be compelled to join under threat of war (or as part of a peace treaty). Even after Philip II of Macedon "conquered" the heartlands of ancient Greece, he did not attempt to annex the territory or unify it into a new province, but compelled most of the poleis to join his own Corinthian League.
Government and law
     
Initially many Greek city-states seem to have been petty kingdoms; there was often a city official carrying some residual, ceremonial functions of the king ( basileus ), e.g., the  archon basileus  in Athens. [67]  However, by the Archaic period and the first historical consciousness, most had already become aristocratic oligarchies. It is unclear exactly how this change occurred. For instance, in Athens, the kingship had been reduced to a hereditary, lifelong chief magistracy ( archon ) by c. 1050 BC; by 753 BC this had become a decennial, elected archonship; and finally by 683 BC an annually elected archonship. Through each stage, more power would have been transferred to the aristocracy as a whole, and away from a single individual.
 Inevitably, the domination of politics and concomitant aggregation of wealth by small groups of families was apt to cause social unrest in many poleis. In many cities a tyrant (not in the modern sense of repressive autocracies), would at some point seize control and govern according to their own will; often a populist agenda would help sustain them in power. In a system wracked with class conflict, government by a 'strongman' was often the best solution.
 Athens fell under a tyranny in the second half of the 6th century BC. When this tyranny was ended, the Athenians founded the world's first democracy as a radical solution to prevent the aristocracy regaining power. A citizens' assembly (the  Ecclesia ), for the discussion of city policy, had existed since the reforms of Draco in 621 BC; all citizens were permitted to attend after the reforms of Solon (early 6th century), but the poorest citizens could not address the assembly or run for office. With the establishment of the democracy, the assembly became the  de jure  mechanism of government; all citizens had equal privileges in the assembly. However, non-citizens, such as metics (foreigners living in Athens) or slaves, had no political rights at all.
 After the rise of democracy in Athens, other city-states founded democracies. However, many retained more traditional forms of government. As so often in other matters, Sparta was a notable exception to the rest of Greece, ruled through the whole period by not one, but two hereditary monarchs. This was a form of diarchy. The Kings of Sparta belonged to the Agiads and the Eurypontids, descendants respectively of Eurysthenes and Procles. Both dynasties' founders were believed to be twin sons of Aristodemus, a Heraclid ruler. However, the powers of these kings were held in check by both a council of elders (the  Gerousia ) and magistrates specifically appointed to watch over the kings (the  Ephors ).
 
Only free, land-owning, native-born men could be citizens entitled to the full protection of the law in a city-state. In most city-states, unlike the situation in Rome, social prominence did not allow special rights. Sometimes families controlled public religious functions, but this ordinarily did not give any extra power in the government. In Athens, the population was divided into four social classes based on wealth. People could change classes if they made more money. In Sparta, all male citizens were called  homoioi , meaning "peers". However, Spartan kings, who served as the city-state's dual military and religious leaders, came from two families. [68] 
Slavery
      Gravestone of a woman with her slave child-attendant, c. 100 BC  
Slaves had no power or status. They had the right to have a family and own property, subject to their master's goodwill and permission, but they had no political rights. By 600 BC, chattel slavery had spread in Greece. By the 5th century BC, slaves made up one-third of the total population in some city-states. Between 40-80% of the population of Classical Athens were slaves. [69]  Slaves outside of Sparta almost never revolted because they were made up of too many nationalities and were too scattered to organize. However, unlike later Western culture, the ancient Greeks did not think in terms of race. [70] 
 Most families owned slaves as household servants and laborers, and even poor families might have owned a few slaves. Owners were not allowed to beat or kill their slaves. Owners often promised to free slaves in the future to encourage slaves to work hard. Unlike in Rome, freedmen did not become citizens. Instead, they were mixed into the population of  metics , which included people from foreign countries or other city-states who were officially allowed to live in the state.
 City-states legally owned slaves. These public slaves had a larger measure of independence than slaves owned by families, living on their own and performing specialized tasks. In Athens, public slaves were trained to look out for counterfeit coinage, while temple slaves acted as servants of the temple's deity and Scythian slaves were employed in Athens as a police force corralling citizens to political functions.
 Sparta had a special type of slaves called  helots . Helots were Messenians enslaved en masse during the Messenian Wars by the state and assigned to families where they were forced to stay. Helots raised food and did household chores so that women could concentrate on raising strong children while men could devote their time to training as hoplites. Their masters treated them harshly, and helots revolted against their masters several times. In 370/69 BC, as a result of Epaminondas' liberation of Messenia from Spartan rule, the helot system there came to an end and the helots won their freedom. [71]  However, it did continue to persist in Laconia until the 2nd century BC.
Education
     
For most of Greek history, education was private, except in Sparta. During the Hellenistic period, some city-states established public schools. Only wealthy families could afford a teacher. Boys learned how to read, write and quote literature. They also learned to sing and play one musical instrument and were trained as athletes for military service. They studied not for a job but to become an effective citizen. Girls also learned to read, write and do simple arithmetic so they could manage the household. They almost never received education after childhood. [72] 
 Boys went to school at the age of seven, or went to the barracks, if they lived in Sparta. The three types of teachings were: grammatistes for arithmetic, kitharistes for music and dancing, and Paedotribae for sports.
 Boys from wealthy families attending the private school lessons were taken care of by a paidagogos, a household slave selected for this task who accompanied the boy during the day. Classes were held in teachers' private houses and included reading, writing, mathematics, singing, and playing the lyre and flute. When the boy became 12 years old the schooling started to include sports such as wrestling, running, and throwing discus and javelin. In Athens, some older youths attended academy for the finer disciplines such as culture, sciences, music, and the arts. The schooling ended at age 18, followed by military training in the army usually for one or two years. [73] 
 Only a small number of boys continued their education after childhood, as in the Spartan agoge. A crucial part of a wealthy teenager's education was a mentorship with an elder, which in a few places and times may have included pederasty.[ citation needed ] The teenager learned by watching his mentor talking about politics in the  agora , helping him perform his public duties, exercising with him in the gymnasium and attending symposia with him. The richest students continued their education by studying with famous teachers. Some of Athens' greatest such schools included the Lyceum (the so-called Peripatetic school founded by Aristotle of Stageira) and the Platonic Academy (founded by Plato of Athens). The education system of the wealthy ancient Greeks is also called Paideia.[ citation needed ]
Economy
At its economic height in the 5th and 4th centuries BC, the free citizenry of Classical Greece represented perhaps the most prosperous society in the ancient world, some economic historians considering Greece one of the most advanced pre-industrial economies. In terms of wheat, wages reached an estimated 7–12 kg daily for an unskilled worker in urban Athens, 2-3 times the 3.75 kg of an unskilled rural labourer in Roman Egypt, though Greek farm incomes too were on average lower than those available to urban workers. [74] 
 While slave conditions varied widely, the institution served to sustain the incomes of the free citizenry: an estimate of economic development drawn from the latter (or derived from urban incomes alone) is therefore likely to overstate the true overall level despite widespread evidence for high living standards.
Warfare
      Greek hoplite and Persian warrior depicted fighting, on an ancient kylix, 5th century BC  
At least in the Archaic Period, the fragmentary nature of ancient Greece, with many competing city-states, increased the frequency of conflict but conversely limited the scale of warfare. Unable to maintain professional armies, the city-states relied on their own citizens to fight. This inevitably reduced the potential duration of campaigns, as citizens would need to return to their own professions (especially in the case of, for example, farmers). Campaigns would therefore often be restricted to summer. When battles occurred, they were usually set piece and intended to be decisive. Casualties were slight compared to later battles, rarely amounting to more than five percent of the losing side, but the slain often included the most prominent citizens and generals who led from the front.
 The scale and scope of warfare in ancient Greece changed dramatically as a result of the Greco-Persian Wars. To fight the enormous armies of the Achaemenid Empire was effectively beyond the capabilities of a single city-state. The eventual triumph of the Greeks was achieved by alliances of city-states (the exact composition changing over time), allowing the pooling of resources and division of labor. Although alliances between city-states occurred before this time, nothing on this scale had been seen before. The rise of Athens and Sparta as pre-eminent powers during this conflict led directly to the Peloponnesian War, which saw further development of the nature of warfare, strategy and tactics. Fought between leagues of cities dominated by Athens and Sparta, the increased manpower and financial resources increased the scale and allowed the diversification of warfare. Set-piece battles during the Peloponnesian war proved indecisive and instead there was increased reliance on attritionary strategies, naval battles and blockades and sieges. These changes greatly increased the number of casualties and the disruption of Greek society.
 Athens owned one of the largest war fleets in ancient Greece. It had over 200 triremes each powered by 170 oarsmen who were seated in 3 rows on each side of the ship. The city could afford such a large fleet—it had over 34,000 oarsmen—because it owned a lot of silver mines that were worked by slaves.
 According to Josiah Ober, Greek city-states faced approximately a one-in-three chance of destruction during the archaic and classical period. [75] 
Culture
Philosophy
     
Ancient Greek philosophy focused on the role of reason and inquiry. In many ways, it had an important influence on modern philosophy, as well as modern science. Clear unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers, to medieval Muslim philosophers and Islamic scientists, to the European Renaissance and Enlightenment, to the secular sciences of the modern day.
 Neither reason nor inquiry began with the ancient Greeks. Defining the difference between the Greek quest for knowledge and the quests of the elder civilizations, such as the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians, has long been a topic of study by theorists of civilization.
 The first known philosophers of Greece were the pre-Socratics, who attempted to provide naturalistic, non-mythical descriptions of the world. They were followed by Socrates, one of the first philosophers based in Athens during its golden age whose ideas, despite being known by second-hand accounts instead of writings of his own, laid the basis of Western philosophy. Socrates' disciple Plato, who wrote  The Republic  and established a radical difference between ideas and the concrete world, and Plato's disciple Aristotle, who wrote extensively about nature and ethics, are also immensely influential in Western philosophy to this day. The later Hellenistic philosophy, also originating in Greece, is defined by names such as Antisthenes (cynicism), Zeno of Citium (stoicism) and Plotinus (Neoplatonism).
Literature and theatre
     
The earliest Greek literature was poetry and was composed for performance rather than private consumption. [76]  The earliest Greek poet known is Homer, although he was certainly part of an existing tradition of oral poetry. [77]  Homer's poetry, though it was developed around the same time that the Greeks developed writing, would have been composed orally; the first poet to certainly compose their work in writing was Archilochus, a lyric poet from the mid-seventh century BC. [78]  Tragedy developed around the end of the archaic period, taking elements from across the pre-existing genres of late archaic poetry. [79]  Towards the beginning of the classical period, comedy began to develop—the earliest date associated with the genre is 486 BC, when a competition for comedy became an official event at the City Dionysia in Athens, though the first preserved ancient comedy is Aristophanes'  Acharnians , produced in 425. [80] 
     
Like poetry, Greek prose had its origins in the archaic period, and the earliest writers of Greek philosophy, history, and medical literature all date to the sixth century BC. [81]  Prose first emerged as the writing style adopted by the presocratic philosophers Anaximander and Anaximenes—though Thales of Miletus, considered the first Greek philosopher, apparently wrote nothing. [82]  Prose as a genre reached maturity in the classical era, [81]  and the major Greek prose genres—philosophy, history, rhetoric, and dialogue—developed in this period. [83] 
 The Hellenistic period saw the literary centre of the Greek world move from Athens, where it had been in the classical period, to Alexandria. At the same time, other Hellenistic kings such as the Antigonids and the Attalids were patrons of scholarship and literature, turning Pella and Pergamon respectively into cultural centres. [84]  It was thanks to this cultural patronage by Hellenistic kings, and especially the Museum at Alexandria, that so much ancient Greek literature has survived. [85]  The Library of Alexandria, part of the Museum, had the previously unenvisaged aim of collecting together copies of all known authors in Greek. Almost all of the surviving non-technical Hellenistic literature is poetry, [85]  and Hellenistic poetry tended to be highly intellectual, [86]  blending different genres and traditions, and avoiding linear narratives. [87]  The Hellenistic period also saw a shift in the ways literature was consumed—while in the archaic and classical periods literature had typically been experienced in public performance, in the Hellenistic period it was more commonly read privately. [88]  At the same time, Hellenistic poets began to write for private, rather than public, consumption. [89] 
 With Octavian's victory at Actium in 31 BC, Rome began to become a major centre of Greek literature, as important Greek authors such as Strabo and Dionysius of Halicarnassus came to Rome. [90]  The period of greatest innovation in Greek literature under Rome was the "long second century" from approximately AD 80 to around AD 230. [91]  This innovation was especially marked in prose, with the development of the novel and a revival of prominence for display oratory both dating to this period. [91] 
Music and dance
Music was present almost universally in Greek society, from marriages and funerals to religious ceremonies, theatre, folk music and the ballad-like reciting of epic poetry. There are significant fragments of actual Greek musical notation as well as many literary references to ancient Greek music. Greek art depicts musical instruments and dance. The word music derives from the name of the Muses, the daughters of Zeus who were patron goddesses of the arts.
Science and technology
     
Ancient Greek mathematics contributed many important developments to the field of mathematics, including the basic rules of geometry, the idea of formal mathematical proof, and discoveries in number theory, mathematical analysis, applied mathematics, and approached close to establishing integral calculus. The discoveries of several Greek mathematicians, including Pythagoras, Euclid, and Archimedes, are still used in mathematical teaching today.
 The Greeks developed astronomy, which they treated as a branch of mathematics, to a highly sophisticated level. The first geometrical, three-dimensional models to explain the apparent motion of the planets were developed in the 4th century BC by Eudoxus of Cnidus and Callippus of Cyzicus. Their younger contemporary Heraclides Ponticus proposed that the Earth rotates around its axis. In the 3rd century BC, Aristarchus of Samos was the first to suggest a heliocentric system. Archimedes in his treatise The Sand Reckoner revives Aristarchus' hypothesis that "the fixed stars and the Sun remain unmoved, while the Earth revolves about the Sun on the circumference of a circle". Otherwise, only fragmentary descriptions of Aristarchus' idea survive. [92]  Eratosthenes, using the angles of shadows created at widely separated regions, estimated the circumference of the Earth with great accuracy. [93]  In the 2nd century BC Hipparchus of Nicea made a number of contributions, including the first measurement of precession and the compilation of the first star catalog in which he proposed the modern system of apparent magnitudes.
 The Antikythera mechanism, a device for calculating the movements of planets, dates from about 80 BC and was the first ancestor of the astronomical computer. It was discovered in an ancient shipwreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete. The device became famous for its use of a differential gear, previously believed to have been invented in the 16th century, and the miniaturization and complexity of its parts, comparable to a clock made in the 18th century. The original mechanism is displayed in the Bronze collection of the National Archaeological Museum of Athens, accompanied by a replica.
 The ancient Greeks also made important discoveries in the medical field. Hippocrates was a physician of the Classical period, and is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of medicine. He is referred to as the "father of medicine" [94]   [95]  in recognition of his lasting contributions to the field as the founder of the Hippocratic school of medicine. This intellectual school revolutionized medicine in ancient Greece, establishing it as a discipline distinct from other fields that it had traditionally been associated with (notably theurgy and philosophy), thus making medicine a profession. [96]   [97] 
Art and architecture
     
The art of ancient Greece has exercised an enormous influence on the culture of many countries from ancient times to the present day, particularly in the areas of sculpture and architecture. In the West, the art of the Roman Empire was largely derived from Greek models. In the East, Alexander the Great's conquests initiated several centuries of exchange between Greek, Central Asian and Indian cultures, resulting in Greco-Buddhist art, with ramifications as far as Japan. Following the Renaissance in Europe, the humanist aesthetic and the high technical standards of Greek art inspired generations of European artists. Well into the 19th century, the classical tradition derived from Greece dominated the art of the Western world.
Religion
     
Religion was a central part of ancient Greek life. [98]  Though the Greeks of different cities and tribes worshipped similar gods, religious practices were not uniform and the gods were thought of differently in different places. The Greeks were polytheistic, worshipping many gods, but as early as the sixth century BC a pantheon of twelve Olympians began to develop. [99]  Greek religion was influenced by the practices of the Greeks' near eastern neighbours at least as early as the archaic period, and by the Hellenistic period this influence was seen in both directions. [100] 
 The most important religious act in ancient Greece was animal sacrifice, most commonly of sheep and goats. [101]  Sacrifice was accompanied by public prayer, [102]  and prayer and hymns were themselves a major part of ancient Greek religious life. [103] 
Legacy
The civilization of ancient Greece has been immensely influential on language, politics, educational systems, philosophy, science, and the arts. It became the  Leitkultur  of the Roman Empire to the point of marginalizing native Italic traditions. As Horace put it,
  Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit et artis / intulit agresti Latio ( Epistulae  2.1.156f.)
Captive Greece took captive her uncivilised conqueror and instilled her arts in rustic Latium. 
Via the Roman Empire, Greek culture came to be foundational to Western culture in general.
The Byzantine Empire inherited Classical Greek-Hellenistic culture directly, without Latin intermediation, and the preservation of Classical Greek learning in medieval Byzantine tradition further exerted a strong influence on the Slavs and later on the Islamic Golden Age and the Western European Renaissance. A modern revival of Classical Greek learning took place in the Neoclassicism movement in 18th- and 19th-century Europe and the Americas.
See also
  List of ancient Greek writers 
 Outline of ancient Greece 
 Outline of ancient Egypt 
 Outline of ancient Rome 
 Outline of classical studies
  Classical demography 
 History of science in classical antiquity 
 Regions in Greco-Roman antiquity    
Notes
 
  ^  This word derives from the non-pejorative Greek τύραννος tyrannos, meaning 'illegitimate ruler', and was applicable to both good and bad leaders alike. [18]   [19] 
 
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Notes
 
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^    a       b    Martin 2013, p. 127
  ^  Martin 2013, p. 128
  ^  Martin 2013, pp. 128–29
^    a       b       c    Martin 2013, p. 131
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  ^  Martin 2013, pp. 134–36
  ^  Martin 2013, pp. 137–38
  ^  Martin 2013, p. 140
  ^  Martin 2013, pp. 137–41
^    a       b       c       d    Martin 2013, p. 147
  ^  Martin 2013, p. 142
  ^  Martin 2013, p. 149
^    a       b    Hornblower 2011, p. 160
^    a       b    Hornblower 2011, p. 162
  ^  Hornblower 2011, p. 163
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  ^  Martin 2013, p. 200
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  ^  Martin 2013, pp. 202–03
  ^  Hornblower 2011, pp. 186–89
^    a       b    Martin 2013, p. 205
  ^  Hornblower 2011, p. 189
  ^  Hornblower 2011, p. 203
  ^  Hornblower 2011, p. 219
  ^  Martin 2013, pp. 221, 226
  ^  Martin 2013, p. 224
  ^  Martin 2013, pp. 224–225
  ^  Martin 2013, pp. 225–226
  ^  Martin 2013, p. 226
  ^  Martin 2013, p. 221
  ^  Martin 2013, pp. 243–245
  ^  Martin 2013, pp. 245–247
  ^  Martin 2013, p. 248
  ^  Martin 2013, p. 250
  ^  Martin 2013, p. 253.
  ^  Martin 2013, pp. 254–255.
^    a       b    Martin 2013, p. 256.
^    a       b       c    Martin 2013, p. 255.
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  ^  Holland T. Persian Fire, p. 94 ISBN 978-0-349-11717-1
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  ^  Ober, Josiah (2010).  Democracy and Knowledge . pp. 81–2. ISBN  978-0-691-14624-9 .
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  ^  Kirk 1985, p. 44
  ^  Kirk 1985, p. 45
  ^  Power 2016, p. 60
  ^  Handley 1985, p. 355
^    a       b    McGlew 2016, p. 79
  ^  McGlew 2016, p. 81
  ^  McGlew 2016, p. 84
  ^  Mori 2016, p. 93
^    a       b    Bulloch 1985, p. 542
  ^  Bulloch 1985, pp. 542–43
  ^  Mori 2016, p. 99
  ^  Mori 2016, p. 98
  ^  Bulloch 1985, p. 543
  ^  Bowersock 1985, pp. 642–43
^    a       b    König 2016, p. 113
  ^  Pedersen, Early Physics and Astronomy, pp. 55–56
  ^  Pedersen, Early Physics and Astronomy, pp. 45–47
  ^  Grammaticos, P.C.; Diamantis, A. (2008). "Useful known and unknown views of the father of modern medicine, Hippocrates and his teacher Democritus". Hellenic Journal of Nuclear Medicine. 11 (1): 2–4. PMID 18392218.
  ^  Hippocrates, Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006. Microsoft Corporation. Archived 31 October 2009.
  ^  Garrison, Fielding H. (1966). History of Medicine. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company. pp. 92–93.
  ^  Nuland, Sherwin B. (1988).  Doctors . Knopf. p. 5. ISBN  978-0-394-55130-2 .
  ^  Ogden 2007, p. 1.
  ^  Dowden 2007, p. 41.
  ^  Noegel 2007, pp. 21–22.
  ^  Bremmer 2007, pp. 132–134.
  ^  Furley 2007, p. 121.
  ^  Furley 2007, p. 117.
 
Bibliography
  Asheri, David; Lloyd, Alan; Corcella, Aldo (2007). A Commentary on Herodotus, Books 1–4. Oxford University Press. ISBN  978-0-19-814956-9 . 
 Bowersock, G.W. (1985). "The literature of the Empire". In Easterling, P.E.; Knox, Bernard M.W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Classical Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 
 Bremmer, Jan M. (2007). "Greek Normative Animal Sacrifice". In Ogden, Daniel (ed.). A Companion to Greek Religion. Blackwell. 
 Bulloch, A.W. (1985). "Hellenistic Poetry". In Easterling, P.E.; Knox, Bernard M.W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Classical Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 
 Cameron, Alan (2004). Greek Mythography in the Roman World. Oxford University Press. ISBN  978-0-19-803821-4 . 
 Dowden, Ken (2007). "Olympian Gods, Olympian Pantheon". In Ogden, Daniel (ed.). A Companion to Greek Religion. Blackwell. 
 Furley, William D. (2007). "Prayers and Hymns". In Ogden, Daniel (ed.). A Companion to Greek Religion. Blackwell. 
 Handley, E.W. (1985). "Comedy". In Easterling, P.E.; Knox, Bernard M.W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Classical Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 
 Hornblower, Simon (2011). The Greek World: 479–323 BC (4 ed.). Abingdon: Routledge. 
 Kirk, G.S. (1985). "Homer". In Easterling, P.E.; Knox, Bernard M.W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Classical Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 
 König, Jason (2016). "Literature in the Roman World". In Hose, Martin; Schenker, David (eds.). A Companion to Greek Literature. John Wiley &amp; Sons. 
 Marincola, John (2001). Greek Historians. Oxford University Press. ISBN  978-0-19-922501-9 . 
 Martin, Thomas R. (2013). Ancient Greece: From Prehistoric to Hellenistic Times (2 ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press. 
 McGlew, James (2016). "Literature in the Classical Age of Greece". In Hose, Martin; Schenker, David (eds.). A Companion to Greek Literature. John Wiley &amp; Sons. 
 Mori, Anatole (2016). "Literature in the Hellenistic World". In Hose, Martin; Schenker, David (eds.). A Companion to Greek Literature. John Wiley &amp; Sons. 
 Noegel, Scott B. (2007). "Greek Religion and the Ancient Near East". In Ogden, Daniel (ed.). A Companion to Greek Religion. Blackwell. 
 Ogden, Daniel (2007). "Introduction". In Ogden, Daniel (ed.). A Companion to Greek Religion. Blackwell. 
 Power, Timothy (2016). "Literature in the Archaic Age". In Hose, Martin; Schenker, David (eds.). A Companion to Greek Literature. John Wiley &amp; Sons. 
 Roberts, Jennifer T. (2011). Herodotus: a Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN  978-0-19-957599-2 . 
 Shapiro, H.A. (2007). "Introduction". In Shapiro, H.A. (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Archaic Greece. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 
 Sparks, Kenton L. (1998). Ethnicity and Identity in Ancient Israel: Prolegomena to the Study of Ethnic Sentiments and their Expression in the Hebrew Bible. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns. ISBN  978-1-57506-033-0 .  
Further reading
  Shanks, Michael (1996).  Classical Archaeology of Greece . London: Routledge. ISBN  0-203-17197-7 . 
Brock, Roger, and Stephen Hodkinson, eds. 2000. Alternatives to Athens: Varieties of political organization and community in ancient Greece. Oxford and New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
Cartledge, Paul, Edward E. Cohen, and Lin Foxhall. 2002. Money, labour and land: Approaches to the economies of ancient Greece. London and New York: Routledge.
Cohen, Edward. 1992. Athenian economy and society: A banking perspective. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
Hurwit, Jeffrey. 1987. The art and culture of early Greece, 1100–480 B.C. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
Kinzl, Konrad, ed. 2006. A companion to the Classical Greek world. Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Morris, Ian, ed. 1994. Classical Greece: Ancient histories and modern archaeologies. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
Pomeroy, Sarah, Stanley M. Burstein, Walter Donlan, and Jennifer Tolbert Roberts. 2008. Ancient Greece: A political, social, and cultural history. 2d ed. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
Rhodes, Peter J. 2006. A history of the Classical Greek world: 478–323 BC. Blackwell History of the Ancient World. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Whitley, James. 2001. The archaeology of ancient Greece. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge Univ. Press. 
External links
  The Canadian Museum of Civilization—Greece Secrets of the Past 
 Ancient Greece website from the British Museum 
 Economic history of ancient Greece 
 The Greek currency history 
 Limenoscope, an ancient Greek ports database
 The Ancient Theatre Archive, Greek and Roman theatre architecture
 Illustrated Greek History, Dr. Janice Siegel, Department of Classics, Hampden–Sydney College, Virginia
Ancient Greece - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)
Macedonia (ancient kingdom) - Wikipedia
2002-02-26
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<div><div>
<table><tbody><tr><th><p>Macedonia</p><p>Μακεδονία</p></th></tr><tr><td><div>
<ul><li>808–168 BC</li>
<li>150–148 BC</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td><div>
 <p><a href="/wiki/File:Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg"></a></p>
 <div><p><a href="/wiki/Vergina_Sun"> Vergina Sun</a></p></div>
 </div></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Macedonia_336_BC-en.svg"></a><p>The Kingdom of Macedonia in 336 BC (orange)</p></td></tr><tr><th>Capital</th><td><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aegae_(Macedonia)">Aigai</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup><br />(808–399 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pella">Pella</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup><br />(399–168 BC)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th>Common languages</th><td><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_language">Ancient Macedonian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Attic_Greek">Attic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek">Koine Greek</a></td></tr><tr><th>Religion </th><td><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion">Greek polytheism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion">Hellenistic religion</a></td></tr><tr><th>Government</th><td><a href="/wiki/Monarchy">Monarchy</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Macedon">King</a></th><td> </td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><th><p>• 808–778 BC </p></th><td><a href="/wiki/Caranus_of_Macedon">Caranus</a> (first)</td></tr><tr><th><p>• 179–168 BC </p></th><td><a href="/wiki/Perseus_of_Macedon">Perseus</a> (last)</td></tr><tr><th>Legislature</th><td><a href="/wiki/Synedrion">Synedrion</a></td></tr><tr><th>Historical era</th><td><a href="/wiki/Classical_Antiquity">Classical Antiquity</a></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><th><div><p>• <a href="/wiki/Founding_myth">Founded</a> by <a href="/wiki/Caranus_(king)">Caranus</a> </p></div></th><td>808 BC</td></tr><tr><th><div><p>• <a href="/wiki/Vassal">Vassal</a> of <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Persia">Persia</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-sprawski_135–138_olbrycht_342–345-3">[3]</a></sup> </p></div></th><td>512/511–493 BC</td></tr><tr><th><div><p>• <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Macedonia">Incorporated into the Persian Empire</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-sprawski_135–138_olbrycht_342–345-3">[3]</a></sup> </p></div></th><td>492–479 BC</td></tr><tr><th><div><p>• <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_Macedon">Rise of Macedon</a> </p></div></th><td>359–336 BC</td></tr><tr><th><div><p>• <a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth">Founding of the Hellenic League</a> </p></div></th><td>338–337 BC</td></tr><tr><th><div><p>• <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great">Conquest of Persia</a> </p></div></th><td>335–323 BC</td></tr><tr><th><div><p>• <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Babylon">Partition of Babylon</a> </p></div></th><td>323 BC</td></tr><tr><th><div><p>• <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Diadochi">Wars of the Diadochi</a> </p></div></th><td>322–275 BC</td></tr><tr><th><div><p>• <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pydna">Battle of Pydna</a> </p></div></th><td>168 BC</td></tr><tr><th>Area</th></tr><tr><th>323 BC<sup><a href="#cite_note-Turchin-4">[4]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Taagepera-5">[5]</a></sup></th><td>5,200,000 km<sup>2</sup> (2,000,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr><th>Currency</th><td><a href="/wiki/Tetradrachm">Tetradrachm</a></td></tr><tr><td>
<table>
<tbody><tr>
<td> <b>Preceded by</b></td>
<td><b>Succeeded by</b>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>
<table>
<tbody><tr>
<td>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Greek_Dark_Ages">Greek Dark Ages</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Macedonia">Achaemenid Macedonia</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth">League of Corinth</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Pauravas">Pauravas</a>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</td>
<td>
<table>
<tbody><tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Lysimachian_Empire">Lysimachian Empire</a>
</td>
<td>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire">Seleucid Empire</a>
</td>
<td>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a>
</td>
<td>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pergamon">Kingdom of Pergamon</a>
</td>
<td>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(Roman_province)">Macedonia province</a>
</td>
<td>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Macedonia</b> (; <a href="/wiki/Greek_language">Greek</a>: Μακεδονία), also called <b>Macedon</b> (), was an <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity">ancient</a> <a href="/wiki/Monarchy">kingdom</a> on the periphery of <a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece">Archaic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece">Classical Greece</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup> and later the dominant state of <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Greece">Hellenistic Greece</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/History_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)">kingdom was founded</a> and initially ruled by the royal <a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty">Argead dynasty</a>, which was followed by the <a href="/wiki/Antipatrid_dynasty">Antipatrid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antigonid_dynasty">Antigonid</a> dynasties. Home to the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians">ancient Macedonians</a>, the earliest kingdom was centered on the northeastern part of the <a href="/wiki/Greek_peninsula">Greek peninsula</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-britannica-8">[8]</a></sup> and bordered by <a href="/wiki/Epirus_(ancient_state)">Epirus</a> to the west, <a href="/wiki/Paeonia_(kingdom)">Paeonia</a> to the north, <a href="/wiki/Thrace">Thrace</a> to the east and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Thessaly">Thessaly</a> to the south.
</p><p>Before the 4th century BC, Macedonia was a small kingdom outside of the area dominated by the great <a href="/wiki/City-states">city-states</a> of <a href="/wiki/Athens">Athens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sparta">Sparta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Greece">Thebes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Macedonia">briefly subordinate</a> to <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Persia">Achaemenid Persia</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-sprawski_135–138_olbrycht_342–345-3">[3]</a></sup> During the reign of the Argead king <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon">Philip II</a> (359–336 BC), Macedonia <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_Macedon">subdued</a> <a href="/wiki/Mainland_Greece">mainland Greece</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Thracians">Thracian</a> <a href="/wiki/Odrysian_kingdom">Odrysian kingdom</a> through conquest and diplomacy. With a reformed <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army">army</a> containing <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_phalanx">phalanxes</a> wielding the <i><a href="/wiki/Sarissa">sarissa</a></i> pike, Philip II defeated the old powers of <a href="/wiki/Second_Athenian_League">Athens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theban_hegemony">Thebes</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chaeronea_(338_BC)">Battle of Chaeronea</a> in 338 BC. Philip II's son <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great">Alexander the Great</a>, leading a <a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth">federation of Greek states</a>, accomplished his father's objective of commanding the whole of Greece when he <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thebes">destroyed Thebes</a> after the city revolted. During Alexander's subsequent <a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_expedition_of_Alexander_the_Great_into_Asia">campaign of conquest</a>, he <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great">overthrew</a> the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> and conquered territory that stretched as far as the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River">Indus River</a>. For a brief period, his <b>Macedonian Empire</b> was the most powerful in the world – the definitive <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period">Hellenistic</a> state, inaugurating the transition to a new period of <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Greece">Ancient Greek civilization</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_art">Greek arts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_literature">literature</a> flourished in the new conquered lands and advances in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_engineering">engineering</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_science">science</a> spread throughout much of the ancient world. Of particular importance were the contributions of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, tutor to Alexander, <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism">whose writings</a> became a keystone of <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy">Western philosophy</a>.
</p><p>After <a href="/wiki/Death_of_Alexander_the_Great">Alexander's death</a> in 323 BC, the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Diadochi">wars of the Diadochi</a>, and the partitioning of Alexander's short-lived empire, Macedonia remained a Greek cultural and political center in the Mediterranean region along with <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt">Ptolemaic Egypt</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire">Seleucid Empire</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pergamon">Kingdom of Pergamon</a>. Important cities such as <a href="/wiki/Pella">Pella</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pydna">Pydna</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Amphipolis">Amphipolis</a> were involved in power struggles for control of the territory. New cities were founded, such as <a href="/wiki/Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a> by the usurper <a href="/wiki/Cassander">Cassander</a> (named after his wife <a href="/wiki/Thessalonike_of_Macedon">Thessalonike of Macedon</a>).<sup><a href="#cite_note-Adams_2010_215-9">[9]</a></sup> Macedonia's decline began with the <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Wars">Macedonian Wars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_Rome">the rise</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome">Rome</a> as the leading <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_region">Mediterranean</a> power. At the end of the <a href="/wiki/Third_Macedonian_War">Third Macedonian War</a> in 168 BC, <a href="/wiki/Greece_in_the_Roman_era">the Macedonian monarchy was abolished</a> and replaced by Roman <a href="/wiki/Client_state">client states</a>. A short-lived revival of the monarchy during the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Macedonian_War">Fourth Macedonian War</a> in 150–148 BC ended with the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_province">Roman province</a> of <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(Roman_province)">Macedonia</a>.
</p><p>The Macedonian kings, who wielded <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy">absolute power</a> and commanded <a href="/wiki/State_ownership">state resources</a> such as gold and silver, facilitated mining operations to <a href="/wiki/Mint_(facility)">mint</a> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_coinage">currency</a>, finance <a href="/wiki/Antigonid_Macedonian_army">their armies</a> and, by the reign of Philip II, a Macedonian navy. Unlike the other <i><a href="/wiki/Diadochi">diadochi</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Successor_state">successor states</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_cult">imperial cult</a> fostered by Alexander was never adopted in Macedonia, yet Macedonian rulers nevertheless assumed roles as <a href="/wiki/High_priest">high priests</a> of the kingdom and leading patrons of domestic and international <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion">cults</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion">Hellenistic religion</a>. The authority of Macedonian kings was theoretically limited by the institution of the army, while <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)">a few municipalities</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Koinon_of_Macedonians">Macedonian commonwealth</a> enjoyed a high degree of autonomy and even had <a href="/wiki/History_of_democracy">democratic governments</a> with <a href="/wiki/Popular_assemblies">popular assemblies</a>.
</p>
<h2>Etymology</h2>
<p>The name Macedonia (<a href="/wiki/Greek_language">Greek</a>: Μακεδονία, <i><i>Makedonía</i></i>) comes from the <a href="/wiki/Ethnonym">ethnonym</a> Μακεδόνες (<i>Makedónes</i>), which itself is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek">ancient Greek</a> adjective <a href="/wiki/Makednos">μακεδνός</a> (<i>makednós</i>), meaning "tall, slim", also the name of a people related to the <a href="/wiki/Dorians">Dorians</a> (<a href="/wiki/Herodotus">Herodotus</a>), and possibly descriptive of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians">Ancient Macedonians</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeekes2009894-10">[10]</a></sup> It is most likely <a href="/wiki/Cognate">cognate</a> with the adjective μακρός (<i>makros</i>), meaning "long" or "tall" in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek">Ancient Greek</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeekes2009894-10">[10]</a></sup> The name is believed to have originally meant either "highlanders", "the tall ones", or "high grown men".<sup><a href="#cite_note-11">[note 1]</a></sup> Linguist <a href="/wiki/Robert_S._P._Beekes">Robert S. P. Beekes</a> claims that both terms are of <a href="/wiki/Pre-Greek_substrate">Pre-Greek substrate</a> origin and cannot be explained in terms of <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages">Indo-European</a> morphology,<sup><a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a></sup> however Filip De Decker rejects Beekesʼ arguments as insufficient.<sup><a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>History</h2>
<h3>Early history and legend</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Vergina2.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece">Classical</a> <a href="/wiki/Greek_historiography">Greek historians</a> <a href="/wiki/Herodotus">Herodotus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thucydides">Thucydides</a> reported the <a href="/wiki/Origin_myth">legend</a> that the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Macedonian_kings">Macedonian kings</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty">Argead dynasty</a> were descendants of <a href="/wiki/Temenus">Temenus</a>, king of <a href="/wiki/Argos,_Peloponnese">Argos</a>, and could therefore claim the mythical <a href="/wiki/Heracles">Heracles</a> as one of their <a href="/wiki/Ancestor">ancestors</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_the_Greek_gods">a direct lineage</a> from <a href="/wiki/Zeus">Zeus</a>, chief god of the <a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology">Greek pantheon</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-king_376_sprawski_127_errington_2_3-14">[13]</a></sup> Contradictory legends state that either <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas_I_of_Macedon">Perdiccas I of Macedon</a> or <a href="/wiki/Caranus_of_Macedon">Caranus of Macedon</a> were the founders of the Argead dynasty, with either five or eight kings before Amyntas I.<sup><a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a></sup> The assertion that the Argeads descended from Temenus was accepted by the <i><a href="/wiki/Hellanodikai">Hellanodikai</a></i> authorities of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Olympic_Games">Ancient Olympic Games</a>, permitting <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Macedon">Alexander I of Macedon</a> (<abbr>r.</abbr> 498–454 BC) to enter the competitions owing to his perceived Greek heritage.<sup><a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a></sup> Little is known about the kingdom before the reign of Alexander I's father <a href="/wiki/Amyntas_I_of_Macedon">Amyntas I of Macedon</a> (<abbr>r.</abbr> 547–498 BC) during the <a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece">Archaic period</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-king_2010_376-17">[16]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/History_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)">kingdom of Macedonia</a> was situated along the <a href="/wiki/Haliacmon">Haliacmon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vardar">Axius</a> rivers in <a href="/wiki/Lower_Macedonia">Lower Macedonia</a>, north of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Olympus">Mount Olympus</a>. Historian <a href="/wiki/Robert_Malcolm_Errington">Robert Malcolm Errington</a> suggests that one of the earliest Argead kings established <a href="/wiki/Aegae_(Macedonia)">Aigai</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Vergina">Vergina</a>) as their capital in the mid-7th century BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a></sup> Before the 4th century BC, the kingdom covered a region corresponding roughly to the <a href="/wiki/Western_Macedonia">western</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Macedonia">central</a> parts of the <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(Greece)">region of Macedonia</a> in modern <a href="/wiki/Greece">Greece</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a></sup> It gradually expanded into the region of <a href="/wiki/Upper_Macedonia">Upper Macedonia</a>, inhabited by the Greek <a href="/wiki/Lynkestis">Lyncestae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elimiotis">Elimiotae</a> tribes, and into regions of <a href="/wiki/Emathia">Emathia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eordaia">Eordaia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bottiaea">Bottiaea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mygdonia">Mygdonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crestonia">Crestonia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Almopia">Almopia</a>, which were inhabited by various peoples such as <a href="/wiki/Thracians">Thracians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phrygians">Phrygians</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-20">[note 2]</a></sup> Macedonia's non-Greek neighbors included Thracians, inhabiting territories to the northeast, <a href="/wiki/Illyrians">Illyrians</a> to the northwest, and <a href="/wiki/Paeonians">Paeonians</a> to the north, while the lands of <a href="/wiki/Thessaly">Thessaly</a> to the south and <a href="/wiki/Epirus">Epirus</a> to the west were inhabited by Greeks with similar cultures to that of the Macedonians.<sup><a href="#cite_note-21">[19]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Oktadrachm_of_Alexander_I_498_%E2%80%93_454_BCE.jpg"></a></p></div>
<div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Xerxes_I_tomb_Ionian_with_petasos_or_kausia_soldier_circa_480_BCE_cleaned_up.jpg"></a></p></div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Xerxes_I_tomb_Ionian_with_petasos_or_kausia.jpg"></a></p></div></div>
<p>A year after <a href="/wiki/Darius_I_of_Persia">Darius I of Persia</a> (<abbr>r.</abbr> 522–486 BC) launched <a href="/wiki/European_Scythian_campaign_of_Darius_I">an invasion</a> into Europe against the <a href="/wiki/Scythians">Scythians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paeonians">Paeonians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thrace">Thracians</a>, and several Greek city-states of the <a href="/wiki/Balkans">Balkans</a>, the Persian general <a href="/wiki/Megabazus">Megabazus</a> used diplomacy to convince Amyntas I to submit as a <a href="/wiki/Vassal_state">vassal</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>, ushering in the period of <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Macedonia">Achaemenid Macedonia</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-24">[note 3]</a></sup> Achaemenid Persian <a href="/wiki/Hegemony">hegemony</a> over Macedonia was briefly interrupted by the <a href="/wiki/Ionian_Revolt">Ionian Revolt</a> (499–493 BC), yet the Persian general <a href="/wiki/Mardonius_(general)">Mardonius</a> brought it back under Achaemenid <a href="/wiki/Suzerainty">suzerainty</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-25">[22]</a></sup>
</p><p>Although Macedonia enjoyed a large degree of <a href="/wiki/Autonomy">autonomy</a> and was never made a <a href="/wiki/Satrap">satrapy</a> (i.e. province) of the Achaemenid Empire, it was expected to provide troops for the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_army">Achaemenid army</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-26">[23]</a></sup> Alexander I provided Macedonian military support to <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I">Xerxes I</a> (<abbr>r.</abbr> 486–465 BC) during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece">Second Persian invasion of Greece</a> in 480–479 BC, and Macedonian soldiers fought on the side of the Persians at the 479 BC <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Platea">Battle of Platea</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-27">[24]</a></sup> Following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis">Greek victory at Salamis</a> in 480 BC, Alexander I was employed as an Achaemenid diplomat to propose a peace treaty and alliance with <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens">Athens</a>, an offer that was rejected.<sup><a href="#cite_note-28">[25]</a></sup> Soon afterwards, the Achaemenid forces were <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Delian_League">forced to withdraw from mainland Europe</a>, marking the end of Persian control over Macedonia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-29">[26]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Involvement in the Classical Greek world</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Peloponnesian_War_431_BC-en.svg"></a></p></div>
<p>Although initially a Persian vassal, Alexander I of Macedon fostered friendly diplomatic relations with his former Greek enemies, the Athenian and <a href="/wiki/Sparta">Spartan</a>-led coalition of Greek city-states.<sup><a href="#cite_note-30">[27]</a></sup> His successor <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas_II_of_Macedon">Perdiccas II</a> (<abbr>r.</abbr> 454–413 BC) led the Macedonians to war in four separate conflicts against Athens, leader of the <a href="/wiki/Delian_League">Delian League</a>, while incursions by the Thracian ruler <a href="/wiki/Sitalces">Sitalces</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Odrysian_kingdom">Odrysian kingdom</a> threatened Macedonia's <a href="/wiki/Territorial_integrity">territorial integrity</a> in the northeast.<sup><a href="#cite_note-31">[28]</a></sup> The Athenian statesman <a href="/wiki/Pericles">Pericles</a> promoted colonization of the <a href="/wiki/Strymon_River">Strymon River</a> near the Kingdom of Macedonia, where the colonial city of <a href="/wiki/Amphipolis">Amphipolis</a> was founded in 437/436 BC so that it could provide Athens with a steady supply of silver and gold as well as <a href="/wiki/Timber">timber</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pitch_(resin)">pitch</a> to support the <a href="/wiki/Athenian_navy">Athenian navy</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-32">[29]</a></sup> Initially Perdiccas II did not take any action and might have even welcomed the Athenians, as the Thracians were foes to both of them.<sup><a href="#cite_note-roisman_2010_146_147-33">[30]</a></sup> This changed due to an Athenian alliance with a brother and cousin of Perdiccas II who had rebelled against him.<sup><a href="#cite_note-roisman_2010_146_147-33">[30]</a></sup> Thus, two separate wars were fought against Athens between 433 and 431 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-roisman_2010_146_147-33">[30]</a></sup> The Macedonian king retaliated by promoting the rebellion of Athens' allies in <a href="/wiki/Chalcidice">Chalcidice</a> and subsequently won over the strategic city of <a href="/wiki/Potidaea">Potidaea</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-34">[31]</a></sup> After capturing the Macedonian cities <a href="/wiki/Therma">Therma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Veria">Beroea</a>, Athens besieged Potidaea but failed to overcome it; Therma was returned to Macedonia and much of Chalcidice to Athens in a <a href="/wiki/Peace_treaty">peace treaty</a> brokered by Sitalces, who provided Athens with military aid in exchange for acquiring new Thracian allies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-35">[32]</a></sup>
</p><p>Perdiccas II sided <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_League">with Sparta</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War">Peloponnesian War</a> (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta, and in 429 BC Athens retaliated by persuading Sitalces to invade Macedonia, but he was forced to retreat owing to a shortage of provisions in winter.<sup><a href="#cite_note-36">[33]</a></sup> In 424 BC, <a href="/wiki/Arrhabaeus">Arrhabaeus</a>, a local ruler of <a href="/wiki/Lynkestis">Lynkestis</a> in Upper Macedonia, rebelled against his <a href="/wiki/Suzerain">overlord</a> Perdiccas, and the Spartans agreed to help in putting down the revolt.<sup><a href="#cite_note-37">[34]</a></sup> At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lyncestis">Battle of Lyncestis</a> the Macedonians panicked and fled before the fighting began, enraging the Spartan general <a href="/wiki/Brasidas">Brasidas</a>, whose soldiers looted the unattended Macedonian <a href="/wiki/Baggage_train">baggage train</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-38">[35]</a></sup> Perdiccas then changed sides and supported Athens, and he was able to put down Arrhabaeus's revolt.<sup><a href="#cite_note-39">[36]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Didrachm_of_Archelaos_I_King_of_Macedonia.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Brasidas died in 422 BC, the year Athens and Sparta struck an accord, the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Nicias">Peace of Nicias</a>, that freed Macedonia from its obligations as an Athenian ally.<sup><a href="#cite_note-40">[37]</a></sup> Following the 418 BC <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mantinea_(418_BC)">Battle of Mantinea</a>, the victorious Spartans formed an alliance with <a href="/wiki/History_of_Argos">Argos</a>, a military pact Perdiccas II was keen to join given the threat of Spartan allies remaining in Chalcidice.<sup><a href="#cite_note-41">[38]</a></sup> When Argos suddenly switched sides as a pro-Athenian <a href="/wiki/Democracy">democracy</a>, the Athenian navy was able to form a <a href="/wiki/Blockade">blockade</a> against Macedonian <a href="/wiki/Seaport">seaports</a> and invade Chalcidice in 417 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-42">[39]</a></sup> Perdiccas II sued for peace in 414 BC, forming an alliance with Athens that was continued by his son and successor <a href="/wiki/Archelaus_I_of_Macedon">Archelaus I</a> (<abbr>r.</abbr> 413–399 BC).<sup><a href="#cite_note-43">[40]</a></sup> Athens then provided naval support to Archelaus I in the 410 BC Macedonian siege of <a href="/wiki/Pydna">Pydna</a>, in exchange for timber and naval equipment.<sup><a href="#cite_note-44">[41]</a></sup>
</p><p>Although Archelaus I was faced with some internal revolts and had to fend off an invasion of Illyrians led by <a href="/wiki/Sirras">Sirras</a> of Lynkestis, he was able to project Macedonian power into Thessaly where he sent military aid to his allies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-45">[42]</a></sup> Although he retained Aigai as a ceremonial and religious center, Archelaus I moved the <a href="/wiki/Capital_city">capital</a> of the kingdom north to <a href="/wiki/Pella">Pella</a>, which was then positioned by a lake with a river connecting it to the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea">Aegean Sea</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-46">[43]</a></sup> He improved Macedonia's <a href="/wiki/Currency">currency</a> by minting <a href="/wiki/Coin">coins</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Silver_coin">higher silver content</a> as well as issuing separate <a href="/wiki/Coinage_metals">copper coinage</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_156_157-47">[44]</a></sup> His royal court attracted the presence of well-known intellectuals such as the Athenian <a href="/wiki/Playwright">playwright</a> <a href="/wiki/Euripides">Euripides</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-48">[45]</a></sup> When Archelaus I was assassinated (perhaps following a <a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_in_ancient_Greece">homosexual</a> love affair with <a href="/wiki/Royal_page">royal pages</a> at his court), the kingdom was plunged into chaos, in an era lasting from 399 to 393 BC that included the reign of four different monarchs: <a href="/wiki/Orestes_of_Macedon">Orestes</a>, son of Archelaus I; <a href="/wiki/Aeropus_II_of_Macedon">Aeropus II</a>, uncle, <a href="/wiki/Regent">regent</a>, and murderer of Orestes; <a href="/wiki/Pausanias_of_Macedon">Pausanias</a>, son of Aeropus II; and <a href="/wiki/Amyntas_II_of_Macedon">Amyntas II</a>, who was married to the youngest daughter of Archelaus I.<sup><a href="#cite_note-49">[46]</a></sup> Very little is known about this turbulent period; it came to an end when <a href="/wiki/Amyntas_III_of_Macedon">Amyntas III</a> (<abbr>r.</abbr> 393–370 BC), son of Arrhidaeus and grandson of Amyntas I, killed Pausanias and claimed the Macedonian throne.<sup><a href="#cite_note-50">[47]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Coin_of_Amyntas_III-161113.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Amyntas III was forced to flee his kingdom in either 393 or 383 BC (based on conflicting accounts), owing to a massive invasion by the <a href="/wiki/Illyrians">Illyrians</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Bardylis">Bardylis</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-51">[note 4]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Pretender">pretender</a> to the throne <a href="/wiki/Argaeus_II_of_Macedon">Argaeus</a> ruled in his absence, yet Amyntas III eventually returned to his kingdom with the aid of Thessalian allies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-52">[48]</a></sup> Amyntas III was also nearly overthrown by the forces of the Chalcidian city of <a href="/wiki/Olynthos">Olynthos</a>, but with the aid of <a href="/wiki/Teleutias">Teleutias</a>, brother of the Spartan king <a href="/wiki/Agesilaus_II">Agesilaus II</a>, the Macedonians forced Olynthos to surrender and dissolve their <a href="/wiki/Chalcidian_League">Chalcidian League</a> in 379 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-53">[49]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Macedon">Alexander II</a> (<abbr>r.</abbr> 370–368 BC), son of <a href="/wiki/Eurydice_I_of_Macedon">Eurydice I</a> and Amyntas III, succeeded his father and immediately invaded Thessaly to wage war against the <i><a href="/wiki/Tagus_(title)">tagus</a></i> (supreme Thessalian military leader) <a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Pherae">Alexander of Pherae</a>, capturing the city of <a href="/wiki/Larissa">Larissa</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-54">[50]</a></sup> The Thessalians, desiring to remove both Alexander II and Alexander of Pherae as their <a href="/wiki/Overlord">overlords</a>, appealed to <a href="/wiki/Pelopidas">Pelopidas</a> of <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Greece">Thebes</a> for aid; he succeeded in recapturing Larissa and, in the peace agreement arranged with Macedonia, received aristocratic <a href="/wiki/Hostage">hostages</a> including Alexander II's brother and future king <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon">Philip II</a> (<abbr>r.</abbr> 359–336 BC).<sup><a href="#cite_note-55">[51]</a></sup> When Alexander was assassinated by his brother-in-law <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_of_Aloros">Ptolemy of Aloros</a>, the latter acted as an overbearing regent for <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas_III_of_Macedon">Perdiccas III</a> (<abbr>r.</abbr> 368–359 BC), younger brother of Alexander II, who eventually had Ptolemy executed when reaching the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_majority">age of majority</a> in 365 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-56">[52]</a></sup> The remainder of Perdiccas III's reign was marked by political stability and financial recovery.<sup><a href="#cite_note-57">[53]</a></sup> However, an Athenian invasion led by <a href="/wiki/Timotheus_(general)">Timotheus</a>, son of <a href="/wiki/Conon">Conon</a>, managed to capture <a href="/wiki/Methoni,_Pieria">Methone</a> and Pydna, and an Illyrian invasion led by Bardylis succeeded in killing Perdiccas III and 4,000 Macedonian troops in battle.<sup><a href="#cite_note-58">[54]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Rise of Macedon</h3>
<div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Filip_II_Macedonia.jpg"></a></p></div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Philip-ii-of-macedon.jpg"></a></p></div></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Expansion_of_Macedon_(English).svg"></a></p><div><p>Map of the Kingdom of Macedon at the death of <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon">Philip II</a> in 336 BC (light blue), with the original territory that existed in 431 BC (red outline), and <a href="/wiki/Dependent_state">dependent states</a> (yellow)</p></div></div>
<p>Philip II was twenty-four years old when he acceded to the throne in 359 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-59">[55]</a></sup> Through the use of deft diplomacy, he was able to convince the Thracians under <a href="/wiki/Berisades">Berisades</a> to cease their support of <a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(pretender)">Pausanias</a>, a pretender to the throne, and the Athenians to halt their support of <a href="/wiki/Argaeus_II_of_Macedon">another pretender</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-60">[56]</a></sup> He achieved these by bribing the Thracians and their <a href="/wiki/Paeonia_(kingdom)">Paeonian</a> allies and establishing a treaty with Athens that relinquished his claims to Amphipolis.<sup><a href="#cite_note-61">[57]</a></sup> He was also able to make peace with the Illyrians who <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Erigon_Valley">had threatened his borders</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-62">[58]</a></sup>
</p><p>Philip II spent his initial years radically transforming the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army">Macedonian army</a>. A reform of its organization, equipment, and training, including the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_phalanx">Macedonian phalanx</a> armed with <a href="/wiki/Pike_(weapon)">long pikes</a> (i.e. the <i><a href="/wiki/Sarissa">sarissa</a></i>), proved immediately successful when tested against his Illyrian and Paeonian enemies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-63">[59]</a></sup> Confusing accounts in ancient sources have led modern scholars to debate how much Philip II's royal predecessors may have contributed to these reforms and the extent to which his ideas were influenced by his <a href="/wiki/Adolescence">adolescent</a> years of captivity in Thebes as a political hostage during the <a href="/wiki/Theban_hegemony">Theban hegemony</a>, especially after meeting with the general <a href="/wiki/Epaminondas">Epaminondas</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-64">[60]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Macedonians, like the other Greeks, traditionally practiced <a href="/wiki/Monogamy">monogamy</a>, but Philip II practiced <a href="/wiki/Polygamy">polygamy</a> and married seven wives with <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_Eurydice">perhaps only one</a> that did not involve the loyalty of his aristocratic subjects or new allies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-65">[note 5]</a></sup> His first marriages were to <a href="/wiki/Phila_of_Elimeia">Phila of Elimeia</a> of the Upper Macedonian aristocracy as well as the Illyrian princess <a href="/wiki/Audata">Audata</a> to ensure a marriage alliance.<sup><a href="#cite_note-66">[61]</a></sup> To establish an alliance with Larissa in Thessaly, he married the Thessalian noblewoman <a href="/wiki/Philinna">Philinna</a> in 358 BC, who bore him a son who would later rule as <a href="/wiki/Philip_III_Arrhidaeus">Philip III Arrhidaeus</a> (<abbr>r.</abbr> 323–317 BC).<sup><a href="#cite_note-67">[62]</a></sup> In 357 BC, he married <a href="/wiki/Olympias">Olympias</a> to secure an alliance with <a href="/wiki/Arybbas_of_Epirus">Arybbas</a>, the <a href="/wiki/King_of_Epirus">King of Epirus</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Molossians">Molossians</a>. This marriage would bear a son who would later rule as Alexander III (better known as <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great">Alexander the Great</a>) and claim descent from the legendary <a href="/wiki/Achilles">Achilles</a> by way of his <a href="/wiki/Aeacidae">dynastic heritage from Epirus</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-68">[63]</a></sup> It is unclear whether or not the Achaemenid Persian kings influenced Philip II's practice of polygamy, although his predecessor Amyntas III had three sons with a possible second wife Gygaea: Archelaus, Arrhidaeus, and <a href="/wiki/Menelaus_(son_of_Amyntas_III)">Menelaus</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-69">[64]</a></sup> Philip II had Archelaus put to death in 359 BC, while Philip II's other two half brothers fled to Olynthos, serving as a <i><a href="/wiki/Casus_belli">casus belli</a></i> for the <a href="/wiki/Olynthian_War">Olynthian War</a> (349–348 BC) against the Chalcidian League.<sup><a href="#cite_note-70">[65]</a></sup>
</p><p>While Athens was preoccupied with the <a href="/wiki/Social_War_(357%E2%80%93355_BC)">Social War (357–355 BC)</a>, Philip II retook Amphipolis from them in 357 BC and the following year recaptured Pydna and Potidaea, the latter of which he handed over to the Chalcidian League as promised in a treaty.<sup><a href="#cite_note-71">[66]</a></sup> In 356 BC, he took <a href="/wiki/Crenides_(Macedonia)">Crenides</a>, refounding it as <a href="/wiki/Philippi">Philippi</a>, while his general <a href="/wiki/Parmenion">Parmenion</a> defeated the Illyrian king <a href="/wiki/Grabos_II">Grabos II</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Grabaei">Grabaei</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-72">[67]</a></sup> During the 355–354 BC siege of Methone, Philip II lost his right eye to an arrow wound, but managed to capture the city and treated the inhabitants cordially, unlike the Potidaeans, who had been enslaved.<sup><a href="#cite_note-73">[note 6]</a></sup>
</p><p>Philip II then involved Macedonia in the <a href="/wiki/Third_Sacred_War">Third Sacred War</a> (356–346 BC). It began when <a href="/wiki/Phocis_(ancient_region)">Phocis</a> captured and plundered the temple of <a href="/wiki/Apollo">Apollo</a> at <a href="/wiki/Delphi">Delphi</a> instead of submitting unpaid fines, causing the <a href="/wiki/Amphictyonic_League">Amphictyonic League</a> to declare war on Phocis and a <a href="/wiki/Civil_war">civil war</a> among the members of the <a href="/wiki/Thessalian_League">Thessalian League</a> aligned with either Phocis or Thebes.<sup><a href="#cite_note-74">[68]</a></sup> Philip II's initial campaign against <a href="/wiki/Pherae">Pherae</a> in Thessaly in 353 BC at the behest of Larissa ended in two disastrous defeats by the Phocian general <a href="/wiki/Onomarchus">Onomarchus</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-75">[note 7]</a></sup> Philip II in turn defeated Onomarchus in 352 BC at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Crocus_Field">Battle of Crocus Field</a>, which led to Philip II's election as leader (<i><a href="/wiki/Archon">archon</a></i>) of the Thessalian League, provided him a seat on the Amphictyonic Council, and allowed for a marriage alliance with Pherae by wedding <a href="/wiki/Nicesipolis">Nicesipolis</a>, niece of the tyrant <a href="/wiki/Jason_of_Pherae">Jason of Pherae</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-76">[69]</a></sup>
</p><p>Philip II had some early involvement with the Achaemenid Empire, especially by supporting <a href="/wiki/Satraps">satraps</a> and mercenaries who rebelled against the central authority of the Achaemenid king. The satrap of <a href="/wiki/Hellespontine_Phrygia">Hellespontine Phrygia</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabazos_II">Artabazos II</a>, who was in rebellion against <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III">Artaxerxes III</a>, was able to take refuge as an exile at the Macedonian court from 352 to 342 BC. He was accompanied in exile by his family and by his mercenary general <a href="/wiki/Memnon_of_Rhodes">Memnon of Rhodes</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-77">[70]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-EDC-78">[71]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Barsine">Barsine</a>, daughter of Artabazos, and future wife of Alexander the Great, grew up at the Macedonian court.<sup><a href="#cite_note-EDC-78">[71]</a></sup>
</p><p>After campaigning against the Thracian ruler <a href="/wiki/Cersobleptes">Cersobleptes</a>, in 349 BC, Philip II began his war against the Chalcidian League, which had been reestablished in 375 BC following a temporary disbandment.<sup><a href="#cite_note-79">[72]</a></sup> Despite an Athenian intervention by <a href="/wiki/Charidemus">Charidemus</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-80">[73]</a></sup> Olynthos was captured by Philip II in 348 BC, and its inhabitants were <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece">sold into slavery</a>, including some <a href="/wiki/Athenian_citizenship">Athenian citizens</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-81">[74]</a></sup> The Athenians, especially in a series of speeches by <a href="/wiki/Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a> known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Olynthiacs">Olynthiacs</a></i>, were unsuccessful in persuading their allies to counterattack and in 346 BC concluded a treaty with Macedonia <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Philocrates">known as the Peace</a> of <a href="/wiki/Philocrates">Philocrates</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-82">[75]</a></sup> The treaty stipulated that Athens would relinquish claims to Macedonian coastal territories, the Chalcidice, and Amphipolis in return for the release of the enslaved Athenians as well as guarantees that Philip II would not attack Athenian settlements in the <a href="/wiki/Thracian_Chersonese">Thracian Chersonese</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-83">[76]</a></sup> Meanwhile, Phocis and <a href="/wiki/Thermopylae">Thermopylae</a> were captured by Macedonian forces, the <a href="/wiki/Pythia">Delphic temple</a> robbers were executed, and Philip II was awarded the two Phocian seats on the Amphictyonic Council and the position of <a href="/wiki/Master_of_ceremonies">master of ceremonies</a> over the <a href="/wiki/Pythian_Games">Pythian Games</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-84">[77]</a></sup> Athens initially opposed his membership on the council and refused to attend the games in protest, but they eventually accepted these conditions, perhaps after some persuasion by Demosthenes in his oration <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Peace">On the Peace</a></i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-85">[78]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Philip_II_of_Macedon_CdM.jpg"></a></p></div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Olympia_(12).jpg"></a></p></div></div>
<p>Over the next few years, Philip II reformed local governments in Thessaly, campaigned against the Illyrian ruler <a href="/wiki/Pleuratus_I">Pleuratus I</a>, deposed Arybbas in <a href="/wiki/Epirus_(ancient_state)">Epirus</a> in favor of his brother-in-law <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Epirus">Alexander I</a> (through Philip II's marriage to Olympias), and defeated Cersebleptes in Thrace. This allowed him to extend Macedonian control over the <a href="/wiki/Hellespont">Hellespont</a> in anticipation of an invasion into <a href="/wiki/Classical_Anatolia">Achaemenid Anatolia</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-87">[80]</a></sup> In 342 BC, Philip II conquered <a href="/wiki/History_of_Plovdiv">a Thracian city</a> in what is now <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a> and renamed it <a href="/wiki/Philippopolis_(Thracia)">Philippopolis</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Plovdiv">Plovdiv</a>).<sup><a href="#cite_note-88">[81]</a></sup> War broke out with Athens in 340 BC while Philip II was engaged in two ultimately unsuccessful sieges of <a href="/wiki/Perinthus">Perinthus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantion">Byzantion</a>, followed by a successful campaign against the Scythians along the <a href="/wiki/Danube">Danube</a> and Macedonia's involvement in the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Sacred_War">Fourth Sacred War</a> against <a href="/wiki/Amphissa_(city)">Amphissa</a> in 339 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-89">[82]</a></sup> Thebes ejected a Macedonian garrison from <a href="/wiki/Nicaea,_Locris">Nicaea (near Thermopylae)</a>, leading Thebes to join Athens, <a href="/wiki/Megara">Megara</a>, Corinth, <a href="/wiki/Achaea">Achaea</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Euboea">Euboea</a> in a final confrontation against Macedonia at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chaeronea_(338_BC)">Battle of Chaeronea</a> in 338 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-90">[83]</a></sup> After the Macedonian victory at Chaeronea, Philip II installed an <a href="/wiki/Oligarchy">oligarchy</a> in Thebes, yet was lenient toward Athens, wishing to utilize their navy in a planned invasion of the Achaemenid Empire.<sup><a href="#cite_note-91">[84]</a></sup> He was then chiefly responsible for the formation of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth">League of Corinth</a> that included the major Greek city-states except Sparta. Despite the Kingdom of Macedonia's official exclusion from the league, in 337 BC, Philip II was elected as the leader (<i><a href="/wiki/Hegemon">hegemon</a></i>) of its council (<i><a href="/wiki/Synedrion">synedrion</a></i>) and the <a href="/wiki/Commander-in-chief">commander-in-chief</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Strategos">strategos</a> <a href="/wiki/Autokrator">autokrator</a></i>) of a forthcoming campaign to invade the Achaemenid Empire.<sup><a href="#cite_note-92">[85]</a></sup> Philip's plan to punish the Persians for the suffering of the Greeks and to liberate the Greek cities of Asia Minor<sup><a href="#cite_note-93">[86]</a></sup> as well as perhaps the panhellenic fear of another Persian invasion of Greece, contributed to his decision to invade the Achaemenid Empire.<sup><a href="#cite_note-94">[87]</a></sup> The Persians offered aid to Perinthus and Byzantion in 341–340 BC, highlighting Macedonia's strategic need to secure Thrace and the Aegean Sea against increasing Achaemenid encroachment, as the Persian king <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III">Artaxerxes III</a> further consolidated his control over satrapies in <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Anatolia">western Anatolia</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-95">[88]</a></sup> The latter region, yielding far more wealth and valuable resources than the Balkans, was also coveted by the Macedonian king for its sheer economic potential.<sup><a href="#cite_note-96">[89]</a></sup>
</p><p>When Philip II married <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_Eurydice_of_Macedon">Cleopatra Eurydice</a>, niece of general <a href="/wiki/Attalus_(general)">Attalus</a>, talk of providing new potential heirs at the wedding feast infuriated Philip II's son Alexander, a veteran of the Battle of Chaeronea, and his mother Olympias.<sup><a href="#cite_note-muller_179–180_cawkwell_170-97">[90]</a></sup> They fled together to Epirus before Alexander was recalled to Pella by Philip II.<sup><a href="#cite_note-muller_179–180_cawkwell_170-97">[90]</a></sup> When Philip II arranged a marriage between his son Arrhidaeus and <a href="/wiki/Ada_of_Caria">Ada of Caria</a>, daughter of <a href="/wiki/Pixodarus">Pixodarus</a>, the Persian satrap of <a href="/wiki/Caria">Caria</a>, Alexander intervened and proposed to marry Ada instead. Philip II then cancelled the wedding altogether and exiled Alexander's advisors <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I">Ptolemy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nearchus">Nearchus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Harpalus">Harpalus</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-98">[91]</a></sup> To reconcile with Olympias, Philip II had their daughter <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_of_Macedon">Cleopatra</a> marry Olympias' brother (and Cleopatra's uncle) Alexander I of Epirus, but Philip II was assassinated by his bodyguard, <a href="/wiki/Pausanias_of_Orestis">Pausanias of Orestis</a>, during their wedding feast and succeeded by Alexander in 336 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-99">[92]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Empire</h3>
<div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:ACMA_1331_Alexander_2.JPG"></a></p></div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:AlexandreLouvre.jpg"></a></p></div></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:MacedonEmpire.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Alexander's empire and his route</p></div></div>
<p>Modern scholars have argued over the possible role of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Macedon">Alexander III "the Great"</a> and his mother Olympias in the assassination of Philip II, noting the latter's choice to exclude Alexander from his planned invasion of Asia, choosing instead for him to act as regent of Greece and deputy <i>hegemon</i> of the League of Corinth, and the potential bearing of another male heir between Philip II and his new wife, Cleopatra Eurydice.<sup><a href="#cite_note-100">[note 8]</a></sup> Alexander III (<abbr>r.</abbr> 336–323 BC) was immediately proclaimed king by <a href="/wiki/Popular_assembly">an assembly</a> of the army and leading aristocrats, chief among them being <a href="/wiki/Antipater">Antipater</a> and Parmenion.<sup><a href="#cite_note-101">[93]</a></sup> By the end of his reign and military career in 323 BC, Alexander would rule over an empire consisting of <a href="/wiki/Mainland_Greece">mainland Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor">Asia Minor</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Levant">Levant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persia">Persia</a>, and much of <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia">Central</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Asia">South Asia</a> (i.e. modern <a href="/wiki/Pakistan">Pakistan</a>).<sup><a href="#cite_note-102">[94]</a></sup> Among his first acts was the burial of his father at Aigai.<sup><a href="#cite_note-103">[95]</a></sup> The members of the League of Corinth revolted at the news of Philip II's death, but were soon quelled by military force alongside persuasive diplomacy, electing Alexander as <i>hegemon</i> of the league to carry out the planned invasion of Achaemenid Persia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-104">[96]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 335 BC, Alexander <a href="/wiki/Alexander%27s_Balkan_campaign">fought against the Thracian tribe</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Triballi">Triballi</a> at <a href="/wiki/Haemus_Mons">Haemus Mons</a> and along the <a href="/wiki/Danube">Danube</a>, forcing their surrender on <a href="/wiki/Peuce_Island">Peuce Island</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-105">[97]</a></sup> Shortly thereafter, the Illyrian chieftain <a href="/wiki/Cleitus_(son_of_Bardylis)">Cleitus</a>, son of <a href="/wiki/Bardylis">Bardylis</a>, threatened to attack Macedonia with the aid of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Glaucias_of_the_Taulantii&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1">Glaucias</a>, king of the <a href="/wiki/Taulantii">Taulantii</a>, but Alexander took the initiative and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Pelium">besieged the Illyrians</a> at <a href="/wiki/Pelion_(Illyria)">Pelion</a> (in modern <a href="/wiki/Albania">Albania</a>).<sup><a href="#cite_note-106">[98]</a></sup> When Thebes had once again revolted from the League of Corinth and was besieging the Macedonian garrison in the <a href="/wiki/Cadmea">Cadmea</a>, Alexander left the Illyrian front and marched to Thebes, which he <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thebes">placed under siege</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-107">[99]</a></sup> After breaching the walls, Alexander's forces killed 6,000 Thebans, took 30,000 inhabitants as <a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war">prisoners of war</a>, and burned the city to the ground as a warning that convinced all other Greek states except Sparta not to challenge Alexander again.<sup><a href="#cite_note-108">[100]</a></sup>
</p><p>Throughout his military career, Alexander won every battle that he personally commanded.<sup><a href="#cite_note-109">[101]</a></sup> His first victory against the Persians in Asia Minor at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Granicus">Battle of the Granicus</a> in 334 BC used a small cavalry contingent as a distraction to allow his infantry to cross the river followed by a <a href="/wiki/Cavalry_charge">cavalry charge</a> from his <a href="/wiki/Companion_cavalry">companion cavalry</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-gilley_worthington_2010_193-110">[102]</a></sup> Alexander led the cavalry charge at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Issus">Battle of Issus</a> in 333 BC, forcing the Persian king <a href="/wiki/Darius_III">Darius III</a> and his army to flee.<sup><a href="#cite_note-gilley_worthington_2010_193-110">[102]</a></sup> Darius III, despite having superior numbers, was again forced to flee the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gaugamela">Battle of Gaugamela</a> in 331 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-gilley_worthington_2010_193-110">[102]</a></sup> The Persian king was later captured and executed by his own satrap of <a href="/wiki/Bactria">Bactria</a> and kinsman, <a href="/wiki/Bessus">Bessus</a>, in 330 BC. The Macedonian king subsequently hunted down and executed Bessus in what is now <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, securing the region of <a href="/wiki/Sogdia">Sogdia</a> in the process.<sup><a href="#cite_note-111">[103]</a></sup> At the 326 BC <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Hydaspes">Battle of the Hydaspes</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Punjab">Punjab</a>), when the <a href="/wiki/War_elephant">war elephants</a> of <a href="/wiki/King_Porus">King Porus</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Pauravas">Pauravas</a> threatened Alexander's troops, he had them form open ranks to surround the elephants and dislodge their handlers by using their <i>sarissa</i> pikes.<sup><a href="#cite_note-112">[104]</a></sup> When his Macedonian troops threatened <a href="/wiki/Mutiny">mutiny</a> in 324 BC at <a href="/wiki/Opis">Opis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Babylonia">Babylonia</a> (near modern <a href="/wiki/Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq">Iraq</a>), Alexander offered Macedonian military titles and greater responsibilities to Persian officers and units instead, forcing his troops to seek forgiveness at a staged banquet of reconciliation between Persians and Macedonians.<sup><a href="#cite_note-113">[105]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Stag_hunt_mosaic,_Pella.jpg"></a></p><div><p>The <a href="/wiki/Stag_Hunt_Mosaic">Stag Hunt Mosaic</a>, c. 300 BC, from <a href="/wiki/Pella">Pella</a>; the figure on the right is possibly <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great">Alexander the Great</a> due to the date of the <a href="/wiki/Mosaic">mosaic</a> along with the depicted upsweep of his centrally-parted hair (<i>anastole</i>); the figure on the left wielding a double-edged axe (associated with <a href="/wiki/Hephaistos">Hephaistos</a>) is perhaps <a href="/wiki/Hephaestion">Hephaestion</a>, one of Alexander's loyal companions.</p></div></div>
<p>Alexander perhaps undercut his own rule by demonstrating signs of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/megalomania">megalomania</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-gilley_worthington_2010_195-114">[106]</a></sup> While utilizing effective propaganda such as the cutting of the <a href="/wiki/Gordian_Knot">Gordian Knot</a>, he also attempted to portray himself as a <a href="/wiki/Sacred_king">living god</a> and son of Zeus following his visit to the <a href="/wiki/Oracle">oracle</a> at <a href="/wiki/Siwah">Siwah</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Libyan_Desert">Libyan Desert</a> (in modern-day Egypt) in 331 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-115">[107]</a></sup> His attempt in 327 BC to have his men prostrate before him in <a href="/wiki/Bactra">Bactra</a> in an act of <i><a href="/wiki/Proskynesis">proskynesis</a></i> borrowed from the Persian kings was rejected as religious blasphemy by his Macedonian and Greek subjects after his court historian <a href="/wiki/Callisthenes">Callisthenes</a> refused to perform this ritual.<sup><a href="#cite_note-gilley_worthington_2010_195-114">[106]</a></sup> When Alexander had Parmenion murdered at <a href="/wiki/Ecbatana">Ecbatana</a> (near modern <a href="/wiki/Hamadan">Hamadan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iran">Iran</a>) in 330 BC, this was "symptomatic of the growing gulf between the king's interests and those of his country and people", according to Errington.<sup><a href="#cite_note-116">[108]</a></sup> His murder of <a href="/wiki/Cleitus_the_Black">Cleitus the Black</a> in 328 BC is described as "vengeful and reckless" by Dawn L. Gilley and Ian Worthington.<sup><a href="#cite_note-117">[109]</a></sup> Continuing the polygamous habits of his father, Alexander encouraged his men to marry native women in Asia, leading by example when he wed <a href="/wiki/Roxana">Roxana</a>, a Sogdian princess of Bactria.<sup><a href="#cite_note-118">[110]</a></sup> He then married <a href="/wiki/Stateira_II">Stateira II</a>, eldest daughter of Darius III, and <a href="/wiki/Parysatis_II">Parysatis II</a>, youngest daughter of <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III">Artaxerxes III</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/Susa_weddings">Susa weddings</a> in 324 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-119">[111]</a></sup>
</p><p>Meanwhile, in Greece, the <a href="/wiki/Spartan_king">Spartan king</a> <a href="/wiki/Agis_III">Agis III</a> attempted to lead a rebellion of the Greeks against Macedonia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-120">[112]</a></sup> He was defeated in 331 BC at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Megalopolis">Battle of Megalopolis</a> by Antipater, who was serving as regent of Macedonia and deputy <i>hegemon</i> of the League of Corinth in Alexander's stead.<sup><a href="#cite_note-121">[note 9]</a></sup> Before Antipater embarked on his campaign in the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnese">Peloponnese</a>, Memnon, the governor of Thrace, was dissuaded from rebellion by use of diplomacy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-122">[113]</a></sup> Antipater deferred the punishment of Sparta to the League of Corinth headed by Alexander, who ultimately pardoned the Spartans on the condition that they submit fifty nobles as hostages.<sup><a href="#cite_note-123">[114]</a></sup> Antipater's hegemony was somewhat unpopular in Greece due to his practice (perhaps by order of Alexander) of exiling malcontents and garrisoning cities with Macedonian troops, yet in 330 BC, Alexander declared that the <a href="/wiki/Tyrannies">tyrannies</a> installed in Greece were to be abolished and Greek freedom was to be restored.<sup><a href="#cite_note-124">[115]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Diadochi_LA.svg"></a></p></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Coins_of_Philip_III_Arrhidaeus._323-317_BC.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>When <a href="/wiki/Death_of_Alexander_the_Great">Alexander the Great died</a> at <a href="/wiki/Babylon">Babylon</a> in 323 BC, his mother Olympias immediately accused Antipater and his faction of poisoning him, although there is no evidence to confirm this.<sup><a href="#cite_note-125">[116]</a></sup> With no official <a href="/wiki/Heir_apparent">heir apparent</a>, the Macedonian military command split, with one side proclaiming Alexander's half-brother Philip III Arrhidaeus (<abbr>r.</abbr> 323–317 BC) as king and the other siding with the infant son of Alexander and Roxana, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_IV_of_Macedon">Alexander IV</a> (<abbr>r.</abbr> 323–309 BC).<sup><a href="#cite_note-126">[117]</a></sup> Except for the Euboeans and Boeotians, the Greeks also immediately rose up in a rebellion against Antipater known as the <a href="/wiki/Lamian_War">Lamian War</a> (323–322 BC).<sup><a href="#cite_note-127">[118]</a></sup> When Antipater was defeated at the 323 BC <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae_(323_BC)">Battle of Thermopylae</a>, he fled to <a href="/wiki/Lamia_(city)">Lamia</a> where he was besieged by the Athenian commander <a href="/wiki/Leosthenes">Leosthenes</a>. A Macedonian army led by <a href="/wiki/Leonnatus">Leonnatus</a> rescued Antipater by lifting the siege.<sup><a href="#cite_note-128">[119]</a></sup> Antipater defeated the rebellion, yet his death in 319 BC left a power vacuum wherein the two proclaimed kings of Macedonia became pawns in <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Diadochi">a power struggle</a> between the <i><a href="/wiki/Diadochi">diadochi</a></i>, the former generals of Alexander's army.<sup><a href="#cite_note-129">[120]</a></sup>
</p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Babylon">council of the army convened in Babylon</a> immediately after Alexander's death, naming Philip III as king and the <a href="/wiki/Chiliarch">chiliarch</a> <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas">Perdiccas</a> as his regent.<sup><a href="#cite_note-130">[121]</a></sup> Antipater, <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_Monophthalmus">Antigonus Monophthalmus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Craterus">Craterus</a>, and Ptolemy formed a coalition against Perdiccas in a civil war initiated by Ptolemy's <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Alexander_the_Great">seizure of the hearse of Alexander the Great</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-131">[122]</a></sup> Perdiccas was assassinated in 321 BC by his own officers during a failed campaign in Egypt against Ptolemy, where his march along the <a href="/wiki/Nile_River">Nile River</a> resulted in the drowning of 2,000 of his men.<sup><a href="#cite_note-132">[123]</a></sup> Although <a href="/wiki/Eumenes_of_Cardia">Eumenes of Cardia</a> managed to kill Craterus in battle, this had little to no effect on the outcome of the 321 BC <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Triparadisus">Partition of Triparadisus</a> in <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)">Syria</a> where the victorious coalition settled the issue of a new regency and territorial rights.<sup><a href="#cite_note-133">[124]</a></sup> Antipater was appointed as regent over the two kings. Before Antipater died in 319 BC, he named the staunch Argead loyalist <a href="/wiki/Polyperchon">Polyperchon</a> as his successor, passing over his own son <a href="/wiki/Cassander">Cassander</a> and ignoring the right of the king to choose a new regent (since Philip III was considered mentally unstable), in effect bypassing the council of the army as well.<sup><a href="#cite_note-134">[125]</a></sup>
</p><p>Forming an alliance with Ptolemy, Antigonus, and <a href="/wiki/Lysimachus">Lysimachus</a>, Cassander had his officer <a href="/wiki/Nicanor_(Antipatrid_general)">Nicanor</a> capture the <a href="/wiki/Munichia">Munichia</a> fortress of Athens' port town <a href="/wiki/Piraeus">Piraeus</a> in defiance of Polyperchon's decree that Greek cities should be free of Macedonian garrisons, sparking the <a href="/wiki/Second_War_of_the_Diadochi">Second War of the Diadochi</a> (319–315 BC).<sup><a href="#cite_note-135">[126]</a></sup> Given a string of military failures by Polyperchon, in 317 BC, Philip III, by way of his politically engaged wife <a href="/wiki/Eurydice_II_of_Macedon">Eurydice II of Macedon</a>, officially replaced him as regent with Cassander.<sup><a href="#cite_note-adams_213_errington_126–127-136">[127]</a></sup> Afterwards, Polyperchon desperately sought the aid of Olympias in Epirus.<sup><a href="#cite_note-adams_213_errington_126–127-136">[127]</a></sup> A joint force of Epirotes, Aetolians, and Polyperchon's troops invaded Macedonia and forced the surrender of Philip III and Eurydice's army, allowing Olympias to execute the king and force his queen to commit suicide.<sup><a href="#cite_note-137">[128]</a></sup> Olympias then had Nicanor and dozens of other Macedonian nobles killed, but by the spring of 316 BC, Cassander had defeated her forces, captured her, and placed her on trial for murder before sentencing her to death.<sup><a href="#cite_note-138">[129]</a></sup>
</p><p>Cassander married Philip II's daughter <a href="/wiki/Thessalonike_of_Macedon">Thessalonike</a> and briefly extended Macedonian control into Illyria as far as <a href="/wiki/Epidamnos">Epidamnos</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Durr%C3%ABs">Durrës</a>, Albania). By 313 BC, it was retaken by the Illyrian king <a href="/wiki/Glaucias_of_Taulantii">Glaucias of Taulantii</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-139">[130]</a></sup> By 316 BC, Antigonus had taken the territory of Eumenes and managed to eject <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_Nicator">Seleucus Nicator</a> from his Babylonian satrapy, leading Cassander, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus to issue a joint ultimatum to Antigonus in 315 BC for him to surrender various territories in Asia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Adams_2010_215-9">[9]</a></sup> Antigonus promptly allied with Polyperchon, now based in Corinth, and issued an ultimatum of his own to Cassander, charging him with murder for executing Olympias and demanding that he hand over the royal family, King Alexander IV and the <a href="/wiki/Queen_mother">queen mother</a> Roxana.<sup><a href="#cite_note-140">[131]</a></sup> The conflict that followed lasted until the winter of 312/311 BC, when a new peace settlement recognized Cassander as general of Europe, Antigonus as "first in Asia", Ptolemy as general of Egypt, and Lysimachus as general of Thrace.<sup><a href="#cite_note-141">[132]</a></sup> Cassander had Alexander IV and Roxana put to death in the winter of 311/310 BC, and between 306 and 305 BC the <i>diadochi</i> were declared kings of their respective territories.<sup><a href="#cite_note-142">[133]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Hellenistic era</h3>
<p>The beginning of <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Greece">Hellenistic Greece</a> was defined by the struggle between the <a href="/wiki/Antipatrid_dynasty">Antipatrid dynasty</a>, led first by <a href="/wiki/Cassander">Cassander</a> (<abbr>r.</abbr> 305–297 BC), son of Antipater, and the <a href="/wiki/Antigonid_dynasty">Antigonid dynasty</a>, led by the Macedonian general <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_I_Monophthalmus">Antigonus I Monophthalmus</a> (<abbr>r.</abbr> 306–301 BC) and his son, the future king <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Macedon">Demetrius I</a> (<abbr>r.</abbr> 294–288 BC). Cassander besieged Athens in 303 BC, but was forced to retreat to Macedonia when Demetrius invaded <a href="/wiki/Boeotia">Boeotia</a> to his rear, attempting to sever his path of retreat.<sup><a href="#cite_note-143">[134]</a></sup> While Antigonus and Demetrius attempted to recreate Philip II's <a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth">Hellenic league</a> with themselves as dual hegemons, a revived coalition of Cassander, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter">Ptolemy I Soter</a> (<abbr>r.</abbr> 305–283 BC) of Egypt's <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty">Ptolemaic dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator">Seleucus I Nicator</a> (<abbr>r.</abbr> 305–281 BC) of the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire">Seleucid Empire</a>, and Lysimachus (<abbr>r.</abbr> 306–281 BC), <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Thrace_and_Dacia">King of Thrace</a>, defeated the Antigonids at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ipsus">Battle of Ipsus</a> in 301 BC, killing Antigonus and forcing Demetrius into flight.<sup><a href="#cite_note-144">[135]</a></sup>
</p><p>Cassander died in 297 BC, and his sickly son <a href="/wiki/Philip_IV_of_Macedon">Philip IV</a> died the same year, succeeded by Cassander's other sons <a href="/wiki/Alexander_V_of_Macedon">Alexander V of Macedon</a> (<abbr>r.</abbr> 297–294 BC) and <a href="/wiki/Antipater_II_of_Macedon">Antipater II of Macedon</a> (<abbr>r.</abbr> 297–294 BC), with their mother <a href="/wiki/Thessalonike_of_Macedon">Thessalonike of Macedon</a> acting as regent.<sup><a href="#cite_note-adams_2010_218-145">[136]</a></sup> While Demetrius fought against the Antipatrid forces in Greece, Antipater II killed his own mother to obtain power.<sup><a href="#cite_note-adams_2010_218-145">[136]</a></sup> His desperate brother Alexander V then requested aid from <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhus_of_Epirus">Pyrrhus of Epirus</a> (<abbr>r.</abbr> 297–272 BC),<sup><a href="#cite_note-adams_2010_218-145">[136]</a></sup> who had fought alongside Demetrius at the Battle of Ipsus, but was sent to Egypt as a hostage as part of an agreement between Demetrius and Ptolemy I.<sup><a href="#cite_note-bringmann_2007_61-146">[137]</a></sup> In exchange for defeating the forces of Antipater II and forcing him to flee to the court of Lysimachus in Thrace, Pyrrhus was awarded the westernmost portions of the Macedonian kingdom.<sup><a href="#cite_note-147">[138]</a></sup> Demetrius had his nephew Alexander V assassinated and was then proclaimed king of Macedonia, but his subjects protested against his aloof, Eastern-style <a href="/wiki/Autocracy">autocracy</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-adams_2010_218-145">[136]</a></sup>
</p><p>War broke out between Pyrrhus and Demetrius in 290 BC when <a href="/wiki/Lanassa_(wife_of_Pyrrhus)">Lanassa, wife of Pyrrhus</a>, daughter of <a href="/wiki/Agathocles_of_Syracuse">Agathocles of Syracuse</a>, left him for Demetrius and offered him her <a href="/wiki/Dowry">dowry</a> of <a href="/wiki/Corcyra">Corcyra</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-adams_218–219_bringmann_61-148">[139]</a></sup> The war dragged on until 288 BC, when Demetrius lost the support of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians">the Macedonians</a> and fled the country. Macedonia was then divided between Pyrrhus and Lysimachus, the former taking <a href="/wiki/Western_Macedonia">western Macedonia</a> and the latter eastern Macedonia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-adams_218–219_bringmann_61-148">[139]</a></sup> By 286 BC, Lysimachus had expelled Pyrrhus and his forces from Macedonia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-149">[note 10]</a></sup> In 282 BC, a new war erupted between Seleucus I and Lysimachus; the latter was killed in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Corupedion">Battle of Corupedion</a>, allowing Seleucus I to take control of Thrace and Macedonia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-adams_219_bringmann_61-150">[140]</a></sup> In two dramatic reversals of fortune, Seleucus I was assassinated in 281 BC by his officer <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_Keraunos">Ptolemy Keraunos</a>, son of Ptolemy I and grandson of Antipater, who was then proclaimed king of Macedonia before being killed in battle in 279 BC by <a href="/wiki/Galatians_(people)">Celtic invaders</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Gallic_invasion_of_Greece">Gallic invasion of Greece</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-151">[141]</a></sup> The Macedonian army proclaimed the general <a href="/wiki/Sosthenes_of_Macedon">Sosthenes of Macedon</a> as king, although he apparently refused the title.<sup><a href="#cite_note-152">[142]</a></sup> After defeating the <a href="/wiki/Gauls">Gallic</a> ruler <a href="/wiki/Bolgios">Bolgios</a> and driving out the raiding party of <a href="/wiki/Brennus_(3rd_century_BC)">Brennus</a>, Sosthenes died and left a chaotic situation in Macedonia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-153">[143]</a></sup> The Gallic invaders ravaged Macedonia until <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_Gonatas">Antigonus Gonatas</a>, son of Demetrius, defeated them in Thrace at the 277 BC <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lysimachia">Battle of Lysimachia</a> and was then proclaimed king <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_II_of_Macedon">Antigonus II of Macedon</a> (<abbr>r.</abbr> 277–274, 272–239 BC).<sup><a href="#cite_note-154">[144]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 280 BC, Pyrrhus embarked on a campaign in <a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia">Magna Graecia</a> (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Southern_Italy">southern Italy</a>) against the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic">Roman Republic</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhic_War">Pyrrhic War</a>, followed by his <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Syracuse_(278_BC)">invasion of Sicily</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-adams_219–220_bringmann_2007_63-155">[145]</a></sup> Ptolemy Keraunos secured his position on the Macedonian throne by giving Pyrrhus five thousand soldiers and twenty <a href="/wiki/War_elephant">war elephants</a> for this endeavor.<sup><a href="#cite_note-bringmann_2007_61-146">[137]</a></sup> Pyrrhus returned to Epirus in 275 BC after the ultimate failure of both campaigns, which contributed to the <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_Rome">rise of Rome</a> because <a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity">Greek cities in southern Italy</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Taranto">Tarentum</a> now became Roman allies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-adams_219–220_bringmann_2007_63-155">[145]</a></sup> Pyrrhus invaded Macedonia in 274 BC, defeating the largely mercenary army of Antigonus II at the 274 BC <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Aous_(274_BC)">Battle of Aous</a> and driving him out of Macedonia, forcing him to seek refuge with his naval fleet in the Aegean.<sup><a href="#cite_note-156">[146]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient_Mieza,_Macedonian_tombs_of_Lefkadia,_Tomb_of_Lyson_and_Kallikles_a72b9b998c2e98a1390dbae9e032ea1c.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Pyrrhus lost much of his support among the Macedonians in 273 BC when his unruly Gallic mercenaries plundered the royal cemetery of Aigai.<sup><a href="#cite_note-157">[147]</a></sup> Pyrrhus pursued Antigonus II in the Peloponnese, yet Antigonus II was ultimately able to recapture Macedonia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-adams_2010_220-158">[148]</a></sup> Pyrrhus was killed while besieging <a href="/wiki/Argos,_Peloponnese">Argos</a> in 272 BC, allowing Antigonus II to reclaim the rest of Greece.<sup><a href="#cite_note-159">[149]</a></sup> He then restored the Argead dynastic graves at Aigai and annexed the <a href="/wiki/Paeonia_(kingdom)">Kingdom of Paeonia</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-160">[150]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Aetolian_League">Aetolian League</a> hampered Antigonus II's control over <a href="/wiki/Central_Greece">central Greece</a>, and the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Achaean_League">Achaean League</a> in 251 BC pushed Macedonian forces out of much of the Peloponnese and at times incorporated Athens and Sparta.<sup><a href="#cite_note-161">[151]</a></sup> While the Seleucid Empire aligned with Antigonid Macedonia against Ptolemaic Egypt during the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Wars">Syrian Wars</a>, the Ptolemaic navy heavily disrupted Antigonus II's efforts to control mainland Greece.<sup><a href="#cite_note-162">[152]</a></sup> With the aid of the Ptolemaic navy, the Athenian statesman <a href="/wiki/Chremonides">Chremonides</a> led a revolt against Macedonian authority known as the <a href="/wiki/Chremonidean_War">Chremonidean War</a> (267–261 BC).<sup><a href="#cite_note-163">[153]</a></sup> By 265 BC, Athens was surrounded and besieged by Antigonus II's forces, and a Ptolemaic fleet was defeated in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cos">Battle of Cos</a>. Athens finally surrendered in 261 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-164">[154]</a></sup> After Macedonia formed an alliance with the Seleucid ruler <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_II">Antiochus II</a>, a peace settlement between Antigonus II and <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus">Ptolemy II Philadelphus</a> of Egypt was finally struck in 255 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-adams_2010_221-165">[155]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Apollon_Tempel_im_antiken_Korinth.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>In 251 BC, <a href="/wiki/Aratus_of_Sicyon">Aratus of Sicyon</a> led a rebellion against Antigonus II, and in 250 BC, Ptolemy II declared his support for the self-proclaimed King <a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Corinth">Alexander of Corinth</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-167">[157]</a></sup> Although Alexander died in 246 BC and Antigonus was able to score a naval victory against the Ptolemies <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Andros_(246_BC)">at Andros</a>, the Macedonians lost the <a href="/wiki/Acrocorinth">Acrocorinth</a> to the forces of Aratus in 243 BC, followed by the induction of Corinth into the Achaean League.<sup><a href="#cite_note-168">[158]</a></sup> Antigonus II made peace with the Achaean League in 240 BC, ceding the territories that he had lost in Greece.<sup><a href="#cite_note-169">[159]</a></sup> Antigonus II died in 239 BC and was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_II_of_Macedon">Demetrius II of Macedon</a> (<abbr>r.</abbr> 239–229 BC). Seeking an alliance with Macedonia to defend against the Aetolians, the <a href="/wiki/Queen_mother">queen mother</a> and regent of Epirus, <a href="/wiki/Olympias_II_of_Epirus">Olympias II</a>, offered her daughter <a href="/wiki/Phthia_of_Macedon">Phthia of Macedon</a> to Demetrius II in marriage. Demetrius II accepted her proposal, but he damaged relations with the Seleucids by divorcing <a href="/wiki/Stratonice_of_Macedon">Stratonice of Macedon</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-170">[160]</a></sup> Although the Aetolians formed an alliance with the Achaean League as a result, Demetrius II was able to invade Boeotia and capture it from the Aetolians by 236 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-adams_2010_222-166">[156]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Achaean League managed to capture <a href="/wiki/Megalopolis,_Greece">Megalopolis</a> in 235 BC, and by the end of Demetrius II's reign most of the Peloponnese except Argos was taken from the Macedonians.<sup><a href="#cite_note-171">[161]</a></sup> Demetrius II also lost an ally <a href="/wiki/Epirus_(ancient_state)">in Epirus</a> when the <a href="/wiki/Deidamia_II_of_Epirus">monarchy was toppled</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Epirote_League">republican revolution</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-adams_223_errington_174-172">[162]</a></sup> Demetrius II enlisted the aid of the <a href="/wiki/Illyria">Illyrian</a> king <a href="/wiki/Agron_of_Illyria">Agron</a> to defend <a href="/wiki/Acarnania">Acarnania</a> against Aetolia, and in 229 BC, they managed to defeat the combined navies of the Aetolian and Achaean Leagues at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Paxos">Battle of Paxos</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-adams_223_errington_174-172">[162]</a></sup> Another Illyrian ruler, <a href="/wiki/Longarus">Longarus</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Dardanian_Kingdom">Dardanian Kingdom</a>, invaded Macedonia and defeated an army of Demetrius II shortly before his death in 229 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-173">[163]</a></sup> Although his young son <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon">Philip</a> immediately inherited the throne, his regent <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_III_Doson">Antigonus III Doson</a> (<abbr>r.</abbr> 229–221 BC), nephew of Antigonus II, was proclaimed king by the army, with Philip as his heir, following a string of military victories against the Illyrians in the north and the Aetolians in Thessaly.<sup><a href="#cite_note-174">[164]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Tetradrachm,_229-221,_Antigonos_Doson.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Aratus sent an embassy to Antigonus III in 226 BC seeking an unexpected alliance now that the reformist king <a href="/wiki/Cleomenes_III">Cleomenes III</a> of Sparta was threatening the rest of Greece in the <a href="/wiki/Cleomenean_War">Cleomenean War</a> (229–222 BC).<sup><a href="#cite_note-175">[165]</a></sup> In exchange for military aid, Antigonus III demanded the return of Corinth to Macedonian control, which Aratus finally agreed to in 225 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-176">[166]</a></sup> In 224 BC, Antigonus III's forces took <a href="/wiki/Arcadia_(ancient_region)">Arcadia</a> from Sparta. After forming a Hellenic league in the same vein as Philip II's League of Corinth, he managed to defeat Sparta at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sellasia">Battle of Sellasia</a> in 222 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-177">[167]</a></sup> Sparta was occupied by a foreign power for the first time in its history, restoring Macedonia's position as the leading power in Greece.<sup><a href="#cite_note-178">[168]</a></sup> Antigonus died a year later, perhaps from <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>, leaving behind a strong <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period">Hellenistic kingdom</a> for his successor Philip V.<sup><a href="#cite_note-179">[169]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon">Philip V of Macedon</a> (<abbr>r.</abbr> 221–179 BC) faced immediate challenges to his authority by the Illyrian <a href="/wiki/Dardani">Dardani</a> and Aetolian League.<sup><a href="#cite_note-180">[170]</a></sup> Philip V and his allies were successful against the Aetolians and their allies in the <a href="/wiki/Social_War_(220%E2%80%93217_BC)">Social War (220–217 BC)</a>, yet he made peace with the Aetolians once he heard of incursions by the Dardani in the north and the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Carthage">Carthaginian</a> victory over <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Republic">the Romans</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Trasimene">Battle of Lake Trasimene</a> in 217 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-181">[171]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_of_Pharos">Demetrius of Pharos</a> is alleged to have convinced Philip V to first <a href="/wiki/Illyrian_Wars">secure Illyria</a> in advance of an invasion of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_peninsula">Italian peninsula</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-182">[note 11]</a></sup> In 216 BC, Philip V sent a hundred <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic-era_warships">light warships</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Sea">Adriatic Sea</a> to attack Illyria, a move that prompted <a href="/wiki/Scerdilaidas">Scerdilaidas</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ardiaean_Kingdom">Ardiaean Kingdom</a> to appeal to the Romans for aid.<sup><a href="#cite_note-183">[172]</a></sup> Rome responded by sending ten heavy <a href="/wiki/Quinquereme">quinqueremes</a> from <a href="/wiki/Roman_Sicily">Roman Sicily</a> to patrol the Illyrian coasts, causing Philip V to reverse course and order his fleet to retreat, averting open conflict for the time being.<sup><a href="#cite_note-184">[173]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Conflict with Rome</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Macedonia_and_the_Aegean_World_c.200.png"></a></p></div>
<p>In 215 BC, at the height of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War">Second Punic War</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Carthaginian_Empire">Carthaginian Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome">Roman</a> authorities intercepted a ship off the <a href="/wiki/Calabria">Calabrian</a> coast holding a Macedonian envoy and a Carthaginian ambassador in possession of a treaty composed by <a href="/wiki/Hannibal">Hannibal</a> declaring an alliance with Philip V.<sup><a href="#cite_note-185">[174]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Macedonian%E2%80%93Carthaginian_Treaty">The treaty</a> stipulated that <a href="/wiki/History_of_Carthage">Carthage</a> had the sole right to negotiate the terms of Rome's hypothetical surrender and promised mutual aid if a resurgent Rome should seek revenge against either Macedonia or Carthage.<sup><a href="#cite_note-186">[175]</a></sup> Although the Macedonians were perhaps only interested in safeguarding their newly conquered territories in Illyria,<sup><a href="#cite_note-187">[176]</a></sup> the Romans were nevertheless able to thwart whatever grand ambitions Philip V had for the Adriatic region during the <a href="/wiki/First_Macedonian_War">First Macedonian War</a> (214–205 BC). In 214 BC, Rome positioned a <a href="/wiki/Roman_navy">naval fleet</a> at <a href="/wiki/Oricus">Oricus</a>, which was assaulted along with <a href="/wiki/Apollonia_(Illyria)">Apollonia</a> by Macedonian forces.<sup><a href="#cite_note-188">[177]</a></sup> When the Macedonians captured <a href="/wiki/Lissus_(Illyria)">Lissus</a> in 212 BC, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate">Roman Senate</a> responded by inciting the Aetolian League, Sparta, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Elis">Elis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Messenia">Messenia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Attalus_I">Attalus I</a> (<abbr>r.</abbr> 241–197 BC) of <a href="/wiki/Pergamon">Pergamon</a> to wage war against Philip V, keeping him occupied and away from Italy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-189">[178]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Aetolian League concluded a <a href="/wiki/Peace_agreement">peace agreement</a> with Philip V in 206 BC, and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic">Roman Republic</a> negotiated the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Phoenice">Treaty of Phoenice</a> in 205 BC, ending the war and allowing the Macedonians to retain some captured settlements in Illyria.<sup><a href="#cite_note-190">[179]</a></sup> Although the Romans rejected an Aetolian request in 202 BC for Rome to declare war on Macedonia once again, the Roman Senate gave serious consideration to the similar offer made by Pergamon and its ally <a href="/wiki/Rhodes">Rhodes</a> in 201 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-191">[180]</a></sup> These states were concerned about Philip V's alliance with <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_III_the_Great">Antiochus III the Great</a> of the Seleucid Empire, which invaded the war-weary and financially exhausted Ptolemaic Empire in the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Syrian_War">Fifth Syrian War</a> (202–195 BC) as Philip V captured Ptolemaic settlements in the Aegean Sea.<sup><a href="#cite_note-192">[181]</a></sup> Although Rome's envoys played a critical role in convincing Athens to join the anti-Macedonian alliance with Pergamon and Rhodes in 200 BC, the <i><a href="/wiki/Comitia_centuriata">comitia centuriata</a></i> (people's assembly) rejected the Roman Senate's proposal for a declaration of war on Macedonia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-193">[182]</a></sup> Meanwhile, Philip V conquered territories in the <a href="/wiki/Hellespont">Hellespont</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bosporus">Bosporus</a> as well as Ptolemaic <a href="/wiki/Samos">Samos</a>, which led Rhodes to <a href="/wiki/Cretan_War_(205%E2%80%93200_BC)">form an alliance with Pergamon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Byzantium">Byzantium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyzicus">Cyzicus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chios">Chios</a> against Macedonia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-194">[183]</a></sup> Despite Philip V's nominal alliance with the Seleucid king, he lost the naval <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chios_(201_BC)">Battle of Chios</a> in 201 BC and was blockaded at <a href="/wiki/Bargylia">Bargylia</a> by the Rhodian and Pergamene navies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-195">[184]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Philip_V._221-179_BCE.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>While Philip V was busy fighting Rome's Greek allies, Rome viewed this as an opportunity to punish this former ally of Hannibal with a war that they hoped would supply a victory and require few resources.<sup><a href="#cite_note-196">[note 12]</a></sup> The Roman Senate demanded that Philip V cease hostilities against neighboring Greek powers and defer to an international arbitration committee for settling grievances.<sup><a href="#cite_note-197">[185]</a></sup> When the <i>comitia centuriata</i> finally voted in approval of the Roman Senate's declaration of war in 200 BC and handed their <a href="/wiki/Ultimatum">ultimatum</a> to Philip V, demanding that a <a href="/wiki/Tribunal">tribunal</a> assess the damages owed to Rhodes and Pergamon, the Macedonian king rejected it. This marked the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Macedonian_War">Second Macedonian War</a> (200–197 BC), with <a href="/wiki/Publius_Sulpicius_Galba_Maximus">Publius Sulpicius Galba Maximus</a> spearheading <a href="/wiki/Military_operation">military operations</a> in Apollonia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-198">[186]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Eumene_II,_fondatore_della_biblioteca_di_pergamo,_copia_romana_(50_dc_ca)_da_orig,._ellenistico_su_busto_moderno,_MANN_02.JPG"></a></p></div>
<p>The Macedonians successfully defended their territory for roughly two years,<sup><a href="#cite_note-199">[187]</a></sup> but the <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul">Roman consul</a> <a href="/wiki/Titus_Quinctius_Flamininus">Titus Quinctius Flamininus</a> managed to expel Philip V from Macedonia in 198 BC, forcing his men to take refuge in Thessaly.<sup><a href="#cite_note-bringmann_2007_88-200">[188]</a></sup> When the Achaean League switched their loyalties from Macedonia to Rome, the Macedonian king sued for peace, but the terms offered were considered too stringent, and so the war continued.<sup><a href="#cite_note-bringmann_2007_88-200">[188]</a></sup> In June 197 BC, the Macedonians were defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cynoscephalae">Battle of Cynoscephalae</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-201">[189]</a></sup> Rome then ratified a treaty that forced Macedonia to relinquish control of much of its Greek possessions outside of Macedonia proper, if only to act as a buffer against Illyrian and Thracian incursions into Greece.<sup><a href="#cite_note-202">[190]</a></sup> Although some Greeks suspected Roman intentions of supplanting Macedonia as the new hegemonic power in Greece, Flaminius announced at the <a href="/wiki/Isthmian_Games">Isthmian Games</a> of 196 BC that Rome intended to preserve Greek <a href="/wiki/Liberty">liberty</a> by leaving behind no garrisons and by not exacting <a href="/wiki/Tribute">tribute</a> of any kind.<sup><a href="#cite_note-203">[191]</a></sup> His promise was delayed by negotiations with the Spartan king <a href="/wiki/Nabis">Nabis</a>, who had meanwhile captured Argos, yet Roman forces evacuated Greece in 194 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-204">[192]</a></sup>
</p><p>Encouraged by the Aetolian League and their calls to liberate Greece from the Romans, the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_dynasty">Seleucid king</a> Antiochus III landed with his army at <a href="/wiki/Demetrias">Demetrias</a>, Thessaly, in 192 BC, and was elected <i>strategos</i> by the Aetolians.<sup><a href="#cite_note-205">[193]</a></sup> Macedonia, the Achaean League, and other Greek city-states maintained their alliance with Rome.<sup><a href="#cite_note-206">[194]</a></sup> The Romans <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Seleucid_War">defeated the Seleucids</a> in the 191 BC <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae_(191_BC)">Battle of Thermopylae</a> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Magnesia">Battle of Magnesia</a> in 190 BC, forcing the Seleucids to pay a <a href="/wiki/War_indemnity">war indemnity</a>, dismantle most of its navy, and abandon its claims to any territories north or west of the <a href="/wiki/Taurus_Mountains">Taurus Mountains</a> in the 188 BC <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Apamea">Treaty of Apamea</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-207">[195]</a></sup> With Rome's acceptance, Philip V was able to capture some cities in central Greece in 191–189 BC that had been allied to Antiochus III, while Rhodes and <a href="/wiki/Eumenes_II">Eumenes II</a> (<abbr>r.</abbr> 197–159 BC) of Pergamon gained territories in Asia Minor.<sup><a href="#cite_note-208">[196]</a></sup>
</p><p>Failing to please all sides in various territorial disputes, the Roman Senate decided in 184/183 BC to force Philip V to abandon <a href="/wiki/Aenus_(Thrace)">Aenus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maroneia">Maronea</a>, since these had been declared free cities in the Treaty of Apamea.<sup><a href="#cite_note-209">[note 13]</a></sup> This assuaged the fear of Eumenes II that Macedonia could pose a threat to his lands in the Hellespont.<sup><a href="#cite_note-210">[197]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Perseus_of_Macedon">Perseus of Macedon</a> (<abbr>r.</abbr> 179–168 BC) succeeded Philip V and executed <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_(son_of_Philip_V)">his brother Demetrius</a>, who had been favored by the Romans but was charged by Perseus with <a href="/wiki/High_treason">high treason</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-211">[198]</a></sup> Perseus then attempted to form marriage alliances with <a href="/wiki/Prusias_II_of_Bithynia">Prusias II of Bithynia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_IV_Philopator">Seleucus IV Philopator</a> of the Seleucid Empire, along with renewed relations with Rhodes that greatly unsettled Eumenes II.<sup><a href="#cite_note-212">[199]</a></sup> Although Eumenes II attempted to undermine these diplomatic relationships, Perseus fostered an alliance with the <a href="/wiki/Boeotian_League">Boeotian League</a>, extended his authority into Illyria <a href="/wiki/Abrupolis">and Thrace</a>, and in 174 BC, won the role of managing the Temple of Apollo at Delphi as a member of the <a href="/wiki/Amphictyonic_Council">Amphictyonic Council</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-213">[200]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Perseus_of_Macedon_BM.jpg"></a></p></div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:The_Triumph_of_Aemilius_Paulus_(detail).jpg"></a></p></div></div>
<p>Eumenes II came to Rome in 172 BC and delivered a speech to <a href="/wiki/Senate_of_the_Roman_Republic">the Senate</a> denouncing the alleged crimes and transgressions of Perseus.<sup><a href="#cite_note-214">[201]</a></sup> This convinced the Roman Senate to declare the <a href="/wiki/Third_Macedonian_War">Third Macedonian War</a> (171–168 BC).<sup><a href="#cite_note-215">[note 14]</a></sup> Although Perseus's forces were victorious against the Romans at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Callinicus">Battle of Callinicus</a> in 171 BC, the Macedonian army was defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pydna">Battle of Pydna</a> in June 168 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-216">[202]</a></sup> Perseus fled to <a href="/wiki/Samothrace">Samothrace</a> but surrendered shortly afterwards, was brought to <a href="/wiki/Rome">Rome</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Roman_triumph">triumph</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Aemilius_Paullus_Macedonicus">Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus</a>, and was placed under <a href="/wiki/House_arrest">house arrest</a> at <a href="/wiki/Alba_Fucens">Alba Fucens</a>, where he died in 166 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-217">[203]</a></sup> The Romans abolished the Macedonian monarchy by installing four separate allied <a href="/wiki/Republic">republics</a> in its stead, their capitals located at <a href="/wiki/Amphipolis">Amphipolis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pella">Pella</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pelagonia">Pelagonia</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-bringmann_99–100_eckstein_245-218">[204]</a></sup> The Romans imposed severe laws inhibiting many social and economic interactions between the inhabitants of these republics, including the banning of marriages between them and the (temporary) prohibition on gold and silver mining.<sup><a href="#cite_note-bringmann_99–100_eckstein_245-218">[204]</a></sup> A certain <a href="/wiki/Andriscus">Andriscus</a>, claiming Antigonid descent, rebelled against the Romans and was pronounced king of Macedonia, defeating the army of the Roman <a href="/wiki/Praetor">praetor</a> Publius Juventius Thalna during the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Macedonian_War">Fourth Macedonian War</a> (150–148 BC).<sup><a href="#cite_note-219">[205]</a></sup> Despite this, Andriscus was defeated in 148 BC at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pydna_(148_BC)">second Battle of Pydna</a> by <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Caecilius_Metellus_Macedonicus">Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus</a>, whose forces occupied the kingdom.<sup><a href="#cite_note-220">[206]</a></sup> This was followed in 146 BC by the Roman <a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_Carthage">destruction of Carthage</a> and victory over the Achaean League at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Corinth_(146_BC)">Battle of Corinth</a>, ushering in the era of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Greece">Roman Greece</a> and the gradual establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_province_of_Macedonia">Roman province of Macedonia</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-221">[207]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Institutions</h2>
<h3>Division of power</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Golden_larnax_and_wreath_of_Philip_II_of_Macedon_at_the_Vergina_museum.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>At the head of <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)">Macedonia's government</a> was <a href="/wiki/List_of_Macedonian_kings">the king</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Basileus">basileus</a></i>).<sup><a href="#cite_note-222">[note 15]</a></sup> From at least the reign of Philip II, the king was assisted by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_page">royal pages</a> (<i>basilikoi paides</i>), bodyguards (<i><a href="/wiki/Somatophylakes">somatophylakes</a></i>), companions (<i><a href="/wiki/Hetairoi">hetairoi</a></i>), friends (<i><a href="/wiki/Philoi">philoi</a></i>), an assembly that included members of the military, and (during the Hellenistic period) <a href="/wiki/Magistrate">magistrates</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-223">[208]</a></sup> Evidence is lacking regarding the extent to which each of these groups shared authority with the king or if their existence had a basis in a formal constitutional framework.<sup><a href="#cite_note-224">[note 16]</a></sup> Before the reign of Philip II, the only institution supported by textual evidence is the monarchy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-225">[note 17]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Kingship and the royal court</h3>
<p>The earliest known government of ancient Macedonia was that of its <a href="/wiki/Monarchy">monarchy</a>, lasting until 167 BC when it was abolished by the Romans.<sup><a href="#cite_note-king_2010_373-226">[209]</a></sup> The Macedonian hereditary monarchy existed since at least the time of <a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece">Archaic Greece</a>, with Homeric aristocratic roots in <a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece">Mycenaean Greece</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-227">[210]</a></sup> Thucydides wrote that in previous ages, Macedonia was divided into small tribal regions, each having its own <a href="/wiki/Petty_king">petty king</a>, the tribes of <a href="/wiki/Lower_Macedonia">Lower Macedonia</a> eventually coalescing under one great king who exercised power as an <a href="/wiki/Overlord">overlord</a> over the lesser kings of <a href="/wiki/Upper_Macedonia">Upper Macedonia</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-king_2010_376-17">[16]</a></sup> The direct line of <a href="/wiki/Order_of_succession">father-to-son succession</a> was broken after the assassination of <a href="/wiki/Orestes_of_Macedon">Orestes of Macedon</a> in 396 BC (allegedly by his <a href="/wiki/Regent">regent</a> and successor <a href="/wiki/Aeropus_II_of_Macedon">Aeropus II of Macedon</a>), clouding the issue of whether <a href="/wiki/Primogeniture">primogeniture</a> was the established custom or if there was a constitutional right for an assembly of the army or <a href="/wiki/Popular_assembly">of the people</a> to choose another king.<sup><a href="#cite_note-228">[211]</a></sup> It is unclear if the male offspring of Macedonian queens or <a href="/wiki/Queen_consort">consorts</a> were always preferred over others given the accession of <a href="/wiki/Archelaus_I_of_Macedon">Archelaus I of Macedon</a>, son of <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas_II_of_Macedon">Perdiccas II of Macedon</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece">slave woman</a>, although Archelaus succeeded the throne after murdering his father's designated <a href="/wiki/Heir_apparent">heir apparent</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-229">[212]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Hades_abducting_Persephone.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>It is known that Macedonian kings before Philip II upheld the privileges and carried out the responsibilities of hosting foreign diplomats, determining the kingdom's foreign policies, and negotiating alliances with foreign powers.<sup><a href="#cite_note-king_2010_378-230">[213]</a></sup> After the Greek victory at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis">Salamis</a> in 480 BC, the Persian commander <a href="/wiki/Mardonius_(general)">Mardonius</a> had <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Macedon">Alexander I of Macedon</a> sent to Athens as a chief envoy to orchestrate an alliance between the Achaemenid Empire and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Athens">Athens</a>. The decision to send Alexander was based on his <a href="/wiki/Marriage_of_state">marriage alliance</a> with a noble Persian house and his previous formal relationship with the city-state of Athens.<sup><a href="#cite_note-king_2010_378-230">[213]</a></sup> With their ownership of natural resources including gold, silver, timber, and <a href="/wiki/Royal_land">royal land</a>, the early Macedonian kings were also capable of <a href="/wiki/Bribery">bribing</a> foreign and domestic parties with impressive gifts.<sup><a href="#cite_note-king_2010_379-231">[214]</a></sup>
</p><p>Little is known about the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary">judicial system</a> of ancient Macedonia except that the king acted as the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chief_judge">chief judge</a> of the kingdom.<sup><a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_222-232">[215]</a></sup> The Macedonian kings were also <a href="/wiki/Commander-in-chief">supreme commanders</a> of the military.<sup><a href="#cite_note-233">[note 18]</a></sup> Philip II was also highly regarded for his acts of piety in serving as the <a href="/wiki/High_priest">high priest</a> of the nation. He performed daily <a href="/wiki/Ritual_sacrifice">ritual sacrifices</a> and led <a href="/wiki/Religious_festival">religious festivals</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-king_2010_380-234">[216]</a></sup> Alexander imitated various aspects of his father's reign, such as granting land and gifts to loyal aristocratic followers,<sup><a href="#cite_note-king_2010_380-234">[216]</a></sup> but lost some core support among them for adopting some of the trappings of an Eastern, Persian monarch, a "lord and master" as Carol J. King suggests, instead of a "comrade-in-arms" as was the traditional relationship of Macedonian kings with their companions.<sup><a href="#cite_note-235">[217]</a></sup> Alexander's father, Philip II, was perhaps influenced by Persian traditions when he adopted institutions similar to those found in the Achaemenid realm, such as having a <a href="/wiki/Royal_Secretary">royal secretary</a>, royal archive, royal pages, and a seated <a href="/wiki/Throne">throne</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-236">[218]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Royal pages</h3>
<div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Dionysos_on_a_cheetah,_Pella,_Greece.jpg"></a></p></div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Framentuary_votive_relief_representing_a_youth_ladling_wine_for_a_krater_and_a_round_table_with_vases,_from_the_Agora,_end_of_4th_c._BC,_Archaeological_Museum,_Pella_(7065345633).jpg"></a></p></div></div>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Royal_page">royal pages</a> were adolescent boys and young men <a href="/wiki/Conscripted">conscripted</a> from aristocratic households and serving the kings of Macedonia perhaps from the reign of Philip II onward, although more solid evidence dates to the reign of Alexander the Great.<sup><a href="#cite_note-237">[note 19]</a></sup> Royal pages played no direct role in high politics and were conscripted as a means to introduce them to political life.<sup><a href="#cite_note-king_2010_381-238">[219]</a></sup> After a period of training and service, pages were expected to become members of the king's companions and personal retinue.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Sawada_2010_403-239">[220]</a></sup> During their training, pages were expected to guard the king as he slept, supply him with horses, aid him in mounting his horse, accompany him on royal hunts, and serve him during <i><a href="/wiki/Symposium">symposia</a></i> (i.e. formal drinking parties).<sup><a href="#cite_note-240">[221]</a></sup> Although there is little evidence for royal pages in the Antigonid period, it is known that some of them fled with <a href="/wiki/Perseus_of_Macedon">Perseus of Macedon</a> to <a href="/wiki/Samothrace">Samothrace</a> following <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pydna">his defeat</a> by the Romans in 168 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-241">[222]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Bodyguards</h3>
<p>Royal bodyguards served as the closest members to the king at court and on the battlefield.<sup><a href="#cite_note-king_2010_381-238">[219]</a></sup> They were split into two categories: the <i><a href="/wiki/Agema">agema</a></i> of the <i><a href="/wiki/Hypaspistai">hypaspistai</a></i>, a type of ancient <a href="/wiki/Special_forces">special forces</a> usually numbering in the hundreds, and a smaller group of men handpicked by the king either for their individual merits or to honor the noble families to which they belonged.<sup><a href="#cite_note-king_2010_381-238">[219]</a></sup> Therefore, the bodyguards, limited in number and forming the king's inner circle, were not always responsible for protecting the king's life on and off the battlefield; their title and office was more a mark of distinction, perhaps used to quell rivalries between aristocratic houses.<sup><a href="#cite_note-king_2010_381-238">[219]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Companions, friends, councils, and assemblies</h3>
<div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Pella_House_atrium.jpg"></a></p></div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Fragmentary_inscription_bearing_the_names_of_6_city_archons_(politarchs),_2nd_c._BC,_Archaeological_Museum,_Pella_(6929923448).jpg"></a></p></div></div>
<p>The companions, including the elite <a href="/wiki/Companion_cavalry">companion cavalry</a> and <i><a href="/wiki/Pezhetairoi">pezhetairoi</a></i> infantry, represented a substantially larger group than the king's bodyguards.<sup><a href="#cite_note-242">[note 20]</a></sup> The most trusted or highest ranking companions formed a council that served as an advisory body to the king.<sup><a href="#cite_note-243">[223]</a></sup> A small amount of evidence suggests the existence of an assembly of the army during times of war and a <a href="/wiki/Direct_democracy">people's assembly</a> during times of peace.<sup><a href="#cite_note-244">[note 21]</a></sup>
</p><p>Members of the council had the right to speak freely, and although there is no direct evidence that they voted on affairs of state, it is clear that the king was at least occasionally pressured to agree to their demands.<sup><a href="#cite_note-245">[224]</a></sup> The assembly was apparently given the right to judge cases of <a href="/wiki/High_treason">high treason</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sentence_(law)">assign punishments</a> for them, such as when Alexander the Great acted as <a href="/wiki/Prosecutor">prosecutor</a> in the trial and conviction of three alleged conspirators in his father's assassination plot (while many others <a href="/wiki/Acquittal">were acquitted</a>).<sup><a href="#cite_note-246">[225]</a></sup> However, there is perhaps insufficient evidence to allow a conclusion that councils and assemblies were regularly upheld or constitutionally grounded, or that their decisions were always heeded by the king.<sup><a href="#cite_note-247">[226]</a></sup> At the death of Alexander the Great, the companions <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Babylon">immediately formed a council</a> to assume control of his empire, but it was soon destabilized by <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Diadochi">open rivalry and conflict</a> between <a href="/wiki/Diadochi">its members</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-248">[227]</a></sup> The army also used <a href="/wiki/Mutiny">mutiny</a> as a tool to achieve political ends.<sup><a href="#cite_note-249">[note 22]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Magistrates, the commonwealth, local government, and allied states</h3>
<p>Antigonid Macedonian kings relied on various regional officials to conduct affairs of state.<sup><a href="#cite_note-king_2010_390-250">[228]</a></sup> This included high-ranking municipal officials, such as the military <i><a href="/wiki/Strategos">strategos</a></i> and the <a href="/wiki/Politarch">politarch</a>, i.e. the elected governor (<i><a href="/wiki/Archon">archon</a></i>) of a large city (<i><a href="/wiki/Polis">polis</a></i>), as well as the politico-religious office of the <i><a href="/wiki/Epistates">epistates</a></i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-251">[note 23]</a></sup> No evidence exists about the personal backgrounds of these officials, although they may have been chosen among the same group of aristocratic <i>philoi</i> and <i>hetairoi</i> who filled vacancies for army officers.<sup><a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_222-232">[215]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Tetradrachm,_364-363_BC,_Amphipolis.jpg"></a></p></div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Anfipoli,_statere_di_filippo_II,_340_o_336-328_ac_ca.JPG"></a></p></div></div>
<p>In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Athens">ancient Athens</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Athenian_democracy">Athenian democracy</a> was restored on three separate occasions following the initial conquest of the city by Antipater in 322 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-252">[229]</a></sup> When it fell repeatedly under Macedonian rule it was governed by a Macedonian-imposed <a href="/wiki/Oligarchy">oligarchy</a> composed of the wealthiest members of the city-state.<sup><a href="#cite_note-253">[note 24]</a></sup> Other city-states were handled quite differently and were allowed a greater degree of <a href="/wiki/Autonomy">autonomy</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_231-254">[230]</a></sup> After Philip II conquered Amphipolis in 357 BC, the city was allowed to retain its <a href="/wiki/Democracy">democracy</a>, including its constitution, <a href="/wiki/Popular_assembly">popular assembly</a>, <a href="/wiki/City_council">city council</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Boule_(ancient_Greece)">boule</a></i>), and yearly <a href="/wiki/Election">elections</a> for new officials, but a Macedonian garrison was housed within the city walls along with a Macedonian royal commissioner (<i>epistates</i>) to monitor the city's political affairs.<sup><a href="#cite_note-255">[231]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Philippi">Philippi</a>, the city founded by Philip II, was the only other city in the Macedonian <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth">commonwealth</a> that had a democratic government with popular assemblies, since the assembly (<i><a href="/wiki/Ecclesia_(ancient_Athens)">ecclesia</a></i>) of <a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki">Thessaloniki</a> seems to have had only a passive function in practice.<sup><a href="#cite_note-256">[232]</a></sup> Some cities also maintained their own municipal <a href="/wiki/Revenue">revenues</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_231-254">[230]</a></sup> The Macedonian king and central government administered the revenues generated by <a href="/wiki/Greek_temple">temples</a> and <a href="/wiki/Priesthood">priesthoods</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-257">[233]</a></sup>
</p><p>Within the <a href="/wiki/Koinon_of_Macedonians">Macedonian commonwealth</a>, some evidence from the 3rd century BC indicates that foreign relations were handled by the central government. Although individual Macedonian cities nominally participated in <a href="/wiki/Panhellenic">Panhellenic</a> events as independent entities, in reality, the granting of <i><a href="/wiki/Asylia">asylia</a></i> (inviolability, <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_immunity">diplomatic immunity</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Right_of_asylum">right of asylum</a> at <a href="/wiki/Sanctuaries">sanctuaries</a>) to certain cities was handled directly by the king.<sup><a href="#cite_note-258">[234]</a></sup> Likewise, the city-states within contemporary Greek <i><a href="/wiki/Koinon">koina</a></i> (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Federation">federations</a> of city-states, the <i><a href="/wiki/Sympoliteia">sympoliteia</a></i>) obeyed the federal decrees <a href="/wiki/Vote">voted</a> on collectively by the members of their league.<sup><a href="#cite_note-259">[note 25]</a></sup> In city-states belonging to a league or commonwealth, the granting of <i><a href="/wiki/Proxenia">proxenia</a></i> (i.e. the hosting of foreign ambassadors) was usually a right shared by local and central authorities.<sup><a href="#cite_note-260">[235]</a></sup> Abundant evidence exists for the granting of <i>proxenia</i> as being the sole <a href="/wiki/Prerogative">prerogative</a> of central authorities in the neighboring <a href="/wiki/Epirote_League">Epirote League</a>, and some evidence suggests the same arrangement in the Macedonian commonwealth.<sup><a href="#cite_note-261">[236]</a></sup> City-states that were <a href="/wiki/Alliance">allied</a> with Macedonia issued their own decrees regarding <i>proxenia</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-262">[237]</a></sup> Foreign leagues also formed alliances with the Macedonian kings, such as when the <a href="/wiki/Cretan_League">Cretan League</a> signed treaties with <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_II_Aetolicus">Demetrius II Aetolicus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_III_Doson">Antigonus III Doson</a> ensuring enlistment of Cretan mercenaries into the Macedonian army, and elected <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon">Philip V of Macedon</a> as honorary protector (<i><a href="/wiki/Prostates">prostates</a></i>) of the league.<sup><a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_242-263">[238]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Military</h3>
<div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Macedonian_Army_Pezetairos.jpg"></a></p></div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82_%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%87%D0%B5.jpg"></a></p></div></div>
<h4>Early Macedonian army</h4>
<p>The basic structure of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army">Ancient Macedonian army</a> was the division between the companion cavalry (<i><a href="/wiki/Hetairoi">hetairoi</a></i>) and the foot companions (<i><a href="/wiki/Pezhetairoi">pezhetairoi</a></i>), augmented by various allied troops, foreign levied soldiers, and mercenaries.<sup><a href="#cite_note-264">[239]</a></sup> The foot companions existed perhaps since the reign of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Macedon">Alexander I of Macedon</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-265">[240]</a></sup> Macedonian cavalry, wearing <a href="/wiki/Muscled_cuirass">muscled cuirasses</a>, became renowned in Greece during and after their involvement in the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War">Peloponnesian War</a>, at times siding with either Athens or Sparta.<sup><a href="#cite_note-266">[241]</a></sup> Macedonian infantry in this period consisted of poorly trained shepherds and farmers, while the cavalry was composed of noblemen.<sup><a href="#cite_note-267">[242]</a></sup> As evidenced by early 4th century BC artwork, there was a pronounced Spartan influence on the Macedonian army before Philip II.<sup><a href="#cite_note-sekunda_2010_449-268">[243]</a></sup> Nicholas Viktor Sekunda states that at the beginning of Philip II's reign in 359 BC, the Macedonian army consisted of 10,000 infantry and 600 cavalry,<sup><a href="#cite_note-sekunda_2010_448_449-269">[244]</a></sup> yet Malcolm Errington cautions that these figures cited by ancient authors should be treated with some skepticism.<sup><a href="#cite_note-270">[245]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Philip II and Alexander the Great</h4>
<p>After spending years as a political hostage in Thebes, Philip II sought to imitate the Greek example of <a href="/wiki/Military_exercise">martial exercises</a> and the issuing of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_military_personal_equipment">standard equipment</a> for citizen soldiery, and succeeded in transforming the Macedonian army from a levied force of unprofessional farmers into a well-trained, <a href="/wiki/Professional_army">professional army</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_238-271">[246]</a></sup> Philip II adopted some of the <a href="/wiki/Military_tactics">military tactics</a> of his enemies, such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Embolon">embolon</a></i> (flying wedge) cavalry formation of the <a href="/wiki/Scythia">Scythians</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-sekunda_2010_451-272">[247]</a></sup> His infantry wielded <i>peltai</i> shields that replaced the earlier <i><a href="/wiki/Aspis">aspis</a></i>-style shields, were equipped with <a href="/wiki/Greek_helmet_(disambiguation)">protective helmets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greave">greaves</a>, and either <a href="/wiki/Cuirass">cuirasses</a> <a href="/wiki/Breastplate">breastplates</a> or <i><a href="/wiki/Kotthybos">kotthybos</a></i> stomach bands, and armed with <i><a href="/wiki/Sarissa">sarissa</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Pike_(weapon)">pikes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dagger">daggers</a> as secondary weapons.<sup><a href="#cite_note-273">[note 26]</a></sup> The elite <i><a href="/wiki/Hypaspistai">hypaspistai</a></i> infantry, composed of handpicked men from the ranks of the <i>pezhetairoi</i>, were formed during the reign of Philip II and saw continued use during the reign of Alexander the Great.<sup><a href="#cite_note-274">[248]</a></sup> Philip II was also responsible for the establishment of the royal bodyguards (<i><a href="/wiki/Somatophylakes">somatophylakes</a></i>).<sup><a href="#cite_note-sekunda_2010_452-275">[249]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Agios_Athanasios_1_fresco.jpg"></a></p></div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Agios-Athanasios.jpg"></a></p></div></div>
<p>For his lighter missile troops, Philip II employed mercenary <a href="/wiki/Cretan_archers">Cretan archers</a> as well as Thracian, Paeonian, and Illyrian <a href="/wiki/Javelin">javelin</a> throwers, <a href="/wiki/Sling_(weapon)">slingers</a>, and archers.<sup><a href="#cite_note-276">[250]</a></sup> He hired engineers such as <a href="/wiki/Polyidus_of_Thessaly">Polyidus of Thessaly</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diades_of_Pella">Diades of Pella</a>, who were capable of building <a href="/wiki/State_of_the_art">state of the art</a> <a href="/wiki/Siege_engine">siege engines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Artillery">artillery</a> that fired large <a href="/wiki/Crossbow_bolt">bolts</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-sekunda_2010_451-272">[247]</a></sup> Following the acquisition of the lucrative mines at <a href="/wiki/Krinides">Krinides</a> (renamed <a href="/wiki/Philippi">Philippi</a>), the royal treasury could afford to field a permanent, professional <a href="/wiki/Standing_army">standing army</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-277">[251]</a></sup> The increase in state revenues under Philip II allowed the Macedonians to build a small navy for the first time, which included <a href="/wiki/Trireme">triremes</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-278">[252]</a></sup>
</p><p>The only Macedonian cavalry units attested under Alexander were the companion cavalry,<sup><a href="#cite_note-sekunda_2010_452-275">[249]</a></sup> yet he formed a <i><a href="/wiki/Hipparchus_(cavalry_officer)">hipparchia</a></i> (i.e. unit of a few hundred horsemen) of companion cavalry composed entirely of ethnic <a href="/wiki/Persian_people">Persians</a> while campaigning in Asia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-sekunda_2010_453-279">[253]</a></sup> When marching his forces into Asia, Alexander brought 1,800 cavalrymen from Macedonia, 1,800 <a href="/wiki/Thessalian_cavalry">cavalrymen from Thessaly</a>, 600 cavalrymen from the rest of Greece, and 900 <i><a href="/wiki/Prodromoi">prodromoi</a></i> cavalry from <a href="/wiki/Thrace">Thrace</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-sekunda_2010_454-280">[254]</a></sup> Antipater was able to quickly raise a force of 600 native Macedonian cavalry to fight in the <a href="/wiki/Lamian_War">Lamian War</a> when it began in 323 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-sekunda_2010_454-280">[254]</a></sup> The most elite members of Alexander's <i>hypaspistai</i> were designated as the <i><a href="/wiki/Agema">agema</a></i>, and a new term for <i>hypaspistai</i> emerged after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gaugamela">Battle of Gaugamela</a> in 331 BC: the <i><a href="/wiki/Argyraspides">argyraspides</a></i> (silver shields).<sup><a href="#cite_note-281">[255]</a></sup> The latter continued to serve after the reign of Alexander the Great and may have been of Asian origin.<sup><a href="#cite_note-282">[note 27]</a></sup> Overall, his pike-wielding phalanx infantry numbered some 12,000 men, 3,000 of which were elite <i>hypaspistai</i> and 9,000 of which were <i>pezhetairoi</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-283">[note 28]</a></sup> Alexander continued the use of Cretan archers and introduced native Macedonian archers into the army.<sup><a href="#cite_note-sekunda_2010_458_459-284">[256]</a></sup> After the Battle of Gaugamela, archers of West Asian backgrounds became commonplace.<sup><a href="#cite_note-sekunda_2010_458_459-284">[256]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Antigonid period military</h4>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Thueros_affresco.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Antigonid_Macedonian_army">The Macedonian army</a> continued to evolve under the <a href="/wiki/Antigonid_dynasty">Antigonid dynasty</a>. It is uncertain how many men were appointed as <i>somatophylakes</i>, which numbered eight men at the end of Alexander the Great's reign, while the <i>hypaspistai</i> seem to have morphed into assistants of the <i>somatophylakes</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-285">[note 29]</a></sup> At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cynoscephalae">Battle of Cynoscephalae</a> in 197 BC, the Macedonians commanded some 16,000 phalanx pikemen.<sup><a href="#cite_note-sekunda_2010_461-286">[257]</a></sup> Alexander the Great's royal squadron of companion cavalry contained 800 men, the same number of cavalrymen in the sacred squadron (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language">Latin</a>: <i>sacra ala</i>; <a href="/wiki/Greek_language">Greek</a>: <i>hiera ile</i>) commanded by <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon">Philip V of Macedon</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Social_War_(220%E2%80%93217_BC)">Social War</a> of 219 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-sekunda_2010_460-287">[258]</a></sup> The regular Macedonian cavalry numbered 3,000 at Callinicus, which was separate from the sacred squadron and royal cavalry.<sup><a href="#cite_note-sekunda_2010_460-287">[258]</a></sup> While Macedonian cavalry of the 4th century BC had fought without shields, the use of shields by cavalry was adopted from the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_settlement_of_Eastern_Europe">Celtic invaders</a> of the 270s BC who settled in <a href="/wiki/Galatia">Galatia</a>, central Anatolia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-288">[259]</a></sup>
</p><p>Thanks to <a href="/wiki/Military_Decree_of_Amphipolis">contemporary inscriptions</a> from Amphipolis and Greia dated 218 and 181 BC, respectively, historians have been able to partially piece together the organization of the Antigonid army under Philip V.<sup><a href="#cite_note-289">[note 30]</a></sup> From at least the time of <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_III_Doson">Antigonus III Doson</a>, the most elite Antigonid-period infantry were the <a href="/wiki/Peltast">peltasts</a>, lighter and more maneuverable soldiers wielding <i>peltai</i> <a href="/wiki/Javelin">javelins</a>, swords, and a smaller bronze shield than <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_phalanx">Macedonian phalanx</a> pikemen, although they sometimes served in that capacity.<sup><a href="#cite_note-290">[note 31]</a></sup> Among the peltasts, roughly 2,000 men were selected to serve in the elite <i>agema</i> <a href="/wiki/Vanguard">vanguard</a>, with other peltasts numbering roughly 3,000.<sup><a href="#cite_note-sekunda_2010_462-291">[260]</a></sup> The number of peltasts varied over time, perhaps never more than 5,000 men.<sup><a href="#cite_note-292">[note 32]</a></sup> They fought alongside the phalanx pikemen, divided now into <i><a href="/wiki/Chalkaspides">chalkaspides</a></i> (bronze shield) and <i><a href="/wiki/Leukaspides">leukaspides</a></i> (white shield) regiments.<sup><a href="#cite_note-293">[261]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Antigonid Macedonian kings continued to expand and equip <a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels">the navy</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-294">[262]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cassander">Cassander</a> maintained <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic-era_warships">a small fleet</a> at <a href="/wiki/Pydna">Pydna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Macedon">Demetrius I of Macedon</a> had one at Pella, and <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_II_Gonatas">Antigonus II Gonatas</a>, while serving as a general for Demetrius in Greece, used the navy to secure the Macedonian holdings in <a href="/wiki/Demetrias">Demetrias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chalkis">Chalkis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Piraeus">Piraeus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Corinth">Corinth</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_248-295">[263]</a></sup> The navy was considerably expanded during the <a href="/wiki/Chremonidean_War">Chremonidean War</a> (267–261 BC), allowing the Macedonian navy to defeat the Ptolemaic Egyptian navy at the 255 BC <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cos">Battle of Cos</a> and 245 BC <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Andros_(246_BC)">Battle of Andros</a>, and enabling Macedonian influence to spread over the <a href="/wiki/Cyclades">Cyclades</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_248-295">[263]</a></sup> Antigonus III Doson used the Macedonian navy to invade <a href="/wiki/Caria">Caria</a>, while Philip V sent 200 ships to fight in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chios_(201_BC)">Battle of Chios</a> in 201 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_248-295">[263]</a></sup> The Macedonian navy was reduced to a mere six vessels as agreed in the 197 BC <a href="/wiki/Peace_treaty">peace treaty</a> that concluded the <a href="/wiki/Second_Macedonian_War">Second Macedonian War</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic">Roman Republic</a>, although <a href="/wiki/Perseus_of_Macedon">Perseus of Macedon</a> quickly assembled some <i><a href="/wiki/Lemboi">lemboi</a></i> at the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Third_Macedonian_War">Third Macedonian War</a> in 171 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_248-295">[263]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Society and culture</h2>
<div><div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Relief_inscribed_stele,_mid_4th_century_B.C.,_Archaeological_Museum_of_Thessaloniki.jpg"></a></p></div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Marble_cult_statue_of_Aphrodite_Hypolympidia,_from_the_santuary_of_Isis,_2nd_c._BC,_Archaeological_Museum,_Dion_(7079958443).jpg"></a></p></div></div><div><p>Left, a Macedonian funerary <a href="/wiki/Stele">stele</a>, with an <a href="/wiki/Epigram">epigram</a> in <a href="/wiki/Greek_language">Greek</a>, mid-4th century BC, <a href="/wiki/Vergina">Vergina</a>. Right, marble cult statue of <a href="/wiki/Aphrodite">Aphrodite Hypolympidia</a>, dated 2nd century BC, from the sanctuary of <a href="/wiki/Isis">Isis</a> at <a href="/wiki/Dion,_Pieria">Dion, Pieria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_Macedonia">Central Macedonia</a>, Greece, now in the <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Dion">Archaeological Museum of Dion</a>.</p></div></div>
<h3>Language and dialects</h3>
<p>Following its adoption as the court language of <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a>'s regime, authors of ancient Macedonia wrote their works in <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek">Koine Greek</a>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca">lingua franca</a></i> of late <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece">Classical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Greece">Hellenistic Greece</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-296">[note 33]</a></sup> Rare textual evidence indicates that the native Macedonian language was either a dialect of <a href="/wiki/Greek_language">Greek</a> similar to <a href="/wiki/Thessalian_Greek">Thessalian Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_Greek">Northwestern Greek</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-297">[note 34]</a></sup> or a <a href="/wiki/Hellenic_languages">language closely related to Greek</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-298">[note 35]</a></sup> The vast majority of surviving inscriptions from ancient Macedonia were written in <a href="/wiki/Attic_Greek">Attic Greek</a> and its successor Koine.<sup><a href="#cite_note-299">[264]</a></sup> Attic (and later Koine) Greek was the preferred language of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army">Ancient Macedonian army</a>, although it is known that Alexander the Great once shouted an emergency order in Macedonian to his royal guards during the <a href="/wiki/Symposium">drinking party</a> where he killed <a href="/wiki/Cleitus_the_Black">Cleitus the Black</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-engels_2010_95-300">[265]</a></sup> Macedonian became <a href="/wiki/Extinct_language">extinct</a> in either the Hellenistic or the Roman period, and entirely replaced by Koine Greek.<sup><a href="#cite_note-engels_2010_94-301">[266]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-302">[note 36]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Religious beliefs and funerary practices</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:The_Abduction_of_Persephone_by_Pluto,_Amphipolis.jpg"></a></p></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Lion_of_Amphipolis_BW_2017-10-05_09-38-25.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>By the 5th century BC, the Macedonians and the southern Greeks worshiped more or less the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_mythological_figures">same deities of the Greek pantheon</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-304">[268]</a></sup> In Macedonia, political and religious offices were often intertwined. For instance, the head of state for the city of Amphipolis also served as the priest of <a href="/wiki/Asklepios">Asklepios</a>, Greek god of medicine; a similar arrangement existed at <a href="/wiki/Cassandreia">Cassandreia</a>, where a cult priest honoring the city's founder <a href="/wiki/Cassander">Cassander</a> was the nominal head of the city.<sup><a href="#cite_note-305">[269]</a></sup> The main sanctuary of <a href="/wiki/Zeus">Zeus</a> was maintained at <a href="/wiki/Dion,_Pieria">Dion</a>, while another at <a href="/wiki/Veria">Veria</a> was dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Herakles">Herakles</a> and was patronized by <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_II_Aetolicus">Demetrius II Aetolicus</a> (<abbr>r.</abbr> 239–229 BC).<sup><a href="#cite_note-306">[270]</a></sup> Meanwhile, foreign <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion">cults from Egypt</a> were fostered by the royal court, such as the temple of <a href="/wiki/Sarapis">Sarapis</a> at Thessaloniki.<sup><a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_226-307">[271]</a></sup> The Macedonians also had relations with "international" cults; for example, Macedonian kings <a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Macedon">Philip III of Macedon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_IV_of_Macedon">Alexander IV of Macedon</a> made <a href="/wiki/Votive_offering">votive offerings</a> to the internationally esteemed <a href="/wiki/Samothrace_temple_complex">Samothrace temple complex</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Cabeiri">Cabeiri</a> <a href="/wiki/Mystery_cult">mystery cult</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_226-307">[271]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the three royal tombs at <a href="/wiki/Vergina">Vergina</a>, professional painters decorated the walls with a mythological scene of <a href="/wiki/Hades">Hades</a> abducting <a href="/wiki/Persephone">Persephone</a> and royal hunting scenes, while lavish <a href="/wiki/Grave_goods">grave goods</a> including <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_military_personal_equipment">weapons, armor</a>, drinking vessels, and personal items were housed with the dead, whose bones <a href="/wiki/Cremation">were burned</a> before <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_funeral_and_burial_practices">burial in golden coffins</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-308">[272]</a></sup> Some grave goods and decorations were common in other Macedonian tombs, yet some items found at Vergina were distinctly tied to royalty, including a <a href="/wiki/Diadem">diadem</a>, luxurious goods, and arms and armor.<sup><a href="#cite_note-309">[273]</a></sup> Scholars have debated about the identity of the tomb occupants since <a href="/wiki/Manolis_Andronikos">the discovery</a> of their remains in 1977–1978,<sup><a href="#cite_note-310">[274]</a></sup> and recent research and forensic examination have concluded that at least one of the persons buried was Philip II.<sup><a href="#cite_note-311">[note 37]</a></sup> Located near Tomb 1 are the above-ground ruins of a <i><a href="/wiki/Heroon">heroon</a></i>, a shrine for <a href="/wiki/Cult_(religion)">cult worship</a> of the dead.<sup><a href="#cite_note-312">[275]</a></sup> In 2014, the ancient Macedonian <a href="/wiki/Kasta_Tomb">Kasta Tomb</a> was discovered outside of Amphipolis and is the largest ancient tomb found in Greece (as of 2017).<sup><a href="#cite_note-313">[276]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Economics and social class</h3>
<p>Young Macedonian men were typically expected to engage in <a href="/wiki/Hunting">hunting</a> and martial combat as a by-product of their <a href="/wiki/Transhumance">transhumance</a> lifestyle of herding <a href="/wiki/Livestock">livestock</a> such as goats and sheep, while <a href="/wiki/Horse_breeding">horse breeding</a> and raising <a href="/wiki/Cattle">cattle</a> were other common pursuits.<sup><a href="#cite_note-314">[277]</a></sup> Some Macedonians engaged in farming, often with <a href="/wiki/Irrigation">irrigation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Land_reclamation">land reclamation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Horticulture">horticulture</a> activities supported by the Macedonian state.<sup><a href="#cite_note-315">[note 38]</a></sup> The Macedonian economy and state finances were mainly supported by <a href="/wiki/Logging">logging</a> and by <a href="/wiki/Mining">mining</a> valuable <a href="/wiki/Mineral">minerals</a> such as copper, iron, gold, and silver.<sup><a href="#cite_note-316">[278]</a></sup> The conversion of these raw materials into finished products and the sale of those products encouraged the growth of urban centers and a gradual shift away from the traditional rustic Macedonian lifestyle during the course of the 5th century BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-hatzopoulos_2011a_48-317">[279]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Macedonian king was an <a href="/wiki/Autocracy">autocratic</a> figure at the head of both government and society, with arguably unlimited authority to handle affairs of state and public policy, but he was also the leader of a very personal regime with close relationships or connections to his <i><a href="/wiki/Hetairoi">hetairoi</a></i>, the core of the Macedonian <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy">aristocracy</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-318">[280]</a></sup> These aristocrats were second only to the king in terms of power and privilege, filling the ranks of his administration and serving as commanding officers in the military.<sup><a href="#cite_note-anson_2010_10-319">[281]</a></sup> It was in the more bureaucratic regimes of the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_kingdoms">Hellenistic kingdoms</a> that succeeded Alexander the Great's empire where greater <a href="/wiki/Social_mobility">social mobility</a> for members of society seeking to join the aristocracy could be found, especially in Ptolemaic Egypt.<sup><a href="#cite_note-320">[282]</a></sup> Although governed by a king and martial aristocracy, Macedonia seems to have lacked the widespread <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery">use of slaves</a> seen in contemporaneous Greek states.<sup><a href="#cite_note-321">[283]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Visual arts</h3>
<div><div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Fresco_of_a_Macedonian_soldier,_from_the_Tomb_of_Agios_Athanasios,_4th_century_BC.jpg"></a></p></div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient_Mieza,_Macedonian_tombs_of_Lefkadia,_The_Tomb_of_Jugdement_545fddcedb8f434cdb346f41dbd838ec.jpg"></a></p></div></div><div><p>Left, a fresco of a <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army">Macedonian soldier</a> resting a spear and <a href="/wiki/Kausia">wearing a cap</a>, from the tomb of <a href="/wiki/Agios_Athanasios,_Thessaloniki">Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki</a>, 4th century BC. Right, fresco from the <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Judgement,_Lefkadia">Tomb of Judgement</a> in ancient <a href="/wiki/Mieza,_Macedonia">Mieza</a> (modern-day Lefkadia), <a href="/wiki/Imathia">Imathia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_Macedonia">Central Macedonia</a>, Greece, depicting religious imagery of <a href="/wiki/Greek_underworld">the afterlife</a>, 4th century BC.</p></div></div>
<p>By the reign of <a href="/wiki/Archelaus_I_of_Macedon">Archelaus I</a> in the 5th century BC, the ancient Macedonian elite was importing customs and artistic traditions from other regions of Greece while retaining more archaic, perhaps <a href="/wiki/Homer">Homeric</a>, funerary rites connected with the <a href="/wiki/Symposium">symposium</a> that were typified by items such as the decorative metal <a href="/wiki/Krater">kraters</a> that held the ashes of deceased Macedonian nobility in their tombs.<sup><a href="#cite_note-hardiman_2010_515-322">[284]</a></sup> Among these is the large bronze <a href="/wiki/Derveni_Krater">Derveni Krater</a> from a 4th-century BC tomb of Thessaloniki, decorated with scenes of the Greek god <a href="/wiki/Dionysus">Dionysus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cult_of_Dionysus">his entourage</a> and belonging to an aristocrat who had had a military career.<sup><a href="#cite_note-323">[285]</a></sup> Macedonian <a href="/wiki/Metalwork">metalwork</a> usually followed <a href="/wiki/Pottery_of_ancient_Greece">Athenian styles of vase shapes</a> from the 6th century BC onward, with drinking vessels, jewellery, containers, crowns, <a href="/wiki/Diadem">diadems</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_coinage">coins</a> among the many metal objects found in Macedonian tombs.<sup><a href="#cite_note-hardiman_2010_517-324">[286]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Lion_hunt_mosaic_from_Pella.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Surviving Macedonian painted artwork includes <a href="/wiki/Fresco">frescoes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mural">murals</a>, but also decoration on <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_sculpture">sculpted artwork</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Statue">statues</a> and <a href="/wiki/Relief">reliefs</a>. For instance, trace colors still exist on the <a href="/wiki/Bas-relief">bas-reliefs</a> of the late 4th-century BC <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Sarcophagus">Alexander Sarcophagus</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-326">[288]</a></sup> Macedonian paintings have allowed historians to investigate the clothing fashions as well as military gear worn by the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians">ancient Macedonians</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-327">[289]</a></sup> Aside from metalwork and painting, <a href="/wiki/Mosaic">mosaics</a> are another significant form of surviving Macedonian artwork.<sup><a href="#cite_note-hardiman_2010_517-324">[286]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Stag_Hunt_Mosaic">Stag Hunt Mosaic</a> of Pella, with its three-dimensional qualities and illusionist style, show clear influence from painted artwork and wider Hellenistic art trends, although the rustic theme of hunting was tailored to Macedonian tastes.<sup><a href="#cite_note-hardiman_2010_518-328">[290]</a></sup> The similar Lion Hunt Mosaic of Pella illustrates either a scene of Alexander the Great with his companion <a href="/wiki/Craterus">Craterus</a>, or simply a conventional illustration of the royal diversion of hunting.<sup><a href="#cite_note-hardiman_2010_518-328">[290]</a></sup> Mosaics with mythological themes include scenes of Dionysus riding a panther and <a href="/wiki/Helen_of_Troy">Helen of Troy</a> being abducted by <a href="/wiki/Theseus">Theseus</a>, the latter of which employs illusionist qualities and realistic shading similar to Macedonian paintings.<sup><a href="#cite_note-hardiman_2010_518-328">[290]</a></sup> Common themes of Macedonian paintings and mosaics include warfare, hunting, and aggressive masculine sexuality (i.e. abduction of women for rape or marriage); these subjects are at times combined within a single work and perhaps indicate a metaphorical connection.<sup><a href="#cite_note-329">[note 39]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Theatre, music and performing arts</h3>
<p>Philip II was assassinated in 336 BC at the theatre of <a href="/wiki/Aegae_(Macedonia)">Aigai</a>, amid games and spectacles celebrating the marriage of his daughter <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_of_Macedon">Cleopatra</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-muller_2010_182-330">[291]</a></sup> Alexander the Great was allegedly a great admirer of both theatre and music.<sup><a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_224-331">[292]</a></sup> He was especially fond of the <a href="/wiki/Play_(theatre)">plays</a> by <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athenian">Classical Athenian</a> <a href="/wiki/Tragedian">tragedians</a> <a href="/wiki/Aeschylus">Aeschylus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sophocles">Sophocles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Euripides">Euripides</a>, whose works formed part of a proper <a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Greece">Greek education</a> for his new eastern subjects alongside studies in the Greek language, including the <a href="/wiki/Epic_Cycle">epics</a> of <a href="/wiki/Homer">Homer</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-worthington_2014_186-332">[293]</a></sup> While he and his army were stationed at <a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon">Tyre</a> (in modern-day Lebanon), Alexander had his generals act as judges not only for athletic contests but also for stage performances of Greek tragedies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-333">[294]</a></sup> The contemporaneous famous actors <a href="/wiki/Thessalus_(actor)">Thessalus</a> and Athenodorus performed at the event.<sup><a href="#cite_note-334">[note 40]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/History_of_music">Music</a> was also appreciated in Macedonia. In addition to the <a href="/wiki/Agora">agora</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Gymnasium_(ancient_Greece)">gymnasium</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Theatre">theatre</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Religious_sanctuary">religious sanctuaries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_temple">temples</a> dedicated to Greek gods and goddesses, one of the main markers of a true Greek city in the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Alexander_the_Great">empire of Alexander the Great</a> was the presence of an <a href="/wiki/Odeon_(building)">odeon</a> for <a href="/wiki/Concert">musical performances</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-worthington_2014_183_186-335">[295]</a></sup> This was the case not only for <a href="/wiki/Alexandria">Alexandria</a> in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt">Egypt</a>, but also for cities as distant as <a href="/wiki/Ai-Khanoum">Ai-Khanoum</a> in what is now modern-day <a href="/wiki/History_of_Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-worthington_2014_183_186-335">[295]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Literature, education, philosophy, and patronage</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Aristoteles_Louvre.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Perdiccas_II_of_Macedon">Perdiccas II of Macedon</a> was able to host well-known Classical Greek intellectual visitors at his royal court, such as the lyric poet <a href="/wiki/Melanippides">Melanippides</a> and the renowned medical doctor <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pindar">Pindar</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Encomium">enkomion</a></i> written for <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Macedon">Alexander I of Macedon</a> may have been composed at his court.<sup><a href="#cite_note-336">[296]</a></sup> Archelaus I received many more Greek scholars, artists, and celebrities at his court than his predecessors.<sup><a href="#cite_note-337">[297]</a></sup> His honored guests included the <a href="/wiki/History_of_painting#Egypt,_Greece_and_Rome">painter</a> <a href="/wiki/Zeuxis_(painter)">Zeuxis</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_architecture">architect</a> <a href="/wiki/Callimachus_(sculptor)">Callimachus</a>, the poets <a href="/wiki/Choerilus_of_Samos">Choerilus of Samos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Timotheus_of_Miletus">Timotheus of Miletus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Agathon">Agathon</a>, as well as the famous Athenian <a href="/wiki/Playwright">playwright</a> <a href="/wiki/Euripides">Euripides</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-338">[note 41]</a></sup> The philosopher <a href="/wiki/Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, who studied at the <a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy">Platonic Academy</a> of Athens and established the <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism">Aristotelian school of thought</a>, moved to Macedonia, and is said to have tutored the young Alexander the Great, as well as serving as an esteemed diplomat for Philip II.<sup><a href="#cite_note-339">[298]</a></sup> Among Alexander's retinue of artists, writers, and philosophers was <a href="/wiki/Pyrrho_of_Elis">Pyrrho of Elis</a>, founder of <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a>, the school of <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism">philosophical skepticism</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-worthington_2014_186-332">[293]</a></sup> During the Antigonid period, <a href="/wiki/Antigonos_Gonatas">Antigonos Gonatas</a> fostered cordial relationships with <a href="/wiki/Menedemos_of_Eretria">Menedemos of Eretria</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school">Eretrian school</a> of philosophy, and <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium">Zenon</a>, the founder of <a href="/wiki/Stoicism">Stoicism</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_224-331">[292]</a></sup>
</p><p>In terms of early <a href="/wiki/Greek_historiography">Greek historiography</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Roman_historiography">Roman historiography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Felix_Jacoby">Felix Jacoby</a> identified thirteen possible ancient <a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_historiographers">historians</a> who wrote about Macedonia in his <i><a href="/wiki/Fragmente_der_griechischen_Historiker">Fragmente der griechischen Historiker</a></i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Rhodes_2010_23-340">[299]</a></sup> Aside from accounts in <a href="/wiki/Herodotus">Herodotus</a> and Thucydides, the works compiled by Jacoby are only fragmentary, whereas other works are completely lost, such as the history of an <a href="/wiki/Illyria">Illyrian</a> war fought by <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas_III_of_Macedon">Perdiccas III</a> written by Antipater.<sup><a href="#cite_note-341">[300]</a></sup> The Macedonian historians <a href="/wiki/Marsyas_of_Pella">Marsyas of Pella</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marsyas_of_Philippi">Marsyas of Philippi</a> wrote histories of Macedonia, the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt">Ptolemaic</a> king <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter">Ptolemy I Soter</a> authored a history about Alexander, and <a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_of_Cardia">Hieronymus of Cardia</a> wrote a history about Alexander's royal successors.<sup><a href="#cite_note-342">[note 42]</a></sup> Following the <a href="/wiki/Indian_campaign_of_Alexander_the_Great">Indian campaign of Alexander the Great</a>, the Macedonian military officer <a href="/wiki/Nearchus">Nearchus</a> wrote a work of his <a href="/wiki/Travel_literature">voyage</a> from the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/Indus_river">Indus river</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Errington_1990_225-343">[301]</a></sup> The Macedonian <a href="/wiki/Craterus_(historian)">historian Craterus</a> published a compilation of decrees made by <a href="/wiki/Ecclesia_(ancient_Athens)">the popular assembly</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Athenian_democracy">Athenian democracy</a>, ostensibly while attending the school of Aristotle.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Errington_1990_225-343">[301]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon">Philip V of Macedon</a> had manuscripts of the history of Philip II written by <a href="/wiki/Theopompus">Theopompus</a> gathered by his court scholars and disseminated with further copies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_224-331">[292]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Sports and leisure</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Hades_and_Persephone,_Vergina.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>When Alexander I of Macedon petitioned to compete in the <a href="/wiki/Foot_race">foot race</a> of the ancient Olympic Games, the event organizers at first denied his request, explaining that only Greeks were allowed to compete. However, Alexander I produced proof of an Argead royal <a href="/wiki/Genealogy">genealogy</a> showing ancient <a href="/wiki/Argive">Argive</a> <a href="/wiki/Temenid">Temenid</a> lineage, a move that ultimately convinced the Olympic <i><a href="/wiki/Hellanodikai">Hellanodikai</a></i> authorities of his Greek descent and ability to compete.<sup><a href="#cite_note-344">[302]</a></sup> By the end of the 5th century BC, the Macedonian king Archelaus I was crowned with the <a href="/wiki/Olive_wreath">olive wreath</a> at both <a href="/wiki/Olympia,_Greece">Olympia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Delphi">Delphi</a> (in the <a href="/wiki/Pythian_Games">Pythian Games</a>) for winning <a href="/wiki/Chariot_racing">chariot racing</a> contests.<sup><a href="#cite_note-hatzopoulos_2011b_59-345">[303]</a></sup> Philip II allegedly heard of the Olympic victory of his horse (in either an individual <a href="/wiki/Horse_race">horse race</a> or chariot race) on the same day his son Alexander the Great was born, on either 19 or 20 July 356 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-346">[304]</a></sup> Non-royal Macedonians also competed in and won various Olympic contests by the 4th century BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-347">[305]</a></sup> In addition to literary contests, Alexander the Great staged <a href="/wiki/Music_competition">competitions for music</a> and athletics across his empire.<sup><a href="#cite_note-worthington_2014_186-332">[293]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Dining and cuisine</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Banquet,_tombe_d%27Agios_Athanasios.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Ancient Macedonia produced only a few fine foods or beverages that were highly appreciated elsewhere in the Greek world, including <a href="/wiki/Eel">eels</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Strymonian_Gulf">Strymonian Gulf</a> and special <a href="/wiki/History_of_wine">wine</a> produced in <a href="/wiki/Chalcidice">Chalcidice</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-dalby_1997_157-349">[307]</a></sup> The earliest known use of flat bread as a plate for meat was made in Macedonia during the 3rd century BC, which perhaps influenced the later <a href="/wiki/Trencher_(tableware)">trencher bread</a> of <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Europe">medieval Europe</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-dalby_1997_157-349">[307]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cattle">Cattle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Goat">goats</a> were consumed, although there was no notice of Macedonian mountain <a href="/wiki/History_of_cheese">cheeses</a> in literature until the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-dalby_1997_157-349">[307]</a></sup> The comedic playwright <a href="/wiki/Menander">Menander</a> wrote that Macedonian dining habits penetrated <a href="/wiki/History_of_Athens">Athenian</a> high society; for instance, the introduction of meats into the <a href="/wiki/Dessert">dessert</a> course of a meal.<sup><a href="#cite_note-350">[308]</a></sup> The Macedonians also most likely introduced <i>mattye</i> to Athenian cuisine, a dish usually made of chicken or other spiced, salted, and sauced meats served <a href="/wiki/Full_course_dinner">during the wine course</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-351">[309]</a></sup> This particular dish was derided and connected with licentiousness and drunkenness in a play by the Athenian comic poet <a href="/wiki/Alexis_(poet)">Alexis</a> about the declining morals of Athenians in the age of <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Macedon">Demetrius I of Macedon</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-352">[310]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Symposium">symposium</a></i> in the Macedonian and wider Greek realm was a banquet for the nobility and privileged class, an occasion for feasting, drinking, entertainment, and sometimes <a href="/wiki/Symposium_(Plato)">philosophical discussion</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-353">[311]</a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Hetairoi">hetairoi</a></i>, leading members of the Macedonian <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy">aristocracy</a>, were expected to attend such feasts with their king.<sup><a href="#cite_note-anson_2010_10-319">[281]</a></sup> They were also expected to accompany him on royal hunts for the acquisition of <a href="/wiki/Game_meat">game meat</a> as well as for sport.<sup><a href="#cite_note-anson_2010_10-319">[281]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Ethnic identity</h3>
<div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Macedonian_boy_BM_1906.10-19.1.jpg"></a></p><p>Athenian terracotta figurine, c. 300 BC.</p></div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Terrakota_Statue_eines_Makedoniers_3_Jhdt_v_Chr.jpg"></a></p><p>Macedonian terracotta figurine, 3rd century BC</p></div></div>
<p>Ancient authors and modern scholars alike disagree about the ethnic identity of the ancient Macedonians. <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Badian">Ernst Badian</a> notes that nearly all surviving references to antagonisms and differences between Greeks and Macedonians exist in the written speeches of <a href="/wiki/Arrian">Arrian</a>, who lived at the time of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire">Roman Empire</a>, when any notion of an ethnic disparity between Macedonians and other Greeks was incomprehensible.<sup><a href="#cite_note-355">[313]</a></sup> Hatzopoulos argues that there was no real ethnic difference between Macedonians and Greeks, only a political distinction contrived after the creation of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth">League of Corinth</a> in 337 BC (which was led by Macedonia through the league's elected <i><a href="/wiki/Hegemon">hegemon</a></i> Philip II, when he was not a member of the league itself),<sup><a href="#cite_note-356">[note 43]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/N._G._L._Hammond">N. G. L. Hammond</a> asserts that ancient views differentiating Macedonia's ethnic identity from the rest of the Greek-speaking world should be seen as an expression of conflict between two different political systems: the democratic system of the city-states (e.g. Athens) versus the monarchy (Macedonia).<sup><a href="#cite_note-357">[314]</a></sup> Other academics who concur that the difference between the Macedonians and Greeks was a political rather than a true ethnic discrepancy include Michael B. Sakellariou,<sup><a href="#cite_note-358">[315]</a></sup> Malcolm Errington,<sup><a href="#cite_note-359">[note 44]</a></sup> and Craige B. Champion.<sup><a href="#cite_note-360">[note 45]</a></sup>
</p><p>Anson argues that some Hellenic authors expressed complex or even ever-changing and ambiguous ideas about the exact ethnic identity of the Macedonians, who were considered by some such as <a href="/wiki/Aristotle">Aristotle</a> in his <i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> as barbarians and others as semi-Greek or fully Greek.<sup><a href="#cite_note-361">[note 46]</a></sup> Roger D. Woodard asserts that in addition to persisting uncertainty in modern times about the proper classification of the Macedonian language and its relation to Greek, ancient authors also presented conflicting ideas about the Macedonians.<sup><a href="#cite_note-362">[note 47]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Simon_Hornblower">Simon Hornblower</a> argues on the Greek identity of the Macedonians, taking into consideration their origin, language, cults and customs.<sup><a href="#cite_note-363">[316]</a></sup> Any preconceived ethnic differences between Greeks and Macedonians faded by 148 BC soon after the <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Wars">Roman conquest of Macedonia</a> and then <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(Roman_province)">the rest of Greece</a> with the defeat of the <a href="/wiki/Achaean_League">Achaean League</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic">Roman Republic</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Corinth_(146_BC)">Battle of Corinth (146 BC)</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-364">[317]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Technology and engineering</h2>
<h3>Architecture</h3>
<div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Fragment_of_painted_roof_tiles_(raking,_simas,_pan-tiles),_Archaeological_Museum,_Pella_(6919206262).jpg"></a></p></div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Ionic_pilaster_capital_from_the_palace,_Archaeological_Museum,_Pella_(6930003102).jpg"></a></p></div></div>
<p>Macedonian architecture, although utilizing a mixture of different forms and styles from the rest of Greece, did not represent a unique or diverging style from other <a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_ancient_Greece">ancient Greek architecture</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-hardiman_2010_518-328">[290]</a></sup> Among the <a href="/wiki/Classical_order">classical orders</a>, Macedonian architects favored the <a href="/wiki/Ionic_order">Ionic order</a>, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Peristyle">peristyle</a> courtyards of private homes.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Winter_2006_163-366">[319]</a></sup> There are several surviving examples, albeit in ruins, of Macedonian palatial architecture, including a <a href="/wiki/Palace">palace</a> at the site of the capital Pella, the summer residence of <a href="/wiki/Vergina">Vergina</a> near the old capital Aigai, and the royal residence at <a href="/wiki/Demetrias">Demetrias</a> near modern <a href="/wiki/Volos">Volos</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Winter_2006_163-366">[319]</a></sup> At Vergina, the ruins of three large <a href="/wiki/Banquet_hall">banquet halls</a> with marble-<a href="/wiki/Tile">tiled</a> floors (covered in the debris of <a href="/wiki/Roof_tiles">roof tiles</a>) with floor plan dimensions measuring roughly 16.7 x 17.6 m (54.8 x 57.7 ft) demonstrate perhaps the earliest examples of monumental <a href="/wiki/Timber_roof_trusses">triangular roof trusses</a>, if dated before the reign of <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_II_Gonatas">Antigonus II Gonatas</a> or even the onset of the Hellenistic period.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Winter_2006_164_165-367">[320]</a></sup> Later Macedonian architecture also featured <a href="/wiki/Arch">arches</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vault_(architecture)">vaults</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Winter_2006_165-368">[321]</a></sup> The palaces of both Vergina and Demetrias had walls made of sundried <a href="/wiki/Brick">bricks</a>, while the latter palace had four corner <a href="/wiki/Tower">towers</a> around a central courtyard in the manner of a fortified residence fit for a king or at least a military governor.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Winter_2006_163-366">[319]</a></sup>
</p><p>Macedonian rulers also sponsored works of architecture outside of Macedonia proper. For instance, following his victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chaeronea_(338_BC)">Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)</a>, Philip II raised a round memorial building at <a href="/wiki/Olympia,_Greece">Olympia</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Philippeion">Philippeion</a>, decorated inside with statues depicting him, his parents <a href="/wiki/Amyntas_III_of_Macedon">Amyntas III of Macedon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eurydice_I_of_Macedon">Eurydice I of Macedon</a>, his wife <a href="/wiki/Olympias">Olympias</a>, and his son Alexander the Great.<sup><a href="#cite_note-369">[322]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:20100913_Ancient_Theater_Marwneia_Rhodope_Greece_panoramic_3.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>The ruins of roughly twenty <a href="/wiki/Greek_theatre">Greek theatres</a> survive in the present-day <a href="/wiki/Decentralized_Administration_of_Macedonia_and_Thrace">regions of Macedonia and Thrace in Greece</a>: sixteen open-air theatres, three <a href="/wiki/Odeon_(building)">odea</a>, and a possible theatre in <a href="/wiki/Veria">Veria</a> undergoing excavation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-370">[323]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Military technology and engineering</h3>
<p>By the Hellenistic period, it became common for Greek states to finance the development and proliferation of ever more powerful <a href="/wiki/Torsion_siege_engine">torsion siege engines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare">naval ships</a>, and standardized designs for <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_military_personal_equipment">arms and armor</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-371">[324]</a></sup> Under Philip II and Alexander the Great, improvements were made to <a href="/wiki/Siege_artillery">siege artillery</a> such as bolt-shooting <a href="/wiki/Ballista">ballistae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siege_engine">siege engines</a> such as huge rolling <a href="/wiki/Siege_tower">siege towers</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-372">[325]</a></sup> E. W. Marsden and M. Y. Treister contend that the Macedonian rulers <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_I_Monophthalmus">Antigonus I Monophthalmus</a> and his successor <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Macedon">Demetrius I of Macedon</a> had the most powerful siege artillery of the Hellenistic world at the end of the 4th century BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-373">[326]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis_(306_BC)">The siege</a> of <a href="/wiki/Salamis,_Cyprus">Salamis, Cyprus</a>, in 306 BC necessitated the building of large siege engines and drafting of craftsmen from parts of <a href="/wiki/West_Asia">West Asia</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-treister_1996_376-374">[327]</a></sup> The siege tower commissioned by Demetrius I for the Macedonian <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Rhodes_(305%E2%80%93304_BC)">Siege of Rhodes (305–304 BC)</a> and defended by over three thousand soldiers was built at a height of nine <a href="/wiki/Storey">stories</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-humphrey_1998_pp570_571-375">[328]</a></sup> It had a base of 4,300 square feet (399 square metres), eight wheels that were steered in either direction by pivots, three sides covered in iron plates to protect them from fire, and mechanically opened windows (shielded with wool-stuffed leather curtains to soften the blow of ballistae rounds) of different sizes to accommodate the firing of missiles ranging from arrows to larger bolts.<sup><a href="#cite_note-humphrey_1998_pp570_571-375">[328]</a></sup>
</p><p>During the siege of <a href="/wiki/Echinus_(Phthiotis)">Echinus</a> by <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon">Philip V of Macedon</a> in 211 BC, the besiegers built <a href="/wiki/Mining_(military)">tunnels</a> to protect the soldiers and <a href="/wiki/Sapper">sappers</a> as they went back and forth from the camp to the siege works. These included two siege towers connected by a makeshift <a href="/wiki/Wickerwork">wickerwork</a> <a href="/wiki/Curtain_wall_(fortification)">curtain wall</a> mounted with stone-shooting ballistae, and sheds to protect the approach of the <a href="/wiki/Battering_ram">battering ram</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-376">[329]</a></sup> Despite the early reputation of Macedon as a leader in siege technology, <a href="/wiki/Alexandria">Alexandria</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt">Ptolemaic Egypt</a> became the center for technological improvements to the <a href="/wiki/Catapult">catapult</a> by the 3rd century BC, as evidenced by the writings of <a href="/wiki/Philo_of_Alexandria">Philo of Alexandria</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-treister_1996_376-374">[327]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Other innovations</h3>
<p>Although perhaps not as prolific as other areas of Greece in regards to technological innovations, there are some inventions that may have originated in Macedonia aside from siege engines and artillery. The <a href="/wiki/Rotation_around_a_fixed_axis">rotary-operated</a> <a href="/wiki/Olive_press">olive press</a> for producing <a href="/wiki/Olive_oil">olive oil</a> may have been invented in ancient Macedonia or another part of Greece, or even as far east as the <a href="/wiki/Levant">Levant</a> or <a href="/wiki/Anatolia">Anatolia</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-377">[330]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/History_of_glass">Mold-pressed glass</a> first appeared in Macedonia in the 4th century BC (although it could have simultaneously existed in the Achaemenid Empire); the first known clear, translucent glass pieces of the Greek world have been discovered in Macedonia and <a href="/wiki/Rhodes">Rhodes</a> and date to the second half of the 4th century BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-378">[331]</a></sup> Greek technical and <a href="/wiki/Scientific_literature">scientific literature</a> began with <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens">Classical Athens</a> in the 5th century BC, while the major production centers for technical innovation and texts during the Hellenistic period were <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhodian_school">Rhodes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pergamon">Pergamon</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-379">[332]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Currency, finances, and resources</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Mints_of_Alexander_the_Great_1.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Mint_(facility)">minting</a> of silver coinage began during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Macedon">Alexander I</a> as a means to pay for royal expenditures.<sup><a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_222-232">[215]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Archelaus_I_of_Macedon">Archelaus I</a> increased the silver content of his coins as well as minting copper coins to promote foreign and domestic commerce.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_156_157-47">[44]</a></sup> The minting of coinage significantly increased during the reigns of Philip II and Alexander the Great, especially after the increase in state revenues following the seizure of the <a href="/wiki/Pangaion_Hills">Pangaion Hills</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-380">[333]</a></sup> During the Hellenistic period the royal houses of Macedonia, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt">Ptolemaic Egypt</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pergamon">Kingdom of Pergamon</a> exercised <a href="/wiki/State_monopoly">full monopolistic control</a> over <a href="/wiki/Mining">mining</a> activities, largely to ensure the funding of their armies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-381">[334]</a></sup> By the end of the <a href="/wiki/Conquests_of_Alexander_the_Great">conquests of Alexander the Great</a>, nearly thirty mints stretching from Macedonia to <a href="/wiki/Babylon">Babylon</a> produced standard coins.<sup><a href="#cite_note-382">[335]</a></sup> The right to mint coins was shared by <a href="/wiki/Central_government">central</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Local_government">local governments</a>, i.e. the <a href="/wiki/Autonomous">autonomous</a> <a href="/wiki/Municipal_government">municipal governments</a> of Thessaloniki, Pella, and Amphipolis within the Macedonian <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth">commonwealth</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-383">[336]</a></sup> The Macedonians were also the first to issue different coins for <a href="/wiki/Circulation_(currency)">internal and external circulation</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-384">[337]</a></sup>
</p><p>State revenues were also raised by collecting <a href="/wiki/Produce">produce</a> from <a href="/wiki/Arable_land">arable lands</a>, timber from forests, and <a href="/wiki/Tax#History">taxes</a> on <a href="/wiki/Import">imports</a> and <a href="/wiki/Export">exports</a> at <a href="/wiki/Harbor">harbors</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-385">[338]</a></sup> Some mines, <a href="/wiki/Grove_(nature)">groves</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture">agricultural lands</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Logging">forests</a> belonging to the Macedonian state were exploited by the Macedonian king, although these were often <a href="/wiki/Lease">leased</a> as <a href="/wiki/Asset">assets</a> or given as <a href="/wiki/Grant_(money)">grants</a> to members of the <a href="/wiki/Nobility">nobility</a> such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Hetairoi">hetairoi</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Philoi">philoi</a></i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-386">[339]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Tariff">Tariffs</a> exacted on goods flowing in and out of Macedonian <a href="/wiki/Seaport">seaports</a> existed from at least the reign of <a href="/wiki/Amyntas_III_of_Macedon">Amyntas III</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Callistratus_of_Aphidnae">Callistratus of Aphidnae</a> (d. c. 350 BC) aided <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas_III_of_Macedon">Perdiccas III</a> in doubling the kingdom's annual profits on <a href="/wiki/Customs_duties">customs duties</a> from 20 to 40 <a href="/wiki/Talent_(measurement)">talents</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-387">[340]</a></sup>
</p><p>After the defeat of <a href="/wiki/Perseus_of_Macedon">Perseus</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pydna">Pydna</a> in 168 BC, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate">Roman Senate</a> allowed the reopening of iron and copper mines, but forbade the mining of gold and silver by the four newly established autonomous <a href="/wiki/Client_state">client states</a> that replaced the monarchy in Macedonia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-388">[341]</a></sup> The law may originally have been conceived by the Senate due to the fear that material wealth gained from gold and silver mining operations would allow the Macedonians to fund an armed rebellion.<sup><a href="#cite_note-389">[342]</a></sup> The Romans were perhaps also concerned with stemming <a href="/wiki/Inflation">inflation</a> caused by an increased <a href="/wiki/Money_supply">money supply</a> from Macedonian silver mining.<sup><a href="#cite_note-390">[343]</a></sup> The Macedonians continued minting silver coins between 167 and 148 BC (i.e. just before the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_province_of_Macedonia">Roman province of Macedonia</a>), and when the Romans lifted the ban on Macedonian silver mining in 158 BC it may simply have reflected the local reality of this illicit practice continuing regardless of the Senate's decree.<sup><a href="#cite_note-treister_1996_374_375-391">[344]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Legacy</h2>
<p>The reigns of Philip II and Alexander the Great witnessed the demise of Classical Greece and the birth of Hellenistic civilization, following the <a href="/wiki/Hellenization">spread of Greek culture</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Near_East">Near East</a> during and after Alexander's conquests.<sup><a href="#cite_note-392">[345]</a></sup> Macedonians then migrated to Egypt and parts of Asia, but the intensive <a href="/wiki/Colonization">colonization</a> of foreign lands sapped the available manpower in Macedonia proper, weakening the kingdom in its fight with other Hellenistic powers and contributing to its downfall and conquest by the Romans.<sup><a href="#cite_note-393">[346]</a></sup> However, the diffusion of Greek culture and language cemented by Alexander's conquests in West Asia and North Africa served as a "precondition" for the <a href="/wiki/Mithridatic_Wars">later Roman expansion</a> into these territories and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greeks">entire basis</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, according to Errington.<sup><a href="#cite_note-394">[347]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Issos_MAN_Napoli_Inv10020_n01.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>The ethnic Macedonian rulers of the Ptolemaic and Seleucid successor states accepted men from all over the Greek world as their <i>hetairoi</i> companions and did not foster a national identity like the Antigonids.<sup><a href="#cite_note-395">[348]</a></sup> Modern scholarship has focused on how these Hellenistic successor kingdoms were influenced more by their Macedonian origins than Eastern or southern Greek traditions.<sup><a href="#cite_note-396">[349]</a></sup> While <a href="/wiki/Spartan_Constitution">Spartan society</a> remained mostly insular and Athens continued placing <a href="/wiki/Solonian_Constitution">strict limitations on acquiring citizenship</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism">cosmopolitan</a> Hellenistic cities of Asia and northeastern Africa bore a greater resemblance to Macedonian cities and contained a mixture of subjects including natives, Greek and Macedonian colonists, and Greek-speaking Hellenized Easterners, many of whom were the product of intermarriage between Greeks and native populations.<sup><a href="#cite_note-397">[350]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Deification">deification</a> of Macedonian monarchs perhaps began with the death of Philip II, but it was his son Alexander the Great who unambiguously claimed to be a <a href="/wiki/Imperial_cult">living god</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-398">[note 48]</a></sup> Following his visit to the <a href="/wiki/Oracle">oracle</a> of <a href="/wiki/Didyma">Didyma</a> in 334 BC that suggested his divinity, Alexander traveled to the <a href="/wiki/Oracle_of_Ammon">Oracle</a> of <a href="/wiki/Zeus_Ammon">Zeus Ammon</a>—the <a href="/wiki/Interpretatio_graeca">Greek equivalent</a> of the Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Amun-Ra">Amun-Ra</a>—at the <a href="/wiki/Siwa_Oasis">Siwa Oasis</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Libyan_Desert">Libyan Desert</a> in 332 BC to confirm his <a href="/wiki/Sacred_king">divine status</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-399">[note 49]</a></sup> Although the Ptolemaic and Seleucid empires <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_cult_of_Alexander_the_Great">maintained ancestral cults</a> and deified their rulers, kings were not worshiped in the Kingdom of Macedonia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-400">[351]</a></sup> While Zeus Ammon was known to the Greeks prior to Alexander's reign, particularly at the <a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity">Greek colony</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cyrene,_Libya">Cyrene, Libya</a>, Alexander was the first Macedonian monarch to patronize <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_mythology">Egyptian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persian_mythology">Persian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_religion">Babylonian priesthoods and deities</a>, strengthening the fusion of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion">Near Eastern</a> and Greek religious beliefs.<sup><a href="#cite_note-401">[352]</a></sup> After his reign, the <a href="/wiki/Mysteries_of_Isis">cult of Isis</a> gradually spread throughout the Hellenistic and <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome">Roman world</a>, while beliefs in the Egyptian god <a href="/wiki/Sarapis">Sarapis</a> were thoroughly Hellenized by the Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt before the spread of his cult to Macedonia and the Aegean region.<sup><a href="#cite_note-402">[353]</a></sup> The German historian <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gustav_Droysen">Johann Gustav Droysen</a> argued that the conquests of Alexander the Great and creation of the Hellenistic world allowed for the growth and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity">establishment of Christianity</a> in the Roman era.<sup><a href="#cite_note-403">[354]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>See also</h2>
<div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Alexander_the_Great">Historiography of Alexander the Great</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Macedon">List of kings of Macedon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(region)">Geographic region of Macedonia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(Greece)">Macedonia region of Greece</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_naming_dispute">Macedonia naming dispute</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_nationalism">Macedonian nationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paeonia_(kingdom)">Paeonia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Alexander_the_Great">Tomb of Alexander the Great</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_the_Royal_Tombs_of_Aigai_(Vergina)">Museum of the Royal Tombs of Aigai (Vergina)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/United_Macedonia">United Macedonia</a></li></ul></div>
<h2>References</h2>
<h3>Notes</h3>
<div>
<ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEngels2010">Engels 2010</a>, p. 89; <a href="#CITEREFBorza1995">Borza 1995</a>, p. 114; <a href="/wiki/Eugene_N._Borza">Eugene N. Borza</a> writes that the "highlanders" or "Makedones" of the mountainous regions of western Macedonia are derived from northwest Greek stock; they were akin to those who at an earlier time may have migrated south to become the historical "Dorians".
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLewisBoardman1994">Lewis &amp; Boardman 1994</a>, pp. 723–724, see also <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, pp. 105–108 for the Macedonian expulsion of original inhabitants such as the <a href="/wiki/Phrygians">Phrygians</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFOlbrycht2010">Olbrycht 2010</a>, pp. 342–343; <a href="#CITEREFSprawski2010">Sprawski 2010</a>, pp. 131, 134; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 8–9. <br />Errington is skeptical that at this point <a href="/wiki/Amyntas_I_of_Macedon">Amyntas I of Macedon</a> offered any submission as a vassal at all, at most a token one. He also mentions how the Macedonian king pursued his own course of action, such as inviting the exiled Athenian <a href="/wiki/Tyrant">tyrant</a> <a href="/wiki/Hippias_(tyrant)">Hippias</a> to take refuge at <a href="/wiki/Anthemous">Anthemous</a> in 506 BC.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 158–159; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 30 for further details; the Greek historian <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a> provided a seemingly conflicting account about Illyrian invasions occurring in 393 BC and 383 BC, which may have been representative of a single invasion led by the Illyrian king <a href="/wiki/Bardylis">Bardylis</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 169–170, 179. <br />Müller is skeptical about the claims of <a href="/wiki/Plutarch">Plutarch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Athenaeus">Athenaeus</a> that Philip II of Macedon married <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_Eurydice_of_Macedon">Cleopatra Eurydice of Macedon</a>, a younger woman, purely out of love or due to his own <a href="/wiki/Midlife_crisis">midlife crisis</a>. Cleopatra was the daughter of the general <a href="/wiki/Attalus_(general)">Attalus</a>, who along with his father-in-law <a href="/wiki/Parmenion">Parmenion</a> were given command posts in <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor">Asia Minor</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Turkey">Turkey</a>) soon after this wedding. Müller also suspects that this marriage was one of political convenience meant to ensure the loyalty of an influential Macedonian noble house.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 171–172; <a href="#CITEREFBuckler1989">Buckler 1989</a>, pp. 63, 176–181; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, pp. 185–187. <br />Cawkwell contrarily provides the date of this siege as 354–353 BC.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 172–173; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, pp. 60, 185; <a href="#CITEREFHornblower2002">Hornblower 2002</a>, p. 272; <a href="#CITEREFBuckler1989">Buckler 1989</a>, pp. 63–64, 176–181. <br />Conversely, Buckler provides the date of this initial campaign as 354 BC, while affirming that the second Thessalian campaign ending in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Crocus_Field">Battle of Crocus Field</a> occurred in 353 BC.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, pp. 189–190; <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 183. <br />Without implicating <a href="/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Macedon">Alexander III of Macedon</a> as a potential suspect in the plot to assassinate <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a>, <a href="/wiki/N._G._L._Hammond">N. G. L. Hammond</a> and <a href="/wiki/F._W._Walbank">F. W. Walbank</a> discuss possible Macedonian as well as foreign suspects, such as <a href="/wiki/Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Darius_III">Darius III</a>: <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 8–12.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, pp. 199–200; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 44, 93. <br />Gilley and Worthington discuss the ambiguity surrounding the exact title of <a href="/wiki/Antipater">Antipater</a> aside from deputy <i><a href="/wiki/Hegemon">hegemon</a></i> of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth">League of Corinth</a>, with some sources calling him a regent, others a governor, others a simple general.<br /><a href="/wiki/N._G._L._Hammond">N. G. L. Hammond</a> and <a href="/wiki/F._W._Walbank">F. W. Walbank</a> state that Alexander the Great left "Macedonia under the command of Antipater, in case there was a rising in Greece." <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001</a>, p. 32.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 219; <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 61; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 155. <br />Conversely, Errington dates <a href="/wiki/Lysimachus">Lysimachus</a>' reunification of Macedonia by expelling <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhus_of_Epirus">Pyrrhus of Epirus</a> as occurring in 284 BC, not 286 BC.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, pp. 229–230; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 186–189 for further details. <br />Errington is skeptical that Philip V at this point had any intentions of invading southern Italy via Illyria once the latter was secured, deeming his plans to be "more modest", <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 189.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 86–87. <br /><a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 202–203: "Roman desire for revenge and private hopes of famous victories were probably the decisive reasons for the outbreak of the war."
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 93–97; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 239; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 207–208. <br />Bringmann dates this event of handing over <a href="/wiki/Aenus_(Thrace)">Aenus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maroneia">Maronea</a> along the <a href="/wiki/Thracian">Thracian</a> coast as 183 BC, while Eckstein dates it as 184 BC.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 98–99; see also <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 242, who says that "Rome ... as the sole remaining superpower ... would not accept Macedonia as a peer competitor or equal." <br /><a href="/wiki/Klaus_Bringmann">Klaus Bringmann</a> asserts that negotiations with Macedonia were completely ignored due to Rome's "<a href="/wiki/Realpolitik">political calculation</a>" that the Macedonian kingdom had to be destroyed to ensure the elimination of the "supposed source of all the difficulties which Rome was having in the Greek world".
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a></b> Written evidence about Macedonian governmental institutions made before <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a>'s reign is both rare and non-Macedonian in origin. The main sources of early Macedonian historiography are the works of <a href="/wiki/Herodotus">Herodotus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thucydides">Thucydides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)">Justin</a>. Contemporary accounts given by those such as <a href="/wiki/Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a> were often hostile and unreliable; even <a href="/wiki/Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, who lived in Macedonia, provides us with terse accounts of its governing institutions. <a href="/wiki/Polybius">Polybius</a> was a contemporary historian who wrote about Macedonia; later historians include <a href="/wiki/Livy">Livy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arrian">Arrian</a>. The works of these historians affirm Macedonia's <a href="/wiki/Hereditary_monarchy">hereditary monarchy</a> and basic institutions, yet it remains unclear if there was an established <a href="/wiki/Constitution">constitution</a> for Macedonian government. See: <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, pp. 373–374. <br />However, <a href="/wiki/N._G._L._Hammond">N. G. L. Hammond</a> and <a href="/wiki/F._W._Walbank">F. W. Walbank</a> write with apparent certainty and conviction when describing the Macedonian constitutional government restricting <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Macedon">the king</a> and involving a <a href="/wiki/Popular_assembly">popular assembly</a> of the army. See: <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 12–13. <br />The main textual primary sources for the organization of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army">Macedonia's military</a> as it existed under Alexander the Great include Arrian, Curtis, Diodorus, and Plutarch; modern historians rely mostly on Polybius and <a href="/wiki/Livy">Livy</a> for understanding detailed aspects of <a href="/wiki/Antigonid_Macedonian_army">the Antigonid-period military</a>. On this, <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 446–447 writes: "... to this we can add the evidence provided by two magnificent archaeological monuments, the '<a href="/wiki/Alexander_Sarcophagus">Alexander Sarcophagus</a>' in particular and the '<a href="/wiki/Alexander_Mosaic">Alexander Mosaic</a>'... In the case of the <a href="/wiki/Antigonid_Macedonian_army">Antigonid army</a> ... valuable additional details are occasionally supplied by <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus">Diodorus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, and by a series of inscriptions preserving sections of two sets of army regulations issued by <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon">Philip V</a>."
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 374; for an argument about the <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy">absolutism</a> of the Macedonian monarchy, see <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 220–222. <br />However, <a href="/wiki/N._G._L._Hammond">N. G. L. Hammond</a> and <a href="/wiki/F._W._Walbank">F. W. Walbank</a> write with apparent certainty and conviction when describing the Macedonian constitutional government restricting <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Macedon">the king</a> and involving a <a href="/wiki/Popular_assembly">popular assembly</a> of the army. <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 12–13.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 375. <br />In 1931 Friedrich Granier was the first to propose that by the time of Philip II's reign, Macedonia had a constitutional government with laws that delegated rights and <a href="/wiki/Uncodified_constitution">customary privileges</a> to certain groups, especially to its citizen soldiers, although the majority of evidence for the army's alleged right to <a href="/wiki/Elective_monarchy">appoint a new king</a> and judge cases of <a href="/wiki/Treason">treason</a> stems from the reign of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Macedon">Alexander III of Macedon</a>. See <a href="#CITEREFGranier1931">Granier 1931</a>, pp. 4–28, 48–57 and <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, pp. 374–375. <br /><a href="/wiki/Pietro_De_Francisci">Pietro De Francisci</a> was the first to refute Granier's ideas and advance the theory that the Macedonian government was an <a href="/wiki/Autocracy">autocracy</a> ruled by the whim of the monarch, although this issue of kingship and governance is still unresolved in academia. See: <a href="#CITEREFde_Francisci1948">de Francisci 1948</a>, pp. 345–435 as well as <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 375 and <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 220 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 379; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 221; early evidence for this includes not only Alexander I's role as a commander in the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a> but also the city-state of <a href="/wiki/Potidaea">Potidaea</a>'s acceptance of <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas_II_of_Macedon">Perdiccas II of Macedon</a> as their <a href="/wiki/Commander-in-chief">commander-in-chief</a> <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Potidaea">during their rebellion</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Delian_League">Delian League</a> of Athens in 432 BC.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSawada2010">Sawada 2010</a>, pp. 403–405. <br />According to Carol J. King, there was no "certain reference" to this institutional group until the <a href="/wiki/Military_campaigns_of_Alexander_the_Great">military campaigns of Alexander the Great</a> in Asia.<a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, pp. 380–381. <br />However, <a href="/wiki/N._G._L._Hammond">N. G. L. Hammond</a> and <a href="/wiki/F._W._Walbank">F. W. Walbank</a> state that the <a href="/wiki/Royal_page">royal pages</a> are attested to as far back as the reign of <a href="/wiki/Archelaus_I_of_Macedon">Archelaus I of Macedon</a>. <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001</a>, p. 13.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 382. <br />The ranks of the companions were greatly increased during the reign of Philip II when he expanded this institution to include <a href="/wiki/Upper_Macedonia">Upper Macedonian</a> aristocrats as well as Greeks. See: <a href="#CITEREFSawada2010">Sawada 2010</a>, p. 404.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 384: the first recorded instance dates to 359 BC, when Philip II called together assemblies to address them with a speech and raise their morale following the death of <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas_III_of_Macedon">Perdiccas III of Macedon</a> in battle against the <a href="/wiki/Illyria">Illyrians</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a></b> For instance, when <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas">Perdiccas</a> had Philip II's daughter <a href="/wiki/Cynane">Cynane</a> murdered to prevent her own daughter <a href="/wiki/Eurydice_II_of_Macedon">Eurydice II of Macedon</a> from marrying <a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Macedon">Philip III of Macedon</a>, the army revolted and ensured that the marriage took place. See <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 210 and <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 119–120 for details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 390. <br />Although these were highly influential members of local and regional government, Carol J. King asserts that they were not collectively powerful enough to formally challenge the authority of the Macedonian king or his right to rule.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAmemiya2007">Amemiya 2007</a>, pp. 11–12: under <a href="/wiki/Antipater">Antipater</a>'s oligarchy, the lower value in terms of property for acceptable members of the oligarchy was 2,000 <i><a href="/wiki/Drachma">drachma</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Athenian_democracy">Athenian democracy</a> was restored briefly after Antipater's death in 319 BC, yet his son <a href="/wiki/Cassander">Cassander</a> reconquered the city, which came under the regency of <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_of_Phalerum">Demetrius of Phalerum</a>. Demetrius lowered the property limit for oligarchic members to 1,000 <i>drachma</i>, yet by 307 BC he was exiled from the city and <a href="/wiki/Direct_democracy">direct democracy</a> was restored. <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Macedon">Demetrius I of Macedon</a> reconquered Athens in 295 BC, yet democracy was once again restored in 287 BC with the aid of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_of_Egypt">Ptolemy I of Egypt</a>. <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_II_Gonatas">Antigonus II Gonatas</a>, son of Demetrius I, reconquered Athens in 260 BC, followed by a succession of Macedonian kings ruling over Athens until the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic">Roman Republic</a> conquered both Macedonia and then <a href="/wiki/Mainland_Greece">mainland Greece</a> by 146 BC.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a></b> Unlike the sparse Macedonian examples, ample textual evidence of this exists for the <a href="/wiki/Achaean_League">Achaean League</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acarnanian_League">Acarnanian League</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Achaean_League">Achaean League</a>; see <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, pp. 366–367.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a></b> According to Sekunda, Philip II's infantry were eventually equipped with heavier armor such as cuirasses, since the <i><a href="/wiki/Third_Philippic">Third Philippic</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a> in 341 BC described them as <a href="/wiki/Hoplite">hoplites</a> instead of lighter <a href="/wiki/Peltast">peltasts</a>: <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 449–450; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 238 for further details. <br />However, Errington argues that breastplates were not worn by the <a href="/wiki/Phalanx">phalanx</a> <a href="/wiki/Pikemen">pikemen</a> of either Philip II or Philip V's reigns (during which sufficient evidence exists). Instead, he claims that breastplates were worn only by <a href="/wiki/Military_officer">military officers</a>, while pikemen wore the <i><a href="/wiki/Kotthybos">kotthybos</a></i> stomach bands along with their helmets and greaves, wielding a daggers as secondary weapons along with their shields. See <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 241.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 455–456. <br /><a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 245: in regards to both the <i><a href="/wiki/Argyraspides">argyraspides</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Chalkaspides">chalkaspides</a></i>, "these titles were probably not functional, perhaps not even official."
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 455–457. <br />However, in discussing the discrepancies among <a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_historiographers">ancient historians</a> about the size of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great">Alexander the Great</a>'s army, <a href="/wiki/N._G._L._Hammond">N. G. L. Hammond</a> and <a href="/wiki/F._W._Walbank">F. W. Walbank</a> choose <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a>' figure of 32,000 infantry as the most reliable, while disagreeing with his figure for cavalry at 4,500, asserting it was closer to 5,100 horsemen. <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 22–23.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 459; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 245: "Other developments in Macedonian army organization are evident after <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great">Alexander</a>. One is the evolution of the <i><a href="/wiki/Hypaspistai">hypaspistai</a></i> from an elite unit to a form of <a href="/wiki/Military_police">military police</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bodyguard">bodyguard</a> under <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon">Philip V</a>; the only thing the two functions had in common was the particular closeness to the king."
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 460–461; for the evolution of Macedonian military titles, such as its command by <i>tetrarchai</i> officers assisted by <i>grammateis</i> (i.e. secretaries or clerks), see <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 242–243.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 461–462; <br /><a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 245: "The other development, which happened at the latest under <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_III_Doson">Doson</a>, was the formation and training of a special unit of <i><a href="/wiki/Peltast">peltastai</a></i> separate from the <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_phalanx">phalanx</a>. This unit operated as a form of <a href="/wiki/Royal_guard">royal guard</a> similar in function to the earlier <i><a href="/wiki/Hypaspistai">hypaspistai</a></i>."
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-292">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 463; the largest figure for elite Macedonian <a href="/wiki/Peltast">peltasts</a> mentioned by ancient historians was 5,000 troops, an amount that existed in the <a href="/wiki/Social_War_(220%E2%80%93217_BC)">Social War (220–217 BC)</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-296">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011a">Hatzopoulos 2011a</a>, p. 44; <a href="#CITEREFWoodard2010">Woodard 2010</a>, p. 9; see also <a href="#CITEREFAustin2006">Austin 2006</a>, p. 4 for further details. <br />Edward M. Anson contends that the native <a href="/wiki/Spoken_language">spoken language</a> of the Macedonians was a dialect of Greek and that in the roughly 6,300 Macedonian-period inscriptions discovered by archaeologists about 99% were written in the Greek language, using the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet">Greek alphabet</a>. <a href="#CITEREFAnson2010">Anson 2010</a>, p. 17, n. 57, n. 58.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-297">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011a">Hatzopoulos 2011a</a>, p. 44; <a href="#CITEREFEngels2010">Engels 2010</a>, pp. 94–95; <a href="#CITEREFWoodard2010">Woodard 2010</a>, pp. 9–10. <br /><a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011a">Hatzopoulos 2011a</a>, pp. 43–45 states that the native language of the ancient Macedonians as preserved in the rare documents written in a language other than <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek">Koine Greek</a> also betray a slight <a href="/wiki/Phonetics">phonetic</a> influence from the languages of the original inhabitants of the region who were <a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation">assimilated</a> or expelled by the invading Macedonians; Hatzopoulos also asserts that little is known about these languages aside from <a href="/wiki/Phrygian_language">Phrygian</a> spoken by the <a href="/wiki/Bryges">Bryges</a> who migrated to <a href="/wiki/Anatolia">Anatolia</a>. <br /><a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 3–4 affirms that the Macedonian language was merely a dialect of Greek that used <a href="/wiki/Loanword">loanwords</a> from <a href="/wiki/Thracian_language">Thracian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Illyrian_languages">Illyrian languages</a>, which "does not surprise modern <a href="/wiki/Philologist">philologists</a>" but ultimately provided Macedonia's political enemies with the "proof" they needed to level the charge that Macedonians were not Greek.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-298">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWoodard2004">Woodard 2004</a>, pp. 12–14; Hamp, Eric; Adams, Douglas (2013). "<a href="http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp239_indo_european_languages.pdf">The Expansion of the Indo-European Languages</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140222134950/http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp239_indo_european_languages.pdf">Archived</a> 2014-02-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", <i>Sino-Platonic Papers</i>, vol 239. Accessed 16 January 2017. <br />Joseph 2001: "Ancient Greek is generally taken to be the only representative (though note the existence of different dialects) of the Greek or Hellenic branch of Indo-European. There is some dispute as to whether Ancient Macedonian (the native language of Philip and Alexander), if it has any special affinity to Greek at all, is a dialect within Greek (see below) or a sibling language to all the known Ancient Greek dialects. If the latter view is correct, then Macedonian and Greek would be the two subbranches of a group within Indo-European which could more properly be called Hellenic."<br /> <a href="#CITEREFGeorgiev1966">Georgiev 1966</a>, pp. 285–297: ancient Macedonian is closely related to Greek, and Macedonian and Greek are descended from a common Greek-Macedonian idiom that was spoken till about the second half of the 3rd millennium BC.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-302">^</a></b> For instance, <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_VII_Philopator">Cleopatra VII Philopator</a>, the last active ruler of the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt, spoke Koine Greek as a first language and by her reign (51–30 BC) or some time before it the Macedonian language was no longer used. See <a href="#CITEREFJones2006">Jones 2006</a>, pp. 33–34.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-311">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSansone2017">Sansone 2017</a>, p. 224; <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001</a>, p. 6. <br />Rosella Lorenzi (10 October 2014). "<a href="http://www.seeker.com/remains-of-alexander-the-greats-father-confirmed-found-1769168761.html">Remains of Alexander the Great's Father Confirmed Found: King Philip II's bones are buried in a tomb along with a mysterious woman-warrior</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170118215400/http://www.seeker.com/remains-of-alexander-the-greats-father-confirmed-found-1769168761.html">Archived</a> 2017-01-18 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>." <i>Seeker</i>. Retrieved 17 January 2017.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-315">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011a">Hatzopoulos 2011a</a>, pp. 47–48; for a specific example of <a href="/wiki/Land_reclamation">land reclamation</a> near <a href="/wiki/Amphipolis">Amphipolis</a> during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great">Alexander the Great</a>, see <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001</a>, p. 31.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-329">^</a></b> This metaphorical connection between warfare, hunting, and aggressive masculine sexuality seems to be affirmed by later <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_literature">Byzantine literature</a>, particularly in the <a href="/wiki/Acritic_songs">Acritic songs</a> about <a href="/wiki/Digenes_Akritas">Digenes Akritas</a>. See <a href="#CITEREFCohen2010">Cohen 2010</a>, pp. 13–34 for details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-334">^</a></b> The actor Athenodorus performed despite risking a fine for being absent from the simultaneous <a href="/wiki/Dionysia">Dionysia</a> festival of Athens where he was scheduled to perform (a fine that his <a href="/wiki/Patron">patron</a> Alexander agreed to pay). See<a href="#CITEREFWorthington2014">Worthington 2014</a>, pp. 185–186 for details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-338">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011b">Hatzopoulos 2011b</a>, p. 59; <a href="#CITEREFSansone2017">Sansone 2017</a>, p. 223; <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, p. 157. <br />Although <a href="/wiki/Archelaus_I_of_Macedon">Archelaus I of Macedon</a> was criticized by the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Plato">Plato</a>, supposedly hated by <a href="/wiki/Socrates">Socrates</a>, and the first known Macedonian king to be given the label of <a href="/wiki/Barbarian">barbarian</a>, the historian <a href="/wiki/Thucydides">Thucydides</a> held the Macedonian king in glowing admiration, especially for his engagement in <a href="/wiki/Panhellenic">Panhellenic</a> sports and fostering of literary culture. See <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011b">Hatzopoulos 2011b</a>, p. 59.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-342">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 224–225. <br />For <a href="/wiki/Marsyas_of_Pella">Marsyas of Pella</a>, see also <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001</a>, p. 27 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-356">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011b">Hatzopoulos 2011b</a>, pp. 69–71. <br />Hatzopoulos stresses the fact that Macedonians and other peoples such as the <a href="/wiki/Epirus_(ancient_state)">Epirotes</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Cyprus">Cypriots</a>, despite speaking a Greek dialect, worshiping in Greek cults, engaging in Panhellenic games, and upholding traditional Greek institutions, nevertheless occasionally had their territories excluded from contemporary geographic definitions of "<a href="/wiki/Greece">Hellas</a>" and were even considered barbarians by some. See: <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011b">Hatzopoulos 2011b</a>, pp. 52, 71–72; Johannes Engels comes to a similar conclusion about the comparison between Macedonians and <a href="/wiki/Epirotes">Epirotes</a>, saying that the "Greekness" of the Epirotes, despite them not being considered as refined as southern Greeks, never came into question. Engels suggests this perhaps because the Epirotes did not try to dominate the Greek world as <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a> had done. See: <a href="#CITEREFEngels2010">Engels 2010</a>, pp. 83–84.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-359">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 3–4. <br /><a href="#CITEREFErrington1994">Errington 1994</a>, p. 4: "Ancient allegations that the Macedonians were non-Greek all had their origin in Athens at the time of the struggle with Philip II. Then as now, political struggle created the prejudice. The orator <a href="/wiki/Aeschines">Aeschines</a> once even found it necessary, to counteract the prejudice vigorously fomented by his opponents, to defend Philip on this issue and describe him at a meeting of the Athenian Popular Assembly as being 'entirely Greek'. <a href="/wiki/Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a>' allegations were lent an appearance of credibility by the fact, apparent to every observer, that the life-style of the Macedonians, being determined by specific geographical and historical conditions, was different to that of a Greek city-state. This alien way of life was, however, common to western Greeks of Epirus, Akarnania and Aitolia, as well as to the Macedonians, and their fundamental Greek nationality was never doubted. Only as a consequence of the political disagreement with Macedonia was the issue raised at all."
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-360">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFChampion2004">Champion 2004</a>, p. 41: "<a href="/wiki/Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a> could drop the barbarian category altogether in advocating an Athenian alliance with the Great King against a power that ranked below any so-called barbarian people, the Macedonians. In the case of <a href="/wiki/Aeschines">Aeschines</a>, Philip II could be 'a barbarian due for the vengeance of God', but after the orator's embassy to Pella in 346, he became a 'thorough Greek', devoted to Athens. It all depended upon one's immediate political orientation with Macedonia, which many Greeks instinctively scorned, was always infused with deep-seated ambivalence."
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-361">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAnson2010">Anson 2010</a>, pp. 14–17; this was manifested in the different <a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_the_Greek_gods">mythological genealogies</a> concocted for the Macedonian people, with <a href="/wiki/Hesiod">Hesiod</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Catalogue_of_Women">Catalogue of Women</a></i> claiming that the Macedonians descended from <a href="/wiki/Makedon_(mythology)">Macedon</a>, son of <a href="/wiki/Zeus">Zeus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thyia">Thyia</a>, and was therefore a nephew of <a href="/wiki/Hellen">Hellen</a>, progenitor of the Greeks. See: <a href="#CITEREFAnson2010">Anson 2010</a>, p. 16; <a href="#CITEREFRhodes2010">Rhodes 2010</a>, p. 24. <br />By the end of the 5th century BC, <a href="/wiki/Hellanicus_of_Lesbos">Hellanicus of Lesbos</a> asserted Macedon was the son of <a href="/wiki/Aeolus">Aeolus</a>, the latter a son of Hellen and ancestor of the <a href="/wiki/Aeolians">Aeolians</a>, one of the major <a href="/wiki/Tribe">tribes</a> of the Greeks. As well as belonging to tribal groups such as the Aeolians, <a href="/wiki/Dorians">Dorians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Achaeans_(tribe)">Achaeans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ionians">Ionians</a>, Anson also stresses the fact that some Greeks even distinguished their ethnic identities based on the <i><a href="/wiki/Polis">polis</a></i> (i.e. city-state) they originally came from. See: <a href="#CITEREFAnson2010">Anson 2010</a>, p. 15.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-362">^</a></b> For instance, <a href="/wiki/Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a> when labeling Philip II of Macedon as a barbarian whereas <a href="/wiki/Polybius">Polybius</a> called Greeks and Macedonians as <i>homophylos</i> (i.e. part of the same race or <a href="/wiki/Kinship">kin</a>). See: <a href="#CITEREFWoodard2010">Woodard 2010</a>, pp. 9–10; Johannes Engels also discusses this ambiguity in ancient sources: <a href="#CITEREFEngels2010">Engels 2010</a>, pp. 83–89.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-398">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWorthington2012">Worthington 2012</a>, p. 319. <br />As <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh">pharaoh</a> of the Egyptians, he was already titled <a href="/wiki/Ra">Son of Ra</a> and considered the living incarnation of <a href="/wiki/Horus">Horus</a> by his Egyptian subjects (a belief that the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_kingdom">Ptolemaic successors</a> of Alexander would foster for <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty">their own dynasty in Egypt</a>). See: <a href="#CITEREFWorthington2014">Worthington 2014</a>, p. 180 and <a href="#CITEREFSansone2017">Sansone 2017</a>, p. 228 for details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-399">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWorthington2012">Worthington 2012</a>, p. 319; <a href="#CITEREFWorthington2014">Worthington 2014</a>, pp. 180–183. <br />After the priest and <a href="/wiki/Oracle_of_Ammon">Oracle</a> of <a href="/wiki/Zeus_Ammon">Zeus Ammon</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Siwa_Oasis">Siwa Oasis</a> convinced him that Philip II was merely his mortal father and Zeus his actual father, Alexander began styling himself as the 'Son of Zeus', which brought him into contention with some of his Greek subjects who adamantly believed that living men could not be immortals. See <a href="#CITEREFWorthington2012">Worthington 2012</a>, p. 319 and <a href="#CITEREFWorthington2014">Worthington 2014</a>, pp. 182–183 for details.
</li>
</ol></div>
<h3>Citations</h3>
<div>
<ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, pp. 105–106; <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, p. 156.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEngels2010">Engels 2010</a>, p. 92; <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, p. 156.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-sprawski_135–138_olbrycht_342–345_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sprawski_135–138_olbrycht_342–345_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sprawski_135–138_olbrycht_342–345_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFSprawski2010">Sprawski 2010</a>, pp. 135–138; <a href="#CITEREFOlbrycht2010">Olbrycht 2010</a>, pp. 342–345.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Turchin_4-0">^</a></b> <cite>Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D. (December 2006). <a href="http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381">"East-West Orientation of Historical Empires"</a>. <i>Journal of World-Systems Research</i>. <b>12</b> (2): 223. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1076-156X">1076-156X</a>. Retrieved 12 September 2016.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Taagepera_5-0">^</a></b> <cite>Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.". <i>Social Science History</i>. <b>3</b> (3/4): 121. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1170959">10.2307/1170959</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1170959">1170959</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHornblower2008">Hornblower 2008</a>, pp. 55–58.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAustin2006">Austin 2006</a>, pp. 1–4.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-britannica_8-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/354266/Macedonia">"Macedonia"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 October 2015. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081208092317/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/354266/Macedonia">Archived</a> from the original on 8 December 2008. Retrieved 5 February 2017.</cite>.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Adams_2010_215_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adams_2010_215_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 215.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeekes2009894_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeekes2009894_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFBeekes2009">Beekes 2009</a>, p. 894.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBeekes2009">Beekes 2009</a>, p. 894
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b> <cite>De Decker, Filip (2016). "An Etymological Case Study On The And Vocabulary In Robert Beekes's New Etymological Dictionary Of Greek: M". <i>Studia Linguistica Universitatis Iagellonicae Cracoviensis</i>. <b>133</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.4467%2F20834624SL.16.006.5152">10.4467/20834624SL.16.006.5152</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-king_376_sprawski_127_errington_2_3_14-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 376; <a href="#CITEREFSprawski2010">Sprawski 2010</a>, p. 127; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 2–3.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 376; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 3, 251.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBadian1982">Badian 1982</a>, p. 34; <a href="#CITEREFSprawski2010">Sprawski 2010</a>, p. 142.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-king_2010_376_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-king_2010_376_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 376.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 2.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFThomas2010">Thomas 2010</a>, pp. 67–68, 74–78.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAnson2010">Anson 2010</a>, pp. 5–6.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.livius.org/sources/content/achaemenid-royal-inscriptions/dna/?">"DNa - Livius"</a>. <i>www.livius.org</i>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 343–344
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFOlbrycht2010">Olbrycht 2010</a>, p. 344; <a href="#CITEREFSprawski2010">Sprawski 2010</a>, pp. 135–137; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 9–10.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFOlbrycht2010">Olbrycht 2010</a>, pp. 343–344; <a href="#CITEREFSprawski2010">Sprawski 2010</a>, p. 137; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 10.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 376; <a href="#CITEREFOlbrycht2010">Olbrycht 2010</a>, pp. 344–345; <a href="#CITEREFSprawski2010">Sprawski 2010</a>, pp. 138–139.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSprawski2010">Sprawski 2010</a>, pp. 139–140.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFOlbrycht2010">Olbrycht 2010</a>, p. 345; <a href="#CITEREFSprawski2010">Sprawski 2010</a>, pp. 139–141; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 11–12 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSprawski2010">Sprawski 2010</a>, pp. 141–143; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 9, 11–12.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 145–147.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 146–147; <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 171; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, p. 72; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 13–14 for further details.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-roisman_2010_146_147_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-roisman_2010_146_147_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-roisman_2010_146_147_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 146–147.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 146–147; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 18 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 147–148; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 19–20.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 149–150; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 20.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 150–152; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 21–22.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, p. 152; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 22.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 152–153; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 22–23.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, p. 153; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 22–23.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 153–154; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 23 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, p. 154; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 23 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, p. 154; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 23–24.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 154–155; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 24.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 155–156.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, p. 156; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 26.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Roisman_2010_156_157_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roisman_2010_156_157_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 156–157.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 156–157; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 26.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 157–158; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 28–29.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, p. 158; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 28–29.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, p. 159; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 30 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 159–160; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 32–33.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, p. 161; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 34–35.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 161–162; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 35–36.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 162–163; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 36.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 162–163.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 163–164; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 37.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 166–167; <a href="#CITEREFBuckley1996">Buckley 1996</a>, pp. 467–472.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 167–168; <a href="#CITEREFBuckley1996">Buckley 1996</a>, pp. 467–472.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 167–168; <a href="#CITEREFBuckley1996">Buckley 1996</a>, pp. 467–472; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 38.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 167.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 168.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 168–169.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 169.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 170; <a href="#CITEREFBuckler1989">Buckler 1989</a>, p. 62.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 170–171; <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 187.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 167, 169; <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, p. 161.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 169, 173–174; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, p. 84; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 38–39.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 171; <a href="#CITEREFBuckley1996">Buckley 1996</a>, pp. 470–472; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, pp. 74–75.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 172; <a href="#CITEREFHornblower2002">Hornblower 2002</a>, p. 272; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, p. 42; <a href="#CITEREFBuckley1996">Buckley 1996</a>, pp. 470–472.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 171–172; <a href="#CITEREFBuckler1989">Buckler 1989</a>, pp. 8, 20–22, 26–29.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 173; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, pp. 62, 66–68; <a href="#CITEREFBuckler1989">Buckler 1989</a>, pp. 74–75, 78–80; <a href="#CITEREFWorthington2008">Worthington 2008</a>, pp. 61–63.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b> <cite>Howe, Timothy; Brice, Lee L. (2015). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=248DCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA170"><i>Brill's Companion to Insurgency and Terrorism in the Ancient Mediterranean</i></a>. BRILL. p. 170. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004284739"><bdi>9789004284739</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-EDC_78-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EDC_78-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly (2000). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbI2hZBy_EkC&amp;pg=PA101"><i>Women and Monarchy in Macedonia</i></a>. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 101. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780806132129"><bdi>9780806132129</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 173; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, p. 44; <a href="#CITEREFSchwahn1931">Schwahn 1931</a>, col. 1193–1194.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, p. 86.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 173–174; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, pp. 85–86; <a href="#CITEREFBuckley1996">Buckley 1996</a>, pp. 474–475.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 173–174; <a href="#CITEREFWorthington2008">Worthington 2008</a>, pp. 75–78; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, pp. 96–98.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 174; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, pp. 98–101.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 174–175; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, pp. 95, 104, 107–108; <a href="#CITEREFHornblower2002">Hornblower 2002</a>, pp. 275–277; <a href="#CITEREFBuckley1996">Buckley 1996</a>, pp. 478–479.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 175.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 227.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 175–176; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, pp. 114–117; <a href="#CITEREFHornblower2002">Hornblower 2002</a>, p. 277; <a href="#CITEREFBuckley1996">Buckley 1996</a>, p. 482; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 44.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMollovGeorgiev2015">Mollov &amp; Georgiev 2015</a>, p. 76.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 176; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, pp. 136–142; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 82–83.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 176–177; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, pp. 143–148.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 177; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, pp. 167–168.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 177–179; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, pp. 167–171; see also <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001</a>, p. 16 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b> <cite>Davis Hanson, Victor (2010). <a href="https://archive.org/details/makersancientstr00hans"><i>Makers of Ancient Strategy: From the Persian Wars to the Fall of Rome</i></a>. Princeton University Press. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/makersancientstr00hans/page/n131">119</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691137902"><bdi>978-0691137902</bdi></a>. <q>Afterwards he [Alexander] revived his father's League of Corinth, and with it his plan for a pan-Hellenic invasion of Asia to punish the Persians for the suffering of the Greeks, especially the Athenians, in the Greco-Persian Wars and to liberate the Greek cities of Asia Minor.</q></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFOlbrycht2010">Olbrycht 2010</a>, pp. 348, 351
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFOlbrycht2010">Olbrycht 2010</a>, pp. 347–349
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFOlbrycht2010">Olbrycht 2010</a>, p. 351
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-muller_179–180_cawkwell_170_97-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-muller_179–180_cawkwell_170_97-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 179–180; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, p. 170.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 180–181; see also <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001</a>, p. 14 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 181–182; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 44; <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 186; see <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 3–5 for details of the arrests and judicial trials of other suspects in the conspiracy to assassinate <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 190; <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 183; <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, pp. 61–62; <a href="#CITEREFFox1980">Fox 1980</a>, p. 72; see also <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 3–5 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 186.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 190.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, pp. 190–191; see also <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 15–16 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 191; <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 34–38.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 191; <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 40–47.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 191; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 91 and <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001</a>, p. 47 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, pp. 191–192; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 91–92 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, pp. 192–193.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-gilley_worthington_2010_193_110-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gilley_worthington_2010_193_110-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gilley_worthington_2010_193_110-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 193.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, pp. 193–194; <a href="#CITEREFHolt2012">Holt 2012</a>, pp. 27–41.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, pp. 193–194.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 194; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 113.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-gilley_worthington_2010_195_114-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gilley_worthington_2010_195_114-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 195.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, pp. 194–195.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 105–106.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 198.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHolt1989">Holt 1989</a>, pp. 67–68.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 196.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 199; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 93.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, pp. 200–201; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 58.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 201.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, pp. 201–203.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 204; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 44 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 204; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 115–117 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 204; <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 209; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 69–70, 119.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, pp. 204–205; <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 209–210; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 69, 119.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010</a>, p. 205; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 118 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 208–209; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 117.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 210–211; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 119–120.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 211; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 120–121.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 211–212; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 121–122.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 207 n. #1, 212; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 122–123.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 212–213; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 124–126.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-adams_213_errington_126–127_136-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-adams_213_errington_126–127_136-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 213; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 126–127.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 213–214; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 127–128.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 214; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 128–129.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 214–215.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 215–216.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 216.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 216–217; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 129.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 217; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 145.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 217; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 145–147; <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 61.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-adams_2010_218_145-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-adams_2010_218_145-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-adams_2010_218_145-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-adams_2010_218_145-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 218.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-bringmann_2007_61_146-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bringmann_2007_61_146-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 61.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 218; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 153.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-adams_218–219_bringmann_61_148-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-adams_218–219_bringmann_61_148-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 218–219; <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 61.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-adams_219_bringmann_61_150-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 219; <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 61; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 156–157.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 219; <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 61–63; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 159–160.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 160.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 160–161.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 219; <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 63; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 162–163.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-adams_219–220_bringmann_2007_63_155-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-adams_219–220_bringmann_2007_63_155-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 219–220; <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 63.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 219–220; <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 63; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 164.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 220; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 164–165.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-adams_2010_220_158-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 220.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 220; <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 63; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 167.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 220; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 165–166.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 221; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 167–168 about the resurgence of <a href="/wiki/Sparta">Sparta</a> under <a href="/wiki/Areus_I">Areus I</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 221; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 168.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 221; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 168–169.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 221; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 169–171.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-adams_2010_221_165-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 221.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-adams_2010_222_166-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-adams_2010_222_166-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 222.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 221–222; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 172.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 222; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 172–173.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 222; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 173.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 222; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 174.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 223; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 173–174.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-adams_223_errington_174_172-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-adams_223_errington_174_172-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 223; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 174.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 223; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 174–175.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 223; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 175–176.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 223–224; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2013">Eckstein 2013</a>, p. 314; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 179–180 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 223–224; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2013">Eckstein 2013</a>, p. 314; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 180–181.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 224; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2013">Eckstein 2013</a>, p. 314; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 181–183.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 224; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 182 about the Macedonian military's occupation of Sparta following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sellasia">Battle of Sellasia</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 224; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 183–184.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 229; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 184–185.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 229; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 185–186, 189.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 230; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 189–190.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, pp. 230–231; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 190–191.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 79; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 231; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 192; also mentioned by <a href="#CITEREFGruen1986">Gruen 1986</a>, p. 19.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 80; see also <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 231 and <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 191–193 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 191–193, 210.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 82; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 193.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 82; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, pp. 232–233; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 193–194; <a href="#CITEREFGruen1986">Gruen 1986</a>, pp. 17–18, 20.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 83; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, pp. 233–234; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 195–196; <a href="#CITEREFGruen1986">Gruen 1986</a>, p. 21; see also <a href="#CITEREFGruen1986">Gruen 1986</a>, pp. 18–19 for details on the <a href="/wiki/Aetolian_League">Aetolian League</a>'s treaty with <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon">Philip V of Macedon</a> and Rome's rejection of the second attempt by the Aetolians to seek Roman aid, viewing the Aetolians as having violated the earlier treaty.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 85; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 196–197 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, pp. 234–235; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 196–198; see also <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 86 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 85–86; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, pp. 235–236; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 199–201; <a href="#CITEREFGruen1986">Gruen 1986</a>, p. 22.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 86; see also <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 235 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 86; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 197–198.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 87.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 87–88; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 199–200; see also <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, pp. 235–236 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 236.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-bringmann_2007_88_200-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bringmann_2007_88_200-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 88.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 88; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 236; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 203.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 88; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, pp. 236–237; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 204.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 88–89; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 237.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 89–90; see also <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 237 and <a href="#CITEREFGruen1986">Gruen 1986</a>, pp. 20–21, 24 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 90–91; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, pp. 237–238.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 91; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 238.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 91–92; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 238; see also <a href="#CITEREFGruen1986">Gruen 1986</a>, pp. 30, 33 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 92; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 238.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 97; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 207–208 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 97; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, pp. 240–241; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 211–213 for a discussion about Perseus's actions during the early part of his reign.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 97–98; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 240.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 98; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 240; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 212–213.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 98–99; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, pp. 241–242.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 99; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, pp. 243–244; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 215–216; <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, p. 43.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 99; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 245; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 204–205, 216; see also <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, p. 43 for further details.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-bringmann_99–100_eckstein_245_218-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bringmann_99–100_eckstein_245_218-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 99–100; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 245; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 216–217; see also <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, pp. 43–46 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 104; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, pp. 246–247.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 104–105; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 247; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 216–217.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 104–105; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, pp. 247–248; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 203–205, 216–217.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 374; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 220–221 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-king_2010_373_226-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 373.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, pp. 375–376.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, pp. 376–377.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 377.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-king_2010_378_230-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-king_2010_378_230-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 378.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-king_2010_379_231-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 379.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_222_232-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_222_232-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_222_232-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 222.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-king_2010_380_234-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-king_2010_380_234-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 380.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 380; for further context, see <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 220.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFOlbrycht2010">Olbrycht 2010</a>, pp. 345–346.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-king_2010_381_238-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-king_2010_381_238-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-king_2010_381_238-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-king_2010_381_238-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 381.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sawada_2010_403_239-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSawada2010">Sawada 2010</a>, p. 403.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSawada2010">Sawada 2010</a>, pp. 404–405.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSawada2010">Sawada 2010</a>, p. 406.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 382; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 220.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSawada2010">Sawada 2010</a>, pp. 382–383.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 5, 12.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, pp. 384–389; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 220.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, pp. 383–384; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 220.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-king_2010_390_250-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 390.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAmemiya2007">Amemiya 2007</a>, pp. 11–12.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_231_254-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_231_254-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 231.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 229–230.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 230.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 231–232.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, pp. 365–366.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, pp. 366–367.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, pp. 367–369.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, pp. 368–369.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_242_263-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 242.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 447; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 243–244.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 447–448.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 448–449; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 238–239 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 238–239, 243–244.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-sekunda_2010_449_268-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 449.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-sekunda_2010_448_449_269-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 448–449.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 239–240.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_238_271-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 238, 247.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-sekunda_2010_451_272-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sekunda_2010_451_272-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 451.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 450; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 244.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-sekunda_2010_452_275-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sekunda_2010_452_275-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 452.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 451; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 241–242.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-277">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 449–451.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 451; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 247–248; <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 24–26.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-sekunda_2010_453_279-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 453.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-sekunda_2010_454_280-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sekunda_2010_454_280-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 454.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 455; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 245.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-sekunda_2010_458_459_284-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sekunda_2010_458_459_284-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 458–459.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-sekunda_2010_461_286-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 461.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-sekunda_2010_460_287-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sekunda_2010_460_287-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 460.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 469
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-sekunda_2010_462_291-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 462.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 463–464.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-294">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 247–248.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_248_295-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_248_295-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_248_295-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_248_295-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 248.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-299">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAnson2010">Anson 2010</a>, p. 17, n. 57, n. 58; <a href="#CITEREFWoodard2010">Woodard 2010</a>, pp. 9–10; <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011a">Hatzopoulos 2011a</a>, pp. 43–45; <a href="#CITEREFEngels2010">Engels 2010</a>, pp. 94–95.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-engels_2010_95_300-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEngels2010">Engels 2010</a>, p. 95.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-engels_2010_94_301-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEngels2010">Engels 2010</a>, p. 94.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sansone_2017_223_303-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSansone2017">Sansone 2017</a>, p. 223.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-304">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAnson2010">Anson 2010</a>, pp. 17–18; see also <a href="#CITEREFChristesenMurray2010">Christesen &amp; Murray 2010</a>, pp. 428–445 for ways in which Macedonian religious beliefs diverged from mainstream Greek polytheism, although the latter was hardly "monolithic" throughout the Classical Greek and Hellenistic world and Macedonians were "linguistically and culturally Greek" according to Christesen and Murray. <a href="#CITEREFChristesenMurray2010">Christesen &amp; Murray 2010</a>, pp. 428–429.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-305">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 225–226.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-306">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 226; <a href="#CITEREFChristesenMurray2010">Christesen &amp; Murray 2010</a>, pp. 430–431
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_226_307-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_226_307-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 226.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-308">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBorza1992">Borza 1992</a>, pp. 257–260; <a href="#CITEREFChristesenMurray2010">Christesen &amp; Murray 2010</a>, pp. 432–433; see also <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 5–7 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-309">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBorza1992">Borza 1992</a>, pp. 259–260; see also <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 5–6 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-310">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBorza1992">Borza 1992</a>, pp. 257, 260–261.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-312">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBorza1992">Borza 1992</a>, p. 257.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-313">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSansone2017">Sansone 2017</a>, pp. 224–225.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-314">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011a">Hatzopoulos 2011a</a>, pp. 47–48; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 7.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-316">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011a">Hatzopoulos 2011a</a>, p. 48; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 7–8, 222–223.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-hatzopoulos_2011a_48_317-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011a">Hatzopoulos 2011a</a>, p. 48.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-318">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAnson2010">Anson 2010</a>, pp. 9–10.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-anson_2010_10_319-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-anson_2010_10_319-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-anson_2010_10_319-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFAnson2010">Anson 2010</a>, p. 10.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-320">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAnson2010">Anson 2010</a>, pp. 10–11.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-321">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 12–13.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-hardiman_2010_515_322-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHardiman2010">Hardiman 2010</a>, p. 515.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-323">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHardiman2010">Hardiman 2010</a>, pp. 515–517.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-hardiman_2010_517_324-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hardiman_2010_517_324-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFHardiman2010">Hardiman 2010</a>, p. 517.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-325">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPalagia2000">Palagia 2000</a>, pp. 182, 185–186.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-326">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHead2016">Head 2016</a>, pp. 12–13; <a href="#CITEREFPiening2013">Piening 2013</a>, p. 1182.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-327">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHead2016">Head 2016</a>, p. 13; <a href="#CITEREFAldreteBartellAldrete2013">Aldrete, Bartell &amp; Aldrete 2013</a>, p. 49.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-hardiman_2010_518_328-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hardiman_2010_518_328-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hardiman_2010_518_328-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hardiman_2010_518_328-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFHardiman2010">Hardiman 2010</a>, p. 518.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-muller_2010_182_330-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 182.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_224_331-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_224_331-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_224_331-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 224.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-worthington_2014_186_332-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-worthington_2014_186_332-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-worthington_2014_186_332-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFWorthington2014">Worthington 2014</a>, p. 186.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-333">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWorthington2014">Worthington 2014</a>, p. 185.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-worthington_2014_183_186_335-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-worthington_2014_183_186_335-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFWorthington2014">Worthington 2014</a>, pp. 183, 186.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-336">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011b">Hatzopoulos 2011b</a>, p. 58; <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, p. 154; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 223–224.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-337">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011b">Hatzopoulos 2011b</a>, pp. 58–59; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 224 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-339">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFChroust2016">Chroust 2016</a>, p. 137.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rhodes_2010_23_340-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRhodes2010">Rhodes 2010</a>, p. 23.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-341">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRhodes2010">Rhodes 2010</a>, pp. 23–25; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 224 for further details.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Errington_1990_225_343-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Errington_1990_225_343-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 225.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-344">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBadian1982">Badian 1982</a>, p. 34, <a href="#CITEREFAnson2010">Anson 2010</a>, p. 16; <a href="#CITEREFSansone2017">Sansone 2017</a>, pp. 222–223.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-hatzopoulos_2011b_59_345-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011b">Hatzopoulos 2011b</a>, p. 59.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-346">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFNawotka2010">Nawotka 2010</a>, p. 2.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-347">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAnson2010">Anson 2010</a>, p. 19
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-348">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFCohen2010">Cohen 2010</a>, p. 28.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-dalby_1997_157_349-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dalby_1997_157_349-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dalby_1997_157_349-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFDalby1997">Dalby 1997</a>, p. 157.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-350">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDalby1997">Dalby 1997</a>, pp. 155–156.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-351">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDalby1997">Dalby 1997</a>, p. 156.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-352">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDalby1997">Dalby 1997</a>, pp. 156–157.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-353">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAnson2010">Anson 2010</a>, p. 10; <a href="#CITEREFCohen2010">Cohen 2010</a>, p. 28.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-354">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEngels2010">Engels 2010</a>, p. 87; <a href="#CITEREFOlbrycht2010">Olbrycht 2010</a>, pp. 343–344.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-355">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBadian1982">Badian 1982</a>, p. 51, n. 72; Johannes Engels comes to a similar conclusion. See: <a href="#CITEREFEngels2010">Engels 2010</a>, p. 82.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-357">^</a></b> <cite>Hammond, N.G.L. (1997). <a href="https://archive.org/details/geniusofalexande00nglh/page/11"><i>The Genius of Alexander the Great</i></a>. The University of North Carolina Press. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/geniusofalexande00nglh/page/11">11</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0807823503"><bdi>0807823503</bdi></a>. <q>The other part of the Greek-speaking world extended from Pelagonia in the north to Macedonia in the south. It was occupied by several tribal states, which were constantly at war against Illyrians, Paeonians and Thracians. Each state had its own monarchy. Special prestige attached to the Lyncestae whose royal family, the Bacchiadae claimed descent from Heracles, and to the Macedonians, whose royal family had a similar ancestry. [...] In the opinion of the city-states these tribal states were backward and unworthy of the Greek name, although they spoke dialects of the Greek language. According to Aristotle, monarchy was the mark of people too stupid to govern themselves.</q></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-358">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSakellariou1983">Sakellariou 1983</a>, p. 52.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-363">^</a></b> <cite>Simon Hornblower (2016). "2: Greek Identity in the Archaic and Classical Periods". In Zacharia, Katerina (ed.). <i>Hellenisms: Culture, Identity, and Ethnicity from Antiquity to Modernity</i>. Routledge. p. 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0754665250"><bdi>978-0754665250</bdi></a>. <q>The question "Were the Macedonians Greeks?" perhaps needs to be chopped up further. The Macedonian kings emerge as Greeks by criterion one, namely shared blood, and personal names indicate that Macedonians generally moved north from Greece. The kings, the elite, and the generality of the Macedonians were Greeks by criteria two and three, that is, religion and language. Macedonian customs (criterion four) were in certain respects unlike those of a normal apart, perhaps, from the institutions which I have characterized as feudal. The crude one-word answer to the question has to be "yes."</q></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-364">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011b">Hatzopoulos 2011b</a>, p. 74.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-365">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBolman2016">Bolman 2016</a>, pp. 120–121.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Winter_2006_163_366-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Winter_2006_163_366-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Winter_2006_163_366-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFWinter2006">Winter 2006</a>, p. 163.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Winter_2006_164_165_367-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWinter2006">Winter 2006</a>, pp. 164–165.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Winter_2006_165_368-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWinter2006">Winter 2006</a>, p. 165.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-369">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 227; see also <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 3, 7–8 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-370">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKoumpis2012">Koumpis 2012</a>, p. 34.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-371">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFTreister1996">Treister 1996</a>, pp. 375–376.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-372">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHumphreyOlesonSherwood1998">Humphrey, Oleson &amp; Sherwood 1998</a>, p. 570.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-373">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFTreister1996">Treister 1996</a>, p. 376, no. 531.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-treister_1996_376_374-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-treister_1996_376_374-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFTreister1996">Treister 1996</a>, p. 376.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-humphrey_1998_pp570_571_375-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-humphrey_1998_pp570_571_375-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFHumphreyOlesonSherwood1998">Humphrey, Oleson &amp; Sherwood 1998</a>, pp. 570–571.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-376">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHumphreyOlesonSherwood1998">Humphrey, Oleson &amp; Sherwood 1998</a>, pp. 570–572.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-377">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFCurtis2008">Curtis 2008</a>, p. 380.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-378">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFStern2008">Stern 2008</a>, pp. 530–532.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-379">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFCuomo2008">Cuomo 2008</a>, pp. 17–20.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-380">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 246.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-381">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFTreister1996">Treister 1996</a>, p. 379.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-382">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMeadows2008">Meadows 2008</a>, p. 773.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-383">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, pp. 432–433.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-384">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKremydi2011">Kremydi 2011</a>, p. 163.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-385">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, p. 433.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-386">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, p. 434.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-387">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, pp. 433–434; <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, p. 163.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-388">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFTreister1996">Treister 1996</a>, pp. 373–375; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 223 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-389">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFTreister1996">Treister 1996</a>, pp. 374–375; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 223 for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-390">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFTreister1996">Treister 1996</a>, p. 374.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-treister_1996_374_375_391-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFTreister1996">Treister 1996</a>, pp. 374–375.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-392">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAnson2010">Anson 2010</a>, pp. 3–4.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-393">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAnson2010">Anson 2010</a>, pp. 4–5.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-394">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 249.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-395">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAsirvatham2010">Asirvatham 2010</a>, p. 104.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-396">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAnson2010">Anson 2010</a>, p. 9.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-397">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAnson2010">Anson 2010</a>, pp. 11–12.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-400">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 219–220.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-401">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFChristesenMurray2010">Christesen &amp; Murray 2010</a>, pp. 435–436.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-402">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFChristesenMurray2010">Christesen &amp; Murray 2010</a>, p. 436.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-403">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAnson2010">Anson 2010</a>, p. 3.
</li>
</ol></div>
<h3>Sources</h3>
<p><b>Online</b>
</p>
<div>
<ul><li><cite><a href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/354266/Macedonia">"Macedonia: Ancient Kingdom, Europe"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 October 2015. Retrieved 5 February 2017.</cite></li>
<li>Hamp, Eric; Adams, Douglas (2013). "<a href="http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp239_indo_european_languages.pdf">The Expansion of the Indo-European Languages</a>", <i>Sino-Platonic Papers</i>, vol 239. Accessed 16 January 2017.</li>
<li>Joseph, Brian D. (2001). "<a href="http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~bjoseph/articles/gancient.htm">"GREEK, ancient</a>." <a href="/wiki/Ohio_State_University">Ohio State University</a>, Department of Slavic Languages and Literatures. Accessed 16 January 2017.</li></ul>
</div>
<p><b>Print</b>
</p>
<div>
<ul><li><cite>Adams, Winthrop Lindsay (2010). <a href="https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up">"Alexander's Successors to 221 BC"</a>. In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). <i>A Companion to Ancient Macedonia</i>. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 208–224. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7936-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Aldrete, Gregory S.; Bartell, Scott; Aldrete, Alicia (2013). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NIrkd6EfuSwC"><i>Reconstructing Ancient Linen Body Armor: Unraveling the Linothorax Mystery</i></a>. Baltimore: <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-0819-4"><bdi>978-1-4214-0819-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Amemiya, Takeshi (2007). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_AGTAgAAQBAJ"><i>Economy and Economics of Ancient Greece</i></a>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-70154-9"><bdi>978-0-415-70154-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Anson, Edward M. (2010). "Why Study Ancient Macedonia and What This Companion is About". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lkYFVJ3U-BIC"><i>A Companion to Ancient Macedonia</i></a>. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 3–20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7936-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Asirvatham, Sulochana R. (2010). "Perspectives on the Macedonians from Greece, Rome, and Beyond". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lkYFVJ3U-BIC"><i>A Companion to Ancient Macedonia</i></a>. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 99–124. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7936-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Austin, M. M. (2006). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xebyor4-4KwC"><i>The Hellenistic World from Alexander to the Roman Conquest: a selection of ancient sources in translation</i></a> (2nd ed.). Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7414-2300-6"><bdi>0-7414-2300-6</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Badian, Ernst (1982). "Greeks and Macedonians". <i>Studies in the History of Art</i>. National Gallery of Art. 10, Symposium Series I: 33–51. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/42617918">42617918</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Robert_S._P._Beekes">Beekes, Robert S. P.</a> (2009). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lw7KxwEACAAJ"><i>Etymological Dictionary of Greek</i></a>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-32186-1"><bdi>978-90-04-32186-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Bolman, Elizabeth S. (2016). "A Staggering Spectacle: Early Byzantine Aesthetics in the Triconch". In Bolman, Elizabeth S. (ed.). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hwuQDAAAQBAJ"><i>The Red Monastery Church: Beauty and Asceticism in Upper Egypt</i></a>. New Haven: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press">Yale University Press</a>; American Research Center in Egypt, Inc. pp. 119–128. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-21230-3"><bdi>978-0-300-21230-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Eugene_N._Borza">Borza, Eugene N.</a> (1992) [1990]. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=614pd07OtfQC"><i>In the Shadow of Olympus: the Emergence of Macedon</i></a>. Princeton: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-05549-1"><bdi>0-691-05549-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Eugene_N._Borza">Borza, Eugene N.</a> (1995). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PGNoAAAAMAAJ"><i>Makedonika</i></a>. Regina Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-941690-65-2"><bdi>0-941690-65-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Klaus_Bringmann">Bringmann, Klaus</a> (2007) [2002]. <a href="http://www.polity.co.uk/book.asp?ref=9780745633701"><i>A History of the Roman Republic</i></a>. Translated by W. J. Smyth. Cambridge: Polity Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-3371-8"><bdi>978-0-7456-3371-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Buckley, Terry (1996). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MrJ101I4gdQC"><i>Aspects of Greek History, 750–323 BC: A Source-based Approach</i></a>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-09957-9"><bdi>0-415-09957-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Buckler, John (1989). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wkNCAAAAIAAJ"><i>Philip II and the Sacred War</i></a>. Leiden: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09095-8"><bdi>978-90-04-09095-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/George_Cawkwell">Cawkwell, George</a> (1978). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k-mUQgAACAAJ"><i>Philip of Macedon</i></a>. London, UK: <a href="/wiki/Faber_%26_Faber">Faber and Faber</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-571-10958-6"><bdi>0-571-10958-6</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Champion, Craige B. (2004). <i>Cultural Politics in Polybius's Histories</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-23764-1"><bdi>0-520-23764-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Christesen, Paul; Murray, Sarah C. (2010). <a href="https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up">"Macedonian Religion"</a>. In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). <i>A Companion to Ancient Macedonia</i>. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 428–445. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7936-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Chroust, Anton-Hermann (2016) [1977]. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SMVgCgAAQBAJ"><i>Aristotle: New Light on His Life and On Some of His Lost Works, Volume 1: Some Novel Interpretations of the Man and His Life</i></a>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-93706-2"><bdi>978-1-138-93706-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Cohen, Ada (2010). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nX8F_ZV83vUC"><i>Art in the Era of Alexander the Great: Paradigms of Manhood and Their Cultural Traditions</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-76904-4"><bdi>978-0-521-76904-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Cuomo, Serafina (2008). "Ancient Written Sources for Engineering and Technology". In Oleson, John Peter (ed.). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tjrRCwAAQBAJ"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World</i></a>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 15–34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518731-1"><bdi>978-0-19-518731-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Curtis, Robert I. (2008). "Food Processing and Preparation". In Oleson, John Peter (ed.). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tjrRCwAAQBAJ"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 369–392. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518731-1"><bdi>978-0-19-518731-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Dalby, Andrew (1997) [1996]. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I4UeyRkqgvQC"><i>Siren Feasts: a History of Food and Gastronomy in Greece</i></a>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-15657-2"><bdi>0-415-15657-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>de Francisci, Pietro (1948). <a href="http://www.sudoc.abes.fr/DB=2.1//SRCH?IKT=12&amp;TRM=06072403X&amp;COOKIE=U10178,Klecteurweb,I250,B341720009+,SY,NLECTEUR+WEBOPC,D2.1,E420a3868-3fa,A,H,R68.100.129.235,FY"><i>Arcana Imperii II</i></a> (in Italian). Vol. 1. Milan: A. Giuffrè. pp. IV–495.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Eckstein, Arthur M. (2010). <a href="https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up">"Macedonia and Rome, 221–146 BC"</a>. In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). <i>A Companion to Ancient Macedonia</i>. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 225–250. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7936-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Eckstein, Arthur M. (2013). "Polybius, Phylarchus, and Historiographical Criticism". <i>Classical Philology</i>. The <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <b>108</b> (4): 314–338. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F671786">10.1086/671786</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/671786">671786</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164052948">164052948</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Engels, Johannes (2010). "Macedonians and Greeks". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lkYFVJ3U-BIC"><i>A Companion to Ancient Macedonia</i></a>. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 81–98. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7936-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Robert_Malcolm_Errington">Errington, Robert Malcolm</a> (1990). <a href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_PYgkqP_s1PQC"><i>A History of Macedonia</i></a>. Translated by Catherine Errington. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-06319-8"><bdi>0-520-06319-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Errington, Malcolm (1994). <i>A History of Macedonia</i>. Barnes Noble. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56619-519-5"><bdi>1-56619-519-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Fox, Robin Lane (1980). <a href="https://archive.org/details/searchforalexand00lane"><i>The Search for Alexander</i></a>. Boston: Little Brown and Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-316-29108-0"><bdi>0-316-29108-0</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Georgiev, Vladimir (July 1966). "The Genesis of the Balkan Peoples". <i>The Slavonic and East European Review</i>. The Modern Humanities Research Association and University College London, School of Slavonic and East European Studies. <b>44</b> (103): 285–297. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/4205776">4205776</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Gilley, Dawn L.; Worthington, Ian (2010). <a href="https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up">"Alexander the Great, Macedonia and Asia"</a>. In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). <i>A Companion to Ancient Macedonia</i>. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 186–207. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7936-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Granier, Friedrich (1931). <a href="https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up"><i>Die makedonische Heeresversammlung: ein Beitrag zum antiken Staatsrecht</i></a>. Münchener Beiträge zur Papyrusforschung und antiken Rechtsgeschichte 13. Heft (in German). Munich: CH Beck Verlag.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Erich_S._Gruen">Gruen, Erich S.</a> (1986) [1984]. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EkdCokrrp4gC"><i>The Hellenistic World and the Coming of Rome</i></a>. Vol. 1. Berkeley: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-05737-6"><bdi>0-520-05737-6</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/N._G._L._Hammond">Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière</a>; <a href="/wiki/F._W._Walbank">Walbank, Frank William</a> (2001). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qpb3JdwuDQIC"><i>A History of Macedonia: 336–167 B.C.</i></a> Vol. 3 (reprint ed.). Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Clarendon_Press">Clarendon Press</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-814815-1"><bdi>0-19-814815-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Hardiman, Craig I. (2010). "Classical Art to 221 BC". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lkYFVJ3U-BIC"><i>A Companion to Ancient Macedonia</i></a>. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 505–521. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7936-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Hatzopoulos, M. B. (1996). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qTRBAAAAMAAJ"><i>Macedonian Institutions Under the Kings: a Historical and Epigraphic Study</i></a>. Vol. 1. Athens: Research Centre for Greek and Roman Antiquity, National Hellenic Research Foundation; Diffusion de Boccard. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/960-7094-90-5"><bdi>960-7094-90-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Hatzopoulos, M. B. (2011a). "Macedonia and Macedonians". In Lane Fox, Robin J. (ed.). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kjLPBsB2dIkC"><i>Brill's Companion to Ancient Macedon: Studies in the Archaeology and History of Macedon, 650 BC – 300 AD</i></a>. Leiden: Brill. pp. 43–50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-20650-2"><bdi>978-90-04-20650-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Hatzopoulos, M. B. (2011b). "Macedonians and Other Greeks". In Lane Fox, Robin J. (ed.). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kjLPBsB2dIkC"><i>Brill's Companion to Ancient Macedon: Studies in the Archaeology and History of Macedon, 650 BC – 300 AD</i></a>. Leiden: Brill. pp. 51–78. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-20650-2"><bdi>978-90-04-20650-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Head, Duncan (2016) [1982]. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-7n8CwAAQBAJ"><i>Armies of the Macedonian and Punic Wars: 359 BC to 146 BC</i></a> (reprint ed.). Wargames Research Group Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-326-25656-2"><bdi>978-1-326-25656-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Holt, Frank L. (1989). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VSA4AAAAIAAJ"><i>Alexander the Great and Bactria: the Formation of a Greek Frontier in Central Asia</i></a>. Leiden: <a href="/wiki/E._J._Brill">Brill</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-08612-9"><bdi>90-04-08612-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Holt, Frank L. (2012) [2005]. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Im8Ujg_XAmIC"><i>Into the Land of Bones: Alexander the Great in Afghanistan</i></a>. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-27432-7"><bdi>978-0-520-27432-7</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Simon_Hornblower">Hornblower, Simon</a> (2002) [1983]. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wvtyijSRcKUC"><i>The Greek World, 479–323 BC</i></a>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-16326-9"><bdi>0-415-16326-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Hornblower, Simon (2008). "Greek Identity in the Archaic and Classical Periods". In Zacharia, Katerina (ed.). <a href="https://archive.org/details/hellenismscultur00zach"><i>Hellenisms: Culture, Identity, and Ethnicity from Antiquity to Modernity</i></a>. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing. pp. <a href="https://archive.org/details/hellenismscultur00zach/page/n53">37</a>–58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-6525-0"><bdi>978-0-7546-6525-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/192048201">192048201</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Humphrey, John W.; Oleson, John P.; Sherwood, Andrew N. (1998). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s92KAgAAQBAJ"><i>Greek and Roman Technology: a Sourcebook: Annotated Translations of Greek and Latin Texts and Documents</i></a>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-06136-9"><bdi>0-415-06136-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Jones, Prudence J. (2006), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GQZB28EegT4C"><i>Cleopatra: a sourcebook</i></a>, Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780806137414"><bdi>9780806137414</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>King, Carol J. (2010). <a href="https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up">"Macedonian Kingship and Other Political Institutions"</a>. In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). <i>A Companion to Ancient Macedonia</i>. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 373–391. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7936-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Koumpis, Adamantios (2012). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gFXm3en91wMC"><i>Management Information Systems for Enterprise Applications: Business Issues, Research, and Solutions</i></a>. Hershey, PA: Business Science Reference. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4666-0164-2"><bdi>978-1-4666-0164-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Kremydi, S. (2011). "Coinage and Finance". In Lane Fox, Robin James (ed.). <a href="https://archive.org/details/brillscompaniont00foxr"><i>Brill's Companion to Ancient Macedon</i></a>. Leiden: Brill. pp. <a href="https://archive.org/details/brillscompaniont00foxr/page/n173">159</a>–178. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-20650-2"><bdi>978-90-04-20650-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Lewis, D.M.; Boardman, John (1994). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vx251bK988gC"><i>The Cambridge Ancient History: The Fourth Century B.C. (Volume 6)</i></a>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-23348-4"><bdi>978-0-521-23348-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Meadows, Andrew (2008). "Technologies of Calculation, Part 2: Coinage". In Oleson, John Peter (ed.). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tjrRCwAAQBAJ"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 769–776. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518731-1"><bdi>978-0-19-518731-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Mollov, Ivelin A.; Georgiev, Dilian G. (2015). "Plovdiv". In Kelcey, John G. (ed.). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=It7HCgAAQBAJ"><i>Vertebrates and Invertebrates of European Cities:Selected Non-Avian Fauna</i></a>. New York: Springer. pp. 75–94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4939-1697-9"><bdi>978-1-4939-1697-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Müller, Sabine (2010). "Philip II". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lkYFVJ3U-BIC"><i>A Companion to Ancient Macedonia</i></a>. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 166–185. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7936-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Nawotka, Krzysztof (2010). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NRQaBwAAQBAJ"><i>Alexander the Great</i></a>. Newcastle Upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4438-1743-1"><bdi>978-1-4438-1743-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Olbrycht, Marck Jan (2010). <a href="https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up">"Macedonia and Persia"</a>. In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). <i>A Companion to Ancient Macedonia</i>. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 342–370. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7936-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Palagia, Olga (2000). "Hephaestion's Pyre and the Royal Hunt of Alexander". In Bosworth, A. B.; Baynham, E. J. (eds.). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XcWD9idtjaMC"><i>Alexander the Great in Fact and Fiction</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 167–198. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-815287-3"><bdi>978-0-19-815287-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Piening, H. (2013). "Mobile UV-VIS Absorption Spectrometry Investigations in the "Alexander-Sarcophagus" in Istanbul". In Büyüköztürk, Oral; Ali Taşdemir, Mehmet (eds.). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hwYObrHGMj4C"><i>Nondestructive Testing of Materials and Structures: Proceedings of NDTMS-2011, Istanbul Turkey, May 15–18 2011, Part 1</i></a>. Heidelberg: RILEM and Springer. pp. 1179–1186. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-007-0722-1"><bdi>978-94-007-0722-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Renault, Mary (2001) [1975]. <i>The Nature of Alexander the Great</i>. New York: Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-139076-X"><bdi>0-14-139076-X</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Rhodes, P. J. (2010). "The Literary and Epigraphic Evidence to the Roman Conquest". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lkYFVJ3U-BIC"><i>A Companion to Ancient Macedonia</i></a>. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 23–40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7936-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Roisman, Joseph (2010). <a href="https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up">"Classical Macedonia to Perdiccas III"</a>. In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). <i>A Companion to Ancient Macedonia</i>. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 145–165. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7936-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Sakellariou, Michael B. (1983). <a href="https://archive.org/details/macedonia4000yea00sake">"Inhabitants"</a>. In Michael B. Sakellariou (ed.). <i>Macedonia: 4000 Years of Greek History and Civilization</i>. Athens: Ekdotike Athenon S.A. pp. <a href="https://archive.org/details/macedonia4000yea00sake/page/44">44–63</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Sansone, David (2017). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cVUWDQAAQBAJ"><i>Ancient Greek Civilization</i></a> (3rd ed.). Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Wiley-Blackwell">Wiley-Blackwell</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-119-09815-7"><bdi>978-1-119-09815-7</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Sawada, Noriko (2010). <a href="https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up">"Social Customs and Institutions: Aspects of Macedonian Elite Society"</a>. In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). <i>A Companion to Ancient Macedonia</i>. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 392–408. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7936-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Sekunda, Nicholas Viktor (2010). <a href="https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up">"The Macedonian Army"</a>. In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). <i>A Companion to Ancient Macedonia</i>. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 446–471. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7936-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Schwahn, Walther (1931). "Sympoliteia". <i><a href="/wiki/Realencyclop%C3%A4die_der_Classischen_Altertumswissenschaft">Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft</a></i> (in German). Vol. Band IV, Halbband 7, Stoa–Symposion. col. 1171–1266.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Sprawski, Slawomir (2010). <a href="https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up">"The Early Temenid Kings to Alexander I"</a>. In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). <i>A Companion to Ancient Macedonia</i>. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 127–144. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7936-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Stern, E. Marianne (2008). "Glass Production". In Oleson, John Peter (ed.). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tjrRCwAAQBAJ"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 520–550. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518731-1"><bdi>978-0-19-518731-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Thomas, Carol G. (2010). <a href="https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up">"The Physical Kingdom"</a>. In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). <i>A Companion to Ancient Macedonia</i>. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 65–80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7936-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Treister, Michail Yu (1996). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dcTexDa4I0kC"><i>The Role of Metals in Ancient Greek History</i></a>. Leiden: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-10473-9"><bdi>90-04-10473-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Worthington, Ian (2008). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CZsTAQAAIAAJ"><i>Philip II of Macedonia</i></a>. New Haven, CT: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12079-0"><bdi>978-0-300-12079-0</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Worthington, Ian (2012). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yxqpAgAAQBAJ"><i>Alexander the Great: a Reader</i></a> (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-66742-5"><bdi>978-0-415-66742-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Worthington, Ian (2014). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vnGVAwAAQBAJ"><i>By the Spear: Philip II, Alexander the Great, and the Rise and Fall of the Macedonian Empire</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-992986-3"><bdi>978-0-19-992986-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Woodard, Roger D. (2004). "Introduction". In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.). <i>The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages</i>. Oxford: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56256-0"><bdi>978-0-521-56256-0</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Woodard, Roger D. (2010) [2008]. <a href="https://archive.org/details/ancientlanguages00roge/page/1">"Language in Ancient Europe: an Introduction"</a>. In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.). <i>The Ancient Languages of Europe</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. <a href="https://archive.org/details/ancientlanguages00roge/page/1">1–13</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68495-8"><bdi>978-0-521-68495-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Winter, Frederick E. (2006). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=03UNLhtEP1oC"><i>Studies in Hellenistic Architecture</i></a>. Toronto: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto_Press">University of Toronto Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-3914-9"><bdi>978-0-8020-3914-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li></ul>
</div>
<h2>Further reading</h2>
<div>
<ul><li><cite>Autenrieth, Georg (1891). <a href="https://archive.org/details/ahomericdiction00unkngoog"><i>A Homeric Dictionary for Schools and Colleges</i></a>. New York: Harper and Brothers.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Bard, Kathryn A. (1999). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MH7sAgAAQBAJ"><i>Encyclopaedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt</i></a>. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-66524-2"><bdi>978-1-134-66524-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Borza, Eugene N. (1999). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JdEHAAAACAAJ"><i>Before Alexander: Constructing Early Macedonia</i></a>. Claremont, CA: Regina Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-941690-97-0"><bdi>0-941690-97-0</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Bryant, Joseph M. (1996). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bCM9D9fyCoQC"><i>Moral Codes and Social Structure in Ancient Greece: A Sociology of Greek Ethics from Homer to the Epicureans and Stoics</i></a>. Albany, NY: <a href="/wiki/State_University_of_New_York_Press">State University of New York Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-3042-1"><bdi>0-7914-3042-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Chamoux, François (2002). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T1kr4YGTA2AC"><i>Hellenistic Civilization</i></a>. Oxford, UK: <a href="/wiki/Blackwell_Publishing">Blackwell Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-22241-3"><bdi>0-631-22241-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Errington, Robert M. (1974). "Macedonian 'Royal Style' and Its Historical Significance". <i>The Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>. <b>94</b>: 20–37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F630417">10.2307/630417</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/630417">630417</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162629292">162629292</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Fine, John Van Antwerp (1983). <a href="https://archive.org/details/ancientgreeks00john"><i>The Ancient Greeks: A Critical History</i></a>. Cambridge, MA: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-03314-0"><bdi>0-674-03314-0</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (2001). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eW0iAQAAIAAJ"><i>Collected Studies: Further Studies on Various Topics</i></a>. Amsterdam: Hakkert.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (1993). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TWwiAQAAIAAJ"><i>Studies concerning Epirus and Macedonia before Alexander</i></a>. Amsterdam: Hakkert. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789025610500"><bdi>9789025610500</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (1989). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4jRoAAAAMAAJ"><i>The Macedonian State: Origins, Institutions, and History</i></a>. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-814883-6"><bdi>0-19-814883-6</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Jones, Archer (2001). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z2FRzcz2W0oC"><i>The Art of War in the Western World</i></a>. Champaign, IL: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Press">University of Illinois Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-252-06966-8"><bdi>0-252-06966-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Levinson, David (1992). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PnMYAAAAIAAJ"><i>Encyclopedia of World Cultures</i></a>. Vol. 1. Boston, MA: G.K. Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8168-8840-5"><bdi>978-0-8168-8840-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Starr, Chester G. (1991). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bA3kgtZU1iMC"><i>A History of the Ancient World</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-506628-6"><bdi>0-19-506628-6</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Toynbee, Arnold Joseph (1981). <a href="https://archive.org/details/greekstheirheri00toyn"><i>The Greeks and Their Heritages</i></a>. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-215256-5"><bdi>978-0-19-215256-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Wilcken, Ulrich (1967). <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexandergreat0000wilc"><i>Alexander the Great</i></a>. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-00381-9"><bdi>978-0-393-00381-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li></ul>
</div>
<h2>External links</h2>
<div>
<p></p>
<p>Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Macedon">Macedon</a>.</p></div>
<div>
<p></p>
</div>
<ul><li><a href="https://www.livius.org/maa-mam/macedonia/macedonia.html">Ancient Macedonia</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303183445/http://www.livius.org/maa-mam/macedonia/macedonia.html">Archived</a> 2016-03-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at <a href="https://www.livius.org/">Livius</a>, by Jona Lendering</li>
<li><a href="http://www.ashmolean.org/exhibitions/current/?timing=current&amp;id=57&amp;exhibitionYear=2011">Heracles to Alexander The Great: Treasures From The Royal Capital of Macedon, A Hellenic Kingdom in the Age of Democracy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ashmolean_Museum_of_Art_and_Archaeology">Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford">University of Oxford</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Macedonia-ancient-kingdom-Europe">"Macedonia, ancient kingdom"</a>, entry from the <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i></li>
<li><a href="http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/alex/hd_alex.htm">"The Rise of Macedonia and the Conquests of Alexander the Great"</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>, Timeline of Art History</li></ul>
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 Contents

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 * (Top)
 * 1 Etymology
 * 2 History
 + 2.1 Early history and legend
 + 2.2 Involvement in the Classical Greek world
 + 2.3 Rise of Macedon
 + 2.4 Empire
 + 2.5 Hellenistic era
 + 2.6 Conflict with Rome
 * 3 Institutions
 + 3.1 Division of power
 + 3.2 Kingship and the royal court
 + 3.3 Royal pages
 + 3.4 Bodyguards
 + 3.5 Companions, friends, councils, and assemblies
 + 3.6 Magistrates, the commonwealth, local government, and allied states
 + 3.7 Military
 o 3.7.1 Early Macedonian army
 o 3.7.2 Philip II and Alexander the Great
 o 3.7.3 Antigonid period military
 * 4 Society and culture
 + 4.1 Language and dialects
 + 4.2 Religious beliefs and funerary practices
 + 4.3 Economics and social class
 + 4.4 Visual arts
 + 4.5 Theatre, music and performing arts
 + 4.6 Literature, education, philosophy, and patronage
 + 4.7 Sports and leisure
 + 4.8 Dining and cuisine
 + 4.9 Ethnic identity
 * 5 Technology and engineering
 + 5.1 Architecture
 + 5.2 Military technology and engineering
 + 5.3 Other innovations
 * 6 Currency, finances, and resources
 * 7 Legacy
 * 8 See also
 * 9 References
 + 9.1 Notes
 + 9.2 Citations
 + 9.3 Sources
 * 10 Further reading
 * 11 External links
 Toggle the table of contents

 Macedonia (ancient kingdom)

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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 "Macedon" redirects here. For other uses, see Macedon (disambiguation) and Macedonia (disambiguation).

 Macedonia 
 Μακεδονία 
 * 808–168 BC 
 * 150–148 BC 
 Vergina Sun 
 The Kingdom of Macedonia in 336 BC (orange)
  * Aigai[1] 
 Capital (808–399 BC) 
  * Pella[2] 
  (399–168 BC) 
 Common languages Ancient Macedonian, Attic, Koine Greek
 Religion Greek polytheism, Hellenistic religion
 Government Monarchy 
 King  
 
 • 808–778 BC Caranus (first) 
 • 179–168 BC Perseus (last) 
 
 Legislature Synedrion 
 Historical era Classical Antiquity 
 
 • Founded by Caranus 808 BC 
 • Vassal of Persia[3] 512/511–493 BC 
 • Incorporated into the Persian Empire[3] 492–479 BC 
 • Rise of Macedon 359–336 BC 
 • Founding of the Hellenic League 338–337 BC 
 • Conquest of Persia 335–323 BC 
 • Partition of Babylon 323 BC 
 • Wars of the Diadochi 322–275 BC 
 • Battle of Pydna 168 BC 
 
 Area 
 323 BC[4][5] 5,200,000 km2 (2,000,000 sq mi) 
 Currency Tetradrachm 
 Preceded by Succeeded by 
 Greek Dark Ages Lysimachian Empire 
 Achaemenid Macedonia Seleucid Empire 
 League of Corinth Ptolemaic Kingdom 
 Achaemenid Empire Kingdom of Pergamon 
 Pauravas Macedonia province 
 
 
 

 Macedonia (/ ˌ m æ s ɪ ˈ d oʊ n i ə / ( listen ) ; Greek: Μακεδονία ), also called Macedon (/ ˈ m æ s ɪ d ɒ n /), was an ancient kingdom on the periphery of Archaic and Classical Greece,[6] and later the dominant state of Hellenistic Greece.[7] The kingdom was founded and initially ruled by the royal Argead dynasty, which was followed by the Antipatrid and Antigonid dynasties. Home to the ancient Macedonians, the earliest kingdom was centered on the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula,[8] and bordered by Epirus to the west, Paeonia to the north, Thrace to the east and Thessaly to the south.

 Before the 4th century BC, Macedonia was a small kingdom outside of the area dominated by the great city-states of Athens, Sparta and Thebes, and briefly subordinate to Achaemenid Persia.[3] During the reign of the Argead king Philip II (359–336 BC), Macedonia subdued mainland Greece and the Thracian Odrysian kingdom through conquest and diplomacy. With a reformed army containing phalanxes wielding the sarissa pike, Philip II defeated the old powers of Athens and Thebes in the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC. Philip II's son Alexander the Great, leading a federation of Greek states, accomplished his father's objective of commanding the whole of Greece when he destroyed Thebes after the city revolted. During Alexander's subsequent campaign of conquest, he overthrew the Achaemenid Empire and conquered territory that stretched as far as the Indus River. For a brief period, his Macedonian Empire was the most powerful in the world – the definitive Hellenistic state, inaugurating the transition to a new period of Ancient Greek civilization. Greek arts and literature flourished in the new conquered lands and advances in philosophy, engineering, and science spread throughout much of the ancient world. Of particular importance were the contributions of Aristotle, tutor to Alexander, whose writings became a keystone of Western philosophy.

 After Alexander's death in 323 BC, the ensuing wars of the Diadochi, and the partitioning of Alexander's short-lived empire, Macedonia remained a Greek cultural and political center in the Mediterranean region along with Ptolemaic Egypt, the Seleucid Empire, and the Kingdom of Pergamon. Important cities such as Pella, Pydna, and Amphipolis were involved in power struggles for control of the territory. New cities were founded, such as Thessalonica by the usurper Cassander (named after his wife Thessalonike of Macedon).[9] Macedonia's decline began with the Macedonian Wars and the rise of Rome as the leading Mediterranean power. At the end of the Third Macedonian War in 168 BC, the Macedonian monarchy was abolished and replaced by Roman client states. A short-lived revival of the monarchy during the Fourth Macedonian War in 150–148 BC ended with the establishment of the Roman province of Macedonia.

 The Macedonian kings, who wielded absolute power and commanded state resources such as gold and silver, facilitated mining operations to mint currency, finance their armies and, by the reign of Philip II, a Macedonian navy. Unlike the other diadochi successor states, the imperial cult fostered by Alexander was never adopted in Macedonia, yet Macedonian rulers nevertheless assumed roles as high priests of the kingdom and leading patrons of domestic and international cults of the Hellenistic religion. The authority of Macedonian kings was theoretically limited by the institution of the army, while a few municipalities within the Macedonian commonwealth enjoyed a high degree of autonomy and even had democratic governments with popular assemblies.

 Etymology

 See also: Makedon (mythology) and Macedonia (terminology)

 The name Macedonia (Greek: Μακεδονία , Makedonía) comes from the ethnonym Μακεδόνες (Makedónes), which itself is derived from the ancient Greek adjective μακεδνός (makednós), meaning "tall, slim", also the name of a people related to the Dorians (Herodotus), and possibly descriptive of Ancient Macedonians.[10] It is most likely cognate with the adjective μακρός (makros), meaning "long" or "tall" in Ancient Greek.[10] The name is believed to have originally meant either "highlanders", "the tall ones", or "high grown men".[note 1] Linguist Robert S. P. Beekes claims that both terms are of Pre-Greek substrate origin and cannot be explained in terms of Indo-European morphology,[11] however Filip De Decker rejects Beekesʼ arguments as insufficient.[12]

 History

 Main article: History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)

 Early history and legend

 Main articles: Achaemenid Macedonia and Argead dynasty
 Further information: List of ancient Macedonians § Kings
 The entrance to one of the royal tombs at Vergina, a UNESCO World Heritage Site

 The Classical Greek historians Herodotus and Thucydides reported the legend that the Macedonian kings of the Argead dynasty were descendants of Temenus, king of Argos, and could therefore claim the mythical Heracles as one of their ancestors as well as a direct lineage from Zeus, chief god of the Greek pantheon.[13] Contradictory legends state that either Perdiccas I of Macedon or Caranus of Macedon were the founders of the Argead dynasty, with either five or eight kings before Amyntas I.[14] The assertion that the Argeads descended from Temenus was accepted by the Hellanodikai authorities of the Ancient Olympic Games, permitting Alexander I of Macedon (r. 498–454 BC ) to enter the competitions owing to his perceived Greek heritage.[15] Little is known about the kingdom before the reign of Alexander I's father Amyntas I of Macedon (r. 547–498 BC ) during the Archaic period.[16]

 The kingdom of Macedonia was situated along the Haliacmon and Axius rivers in Lower Macedonia, north of Mount Olympus. Historian Robert Malcolm Errington suggests that one of the earliest Argead kings established Aigai (modern Vergina) as their capital in the mid-7th century BC.[17] Before the 4th century BC, the kingdom covered a region corresponding roughly to the western and central parts of the region of Macedonia in modern Greece.[18] It gradually expanded into the region of Upper Macedonia, inhabited by the Greek Lyncestae and Elimiotae tribes, and into regions of Emathia, Eordaia, Bottiaea, Mygdonia, Crestonia, and Almopia, which were inhabited by various peoples such as Thracians and Phrygians.[note 2] Macedonia's non-Greek neighbors included Thracians, inhabiting territories to the northeast, Illyrians to the northwest, and Paeonians to the north, while the lands of Thessaly to the south and Epirus to the west were inhabited by Greeks with similar cultures to that of the Macedonians.[19]

 A silver octadrachm of Alexander I of Macedon (r. 498–454 BC ), minted c. 465–460 BC , showing an equestrian figure wearing a chlamys (short cloak) and petasos (head cap) while holding two spears and leading a horse
 The "Ionians with shield-hats" (Old Persian cuneiform: 𐎹𐎢𐎴𐎠𐏐𐎫𐎣𐎲𐎼𐎠, Yaunā takabarā)[20] depicted on the tomb of Xerxes I at Naqsh-e Rustam, were probably Macedonian soldiers in the service of the Achaemenid army, wearing the petasos or kausia, c.480 BC.[21]

 A year after Darius I of Persia (r. 522–486 BC ) launched an invasion into Europe against the Scythians, Paeonians, Thracians, and several Greek city-states of the Balkans, the Persian general Megabazus used diplomacy to convince Amyntas I to submit as a vassal of the Achaemenid Empire, ushering in the period of Achaemenid Macedonia.[note 3] Achaemenid Persian hegemony over Macedonia was briefly interrupted by the Ionian Revolt (499–493 BC), yet the Persian general Mardonius brought it back under Achaemenid suzerainty.[22]

 Although Macedonia enjoyed a large degree of autonomy and was never made a satrapy (i.e. province) of the Achaemenid Empire, it was expected to provide troops for the Achaemenid army.[23] Alexander I provided Macedonian military support to Xerxes I (r. 486–465 BC ) during the Second Persian invasion of Greece in 480–479 BC, and Macedonian soldiers fought on the side of the Persians at the 479 BC Battle of Platea.[24] Following the Greek victory at Salamis in 480 BC, Alexander I was employed as an Achaemenid diplomat to propose a peace treaty and alliance with Athens, an offer that was rejected.[25] Soon afterwards, the Achaemenid forces were forced to withdraw from mainland Europe, marking the end of Persian control over Macedonia.[26]

 Involvement in the Classical Greek world

 Further information: Delian League, Spartan hegemony, and Theban hegemony
 Macedon (orange) during the Peloponnesian War around 431 BC, with Athens and the Delian League (yellow), Sparta and Peloponnesian League (red), independent states (blue), and the Persian Achaemenid Empire (purple)

 Although initially a Persian vassal, Alexander I of Macedon fostered friendly diplomatic relations with his former Greek enemies, the Athenian and Spartan-led coalition of Greek city-states.[27] His successor Perdiccas II (r. 454–413 BC ) led the Macedonians to war in four separate conflicts against Athens, leader of the Delian League, while incursions by the Thracian ruler Sitalces of the Odrysian kingdom threatened Macedonia's territorial integrity in the northeast.[28] The Athenian statesman Pericles promoted colonization of the Strymon River near the Kingdom of Macedonia, where the colonial city of Amphipolis was founded in 437/436 BC so that it could provide Athens with a steady supply of silver and gold as well as timber and pitch to support the Athenian navy.[29] Initially Perdiccas II did not take any action and might have even welcomed the Athenians, as the Thracians were foes to both of them.[30] This changed due to an Athenian alliance with a brother and cousin of Perdiccas II who had rebelled against him.[30] Thus, two separate wars were fought against Athens between 433 and 431 BC.[30] The Macedonian king retaliated by promoting the rebellion of Athens' allies in Chalcidice and subsequently won over the strategic city of Potidaea.[31] After capturing the Macedonian cities Therma and Beroea, Athens besieged Potidaea but failed to overcome it; Therma was returned to Macedonia and much of Chalcidice to Athens in a peace treaty brokered by Sitalces, who provided Athens with military aid in exchange for acquiring new Thracian allies.[32]

 Perdiccas II sided with Sparta in the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta, and in 429 BC Athens retaliated by persuading Sitalces to invade Macedonia, but he was forced to retreat owing to a shortage of provisions in winter.[33] In 424 BC, Arrhabaeus, a local ruler of Lynkestis in Upper Macedonia, rebelled against his overlord Perdiccas, and the Spartans agreed to help in putting down the revolt.[34] At the Battle of Lyncestis the Macedonians panicked and fled before the fighting began, enraging the Spartan general Brasidas, whose soldiers looted the unattended Macedonian baggage train.[35] Perdiccas then changed sides and supported Athens, and he was able to put down Arrhabaeus's revolt.[36]

 A Macedonian didrachm minted during the reign of Archelaus I of Macedon (r. 413–399 BC )

 Brasidas died in 422 BC, the year Athens and Sparta struck an accord, the Peace of Nicias, that freed Macedonia from its obligations as an Athenian ally.[37] Following the 418 BC Battle of Mantinea, the victorious Spartans formed an alliance with Argos, a military pact Perdiccas II was keen to join given the threat of Spartan allies remaining in Chalcidice.[38] When Argos suddenly switched sides as a pro-Athenian democracy, the Athenian navy was able to form a blockade against Macedonian seaports and invade Chalcidice in 417 BC.[39] Perdiccas II sued for peace in 414 BC, forming an alliance with Athens that was continued by his son and successor Archelaus I (r. 413–399 BC ).[40] Athens then provided naval support to Archelaus I in the 410 BC Macedonian siege of Pydna, in exchange for timber and naval equipment.[41]

 Although Archelaus I was faced with some internal revolts and had to fend off an invasion of Illyrians led by Sirras of Lynkestis, he was able to project Macedonian power into Thessaly where he sent military aid to his allies.[42] Although he retained Aigai as a ceremonial and religious center, Archelaus I moved the capital of the kingdom north to Pella, which was then positioned by a lake with a river connecting it to the Aegean Sea.[43] He improved Macedonia's currency by minting coins with a higher silver content as well as issuing separate copper coinage.[44] His royal court attracted the presence of well-known intellectuals such as the Athenian playwright Euripides.[45] When Archelaus I was assassinated (perhaps following a homosexual love affair with royal pages at his court), the kingdom was plunged into chaos, in an era lasting from 399 to 393 BC that included the reign of four different monarchs: Orestes, son of Archelaus I; Aeropus II, uncle, regent, and murderer of Orestes; Pausanias, son of Aeropus II; and Amyntas II, who was married to the youngest daughter of Archelaus I.[46] Very little is known about this turbulent period; it came to an end when Amyntas III (r. 393–370 BC ), son of Arrhidaeus and grandson of Amyntas I, killed Pausanias and claimed the Macedonian throne.[47]

 A silver stater of Amyntas III of Macedon (r. 393–370 BC )

 Amyntas III was forced to flee his kingdom in either 393 or 383 BC (based on conflicting accounts), owing to a massive invasion by the Illyrians led by Bardylis.[note 4] The pretender to the throne Argaeus ruled in his absence, yet Amyntas III eventually returned to his kingdom with the aid of Thessalian allies.[48] Amyntas III was also nearly overthrown by the forces of the Chalcidian city of Olynthos, but with the aid of Teleutias, brother of the Spartan king Agesilaus II, the Macedonians forced Olynthos to surrender and dissolve their Chalcidian League in 379 BC.[49]

 Alexander II (r. 370–368 BC ), son of Eurydice I and Amyntas III, succeeded his father and immediately invaded Thessaly to wage war against the tagus (supreme Thessalian military leader) Alexander of Pherae, capturing the city of Larissa.[50] The Thessalians, desiring to remove both Alexander II and Alexander of Pherae as their overlords, appealed to Pelopidas of Thebes for aid; he succeeded in recapturing Larissa and, in the peace agreement arranged with Macedonia, received aristocratic hostages including Alexander II's brother and future king Philip II (r. 359–336 BC ).[51] When Alexander was assassinated by his brother-in-law Ptolemy of Aloros, the latter acted as an overbearing regent for Perdiccas III (r. 368–359 BC ), younger brother of Alexander II, who eventually had Ptolemy executed when reaching the age of majority in 365 BC.[52] The remainder of Perdiccas III's reign was marked by political stability and financial recovery.[53] However, an Athenian invasion led by Timotheus, son of Conon, managed to capture Methone and Pydna, and an Illyrian invasion led by Bardylis succeeded in killing Perdiccas III and 4,000 Macedonian troops in battle.[54]

 Rise of Macedon

 Main article: Expansion of Macedonia under Philip II
 Further information: Argead dynasty, Amyntas IV of Macedon, and League of Corinth
 Left, a bust of Philip II of Macedon (r. 359–336 BC ) from the Hellenistic period, located at Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek. Right, another bust of Philip II, a 1st-century AD Roman copy of a Hellenistic Greek original, now in the Vatican Museums.
 Map of the Kingdom of Macedon at the death of Philip II in 336 BC (light blue), with the original territory that existed in 431 BC (red outline), and dependent states (yellow)

 Philip II was twenty-four years old when he acceded to the throne in 359 BC.[55] Through the use of deft diplomacy, he was able to convince the Thracians under Berisades to cease their support of Pausanias, a pretender to the throne, and the Athenians to halt their support of another pretender.[56] He achieved these by bribing the Thracians and their Paeonian allies and establishing a treaty with Athens that relinquished his claims to Amphipolis.[57] He was also able to make peace with the Illyrians who had threatened his borders.[58]

 Philip II spent his initial years radically transforming the Macedonian army. A reform of its organization, equipment, and training, including the introduction of the Macedonian phalanx armed with long pikes (i.e. the sarissa), proved immediately successful when tested against his Illyrian and Paeonian enemies.[59] Confusing accounts in ancient sources have led modern scholars to debate how much Philip II's royal predecessors may have contributed to these reforms and the extent to which his ideas were influenced by his adolescent years of captivity in Thebes as a political hostage during the Theban hegemony, especially after meeting with the general Epaminondas.[60]

 The Macedonians, like the other Greeks, traditionally practiced monogamy, but Philip II practiced polygamy and married seven wives with perhaps only one that did not involve the loyalty of his aristocratic subjects or new allies.[note 5] His first marriages were to Phila of Elimeia of the Upper Macedonian aristocracy as well as the Illyrian princess Audata to ensure a marriage alliance.[61] To establish an alliance with Larissa in Thessaly, he married the Thessalian noblewoman Philinna in 358 BC, who bore him a son who would later rule as Philip III Arrhidaeus (r. 323–317 BC ).[62] In 357 BC, he married Olympias to secure an alliance with Arybbas, the King of Epirus and the Molossians. This marriage would bear a son who would later rule as Alexander III (better known as Alexander the Great) and claim descent from the legendary Achilles by way of his dynastic heritage from Epirus.[63] It is unclear whether or not the Achaemenid Persian kings influenced Philip II's practice of polygamy, although his predecessor Amyntas III had three sons with a possible second wife Gygaea: Archelaus, Arrhidaeus, and Menelaus.[64] Philip II had Archelaus put to death in 359 BC, while Philip II's other two half brothers fled to Olynthos, serving as a casus belli for the Olynthian War (349–348 BC) against the Chalcidian League.[65]

 While Athens was preoccupied with the Social War (357–355 BC), Philip II retook Amphipolis from them in 357 BC and the following year recaptured Pydna and Potidaea, the latter of which he handed over to the Chalcidian League as promised in a treaty.[66] In 356 BC, he took Crenides, refounding it as Philippi, while his general Parmenion defeated the Illyrian king Grabos II of the Grabaei.[67] During the 355–354 BC siege of Methone, Philip II lost his right eye to an arrow wound, but managed to capture the city and treated the inhabitants cordially, unlike the Potidaeans, who had been enslaved.[note 6]

 Philip II then involved Macedonia in the Third Sacred War (356–346 BC). It began when Phocis captured and plundered the temple of Apollo at Delphi instead of submitting unpaid fines, causing the Amphictyonic League to declare war on Phocis and a civil war among the members of the Thessalian League aligned with either Phocis or Thebes.[68] Philip II's initial campaign against Pherae in Thessaly in 353 BC at the behest of Larissa ended in two disastrous defeats by the Phocian general Onomarchus.[note 7] Philip II in turn defeated Onomarchus in 352 BC at the Battle of Crocus Field, which led to Philip II's election as leader (archon) of the Thessalian League, provided him a seat on the Amphictyonic Council, and allowed for a marriage alliance with Pherae by wedding Nicesipolis, niece of the tyrant Jason of Pherae.[69]

 Philip II had some early involvement with the Achaemenid Empire, especially by supporting satraps and mercenaries who rebelled against the central authority of the Achaemenid king. The satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia Artabazos II, who was in rebellion against Artaxerxes III, was able to take refuge as an exile at the Macedonian court from 352 to 342 BC. He was accompanied in exile by his family and by his mercenary general Memnon of Rhodes.[70][71] Barsine, daughter of Artabazos, and future wife of Alexander the Great, grew up at the Macedonian court.[71]

 After campaigning against the Thracian ruler Cersobleptes, in 349 BC, Philip II began his war against the Chalcidian League, which had been reestablished in 375 BC following a temporary disbandment.[72] Despite an Athenian intervention by Charidemus,[73] Olynthos was captured by Philip II in 348 BC, and its inhabitants were sold into slavery, including some Athenian citizens.[74] The Athenians, especially in a series of speeches by Demosthenes known as the Olynthiacs, were unsuccessful in persuading their allies to counterattack and in 346 BC concluded a treaty with Macedonia known as the Peace of Philocrates.[75] The treaty stipulated that Athens would relinquish claims to Macedonian coastal territories, the Chalcidice, and Amphipolis in return for the release of the enslaved Athenians as well as guarantees that Philip II would not attack Athenian settlements in the Thracian Chersonese.[76] Meanwhile, Phocis and Thermopylae were captured by Macedonian forces, the Delphic temple robbers were executed, and Philip II was awarded the two Phocian seats on the Amphictyonic Council and the position of master of ceremonies over the Pythian Games.[77] Athens initially opposed his membership on the council and refused to attend the games in protest, but they eventually accepted these conditions, perhaps after some persuasion by Demosthenes in his oration On the Peace.[78]

 Left, a Niketerion (victory medallion) bearing the effigy of king Philip II of Macedon, 3rd century AD, probably minted during the reign of Roman Emperor Alexander Severus. Right, the ruins of the Philippeion at Olympia, Greece, which was built by Philip II of Macedon to celebrate his victory at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC.[79]

 Over the next few years, Philip II reformed local governments in Thessaly, campaigned against the Illyrian ruler Pleuratus I, deposed Arybbas in Epirus in favor of his brother-in-law Alexander I (through Philip II's marriage to Olympias), and defeated Cersebleptes in Thrace. This allowed him to extend Macedonian control over the Hellespont in anticipation of an invasion into Achaemenid Anatolia.[80] In 342 BC, Philip II conquered a Thracian city in what is now Bulgaria and renamed it Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv).[81] War broke out with Athens in 340 BC while Philip II was engaged in two ultimately unsuccessful sieges of Perinthus and Byzantion, followed by a successful campaign against the Scythians along the Danube and Macedonia's involvement in the Fourth Sacred War against Amphissa in 339 BC.[82] Thebes ejected a Macedonian garrison from Nicaea (near Thermopylae), leading Thebes to join Athens, Megara, Corinth, Achaea, and Euboea in a final confrontation against Macedonia at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC.[83] After the Macedonian victory at Chaeronea, Philip II installed an oligarchy in Thebes, yet was lenient toward Athens, wishing to utilize their navy in a planned invasion of the Achaemenid Empire.[84] He was then chiefly responsible for the formation of the League of Corinth that included the major Greek city-states except Sparta. Despite the Kingdom of Macedonia's official exclusion from the league, in 337 BC, Philip II was elected as the leader (hegemon) of its council (synedrion) and the commander-in-chief (strategos autokrator) of a forthcoming campaign to invade the Achaemenid Empire.[85] Philip's plan to punish the Persians for the suffering of the Greeks and to liberate the Greek cities of Asia Minor[86] as well as perhaps the panhellenic fear of another Persian invasion of Greece, contributed to his decision to invade the Achaemenid Empire.[87] The Persians offered aid to Perinthus and Byzantion in 341–340 BC, highlighting Macedonia's strategic need to secure Thrace and the Aegean Sea against increasing Achaemenid encroachment, as the Persian king Artaxerxes III further consolidated his control over satrapies in western Anatolia.[88] The latter region, yielding far more wealth and valuable resources than the Balkans, was also coveted by the Macedonian king for its sheer economic potential.[89]

 When Philip II married Cleopatra Eurydice, niece of general Attalus, talk of providing new potential heirs at the wedding feast infuriated Philip II's son Alexander, a veteran of the Battle of Chaeronea, and his mother Olympias.[90] They fled together to Epirus before Alexander was recalled to Pella by Philip II.[90] When Philip II arranged a marriage between his son Arrhidaeus and Ada of Caria, daughter of Pixodarus, the Persian satrap of Caria, Alexander intervened and proposed to marry Ada instead. Philip II then cancelled the wedding altogether and exiled Alexander's advisors Ptolemy, Nearchus, and Harpalus.[91] To reconcile with Olympias, Philip II had their daughter Cleopatra marry Olympias' brother (and Cleopatra's uncle) Alexander I of Epirus, but Philip II was assassinated by his bodyguard, Pausanias of Orestis, during their wedding feast and succeeded by Alexander in 336 BC.[92]

 Empire

 Further information: Wars of Alexander the Great, Wars of the Diadochi, and Chronology of the expedition of Alexander the Great into Asia
 Left, Bust of Alexander the Great by the Athenian sculptor Leochares, 330 BC, Acropolis Museum, Athens. Right, Bust of Alexander the Great, a Roman copy of the Imperial Era (1st or 2nd century AD) after an original bronze sculpture made by the Greek sculptor Lysippos, Louvre, Paris.
 Alexander's empire and his route

 Modern scholars have argued over the possible role of Alexander III "the Great" and his mother Olympias in the assassination of Philip II, noting the latter's choice to exclude Alexander from his planned invasion of Asia, choosing instead for him to act as regent of Greece and deputy hegemon of the League of Corinth, and the potential bearing of another male heir between Philip II and his new wife, Cleopatra Eurydice.[note 8] Alexander III (r. 336–323 BC ) was immediately proclaimed king by an assembly of the army and leading aristocrats, chief among them being Antipater and Parmenion.[93] By the end of his reign and military career in 323 BC, Alexander would rule over an empire consisting of mainland Greece, Asia Minor, the Levant, ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, and much of Central and South Asia (i.e. modern Pakistan).[94] Among his first acts was the burial of his father at Aigai.[95] The members of the League of Corinth revolted at the news of Philip II's death, but were soon quelled by military force alongside persuasive diplomacy, electing Alexander as hegemon of the league to carry out the planned invasion of Achaemenid Persia.[96]

 In 335 BC, Alexander fought against the Thracian tribe of the Triballi at Haemus Mons and along the Danube, forcing their surrender on Peuce Island.[97] Shortly thereafter, the Illyrian chieftain Cleitus, son of Bardylis, threatened to attack Macedonia with the aid of Glaucias, king of the Taulantii, but Alexander took the initiative and besieged the Illyrians at Pelion (in modern Albania).[98] When Thebes had once again revolted from the League of Corinth and was besieging the Macedonian garrison in the Cadmea, Alexander left the Illyrian front and marched to Thebes, which he placed under siege.[99] After breaching the walls, Alexander's forces killed 6,000 Thebans, took 30,000 inhabitants as prisoners of war, and burned the city to the ground as a warning that convinced all other Greek states except Sparta not to challenge Alexander again.[100]

 Throughout his military career, Alexander won every battle that he personally commanded.[101] His first victory against the Persians in Asia Minor at the Battle of the Granicus in 334 BC used a small cavalry contingent as a distraction to allow his infantry to cross the river followed by a cavalry charge from his companion cavalry.[102] Alexander led the cavalry charge at the Battle of Issus in 333 BC, forcing the Persian king Darius III and his army to flee.[102] Darius III, despite having superior numbers, was again forced to flee the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC.[102] The Persian king was later captured and executed by his own satrap of Bactria and kinsman, Bessus, in 330 BC. The Macedonian king subsequently hunted down and executed Bessus in what is now Afghanistan, securing the region of Sogdia in the process.[103] At the 326 BC Battle of the Hydaspes (modern-day Punjab), when the war elephants of King Porus of the Pauravas threatened Alexander's troops, he had them form open ranks to surround the elephants and dislodge their handlers by using their sarissa pikes.[104] When his Macedonian troops threatened mutiny in 324 BC at Opis, Babylonia (near modern Baghdad, Iraq), Alexander offered Macedonian military titles and greater responsibilities to Persian officers and units instead, forcing his troops to seek forgiveness at a staged banquet of reconciliation between Persians and Macedonians.[105]

 The Stag Hunt Mosaic, c. 300 BC, from Pella; the figure on the right is possibly Alexander the Great due to the date of the mosaic along with the depicted upsweep of his centrally-parted hair (anastole); the figure on the left wielding a double-edged axe (associated with Hephaistos) is perhaps Hephaestion, one of Alexander's loyal companions.

 Alexander perhaps undercut his own rule by demonstrating signs of megalomania.[106] While utilizing effective propaganda such as the cutting of the Gordian Knot, he also attempted to portray himself as a living god and son of Zeus following his visit to the oracle at Siwah in the Libyan Desert (in modern-day Egypt) in 331 BC.[107] His attempt in 327 BC to have his men prostrate before him in Bactra in an act of proskynesis borrowed from the Persian kings was rejected as religious blasphemy by his Macedonian and Greek subjects after his court historian Callisthenes refused to perform this ritual.[106] When Alexander had Parmenion murdered at Ecbatana (near modern Hamadan, Iran) in 330 BC, this was "symptomatic of the growing gulf between the king's interests and those of his country and people", according to Errington.[108] His murder of Cleitus the Black in 328 BC is described as "vengeful and reckless" by Dawn L. Gilley and Ian Worthington.[109] Continuing the polygamous habits of his father, Alexander encouraged his men to marry native women in Asia, leading by example when he wed Roxana, a Sogdian princess of Bactria.[110] He then married Stateira II, eldest daughter of Darius III, and Parysatis II, youngest daughter of Artaxerxes III, at the Susa weddings in 324 BC.[111]

 Meanwhile, in Greece, the Spartan king Agis III attempted to lead a rebellion of the Greeks against Macedonia.[112] He was defeated in 331 BC at the Battle of Megalopolis by Antipater, who was serving as regent of Macedonia and deputy hegemon of the League of Corinth in Alexander's stead.[note 9] Before Antipater embarked on his campaign in the Peloponnese, Memnon, the governor of Thrace, was dissuaded from rebellion by use of diplomacy.[113] Antipater deferred the punishment of Sparta to the League of Corinth headed by Alexander, who ultimately pardoned the Spartans on the condition that they submit fifty nobles as hostages.[114] Antipater's hegemony was somewhat unpopular in Greece due to his practice (perhaps by order of Alexander) of exiling malcontents and garrisoning cities with Macedonian troops, yet in 330 BC, Alexander declared that the tyrannies installed in Greece were to be abolished and Greek freedom was to be restored.[115]

 Kingdoms of the diadochi c. 301 BC, after the Battle of Ipsus
 Kingdom of Ptolemy I Soter
 Kingdom of Cassander
 Kingdom of Lysimachus
 Kingdom of Seleucus I Nicator
 Epirus
 Other
 Carthage
 Roman Republic
 Greek States
 A golden stater of Philip III Arrhidaeus (r. 323–317 BC ) bearing images of Athena (left) and Nike (right)

 When Alexander the Great died at Babylon in 323 BC, his mother Olympias immediately accused Antipater and his faction of poisoning him, although there is no evidence to confirm this.[116] With no official heir apparent, the Macedonian military command split, with one side proclaiming Alexander's half-brother Philip III Arrhidaeus (r. 323–317 BC ) as king and the other siding with the infant son of Alexander and Roxana, Alexander IV (r. 323–309 BC ).[117] Except for the Euboeans and Boeotians, the Greeks also immediately rose up in a rebellion against Antipater known as the Lamian War (323–322 BC).[118] When Antipater was defeated at the 323 BC Battle of Thermopylae, he fled to Lamia where he was besieged by the Athenian commander Leosthenes. A Macedonian army led by Leonnatus rescued Antipater by lifting the siege.[119] Antipater defeated the rebellion, yet his death in 319 BC left a power vacuum wherein the two proclaimed kings of Macedonia became pawns in a power struggle between the diadochi, the former generals of Alexander's army.[120]

 A council of the army convened in Babylon immediately after Alexander's death, naming Philip III as king and the chiliarch Perdiccas as his regent.[121] Antipater, Antigonus Monophthalmus, Craterus, and Ptolemy formed a coalition against Perdiccas in a civil war initiated by Ptolemy's seizure of the hearse of Alexander the Great.[122] Perdiccas was assassinated in 321 BC by his own officers during a failed campaign in Egypt against Ptolemy, where his march along the Nile River resulted in the drowning of 2,000 of his men.[123] Although Eumenes of Cardia managed to kill Craterus in battle, this had little to no effect on the outcome of the 321 BC Partition of Triparadisus in Syria where the victorious coalition settled the issue of a new regency and territorial rights.[124] Antipater was appointed as regent over the two kings. Before Antipater died in 319 BC, he named the staunch Argead loyalist Polyperchon as his successor, passing over his own son Cassander and ignoring the right of the king to choose a new regent (since Philip III was considered mentally unstable), in effect bypassing the council of the army as well.[125]

 Forming an alliance with Ptolemy, Antigonus, and Lysimachus, Cassander had his officer Nicanor capture the Munichia fortress of Athens' port town Piraeus in defiance of Polyperchon's decree that Greek cities should be free of Macedonian garrisons, sparking the Second War of the Diadochi (319–315 BC).[126] Given a string of military failures by Polyperchon, in 317 BC, Philip III, by way of his politically engaged wife Eurydice II of Macedon, officially replaced him as regent with Cassander.[127] Afterwards, Polyperchon desperately sought the aid of Olympias in Epirus.[127] A joint force of Epirotes, Aetolians, and Polyperchon's troops invaded Macedonia and forced the surrender of Philip III and Eurydice's army, allowing Olympias to execute the king and force his queen to commit suicide.[128] Olympias then had Nicanor and dozens of other Macedonian nobles killed, but by the spring of 316 BC, Cassander had defeated her forces, captured her, and placed her on trial for murder before sentencing her to death.[129]

 Cassander married Philip II's daughter Thessalonike and briefly extended Macedonian control into Illyria as far as Epidamnos (modern Durrës, Albania). By 313 BC, it was retaken by the Illyrian king Glaucias of Taulantii.[130] By 316 BC, Antigonus had taken the territory of Eumenes and managed to eject Seleucus Nicator from his Babylonian satrapy, leading Cassander, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus to issue a joint ultimatum to Antigonus in 315 BC for him to surrender various territories in Asia.[9] Antigonus promptly allied with Polyperchon, now based in Corinth, and issued an ultimatum of his own to Cassander, charging him with murder for executing Olympias and demanding that he hand over the royal family, King Alexander IV and the queen mother Roxana.[131] The conflict that followed lasted until the winter of 312/311 BC, when a new peace settlement recognized Cassander as general of Europe, Antigonus as "first in Asia", Ptolemy as general of Egypt, and Lysimachus as general of Thrace.[132] Cassander had Alexander IV and Roxana put to death in the winter of 311/310 BC, and between 306 and 305 BC the diadochi were declared kings of their respective territories.[133]

 Hellenistic era

 Further information: Antipatrid dynasty, Antigonid dynasty, Hellenistic period, Pyrrhic War, Chremonidean War, and Cleomenean War
 The portrait busts of Pyrrhus of Epirus (top left), Demetrius I of Macedon (top right), Seleucus I Nicator (bottom left), and Lysimachus (bottom right), Roman-era copies of Hellenistic Greek originals from the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum, Naples National Archaeological Museum

 The beginning of Hellenistic Greece was defined by the struggle between the Antipatrid dynasty, led first by Cassander (r. 305–297 BC ), son of Antipater, and the Antigonid dynasty, led by the Macedonian general Antigonus I Monophthalmus (r. 306–301 BC ) and his son, the future king Demetrius I (r. 294–288 BC ). Cassander besieged Athens in 303 BC, but was forced to retreat to Macedonia when Demetrius invaded Boeotia to his rear, attempting to sever his path of retreat.[134] While Antigonus and Demetrius attempted to recreate Philip II's Hellenic league with themselves as dual hegemons, a revived coalition of Cassander, Ptolemy I Soter (r. 305–283 BC ) of Egypt's Ptolemaic dynasty, Seleucus I Nicator (r. 305–281 BC ) of the Seleucid Empire, and Lysimachus (r. 306–281 BC ), King of Thrace, defeated the Antigonids at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC, killing Antigonus and forcing Demetrius into flight.[135]

 Cassander died in 297 BC, and his sickly son Philip IV died the same year, succeeded by Cassander's other sons Alexander V of Macedon (r. 297–294 BC ) and Antipater II of Macedon (r. 297–294 BC ), with their mother Thessalonike of Macedon acting as regent.[136] While Demetrius fought against the Antipatrid forces in Greece, Antipater II killed his own mother to obtain power.[136] His desperate brother Alexander V then requested aid from Pyrrhus of Epirus (r. 297–272 BC ),[136] who had fought alongside Demetrius at the Battle of Ipsus, but was sent to Egypt as a hostage as part of an agreement between Demetrius and Ptolemy I.[137] In exchange for defeating the forces of Antipater II and forcing him to flee to the court of Lysimachus in Thrace, Pyrrhus was awarded the westernmost portions of the Macedonian kingdom.[138] Demetrius had his nephew Alexander V assassinated and was then proclaimed king of Macedonia, but his subjects protested against his aloof, Eastern-style autocracy.[136]

 War broke out between Pyrrhus and Demetrius in 290 BC when Lanassa, wife of Pyrrhus, daughter of Agathocles of Syracuse, left him for Demetrius and offered him her dowry of Corcyra.[139] The war dragged on until 288 BC, when Demetrius lost the support of the Macedonians and fled the country. Macedonia was then divided between Pyrrhus and Lysimachus, the former taking western Macedonia and the latter eastern Macedonia.[139] By 286 BC, Lysimachus had expelled Pyrrhus and his forces from Macedonia.[note 10] In 282 BC, a new war erupted between Seleucus I and Lysimachus; the latter was killed in the Battle of Corupedion, allowing Seleucus I to take control of Thrace and Macedonia.[140] In two dramatic reversals of fortune, Seleucus I was assassinated in 281 BC by his officer Ptolemy Keraunos, son of Ptolemy I and grandson of Antipater, who was then proclaimed king of Macedonia before being killed in battle in 279 BC by Celtic invaders in the Gallic invasion of Greece.[141] The Macedonian army proclaimed the general Sosthenes of Macedon as king, although he apparently refused the title.[142] After defeating the Gallic ruler Bolgios and driving out the raiding party of Brennus, Sosthenes died and left a chaotic situation in Macedonia.[143] The Gallic invaders ravaged Macedonia until Antigonus Gonatas, son of Demetrius, defeated them in Thrace at the 277 BC Battle of Lysimachia and was then proclaimed king Antigonus II of Macedon (r. 277–274, 272–239 BC ).[144]

 In 280 BC, Pyrrhus embarked on a campaign in Magna Graecia (i.e. southern Italy) against the Roman Republic known as the Pyrrhic War, followed by his invasion of Sicily.[145] Ptolemy Keraunos secured his position on the Macedonian throne by giving Pyrrhus five thousand soldiers and twenty war elephants for this endeavor.[137] Pyrrhus returned to Epirus in 275 BC after the ultimate failure of both campaigns, which contributed to the rise of Rome because Greek cities in southern Italy such as Tarentum now became Roman allies.[145] Pyrrhus invaded Macedonia in 274 BC, defeating the largely mercenary army of Antigonus II at the 274 BC Battle of Aous and driving him out of Macedonia, forcing him to seek refuge with his naval fleet in the Aegean.[146]

 Paintings of Hellenistic-era military arms and armor from a tomb in ancient Mieza (modern-day Lefkadia), Imathia, Central Macedonia, Greece, 2nd century BC

 Pyrrhus lost much of his support among the Macedonians in 273 BC when his unruly Gallic mercenaries plundered the royal cemetery of Aigai.[147] Pyrrhus pursued Antigonus II in the Peloponnese, yet Antigonus II was ultimately able to recapture Macedonia.[148] Pyrrhus was killed while besieging Argos in 272 BC, allowing Antigonus II to reclaim the rest of Greece.[149] He then restored the Argead dynastic graves at Aigai and annexed the Kingdom of Paeonia.[150]

 The Aetolian League hampered Antigonus II's control over central Greece, and the formation of the Achaean League in 251 BC pushed Macedonian forces out of much of the Peloponnese and at times incorporated Athens and Sparta.[151] While the Seleucid Empire aligned with Antigonid Macedonia against Ptolemaic Egypt during the Syrian Wars, the Ptolemaic navy heavily disrupted Antigonus II's efforts to control mainland Greece.[152] With the aid of the Ptolemaic navy, the Athenian statesman Chremonides led a revolt against Macedonian authority known as the Chremonidean War (267–261 BC).[153] By 265 BC, Athens was surrounded and besieged by Antigonus II's forces, and a Ptolemaic fleet was defeated in the Battle of Cos. Athens finally surrendered in 261 BC.[154] After Macedonia formed an alliance with the Seleucid ruler Antiochus II, a peace settlement between Antigonus II and Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt was finally struck in 255 BC.[155]

 The Temple of Apollo at Corinth, built c. 540 BC, with the Acrocorinth (i.e. the acropolis of Corinth that once held a Macedonian garrison)[156] seen in the background

 In 251 BC, Aratus of Sicyon led a rebellion against Antigonus II, and in 250 BC, Ptolemy II declared his support for the self-proclaimed King Alexander of Corinth.[157] Although Alexander died in 246 BC and Antigonus was able to score a naval victory against the Ptolemies at Andros, the Macedonians lost the Acrocorinth to the forces of Aratus in 243 BC, followed by the induction of Corinth into the Achaean League.[158] Antigonus II made peace with the Achaean League in 240 BC, ceding the territories that he had lost in Greece.[159] Antigonus II died in 239 BC and was succeeded by his son Demetrius II of Macedon (r. 239–229 BC ). Seeking an alliance with Macedonia to defend against the Aetolians, the queen mother and regent of Epirus, Olympias II, offered her daughter Phthia of Macedon to Demetrius II in marriage. Demetrius II accepted her proposal, but he damaged relations with the Seleucids by divorcing Stratonice of Macedon.[160] Although the Aetolians formed an alliance with the Achaean League as a result, Demetrius II was able to invade Boeotia and capture it from the Aetolians by 236 BC.[156]

 The Achaean League managed to capture Megalopolis in 235 BC, and by the end of Demetrius II's reign most of the Peloponnese except Argos was taken from the Macedonians.[161] Demetrius II also lost an ally in Epirus when the monarchy was toppled in a republican revolution.[162] Demetrius II enlisted the aid of the Illyrian king Agron to defend Acarnania against Aetolia, and in 229 BC, they managed to defeat the combined navies of the Aetolian and Achaean Leagues at the Battle of Paxos.[162] Another Illyrian ruler, Longarus of the Dardanian Kingdom, invaded Macedonia and defeated an army of Demetrius II shortly before his death in 229 BC.[163] Although his young son Philip immediately inherited the throne, his regent Antigonus III Doson (r. 229–221 BC ), nephew of Antigonus II, was proclaimed king by the army, with Philip as his heir, following a string of military victories against the Illyrians in the north and the Aetolians in Thessaly.[164]

 A tetradrachm minted during the reign of Antigonus III Doson (r. 229–221 BC ), possibly at Amphipolis, bearing the portrait image of Poseidon on the obverse and on the reverse a scene depicting Apollo sitting on the prow of a ship

 Aratus sent an embassy to Antigonus III in 226 BC seeking an unexpected alliance now that the reformist king Cleomenes III of Sparta was threatening the rest of Greece in the Cleomenean War (229–222 BC).[165] In exchange for military aid, Antigonus III demanded the return of Corinth to Macedonian control, which Aratus finally agreed to in 225 BC.[166] In 224 BC, Antigonus III's forces took Arcadia from Sparta. After forming a Hellenic league in the same vein as Philip II's League of Corinth, he managed to defeat Sparta at the Battle of Sellasia in 222 BC.[167] Sparta was occupied by a foreign power for the first time in its history, restoring Macedonia's position as the leading power in Greece.[168] Antigonus died a year later, perhaps from tuberculosis, leaving behind a strong Hellenistic kingdom for his successor Philip V.[169]

 Philip V of Macedon (r. 221–179 BC ) faced immediate challenges to his authority by the Illyrian Dardani and Aetolian League.[170] Philip V and his allies were successful against the Aetolians and their allies in the Social War (220–217 BC), yet he made peace with the Aetolians once he heard of incursions by the Dardani in the north and the Carthaginian victory over the Romans at the Battle of Lake Trasimene in 217 BC.[171] Demetrius of Pharos is alleged to have convinced Philip V to first secure Illyria in advance of an invasion of the Italian peninsula.[note 11] In 216 BC, Philip V sent a hundred light warships into the Adriatic Sea to attack Illyria, a move that prompted Scerdilaidas of the Ardiaean Kingdom to appeal to the Romans for aid.[172] Rome responded by sending ten heavy quinqueremes from Roman Sicily to patrol the Illyrian coasts, causing Philip V to reverse course and order his fleet to retreat, averting open conflict for the time being.[173]

 Conflict with Rome

 Main article: Macedonian Wars
 Further information: Cretan War (205–200 BC), Punic Wars, and Macedonian–Carthaginian Treaty
 The Kingdom of Macedonia (orange) under Philip V (r. 221–179 BC ), with Macedonian dependent states (dark yellow), the Seleucid Empire (bright yellow), Roman protectorates (dark green), the Kingdom of Pergamon (light green), independent states (light purple), and possessions of the Ptolemaic Empire (violet purple)

 In 215 BC, at the height of the Second Punic War with the Carthaginian Empire, Roman authorities intercepted a ship off the Calabrian coast holding a Macedonian envoy and a Carthaginian ambassador in possession of a treaty composed by Hannibal declaring an alliance with Philip V.[174] The treaty stipulated that Carthage had the sole right to negotiate the terms of Rome's hypothetical surrender and promised mutual aid if a resurgent Rome should seek revenge against either Macedonia or Carthage.[175] Although the Macedonians were perhaps only interested in safeguarding their newly conquered territories in Illyria,[176] the Romans were nevertheless able to thwart whatever grand ambitions Philip V had for the Adriatic region during the First Macedonian War (214–205 BC). In 214 BC, Rome positioned a naval fleet at Oricus, which was assaulted along with Apollonia by Macedonian forces.[177] When the Macedonians captured Lissus in 212 BC, the Roman Senate responded by inciting the Aetolian League, Sparta, Elis, Messenia, and Attalus I (r. 241–197 BC ) of Pergamon to wage war against Philip V, keeping him occupied and away from Italy.[178]

 The Aetolian League concluded a peace agreement with Philip V in 206 BC, and the Roman Republic negotiated the Treaty of Phoenice in 205 BC, ending the war and allowing the Macedonians to retain some captured settlements in Illyria.[179] Although the Romans rejected an Aetolian request in 202 BC for Rome to declare war on Macedonia once again, the Roman Senate gave serious consideration to the similar offer made by Pergamon and its ally Rhodes in 201 BC.[180] These states were concerned about Philip V's alliance with Antiochus III the Great of the Seleucid Empire, which invaded the war-weary and financially exhausted Ptolemaic Empire in the Fifth Syrian War (202–195 BC) as Philip V captured Ptolemaic settlements in the Aegean Sea.[181] Although Rome's envoys played a critical role in convincing Athens to join the anti-Macedonian alliance with Pergamon and Rhodes in 200 BC, the comitia centuriata (people's assembly) rejected the Roman Senate's proposal for a declaration of war on Macedonia.[182] Meanwhile, Philip V conquered territories in the Hellespont and Bosporus as well as Ptolemaic Samos, which led Rhodes to form an alliance with Pergamon, Byzantium, Cyzicus, and Chios against Macedonia.[183] Despite Philip V's nominal alliance with the Seleucid king, he lost the naval Battle of Chios in 201 BC and was blockaded at Bargylia by the Rhodian and Pergamene navies.[184]

 A tetradrachm of Philip V of Macedon (r. 221–179 BC ), with the king's portrait on the obverse and Athena Alkidemos brandishing a thunderbolt on the reverse

 While Philip V was busy fighting Rome's Greek allies, Rome viewed this as an opportunity to punish this former ally of Hannibal with a war that they hoped would supply a victory and require few resources.[note 12] The Roman Senate demanded that Philip V cease hostilities against neighboring Greek powers and defer to an international arbitration committee for settling grievances.[185] When the comitia centuriata finally voted in approval of the Roman Senate's declaration of war in 200 BC and handed their ultimatum to Philip V, demanding that a tribunal assess the damages owed to Rhodes and Pergamon, the Macedonian king rejected it. This marked the beginning of the Second Macedonian War (200–197 BC), with Publius Sulpicius Galba Maximus spearheading military operations in Apollonia.[186]

 Bronze bust of Eumenes II of Pergamon, a Roman copy of a Hellenistic Greek original, from the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum

 The Macedonians successfully defended their territory for roughly two years,[187] but the Roman consul Titus Quinctius Flamininus managed to expel Philip V from Macedonia in 198 BC, forcing his men to take refuge in Thessaly.[188] When the Achaean League switched their loyalties from Macedonia to Rome, the Macedonian king sued for peace, but the terms offered were considered too stringent, and so the war continued.[188] In June 197 BC, the Macedonians were defeated at the Battle of Cynoscephalae.[189] Rome then ratified a treaty that forced Macedonia to relinquish control of much of its Greek possessions outside of Macedonia proper, if only to act as a buffer against Illyrian and Thracian incursions into Greece.[190] Although some Greeks suspected Roman intentions of supplanting Macedonia as the new hegemonic power in Greece, Flaminius announced at the Isthmian Games of 196 BC that Rome intended to preserve Greek liberty by leaving behind no garrisons and by not exacting tribute of any kind.[191] His promise was delayed by negotiations with the Spartan king Nabis, who had meanwhile captured Argos, yet Roman forces evacuated Greece in 194 BC.[192]

 Encouraged by the Aetolian League and their calls to liberate Greece from the Romans, the Seleucid king Antiochus III landed with his army at Demetrias, Thessaly, in 192 BC, and was elected strategos by the Aetolians.[193] Macedonia, the Achaean League, and other Greek city-states maintained their alliance with Rome.[194] The Romans defeated the Seleucids in the 191 BC Battle of Thermopylae as well as the Battle of Magnesia in 190 BC, forcing the Seleucids to pay a war indemnity, dismantle most of its navy, and abandon its claims to any territories north or west of the Taurus Mountains in the 188 BC Treaty of Apamea.[195] With Rome's acceptance, Philip V was able to capture some cities in central Greece in 191–189 BC that had been allied to Antiochus III, while Rhodes and Eumenes II (r. 197–159 BC ) of Pergamon gained territories in Asia Minor.[196]

 Failing to please all sides in various territorial disputes, the Roman Senate decided in 184/183 BC to force Philip V to abandon Aenus and Maronea, since these had been declared free cities in the Treaty of Apamea.[note 13] This assuaged the fear of Eumenes II that Macedonia could pose a threat to his lands in the Hellespont.[197] Perseus of Macedon (r. 179–168 BC ) succeeded Philip V and executed his brother Demetrius, who had been favored by the Romans but was charged by Perseus with high treason.[198] Perseus then attempted to form marriage alliances with Prusias II of Bithynia and Seleucus IV Philopator of the Seleucid Empire, along with renewed relations with Rhodes that greatly unsettled Eumenes II.[199] Although Eumenes II attempted to undermine these diplomatic relationships, Perseus fostered an alliance with the Boeotian League, extended his authority into Illyria and Thrace, and in 174 BC, won the role of managing the Temple of Apollo at Delphi as a member of the Amphictyonic Council.[200]

 Left, a tetradrachm of Perseus of Macedon (r. 179–168 BC ), British Museum. Right, The Triumph of Aemilius Paulus (detail) by Carle Vernet, 1789.

 Eumenes II came to Rome in 172 BC and delivered a speech to the Senate denouncing the alleged crimes and transgressions of Perseus.[201] This convinced the Roman Senate to declare the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC).[note 14] Although Perseus's forces were victorious against the Romans at the Battle of Callinicus in 171 BC, the Macedonian army was defeated at the Battle of Pydna in June 168 BC.[202] Perseus fled to Samothrace but surrendered shortly afterwards, was brought to Rome for the triumph of Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus, and was placed under house arrest at Alba Fucens, where he died in 166 BC.[203] The Romans abolished the Macedonian monarchy by installing four separate allied republics in its stead, their capitals located at Amphipolis, Thessalonica, Pella, and Pelagonia.[204] The Romans imposed severe laws inhibiting many social and economic interactions between the inhabitants of these republics, including the banning of marriages between them and the (temporary) prohibition on gold and silver mining.[204] A certain Andriscus, claiming Antigonid descent, rebelled against the Romans and was pronounced king of Macedonia, defeating the army of the Roman praetor Publius Juventius Thalna during the Fourth Macedonian War (150–148 BC).[205] Despite this, Andriscus was defeated in 148 BC at the second Battle of Pydna by Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus, whose forces occupied the kingdom.[206] This was followed in 146 BC by the Roman destruction of Carthage and victory over the Achaean League at the Battle of Corinth, ushering in the era of Roman Greece and the gradual establishment of the Roman province of Macedonia.[207]

 Institutions

 Main article: Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)

 Division of power

 Further information: Ancient Greek law
 The Vergina Sun, the 16-ray star covering the royal burial larnax of Philip II of Macedon (r. 359–336 BC ), discovered in the tomb of Vergina, formerly ancient Aigai

 At the head of Macedonia's government was the king (basileus).[note 15] From at least the reign of Philip II, the king was assisted by the royal pages (basilikoi paides), bodyguards (somatophylakes), companions (hetairoi), friends (philoi), an assembly that included members of the military, and (during the Hellenistic period) magistrates.[208] Evidence is lacking regarding the extent to which each of these groups shared authority with the king or if their existence had a basis in a formal constitutional framework.[note 16] Before the reign of Philip II, the only institution supported by textual evidence is the monarchy.[note 17]

 Kingship and the royal court

 The earliest known government of ancient Macedonia was that of its monarchy, lasting until 167 BC when it was abolished by the Romans.[209] The Macedonian hereditary monarchy existed since at least the time of Archaic Greece, with Homeric aristocratic roots in Mycenaean Greece.[210] Thucydides wrote that in previous ages, Macedonia was divided into small tribal regions, each having its own petty king, the tribes of Lower Macedonia eventually coalescing under one great king who exercised power as an overlord over the lesser kings of Upper Macedonia.[16] The direct line of father-to-son succession was broken after the assassination of Orestes of Macedon in 396 BC (allegedly by his regent and successor Aeropus II of Macedon), clouding the issue of whether primogeniture was the established custom or if there was a constitutional right for an assembly of the army or of the people to choose another king.[211] It is unclear if the male offspring of Macedonian queens or consorts were always preferred over others given the accession of Archelaus I of Macedon, son of Perdiccas II of Macedon and a slave woman, although Archelaus succeeded the throne after murdering his father's designated heir apparent.[212]

 Hades abducting Persephone, fresco in the small Macedonian royal tomb at Vergina, Macedonia, Greece, c. 340 BC

 It is known that Macedonian kings before Philip II upheld the privileges and carried out the responsibilities of hosting foreign diplomats, determining the kingdom's foreign policies, and negotiating alliances with foreign powers.[213] After the Greek victory at Salamis in 480 BC, the Persian commander Mardonius had Alexander I of Macedon sent to Athens as a chief envoy to orchestrate an alliance between the Achaemenid Empire and Athens. The decision to send Alexander was based on his marriage alliance with a noble Persian house and his previous formal relationship with the city-state of Athens.[213] With their ownership of natural resources including gold, silver, timber, and royal land, the early Macedonian kings were also capable of bribing foreign and domestic parties with impressive gifts.[214]

 Little is known about the judicial system of ancient Macedonia except that the king acted as the chief judge of the kingdom.[215] The Macedonian kings were also supreme commanders of the military.[note 18] Philip II was also highly regarded for his acts of piety in serving as the high priest of the nation. He performed daily ritual sacrifices and led religious festivals.[216] Alexander imitated various aspects of his father's reign, such as granting land and gifts to loyal aristocratic followers,[216] but lost some core support among them for adopting some of the trappings of an Eastern, Persian monarch, a "lord and master" as Carol J. King suggests, instead of a "comrade-in-arms" as was the traditional relationship of Macedonian kings with their companions.[217] Alexander's father, Philip II, was perhaps influenced by Persian traditions when he adopted institutions similar to those found in the Achaemenid realm, such as having a royal secretary, royal archive, royal pages, and a seated throne.[218]

 Royal pages

 Left, the god Dionysos riding a cheetah, mosaic floor in the "House of Dionysos" at Pella, Greece, c. 330–300 BC. Right, a framentary votive relief depicting a youth ladling wine from a krater next to a round table with vases, from the agora of Pella, end of 4th century BC, Archaeological Museum of Pella.

 The royal pages were adolescent boys and young men conscripted from aristocratic households and serving the kings of Macedonia perhaps from the reign of Philip II onward, although more solid evidence dates to the reign of Alexander the Great.[note 19] Royal pages played no direct role in high politics and were conscripted as a means to introduce them to political life.[219] After a period of training and service, pages were expected to become members of the king's companions and personal retinue.[220] During their training, pages were expected to guard the king as he slept, supply him with horses, aid him in mounting his horse, accompany him on royal hunts, and serve him during symposia (i.e. formal drinking parties).[221] Although there is little evidence for royal pages in the Antigonid period, it is known that some of them fled with Perseus of Macedon to Samothrace following his defeat by the Romans in 168 BC.[222]

 Bodyguards

 Royal bodyguards served as the closest members to the king at court and on the battlefield.[219] They were split into two categories: the agema of the hypaspistai, a type of ancient special forces usually numbering in the hundreds, and a smaller group of men handpicked by the king either for their individual merits or to honor the noble families to which they belonged.[219] Therefore, the bodyguards, limited in number and forming the king's inner circle, were not always responsible for protecting the king's life on and off the battlefield; their title and office was more a mark of distinction, perhaps used to quell rivalries between aristocratic houses.[219]

 Companions, friends, councils, and assemblies

 Further information: Synedrion
 Left, an atrium with a pebble-mosaic paving, in Pella, Greece. Right, a fragmentary inscription bearing the names of six city archons (politarchs), 2nd century BC, Archaeological Museum of Pella.

 The companions, including the elite companion cavalry and pezhetairoi infantry, represented a substantially larger group than the king's bodyguards.[note 20] The most trusted or highest ranking companions formed a council that served as an advisory body to the king.[223] A small amount of evidence suggests the existence of an assembly of the army during times of war and a people's assembly during times of peace.[note 21]

 Members of the council had the right to speak freely, and although there is no direct evidence that they voted on affairs of state, it is clear that the king was at least occasionally pressured to agree to their demands.[224] The assembly was apparently given the right to judge cases of high treason and assign punishments for them, such as when Alexander the Great acted as prosecutor in the trial and conviction of three alleged conspirators in his father's assassination plot (while many others were acquitted).[225] However, there is perhaps insufficient evidence to allow a conclusion that councils and assemblies were regularly upheld or constitutionally grounded, or that their decisions were always heeded by the king.[226] At the death of Alexander the Great, the companions immediately formed a council to assume control of his empire, but it was soon destabilized by open rivalry and conflict between its members.[227] The army also used mutiny as a tool to achieve political ends.[note 22]

 Magistrates, the commonwealth, local government, and allied states

 Antigonid Macedonian kings relied on various regional officials to conduct affairs of state.[228] This included high-ranking municipal officials, such as the military strategos and the politarch, i.e. the elected governor (archon) of a large city (polis), as well as the politico-religious office of the epistates.[note 23] No evidence exists about the personal backgrounds of these officials, although they may have been chosen among the same group of aristocratic philoi and hetairoi who filled vacancies for army officers.[215]

 Left, a silver tetradrachm issued by the city of Amphipolis in 364–363 BC (before its conquest by Philip II of Macedon in 357 BC), showing the head of Apollo on the obverse and racing torch on the reverse. Right, a golden stater depicting Philip II, minted at Amphipolis in 340 BC (or later during Alexander's reign), shortly after its conquest by Philip II and incorporation into the Macedonian commonwealth

 In ancient Athens, the Athenian democracy was restored on three separate occasions following the initial conquest of the city by Antipater in 322 BC.[229] When it fell repeatedly under Macedonian rule it was governed by a Macedonian-imposed oligarchy composed of the wealthiest members of the city-state.[note 24] Other city-states were handled quite differently and were allowed a greater degree of autonomy.[230] After Philip II conquered Amphipolis in 357 BC, the city was allowed to retain its democracy, including its constitution, popular assembly, city council (boule), and yearly elections for new officials, but a Macedonian garrison was housed within the city walls along with a Macedonian royal commissioner (epistates) to monitor the city's political affairs.[231] Philippi, the city founded by Philip II, was the only other city in the Macedonian commonwealth that had a democratic government with popular assemblies, since the assembly (ecclesia) of Thessaloniki seems to have had only a passive function in practice.[232] Some cities also maintained their own municipal revenues.[230] The Macedonian king and central government administered the revenues generated by temples and priesthoods.[233]

 Within the Macedonian commonwealth, some evidence from the 3rd century BC indicates that foreign relations were handled by the central government. Although individual Macedonian cities nominally participated in Panhellenic events as independent entities, in reality, the granting of asylia (inviolability, diplomatic immunity, and the right of asylum at sanctuaries) to certain cities was handled directly by the king.[234] Likewise, the city-states within contemporary Greek koina (i.e., federations of city-states, the sympoliteia) obeyed the federal decrees voted on collectively by the members of their league.[note 25] In city-states belonging to a league or commonwealth, the granting of proxenia (i.e. the hosting of foreign ambassadors) was usually a right shared by local and central authorities.[235] Abundant evidence exists for the granting of proxenia as being the sole prerogative of central authorities in the neighboring Epirote League, and some evidence suggests the same arrangement in the Macedonian commonwealth.[236] City-states that were allied with Macedonia issued their own decrees regarding proxenia.[237] Foreign leagues also formed alliances with the Macedonian kings, such as when the Cretan League signed treaties with Demetrius II Aetolicus and Antigonus III Doson ensuring enlistment of Cretan mercenaries into the Macedonian army, and elected Philip V of Macedon as honorary protector (prostates) of the league.[238]

 Military

 Main articles: Ancient Macedonian army and Antigonid Macedonian army
 Further information: Hellenistic armies and Macedonian phalanx
 Left, a Macedonian infantryman, possibly a hypaspist, equipped with an aspis shield and wearing a linothorax cuirass and Thracian helmet; bas relief from the Alexander Sarcophagus, 4th century BC. Right, an ancient Macedonian bronze shield excavated from the archaeological site at Bonče in North Macedonia, dated 4th century BC.

 Early Macedonian army

 Further information: Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)

 The basic structure of the Ancient Macedonian army was the division between the companion cavalry (hetairoi) and the foot companions (pezhetairoi), augmented by various allied troops, foreign levied soldiers, and mercenaries.[239] The foot companions existed perhaps since the reign of Alexander I of Macedon.[240] Macedonian cavalry, wearing muscled cuirasses, became renowned in Greece during and after their involvement in the Peloponnesian War, at times siding with either Athens or Sparta.[241] Macedonian infantry in this period consisted of poorly trained shepherds and farmers, while the cavalry was composed of noblemen.[242] As evidenced by early 4th century BC artwork, there was a pronounced Spartan influence on the Macedonian army before Philip II.[243] Nicholas Viktor Sekunda states that at the beginning of Philip II's reign in 359 BC, the Macedonian army consisted of 10,000 infantry and 600 cavalry,[244] yet Malcolm Errington cautions that these figures cited by ancient authors should be treated with some skepticism.[245]

 Philip II and Alexander the Great

 Further information: Military tactics in Ancient Greece and Thessalian cavalry

 After spending years as a political hostage in Thebes, Philip II sought to imitate the Greek example of martial exercises and the issuing of standard equipment for citizen soldiery, and succeeded in transforming the Macedonian army from a levied force of unprofessional farmers into a well-trained, professional army.[246] Philip II adopted some of the military tactics of his enemies, such as the embolon (flying wedge) cavalry formation of the Scythians.[247] His infantry wielded peltai shields that replaced the earlier aspis-style shields, were equipped with protective helmets, greaves, and either cuirasses breastplates or kotthybos stomach bands, and armed with sarissa pikes and daggers as secondary weapons.[note 26] The elite hypaspistai infantry, composed of handpicked men from the ranks of the pezhetairoi, were formed during the reign of Philip II and saw continued use during the reign of Alexander the Great.[248] Philip II was also responsible for the establishment of the royal bodyguards (somatophylakes).[249]

 An ancient fresco of Macedonian soldiers from the tomb of Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki, Greece, 4th century BC

 For his lighter missile troops, Philip II employed mercenary Cretan archers as well as Thracian, Paeonian, and Illyrian javelin throwers, slingers, and archers.[250] He hired engineers such as Polyidus of Thessaly and Diades of Pella, who were capable of building state of the art siege engines and artillery that fired large bolts.[247] Following the acquisition of the lucrative mines at Krinides (renamed Philippi), the royal treasury could afford to field a permanent, professional standing army.[251] The increase in state revenues under Philip II allowed the Macedonians to build a small navy for the first time, which included triremes.[252]

 The only Macedonian cavalry units attested under Alexander were the companion cavalry,[249] yet he formed a hipparchia (i.e. unit of a few hundred horsemen) of companion cavalry composed entirely of ethnic Persians while campaigning in Asia.[253] When marching his forces into Asia, Alexander brought 1,800 cavalrymen from Macedonia, 1,800 cavalrymen from Thessaly, 600 cavalrymen from the rest of Greece, and 900 prodromoi cavalry from Thrace.[254] Antipater was able to quickly raise a force of 600 native Macedonian cavalry to fight in the Lamian War when it began in 323 BC.[254] The most elite members of Alexander's hypaspistai were designated as the agema, and a new term for hypaspistai emerged after the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC: the argyraspides (silver shields).[255] The latter continued to serve after the reign of Alexander the Great and may have been of Asian origin.[note 27] Overall, his pike-wielding phalanx infantry numbered some 12,000 men, 3,000 of which were elite hypaspistai and 9,000 of which were pezhetairoi.[note 28] Alexander continued the use of Cretan archers and introduced native Macedonian archers into the army.[256] After the Battle of Gaugamela, archers of West Asian backgrounds became commonplace.[256]

 Antigonid period military

 Fresco of an ancient Macedonian soldier (thorakites) wearing chainmail armor and bearing a thureos shield, 3rd century BC, İstanbul Archaeology Museums

 The Macedonian army continued to evolve under the Antigonid dynasty. It is uncertain how many men were appointed as somatophylakes, which numbered eight men at the end of Alexander the Great's reign, while the hypaspistai seem to have morphed into assistants of the somatophylakes.[note 29] At the Battle of Cynoscephalae in 197 BC, the Macedonians commanded some 16,000 phalanx pikemen.[257] Alexander the Great's royal squadron of companion cavalry contained 800 men, the same number of cavalrymen in the sacred squadron (Latin: sacra ala; Greek: hiera ile) commanded by Philip V of Macedon during the Social War of 219 BC.[258] The regular Macedonian cavalry numbered 3,000 at Callinicus, which was separate from the sacred squadron and royal cavalry.[258] While Macedonian cavalry of the 4th century BC had fought without shields, the use of shields by cavalry was adopted from the Celtic invaders of the 270s BC who settled in Galatia, central Anatolia.[259]

 Thanks to contemporary inscriptions from Amphipolis and Greia dated 218 and 181 BC, respectively, historians have been able to partially piece together the organization of the Antigonid army under Philip V.[note 30] From at least the time of Antigonus III Doson, the most elite Antigonid-period infantry were the peltasts, lighter and more maneuverable soldiers wielding peltai javelins, swords, and a smaller bronze shield than Macedonian phalanx pikemen, although they sometimes served in that capacity.[note 31] Among the peltasts, roughly 2,000 men were selected to serve in the elite agema vanguard, with other peltasts numbering roughly 3,000.[260] The number of peltasts varied over time, perhaps never more than 5,000 men.[note 32] They fought alongside the phalanx pikemen, divided now into chalkaspides (bronze shield) and leukaspides (white shield) regiments.[261]

 The Antigonid Macedonian kings continued to expand and equip the navy.[262] Cassander maintained a small fleet at Pydna, Demetrius I of Macedon had one at Pella, and Antigonus II Gonatas, while serving as a general for Demetrius in Greece, used the navy to secure the Macedonian holdings in Demetrias, Chalkis, Piraeus, and Corinth.[263] The navy was considerably expanded during the Chremonidean War (267–261 BC), allowing the Macedonian navy to defeat the Ptolemaic Egyptian navy at the 255 BC Battle of Cos and 245 BC Battle of Andros, and enabling Macedonian influence to spread over the Cyclades.[263] Antigonus III Doson used the Macedonian navy to invade Caria, while Philip V sent 200 ships to fight in the Battle of Chios in 201 BC.[263] The Macedonian navy was reduced to a mere six vessels as agreed in the 197 BC peace treaty that concluded the Second Macedonian War with the Roman Republic, although Perseus of Macedon quickly assembled some lemboi at the outbreak of the Third Macedonian War in 171 BC.[263]

 Society and culture

 Main article: Ancient Macedonians
 Further information: Culture of ancient Greece
 Left, a Macedonian funerary stele, with an epigram in Greek, mid-4th century BC, Vergina. Right, marble cult statue of Aphrodite Hypolympidia, dated 2nd century BC, from the sanctuary of Isis at Dion, Pieria, Central Macedonia, Greece, now in the Archaeological Museum of Dion.

 Language and dialects

 Main article: Ancient Macedonian language
 Further information: History of Greek and Ancient Greek dialects

 Following its adoption as the court language of Philip II of Macedon's regime, authors of ancient Macedonia wrote their works in Koine Greek, the lingua franca of late Classical and Hellenistic Greece.[note 33] Rare textual evidence indicates that the native Macedonian language was either a dialect of Greek similar to Thessalian Greek and Northwestern Greek,[note 34] or a language closely related to Greek.[note 35] The vast majority of surviving inscriptions from ancient Macedonia were written in Attic Greek and its successor Koine.[264] Attic (and later Koine) Greek was the preferred language of the Ancient Macedonian army, although it is known that Alexander the Great once shouted an emergency order in Macedonian to his royal guards during the drinking party where he killed Cleitus the Black.[265] Macedonian became extinct in either the Hellenistic or the Roman period, and entirely replaced by Koine Greek.[266][note 36]

 Religious beliefs and funerary practices

 Main articles: Ancient Greek religion, Greek mythology, and Hellenistic religion
 Further information: Ancient Greek temple, Greek hero cult, Greco-Roman mysteries, Oracle of Delphi, Lion of Amphipolis, Lion of Chaeronea, and Pella curse tablet
 A mosaic of the Kasta Tomb in Amphipolis depicting the abduction of Persephone by Pluto, 4th century BC
 The Lion of Amphipolis in Amphipolis, northern Greece, a 4th-century BC marble tomb sculpture[267] erected in honor of Laomedon of Mytilene, a general who served under Alexander the Great

 By the 5th century BC, the Macedonians and the southern Greeks worshiped more or less the same deities of the Greek pantheon.[268] In Macedonia, political and religious offices were often intertwined. For instance, the head of state for the city of Amphipolis also served as the priest of Asklepios, Greek god of medicine; a similar arrangement existed at Cassandreia, where a cult priest honoring the city's founder Cassander was the nominal head of the city.[269] The main sanctuary of Zeus was maintained at Dion, while another at Veria was dedicated to Herakles and was patronized by Demetrius II Aetolicus (r. 239–229 BC ).[270] Meanwhile, foreign cults from Egypt were fostered by the royal court, such as the temple of Sarapis at Thessaloniki.[271] The Macedonians also had relations with "international" cults; for example, Macedonian kings Philip III of Macedon and Alexander IV of Macedon made votive offerings to the internationally esteemed Samothrace temple complex of the Cabeiri mystery cult.[271]

 In the three royal tombs at Vergina, professional painters decorated the walls with a mythological scene of Hades abducting Persephone and royal hunting scenes, while lavish grave goods including weapons, armor, drinking vessels, and personal items were housed with the dead, whose bones were burned before burial in golden coffins.[272] Some grave goods and decorations were common in other Macedonian tombs, yet some items found at Vergina were distinctly tied to royalty, including a diadem, luxurious goods, and arms and armor.[273] Scholars have debated about the identity of the tomb occupants since the discovery of their remains in 1977–1978,[274] and recent research and forensic examination have concluded that at least one of the persons buried was Philip II.[note 37] Located near Tomb 1 are the above-ground ruins of a heroon, a shrine for cult worship of the dead.[275] In 2014, the ancient Macedonian Kasta Tomb was discovered outside of Amphipolis and is the largest ancient tomb found in Greece (as of 2017).[276]

 Economics and social class

 Main article: Economy of ancient Greece
 Further information: Slavery in ancient Greece, Prostitution in ancient Greece, and Pederasty in ancient Greece

 Young Macedonian men were typically expected to engage in hunting and martial combat as a by-product of their transhumance lifestyle of herding livestock such as goats and sheep, while horse breeding and raising cattle were other common pursuits.[277] Some Macedonians engaged in farming, often with irrigation, land reclamation, and horticulture activities supported by the Macedonian state.[note 38] The Macedonian economy and state finances were mainly supported by logging and by mining valuable minerals such as copper, iron, gold, and silver.[278] The conversion of these raw materials into finished products and the sale of those products encouraged the growth of urban centers and a gradual shift away from the traditional rustic Macedonian lifestyle during the course of the 5th century BC.[279]

 The Macedonian king was an autocratic figure at the head of both government and society, with arguably unlimited authority to handle affairs of state and public policy, but he was also the leader of a very personal regime with close relationships or connections to his hetairoi, the core of the Macedonian aristocracy.[280] These aristocrats were second only to the king in terms of power and privilege, filling the ranks of his administration and serving as commanding officers in the military.[281] It was in the more bureaucratic regimes of the Hellenistic kingdoms that succeeded Alexander the Great's empire where greater social mobility for members of society seeking to join the aristocracy could be found, especially in Ptolemaic Egypt.[282] Although governed by a king and martial aristocracy, Macedonia seems to have lacked the widespread use of slaves seen in contemporaneous Greek states.[283]

 Visual arts

 Main article: Ancient Greek art
 Further information: Hellenistic art, Music in ancient Greece, Pottery of ancient Greece, and Ancient Greek sculpture
 Left, a fresco of a Macedonian soldier resting a spear and wearing a cap, from the tomb of Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki, 4th century BC. Right, fresco from the Tomb of Judgement in ancient Mieza (modern-day Lefkadia), Imathia, Central Macedonia, Greece, depicting religious imagery of the afterlife, 4th century BC.

 By the reign of Archelaus I in the 5th century BC, the ancient Macedonian elite was importing customs and artistic traditions from other regions of Greece while retaining more archaic, perhaps Homeric, funerary rites connected with the symposium that were typified by items such as the decorative metal kraters that held the ashes of deceased Macedonian nobility in their tombs.[284] Among these is the large bronze Derveni Krater from a 4th-century BC tomb of Thessaloniki, decorated with scenes of the Greek god Dionysus and his entourage and belonging to an aristocrat who had had a military career.[285] Macedonian metalwork usually followed Athenian styles of vase shapes from the 6th century BC onward, with drinking vessels, jewellery, containers, crowns, diadems, and coins among the many metal objects found in Macedonian tombs.[286]

 Alexander (left), wearing a kausia and fighting an Asiatic lion with his friend Craterus (detail); late 4th-century BC mosaic,[287] Pella Museum.

 Surviving Macedonian painted artwork includes frescoes and murals, but also decoration on sculpted artwork such as statues and reliefs. For instance, trace colors still exist on the bas-reliefs of the late 4th-century BC Alexander Sarcophagus.[288] Macedonian paintings have allowed historians to investigate the clothing fashions as well as military gear worn by the ancient Macedonians.[289] Aside from metalwork and painting, mosaics are another significant form of surviving Macedonian artwork.[286] The Stag Hunt Mosaic of Pella, with its three-dimensional qualities and illusionist style, show clear influence from painted artwork and wider Hellenistic art trends, although the rustic theme of hunting was tailored to Macedonian tastes.[290] The similar Lion Hunt Mosaic of Pella illustrates either a scene of Alexander the Great with his companion Craterus, or simply a conventional illustration of the royal diversion of hunting.[290] Mosaics with mythological themes include scenes of Dionysus riding a panther and Helen of Troy being abducted by Theseus, the latter of which employs illusionist qualities and realistic shading similar to Macedonian paintings.[290] Common themes of Macedonian paintings and mosaics include warfare, hunting, and aggressive masculine sexuality (i.e. abduction of women for rape or marriage); these subjects are at times combined within a single work and perhaps indicate a metaphorical connection.[note 39]

 Theatre, music and performing arts

 Further information: Theatre of ancient Greece and Music of ancient Greece

 Philip II was assassinated in 336 BC at the theatre of Aigai, amid games and spectacles celebrating the marriage of his daughter Cleopatra.[291] Alexander the Great was allegedly a great admirer of both theatre and music.[292] He was especially fond of the plays by Classical Athenian tragedians Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, whose works formed part of a proper Greek education for his new eastern subjects alongside studies in the Greek language, including the epics of Homer.[293] While he and his army were stationed at Tyre (in modern-day Lebanon), Alexander had his generals act as judges not only for athletic contests but also for stage performances of Greek tragedies.[294] The contemporaneous famous actors Thessalus and Athenodorus performed at the event.[note 40]

 Music was also appreciated in Macedonia. In addition to the agora, the gymnasium, the theatre, and religious sanctuaries and temples dedicated to Greek gods and goddesses, one of the main markers of a true Greek city in the empire of Alexander the Great was the presence of an odeon for musical performances.[295] This was the case not only for Alexandria in Egypt, but also for cities as distant as Ai-Khanoum in what is now modern-day Afghanistan.[295]

 Literature, education, philosophy, and patronage

 Further information: Literature in ancient Greece, Education in ancient Greece, Philosophy in ancient Greece, Hellenistic philosophy, Ancient Greek medicine, and Ancient Macedonian calendar
 Portrait bust of Aristotle, an Imperial Roman (1st or 2nd century AD) copy of a lost bronze sculpture made by Lysippos

 Perdiccas II of Macedon was able to host well-known Classical Greek intellectual visitors at his royal court, such as the lyric poet Melanippides and the renowned medical doctor Hippocrates, and Pindar's enkomion written for Alexander I of Macedon may have been composed at his court.[296] Archelaus I received many more Greek scholars, artists, and celebrities at his court than his predecessors.[297] His honored guests included the painter Zeuxis, the architect Callimachus, the poets Choerilus of Samos, Timotheus of Miletus, and Agathon, as well as the famous Athenian playwright Euripides.[note 41] The philosopher Aristotle, who studied at the Platonic Academy of Athens and established the Aristotelian school of thought, moved to Macedonia, and is said to have tutored the young Alexander the Great, as well as serving as an esteemed diplomat for Philip II.[298] Among Alexander's retinue of artists, writers, and philosophers was Pyrrho of Elis, founder of Pyrrhonism, the school of philosophical skepticism.[293] During the Antigonid period, Antigonos Gonatas fostered cordial relationships with Menedemos of Eretria, founder of the Eretrian school of philosophy, and Zenon, the founder of Stoicism.[292]

 In terms of early Greek historiography and later Roman historiography, Felix Jacoby identified thirteen possible ancient historians who wrote about Macedonia in his Fragmente der griechischen Historiker.[299] Aside from accounts in Herodotus and Thucydides, the works compiled by Jacoby are only fragmentary, whereas other works are completely lost, such as the history of an Illyrian war fought by Perdiccas III written by Antipater.[300] The Macedonian historians Marsyas of Pella and Marsyas of Philippi wrote histories of Macedonia, the Ptolemaic king Ptolemy I Soter authored a history about Alexander, and Hieronymus of Cardia wrote a history about Alexander's royal successors.[note 42] Following the Indian campaign of Alexander the Great, the Macedonian military officer Nearchus wrote a work of his voyage from the mouth of the Indus river to the Persian Gulf.[301] The Macedonian historian Craterus published a compilation of decrees made by the popular assembly of the Athenian democracy, ostensibly while attending the school of Aristotle.[301] Philip V of Macedon had manuscripts of the history of Philip II written by Theopompus gathered by his court scholars and disseminated with further copies.[292]

 Sports and leisure

 Further information: History of sport § Ancient Greece, Gymnasium (ancient Greece), Ancient Olympic Games, and Music in ancient Greece
 A fresco showing Hades and Persephone riding in a chariot, from the tomb of Queen Eurydice I of Macedon at Vergina, Greece, 4th century BC

 When Alexander I of Macedon petitioned to compete in the foot race of the ancient Olympic Games, the event organizers at first denied his request, explaining that only Greeks were allowed to compete. However, Alexander I produced proof of an Argead royal genealogy showing ancient Argive Temenid lineage, a move that ultimately convinced the Olympic Hellanodikai authorities of his Greek descent and ability to compete.[302] By the end of the 5th century BC, the Macedonian king Archelaus I was crowned with the olive wreath at both Olympia and Delphi (in the Pythian Games) for winning chariot racing contests.[303] Philip II allegedly heard of the Olympic victory of his horse (in either an individual horse race or chariot race) on the same day his son Alexander the Great was born, on either 19 or 20 July 356 BC.[304] Non-royal Macedonians also competed in and won various Olympic contests by the 4th century BC.[305] In addition to literary contests, Alexander the Great staged competitions for music and athletics across his empire.[293]

 Dining and cuisine

 Further information: Ancient Greek cuisine and Wine in ancient Greece
 A banquet scene from a Macedonian tomb of Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki, 4th century BC; shown are six men reclining on couches, with food arranged on nearby tables, a male servant in attendance, and female musicians providing entertainment.[306]

 Ancient Macedonia produced only a few fine foods or beverages that were highly appreciated elsewhere in the Greek world, including eels from the Strymonian Gulf and special wine produced in Chalcidice.[307] The earliest known use of flat bread as a plate for meat was made in Macedonia during the 3rd century BC, which perhaps influenced the later trencher bread of medieval Europe.[307] Cattle and goats were consumed, although there was no notice of Macedonian mountain cheeses in literature until the Middle Ages.[307] The comedic playwright Menander wrote that Macedonian dining habits penetrated Athenian high society; for instance, the introduction of meats into the dessert course of a meal.[308] The Macedonians also most likely introduced mattye to Athenian cuisine, a dish usually made of chicken or other spiced, salted, and sauced meats served during the wine course.[309] This particular dish was derided and connected with licentiousness and drunkenness in a play by the Athenian comic poet Alexis about the declining morals of Athenians in the age of Demetrius I of Macedon.[310]

 The symposium in the Macedonian and wider Greek realm was a banquet for the nobility and privileged class, an occasion for feasting, drinking, entertainment, and sometimes philosophical discussion.[311] The hetairoi, leading members of the Macedonian aristocracy, were expected to attend such feasts with their king.[281] They were also expected to accompany him on royal hunts for the acquisition of game meat as well as for sport.[281]

 Ethnic identity

 Main article: Ancient Macedonians § Identity
 See also: Macedonia (terminology), Makedon (mythology), Ethnography, and Cultural anthropology
 Athenian terracotta figurine, c. 300 BC.
 Macedonian terracotta figurine, 3rd century BC
 Terracotta statues depicting ancient Macedonians wearing the kausia, a headgear that led the Persians to refer to the Macedonians as "Yaunã Takabara" ("Greeks with hats that look like shields").[312]

 Ancient authors and modern scholars alike disagree about the ethnic identity of the ancient Macedonians. Ernst Badian notes that nearly all surviving references to antagonisms and differences between Greeks and Macedonians exist in the written speeches of Arrian, who lived at the time of the Roman Empire, when any notion of an ethnic disparity between Macedonians and other Greeks was incomprehensible.[313] Hatzopoulos argues that there was no real ethnic difference between Macedonians and Greeks, only a political distinction contrived after the creation of the League of Corinth in 337 BC (which was led by Macedonia through the league's elected hegemon Philip II, when he was not a member of the league itself),[note 43] N. G. L. Hammond asserts that ancient views differentiating Macedonia's ethnic identity from the rest of the Greek-speaking world should be seen as an expression of conflict between two different political systems: the democratic system of the city-states (e.g. Athens) versus the monarchy (Macedonia).[314] Other academics who concur that the difference between the Macedonians and Greeks was a political rather than a true ethnic discrepancy include Michael B. Sakellariou,[315] Malcolm Errington,[note 44] and Craige B. Champion.[note 45]

 Anson argues that some Hellenic authors expressed complex or even ever-changing and ambiguous ideas about the exact ethnic identity of the Macedonians, who were considered by some such as Aristotle in his Politics as barbarians and others as semi-Greek or fully Greek.[note 46] Roger D. Woodard asserts that in addition to persisting uncertainty in modern times about the proper classification of the Macedonian language and its relation to Greek, ancient authors also presented conflicting ideas about the Macedonians.[note 47] Simon Hornblower argues on the Greek identity of the Macedonians, taking into consideration their origin, language, cults and customs.[316] Any preconceived ethnic differences between Greeks and Macedonians faded by 148 BC soon after the Roman conquest of Macedonia and then the rest of Greece with the defeat of the Achaean League by the Roman Republic at the Battle of Corinth (146 BC).[317]

 Technology and engineering

 Further information: Ancient Greek technology, History of science in classical antiquity, Ancient Greek astronomy, Greek mathematics, and Medicine in ancient Greece

 Architecture

 Further information: Architecture of ancient Greece
 The facade of the Macedonian Tomb of the Palmettes in Mieza, Macedonia, Greece, 3rd century BC; decorated by colored Doric and Ionic moldings, the pediment is also painted with a scene of a man and woman reclining together.[318]
 Left, fragments of ancient Macedonian painted roof tiles (raking, simas, pan-tiles), Archaeological Museum of Pella, Greece. Right, the Ionic capital of a pilaster from the palace at Pella, Archaeological Museum of Pella.

 Macedonian architecture, although utilizing a mixture of different forms and styles from the rest of Greece, did not represent a unique or diverging style from other ancient Greek architecture.[290] Among the classical orders, Macedonian architects favored the Ionic order, especially in the peristyle courtyards of private homes.[319] There are several surviving examples, albeit in ruins, of Macedonian palatial architecture, including a palace at the site of the capital Pella, the summer residence of Vergina near the old capital Aigai, and the royal residence at Demetrias near modern Volos.[319] At Vergina, the ruins of three large banquet halls with marble-tiled floors (covered in the debris of roof tiles) with floor plan dimensions measuring roughly 16.7 x 17.6 m (54.8 x 57.7 ft) demonstrate perhaps the earliest examples of monumental triangular roof trusses, if dated before the reign of Antigonus II Gonatas or even the onset of the Hellenistic period.[320] Later Macedonian architecture also featured arches and vaults.[321] The palaces of both Vergina and Demetrias had walls made of sundried bricks, while the latter palace had four corner towers around a central courtyard in the manner of a fortified residence fit for a king or at least a military governor.[319]

 Macedonian rulers also sponsored works of architecture outside of Macedonia proper. For instance, following his victory at the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC), Philip II raised a round memorial building at Olympia known as the Philippeion, decorated inside with statues depicting him, his parents Amyntas III of Macedon and Eurydice I of Macedon, his wife Olympias, and his son Alexander the Great.[322]

 Ruins of the ancient theatre in Maroneia, Rhodope, East Macedonia and Thrace, Greece

 The ruins of roughly twenty Greek theatres survive in the present-day regions of Macedonia and Thrace in Greece: sixteen open-air theatres, three odea, and a possible theatre in Veria undergoing excavation.[323]

 Military technology and engineering

 Further information: Greek and Roman artillery, Ancient Greek warfare, Lithobolos, and Siege ladder

 By the Hellenistic period, it became common for Greek states to finance the development and proliferation of ever more powerful torsion siege engines, naval ships, and standardized designs for arms and armor.[324] Under Philip II and Alexander the Great, improvements were made to siege artillery such as bolt-shooting ballistae and siege engines such as huge rolling siege towers.[325] E. W. Marsden and M. Y. Treister contend that the Macedonian rulers Antigonus I Monophthalmus and his successor Demetrius I of Macedon had the most powerful siege artillery of the Hellenistic world at the end of the 4th century BC.[326] The siege of Salamis, Cyprus, in 306 BC necessitated the building of large siege engines and drafting of craftsmen from parts of West Asia.[327] The siege tower commissioned by Demetrius I for the Macedonian Siege of Rhodes (305–304 BC) and defended by over three thousand soldiers was built at a height of nine stories.[328] It had a base of 4,300 square feet (399 square metres), eight wheels that were steered in either direction by pivots, three sides covered in iron plates to protect them from fire, and mechanically opened windows (shielded with wool-stuffed leather curtains to soften the blow of ballistae rounds) of different sizes to accommodate the firing of missiles ranging from arrows to larger bolts.[328]

 During the siege of Echinus by Philip V of Macedon in 211 BC, the besiegers built tunnels to protect the soldiers and sappers as they went back and forth from the camp to the siege works. These included two siege towers connected by a makeshift wickerwork curtain wall mounted with stone-shooting ballistae, and sheds to protect the approach of the battering ram.[329] Despite the early reputation of Macedon as a leader in siege technology, Alexandria in Ptolemaic Egypt became the center for technological improvements to the catapult by the 3rd century BC, as evidenced by the writings of Philo of Alexandria.[327]

 Other innovations

 Further information: Ancient Macedonian calendar

 Although perhaps not as prolific as other areas of Greece in regards to technological innovations, there are some inventions that may have originated in Macedonia aside from siege engines and artillery. The rotary-operated olive press for producing olive oil may have been invented in ancient Macedonia or another part of Greece, or even as far east as the Levant or Anatolia.[330] Mold-pressed glass first appeared in Macedonia in the 4th century BC (although it could have simultaneously existed in the Achaemenid Empire); the first known clear, translucent glass pieces of the Greek world have been discovered in Macedonia and Rhodes and date to the second half of the 4th century BC.[331] Greek technical and scientific literature began with Classical Athens in the 5th century BC, while the major production centers for technical innovation and texts during the Hellenistic period were Alexandria, Rhodes, and Pergamon.[332]

 Currency, finances, and resources

 Main article: Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
 Further information: Ancient Greek coinage and Economy of ancient Greece
 Tetradrachms (above) and drachms (below) issued during the reign of Alexander the Great, now in the Numismatic Museum of Athens

 The minting of silver coinage began during the reign of Alexander I as a means to pay for royal expenditures.[215] Archelaus I increased the silver content of his coins as well as minting copper coins to promote foreign and domestic commerce.[44] The minting of coinage significantly increased during the reigns of Philip II and Alexander the Great, especially after the increase in state revenues following the seizure of the Pangaion Hills.[333] During the Hellenistic period the royal houses of Macedonia, Ptolemaic Egypt, and the Kingdom of Pergamon exercised full monopolistic control over mining activities, largely to ensure the funding of their armies.[334] By the end of the conquests of Alexander the Great, nearly thirty mints stretching from Macedonia to Babylon produced standard coins.[335] The right to mint coins was shared by central and some local governments, i.e. the autonomous municipal governments of Thessaloniki, Pella, and Amphipolis within the Macedonian commonwealth.[336] The Macedonians were also the first to issue different coins for internal and external circulation.[337]

 State revenues were also raised by collecting produce from arable lands, timber from forests, and taxes on imports and exports at harbors.[338] Some mines, groves, agricultural lands, and forests belonging to the Macedonian state were exploited by the Macedonian king, although these were often leased as assets or given as grants to members of the nobility such as the hetairoi and philoi.[339] Tariffs exacted on goods flowing in and out of Macedonian seaports existed from at least the reign of Amyntas III, and Callistratus of Aphidnae (d. c. 350 BC) aided Perdiccas III in doubling the kingdom's annual profits on customs duties from 20 to 40 talents.[340]

 After the defeat of Perseus at Pydna in 168 BC, the Roman Senate allowed the reopening of iron and copper mines, but forbade the mining of gold and silver by the four newly established autonomous client states that replaced the monarchy in Macedonia.[341] The law may originally have been conceived by the Senate due to the fear that material wealth gained from gold and silver mining operations would allow the Macedonians to fund an armed rebellion.[342] The Romans were perhaps also concerned with stemming inflation caused by an increased money supply from Macedonian silver mining.[343] The Macedonians continued minting silver coins between 167 and 148 BC (i.e. just before the establishment of the Roman province of Macedonia), and when the Romans lifted the ban on Macedonian silver mining in 158 BC it may simply have reflected the local reality of this illicit practice continuing regardless of the Senate's decree.[344]

 Legacy

 Further information: Hellenic studies, Hellenistic religion, Hellenistic Judaism, and Hellenism (neoclassicism)

 The reigns of Philip II and Alexander the Great witnessed the demise of Classical Greece and the birth of Hellenistic civilization, following the spread of Greek culture to the Near East during and after Alexander's conquests.[345] Macedonians then migrated to Egypt and parts of Asia, but the intensive colonization of foreign lands sapped the available manpower in Macedonia proper, weakening the kingdom in its fight with other Hellenistic powers and contributing to its downfall and conquest by the Romans.[346] However, the diffusion of Greek culture and language cemented by Alexander's conquests in West Asia and North Africa served as a "precondition" for the later Roman expansion into these territories and entire basis for the Byzantine Empire, according to Errington.[347]

 The Alexander Mosaic, a Roman mosaic from Pompeii, Italy, c. 100 BC

 The ethnic Macedonian rulers of the Ptolemaic and Seleucid successor states accepted men from all over the Greek world as their hetairoi companions and did not foster a national identity like the Antigonids.[348] Modern scholarship has focused on how these Hellenistic successor kingdoms were influenced more by their Macedonian origins than Eastern or southern Greek traditions.[349] While Spartan society remained mostly insular and Athens continued placing strict limitations on acquiring citizenship, the cosmopolitan Hellenistic cities of Asia and northeastern Africa bore a greater resemblance to Macedonian cities and contained a mixture of subjects including natives, Greek and Macedonian colonists, and Greek-speaking Hellenized Easterners, many of whom were the product of intermarriage between Greeks and native populations.[350]

 The deification of Macedonian monarchs perhaps began with the death of Philip II, but it was his son Alexander the Great who unambiguously claimed to be a living god.[note 48] Following his visit to the oracle of Didyma in 334 BC that suggested his divinity, Alexander traveled to the Oracle of Zeus Ammon—the Greek equivalent of the Egyptian Amun-Ra—at the Siwa Oasis of the Libyan Desert in 332 BC to confirm his divine status.[note 49] Although the Ptolemaic and Seleucid empires maintained ancestral cults and deified their rulers, kings were not worshiped in the Kingdom of Macedonia.[351] While Zeus Ammon was known to the Greeks prior to Alexander's reign, particularly at the Greek colony of Cyrene, Libya, Alexander was the first Macedonian monarch to patronize Egyptian, Persian, and Babylonian priesthoods and deities, strengthening the fusion of Near Eastern and Greek religious beliefs.[352] After his reign, the cult of Isis gradually spread throughout the Hellenistic and Roman world, while beliefs in the Egyptian god Sarapis were thoroughly Hellenized by the Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt before the spread of his cult to Macedonia and the Aegean region.[353] The German historian Johann Gustav Droysen argued that the conquests of Alexander the Great and creation of the Hellenistic world allowed for the growth and establishment of Christianity in the Roman era.[354]

 See also

 * History portal
 * Historiography of Alexander the Great
 * List of kings of Macedon
 * Geographic region of Macedonia
 * Macedonia region of Greece
 * Macedonia naming dispute
 * Macedonian nationalism
 * Paeonia
 * Tomb of Alexander the Great
 * Museum of the Royal Tombs of Aigai (Vergina)
 * United Macedonia

 References

 Notes

 1. ^ Engels 2010 , p. 89; Borza 1995 , p. 114; Eugene N. Borza writes that the "highlanders" or "Makedones" of the mountainous regions of western Macedonia are derived from northwest Greek stock; they were akin to those who at an earlier time may have migrated south to become the historical "Dorians".
 2. ^ Lewis & Boardman 1994 , pp. 723–724, see also Hatzopoulos 1996 , pp. 105–108 for the Macedonian expulsion of original inhabitants such as the Phrygians .
 3. ^ Olbrycht 2010 , pp. 342–343; Sprawski 2010 , pp. 131, 134; Errington 1990 , pp. 8–9.
 Errington is skeptical that at this point Amyntas I of Macedon offered any submission as a vassal at all, at most a token one. He also mentions how the Macedonian king pursued his own course of action, such as inviting the exiled Athenian tyrant Hippias to take refuge at Anthemous in 506 BC.
 4. ^ Roisman 2010 , pp. 158–159; see also Errington 1990 , p. 30 for further details; the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus provided a seemingly conflicting account about Illyrian invasions occurring in 393 BC and 383 BC, which may have been representative of a single invasion led by the Illyrian king Bardylis .
 5. ^ Müller 2010 , pp. 169–170, 179.
 Müller is skeptical about the claims of Plutarch and Athenaeus that Philip II of Macedon married Cleopatra Eurydice of Macedon , a younger woman, purely out of love or due to his own midlife crisis . Cleopatra was the daughter of the general Attalus , who along with his father-in-law Parmenion were given command posts in Asia Minor (modern Turkey ) soon after this wedding. Müller also suspects that this marriage was one of political convenience meant to ensure the loyalty of an influential Macedonian noble house.
 6. ^ Müller 2010 , pp. 171–172; Buckler 1989 , pp. 63, 176–181; Cawkwell 1978 , pp. 185–187.
 Cawkwell contrarily provides the date of this siege as 354–353 BC.
 7. ^ Müller 2010 , pp. 172–173; Cawkwell 1978 , pp. 60, 185; Hornblower 2002 , p. 272; Buckler 1989 , pp. 63–64, 176–181.
 Conversely, Buckler provides the date of this initial campaign as 354 BC, while affirming that the second Thessalian campaign ending in the Battle of Crocus Field occurred in 353 BC.
 8. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010 , pp. 189–190; Müller 2010 , p. 183.
 Without implicating Alexander III of Macedon as a potential suspect in the plot to assassinate Philip II of Macedon , N. G. L. Hammond and F. W. Walbank discuss possible Macedonian as well as foreign suspects, such as Demosthenes and Darius III : Hammond & Walbank 2001 , pp. 8–12.
 9. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010 , pp. 199–200; Errington 1990 , pp. 44, 93.
 Gilley and Worthington discuss the ambiguity surrounding the exact title of Antipater aside from deputy hegemon of the League of Corinth , with some sources calling him a regent, others a governor, others a simple general.
 N. G. L. Hammond and F. W. Walbank state that Alexander the Great left "Macedonia under the command of Antipater, in case there was a rising in Greece." Hammond & Walbank 2001 , p. 32.
 10. ^ Adams 2010 , p. 219; Bringmann 2007 , p. 61; Errington 1990 , p. 155.
 Conversely, Errington dates Lysimachus ' reunification of Macedonia by expelling Pyrrhus of Epirus as occurring in 284 BC, not 286 BC.
 11. ^ Eckstein 2010 , pp. 229–230; see also Errington 1990 , pp. 186–189 for further details.
 Errington is skeptical that Philip V at this point had any intentions of invading southern Italy via Illyria once the latter was secured, deeming his plans to be "more modest", Errington 1990 , p. 189.
 12. ^ Bringmann 2007 , pp. 86–87.
 Errington 1990 , pp. 202–203: "Roman desire for revenge and private hopes of famous victories were probably the decisive reasons for the outbreak of the war."
 13. ^ Bringmann 2007 , pp. 93–97; Eckstein 2010 , p. 239; Errington 1990 , pp. 207–208.
 Bringmann dates this event of handing over Aenus and Maronea along the Thracian coast as 183 BC, while Eckstein dates it as 184 BC.
 14. ^ Bringmann 2007 , pp. 98–99; see also Eckstein 2010 , p. 242, who says that "Rome ... as the sole remaining superpower ... would not accept Macedonia as a peer competitor or equal."
 Klaus Bringmann asserts that negotiations with Macedonia were completely ignored due to Rome's " political calculation " that the Macedonian kingdom had to be destroyed to ensure the elimination of the "supposed source of all the difficulties which Rome was having in the Greek world".
 15. ^ Written evidence about Macedonian governmental institutions made before Philip II of Macedon 's reign is both rare and non-Macedonian in origin. The main sources of early Macedonian historiography are the works of Herodotus , Thucydides , Diodorus Siculus , and Justin . Contemporary accounts given by those such as Demosthenes were often hostile and unreliable; even Aristotle , who lived in Macedonia, provides us with terse accounts of its governing institutions. Polybius was a contemporary historian who wrote about Macedonia; later historians include Livy , Quintus Curtius Rufus , Plutarch , and Arrian . The works of these historians affirm Macedonia's hereditary monarchy and basic institutions, yet it remains unclear if there was an established constitution for Macedonian government. See: King 2010 , pp. 373–374.
 However, N. G. L. Hammond and F. W. Walbank write with apparent certainty and conviction when describing the Macedonian constitutional government restricting the king and involving a popular assembly of the army. See: Hammond & Walbank 2001 , pp. 12–13.
 The main textual primary sources for the organization of Macedonia's military as it existed under Alexander the Great include Arrian, Curtis, Diodorus, and Plutarch; modern historians rely mostly on Polybius and Livy for understanding detailed aspects of the Antigonid-period military . On this, Sekunda 2010 , pp. 446–447 writes: "... to this we can add the evidence provided by two magnificent archaeological monuments, the ' Alexander Sarcophagus ' in particular and the ' Alexander Mosaic '... In the case of the Antigonid army ... valuable additional details are occasionally supplied by Diodorus and Plutarch , and by a series of inscriptions preserving sections of two sets of army regulations issued by Philip V ."
 16. ^ King 2010 , p. 374; for an argument about the absolutism of the Macedonian monarchy, see Errington 1990 , pp. 220–222.
 However, N. G. L. Hammond and F. W. Walbank write with apparent certainty and conviction when describing the Macedonian constitutional government restricting the king and involving a popular assembly of the army. Hammond & Walbank 2001 , pp. 12–13.
 17. ^ King 2010 , p. 375.
 In 1931 Friedrich Granier was the first to propose that by the time of Philip II's reign, Macedonia had a constitutional government with laws that delegated rights and customary privileges to certain groups, especially to its citizen soldiers, although the majority of evidence for the army's alleged right to appoint a new king and judge cases of treason stems from the reign of Alexander III of Macedon . See Granier 1931 , pp. 4–28, 48–57 and King 2010 , pp. 374–375.
 Pietro De Francisci was the first to refute Granier's ideas and advance the theory that the Macedonian government was an autocracy ruled by the whim of the monarch, although this issue of kingship and governance is still unresolved in academia. See: de Francisci 1948 , pp. 345–435 as well as King 2010 , p. 375 and Errington 1990 , p. 220 for further details.
 18. ^ King 2010 , p. 379; Errington 1990 , p. 221; early evidence for this includes not only Alexander I's role as a commander in the Greco-Persian Wars but also the city-state of Potidaea 's acceptance of Perdiccas II of Macedon as their commander-in-chief during their rebellion against the Delian League of Athens in 432 BC.
 19. ^ Sawada 2010 , pp. 403–405.
 According to Carol J. King, there was no "certain reference" to this institutional group until the military campaigns of Alexander the Great in Asia. King 2010 , pp. 380–381.
 However, N. G. L. Hammond and F. W. Walbank state that the royal pages are attested to as far back as the reign of Archelaus I of Macedon . Hammond & Walbank 2001 , p. 13.
 20. ^ King 2010 , p. 382.
 The ranks of the companions were greatly increased during the reign of Philip II when he expanded this institution to include Upper Macedonian aristocrats as well as Greeks. See: Sawada 2010 , p. 404.
 21. ^ King 2010 , p. 384: the first recorded instance dates to 359 BC, when Philip II called together assemblies to address them with a speech and raise their morale following the death of Perdiccas III of Macedon in battle against the Illyrians .
 22. ^ For instance, when Perdiccas had Philip II's daughter Cynane murdered to prevent her own daughter Eurydice II of Macedon from marrying Philip III of Macedon , the army revolted and ensured that the marriage took place. See Adams 2010 , p. 210 and Errington 1990 , pp. 119–120 for details.
 23. ^ King 2010 , p. 390.
 Although these were highly influential members of local and regional government, Carol J. King asserts that they were not collectively powerful enough to formally challenge the authority of the Macedonian king or his right to rule.
 24. ^ Amemiya 2007 , pp. 11–12: under Antipater 's oligarchy, the lower value in terms of property for acceptable members of the oligarchy was 2,000 drachma . Athenian democracy was restored briefly after Antipater's death in 319 BC, yet his son Cassander reconquered the city, which came under the regency of Demetrius of Phalerum . Demetrius lowered the property limit for oligarchic members to 1,000 drachma , yet by 307 BC he was exiled from the city and direct democracy was restored. Demetrius I of Macedon reconquered Athens in 295 BC, yet democracy was once again restored in 287 BC with the aid of Ptolemy I of Egypt . Antigonus II Gonatas , son of Demetrius I, reconquered Athens in 260 BC, followed by a succession of Macedonian kings ruling over Athens until the Roman Republic conquered both Macedonia and then mainland Greece by 146 BC.
 25. ^ Unlike the sparse Macedonian examples, ample textual evidence of this exists for the Achaean League , Acarnanian League , and Achaean League ; see Hatzopoulos 1996 , pp. 366–367.
 26. ^ According to Sekunda, Philip II's infantry were eventually equipped with heavier armor such as cuirasses, since the Third Philippic of Demosthenes in 341 BC described them as hoplites instead of lighter peltasts : Sekunda 2010 , pp. 449–450; see also Errington 1990 , p. 238 for further details.
 However, Errington argues that breastplates were not worn by the phalanx pikemen of either Philip II or Philip V's reigns (during which sufficient evidence exists). Instead, he claims that breastplates were worn only by military officers , while pikemen wore the kotthybos stomach bands along with their helmets and greaves, wielding a daggers as secondary weapons along with their shields. See Errington 1990 , p. 241.
 27. ^ Sekunda 2010 , pp. 455–456.
 Errington 1990 , p. 245: in regards to both the argyraspides and chalkaspides , "these titles were probably not functional, perhaps not even official."
 28. ^ Sekunda 2010 , pp. 455–457.
 However, in discussing the discrepancies among ancient historians about the size of Alexander the Great 's army, N. G. L. Hammond and F. W. Walbank choose Diodorus Siculus ' figure of 32,000 infantry as the most reliable, while disagreeing with his figure for cavalry at 4,500, asserting it was closer to 5,100 horsemen. Hammond & Walbank 2001 , pp. 22–23.
 29. ^ Sekunda 2010 , p. 459; Errington 1990 , p. 245: "Other developments in Macedonian army organization are evident after Alexander . One is the evolution of the hypaspistai from an elite unit to a form of military police or bodyguard under Philip V ; the only thing the two functions had in common was the particular closeness to the king."
 30. ^ Sekunda 2010 , pp. 460–461; for the evolution of Macedonian military titles, such as its command by tetrarchai officers assisted by grammateis (i.e. secretaries or clerks), see Errington 1990 , pp. 242–243.
 31. ^ Sekunda 2010 , pp. 461–462;
 Errington 1990 , p. 245: "The other development, which happened at the latest under Doson , was the formation and training of a special unit of peltastai separate from the phalanx . This unit operated as a form of royal guard similar in function to the earlier hypaspistai ."
 32. ^ Sekunda 2010 , p. 463; the largest figure for elite Macedonian peltasts mentioned by ancient historians was 5,000 troops, an amount that existed in the Social War (220–217 BC) .
 33. ^ Hatzopoulos 2011a , p. 44; Woodard 2010 , p. 9; see also Austin 2006 , p. 4 for further details.
 Edward M. Anson contends that the native spoken language of the Macedonians was a dialect of Greek and that in the roughly 6,300 Macedonian-period inscriptions discovered by archaeologists about 99% were written in the Greek language, using the Greek alphabet . Anson 2010 , p. 17, n. 57, n. 58.
 34. ^ Hatzopoulos 2011a , p. 44; Engels 2010 , pp. 94–95; Woodard 2010 , pp. 9–10.
 Hatzopoulos 2011a , pp. 43–45 states that the native language of the ancient Macedonians as preserved in the rare documents written in a language other than Koine Greek also betray a slight phonetic influence from the languages of the original inhabitants of the region who were assimilated or expelled by the invading Macedonians; Hatzopoulos also asserts that little is known about these languages aside from Phrygian spoken by the Bryges who migrated to Anatolia .
 Errington 1990 , pp. 3–4 affirms that the Macedonian language was merely a dialect of Greek that used loanwords from Thracian and Illyrian languages , which "does not surprise modern philologists " but ultimately provided Macedonia's political enemies with the "proof" they needed to level the charge that Macedonians were not Greek.
 35. ^ Woodard 2004 , pp. 12–14; Hamp, Eric; Adams, Douglas (2013). " The Expansion of the Indo-European Languages Archived 2014-02-22 at the Wayback Machine ", Sino-Platonic Papers , vol 239. Accessed 16 January 2017.
 Joseph 2001: "Ancient Greek is generally taken to be the only representative (though note the existence of different dialects) of the Greek or Hellenic branch of Indo-European. There is some dispute as to whether Ancient Macedonian (the native language of Philip and Alexander), if it has any special affinity to Greek at all, is a dialect within Greek (see below) or a sibling language to all the known Ancient Greek dialects. If the latter view is correct, then Macedonian and Greek would be the two subbranches of a group within Indo-European which could more properly be called Hellenic."
 Georgiev 1966 , pp. 285–297: ancient Macedonian is closely related to Greek, and Macedonian and Greek are descended from a common Greek-Macedonian idiom that was spoken till about the second half of the 3rd millennium BC.
 36. ^ For instance, Cleopatra VII Philopator , the last active ruler of the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt, spoke Koine Greek as a first language and by her reign (51–30 BC) or some time before it the Macedonian language was no longer used. See Jones 2006 , pp. 33–34.
 37. ^ Sansone 2017 , p. 224; Hammond & Walbank 2001 , p. 6.
 Rosella Lorenzi (10 October 2014). " Remains of Alexander the Great's Father Confirmed Found: King Philip II's bones are buried in a tomb along with a mysterious woman-warrior Archived 2017-01-18 at the Wayback Machine ." Seeker . Retrieved 17 January 2017.
 38. ^ Hatzopoulos 2011a , pp. 47–48; for a specific example of land reclamation near Amphipolis during the reign of Alexander the Great , see Hammond & Walbank 2001 , p. 31.
 39. ^ This metaphorical connection between warfare, hunting, and aggressive masculine sexuality seems to be affirmed by later Byzantine literature , particularly in the Acritic songs about Digenes Akritas . See Cohen 2010 , pp. 13–34 for details.
 40. ^ The actor Athenodorus performed despite risking a fine for being absent from the simultaneous Dionysia festival of Athens where he was scheduled to perform (a fine that his patron Alexander agreed to pay). See Worthington 2014 , pp. 185–186 for details.
 41. ^ Hatzopoulos 2011b , p. 59; Sansone 2017 , p. 223; Roisman 2010 , p. 157.
 Although Archelaus I of Macedon was criticized by the philosopher Plato , supposedly hated by Socrates , and the first known Macedonian king to be given the label of barbarian , the historian Thucydides held the Macedonian king in glowing admiration, especially for his engagement in Panhellenic sports and fostering of literary culture. See Hatzopoulos 2011b , p. 59.
 42. ^ Errington 1990 , pp. 224–225.
 For Marsyas of Pella , see also Hammond & Walbank 2001 , p. 27 for further details.
 43. ^ Hatzopoulos 2011b , pp. 69–71.
 Hatzopoulos stresses the fact that Macedonians and other peoples such as the Epirotes and Cypriots , despite speaking a Greek dialect, worshiping in Greek cults, engaging in Panhellenic games, and upholding traditional Greek institutions, nevertheless occasionally had their territories excluded from contemporary geographic definitions of " Hellas " and were even considered barbarians by some. See: Hatzopoulos 2011b , pp. 52, 71–72; Johannes Engels comes to a similar conclusion about the comparison between Macedonians and Epirotes , saying that the "Greekness" of the Epirotes, despite them not being considered as refined as southern Greeks, never came into question. Engels suggests this perhaps because the Epirotes did not try to dominate the Greek world as Philip II of Macedon had done. See: Engels 2010 , pp. 83–84.
 44. ^ Errington 1990 , pp. 3–4.
 Errington 1994 , p. 4: "Ancient allegations that the Macedonians were non-Greek all had their origin in Athens at the time of the struggle with Philip II. Then as now, political struggle created the prejudice. The orator Aeschines once even found it necessary, to counteract the prejudice vigorously fomented by his opponents, to defend Philip on this issue and describe him at a meeting of the Athenian Popular Assembly as being 'entirely Greek'. Demosthenes ' allegations were lent an appearance of credibility by the fact, apparent to every observer, that the life-style of the Macedonians, being determined by specific geographical and historical conditions, was different to that of a Greek city-state. This alien way of life was, however, common to western Greeks of Epirus, Akarnania and Aitolia, as well as to the Macedonians, and their fundamental Greek nationality was never doubted. Only as a consequence of the political disagreement with Macedonia was the issue raised at all."
 45. ^ Champion 2004 , p. 41: " Demosthenes could drop the barbarian category altogether in advocating an Athenian alliance with the Great King against a power that ranked below any so-called barbarian people, the Macedonians. In the case of Aeschines , Philip II could be 'a barbarian due for the vengeance of God', but after the orator's embassy to Pella in 346, he became a 'thorough Greek', devoted to Athens. It all depended upon one's immediate political orientation with Macedonia, which many Greeks instinctively scorned, was always infused with deep-seated ambivalence."
 46. ^ Anson 2010 , pp. 14–17; this was manifested in the different mythological genealogies concocted for the Macedonian people, with Hesiod 's Catalogue of Women claiming that the Macedonians descended from Macedon , son of Zeus and Thyia , and was therefore a nephew of Hellen , progenitor of the Greeks. See: Anson 2010 , p. 16; Rhodes 2010 , p. 24.
 By the end of the 5th century BC, Hellanicus of Lesbos asserted Macedon was the son of Aeolus , the latter a son of Hellen and ancestor of the Aeolians , one of the major tribes of the Greeks. As well as belonging to tribal groups such as the Aeolians, Dorians , Achaeans , and Ionians , Anson also stresses the fact that some Greeks even distinguished their ethnic identities based on the polis (i.e. city-state) they originally came from. See: Anson 2010 , p. 15.
 47. ^ For instance, Demosthenes when labeling Philip II of Macedon as a barbarian whereas Polybius called Greeks and Macedonians as homophylos (i.e. part of the same race or kin ). See: Woodard 2010 , pp. 9–10; Johannes Engels also discusses this ambiguity in ancient sources: Engels 2010 , pp. 83–89.
 48. ^ Worthington 2012 , p. 319.
 As pharaoh of the Egyptians, he was already titled Son of Ra and considered the living incarnation of Horus by his Egyptian subjects (a belief that the Ptolemaic successors of Alexander would foster for their own dynasty in Egypt ). See: Worthington 2014 , p. 180 and Sansone 2017 , p. 228 for details.
 49. ^ Worthington 2012 , p. 319; Worthington 2014 , pp. 180–183.
 After the priest and Oracle of Zeus Ammon at the Siwa Oasis convinced him that Philip II was merely his mortal father and Zeus his actual father, Alexander began styling himself as the 'Son of Zeus', which brought him into contention with some of his Greek subjects who adamantly believed that living men could not be immortals. See Worthington 2012 , p. 319 and Worthington 2014 , pp. 182–183 for details.

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 59. ^ Müller 2010 , p. 168.
 60. ^ Müller 2010 , pp. 168–169.
 61. ^ Müller 2010 , p. 169.
 62. ^ Müller 2010 , p. 170; Buckler 1989 , p. 62.
 63. ^ Müller 2010 , pp. 170–171; Gilley & Worthington 2010 , p. 187.
 64. ^ Müller 2010 , pp. 167, 169; Roisman 2010 , p. 161.
 65. ^ Müller 2010 , pp. 169, 173–174; Cawkwell 1978 , p. 84; Errington 1990 , pp. 38–39.
 66. ^ Müller 2010 , p. 171; Buckley 1996 , pp. 470–472; Cawkwell 1978 , pp. 74–75.
 67. ^ Müller 2010 , p. 172; Hornblower 2002 , p. 272; Cawkwell 1978 , p. 42; Buckley 1996 , pp. 470–472.
 68. ^ Müller 2010 , pp. 171–172; Buckler 1989 , pp. 8, 20–22, 26–29.
 69. ^ Müller 2010 , p. 173; Cawkwell 1978 , pp. 62, 66–68; Buckler 1989 , pp. 74–75, 78–80; Worthington 2008 , pp. 61–63.
 70. ^ Howe, Timothy; Brice, Lee L. (2015). Brill's Companion to Insurgency and Terrorism in the Ancient Mediterranean. BRILL. p. 170. ISBN 9789004284739.
 71. ^ a b Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly (2000). Women and Monarchy in Macedonia. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 101. ISBN 9780806132129.
 72. ^ Müller 2010 , p. 173; Cawkwell 1978 , p. 44; Schwahn 1931 , col. 1193–1194.
 73. ^ Cawkwell 1978 , p. 86.
 74. ^ Müller 2010 , pp. 173–174; Cawkwell 1978 , pp. 85–86; Buckley 1996 , pp. 474–475.
 75. ^ Müller 2010 , pp. 173–174; Worthington 2008 , pp. 75–78; Cawkwell 1978 , pp. 96–98.
 76. ^ Müller 2010 , p. 174; Cawkwell 1978 , pp. 98–101.
 77. ^ Müller 2010 , pp. 174–175; Cawkwell 1978 , pp. 95, 104, 107–108; Hornblower 2002 , pp. 275–277; Buckley 1996 , pp. 478–479.
 78. ^ Müller 2010 , p. 175.
 79. ^ Errington 1990 , p. 227.
 80. ^ Müller 2010 , pp. 175–176; Cawkwell 1978 , pp. 114–117; Hornblower 2002 , p. 277; Buckley 1996 , p. 482; Errington 1990 , p. 44.
 81. ^ Mollov & Georgiev 2015 , p. 76.
 82. ^ Müller 2010 , p. 176; Cawkwell 1978 , pp. 136–142; Errington 1990 , pp. 82–83.
 83. ^ Müller 2010 , pp. 176–177; Cawkwell 1978 , pp. 143–148.
 84. ^ Müller 2010 , p. 177; Cawkwell 1978 , pp. 167–168.
 85. ^ Müller 2010 , pp. 177–179; Cawkwell 1978 , pp. 167–171; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001 , p. 16 for further details.
 86. ^ Davis Hanson, Victor (2010). Makers of Ancient Strategy: From the Persian Wars to the Fall of Rome. Princeton University Press. p. 119. ISBN 978-0691137902. "Afterwards he [Alexander] revived his father's League of Corinth, and with it his plan for a pan-Hellenic invasion of Asia to punish the Persians for the suffering of the Greeks, especially the Athenians, in the Greco-Persian Wars and to liberate the Greek cities of Asia Minor."
 87. ^ Olbrycht 2010 , pp. 348, 351
 88. ^ Olbrycht 2010 , pp. 347–349
 89. ^ Olbrycht 2010 , p. 351
 90. ^ a b Müller 2010 , pp. 179–180; Cawkwell 1978 , p. 170.
 91. ^ Müller 2010 , pp. 180–181; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001 , p. 14 for further details.
 92. ^ Müller 2010 , pp. 181–182; Errington 1990 , p. 44; Gilley & Worthington 2010 , p. 186; see Hammond & Walbank 2001 , pp. 3–5 for details of the arrests and judicial trials of other suspects in the conspiracy to assassinate Philip II of Macedon .
 93. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010 , p. 190; Müller 2010 , p. 183; Renault 2001 , pp. 61–62; Fox 1980 , p. 72; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001 , pp. 3–5 for further details.
 94. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010 , p. 186.
 95. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010 , p. 190.
 96. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010 , pp. 190–191; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001 , pp. 15–16 for further details.
 97. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010 , p. 191; Hammond & Walbank 2001 , pp. 34–38.
 98. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010 , p. 191; Hammond & Walbank 2001 , pp. 40–47.
 99. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010 , p. 191; see also Errington 1990 , p. 91 and Hammond & Walbank 2001 , p. 47 for further details.
 100. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010 , pp. 191–192; see also Errington 1990 , pp. 91–92 for further details.
 101. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010 , pp. 192–193.
 102. ^ a b c Gilley & Worthington 2010 , p. 193.
 103. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010 , pp. 193–194; Holt 2012 , pp. 27–41.
 104. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010 , pp. 193–194.
 105. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010 , p. 194; Errington 1990 , p. 113.
 106. ^ a b Gilley & Worthington 2010 , p. 195.
 107. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010 , pp. 194–195.
 108. ^ Errington 1990 , pp. 105–106.
 109. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010 , p. 198.
 110. ^ Holt 1989 , pp. 67–68.
 111. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010 , p. 196.
 112. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010 , p. 199; Errington 1990 , p. 93.
 113. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010 , pp. 200–201; Errington 1990 , p. 58.
 114. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010 , p. 201.
 115. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010 , pp. 201–203.
 116. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010 , p. 204; see also Errington 1990 , p. 44 for further details.
 117. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010 , p. 204; see also Errington 1990 , pp. 115–117 for further details.
 118. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010 , p. 204; Adams 2010 , p. 209; Errington 1990 , pp. 69–70, 119.
 119. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010 , pp. 204–205; Adams 2010 , pp. 209–210; Errington 1990 , pp. 69, 119.
 120. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010 , p. 205; see also Errington 1990 , p. 118 for further details.
 121. ^ Adams 2010 , pp. 208–209; Errington 1990 , p. 117.
 122. ^ Adams 2010 , pp. 210–211; Errington 1990 , pp. 119–120.
 123. ^ Adams 2010 , p. 211; Errington 1990 , pp. 120–121.
 124. ^ Adams 2010 , pp. 211–212; Errington 1990 , pp. 121–122.
 125. ^ Adams 2010 , pp. 207 n. #1, 212; Errington 1990 , pp. 122–123.
 126. ^ Adams 2010 , pp. 212–213; Errington 1990 , pp. 124–126.
 127. ^ a b Adams 2010 , p. 213; Errington 1990 , pp. 126–127.
 128. ^ Adams 2010 , pp. 213–214; Errington 1990 , pp. 127–128.
 129. ^ Adams 2010 , p. 214; Errington 1990 , pp. 128–129.
 130. ^ Adams 2010 , pp. 214–215.
 131. ^ Adams 2010 , pp. 215–216.
 132. ^ Adams 2010 , p. 216.
 133. ^ Adams 2010 , pp. 216–217; Errington 1990 , p. 129.
 134. ^ Adams 2010 , p. 217; Errington 1990 , p. 145.
 135. ^ Adams 2010 , p. 217; Errington 1990 , pp. 145–147; Bringmann 2007 , p. 61.
 136. ^ a b c d Adams 2010 , p. 218.
 137. ^ a b Bringmann 2007 , p. 61.
 138. ^ Adams 2010 , p. 218; Errington 1990 , p. 153.
 139. ^ a b Adams 2010 , pp. 218–219; Bringmann 2007 , p. 61.
 140. ^ Adams 2010 , p. 219; Bringmann 2007 , p. 61; Errington 1990 , pp. 156–157.
 141. ^ Adams 2010 , p. 219; Bringmann 2007 , pp. 61–63; Errington 1990 , pp. 159–160.
 142. ^ Errington 1990 , p. 160.
 143. ^ Errington 1990 , pp. 160–161.
 144. ^ Adams 2010 , p. 219; Bringmann 2007 , p. 63; Errington 1990 , pp. 162–163.
 145. ^ a b Adams 2010 , pp. 219–220; Bringmann 2007 , p. 63.
 146. ^ Adams 2010 , pp. 219–220; Bringmann 2007 , p. 63; Errington 1990 , p. 164.
 147. ^ Adams 2010 , p. 220; Errington 1990 , pp. 164–165.
 148. ^ Adams 2010 , p. 220.
 149. ^ Adams 2010 , p. 220; Bringmann 2007 , p. 63; Errington 1990 , p. 167.
 150. ^ Adams 2010 , p. 220; Errington 1990 , pp. 165–166.
 151. ^ Adams 2010 , p. 221; see also Errington 1990 , pp. 167–168 about the resurgence of Sparta under Areus I .
 152. ^ Adams 2010 , p. 221; Errington 1990 , p. 168.
 153. ^ Adams 2010 , p. 221; Errington 1990 , pp. 168–169.
 154. ^ Adams 2010 , p. 221; Errington 1990 , pp. 169–171.
 155. ^ Adams 2010 , p. 221.
 156. ^ a b Adams 2010 , p. 222.
 157. ^ Adams 2010 , pp. 221–222; Errington 1990 , p. 172.
 158. ^ Adams 2010 , p. 222; Errington 1990 , pp. 172–173.
 159. ^ Adams 2010 , p. 222; Errington 1990 , p. 173.
 160. ^ Adams 2010 , p. 222; Errington 1990 , p. 174.
 161. ^ Adams 2010 , p. 223; Errington 1990 , pp. 173–174.
 162. ^ a b Adams 2010 , p. 223; Errington 1990 , p. 174.
 163. ^ Adams 2010 , p. 223; Errington 1990 , pp. 174–175.
 164. ^ Adams 2010 , p. 223; Errington 1990 , pp. 175–176.
 165. ^ Adams 2010 , pp. 223–224; Eckstein 2013 , p. 314; see also Errington 1990 , pp. 179–180 for further details.
 166. ^ Adams 2010 , pp. 223–224; Eckstein 2013 , p. 314; Errington 1990 , pp. 180–181.
 167. ^ Adams 2010 , p. 224; Eckstein 2013 , p. 314; Errington 1990 , pp. 181–183.
 168. ^ Adams 2010 , p. 224; see also Errington 1990 , p. 182 about the Macedonian military's occupation of Sparta following the Battle of Sellasia .
 169. ^ Adams 2010 , p. 224; Errington 1990 , pp. 183–184.
 170. ^ Eckstein 2010 , p. 229; Errington 1990 , pp. 184–185.
 171. ^ Eckstein 2010 , p. 229; Errington 1990 , pp. 185–186, 189.
 172. ^ Eckstein 2010 , p. 230; Errington 1990 , pp. 189–190.
 173. ^ Eckstein 2010 , pp. 230–231; Errington 1990 , pp. 190–191.
 174. ^ Bringmann 2007 , p. 79; Eckstein 2010 , p. 231; Errington 1990 , p. 192; also mentioned by Gruen 1986 , p. 19.
 175. ^ Bringmann 2007 , p. 80; see also Eckstein 2010 , p. 231 and Errington 1990 , pp. 191–193 for further details.
 176. ^ Errington 1990 , pp. 191–193, 210.
 177. ^ Bringmann 2007 , p. 82; Errington 1990 , p. 193.
 178. ^ Bringmann 2007 , p. 82; Eckstein 2010 , pp. 232–233; Errington 1990 , pp. 193–194; Gruen 1986 , pp. 17–18, 20.
 179. ^ Bringmann 2007 , p. 83; Eckstein 2010 , pp. 233–234; Errington 1990 , pp. 195–196; Gruen 1986 , p. 21; see also Gruen 1986 , pp. 18–19 for details on the Aetolian League 's treaty with Philip V of Macedon and Rome's rejection of the second attempt by the Aetolians to seek Roman aid, viewing the Aetolians as having violated the earlier treaty.
 180. ^ Bringmann 2007 , p. 85; see also Errington 1990 , pp. 196–197 for further details.
 181. ^ Eckstein 2010 , pp. 234–235; Errington 1990 , pp. 196–198; see also Bringmann 2007 , p. 86 for further details.
 182. ^ Bringmann 2007 , pp. 85–86; Eckstein 2010 , pp. 235–236; Errington 1990 , pp. 199–201; Gruen 1986 , p. 22.
 183. ^ Bringmann 2007 , p. 86; see also Eckstein 2010 , p. 235 for further details.
 184. ^ Bringmann 2007 , p. 86; Errington 1990 , pp. 197–198.
 185. ^ Bringmann 2007 , p. 87.
 186. ^ Bringmann 2007 , pp. 87–88; Errington 1990 , pp. 199–200; see also Eckstein 2010 , pp. 235–236 for further details.
 187. ^ Eckstein 2010 , p. 236.
 188. ^ a b Bringmann 2007 , p. 88.
 189. ^ Bringmann 2007 , p. 88; Eckstein 2010 , p. 236; Errington 1990 , p. 203.
 190. ^ Bringmann 2007 , p. 88; Eckstein 2010 , pp. 236–237; Errington 1990 , p. 204.
 191. ^ Bringmann 2007 , pp. 88–89; Eckstein 2010 , p. 237.
 192. ^ Bringmann 2007 , pp. 89–90; see also Eckstein 2010 , p. 237 and Gruen 1986 , pp. 20–21, 24 for further details.
 193. ^ Bringmann 2007 , pp. 90–91; Eckstein 2010 , pp. 237–238.
 194. ^ Bringmann 2007 , p. 91; Eckstein 2010 , p. 238.
 195. ^ Bringmann 2007 , pp. 91–92; Eckstein 2010 , p. 238; see also Gruen 1986 , pp. 30, 33 for further details.
 196. ^ Bringmann 2007 , p. 92; Eckstein 2010 , p. 238.
 197. ^ Bringmann 2007 , p. 97; see also Errington 1990 , pp. 207–208 for further details.
 198. ^ Bringmann 2007 , p. 97; Eckstein 2010 , pp. 240–241; see also Errington 1990 , pp. 211–213 for a discussion about Perseus's actions during the early part of his reign.
 199. ^ Bringmann 2007 , pp. 97–98; Eckstein 2010 , p. 240.
 200. ^ Bringmann 2007 , p. 98; Eckstein 2010 , p. 240; Errington 1990 , pp. 212–213.
 201. ^ Bringmann 2007 , pp. 98–99; Eckstein 2010 , pp. 241–242.
 202. ^ Bringmann 2007 , p. 99; Eckstein 2010 , pp. 243–244; Errington 1990 , pp. 215–216; Hatzopoulos 1996 , p. 43.
 203. ^ Bringmann 2007 , p. 99; Eckstein 2010 , p. 245; Errington 1990 , pp. 204–205, 216; see also Hatzopoulos 1996 , p. 43 for further details.
 204. ^ a b Bringmann 2007 , pp. 99–100; Eckstein 2010 , p. 245; Errington 1990 , pp. 216–217; see also Hatzopoulos 1996 , pp. 43–46 for further details.
 205. ^ Bringmann 2007 , p. 104; Eckstein 2010 , pp. 246–247.
 206. ^ Bringmann 2007 , pp. 104–105; Eckstein 2010 , p. 247; Errington 1990 , pp. 216–217.
 207. ^ Bringmann 2007 , pp. 104–105; Eckstein 2010 , pp. 247–248; Errington 1990 , pp. 203–205, 216–217.
 208. ^ King 2010 , p. 374; see also Errington 1990 , pp. 220–221 for further details.
 209. ^ King 2010 , p. 373.
 210. ^ King 2010 , pp. 375–376.
 211. ^ King 2010 , pp. 376–377.
 212. ^ King 2010 , p. 377.
 213. ^ a b King 2010 , p. 378.
 214. ^ King 2010 , p. 379.
 215. ^ a b c Errington 1990 , p. 222.
 216. ^ a b King 2010 , p. 380.
 217. ^ King 2010 , p. 380; for further context, see Errington 1990 , p. 220.
 218. ^ Olbrycht 2010 , pp. 345–346.
 219. ^ a b c d King 2010 , p. 381.
 220. ^ Sawada 2010 , p. 403.
 221. ^ Sawada 2010 , pp. 404–405.
 222. ^ Sawada 2010 , p. 406.
 223. ^ King 2010 , p. 382; Errington 1990 , p. 220.
 224. ^ Sawada 2010 , pp. 382–383.
 225. ^ Hammond & Walbank 2001 , pp. 5, 12.
 226. ^ King 2010 , pp. 384–389; Errington 1990 , p. 220.
 227. ^ King 2010 , pp. 383–384; Errington 1990 , p. 220.
 228. ^ King 2010 , p. 390.
 229. ^ Amemiya 2007 , pp. 11–12.
 230. ^ a b Errington 1990 , p. 231.
 231. ^ Errington 1990 , pp. 229–230.
 232. ^ Errington 1990 , p. 230.
 233. ^ Errington 1990 , pp. 231–232.
 234. ^ Hatzopoulos 1996 , pp. 365–366.
 235. ^ Hatzopoulos 1996 , pp. 366–367.
 236. ^ Hatzopoulos 1996 , pp. 367–369.
 237. ^ Hatzopoulos 1996 , pp. 368–369.
 238. ^ Errington 1990 , p. 242.
 239. ^ Sekunda 2010 , p. 447; Errington 1990 , pp. 243–244.
 240. ^ Sekunda 2010 , pp. 447–448.
 241. ^ Sekunda 2010 , pp. 448–449; see also Errington 1990 , pp. 238–239 for further details.
 242. ^ Errington 1990 , pp. 238–239, 243–244.
 243. ^ Sekunda 2010 , p. 449.
 244. ^ Sekunda 2010 , pp. 448–449.
 245. ^ Errington 1990 , pp. 239–240.
 246. ^ Errington 1990 , pp. 238, 247.
 247. ^ a b Sekunda 2010 , p. 451.
 248. ^ Sekunda 2010 , p. 450; Errington 1990 , p. 244.
 249. ^ a b Sekunda 2010 , p. 452.
 250. ^ Sekunda 2010 , p. 451; Errington 1990 , pp. 241–242.
 251. ^ Sekunda 2010 , pp. 449–451.
 252. ^ Sekunda 2010 , p. 451; Errington 1990 , pp. 247–248; Hammond & Walbank 2001 , pp. 24–26.
 253. ^ Sekunda 2010 , p. 453.
 254. ^ a b Sekunda 2010 , p. 454.
 255. ^ Sekunda 2010 , p. 455; Errington 1990 , p. 245.
 256. ^ a b Sekunda 2010 , pp. 458–459.
 257. ^ Sekunda 2010 , p. 461.
 258. ^ a b Sekunda 2010 , p. 460.
 259. ^ Sekunda 2010 , p. 469
 260. ^ Sekunda 2010 , p. 462.
 261. ^ Sekunda 2010 , pp. 463–464.
 262. ^ Errington 1990 , pp. 247–248.
 263. ^ a b c d Errington 1990 , p. 248.
 264. ^ Anson 2010 , p. 17, n. 57, n. 58; Woodard 2010 , pp. 9–10; Hatzopoulos 2011a , pp. 43–45; Engels 2010 , pp. 94–95.
 265. ^ Engels 2010 , p. 95.
 266. ^ Engels 2010 , p. 94.
 267. ^ Sansone 2017 , p. 223.
 268. ^ Anson 2010 , pp. 17–18; see also Christesen & Murray 2010 , pp. 428–445 for ways in which Macedonian religious beliefs diverged from mainstream Greek polytheism, although the latter was hardly "monolithic" throughout the Classical Greek and Hellenistic world and Macedonians were "linguistically and culturally Greek" according to Christesen and Murray. Christesen & Murray 2010 , pp. 428–429.
 269. ^ Errington 1990 , pp. 225–226.
 270. ^ Errington 1990 , p. 226; Christesen & Murray 2010 , pp. 430–431
 271. ^ a b Errington 1990 , p. 226.
 272. ^ Borza 1992 , pp. 257–260; Christesen & Murray 2010 , pp. 432–433; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001 , pp. 5–7 for further details.
 273. ^ Borza 1992 , pp. 259–260; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001 , pp. 5–6 for further details.
 274. ^ Borza 1992 , pp. 257, 260–261.
 275. ^ Borza 1992 , p. 257.
 276. ^ Sansone 2017 , pp. 224–225.
 277. ^ Hatzopoulos 2011a , pp. 47–48; Errington 1990 , p. 7.
 278. ^ Hatzopoulos 2011a , p. 48; Errington 1990 , pp. 7–8, 222–223.
 279. ^ Hatzopoulos 2011a , p. 48.
 280. ^ Anson 2010 , pp. 9–10.
 281. ^ a b c Anson 2010 , p. 10.
 282. ^ Anson 2010 , pp. 10–11.
 283. ^ Hammond & Walbank 2001 , pp. 12–13.
 284. ^ Hardiman 2010 , p. 515.
 285. ^ Hardiman 2010 , pp. 515–517.
 286. ^ a b Hardiman 2010 , p. 517.
 287. ^ Palagia 2000 , pp. 182, 185–186.
 288. ^ Head 2016 , pp. 12–13; Piening 2013 , p. 1182.
 289. ^ Head 2016 , p. 13; Aldrete, Bartell & Aldrete 2013 , p. 49.
 290. ^ a b c d Hardiman 2010 , p. 518.
 291. ^ Müller 2010 , p. 182.
 292. ^ a b c Errington 1990 , p. 224.
 293. ^ a b c Worthington 2014 , p. 186.
 294. ^ Worthington 2014 , p. 185.
 295. ^ a b Worthington 2014 , pp. 183, 186.
 296. ^ Hatzopoulos 2011b , p. 58; Roisman 2010 , p. 154; Errington 1990 , pp. 223–224.
 297. ^ Hatzopoulos 2011b , pp. 58–59; see also Errington 1990 , p. 224 for further details.
 298. ^ Chroust 2016 , p. 137.
 299. ^ Rhodes 2010 , p. 23.
 300. ^ Rhodes 2010 , pp. 23–25; see also Errington 1990 , p. 224 for further details.
 301. ^ a b Errington 1990 , p. 225.
 302. ^ Badian 1982 , p. 34, Anson 2010 , p. 16; Sansone 2017 , pp. 222–223.
 303. ^ Hatzopoulos 2011b , p. 59.
 304. ^ Nawotka 2010 , p. 2.
 305. ^ Anson 2010 , p. 19
 306. ^ Cohen 2010 , p. 28.
 307. ^ a b c Dalby 1997 , p. 157.
 308. ^ Dalby 1997 , pp. 155–156.
 309. ^ Dalby 1997 , p. 156.
 310. ^ Dalby 1997 , pp. 156–157.
 311. ^ Anson 2010 , p. 10; Cohen 2010 , p. 28.
 312. ^ Engels 2010 , p. 87; Olbrycht 2010 , pp. 343–344.
 313. ^ Badian 1982 , p. 51, n. 72; Johannes Engels comes to a similar conclusion. See: Engels 2010 , p. 82.
 314. ^ Hammond, N.G.L. (1997). The Genius of Alexander the Great. The University of North Carolina Press. p. 11. ISBN 0807823503. "The other part of the Greek-speaking world extended from Pelagonia in the north to Macedonia in the south. It was occupied by several tribal states, which were constantly at war against Illyrians, Paeonians and Thracians. Each state had its own monarchy. Special prestige attached to the Lyncestae whose royal family, the Bacchiadae claimed descent from Heracles, and to the Macedonians, whose royal family had a similar ancestry. [...] In the opinion of the city-states these tribal states were backward and unworthy of the Greek name, although they spoke dialects of the Greek language. According to Aristotle, monarchy was the mark of people too stupid to govern themselves."
 315. ^ Sakellariou 1983 , p. 52.
 316. ^ Simon Hornblower (2016). "2: Greek Identity in the Archaic and Classical Periods". In Zacharia, Katerina (ed.). Hellenisms: Culture, Identity, and Ethnicity from Antiquity to Modernity. Routledge. p. 58. ISBN 978-0754665250. "The question "Were the Macedonians Greeks?" perhaps needs to be chopped up further. The Macedonian kings emerge as Greeks by criterion one, namely shared blood, and personal names indicate that Macedonians generally moved north from Greece. The kings, the elite, and the generality of the Macedonians were Greeks by criteria two and three, that is, religion and language. Macedonian customs (criterion four) were in certain respects unlike those of a normal apart, perhaps, from the institutions which I have characterized as feudal. The crude one-word answer to the question has to be "yes.""
 317. ^ Hatzopoulos 2011b , p. 74.
 318. ^ Bolman 2016 , pp. 120–121.
 319. ^ a b c Winter 2006 , p. 163.
 320. ^ Winter 2006 , pp. 164–165.
 321. ^ Winter 2006 , p. 165.
 322. ^ Errington 1990 , p. 227; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001 , pp. 3, 7–8 for further details.
 323. ^ Koumpis 2012 , p. 34.
 324. ^ Treister 1996 , pp. 375–376.
 325. ^ Humphrey, Oleson & Sherwood 1998 , p. 570.
 326. ^ Treister 1996 , p. 376, no. 531.
 327. ^ a b Treister 1996 , p. 376.
 328. ^ a b Humphrey, Oleson & Sherwood 1998 , pp. 570–571.
 329. ^ Humphrey, Oleson & Sherwood 1998 , pp. 570–572.
 330. ^ Curtis 2008 , p. 380.
 331. ^ Stern 2008 , pp. 530–532.
 332. ^ Cuomo 2008 , pp. 17–20.
 333. ^ Errington 1990 , p. 246.
 334. ^ Treister 1996 , p. 379.
 335. ^ Meadows 2008 , p. 773.
 336. ^ Hatzopoulos 1996 , pp. 432–433.
 337. ^ Kremydi 2011 , p. 163.
 338. ^ Hatzopoulos 1996 , p. 433.
 339. ^ Hatzopoulos 1996 , p. 434.
 340. ^ Hatzopoulos 1996 , pp. 433–434; Roisman 2010 , p. 163.
 341. ^ Treister 1996 , pp. 373–375; see also Errington 1990 , p. 223 for further details.
 342. ^ Treister 1996 , pp. 374–375; see also Errington 1990 , p. 223 for further details.
 343. ^ Treister 1996 , p. 374.
 344. ^ Treister 1996 , pp. 374–375.
 345. ^ Anson 2010 , pp. 3–4.
 346. ^ Anson 2010 , pp. 4–5.
 347. ^ Errington 1990 , p. 249.
 348. ^ Asirvatham 2010 , p. 104.
 349. ^ Anson 2010 , p. 9.
 350. ^ Anson 2010 , pp. 11–12.
 351. ^ Errington 1990 , pp. 219–220.
 352. ^ Christesen & Murray 2010 , pp. 435–436.
 353. ^ Christesen & Murray 2010 , p. 436.
 354. ^ Anson 2010 , p. 3.

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 * de Francisci, Pietro (1948). Arcana Imperii II (in Italian). Vol. 1. Milan: A. Giuffrè. pp. IV–495.
 * Eckstein, Arthur M. (2010). "Macedonia and Rome, 221–146 BC". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 225–250. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
 * Eckstein, Arthur M. (2013). "Polybius, Phylarchus, and Historiographical Criticism". Classical Philology. The University of Chicago Press. 108 (4): 314–338. doi:10.1086/671786. JSTOR 671786. S2CID 164052948.
 * Engels, Johannes (2010). "Macedonians and Greeks". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 81–98. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
 * Errington, Robert Malcolm (1990). A History of Macedonia. Translated by Catherine Errington. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-06319-8.
 * Errington, Malcolm (1994). A History of Macedonia. Barnes Noble. ISBN 1-56619-519-5.
 * Fox, Robin Lane (1980). The Search for Alexander. Boston: Little Brown and Co. ISBN 0-316-29108-0.
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 * Granier, Friedrich (1931). Die makedonische Heeresversammlung: ein Beitrag zum antiken Staatsrecht. Münchener Beiträge zur Papyrusforschung und antiken Rechtsgeschichte 13. Heft (in German). Munich: CH Beck Verlag.
 * Gruen, Erich S. (1986) [1984]. The Hellenistic World and the Coming of Rome. Vol. 1. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-05737-6.
 * Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière; Walbank, Frank William (2001). A History of Macedonia: 336–167 B.C. Vol. 3 (reprint ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press of the Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814815-1.
 * Hardiman, Craig I. (2010). "Classical Art to 221 BC". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 505–521. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
 * Hatzopoulos, M. B. (1996). Macedonian Institutions Under the Kings: a Historical and Epigraphic Study. Vol. 1. Athens: Research Centre for Greek and Roman Antiquity, National Hellenic Research Foundation; Diffusion de Boccard. ISBN 960-7094-90-5.
 * Hatzopoulos, M. B. (2011a). "Macedonia and Macedonians". In Lane Fox, Robin J. (ed.). Brill's Companion to Ancient Macedon: Studies in the Archaeology and History of Macedon, 650 BC – 300 AD. Leiden: Brill. pp. 43–50. ISBN 978-90-04-20650-2.
 * Hatzopoulos, M. B. (2011b). "Macedonians and Other Greeks". In Lane Fox, Robin J. (ed.). Brill's Companion to Ancient Macedon: Studies in the Archaeology and History of Macedon, 650 BC – 300 AD. Leiden: Brill. pp. 51–78. ISBN 978-90-04-20650-2.
 * Head, Duncan (2016) [1982]. Armies of the Macedonian and Punic Wars: 359 BC to 146 BC (reprint ed.). Wargames Research Group Ltd. ISBN 978-1-326-25656-2.
 * Holt, Frank L. (1989). Alexander the Great and Bactria: the Formation of a Greek Frontier in Central Asia. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 90-04-08612-9.
 * Holt, Frank L. (2012) [2005]. Into the Land of Bones: Alexander the Great in Afghanistan. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-27432-7.
 * Hornblower, Simon (2002) [1983]. The Greek World, 479–323 BC. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16326-9.
 * Hornblower, Simon (2008). "Greek Identity in the Archaic and Classical Periods". In Zacharia, Katerina (ed.). Hellenisms: Culture, Identity, and Ethnicity from Antiquity to Modernity. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing. pp. 37–58. ISBN 978-0-7546-6525-0. OCLC 192048201.
 * Humphrey, John W.; Oleson, John P.; Sherwood, Andrew N. (1998). Greek and Roman Technology: a Sourcebook: Annotated Translations of Greek and Latin Texts and Documents. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-06136-9.
 * Jones, Prudence J. (2006), Cleopatra: a sourcebook, Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, ISBN 9780806137414.
 * King, Carol J. (2010). "Macedonian Kingship and Other Political Institutions". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 373–391. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
 * Koumpis, Adamantios (2012). Management Information Systems for Enterprise Applications: Business Issues, Research, and Solutions. Hershey, PA: Business Science Reference. ISBN 978-1-4666-0164-2.
 * Kremydi, S. (2011). "Coinage and Finance". In Lane Fox, Robin James (ed.). Brill's Companion to Ancient Macedon. Leiden: Brill. pp. 159–178. ISBN 978-90-04-20650-2.
 * Lewis, D.M.; Boardman, John (1994). The Cambridge Ancient History: The Fourth Century B.C. (Volume 6). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-23348-4.
 * Meadows, Andrew (2008). "Technologies of Calculation, Part 2: Coinage". In Oleson, John Peter (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 769–776. ISBN 978-0-19-518731-1.
 * Mollov, Ivelin A.; Georgiev, Dilian G. (2015). "Plovdiv". In Kelcey, John G. (ed.). Vertebrates and Invertebrates of European Cities:Selected Non-Avian Fauna. New York: Springer. pp. 75–94. ISBN 978-1-4939-1697-9.
 * Müller, Sabine (2010). "Philip II". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 166–185. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
 * Nawotka, Krzysztof (2010). Alexander the Great. Newcastle Upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4438-1743-1.
 * Olbrycht, Marck Jan (2010). "Macedonia and Persia". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 342–370. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
 * Palagia, Olga (2000). "Hephaestion's Pyre and the Royal Hunt of Alexander". In Bosworth, A. B.; Baynham, E. J. (eds.). Alexander the Great in Fact and Fiction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 167–198. ISBN 978-0-19-815287-3.
 * Piening, H. (2013). "Mobile UV-VIS Absorption Spectrometry Investigations in the "Alexander-Sarcophagus" in Istanbul". In Büyüköztürk, Oral; Ali Taşdemir, Mehmet (eds.). Nondestructive Testing of Materials and Structures: Proceedings of NDTMS-2011, Istanbul Turkey, May 15–18 2011, Part 1. Heidelberg: RILEM and Springer. pp. 1179–1186. ISBN 978-94-007-0722-1.
 * Renault, Mary (2001) [1975]. The Nature of Alexander the Great. New York: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-139076-X.
 * Rhodes, P. J. (2010). "The Literary and Epigraphic Evidence to the Roman Conquest". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 23–40. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
 * Roisman, Joseph (2010). "Classical Macedonia to Perdiccas III". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 145–165. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
 * Sakellariou, Michael B. (1983). "Inhabitants". In Michael B. Sakellariou (ed.). Macedonia: 4000 Years of Greek History and Civilization. Athens: Ekdotike Athenon S.A. pp. 44–63.
 * Sansone, David (2017). Ancient Greek Civilization (3rd ed.). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-119-09815-7.
 * Sawada, Noriko (2010). "Social Customs and Institutions: Aspects of Macedonian Elite Society". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 392–408. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
 * Sekunda, Nicholas Viktor (2010). "The Macedonian Army". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 446–471. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
 * Schwahn, Walther (1931). "Sympoliteia". Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft (in German). Vol. Band IV, Halbband 7, Stoa–Symposion. col. 1171–1266.
 * Sprawski, Slawomir (2010). "The Early Temenid Kings to Alexander I". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 127–144. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
 * Stern, E. Marianne (2008). "Glass Production". In Oleson, John Peter (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 520–550. ISBN 978-0-19-518731-1.
 * Thomas, Carol G. (2010). "The Physical Kingdom". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 65–80. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
 * Treister, Michail Yu (1996). The Role of Metals in Ancient Greek History. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 90-04-10473-9.
 * Worthington, Ian (2008). Philip II of Macedonia. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12079-0.
 * Worthington, Ian (2012). Alexander the Great: a Reader (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-66742-5.
 * Worthington, Ian (2014). By the Spear: Philip II, Alexander the Great, and the Rise and Fall of the Macedonian Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-992986-3.
 * Woodard, Roger D. (2004). "Introduction". In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages. Oxford: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–18. ISBN 978-0-521-56256-0.
 * Woodard, Roger D. (2010) [2008]. "Language in Ancient Europe: an Introduction". In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–13. ISBN 978-0-521-68495-8.
 * Winter, Frederick E. (2006). Studies in Hellenistic Architecture. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-3914-9.

 Further reading

 * Autenrieth, Georg (1891). A Homeric Dictionary for Schools and Colleges. New York: Harper and Brothers.
 * Bard, Kathryn A. (1999). Encyclopaedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-66524-2.
 * Borza, Eugene N. (1999). Before Alexander: Constructing Early Macedonia. Claremont, CA: Regina Books. ISBN 0-941690-97-0.
 * Bryant, Joseph M. (1996). Moral Codes and Social Structure in Ancient Greece: A Sociology of Greek Ethics from Homer to the Epicureans and Stoics. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-3042-1.
 * Chamoux, François (2002). Hellenistic Civilization. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-22241-3.
 * Errington, Robert M. (1974). "Macedonian 'Royal Style' and Its Historical Significance". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 94: 20–37. doi:10.2307/630417. JSTOR 630417. S2CID 162629292.
 * Fine, John Van Antwerp (1983). The Ancient Greeks: A Critical History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-03314-0.
 * Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (2001). Collected Studies: Further Studies on Various Topics. Amsterdam: Hakkert.
 * Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (1993). Studies concerning Epirus and Macedonia before Alexander. Amsterdam: Hakkert. ISBN 9789025610500.
 * Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (1989). The Macedonian State: Origins, Institutions, and History. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-814883-6.
 * Jones, Archer (2001). The Art of War in the Western World. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-06966-8.
 * Levinson, David (1992). Encyclopedia of World Cultures. Vol. 1. Boston, MA: G.K. Hall. ISBN 978-0-8168-8840-5.
 * Starr, Chester G. (1991). A History of the Ancient World. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-506628-6.
 * Toynbee, Arnold Joseph (1981). The Greeks and Their Heritages. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-215256-5.
 * Wilcken, Ulrich (1967). Alexander the Great. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0-393-00381-9.

 External links

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 * "Macedonia, ancient kingdom", entry from the Encyclopædia Britannica
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Macedonia Μακεδονία     
 808–168 BC
150–148 BC 
     
    
    Vergina Sun  
        The Kingdom of Macedonia in 336 BC (orange)    Capital  
  Aigai  [1]  (808–399 BC)
 Pella  [2]  (399–168 BC) 
    Common languages  Ancient Macedonian, Attic, Koine Greek    Religion   Greek polytheism, Hellenistic religion    Government  Monarchy     King           • 808–778 BC    Caranus (first)    • 179–168 BC    Perseus (last)   Legislature  Synedrion    Historical era  Classical Antiquity          • Founded by Caranus    808 BC     • Vassal of Persia  [3]     512/511–493 BC     • Incorporated into the Persian Empire  [3]     492–479 BC     • Rise of Macedon    359–336 BC     • Founding of the Hellenic League    338–337 BC     • Conquest of Persia    335–323 BC     • Partition of Babylon    323 BC     • Wars of the Diadochi    322–275 BC     • Battle of Pydna    168 BC   Area   323 BC [4]   [5]   5,200,000 km2 (2,000,000 sq mi)   Currency  Tetradrachm    
 
 Preceded by 
 Succeeded by
 
 
 Greek Dark Ages
 
 Achaemenid Macedonia
 
 League of Corinth
 
 Achaemenid Empire
 
 Pauravas
 
 
 
 Lysimachian Empire
 
 Seleucid Empire
 
 Ptolemaic Kingdom
 
 Kingdom of Pergamon
 
 Macedonia province
 
 
       
 Macedonia (; Greek: Μακεδονία), also called Macedon (), was an ancient kingdom on the periphery of Archaic and Classical Greece, [6]  and later the dominant state of Hellenistic Greece. [7]  The kingdom was founded and initially ruled by the royal Argead dynasty, which was followed by the Antipatrid and Antigonid dynasties. Home to the ancient Macedonians, the earliest kingdom was centered on the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula, [8]  and bordered by Epirus to the west, Paeonia to the north, Thrace to the east and Thessaly to the south.
 Before the 4th century BC, Macedonia was a small kingdom outside of the area dominated by the great city-states of Athens, Sparta and Thebes, and briefly subordinate to Achaemenid Persia. [3]  During the reign of the Argead king Philip II (359–336 BC), Macedonia subdued mainland Greece and the Thracian Odrysian kingdom through conquest and diplomacy. With a reformed army containing phalanxes wielding the  sarissa  pike, Philip II defeated the old powers of Athens and Thebes in the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC. Philip II's son Alexander the Great, leading a federation of Greek states, accomplished his father's objective of commanding the whole of Greece when he destroyed Thebes after the city revolted. During Alexander's subsequent campaign of conquest, he overthrew the Achaemenid Empire and conquered territory that stretched as far as the Indus River. For a brief period, his Macedonian Empire was the most powerful in the world – the definitive Hellenistic state, inaugurating the transition to a new period of Ancient Greek civilization. Greek arts and literature flourished in the new conquered lands and advances in philosophy, engineering, and science spread throughout much of the ancient world. Of particular importance were the contributions of Aristotle, tutor to Alexander, whose writings became a keystone of Western philosophy.
 After Alexander's death in 323 BC, the ensuing wars of the Diadochi, and the partitioning of Alexander's short-lived empire, Macedonia remained a Greek cultural and political center in the Mediterranean region along with Ptolemaic Egypt, the Seleucid Empire, and the Kingdom of Pergamon. Important cities such as Pella, Pydna, and Amphipolis were involved in power struggles for control of the territory. New cities were founded, such as Thessalonica by the usurper Cassander (named after his wife Thessalonike of Macedon). [9]  Macedonia's decline began with the Macedonian Wars and the rise of Rome as the leading Mediterranean power. At the end of the Third Macedonian War in 168 BC, the Macedonian monarchy was abolished and replaced by Roman client states. A short-lived revival of the monarchy during the Fourth Macedonian War in 150–148 BC ended with the establishment of the Roman province of Macedonia.
 The Macedonian kings, who wielded absolute power and commanded state resources such as gold and silver, facilitated mining operations to mint currency, finance their armies and, by the reign of Philip II, a Macedonian navy. Unlike the other  diadochi  successor states, the imperial cult fostered by Alexander was never adopted in Macedonia, yet Macedonian rulers nevertheless assumed roles as high priests of the kingdom and leading patrons of domestic and international cults of the Hellenistic religion. The authority of Macedonian kings was theoretically limited by the institution of the army, while a few municipalities within the Macedonian commonwealth enjoyed a high degree of autonomy and even had democratic governments with popular assemblies.
Etymology
The name Macedonia (Greek: Μακεδονία,  Makedonía ) comes from the ethnonym Μακεδόνες (Makedónes), which itself is derived from the ancient Greek adjective μακεδνός (makednós), meaning "tall, slim", also the name of a people related to the Dorians (Herodotus), and possibly descriptive of Ancient Macedonians. [10]  It is most likely cognate with the adjective μακρός (makros), meaning "long" or "tall" in Ancient Greek. [10]  The name is believed to have originally meant either "highlanders", "the tall ones", or "high grown men". [note 1]  Linguist Robert S. P. Beekes claims that both terms are of Pre-Greek substrate origin and cannot be explained in terms of Indo-European morphology, [11]  however Filip De Decker rejects Beekesʼ arguments as insufficient. [12] 
History
Early history and legend
     
The Classical Greek historians Herodotus and Thucydides reported the legend that the Macedonian kings of the Argead dynasty were descendants of Temenus, king of Argos, and could therefore claim the mythical Heracles as one of their ancestors as well as a direct lineage from Zeus, chief god of the Greek pantheon. [13]  Contradictory legends state that either Perdiccas I of Macedon or Caranus of Macedon were the founders of the Argead dynasty, with either five or eight kings before Amyntas I. [14]  The assertion that the Argeads descended from Temenus was accepted by the  Hellanodikai  authorities of the Ancient Olympic Games, permitting Alexander I of Macedon (r. 498–454 BC) to enter the competitions owing to his perceived Greek heritage. [15]  Little is known about the kingdom before the reign of Alexander I's father Amyntas I of Macedon (r. 547–498 BC) during the Archaic period. [16] 
 The kingdom of Macedonia was situated along the Haliacmon and Axius rivers in Lower Macedonia, north of Mount Olympus. Historian Robert Malcolm Errington suggests that one of the earliest Argead kings established Aigai (modern Vergina) as their capital in the mid-7th century BC. [17]  Before the 4th century BC, the kingdom covered a region corresponding roughly to the western and central parts of the region of Macedonia in modern Greece. [18]  It gradually expanded into the region of Upper Macedonia, inhabited by the Greek Lyncestae and Elimiotae tribes, and into regions of Emathia, Eordaia, Bottiaea, Mygdonia, Crestonia, and Almopia, which were inhabited by various peoples such as Thracians and Phrygians. [note 2]  Macedonia's non-Greek neighbors included Thracians, inhabiting territories to the northeast, Illyrians to the northwest, and Paeonians to the north, while the lands of Thessaly to the south and Epirus to the west were inhabited by Greeks with similar cultures to that of the Macedonians. [19] 
     
             
A year after Darius I of Persia (r. 522–486 BC) launched an invasion into Europe against the Scythians, Paeonians, Thracians, and several Greek city-states of the Balkans, the Persian general Megabazus used diplomacy to convince Amyntas I to submit as a vassal of the Achaemenid Empire, ushering in the period of Achaemenid Macedonia. [note 3]  Achaemenid Persian hegemony over Macedonia was briefly interrupted by the Ionian Revolt (499–493 BC), yet the Persian general Mardonius brought it back under Achaemenid suzerainty. [22] 
 Although Macedonia enjoyed a large degree of autonomy and was never made a satrapy (i.e. province) of the Achaemenid Empire, it was expected to provide troops for the Achaemenid army. [23]  Alexander I provided Macedonian military support to Xerxes I (r. 486–465 BC) during the Second Persian invasion of Greece in 480–479 BC, and Macedonian soldiers fought on the side of the Persians at the 479 BC Battle of Platea. [24]  Following the Greek victory at Salamis in 480 BC, Alexander I was employed as an Achaemenid diplomat to propose a peace treaty and alliance with Athens, an offer that was rejected. [25]  Soon afterwards, the Achaemenid forces were forced to withdraw from mainland Europe, marking the end of Persian control over Macedonia. [26] 
Involvement in the Classical Greek world
     
Although initially a Persian vassal, Alexander I of Macedon fostered friendly diplomatic relations with his former Greek enemies, the Athenian and Spartan-led coalition of Greek city-states. [27]  His successor Perdiccas II (r. 454–413 BC) led the Macedonians to war in four separate conflicts against Athens, leader of the Delian League, while incursions by the Thracian ruler Sitalces of the Odrysian kingdom threatened Macedonia's territorial integrity in the northeast. [28]  The Athenian statesman Pericles promoted colonization of the Strymon River near the Kingdom of Macedonia, where the colonial city of Amphipolis was founded in 437/436 BC so that it could provide Athens with a steady supply of silver and gold as well as timber and pitch to support the Athenian navy. [29]  Initially Perdiccas II did not take any action and might have even welcomed the Athenians, as the Thracians were foes to both of them. [30]  This changed due to an Athenian alliance with a brother and cousin of Perdiccas II who had rebelled against him. [30]  Thus, two separate wars were fought against Athens between 433 and 431 BC. [30]  The Macedonian king retaliated by promoting the rebellion of Athens' allies in Chalcidice and subsequently won over the strategic city of Potidaea. [31]  After capturing the Macedonian cities Therma and Beroea, Athens besieged Potidaea but failed to overcome it; Therma was returned to Macedonia and much of Chalcidice to Athens in a peace treaty brokered by Sitalces, who provided Athens with military aid in exchange for acquiring new Thracian allies. [32] 
 Perdiccas II sided with Sparta in the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta, and in 429 BC Athens retaliated by persuading Sitalces to invade Macedonia, but he was forced to retreat owing to a shortage of provisions in winter. [33]  In 424 BC, Arrhabaeus, a local ruler of Lynkestis in Upper Macedonia, rebelled against his overlord Perdiccas, and the Spartans agreed to help in putting down the revolt. [34]  At the Battle of Lyncestis the Macedonians panicked and fled before the fighting began, enraging the Spartan general Brasidas, whose soldiers looted the unattended Macedonian baggage train. [35]  Perdiccas then changed sides and supported Athens, and he was able to put down Arrhabaeus's revolt. [36] 
     
Brasidas died in 422 BC, the year Athens and Sparta struck an accord, the Peace of Nicias, that freed Macedonia from its obligations as an Athenian ally. [37]  Following the 418 BC Battle of Mantinea, the victorious Spartans formed an alliance with Argos, a military pact Perdiccas II was keen to join given the threat of Spartan allies remaining in Chalcidice. [38]  When Argos suddenly switched sides as a pro-Athenian democracy, the Athenian navy was able to form a blockade against Macedonian seaports and invade Chalcidice in 417 BC. [39]  Perdiccas II sued for peace in 414 BC, forming an alliance with Athens that was continued by his son and successor Archelaus I (r. 413–399 BC). [40]  Athens then provided naval support to Archelaus I in the 410 BC Macedonian siege of Pydna, in exchange for timber and naval equipment. [41] 
 Although Archelaus I was faced with some internal revolts and had to fend off an invasion of Illyrians led by Sirras of Lynkestis, he was able to project Macedonian power into Thessaly where he sent military aid to his allies. [42]  Although he retained Aigai as a ceremonial and religious center, Archelaus I moved the capital of the kingdom north to Pella, which was then positioned by a lake with a river connecting it to the Aegean Sea. [43]  He improved Macedonia's currency by minting coins with a higher silver content as well as issuing separate copper coinage. [44]  His royal court attracted the presence of well-known intellectuals such as the Athenian playwright Euripides. [45]  When Archelaus I was assassinated (perhaps following a homosexual love affair with royal pages at his court), the kingdom was plunged into chaos, in an era lasting from 399 to 393 BC that included the reign of four different monarchs: Orestes, son of Archelaus I; Aeropus II, uncle, regent, and murderer of Orestes; Pausanias, son of Aeropus II; and Amyntas II, who was married to the youngest daughter of Archelaus I. [46]  Very little is known about this turbulent period; it came to an end when Amyntas III (r. 393–370 BC), son of Arrhidaeus and grandson of Amyntas I, killed Pausanias and claimed the Macedonian throne. [47] 
     
Amyntas III was forced to flee his kingdom in either 393 or 383 BC (based on conflicting accounts), owing to a massive invasion by the Illyrians led by Bardylis. [note 4]  The pretender to the throne Argaeus ruled in his absence, yet Amyntas III eventually returned to his kingdom with the aid of Thessalian allies. [48]  Amyntas III was also nearly overthrown by the forces of the Chalcidian city of Olynthos, but with the aid of Teleutias, brother of the Spartan king Agesilaus II, the Macedonians forced Olynthos to surrender and dissolve their Chalcidian League in 379 BC. [49] 
  Alexander II (r. 370–368 BC), son of Eurydice I and Amyntas III, succeeded his father and immediately invaded Thessaly to wage war against the  tagus  (supreme Thessalian military leader) Alexander of Pherae, capturing the city of Larissa. [50]  The Thessalians, desiring to remove both Alexander II and Alexander of Pherae as their overlords, appealed to Pelopidas of Thebes for aid; he succeeded in recapturing Larissa and, in the peace agreement arranged with Macedonia, received aristocratic hostages including Alexander II's brother and future king Philip II (r. 359–336 BC). [51]  When Alexander was assassinated by his brother-in-law Ptolemy of Aloros, the latter acted as an overbearing regent for Perdiccas III (r. 368–359 BC), younger brother of Alexander II, who eventually had Ptolemy executed when reaching the age of majority in 365 BC. [52]  The remainder of Perdiccas III's reign was marked by political stability and financial recovery. [53]  However, an Athenian invasion led by Timotheus, son of Conon, managed to capture Methone and Pydna, and an Illyrian invasion led by Bardylis succeeded in killing Perdiccas III and 4,000 Macedonian troops in battle. [54] 
Rise of Macedon
             
      Map of the Kingdom of Macedon at the death of Philip II in 336 BC (light blue), with the original territory that existed in 431 BC (red outline), and dependent states (yellow)  
Philip II was twenty-four years old when he acceded to the throne in 359 BC. [55]  Through the use of deft diplomacy, he was able to convince the Thracians under Berisades to cease their support of Pausanias, a pretender to the throne, and the Athenians to halt their support of another pretender. [56]  He achieved these by bribing the Thracians and their Paeonian allies and establishing a treaty with Athens that relinquished his claims to Amphipolis. [57]  He was also able to make peace with the Illyrians who had threatened his borders. [58] 
 Philip II spent his initial years radically transforming the Macedonian army. A reform of its organization, equipment, and training, including the introduction of the Macedonian phalanx armed with long pikes (i.e. the  sarissa ), proved immediately successful when tested against his Illyrian and Paeonian enemies. [59]  Confusing accounts in ancient sources have led modern scholars to debate how much Philip II's royal predecessors may have contributed to these reforms and the extent to which his ideas were influenced by his adolescent years of captivity in Thebes as a political hostage during the Theban hegemony, especially after meeting with the general Epaminondas. [60] 
 The Macedonians, like the other Greeks, traditionally practiced monogamy, but Philip II practiced polygamy and married seven wives with perhaps only one that did not involve the loyalty of his aristocratic subjects or new allies. [note 5]  His first marriages were to Phila of Elimeia of the Upper Macedonian aristocracy as well as the Illyrian princess Audata to ensure a marriage alliance. [61]  To establish an alliance with Larissa in Thessaly, he married the Thessalian noblewoman Philinna in 358 BC, who bore him a son who would later rule as Philip III Arrhidaeus (r. 323–317 BC). [62]  In 357 BC, he married Olympias to secure an alliance with Arybbas, the King of Epirus and the Molossians. This marriage would bear a son who would later rule as Alexander III (better known as Alexander the Great) and claim descent from the legendary Achilles by way of his dynastic heritage from Epirus. [63]  It is unclear whether or not the Achaemenid Persian kings influenced Philip II's practice of polygamy, although his predecessor Amyntas III had three sons with a possible second wife Gygaea: Archelaus, Arrhidaeus, and Menelaus. [64]  Philip II had Archelaus put to death in 359 BC, while Philip II's other two half brothers fled to Olynthos, serving as a  casus belli  for the Olynthian War (349–348 BC) against the Chalcidian League. [65] 
 While Athens was preoccupied with the Social War (357–355 BC), Philip II retook Amphipolis from them in 357 BC and the following year recaptured Pydna and Potidaea, the latter of which he handed over to the Chalcidian League as promised in a treaty. [66]  In 356 BC, he took Crenides, refounding it as Philippi, while his general Parmenion defeated the Illyrian king Grabos II of the Grabaei. [67]  During the 355–354 BC siege of Methone, Philip II lost his right eye to an arrow wound, but managed to capture the city and treated the inhabitants cordially, unlike the Potidaeans, who had been enslaved. [note 6] 
 Philip II then involved Macedonia in the Third Sacred War (356–346 BC). It began when Phocis captured and plundered the temple of Apollo at Delphi instead of submitting unpaid fines, causing the Amphictyonic League to declare war on Phocis and a civil war among the members of the Thessalian League aligned with either Phocis or Thebes. [68]  Philip II's initial campaign against Pherae in Thessaly in 353 BC at the behest of Larissa ended in two disastrous defeats by the Phocian general Onomarchus. [note 7]  Philip II in turn defeated Onomarchus in 352 BC at the Battle of Crocus Field, which led to Philip II's election as leader ( archon ) of the Thessalian League, provided him a seat on the Amphictyonic Council, and allowed for a marriage alliance with Pherae by wedding Nicesipolis, niece of the tyrant Jason of Pherae. [69] 
 Philip II had some early involvement with the Achaemenid Empire, especially by supporting satraps and mercenaries who rebelled against the central authority of the Achaemenid king. The satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia Artabazos II, who was in rebellion against Artaxerxes III, was able to take refuge as an exile at the Macedonian court from 352 to 342 BC. He was accompanied in exile by his family and by his mercenary general Memnon of Rhodes. [70]   [71]  Barsine, daughter of Artabazos, and future wife of Alexander the Great, grew up at the Macedonian court. [71] 
 After campaigning against the Thracian ruler Cersobleptes, in 349 BC, Philip II began his war against the Chalcidian League, which had been reestablished in 375 BC following a temporary disbandment. [72]  Despite an Athenian intervention by Charidemus, [73]  Olynthos was captured by Philip II in 348 BC, and its inhabitants were sold into slavery, including some Athenian citizens. [74]  The Athenians, especially in a series of speeches by Demosthenes known as the  Olynthiacs , were unsuccessful in persuading their allies to counterattack and in 346 BC concluded a treaty with Macedonia known as the Peace of Philocrates. [75]  The treaty stipulated that Athens would relinquish claims to Macedonian coastal territories, the Chalcidice, and Amphipolis in return for the release of the enslaved Athenians as well as guarantees that Philip II would not attack Athenian settlements in the Thracian Chersonese. [76]  Meanwhile, Phocis and Thermopylae were captured by Macedonian forces, the Delphic temple robbers were executed, and Philip II was awarded the two Phocian seats on the Amphictyonic Council and the position of master of ceremonies over the Pythian Games. [77]  Athens initially opposed his membership on the council and refused to attend the games in protest, but they eventually accepted these conditions, perhaps after some persuasion by Demosthenes in his oration  On the Peace . [78] 
             
Over the next few years, Philip II reformed local governments in Thessaly, campaigned against the Illyrian ruler Pleuratus I, deposed Arybbas in Epirus in favor of his brother-in-law Alexander I (through Philip II's marriage to Olympias), and defeated Cersebleptes in Thrace. This allowed him to extend Macedonian control over the Hellespont in anticipation of an invasion into Achaemenid Anatolia. [80]  In 342 BC, Philip II conquered a Thracian city in what is now Bulgaria and renamed it Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv). [81]  War broke out with Athens in 340 BC while Philip II was engaged in two ultimately unsuccessful sieges of Perinthus and Byzantion, followed by a successful campaign against the Scythians along the Danube and Macedonia's involvement in the Fourth Sacred War against Amphissa in 339 BC. [82]  Thebes ejected a Macedonian garrison from Nicaea (near Thermopylae), leading Thebes to join Athens, Megara, Corinth, Achaea, and Euboea in a final confrontation against Macedonia at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC. [83]  After the Macedonian victory at Chaeronea, Philip II installed an oligarchy in Thebes, yet was lenient toward Athens, wishing to utilize their navy in a planned invasion of the Achaemenid Empire. [84]  He was then chiefly responsible for the formation of the League of Corinth that included the major Greek city-states except Sparta. Despite the Kingdom of Macedonia's official exclusion from the league, in 337 BC, Philip II was elected as the leader ( hegemon ) of its council ( synedrion ) and the commander-in-chief ( strategos autokrator ) of a forthcoming campaign to invade the Achaemenid Empire. [85]  Philip's plan to punish the Persians for the suffering of the Greeks and to liberate the Greek cities of Asia Minor [86]  as well as perhaps the panhellenic fear of another Persian invasion of Greece, contributed to his decision to invade the Achaemenid Empire. [87]  The Persians offered aid to Perinthus and Byzantion in 341–340 BC, highlighting Macedonia's strategic need to secure Thrace and the Aegean Sea against increasing Achaemenid encroachment, as the Persian king Artaxerxes III further consolidated his control over satrapies in western Anatolia. [88]  The latter region, yielding far more wealth and valuable resources than the Balkans, was also coveted by the Macedonian king for its sheer economic potential. [89] 
 When Philip II married Cleopatra Eurydice, niece of general Attalus, talk of providing new potential heirs at the wedding feast infuriated Philip II's son Alexander, a veteran of the Battle of Chaeronea, and his mother Olympias. [90]  They fled together to Epirus before Alexander was recalled to Pella by Philip II. [90]  When Philip II arranged a marriage between his son Arrhidaeus and Ada of Caria, daughter of Pixodarus, the Persian satrap of Caria, Alexander intervened and proposed to marry Ada instead. Philip II then cancelled the wedding altogether and exiled Alexander's advisors Ptolemy, Nearchus, and Harpalus. [91]  To reconcile with Olympias, Philip II had their daughter Cleopatra marry Olympias' brother (and Cleopatra's uncle) Alexander I of Epirus, but Philip II was assassinated by his bodyguard, Pausanias of Orestis, during their wedding feast and succeeded by Alexander in 336 BC. [92] 
Empire
             
      Alexander's empire and his route  
Modern scholars have argued over the possible role of Alexander III "the Great" and his mother Olympias in the assassination of Philip II, noting the latter's choice to exclude Alexander from his planned invasion of Asia, choosing instead for him to act as regent of Greece and deputy hegemon of the League of Corinth, and the potential bearing of another male heir between Philip II and his new wife, Cleopatra Eurydice. [note 8]  Alexander III (r. 336–323 BC) was immediately proclaimed king by an assembly of the army and leading aristocrats, chief among them being Antipater and Parmenion. [93]  By the end of his reign and military career in 323 BC, Alexander would rule over an empire consisting of mainland Greece, Asia Minor, the Levant, ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, and much of Central and South Asia (i.e. modern Pakistan). [94]  Among his first acts was the burial of his father at Aigai. [95]  The members of the League of Corinth revolted at the news of Philip II's death, but were soon quelled by military force alongside persuasive diplomacy, electing Alexander as hegemon of the league to carry out the planned invasion of Achaemenid Persia. [96] 
 In 335 BC, Alexander fought against the Thracian tribe of the Triballi at Haemus Mons and along the Danube, forcing their surrender on Peuce Island. [97]  Shortly thereafter, the Illyrian chieftain Cleitus, son of Bardylis, threatened to attack Macedonia with the aid of Glaucias, king of the Taulantii, but Alexander took the initiative and besieged the Illyrians at Pelion (in modern Albania). [98]  When Thebes had once again revolted from the League of Corinth and was besieging the Macedonian garrison in the Cadmea, Alexander left the Illyrian front and marched to Thebes, which he placed under siege. [99]  After breaching the walls, Alexander's forces killed 6,000 Thebans, took 30,000 inhabitants as prisoners of war, and burned the city to the ground as a warning that convinced all other Greek states except Sparta not to challenge Alexander again. [100] 
 Throughout his military career, Alexander won every battle that he personally commanded. [101]  His first victory against the Persians in Asia Minor at the Battle of the Granicus in 334 BC used a small cavalry contingent as a distraction to allow his infantry to cross the river followed by a cavalry charge from his companion cavalry. [102]  Alexander led the cavalry charge at the Battle of Issus in 333 BC, forcing the Persian king Darius III and his army to flee. [102]  Darius III, despite having superior numbers, was again forced to flee the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC. [102]  The Persian king was later captured and executed by his own satrap of Bactria and kinsman, Bessus, in 330 BC. The Macedonian king subsequently hunted down and executed Bessus in what is now Afghanistan, securing the region of Sogdia in the process. [103]  At the 326 BC Battle of the Hydaspes (modern-day Punjab), when the war elephants of King Porus of the Pauravas threatened Alexander's troops, he had them form open ranks to surround the elephants and dislodge their handlers by using their sarissa pikes. [104]  When his Macedonian troops threatened mutiny in 324 BC at Opis, Babylonia (near modern Baghdad, Iraq), Alexander offered Macedonian military titles and greater responsibilities to Persian officers and units instead, forcing his troops to seek forgiveness at a staged banquet of reconciliation between Persians and Macedonians. [105] 
      The Stag Hunt Mosaic, c. 300 BC, from Pella; the figure on the right is possibly Alexander the Great due to the date of the mosaic along with the depicted upsweep of his centrally-parted hair (anastole); the figure on the left wielding a double-edged axe (associated with Hephaistos) is perhaps Hephaestion, one of Alexander's loyal companions.  
Alexander perhaps undercut his own rule by demonstrating signs of megalomania. [106]  While utilizing effective propaganda such as the cutting of the Gordian Knot, he also attempted to portray himself as a living god and son of Zeus following his visit to the oracle at Siwah in the Libyan Desert (in modern-day Egypt) in 331 BC. [107]  His attempt in 327 BC to have his men prostrate before him in Bactra in an act of  proskynesis  borrowed from the Persian kings was rejected as religious blasphemy by his Macedonian and Greek subjects after his court historian Callisthenes refused to perform this ritual. [106]  When Alexander had Parmenion murdered at Ecbatana (near modern Hamadan, Iran) in 330 BC, this was "symptomatic of the growing gulf between the king's interests and those of his country and people", according to Errington. [108]  His murder of Cleitus the Black in 328 BC is described as "vengeful and reckless" by Dawn L. Gilley and Ian Worthington. [109]  Continuing the polygamous habits of his father, Alexander encouraged his men to marry native women in Asia, leading by example when he wed Roxana, a Sogdian princess of Bactria. [110]  He then married Stateira II, eldest daughter of Darius III, and Parysatis II, youngest daughter of Artaxerxes III, at the Susa weddings in 324 BC. [111] 
 Meanwhile, in Greece, the Spartan king Agis III attempted to lead a rebellion of the Greeks against Macedonia. [112]  He was defeated in 331 BC at the Battle of Megalopolis by Antipater, who was serving as regent of Macedonia and deputy hegemon of the League of Corinth in Alexander's stead. [note 9]  Before Antipater embarked on his campaign in the Peloponnese, Memnon, the governor of Thrace, was dissuaded from rebellion by use of diplomacy. [113]  Antipater deferred the punishment of Sparta to the League of Corinth headed by Alexander, who ultimately pardoned the Spartans on the condition that they submit fifty nobles as hostages. [114]  Antipater's hegemony was somewhat unpopular in Greece due to his practice (perhaps by order of Alexander) of exiling malcontents and garrisoning cities with Macedonian troops, yet in 330 BC, Alexander declared that the tyrannies installed in Greece were to be abolished and Greek freedom was to be restored. [115] 
     
     
When Alexander the Great died at Babylon in 323 BC, his mother Olympias immediately accused Antipater and his faction of poisoning him, although there is no evidence to confirm this. [116]  With no official heir apparent, the Macedonian military command split, with one side proclaiming Alexander's half-brother Philip III Arrhidaeus (r. 323–317 BC) as king and the other siding with the infant son of Alexander and Roxana, Alexander IV (r. 323–309 BC). [117]  Except for the Euboeans and Boeotians, the Greeks also immediately rose up in a rebellion against Antipater known as the Lamian War (323–322 BC). [118]  When Antipater was defeated at the 323 BC Battle of Thermopylae, he fled to Lamia where he was besieged by the Athenian commander Leosthenes. A Macedonian army led by Leonnatus rescued Antipater by lifting the siege. [119]  Antipater defeated the rebellion, yet his death in 319 BC left a power vacuum wherein the two proclaimed kings of Macedonia became pawns in a power struggle between the  diadochi , the former generals of Alexander's army. [120] 
 A council of the army convened in Babylon immediately after Alexander's death, naming Philip III as king and the chiliarch Perdiccas as his regent. [121]  Antipater, Antigonus Monophthalmus, Craterus, and Ptolemy formed a coalition against Perdiccas in a civil war initiated by Ptolemy's seizure of the hearse of Alexander the Great. [122]  Perdiccas was assassinated in 321 BC by his own officers during a failed campaign in Egypt against Ptolemy, where his march along the Nile River resulted in the drowning of 2,000 of his men. [123]  Although Eumenes of Cardia managed to kill Craterus in battle, this had little to no effect on the outcome of the 321 BC Partition of Triparadisus in Syria where the victorious coalition settled the issue of a new regency and territorial rights. [124]  Antipater was appointed as regent over the two kings. Before Antipater died in 319 BC, he named the staunch Argead loyalist Polyperchon as his successor, passing over his own son Cassander and ignoring the right of the king to choose a new regent (since Philip III was considered mentally unstable), in effect bypassing the council of the army as well. [125] 
 Forming an alliance with Ptolemy, Antigonus, and Lysimachus, Cassander had his officer Nicanor capture the Munichia fortress of Athens' port town Piraeus in defiance of Polyperchon's decree that Greek cities should be free of Macedonian garrisons, sparking the Second War of the Diadochi (319–315 BC). [126]  Given a string of military failures by Polyperchon, in 317 BC, Philip III, by way of his politically engaged wife Eurydice II of Macedon, officially replaced him as regent with Cassander. [127]  Afterwards, Polyperchon desperately sought the aid of Olympias in Epirus. [127]  A joint force of Epirotes, Aetolians, and Polyperchon's troops invaded Macedonia and forced the surrender of Philip III and Eurydice's army, allowing Olympias to execute the king and force his queen to commit suicide. [128]  Olympias then had Nicanor and dozens of other Macedonian nobles killed, but by the spring of 316 BC, Cassander had defeated her forces, captured her, and placed her on trial for murder before sentencing her to death. [129] 
 Cassander married Philip II's daughter Thessalonike and briefly extended Macedonian control into Illyria as far as Epidamnos (modern Durrës, Albania). By 313 BC, it was retaken by the Illyrian king Glaucias of Taulantii. [130]  By 316 BC, Antigonus had taken the territory of Eumenes and managed to eject Seleucus Nicator from his Babylonian satrapy, leading Cassander, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus to issue a joint ultimatum to Antigonus in 315 BC for him to surrender various territories in Asia. [9]  Antigonus promptly allied with Polyperchon, now based in Corinth, and issued an ultimatum of his own to Cassander, charging him with murder for executing Olympias and demanding that he hand over the royal family, King Alexander IV and the queen mother Roxana. [131]  The conflict that followed lasted until the winter of 312/311 BC, when a new peace settlement recognized Cassander as general of Europe, Antigonus as "first in Asia", Ptolemy as general of Egypt, and Lysimachus as general of Thrace. [132]  Cassander had Alexander IV and Roxana put to death in the winter of 311/310 BC, and between 306 and 305 BC the diadochi were declared kings of their respective territories. [133] 
Hellenistic era
The beginning of Hellenistic Greece was defined by the struggle between the Antipatrid dynasty, led first by Cassander (r. 305–297 BC), son of Antipater, and the Antigonid dynasty, led by the Macedonian general Antigonus I Monophthalmus (r. 306–301 BC) and his son, the future king Demetrius I (r. 294–288 BC). Cassander besieged Athens in 303 BC, but was forced to retreat to Macedonia when Demetrius invaded Boeotia to his rear, attempting to sever his path of retreat. [134]  While Antigonus and Demetrius attempted to recreate Philip II's Hellenic league with themselves as dual hegemons, a revived coalition of Cassander, Ptolemy I Soter (r. 305–283 BC) of Egypt's Ptolemaic dynasty, Seleucus I Nicator (r. 305–281 BC) of the Seleucid Empire, and Lysimachus (r. 306–281 BC), King of Thrace, defeated the Antigonids at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC, killing Antigonus and forcing Demetrius into flight. [135] 
 Cassander died in 297 BC, and his sickly son Philip IV died the same year, succeeded by Cassander's other sons Alexander V of Macedon (r. 297–294 BC) and Antipater II of Macedon (r. 297–294 BC), with their mother Thessalonike of Macedon acting as regent. [136]  While Demetrius fought against the Antipatrid forces in Greece, Antipater II killed his own mother to obtain power. [136]  His desperate brother Alexander V then requested aid from Pyrrhus of Epirus (r. 297–272 BC), [136]  who had fought alongside Demetrius at the Battle of Ipsus, but was sent to Egypt as a hostage as part of an agreement between Demetrius and Ptolemy I. [137]  In exchange for defeating the forces of Antipater II and forcing him to flee to the court of Lysimachus in Thrace, Pyrrhus was awarded the westernmost portions of the Macedonian kingdom. [138]  Demetrius had his nephew Alexander V assassinated and was then proclaimed king of Macedonia, but his subjects protested against his aloof, Eastern-style autocracy. [136] 
 War broke out between Pyrrhus and Demetrius in 290 BC when Lanassa, wife of Pyrrhus, daughter of Agathocles of Syracuse, left him for Demetrius and offered him her dowry of Corcyra. [139]  The war dragged on until 288 BC, when Demetrius lost the support of the Macedonians and fled the country. Macedonia was then divided between Pyrrhus and Lysimachus, the former taking western Macedonia and the latter eastern Macedonia. [139]  By 286 BC, Lysimachus had expelled Pyrrhus and his forces from Macedonia. [note 10]  In 282 BC, a new war erupted between Seleucus I and Lysimachus; the latter was killed in the Battle of Corupedion, allowing Seleucus I to take control of Thrace and Macedonia. [140]  In two dramatic reversals of fortune, Seleucus I was assassinated in 281 BC by his officer Ptolemy Keraunos, son of Ptolemy I and grandson of Antipater, who was then proclaimed king of Macedonia before being killed in battle in 279 BC by Celtic invaders in the Gallic invasion of Greece. [141]  The Macedonian army proclaimed the general Sosthenes of Macedon as king, although he apparently refused the title. [142]  After defeating the Gallic ruler Bolgios and driving out the raiding party of Brennus, Sosthenes died and left a chaotic situation in Macedonia. [143]  The Gallic invaders ravaged Macedonia until Antigonus Gonatas, son of Demetrius, defeated them in Thrace at the 277 BC Battle of Lysimachia and was then proclaimed king Antigonus II of Macedon (r. 277–274, 272–239 BC). [144] 
 In 280 BC, Pyrrhus embarked on a campaign in Magna Graecia (i.e. southern Italy) against the Roman Republic known as the Pyrrhic War, followed by his invasion of Sicily. [145]  Ptolemy Keraunos secured his position on the Macedonian throne by giving Pyrrhus five thousand soldiers and twenty war elephants for this endeavor. [137]  Pyrrhus returned to Epirus in 275 BC after the ultimate failure of both campaigns, which contributed to the rise of Rome because Greek cities in southern Italy such as Tarentum now became Roman allies. [145]  Pyrrhus invaded Macedonia in 274 BC, defeating the largely mercenary army of Antigonus II at the 274 BC Battle of Aous and driving him out of Macedonia, forcing him to seek refuge with his naval fleet in the Aegean. [146] 
     
Pyrrhus lost much of his support among the Macedonians in 273 BC when his unruly Gallic mercenaries plundered the royal cemetery of Aigai. [147]  Pyrrhus pursued Antigonus II in the Peloponnese, yet Antigonus II was ultimately able to recapture Macedonia. [148]  Pyrrhus was killed while besieging Argos in 272 BC, allowing Antigonus II to reclaim the rest of Greece. [149]  He then restored the Argead dynastic graves at Aigai and annexed the Kingdom of Paeonia. [150] 
 The Aetolian League hampered Antigonus II's control over central Greece, and the formation of the Achaean League in 251 BC pushed Macedonian forces out of much of the Peloponnese and at times incorporated Athens and Sparta. [151]  While the Seleucid Empire aligned with Antigonid Macedonia against Ptolemaic Egypt during the Syrian Wars, the Ptolemaic navy heavily disrupted Antigonus II's efforts to control mainland Greece. [152]  With the aid of the Ptolemaic navy, the Athenian statesman Chremonides led a revolt against Macedonian authority known as the Chremonidean War (267–261 BC). [153]  By 265 BC, Athens was surrounded and besieged by Antigonus II's forces, and a Ptolemaic fleet was defeated in the Battle of Cos. Athens finally surrendered in 261 BC. [154]  After Macedonia formed an alliance with the Seleucid ruler Antiochus II, a peace settlement between Antigonus II and Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt was finally struck in 255 BC. [155] 
     
In 251 BC, Aratus of Sicyon led a rebellion against Antigonus II, and in 250 BC, Ptolemy II declared his support for the self-proclaimed King Alexander of Corinth. [157]  Although Alexander died in 246 BC and Antigonus was able to score a naval victory against the Ptolemies at Andros, the Macedonians lost the Acrocorinth to the forces of Aratus in 243 BC, followed by the induction of Corinth into the Achaean League. [158]  Antigonus II made peace with the Achaean League in 240 BC, ceding the territories that he had lost in Greece. [159]  Antigonus II died in 239 BC and was succeeded by his son Demetrius II of Macedon (r. 239–229 BC). Seeking an alliance with Macedonia to defend against the Aetolians, the queen mother and regent of Epirus, Olympias II, offered her daughter Phthia of Macedon to Demetrius II in marriage. Demetrius II accepted her proposal, but he damaged relations with the Seleucids by divorcing Stratonice of Macedon. [160]  Although the Aetolians formed an alliance with the Achaean League as a result, Demetrius II was able to invade Boeotia and capture it from the Aetolians by 236 BC. [156] 
 The Achaean League managed to capture Megalopolis in 235 BC, and by the end of Demetrius II's reign most of the Peloponnese except Argos was taken from the Macedonians. [161]  Demetrius II also lost an ally in Epirus when the monarchy was toppled in a republican revolution. [162]  Demetrius II enlisted the aid of the Illyrian king Agron to defend Acarnania against Aetolia, and in 229 BC, they managed to defeat the combined navies of the Aetolian and Achaean Leagues at the Battle of Paxos. [162]  Another Illyrian ruler, Longarus of the Dardanian Kingdom, invaded Macedonia and defeated an army of Demetrius II shortly before his death in 229 BC. [163]  Although his young son Philip immediately inherited the throne, his regent Antigonus III Doson (r. 229–221 BC), nephew of Antigonus II, was proclaimed king by the army, with Philip as his heir, following a string of military victories against the Illyrians in the north and the Aetolians in Thessaly. [164] 
     
Aratus sent an embassy to Antigonus III in 226 BC seeking an unexpected alliance now that the reformist king Cleomenes III of Sparta was threatening the rest of Greece in the Cleomenean War (229–222 BC). [165]  In exchange for military aid, Antigonus III demanded the return of Corinth to Macedonian control, which Aratus finally agreed to in 225 BC. [166]  In 224 BC, Antigonus III's forces took Arcadia from Sparta. After forming a Hellenic league in the same vein as Philip II's League of Corinth, he managed to defeat Sparta at the Battle of Sellasia in 222 BC. [167]  Sparta was occupied by a foreign power for the first time in its history, restoring Macedonia's position as the leading power in Greece. [168]  Antigonus died a year later, perhaps from tuberculosis, leaving behind a strong Hellenistic kingdom for his successor Philip V. [169] 
  Philip V of Macedon (r. 221–179 BC) faced immediate challenges to his authority by the Illyrian Dardani and Aetolian League. [170]  Philip V and his allies were successful against the Aetolians and their allies in the Social War (220–217 BC), yet he made peace with the Aetolians once he heard of incursions by the Dardani in the north and the Carthaginian victory over the Romans at the Battle of Lake Trasimene in 217 BC. [171]  Demetrius of Pharos is alleged to have convinced Philip V to first secure Illyria in advance of an invasion of the Italian peninsula. [note 11]  In 216 BC, Philip V sent a hundred light warships into the Adriatic Sea to attack Illyria, a move that prompted Scerdilaidas of the Ardiaean Kingdom to appeal to the Romans for aid. [172]  Rome responded by sending ten heavy quinqueremes from Roman Sicily to patrol the Illyrian coasts, causing Philip V to reverse course and order his fleet to retreat, averting open conflict for the time being. [173] 
Conflict with Rome
     
In 215 BC, at the height of the Second Punic War with the Carthaginian Empire, Roman authorities intercepted a ship off the Calabrian coast holding a Macedonian envoy and a Carthaginian ambassador in possession of a treaty composed by Hannibal declaring an alliance with Philip V. [174]  The treaty stipulated that Carthage had the sole right to negotiate the terms of Rome's hypothetical surrender and promised mutual aid if a resurgent Rome should seek revenge against either Macedonia or Carthage. [175]  Although the Macedonians were perhaps only interested in safeguarding their newly conquered territories in Illyria, [176]  the Romans were nevertheless able to thwart whatever grand ambitions Philip V had for the Adriatic region during the First Macedonian War (214–205 BC). In 214 BC, Rome positioned a naval fleet at Oricus, which was assaulted along with Apollonia by Macedonian forces. [177]  When the Macedonians captured Lissus in 212 BC, the Roman Senate responded by inciting the Aetolian League, Sparta, Elis, Messenia, and Attalus I (r. 241–197 BC) of Pergamon to wage war against Philip V, keeping him occupied and away from Italy. [178] 
 The Aetolian League concluded a peace agreement with Philip V in 206 BC, and the Roman Republic negotiated the Treaty of Phoenice in 205 BC, ending the war and allowing the Macedonians to retain some captured settlements in Illyria. [179]  Although the Romans rejected an Aetolian request in 202 BC for Rome to declare war on Macedonia once again, the Roman Senate gave serious consideration to the similar offer made by Pergamon and its ally Rhodes in 201 BC. [180]  These states were concerned about Philip V's alliance with Antiochus III the Great of the Seleucid Empire, which invaded the war-weary and financially exhausted Ptolemaic Empire in the Fifth Syrian War (202–195 BC) as Philip V captured Ptolemaic settlements in the Aegean Sea. [181]  Although Rome's envoys played a critical role in convincing Athens to join the anti-Macedonian alliance with Pergamon and Rhodes in 200 BC, the  comitia centuriata  (people's assembly) rejected the Roman Senate's proposal for a declaration of war on Macedonia. [182]  Meanwhile, Philip V conquered territories in the Hellespont and Bosporus as well as Ptolemaic Samos, which led Rhodes to form an alliance with Pergamon, Byzantium, Cyzicus, and Chios against Macedonia. [183]  Despite Philip V's nominal alliance with the Seleucid king, he lost the naval Battle of Chios in 201 BC and was blockaded at Bargylia by the Rhodian and Pergamene navies. [184] 
     
While Philip V was busy fighting Rome's Greek allies, Rome viewed this as an opportunity to punish this former ally of Hannibal with a war that they hoped would supply a victory and require few resources. [note 12]  The Roman Senate demanded that Philip V cease hostilities against neighboring Greek powers and defer to an international arbitration committee for settling grievances. [185]  When the comitia centuriata finally voted in approval of the Roman Senate's declaration of war in 200 BC and handed their ultimatum to Philip V, demanding that a tribunal assess the damages owed to Rhodes and Pergamon, the Macedonian king rejected it. This marked the beginning of the Second Macedonian War (200–197 BC), with Publius Sulpicius Galba Maximus spearheading military operations in Apollonia. [186] 
     
The Macedonians successfully defended their territory for roughly two years, [187]  but the Roman consul Titus Quinctius Flamininus managed to expel Philip V from Macedonia in 198 BC, forcing his men to take refuge in Thessaly. [188]  When the Achaean League switched their loyalties from Macedonia to Rome, the Macedonian king sued for peace, but the terms offered were considered too stringent, and so the war continued. [188]  In June 197 BC, the Macedonians were defeated at the Battle of Cynoscephalae. [189]  Rome then ratified a treaty that forced Macedonia to relinquish control of much of its Greek possessions outside of Macedonia proper, if only to act as a buffer against Illyrian and Thracian incursions into Greece. [190]  Although some Greeks suspected Roman intentions of supplanting Macedonia as the new hegemonic power in Greece, Flaminius announced at the Isthmian Games of 196 BC that Rome intended to preserve Greek liberty by leaving behind no garrisons and by not exacting tribute of any kind. [191]  His promise was delayed by negotiations with the Spartan king Nabis, who had meanwhile captured Argos, yet Roman forces evacuated Greece in 194 BC. [192] 
 Encouraged by the Aetolian League and their calls to liberate Greece from the Romans, the Seleucid king Antiochus III landed with his army at Demetrias, Thessaly, in 192 BC, and was elected strategos by the Aetolians. [193]  Macedonia, the Achaean League, and other Greek city-states maintained their alliance with Rome. [194]  The Romans defeated the Seleucids in the 191 BC Battle of Thermopylae as well as the Battle of Magnesia in 190 BC, forcing the Seleucids to pay a war indemnity, dismantle most of its navy, and abandon its claims to any territories north or west of the Taurus Mountains in the 188 BC Treaty of Apamea. [195]  With Rome's acceptance, Philip V was able to capture some cities in central Greece in 191–189 BC that had been allied to Antiochus III, while Rhodes and Eumenes II (r. 197–159 BC) of Pergamon gained territories in Asia Minor. [196] 
 Failing to please all sides in various territorial disputes, the Roman Senate decided in 184/183 BC to force Philip V to abandon Aenus and Maronea, since these had been declared free cities in the Treaty of Apamea. [note 13]  This assuaged the fear of Eumenes II that Macedonia could pose a threat to his lands in the Hellespont. [197]  Perseus of Macedon (r. 179–168 BC) succeeded Philip V and executed his brother Demetrius, who had been favored by the Romans but was charged by Perseus with high treason. [198]  Perseus then attempted to form marriage alliances with Prusias II of Bithynia and Seleucus IV Philopator of the Seleucid Empire, along with renewed relations with Rhodes that greatly unsettled Eumenes II. [199]  Although Eumenes II attempted to undermine these diplomatic relationships, Perseus fostered an alliance with the Boeotian League, extended his authority into Illyria and Thrace, and in 174 BC, won the role of managing the Temple of Apollo at Delphi as a member of the Amphictyonic Council. [200] 
             
Eumenes II came to Rome in 172 BC and delivered a speech to the Senate denouncing the alleged crimes and transgressions of Perseus. [201]  This convinced the Roman Senate to declare the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC). [note 14]  Although Perseus's forces were victorious against the Romans at the Battle of Callinicus in 171 BC, the Macedonian army was defeated at the Battle of Pydna in June 168 BC. [202]  Perseus fled to Samothrace but surrendered shortly afterwards, was brought to Rome for the triumph of Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus, and was placed under house arrest at Alba Fucens, where he died in 166 BC. [203]  The Romans abolished the Macedonian monarchy by installing four separate allied republics in its stead, their capitals located at Amphipolis, Thessalonica, Pella, and Pelagonia. [204]  The Romans imposed severe laws inhibiting many social and economic interactions between the inhabitants of these republics, including the banning of marriages between them and the (temporary) prohibition on gold and silver mining. [204]  A certain Andriscus, claiming Antigonid descent, rebelled against the Romans and was pronounced king of Macedonia, defeating the army of the Roman praetor Publius Juventius Thalna during the Fourth Macedonian War (150–148 BC). [205]  Despite this, Andriscus was defeated in 148 BC at the second Battle of Pydna by Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus, whose forces occupied the kingdom. [206]  This was followed in 146 BC by the Roman destruction of Carthage and victory over the Achaean League at the Battle of Corinth, ushering in the era of Roman Greece and the gradual establishment of the Roman province of Macedonia. [207] 
Institutions
Division of power
     
At the head of Macedonia's government was the king ( basileus ). [note 15]  From at least the reign of Philip II, the king was assisted by the royal pages (basilikoi paides), bodyguards ( somatophylakes ), companions ( hetairoi ), friends ( philoi ), an assembly that included members of the military, and (during the Hellenistic period) magistrates. [208]  Evidence is lacking regarding the extent to which each of these groups shared authority with the king or if their existence had a basis in a formal constitutional framework. [note 16]  Before the reign of Philip II, the only institution supported by textual evidence is the monarchy. [note 17] 
Kingship and the royal court
The earliest known government of ancient Macedonia was that of its monarchy, lasting until 167 BC when it was abolished by the Romans. [209]  The Macedonian hereditary monarchy existed since at least the time of Archaic Greece, with Homeric aristocratic roots in Mycenaean Greece. [210]  Thucydides wrote that in previous ages, Macedonia was divided into small tribal regions, each having its own petty king, the tribes of Lower Macedonia eventually coalescing under one great king who exercised power as an overlord over the lesser kings of Upper Macedonia. [16]  The direct line of father-to-son succession was broken after the assassination of Orestes of Macedon in 396 BC (allegedly by his regent and successor Aeropus II of Macedon), clouding the issue of whether primogeniture was the established custom or if there was a constitutional right for an assembly of the army or of the people to choose another king. [211]  It is unclear if the male offspring of Macedonian queens or consorts were always preferred over others given the accession of Archelaus I of Macedon, son of Perdiccas II of Macedon and a slave woman, although Archelaus succeeded the throne after murdering his father's designated heir apparent. [212] 
     
It is known that Macedonian kings before Philip II upheld the privileges and carried out the responsibilities of hosting foreign diplomats, determining the kingdom's foreign policies, and negotiating alliances with foreign powers. [213]  After the Greek victory at Salamis in 480 BC, the Persian commander Mardonius had Alexander I of Macedon sent to Athens as a chief envoy to orchestrate an alliance between the Achaemenid Empire and Athens. The decision to send Alexander was based on his marriage alliance with a noble Persian house and his previous formal relationship with the city-state of Athens. [213]  With their ownership of natural resources including gold, silver, timber, and royal land, the early Macedonian kings were also capable of bribing foreign and domestic parties with impressive gifts. [214] 
 Little is known about the judicial system of ancient Macedonia except that the king acted as the chief judge of the kingdom. [215]  The Macedonian kings were also supreme commanders of the military. [note 18]  Philip II was also highly regarded for his acts of piety in serving as the high priest of the nation. He performed daily ritual sacrifices and led religious festivals. [216]  Alexander imitated various aspects of his father's reign, such as granting land and gifts to loyal aristocratic followers, [216]  but lost some core support among them for adopting some of the trappings of an Eastern, Persian monarch, a "lord and master" as Carol J. King suggests, instead of a "comrade-in-arms" as was the traditional relationship of Macedonian kings with their companions. [217]  Alexander's father, Philip II, was perhaps influenced by Persian traditions when he adopted institutions similar to those found in the Achaemenid realm, such as having a royal secretary, royal archive, royal pages, and a seated throne. [218] 
Royal pages
             
The royal pages were adolescent boys and young men conscripted from aristocratic households and serving the kings of Macedonia perhaps from the reign of Philip II onward, although more solid evidence dates to the reign of Alexander the Great. [note 19]  Royal pages played no direct role in high politics and were conscripted as a means to introduce them to political life. [219]  After a period of training and service, pages were expected to become members of the king's companions and personal retinue. [220]  During their training, pages were expected to guard the king as he slept, supply him with horses, aid him in mounting his horse, accompany him on royal hunts, and serve him during  symposia  (i.e. formal drinking parties). [221]  Although there is little evidence for royal pages in the Antigonid period, it is known that some of them fled with Perseus of Macedon to Samothrace following his defeat by the Romans in 168 BC. [222] 
Bodyguards
Royal bodyguards served as the closest members to the king at court and on the battlefield. [219]  They were split into two categories: the  agema  of the  hypaspistai , a type of ancient special forces usually numbering in the hundreds, and a smaller group of men handpicked by the king either for their individual merits or to honor the noble families to which they belonged. [219]  Therefore, the bodyguards, limited in number and forming the king's inner circle, were not always responsible for protecting the king's life on and off the battlefield; their title and office was more a mark of distinction, perhaps used to quell rivalries between aristocratic houses. [219] 
Companions, friends, councils, and assemblies
             
The companions, including the elite companion cavalry and  pezhetairoi  infantry, represented a substantially larger group than the king's bodyguards. [note 20]  The most trusted or highest ranking companions formed a council that served as an advisory body to the king. [223]  A small amount of evidence suggests the existence of an assembly of the army during times of war and a people's assembly during times of peace. [note 21] 
 Members of the council had the right to speak freely, and although there is no direct evidence that they voted on affairs of state, it is clear that the king was at least occasionally pressured to agree to their demands. [224]  The assembly was apparently given the right to judge cases of high treason and assign punishments for them, such as when Alexander the Great acted as prosecutor in the trial and conviction of three alleged conspirators in his father's assassination plot (while many others were acquitted). [225]  However, there is perhaps insufficient evidence to allow a conclusion that councils and assemblies were regularly upheld or constitutionally grounded, or that their decisions were always heeded by the king. [226]  At the death of Alexander the Great, the companions immediately formed a council to assume control of his empire, but it was soon destabilized by open rivalry and conflict between its members. [227]  The army also used mutiny as a tool to achieve political ends. [note 22] 
Magistrates, the commonwealth, local government, and allied states
Antigonid Macedonian kings relied on various regional officials to conduct affairs of state. [228]  This included high-ranking municipal officials, such as the military  strategos  and the politarch, i.e. the elected governor ( archon ) of a large city ( polis ), as well as the politico-religious office of the  epistates . [note 23]  No evidence exists about the personal backgrounds of these officials, although they may have been chosen among the same group of aristocratic philoi and hetairoi who filled vacancies for army officers. [215] 
             
In ancient Athens, the Athenian democracy was restored on three separate occasions following the initial conquest of the city by Antipater in 322 BC. [229]  When it fell repeatedly under Macedonian rule it was governed by a Macedonian-imposed oligarchy composed of the wealthiest members of the city-state. [note 24]  Other city-states were handled quite differently and were allowed a greater degree of autonomy. [230]  After Philip II conquered Amphipolis in 357 BC, the city was allowed to retain its democracy, including its constitution, popular assembly, city council ( boule ), and yearly elections for new officials, but a Macedonian garrison was housed within the city walls along with a Macedonian royal commissioner (epistates) to monitor the city's political affairs. [231]  Philippi, the city founded by Philip II, was the only other city in the Macedonian commonwealth that had a democratic government with popular assemblies, since the assembly ( ecclesia ) of Thessaloniki seems to have had only a passive function in practice. [232]  Some cities also maintained their own municipal revenues. [230]  The Macedonian king and central government administered the revenues generated by temples and priesthoods. [233] 
 Within the Macedonian commonwealth, some evidence from the 3rd century BC indicates that foreign relations were handled by the central government. Although individual Macedonian cities nominally participated in Panhellenic events as independent entities, in reality, the granting of  asylia  (inviolability, diplomatic immunity, and the right of asylum at sanctuaries) to certain cities was handled directly by the king. [234]  Likewise, the city-states within contemporary Greek  koina  (i.e., federations of city-states, the  sympoliteia ) obeyed the federal decrees voted on collectively by the members of their league. [note 25]  In city-states belonging to a league or commonwealth, the granting of  proxenia  (i.e. the hosting of foreign ambassadors) was usually a right shared by local and central authorities. [235]  Abundant evidence exists for the granting of proxenia as being the sole prerogative of central authorities in the neighboring Epirote League, and some evidence suggests the same arrangement in the Macedonian commonwealth. [236]  City-states that were allied with Macedonia issued their own decrees regarding proxenia. [237]  Foreign leagues also formed alliances with the Macedonian kings, such as when the Cretan League signed treaties with Demetrius II Aetolicus and Antigonus III Doson ensuring enlistment of Cretan mercenaries into the Macedonian army, and elected Philip V of Macedon as honorary protector ( prostates ) of the league. [238] 
Military
             
Early Macedonian army
The basic structure of the Ancient Macedonian army was the division between the companion cavalry ( hetairoi ) and the foot companions ( pezhetairoi ), augmented by various allied troops, foreign levied soldiers, and mercenaries. [239]  The foot companions existed perhaps since the reign of Alexander I of Macedon. [240]  Macedonian cavalry, wearing muscled cuirasses, became renowned in Greece during and after their involvement in the Peloponnesian War, at times siding with either Athens or Sparta. [241]  Macedonian infantry in this period consisted of poorly trained shepherds and farmers, while the cavalry was composed of noblemen. [242]  As evidenced by early 4th century BC artwork, there was a pronounced Spartan influence on the Macedonian army before Philip II. [243]  Nicholas Viktor Sekunda states that at the beginning of Philip II's reign in 359 BC, the Macedonian army consisted of 10,000 infantry and 600 cavalry, [244]  yet Malcolm Errington cautions that these figures cited by ancient authors should be treated with some skepticism. [245] 
Philip II and Alexander the Great
After spending years as a political hostage in Thebes, Philip II sought to imitate the Greek example of martial exercises and the issuing of standard equipment for citizen soldiery, and succeeded in transforming the Macedonian army from a levied force of unprofessional farmers into a well-trained, professional army. [246]  Philip II adopted some of the military tactics of his enemies, such as the  embolon  (flying wedge) cavalry formation of the Scythians. [247]  His infantry wielded peltai shields that replaced the earlier  aspis -style shields, were equipped with protective helmets, greaves, and either cuirasses breastplates or  kotthybos  stomach bands, and armed with  sarissa  pikes and daggers as secondary weapons. [note 26]  The elite  hypaspistai  infantry, composed of handpicked men from the ranks of the pezhetairoi, were formed during the reign of Philip II and saw continued use during the reign of Alexander the Great. [248]  Philip II was also responsible for the establishment of the royal bodyguards ( somatophylakes ). [249] 
             
For his lighter missile troops, Philip II employed mercenary Cretan archers as well as Thracian, Paeonian, and Illyrian javelin throwers, slingers, and archers. [250]  He hired engineers such as Polyidus of Thessaly and Diades of Pella, who were capable of building state of the art siege engines and artillery that fired large bolts. [247]  Following the acquisition of the lucrative mines at Krinides (renamed Philippi), the royal treasury could afford to field a permanent, professional standing army. [251]  The increase in state revenues under Philip II allowed the Macedonians to build a small navy for the first time, which included triremes. [252] 
 The only Macedonian cavalry units attested under Alexander were the companion cavalry, [249]  yet he formed a  hipparchia  (i.e. unit of a few hundred horsemen) of companion cavalry composed entirely of ethnic Persians while campaigning in Asia. [253]  When marching his forces into Asia, Alexander brought 1,800 cavalrymen from Macedonia, 1,800 cavalrymen from Thessaly, 600 cavalrymen from the rest of Greece, and 900  prodromoi  cavalry from Thrace. [254]  Antipater was able to quickly raise a force of 600 native Macedonian cavalry to fight in the Lamian War when it began in 323 BC. [254]  The most elite members of Alexander's hypaspistai were designated as the  agema , and a new term for hypaspistai emerged after the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC: the  argyraspides  (silver shields). [255]  The latter continued to serve after the reign of Alexander the Great and may have been of Asian origin. [note 27]  Overall, his pike-wielding phalanx infantry numbered some 12,000 men, 3,000 of which were elite hypaspistai and 9,000 of which were pezhetairoi. [note 28]  Alexander continued the use of Cretan archers and introduced native Macedonian archers into the army. [256]  After the Battle of Gaugamela, archers of West Asian backgrounds became commonplace. [256] 
Antigonid period military
     
 The Macedonian army continued to evolve under the Antigonid dynasty. It is uncertain how many men were appointed as somatophylakes, which numbered eight men at the end of Alexander the Great's reign, while the hypaspistai seem to have morphed into assistants of the somatophylakes. [note 29]  At the Battle of Cynoscephalae in 197 BC, the Macedonians commanded some 16,000 phalanx pikemen. [257]  Alexander the Great's royal squadron of companion cavalry contained 800 men, the same number of cavalrymen in the sacred squadron (Latin: sacra ala; Greek: hiera ile) commanded by Philip V of Macedon during the Social War of 219 BC. [258]  The regular Macedonian cavalry numbered 3,000 at Callinicus, which was separate from the sacred squadron and royal cavalry. [258]  While Macedonian cavalry of the 4th century BC had fought without shields, the use of shields by cavalry was adopted from the Celtic invaders of the 270s BC who settled in Galatia, central Anatolia. [259] 
 Thanks to contemporary inscriptions from Amphipolis and Greia dated 218 and 181 BC, respectively, historians have been able to partially piece together the organization of the Antigonid army under Philip V. [note 30]  From at least the time of Antigonus III Doson, the most elite Antigonid-period infantry were the peltasts, lighter and more maneuverable soldiers wielding peltai javelins, swords, and a smaller bronze shield than Macedonian phalanx pikemen, although they sometimes served in that capacity. [note 31]  Among the peltasts, roughly 2,000 men were selected to serve in the elite agema vanguard, with other peltasts numbering roughly 3,000. [260]  The number of peltasts varied over time, perhaps never more than 5,000 men. [note 32]  They fought alongside the phalanx pikemen, divided now into  chalkaspides  (bronze shield) and  leukaspides  (white shield) regiments. [261] 
 The Antigonid Macedonian kings continued to expand and equip the navy. [262]  Cassander maintained a small fleet at Pydna, Demetrius I of Macedon had one at Pella, and Antigonus II Gonatas, while serving as a general for Demetrius in Greece, used the navy to secure the Macedonian holdings in Demetrias, Chalkis, Piraeus, and Corinth. [263]  The navy was considerably expanded during the Chremonidean War (267–261 BC), allowing the Macedonian navy to defeat the Ptolemaic Egyptian navy at the 255 BC Battle of Cos and 245 BC Battle of Andros, and enabling Macedonian influence to spread over the Cyclades. [263]  Antigonus III Doson used the Macedonian navy to invade Caria, while Philip V sent 200 ships to fight in the Battle of Chios in 201 BC. [263]  The Macedonian navy was reduced to a mere six vessels as agreed in the 197 BC peace treaty that concluded the Second Macedonian War with the Roman Republic, although Perseus of Macedon quickly assembled some  lemboi  at the outbreak of the Third Macedonian War in 171 BC. [263] 
Society and culture
                Left, a Macedonian funerary stele, with an epigram in Greek, mid-4th century BC, Vergina. Right, marble cult statue of Aphrodite Hypolympidia, dated 2nd century BC, from the sanctuary of Isis at Dion, Pieria, Central Macedonia, Greece, now in the Archaeological Museum of Dion.  
Language and dialects
Following its adoption as the court language of Philip II of Macedon's regime, authors of ancient Macedonia wrote their works in Koine Greek, the  lingua franca  of late Classical and Hellenistic Greece. [note 33]  Rare textual evidence indicates that the native Macedonian language was either a dialect of Greek similar to Thessalian Greek and Northwestern Greek, [note 34]  or a language closely related to Greek. [note 35]  The vast majority of surviving inscriptions from ancient Macedonia were written in Attic Greek and its successor Koine. [264]  Attic (and later Koine) Greek was the preferred language of the Ancient Macedonian army, although it is known that Alexander the Great once shouted an emergency order in Macedonian to his royal guards during the drinking party where he killed Cleitus the Black. [265]  Macedonian became extinct in either the Hellenistic or the Roman period, and entirely replaced by Koine Greek. [266]   [note 36] 
Religious beliefs and funerary practices
     
     
By the 5th century BC, the Macedonians and the southern Greeks worshiped more or less the same deities of the Greek pantheon. [268]  In Macedonia, political and religious offices were often intertwined. For instance, the head of state for the city of Amphipolis also served as the priest of Asklepios, Greek god of medicine; a similar arrangement existed at Cassandreia, where a cult priest honoring the city's founder Cassander was the nominal head of the city. [269]  The main sanctuary of Zeus was maintained at Dion, while another at Veria was dedicated to Herakles and was patronized by Demetrius II Aetolicus (r. 239–229 BC). [270]  Meanwhile, foreign cults from Egypt were fostered by the royal court, such as the temple of Sarapis at Thessaloniki. [271]  The Macedonians also had relations with "international" cults; for example, Macedonian kings Philip III of Macedon and Alexander IV of Macedon made votive offerings to the internationally esteemed Samothrace temple complex of the Cabeiri mystery cult. [271] 
 In the three royal tombs at Vergina, professional painters decorated the walls with a mythological scene of Hades abducting Persephone and royal hunting scenes, while lavish grave goods including weapons, armor, drinking vessels, and personal items were housed with the dead, whose bones were burned before burial in golden coffins. [272]  Some grave goods and decorations were common in other Macedonian tombs, yet some items found at Vergina were distinctly tied to royalty, including a diadem, luxurious goods, and arms and armor. [273]  Scholars have debated about the identity of the tomb occupants since the discovery of their remains in 1977–1978, [274]  and recent research and forensic examination have concluded that at least one of the persons buried was Philip II. [note 37]  Located near Tomb 1 are the above-ground ruins of a  heroon , a shrine for cult worship of the dead. [275]  In 2014, the ancient Macedonian Kasta Tomb was discovered outside of Amphipolis and is the largest ancient tomb found in Greece (as of 2017). [276] 
Economics and social class
Young Macedonian men were typically expected to engage in hunting and martial combat as a by-product of their transhumance lifestyle of herding livestock such as goats and sheep, while horse breeding and raising cattle were other common pursuits. [277]  Some Macedonians engaged in farming, often with irrigation, land reclamation, and horticulture activities supported by the Macedonian state. [note 38]  The Macedonian economy and state finances were mainly supported by logging and by mining valuable minerals such as copper, iron, gold, and silver. [278]  The conversion of these raw materials into finished products and the sale of those products encouraged the growth of urban centers and a gradual shift away from the traditional rustic Macedonian lifestyle during the course of the 5th century BC. [279] 
 The Macedonian king was an autocratic figure at the head of both government and society, with arguably unlimited authority to handle affairs of state and public policy, but he was also the leader of a very personal regime with close relationships or connections to his  hetairoi , the core of the Macedonian aristocracy. [280]  These aristocrats were second only to the king in terms of power and privilege, filling the ranks of his administration and serving as commanding officers in the military. [281]  It was in the more bureaucratic regimes of the Hellenistic kingdoms that succeeded Alexander the Great's empire where greater social mobility for members of society seeking to join the aristocracy could be found, especially in Ptolemaic Egypt. [282]  Although governed by a king and martial aristocracy, Macedonia seems to have lacked the widespread use of slaves seen in contemporaneous Greek states. [283] 
Visual arts
                Left, a fresco of a Macedonian soldier resting a spear and wearing a cap, from the tomb of Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki, 4th century BC. Right, fresco from the Tomb of Judgement in ancient Mieza (modern-day Lefkadia), Imathia, Central Macedonia, Greece, depicting religious imagery of the afterlife, 4th century BC.  
By the reign of Archelaus I in the 5th century BC, the ancient Macedonian elite was importing customs and artistic traditions from other regions of Greece while retaining more archaic, perhaps Homeric, funerary rites connected with the symposium that were typified by items such as the decorative metal kraters that held the ashes of deceased Macedonian nobility in their tombs. [284]  Among these is the large bronze Derveni Krater from a 4th-century BC tomb of Thessaloniki, decorated with scenes of the Greek god Dionysus and his entourage and belonging to an aristocrat who had had a military career. [285]  Macedonian metalwork usually followed Athenian styles of vase shapes from the 6th century BC onward, with drinking vessels, jewellery, containers, crowns, diadems, and coins among the many metal objects found in Macedonian tombs. [286] 
     
Surviving Macedonian painted artwork includes frescoes and murals, but also decoration on sculpted artwork such as statues and reliefs. For instance, trace colors still exist on the bas-reliefs of the late 4th-century BC Alexander Sarcophagus. [288]  Macedonian paintings have allowed historians to investigate the clothing fashions as well as military gear worn by the ancient Macedonians. [289]  Aside from metalwork and painting, mosaics are another significant form of surviving Macedonian artwork. [286]  The Stag Hunt Mosaic of Pella, with its three-dimensional qualities and illusionist style, show clear influence from painted artwork and wider Hellenistic art trends, although the rustic theme of hunting was tailored to Macedonian tastes. [290]  The similar Lion Hunt Mosaic of Pella illustrates either a scene of Alexander the Great with his companion Craterus, or simply a conventional illustration of the royal diversion of hunting. [290]  Mosaics with mythological themes include scenes of Dionysus riding a panther and Helen of Troy being abducted by Theseus, the latter of which employs illusionist qualities and realistic shading similar to Macedonian paintings. [290]  Common themes of Macedonian paintings and mosaics include warfare, hunting, and aggressive masculine sexuality (i.e. abduction of women for rape or marriage); these subjects are at times combined within a single work and perhaps indicate a metaphorical connection. [note 39] 
Theatre, music and performing arts
Philip II was assassinated in 336 BC at the theatre of Aigai, amid games and spectacles celebrating the marriage of his daughter Cleopatra. [291]  Alexander the Great was allegedly a great admirer of both theatre and music. [292]  He was especially fond of the plays by Classical Athenian tragedians Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, whose works formed part of a proper Greek education for his new eastern subjects alongside studies in the Greek language, including the epics of Homer. [293]  While he and his army were stationed at Tyre (in modern-day Lebanon), Alexander had his generals act as judges not only for athletic contests but also for stage performances of Greek tragedies. [294]  The contemporaneous famous actors Thessalus and Athenodorus performed at the event. [note 40] 
  Music was also appreciated in Macedonia. In addition to the agora, the gymnasium, the theatre, and religious sanctuaries and temples dedicated to Greek gods and goddesses, one of the main markers of a true Greek city in the empire of Alexander the Great was the presence of an odeon for musical performances. [295]  This was the case not only for Alexandria in Egypt, but also for cities as distant as Ai-Khanoum in what is now modern-day Afghanistan. [295] 
Literature, education, philosophy, and patronage
     
 Perdiccas II of Macedon was able to host well-known Classical Greek intellectual visitors at his royal court, such as the lyric poet Melanippides and the renowned medical doctor Hippocrates, and Pindar's  enkomion  written for Alexander I of Macedon may have been composed at his court. [296]  Archelaus I received many more Greek scholars, artists, and celebrities at his court than his predecessors. [297]  His honored guests included the painter Zeuxis, the architect Callimachus, the poets Choerilus of Samos, Timotheus of Miletus, and Agathon, as well as the famous Athenian playwright Euripides. [note 41]  The philosopher Aristotle, who studied at the Platonic Academy of Athens and established the Aristotelian school of thought, moved to Macedonia, and is said to have tutored the young Alexander the Great, as well as serving as an esteemed diplomat for Philip II. [298]  Among Alexander's retinue of artists, writers, and philosophers was Pyrrho of Elis, founder of Pyrrhonism, the school of philosophical skepticism. [293]  During the Antigonid period, Antigonos Gonatas fostered cordial relationships with Menedemos of Eretria, founder of the Eretrian school of philosophy, and Zenon, the founder of Stoicism. [292] 
 In terms of early Greek historiography and later Roman historiography, Felix Jacoby identified thirteen possible ancient historians who wrote about Macedonia in his  Fragmente der griechischen Historiker . [299]  Aside from accounts in Herodotus and Thucydides, the works compiled by Jacoby are only fragmentary, whereas other works are completely lost, such as the history of an Illyrian war fought by Perdiccas III written by Antipater. [300]  The Macedonian historians Marsyas of Pella and Marsyas of Philippi wrote histories of Macedonia, the Ptolemaic king Ptolemy I Soter authored a history about Alexander, and Hieronymus of Cardia wrote a history about Alexander's royal successors. [note 42]  Following the Indian campaign of Alexander the Great, the Macedonian military officer Nearchus wrote a work of his voyage from the mouth of the Indus river to the Persian Gulf. [301]  The Macedonian historian Craterus published a compilation of decrees made by the popular assembly of the Athenian democracy, ostensibly while attending the school of Aristotle. [301]  Philip V of Macedon had manuscripts of the history of Philip II written by Theopompus gathered by his court scholars and disseminated with further copies. [292] 
Sports and leisure
     
When Alexander I of Macedon petitioned to compete in the foot race of the ancient Olympic Games, the event organizers at first denied his request, explaining that only Greeks were allowed to compete. However, Alexander I produced proof of an Argead royal genealogy showing ancient Argive Temenid lineage, a move that ultimately convinced the Olympic  Hellanodikai  authorities of his Greek descent and ability to compete. [302]  By the end of the 5th century BC, the Macedonian king Archelaus I was crowned with the olive wreath at both Olympia and Delphi (in the Pythian Games) for winning chariot racing contests. [303]  Philip II allegedly heard of the Olympic victory of his horse (in either an individual horse race or chariot race) on the same day his son Alexander the Great was born, on either 19 or 20 July 356 BC. [304]  Non-royal Macedonians also competed in and won various Olympic contests by the 4th century BC. [305]  In addition to literary contests, Alexander the Great staged competitions for music and athletics across his empire. [293] 
Dining and cuisine
     
Ancient Macedonia produced only a few fine foods or beverages that were highly appreciated elsewhere in the Greek world, including eels from the Strymonian Gulf and special wine produced in Chalcidice. [307]  The earliest known use of flat bread as a plate for meat was made in Macedonia during the 3rd century BC, which perhaps influenced the later trencher bread of medieval Europe. [307]  Cattle and goats were consumed, although there was no notice of Macedonian mountain cheeses in literature until the Middle Ages. [307]  The comedic playwright Menander wrote that Macedonian dining habits penetrated Athenian high society; for instance, the introduction of meats into the dessert course of a meal. [308]  The Macedonians also most likely introduced mattye to Athenian cuisine, a dish usually made of chicken or other spiced, salted, and sauced meats served during the wine course. [309]  This particular dish was derided and connected with licentiousness and drunkenness in a play by the Athenian comic poet Alexis about the declining morals of Athenians in the age of Demetrius I of Macedon. [310] 
 The  symposium  in the Macedonian and wider Greek realm was a banquet for the nobility and privileged class, an occasion for feasting, drinking, entertainment, and sometimes philosophical discussion. [311]  The  hetairoi , leading members of the Macedonian aristocracy, were expected to attend such feasts with their king. [281]  They were also expected to accompany him on royal hunts for the acquisition of game meat as well as for sport. [281] 
Ethnic identity
      Athenian terracotta figurine, c. 300 BC.       Macedonian terracotta figurine, 3rd century BC  
Ancient authors and modern scholars alike disagree about the ethnic identity of the ancient Macedonians. Ernst Badian notes that nearly all surviving references to antagonisms and differences between Greeks and Macedonians exist in the written speeches of Arrian, who lived at the time of the Roman Empire, when any notion of an ethnic disparity between Macedonians and other Greeks was incomprehensible. [313]  Hatzopoulos argues that there was no real ethnic difference between Macedonians and Greeks, only a political distinction contrived after the creation of the League of Corinth in 337 BC (which was led by Macedonia through the league's elected  hegemon  Philip II, when he was not a member of the league itself), [note 43]  N. G. L. Hammond asserts that ancient views differentiating Macedonia's ethnic identity from the rest of the Greek-speaking world should be seen as an expression of conflict between two different political systems: the democratic system of the city-states (e.g. Athens) versus the monarchy (Macedonia). [314]  Other academics who concur that the difference between the Macedonians and Greeks was a political rather than a true ethnic discrepancy include Michael B. Sakellariou, [315]  Malcolm Errington, [note 44]  and Craige B. Champion. [note 45] 
 Anson argues that some Hellenic authors expressed complex or even ever-changing and ambiguous ideas about the exact ethnic identity of the Macedonians, who were considered by some such as Aristotle in his  Politics  as barbarians and others as semi-Greek or fully Greek. [note 46]  Roger D. Woodard asserts that in addition to persisting uncertainty in modern times about the proper classification of the Macedonian language and its relation to Greek, ancient authors also presented conflicting ideas about the Macedonians. [note 47]  Simon Hornblower argues on the Greek identity of the Macedonians, taking into consideration their origin, language, cults and customs. [316]  Any preconceived ethnic differences between Greeks and Macedonians faded by 148 BC soon after the Roman conquest of Macedonia and then the rest of Greece with the defeat of the Achaean League by the Roman Republic at the Battle of Corinth (146 BC). [317] 
Technology and engineering
Architecture
             
Macedonian architecture, although utilizing a mixture of different forms and styles from the rest of Greece, did not represent a unique or diverging style from other ancient Greek architecture. [290]  Among the classical orders, Macedonian architects favored the Ionic order, especially in the peristyle courtyards of private homes. [319]  There are several surviving examples, albeit in ruins, of Macedonian palatial architecture, including a palace at the site of the capital Pella, the summer residence of Vergina near the old capital Aigai, and the royal residence at Demetrias near modern Volos. [319]  At Vergina, the ruins of three large banquet halls with marble-tiled floors (covered in the debris of roof tiles) with floor plan dimensions measuring roughly 16.7 x 17.6 m (54.8 x 57.7 ft) demonstrate perhaps the earliest examples of monumental triangular roof trusses, if dated before the reign of Antigonus II Gonatas or even the onset of the Hellenistic period. [320]  Later Macedonian architecture also featured arches and vaults. [321]  The palaces of both Vergina and Demetrias had walls made of sundried bricks, while the latter palace had four corner towers around a central courtyard in the manner of a fortified residence fit for a king or at least a military governor. [319] 
 Macedonian rulers also sponsored works of architecture outside of Macedonia proper. For instance, following his victory at the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC), Philip II raised a round memorial building at Olympia known as the Philippeion, decorated inside with statues depicting him, his parents Amyntas III of Macedon and Eurydice I of Macedon, his wife Olympias, and his son Alexander the Great. [322] 
     
The ruins of roughly twenty Greek theatres survive in the present-day regions of Macedonia and Thrace in Greece: sixteen open-air theatres, three odea, and a possible theatre in Veria undergoing excavation. [323] 
Military technology and engineering
By the Hellenistic period, it became common for Greek states to finance the development and proliferation of ever more powerful torsion siege engines, naval ships, and standardized designs for arms and armor. [324]  Under Philip II and Alexander the Great, improvements were made to siege artillery such as bolt-shooting ballistae and siege engines such as huge rolling siege towers. [325]  E. W. Marsden and M. Y. Treister contend that the Macedonian rulers Antigonus I Monophthalmus and his successor Demetrius I of Macedon had the most powerful siege artillery of the Hellenistic world at the end of the 4th century BC. [326]  The siege of Salamis, Cyprus, in 306 BC necessitated the building of large siege engines and drafting of craftsmen from parts of West Asia. [327]  The siege tower commissioned by Demetrius I for the Macedonian Siege of Rhodes (305–304 BC) and defended by over three thousand soldiers was built at a height of nine stories. [328]  It had a base of 4,300 square feet (399 square metres), eight wheels that were steered in either direction by pivots, three sides covered in iron plates to protect them from fire, and mechanically opened windows (shielded with wool-stuffed leather curtains to soften the blow of ballistae rounds) of different sizes to accommodate the firing of missiles ranging from arrows to larger bolts. [328] 
 During the siege of Echinus by Philip V of Macedon in 211 BC, the besiegers built tunnels to protect the soldiers and sappers as they went back and forth from the camp to the siege works. These included two siege towers connected by a makeshift wickerwork curtain wall mounted with stone-shooting ballistae, and sheds to protect the approach of the battering ram. [329]  Despite the early reputation of Macedon as a leader in siege technology, Alexandria in Ptolemaic Egypt became the center for technological improvements to the catapult by the 3rd century BC, as evidenced by the writings of Philo of Alexandria. [327] 
Other innovations
Although perhaps not as prolific as other areas of Greece in regards to technological innovations, there are some inventions that may have originated in Macedonia aside from siege engines and artillery. The rotary-operated olive press for producing olive oil may have been invented in ancient Macedonia or another part of Greece, or even as far east as the Levant or Anatolia. [330]  Mold-pressed glass first appeared in Macedonia in the 4th century BC (although it could have simultaneously existed in the Achaemenid Empire); the first known clear, translucent glass pieces of the Greek world have been discovered in Macedonia and Rhodes and date to the second half of the 4th century BC. [331]  Greek technical and scientific literature began with Classical Athens in the 5th century BC, while the major production centers for technical innovation and texts during the Hellenistic period were Alexandria, Rhodes, and Pergamon. [332] 
Currency, finances, and resources
     
The minting of silver coinage began during the reign of Alexander I as a means to pay for royal expenditures. [215]  Archelaus I increased the silver content of his coins as well as minting copper coins to promote foreign and domestic commerce. [44]  The minting of coinage significantly increased during the reigns of Philip II and Alexander the Great, especially after the increase in state revenues following the seizure of the Pangaion Hills. [333]  During the Hellenistic period the royal houses of Macedonia, Ptolemaic Egypt, and the Kingdom of Pergamon exercised full monopolistic control over mining activities, largely to ensure the funding of their armies. [334]  By the end of the conquests of Alexander the Great, nearly thirty mints stretching from Macedonia to Babylon produced standard coins. [335]  The right to mint coins was shared by central and some local governments, i.e. the autonomous municipal governments of Thessaloniki, Pella, and Amphipolis within the Macedonian commonwealth. [336]  The Macedonians were also the first to issue different coins for internal and external circulation. [337] 
 State revenues were also raised by collecting produce from arable lands, timber from forests, and taxes on imports and exports at harbors. [338]  Some mines, groves, agricultural lands, and forests belonging to the Macedonian state were exploited by the Macedonian king, although these were often leased as assets or given as grants to members of the nobility such as the  hetairoi  and  philoi . [339]  Tariffs exacted on goods flowing in and out of Macedonian seaports existed from at least the reign of Amyntas III, and Callistratus of Aphidnae (d. c. 350 BC) aided Perdiccas III in doubling the kingdom's annual profits on customs duties from 20 to 40 talents. [340] 
 After the defeat of Perseus at Pydna in 168 BC, the Roman Senate allowed the reopening of iron and copper mines, but forbade the mining of gold and silver by the four newly established autonomous client states that replaced the monarchy in Macedonia. [341]  The law may originally have been conceived by the Senate due to the fear that material wealth gained from gold and silver mining operations would allow the Macedonians to fund an armed rebellion. [342]  The Romans were perhaps also concerned with stemming inflation caused by an increased money supply from Macedonian silver mining. [343]  The Macedonians continued minting silver coins between 167 and 148 BC (i.e. just before the establishment of the Roman province of Macedonia), and when the Romans lifted the ban on Macedonian silver mining in 158 BC it may simply have reflected the local reality of this illicit practice continuing regardless of the Senate's decree. [344] 
Legacy
The reigns of Philip II and Alexander the Great witnessed the demise of Classical Greece and the birth of Hellenistic civilization, following the spread of Greek culture to the Near East during and after Alexander's conquests. [345]  Macedonians then migrated to Egypt and parts of Asia, but the intensive colonization of foreign lands sapped the available manpower in Macedonia proper, weakening the kingdom in its fight with other Hellenistic powers and contributing to its downfall and conquest by the Romans. [346]  However, the diffusion of Greek culture and language cemented by Alexander's conquests in West Asia and North Africa served as a "precondition" for the later Roman expansion into these territories and entire basis for the Byzantine Empire, according to Errington. [347] 
     
The ethnic Macedonian rulers of the Ptolemaic and Seleucid successor states accepted men from all over the Greek world as their hetairoi companions and did not foster a national identity like the Antigonids. [348]  Modern scholarship has focused on how these Hellenistic successor kingdoms were influenced more by their Macedonian origins than Eastern or southern Greek traditions. [349]  While Spartan society remained mostly insular and Athens continued placing strict limitations on acquiring citizenship, the cosmopolitan Hellenistic cities of Asia and northeastern Africa bore a greater resemblance to Macedonian cities and contained a mixture of subjects including natives, Greek and Macedonian colonists, and Greek-speaking Hellenized Easterners, many of whom were the product of intermarriage between Greeks and native populations. [350] 
 The deification of Macedonian monarchs perhaps began with the death of Philip II, but it was his son Alexander the Great who unambiguously claimed to be a living god. [note 48]  Following his visit to the oracle of Didyma in 334 BC that suggested his divinity, Alexander traveled to the Oracle of Zeus Ammon—the Greek equivalent of the Egyptian Amun-Ra—at the Siwa Oasis of the Libyan Desert in 332 BC to confirm his divine status. [note 49]  Although the Ptolemaic and Seleucid empires maintained ancestral cults and deified their rulers, kings were not worshiped in the Kingdom of Macedonia. [351]  While Zeus Ammon was known to the Greeks prior to Alexander's reign, particularly at the Greek colony of Cyrene, Libya, Alexander was the first Macedonian monarch to patronize Egyptian, Persian, and Babylonian priesthoods and deities, strengthening the fusion of Near Eastern and Greek religious beliefs. [352]  After his reign, the cult of Isis gradually spread throughout the Hellenistic and Roman world, while beliefs in the Egyptian god Sarapis were thoroughly Hellenized by the Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt before the spread of his cult to Macedonia and the Aegean region. [353]  The German historian Johann Gustav Droysen argued that the conquests of Alexander the Great and creation of the Hellenistic world allowed for the growth and establishment of Christianity in the Roman era. [354] 
See also
  Historiography of Alexander the Great 
 List of kings of Macedon 
 Geographic region of Macedonia 
 Macedonia region of Greece 
 Macedonia naming dispute 
 Macedonian nationalism 
 Paeonia 
 Tomb of Alexander the Great 
 Museum of the Royal Tombs of Aigai (Vergina) 
 United Macedonia   
References
Notes
  ^  Engels 2010, p. 89; Borza 1995, p. 114; Eugene N. Borza writes that the "highlanders" or "Makedones" of the mountainous regions of western Macedonia are derived from northwest Greek stock; they were akin to those who at an earlier time may have migrated south to become the historical "Dorians".
  ^  Lewis &amp; Boardman 1994, pp. 723–724, see also Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 105–108 for the Macedonian expulsion of original inhabitants such as the Phrygians.
  ^  Olbrycht 2010, pp. 342–343; Sprawski 2010, pp. 131, 134; Errington 1990, pp. 8–9. Errington is skeptical that at this point Amyntas I of Macedon offered any submission as a vassal at all, at most a token one. He also mentions how the Macedonian king pursued his own course of action, such as inviting the exiled Athenian tyrant Hippias to take refuge at Anthemous in 506 BC.
  ^  Roisman 2010, pp. 158–159; see also Errington 1990, p. 30 for further details; the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus provided a seemingly conflicting account about Illyrian invasions occurring in 393 BC and 383 BC, which may have been representative of a single invasion led by the Illyrian king Bardylis.
  ^  Müller 2010, pp. 169–170, 179. Müller is skeptical about the claims of Plutarch and Athenaeus that Philip II of Macedon married Cleopatra Eurydice of Macedon, a younger woman, purely out of love or due to his own midlife crisis. Cleopatra was the daughter of the general Attalus, who along with his father-in-law Parmenion were given command posts in Asia Minor (modern Turkey) soon after this wedding. Müller also suspects that this marriage was one of political convenience meant to ensure the loyalty of an influential Macedonian noble house.
  ^  Müller 2010, pp. 171–172; Buckler 1989, pp. 63, 176–181; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 185–187. Cawkwell contrarily provides the date of this siege as 354–353 BC.
  ^  Müller 2010, pp. 172–173; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 60, 185; Hornblower 2002, p. 272; Buckler 1989, pp. 63–64, 176–181. Conversely, Buckler provides the date of this initial campaign as 354 BC, while affirming that the second Thessalian campaign ending in the Battle of Crocus Field occurred in 353 BC.
  ^  Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010, pp. 189–190; Müller 2010, p. 183. Without implicating Alexander III of Macedon as a potential suspect in the plot to assassinate Philip II of Macedon, N. G. L. Hammond and F. W. Walbank discuss possible Macedonian as well as foreign suspects, such as Demosthenes and Darius III: Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001, pp. 8–12.
  ^  Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010, pp. 199–200; Errington 1990, pp. 44, 93. Gilley and Worthington discuss the ambiguity surrounding the exact title of Antipater aside from deputy  hegemon  of the League of Corinth, with some sources calling him a regent, others a governor, others a simple general. N. G. L. Hammond and F. W. Walbank state that Alexander the Great left "Macedonia under the command of Antipater, in case there was a rising in Greece." Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001, p. 32.
  ^  Adams 2010, p. 219; Bringmann 2007, p. 61; Errington 1990, p. 155. Conversely, Errington dates Lysimachus' reunification of Macedonia by expelling Pyrrhus of Epirus as occurring in 284 BC, not 286 BC.
  ^  Eckstein 2010, pp. 229–230; see also Errington 1990, pp. 186–189 for further details. Errington is skeptical that Philip V at this point had any intentions of invading southern Italy via Illyria once the latter was secured, deeming his plans to be "more modest", Errington 1990, p. 189.
  ^  Bringmann 2007, pp. 86–87.  Errington 1990, pp. 202–203: "Roman desire for revenge and private hopes of famous victories were probably the decisive reasons for the outbreak of the war."
  ^  Bringmann 2007, pp. 93–97; Eckstein 2010, p. 239; Errington 1990, pp. 207–208. Bringmann dates this event of handing over Aenus and Maronea along the Thracian coast as 183 BC, while Eckstein dates it as 184 BC.
  ^  Bringmann 2007, pp. 98–99; see also Eckstein 2010, p. 242, who says that "Rome ... as the sole remaining superpower ... would not accept Macedonia as a peer competitor or equal."  Klaus Bringmann asserts that negotiations with Macedonia were completely ignored due to Rome's "political calculation" that the Macedonian kingdom had to be destroyed to ensure the elimination of the "supposed source of all the difficulties which Rome was having in the Greek world".
  ^  Written evidence about Macedonian governmental institutions made before Philip II of Macedon's reign is both rare and non-Macedonian in origin. The main sources of early Macedonian historiography are the works of Herodotus, Thucydides, Diodorus Siculus, and Justin. Contemporary accounts given by those such as Demosthenes were often hostile and unreliable; even Aristotle, who lived in Macedonia, provides us with terse accounts of its governing institutions. Polybius was a contemporary historian who wrote about Macedonia; later historians include Livy, Quintus Curtius Rufus, Plutarch, and Arrian. The works of these historians affirm Macedonia's hereditary monarchy and basic institutions, yet it remains unclear if there was an established constitution for Macedonian government. See: King 2010, pp. 373–374. However, N. G. L. Hammond and F. W. Walbank write with apparent certainty and conviction when describing the Macedonian constitutional government restricting the king and involving a popular assembly of the army. See: Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001, pp. 12–13. The main textual primary sources for the organization of Macedonia's military as it existed under Alexander the Great include Arrian, Curtis, Diodorus, and Plutarch; modern historians rely mostly on Polybius and Livy for understanding detailed aspects of the Antigonid-period military. On this, Sekunda 2010, pp. 446–447 writes: "... to this we can add the evidence provided by two magnificent archaeological monuments, the 'Alexander Sarcophagus' in particular and the 'Alexander Mosaic'... In the case of the Antigonid army ... valuable additional details are occasionally supplied by Diodorus and Plutarch, and by a series of inscriptions preserving sections of two sets of army regulations issued by Philip V."
  ^  King 2010, p. 374; for an argument about the absolutism of the Macedonian monarchy, see Errington 1990, pp. 220–222. However, N. G. L. Hammond and F. W. Walbank write with apparent certainty and conviction when describing the Macedonian constitutional government restricting the king and involving a popular assembly of the army. Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001, pp. 12–13.
  ^  King 2010, p. 375. In 1931 Friedrich Granier was the first to propose that by the time of Philip II's reign, Macedonia had a constitutional government with laws that delegated rights and customary privileges to certain groups, especially to its citizen soldiers, although the majority of evidence for the army's alleged right to appoint a new king and judge cases of treason stems from the reign of Alexander III of Macedon. See Granier 1931, pp. 4–28, 48–57 and King 2010, pp. 374–375.  Pietro De Francisci was the first to refute Granier's ideas and advance the theory that the Macedonian government was an autocracy ruled by the whim of the monarch, although this issue of kingship and governance is still unresolved in academia. See: de Francisci 1948, pp. 345–435 as well as King 2010, p. 375 and Errington 1990, p. 220 for further details.
  ^  King 2010, p. 379; Errington 1990, p. 221; early evidence for this includes not only Alexander I's role as a commander in the Greco-Persian Wars but also the city-state of Potidaea's acceptance of Perdiccas II of Macedon as their commander-in-chief during their rebellion against the Delian League of Athens in 432 BC.
  ^  Sawada 2010, pp. 403–405. According to Carol J. King, there was no "certain reference" to this institutional group until the military campaigns of Alexander the Great in Asia.King 2010, pp. 380–381. However, N. G. L. Hammond and F. W. Walbank state that the royal pages are attested to as far back as the reign of Archelaus I of Macedon. Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001, p. 13.
  ^  King 2010, p. 382. The ranks of the companions were greatly increased during the reign of Philip II when he expanded this institution to include Upper Macedonian aristocrats as well as Greeks. See: Sawada 2010, p. 404.
  ^  King 2010, p. 384: the first recorded instance dates to 359 BC, when Philip II called together assemblies to address them with a speech and raise their morale following the death of Perdiccas III of Macedon in battle against the Illyrians.
  ^  For instance, when Perdiccas had Philip II's daughter Cynane murdered to prevent her own daughter Eurydice II of Macedon from marrying Philip III of Macedon, the army revolted and ensured that the marriage took place. See Adams 2010, p. 210 and Errington 1990, pp. 119–120 for details.
  ^  King 2010, p. 390. Although these were highly influential members of local and regional government, Carol J. King asserts that they were not collectively powerful enough to formally challenge the authority of the Macedonian king or his right to rule.
  ^  Amemiya 2007, pp. 11–12: under Antipater's oligarchy, the lower value in terms of property for acceptable members of the oligarchy was 2,000  drachma . Athenian democracy was restored briefly after Antipater's death in 319 BC, yet his son Cassander reconquered the city, which came under the regency of Demetrius of Phalerum. Demetrius lowered the property limit for oligarchic members to 1,000 drachma, yet by 307 BC he was exiled from the city and direct democracy was restored. Demetrius I of Macedon reconquered Athens in 295 BC, yet democracy was once again restored in 287 BC with the aid of Ptolemy I of Egypt. Antigonus II Gonatas, son of Demetrius I, reconquered Athens in 260 BC, followed by a succession of Macedonian kings ruling over Athens until the Roman Republic conquered both Macedonia and then mainland Greece by 146 BC.
  ^  Unlike the sparse Macedonian examples, ample textual evidence of this exists for the Achaean League, Acarnanian League, and Achaean League; see Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 366–367.
  ^  According to Sekunda, Philip II's infantry were eventually equipped with heavier armor such as cuirasses, since the  Third Philippic  of Demosthenes in 341 BC described them as hoplites instead of lighter peltasts: Sekunda 2010, pp. 449–450; see also Errington 1990, p. 238 for further details. However, Errington argues that breastplates were not worn by the phalanx pikemen of either Philip II or Philip V's reigns (during which sufficient evidence exists). Instead, he claims that breastplates were worn only by military officers, while pikemen wore the  kotthybos  stomach bands along with their helmets and greaves, wielding a daggers as secondary weapons along with their shields. See Errington 1990, p. 241.
  ^  Sekunda 2010, pp. 455–456.  Errington 1990, p. 245: in regards to both the  argyraspides  and  chalkaspides , "these titles were probably not functional, perhaps not even official."
  ^  Sekunda 2010, pp. 455–457. However, in discussing the discrepancies among ancient historians about the size of Alexander the Great's army, N. G. L. Hammond and F. W. Walbank choose Diodorus Siculus' figure of 32,000 infantry as the most reliable, while disagreeing with his figure for cavalry at 4,500, asserting it was closer to 5,100 horsemen. Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001, pp. 22–23.
  ^  Sekunda 2010, p. 459; Errington 1990, p. 245: "Other developments in Macedonian army organization are evident after Alexander. One is the evolution of the  hypaspistai  from an elite unit to a form of military police or bodyguard under Philip V; the only thing the two functions had in common was the particular closeness to the king."
  ^  Sekunda 2010, pp. 460–461; for the evolution of Macedonian military titles, such as its command by tetrarchai officers assisted by grammateis (i.e. secretaries or clerks), see Errington 1990, pp. 242–243.
  ^  Sekunda 2010, pp. 461–462;  Errington 1990, p. 245: "The other development, which happened at the latest under Doson, was the formation and training of a special unit of  peltastai  separate from the phalanx. This unit operated as a form of royal guard similar in function to the earlier  hypaspistai ."
  ^  Sekunda 2010, p. 463; the largest figure for elite Macedonian peltasts mentioned by ancient historians was 5,000 troops, an amount that existed in the Social War (220–217 BC).
  ^  Hatzopoulos 2011a, p. 44; Woodard 2010, p. 9; see also Austin 2006, p. 4 for further details. Edward M. Anson contends that the native spoken language of the Macedonians was a dialect of Greek and that in the roughly 6,300 Macedonian-period inscriptions discovered by archaeologists about 99% were written in the Greek language, using the Greek alphabet. Anson 2010, p. 17, n. 57, n. 58.
  ^  Hatzopoulos 2011a, p. 44; Engels 2010, pp. 94–95; Woodard 2010, pp. 9–10.  Hatzopoulos 2011a, pp. 43–45 states that the native language of the ancient Macedonians as preserved in the rare documents written in a language other than Koine Greek also betray a slight phonetic influence from the languages of the original inhabitants of the region who were assimilated or expelled by the invading Macedonians; Hatzopoulos also asserts that little is known about these languages aside from Phrygian spoken by the Bryges who migrated to Anatolia.  Errington 1990, pp. 3–4 affirms that the Macedonian language was merely a dialect of Greek that used loanwords from Thracian and Illyrian languages, which "does not surprise modern philologists" but ultimately provided Macedonia's political enemies with the "proof" they needed to level the charge that Macedonians were not Greek.
  ^  Woodard 2004, pp. 12–14; Hamp, Eric; Adams, Douglas (2013). "The Expansion of the Indo-European Languages Archived 2014-02-22 at the Wayback Machine", Sino-Platonic Papers, vol 239. Accessed 16 January 2017. Joseph 2001: "Ancient Greek is generally taken to be the only representative (though note the existence of different dialects) of the Greek or Hellenic branch of Indo-European. There is some dispute as to whether Ancient Macedonian (the native language of Philip and Alexander), if it has any special affinity to Greek at all, is a dialect within Greek (see below) or a sibling language to all the known Ancient Greek dialects. If the latter view is correct, then Macedonian and Greek would be the two subbranches of a group within Indo-European which could more properly be called Hellenic." Georgiev 1966, pp. 285–297: ancient Macedonian is closely related to Greek, and Macedonian and Greek are descended from a common Greek-Macedonian idiom that was spoken till about the second half of the 3rd millennium BC.
  ^  For instance, Cleopatra VII Philopator, the last active ruler of the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt, spoke Koine Greek as a first language and by her reign (51–30 BC) or some time before it the Macedonian language was no longer used. See Jones 2006, pp. 33–34.
  ^  Sansone 2017, p. 224; Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001, p. 6. Rosella Lorenzi (10 October 2014). "Remains of Alexander the Great's Father Confirmed Found: King Philip II's bones are buried in a tomb along with a mysterious woman-warrior Archived 2017-01-18 at the Wayback Machine." Seeker. Retrieved 17 January 2017.
  ^  Hatzopoulos 2011a, pp. 47–48; for a specific example of land reclamation near Amphipolis during the reign of Alexander the Great, see Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001, p. 31.
  ^  This metaphorical connection between warfare, hunting, and aggressive masculine sexuality seems to be affirmed by later Byzantine literature, particularly in the Acritic songs about Digenes Akritas. See Cohen 2010, pp. 13–34 for details.
  ^  The actor Athenodorus performed despite risking a fine for being absent from the simultaneous Dionysia festival of Athens where he was scheduled to perform (a fine that his patron Alexander agreed to pay). SeeWorthington 2014, pp. 185–186 for details.
  ^  Hatzopoulos 2011b, p. 59; Sansone 2017, p. 223; Roisman 2010, p. 157. Although Archelaus I of Macedon was criticized by the philosopher Plato, supposedly hated by Socrates, and the first known Macedonian king to be given the label of barbarian, the historian Thucydides held the Macedonian king in glowing admiration, especially for his engagement in Panhellenic sports and fostering of literary culture. See Hatzopoulos 2011b, p. 59.
  ^  Errington 1990, pp. 224–225. For Marsyas of Pella, see also Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001, p. 27 for further details.
  ^  Hatzopoulos 2011b, pp. 69–71. Hatzopoulos stresses the fact that Macedonians and other peoples such as the Epirotes and Cypriots, despite speaking a Greek dialect, worshiping in Greek cults, engaging in Panhellenic games, and upholding traditional Greek institutions, nevertheless occasionally had their territories excluded from contemporary geographic definitions of "Hellas" and were even considered barbarians by some. See: Hatzopoulos 2011b, pp. 52, 71–72; Johannes Engels comes to a similar conclusion about the comparison between Macedonians and Epirotes, saying that the "Greekness" of the Epirotes, despite them not being considered as refined as southern Greeks, never came into question. Engels suggests this perhaps because the Epirotes did not try to dominate the Greek world as Philip II of Macedon had done. See: Engels 2010, pp. 83–84.
  ^  Errington 1990, pp. 3–4.  Errington 1994, p. 4: "Ancient allegations that the Macedonians were non-Greek all had their origin in Athens at the time of the struggle with Philip II. Then as now, political struggle created the prejudice. The orator Aeschines once even found it necessary, to counteract the prejudice vigorously fomented by his opponents, to defend Philip on this issue and describe him at a meeting of the Athenian Popular Assembly as being 'entirely Greek'. Demosthenes' allegations were lent an appearance of credibility by the fact, apparent to every observer, that the life-style of the Macedonians, being determined by specific geographical and historical conditions, was different to that of a Greek city-state. This alien way of life was, however, common to western Greeks of Epirus, Akarnania and Aitolia, as well as to the Macedonians, and their fundamental Greek nationality was never doubted. Only as a consequence of the political disagreement with Macedonia was the issue raised at all."
  ^  Champion 2004, p. 41: "Demosthenes could drop the barbarian category altogether in advocating an Athenian alliance with the Great King against a power that ranked below any so-called barbarian people, the Macedonians. In the case of Aeschines, Philip II could be 'a barbarian due for the vengeance of God', but after the orator's embassy to Pella in 346, he became a 'thorough Greek', devoted to Athens. It all depended upon one's immediate political orientation with Macedonia, which many Greeks instinctively scorned, was always infused with deep-seated ambivalence."
  ^  Anson 2010, pp. 14–17; this was manifested in the different mythological genealogies concocted for the Macedonian people, with Hesiod's  Catalogue of Women  claiming that the Macedonians descended from Macedon, son of Zeus and Thyia, and was therefore a nephew of Hellen, progenitor of the Greeks. See: Anson 2010, p. 16; Rhodes 2010, p. 24. By the end of the 5th century BC, Hellanicus of Lesbos asserted Macedon was the son of Aeolus, the latter a son of Hellen and ancestor of the Aeolians, one of the major tribes of the Greeks. As well as belonging to tribal groups such as the Aeolians, Dorians, Achaeans, and Ionians, Anson also stresses the fact that some Greeks even distinguished their ethnic identities based on the  polis  (i.e. city-state) they originally came from. See: Anson 2010, p. 15.
  ^  For instance, Demosthenes when labeling Philip II of Macedon as a barbarian whereas Polybius called Greeks and Macedonians as homophylos (i.e. part of the same race or kin). See: Woodard 2010, pp. 9–10; Johannes Engels also discusses this ambiguity in ancient sources: Engels 2010, pp. 83–89.
  ^  Worthington 2012, p. 319. As pharaoh of the Egyptians, he was already titled Son of Ra and considered the living incarnation of Horus by his Egyptian subjects (a belief that the Ptolemaic successors of Alexander would foster for their own dynasty in Egypt). See: Worthington 2014, p. 180 and Sansone 2017, p. 228 for details.
  ^  Worthington 2012, p. 319; Worthington 2014, pp. 180–183. After the priest and Oracle of Zeus Ammon at the Siwa Oasis convinced him that Philip II was merely his mortal father and Zeus his actual father, Alexander began styling himself as the 'Son of Zeus', which brought him into contention with some of his Greek subjects who adamantly believed that living men could not be immortals. See Worthington 2012, p. 319 and Worthington 2014, pp. 182–183 for details.
 
Citations
  ^  Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 105–106; Roisman 2010, p. 156.
  ^  Engels 2010, p. 92; Roisman 2010, p. 156.
^    a       b       c    Sprawski 2010, pp. 135–138; Olbrycht 2010, pp. 342–345.
  ^  Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D. (December 2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires". Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 223. ISSN 1076-156X. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
  ^  Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.". Social Science History. 3 (3/4): 121. doi:10.2307/1170959. JSTOR 1170959.
  ^  Hornblower 2008, pp. 55–58.
  ^  Austin 2006, pp. 1–4.
  ^   "Macedonia".  Encyclopædia Britannica . Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 October 2015. Archived from the original on 8 December 2008. Retrieved 5 February 2017..
^    a       b    Adams 2010, p. 215.
^    a       b    Beekes 2009, p. 894.
  ^  Beekes 2009, p. 894
  ^  De Decker, Filip (2016). "An Etymological Case Study On The And Vocabulary In Robert Beekes's New Etymological Dictionary Of Greek: M". Studia Linguistica Universitatis Iagellonicae Cracoviensis. 133 (2). doi:10.4467/20834624SL.16.006.5152.
  ^  King 2010, p. 376; Sprawski 2010, p. 127; Errington 1990, pp. 2–3.
  ^  King 2010, p. 376; Errington 1990, pp. 3, 251.
  ^  Badian 1982, p. 34; Sprawski 2010, p. 142.
^    a       b    King 2010, p. 376.
  ^  Errington 1990, p. 2.
  ^  Thomas 2010, pp. 67–68, 74–78.
  ^  Anson 2010, pp. 5–6.
  ^   "DNa - Livius". www.livius.org.
  ^  Adams 2010, pp. 343–344
  ^  Olbrycht 2010, p. 344; Sprawski 2010, pp. 135–137; Errington 1990, pp. 9–10.
  ^  Olbrycht 2010, pp. 343–344; Sprawski 2010, p. 137; Errington 1990, p. 10.
  ^  King 2010, p. 376; Olbrycht 2010, pp. 344–345; Sprawski 2010, pp. 138–139.
  ^  Sprawski 2010, pp. 139–140.
  ^  Olbrycht 2010, p. 345; Sprawski 2010, pp. 139–141; see also Errington 1990, pp. 11–12 for further details.
  ^  Sprawski 2010, pp. 141–143; Errington 1990, pp. 9, 11–12.
  ^  Roisman 2010, pp. 145–147.
  ^  Roisman 2010, pp. 146–147; Müller 2010, p. 171; Cawkwell 1978, p. 72; see also Errington 1990, pp. 13–14 for further details.
^    a       b       c    Roisman 2010, pp. 146–147.
  ^  Roisman 2010, pp. 146–147; see also Errington 1990, p. 18 for further details.
  ^  Roisman 2010, pp. 147–148; Errington 1990, pp. 19–20.
  ^  Roisman 2010, pp. 149–150; Errington 1990, p. 20.
  ^  Roisman 2010, pp. 150–152; Errington 1990, pp. 21–22.
  ^  Roisman 2010, p. 152; Errington 1990, p. 22.
  ^  Roisman 2010, pp. 152–153; Errington 1990, pp. 22–23.
  ^  Roisman 2010, p. 153; Errington 1990, pp. 22–23.
  ^  Roisman 2010, pp. 153–154; see also Errington 1990, p. 23 for further details.
  ^  Roisman 2010, p. 154; see also Errington 1990, p. 23 for further details.
  ^  Roisman 2010, p. 154; Errington 1990, pp. 23–24.
  ^  Roisman 2010, pp. 154–155; Errington 1990, p. 24.
  ^  Roisman 2010, pp. 155–156.
  ^  Roisman 2010, p. 156; Errington 1990, p. 26.
^    a       b    Roisman 2010, pp. 156–157.
  ^  Roisman 2010, pp. 156–157; Errington 1990, p. 26.
  ^  Roisman 2010, pp. 157–158; Errington 1990, pp. 28–29.
  ^  Roisman 2010, p. 158; Errington 1990, pp. 28–29.
  ^  Roisman 2010, p. 159; see also Errington 1990, p. 30 for further details.
  ^  Roisman 2010, pp. 159–160; Errington 1990, pp. 32–33.
  ^  Roisman 2010, p. 161; Errington 1990, pp. 34–35.
  ^  Roisman 2010, pp. 161–162; Errington 1990, pp. 35–36.
  ^  Roisman 2010, pp. 162–163; Errington 1990, p. 36.
  ^  Roisman 2010, pp. 162–163.
  ^  Roisman 2010, pp. 163–164; Errington 1990, p. 37.
  ^  Müller 2010, pp. 166–167; Buckley 1996, pp. 467–472.
  ^  Müller 2010, pp. 167–168; Buckley 1996, pp. 467–472.
  ^  Müller 2010, pp. 167–168; Buckley 1996, pp. 467–472; Errington 1990, p. 38.
  ^  Müller 2010, p. 167.
  ^  Müller 2010, p. 168.
  ^  Müller 2010, pp. 168–169.
  ^  Müller 2010, p. 169.
  ^  Müller 2010, p. 170; Buckler 1989, p. 62.
  ^  Müller 2010, pp. 170–171; Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010, p. 187.
  ^  Müller 2010, pp. 167, 169; Roisman 2010, p. 161.
  ^  Müller 2010, pp. 169, 173–174; Cawkwell 1978, p. 84; Errington 1990, pp. 38–39.
  ^  Müller 2010, p. 171; Buckley 1996, pp. 470–472; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 74–75.
  ^  Müller 2010, p. 172; Hornblower 2002, p. 272; Cawkwell 1978, p. 42; Buckley 1996, pp. 470–472.
  ^  Müller 2010, pp. 171–172; Buckler 1989, pp. 8, 20–22, 26–29.
  ^  Müller 2010, p. 173; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 62, 66–68; Buckler 1989, pp. 74–75, 78–80; Worthington 2008, pp. 61–63.
  ^  Howe, Timothy; Brice, Lee L. (2015).  Brill's Companion to Insurgency and Terrorism in the Ancient Mediterranean . BRILL. p. 170. ISBN  9789004284739 .
^    a       b    Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly (2000).  Women and Monarchy in Macedonia . University of Oklahoma Press. p. 101. ISBN  9780806132129 .
  ^  Müller 2010, p. 173; Cawkwell 1978, p. 44; Schwahn 1931, col. 1193–1194.
  ^  Cawkwell 1978, p. 86.
  ^  Müller 2010, pp. 173–174; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 85–86; Buckley 1996, pp. 474–475.
  ^  Müller 2010, pp. 173–174; Worthington 2008, pp. 75–78; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 96–98.
  ^  Müller 2010, p. 174; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 98–101.
  ^  Müller 2010, pp. 174–175; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 95, 104, 107–108; Hornblower 2002, pp. 275–277; Buckley 1996, pp. 478–479.
  ^  Müller 2010, p. 175.
  ^  Errington 1990, p. 227.
  ^  Müller 2010, pp. 175–176; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 114–117; Hornblower 2002, p. 277; Buckley 1996, p. 482; Errington 1990, p. 44.
  ^  Mollov &amp; Georgiev 2015, p. 76.
  ^  Müller 2010, p. 176; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 136–142; Errington 1990, pp. 82–83.
  ^  Müller 2010, pp. 176–177; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 143–148.
  ^  Müller 2010, p. 177; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 167–168.
  ^  Müller 2010, pp. 177–179; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 167–171; see also Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001, p. 16 for further details.
  ^  Davis Hanson, Victor (2010).  Makers of Ancient Strategy: From the Persian Wars to the Fall of Rome . Princeton University Press. p. 119. ISBN  978-0691137902 . Afterwards he [Alexander] revived his father's League of Corinth, and with it his plan for a pan-Hellenic invasion of Asia to punish the Persians for the suffering of the Greeks, especially the Athenians, in the Greco-Persian Wars and to liberate the Greek cities of Asia Minor. 
  ^  Olbrycht 2010, pp. 348, 351
  ^  Olbrycht 2010, pp. 347–349
  ^  Olbrycht 2010, p. 351
^    a       b    Müller 2010, pp. 179–180; Cawkwell 1978, p. 170.
  ^  Müller 2010, pp. 180–181; see also Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001, p. 14 for further details.
  ^  Müller 2010, pp. 181–182; Errington 1990, p. 44; Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010, p. 186; see Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001, pp. 3–5 for details of the arrests and judicial trials of other suspects in the conspiracy to assassinate Philip II of Macedon.
  ^  Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010, p. 190; Müller 2010, p. 183; Renault 2001, pp. 61–62; Fox 1980, p. 72; see also Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001, pp. 3–5 for further details.
  ^  Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010, p. 186.
  ^  Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010, p. 190.
  ^  Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010, pp. 190–191; see also Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001, pp. 15–16 for further details.
  ^  Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010, p. 191; Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001, pp. 34–38.
  ^  Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010, p. 191; Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001, pp. 40–47.
  ^  Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010, p. 191; see also Errington 1990, p. 91 and Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001, p. 47 for further details.
  ^  Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010, pp. 191–192; see also Errington 1990, pp. 91–92 for further details.
  ^  Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010, pp. 192–193.
^    a       b       c    Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010, p. 193.
  ^  Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010, pp. 193–194; Holt 2012, pp. 27–41.
  ^  Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010, pp. 193–194.
  ^  Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010, p. 194; Errington 1990, p. 113.
^    a       b    Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010, p. 195.
  ^  Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010, pp. 194–195.
  ^  Errington 1990, pp. 105–106.
  ^  Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010, p. 198.
  ^  Holt 1989, pp. 67–68.
  ^  Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010, p. 196.
  ^  Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010, p. 199; Errington 1990, p. 93.
  ^  Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010, pp. 200–201; Errington 1990, p. 58.
  ^  Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010, p. 201.
  ^  Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010, pp. 201–203.
  ^  Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010, p. 204; see also Errington 1990, p. 44 for further details.
  ^  Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010, p. 204; see also Errington 1990, pp. 115–117 for further details.
  ^  Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010, p. 204; Adams 2010, p. 209; Errington 1990, pp. 69–70, 119.
  ^  Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010, pp. 204–205; Adams 2010, pp. 209–210; Errington 1990, pp. 69, 119.
  ^  Gilley &amp; Worthington 2010, p. 205; see also Errington 1990, p. 118 for further details.
  ^  Adams 2010, pp. 208–209; Errington 1990, p. 117.
  ^  Adams 2010, pp. 210–211; Errington 1990, pp. 119–120.
  ^  Adams 2010, p. 211; Errington 1990, pp. 120–121.
  ^  Adams 2010, pp. 211–212; Errington 1990, pp. 121–122.
  ^  Adams 2010, pp. 207 n. #1, 212; Errington 1990, pp. 122–123.
  ^  Adams 2010, pp. 212–213; Errington 1990, pp. 124–126.
^    a       b    Adams 2010, p. 213; Errington 1990, pp. 126–127.
  ^  Adams 2010, pp. 213–214; Errington 1990, pp. 127–128.
  ^  Adams 2010, p. 214; Errington 1990, pp. 128–129.
  ^  Adams 2010, pp. 214–215.
  ^  Adams 2010, pp. 215–216.
  ^  Adams 2010, p. 216.
  ^  Adams 2010, pp. 216–217; Errington 1990, p. 129.
  ^  Adams 2010, p. 217; Errington 1990, p. 145.
  ^  Adams 2010, p. 217; Errington 1990, pp. 145–147; Bringmann 2007, p. 61.
^    a       b       c       d    Adams 2010, p. 218.
^    a       b    Bringmann 2007, p. 61.
  ^  Adams 2010, p. 218; Errington 1990, p. 153.
^    a       b    Adams 2010, pp. 218–219; Bringmann 2007, p. 61.
  ^  Adams 2010, p. 219; Bringmann 2007, p. 61; Errington 1990, pp. 156–157.
  ^  Adams 2010, p. 219; Bringmann 2007, pp. 61–63; Errington 1990, pp. 159–160.
  ^  Errington 1990, p. 160.
  ^  Errington 1990, pp. 160–161.
  ^  Adams 2010, p. 219; Bringmann 2007, p. 63; Errington 1990, pp. 162–163.
^    a       b    Adams 2010, pp. 219–220; Bringmann 2007, p. 63.
  ^  Adams 2010, pp. 219–220; Bringmann 2007, p. 63; Errington 1990, p. 164.
  ^  Adams 2010, p. 220; Errington 1990, pp. 164–165.
  ^  Adams 2010, p. 220.
  ^  Adams 2010, p. 220; Bringmann 2007, p. 63; Errington 1990, p. 167.
  ^  Adams 2010, p. 220; Errington 1990, pp. 165–166.
  ^  Adams 2010, p. 221; see also Errington 1990, pp. 167–168 about the resurgence of Sparta under Areus I.
  ^  Adams 2010, p. 221; Errington 1990, p. 168.
  ^  Adams 2010, p. 221; Errington 1990, pp. 168–169.
  ^  Adams 2010, p. 221; Errington 1990, pp. 169–171.
  ^  Adams 2010, p. 221.
^    a       b    Adams 2010, p. 222.
  ^  Adams 2010, pp. 221–222; Errington 1990, p. 172.
  ^  Adams 2010, p. 222; Errington 1990, pp. 172–173.
  ^  Adams 2010, p. 222; Errington 1990, p. 173.
  ^  Adams 2010, p. 222; Errington 1990, p. 174.
  ^  Adams 2010, p. 223; Errington 1990, pp. 173–174.
^    a       b    Adams 2010, p. 223; Errington 1990, p. 174.
  ^  Adams 2010, p. 223; Errington 1990, pp. 174–175.
  ^  Adams 2010, p. 223; Errington 1990, pp. 175–176.
  ^  Adams 2010, pp. 223–224; Eckstein 2013, p. 314; see also Errington 1990, pp. 179–180 for further details.
  ^  Adams 2010, pp. 223–224; Eckstein 2013, p. 314; Errington 1990, pp. 180–181.
  ^  Adams 2010, p. 224; Eckstein 2013, p. 314; Errington 1990, pp. 181–183.
  ^  Adams 2010, p. 224; see also Errington 1990, p. 182 about the Macedonian military's occupation of Sparta following the Battle of Sellasia.
  ^  Adams 2010, p. 224; Errington 1990, pp. 183–184.
  ^  Eckstein 2010, p. 229; Errington 1990, pp. 184–185.
  ^  Eckstein 2010, p. 229; Errington 1990, pp. 185–186, 189.
  ^  Eckstein 2010, p. 230; Errington 1990, pp. 189–190.
  ^  Eckstein 2010, pp. 230–231; Errington 1990, pp. 190–191.
  ^  Bringmann 2007, p. 79; Eckstein 2010, p. 231; Errington 1990, p. 192; also mentioned by Gruen 1986, p. 19.
  ^  Bringmann 2007, p. 80; see also Eckstein 2010, p. 231 and Errington 1990, pp. 191–193 for further details.
  ^  Errington 1990, pp. 191–193, 210.
  ^  Bringmann 2007, p. 82; Errington 1990, p. 193.
  ^  Bringmann 2007, p. 82; Eckstein 2010, pp. 232–233; Errington 1990, pp. 193–194; Gruen 1986, pp. 17–18, 20.
  ^  Bringmann 2007, p. 83; Eckstein 2010, pp. 233–234; Errington 1990, pp. 195–196; Gruen 1986, p. 21; see also Gruen 1986, pp. 18–19 for details on the Aetolian League's treaty with Philip V of Macedon and Rome's rejection of the second attempt by the Aetolians to seek Roman aid, viewing the Aetolians as having violated the earlier treaty.
  ^  Bringmann 2007, p. 85; see also Errington 1990, pp. 196–197 for further details.
  ^  Eckstein 2010, pp. 234–235; Errington 1990, pp. 196–198; see also Bringmann 2007, p. 86 for further details.
  ^  Bringmann 2007, pp. 85–86; Eckstein 2010, pp. 235–236; Errington 1990, pp. 199–201; Gruen 1986, p. 22.
  ^  Bringmann 2007, p. 86; see also Eckstein 2010, p. 235 for further details.
  ^  Bringmann 2007, p. 86; Errington 1990, pp. 197–198.
  ^  Bringmann 2007, p. 87.
  ^  Bringmann 2007, pp. 87–88; Errington 1990, pp. 199–200; see also Eckstein 2010, pp. 235–236 for further details.
  ^  Eckstein 2010, p. 236.
^    a       b    Bringmann 2007, p. 88.
  ^  Bringmann 2007, p. 88; Eckstein 2010, p. 236; Errington 1990, p. 203.
  ^  Bringmann 2007, p. 88; Eckstein 2010, pp. 236–237; Errington 1990, p. 204.
  ^  Bringmann 2007, pp. 88–89; Eckstein 2010, p. 237.
  ^  Bringmann 2007, pp. 89–90; see also Eckstein 2010, p. 237 and Gruen 1986, pp. 20–21, 24 for further details.
  ^  Bringmann 2007, pp. 90–91; Eckstein 2010, pp. 237–238.
  ^  Bringmann 2007, p. 91; Eckstein 2010, p. 238.
  ^  Bringmann 2007, pp. 91–92; Eckstein 2010, p. 238; see also Gruen 1986, pp. 30, 33 for further details.
  ^  Bringmann 2007, p. 92; Eckstein 2010, p. 238.
  ^  Bringmann 2007, p. 97; see also Errington 1990, pp. 207–208 for further details.
  ^  Bringmann 2007, p. 97; Eckstein 2010, pp. 240–241; see also Errington 1990, pp. 211–213 for a discussion about Perseus's actions during the early part of his reign.
  ^  Bringmann 2007, pp. 97–98; Eckstein 2010, p. 240.
  ^  Bringmann 2007, p. 98; Eckstein 2010, p. 240; Errington 1990, pp. 212–213.
  ^  Bringmann 2007, pp. 98–99; Eckstein 2010, pp. 241–242.
  ^  Bringmann 2007, p. 99; Eckstein 2010, pp. 243–244; Errington 1990, pp. 215–216; Hatzopoulos 1996, p. 43.
  ^  Bringmann 2007, p. 99; Eckstein 2010, p. 245; Errington 1990, pp. 204–205, 216; see also Hatzopoulos 1996, p. 43 for further details.
^    a       b    Bringmann 2007, pp. 99–100; Eckstein 2010, p. 245; Errington 1990, pp. 216–217; see also Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 43–46 for further details.
  ^  Bringmann 2007, p. 104; Eckstein 2010, pp. 246–247.
  ^  Bringmann 2007, pp. 104–105; Eckstein 2010, p. 247; Errington 1990, pp. 216–217.
  ^  Bringmann 2007, pp. 104–105; Eckstein 2010, pp. 247–248; Errington 1990, pp. 203–205, 216–217.
  ^  King 2010, p. 374; see also Errington 1990, pp. 220–221 for further details.
  ^  King 2010, p. 373.
  ^  King 2010, pp. 375–376.
  ^  King 2010, pp. 376–377.
  ^  King 2010, p. 377.
^    a       b    King 2010, p. 378.
  ^  King 2010, p. 379.
^    a       b       c    Errington 1990, p. 222.
^    a       b    King 2010, p. 380.
  ^  King 2010, p. 380; for further context, see Errington 1990, p. 220.
  ^  Olbrycht 2010, pp. 345–346.
^    a       b       c       d    King 2010, p. 381.
  ^  Sawada 2010, p. 403.
  ^  Sawada 2010, pp. 404–405.
  ^  Sawada 2010, p. 406.
  ^  King 2010, p. 382; Errington 1990, p. 220.
  ^  Sawada 2010, pp. 382–383.
  ^  Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001, pp. 5, 12.
  ^  King 2010, pp. 384–389; Errington 1990, p. 220.
  ^  King 2010, pp. 383–384; Errington 1990, p. 220.
  ^  King 2010, p. 390.
  ^  Amemiya 2007, pp. 11–12.
^    a       b    Errington 1990, p. 231.
  ^  Errington 1990, pp. 229–230.
  ^  Errington 1990, p. 230.
  ^  Errington 1990, pp. 231–232.
  ^  Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 365–366.
  ^  Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 366–367.
  ^  Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 367–369.
  ^  Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 368–369.
  ^  Errington 1990, p. 242.
  ^  Sekunda 2010, p. 447; Errington 1990, pp. 243–244.
  ^  Sekunda 2010, pp. 447–448.
  ^  Sekunda 2010, pp. 448–449; see also Errington 1990, pp. 238–239 for further details.
  ^  Errington 1990, pp. 238–239, 243–244.
  ^  Sekunda 2010, p. 449.
  ^  Sekunda 2010, pp. 448–449.
  ^  Errington 1990, pp. 239–240.
  ^  Errington 1990, pp. 238, 247.
^    a       b    Sekunda 2010, p. 451.
  ^  Sekunda 2010, p. 450; Errington 1990, p. 244.
^    a       b    Sekunda 2010, p. 452.
  ^  Sekunda 2010, p. 451; Errington 1990, pp. 241–242.
  ^  Sekunda 2010, pp. 449–451.
  ^  Sekunda 2010, p. 451; Errington 1990, pp. 247–248; Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001, pp. 24–26.
  ^  Sekunda 2010, p. 453.
^    a       b    Sekunda 2010, p. 454.
  ^  Sekunda 2010, p. 455; Errington 1990, p. 245.
^    a       b    Sekunda 2010, pp. 458–459.
  ^  Sekunda 2010, p. 461.
^    a       b    Sekunda 2010, p. 460.
  ^  Sekunda 2010, p. 469
  ^  Sekunda 2010, p. 462.
  ^  Sekunda 2010, pp. 463–464.
  ^  Errington 1990, pp. 247–248.
^    a       b       c       d    Errington 1990, p. 248.
  ^  Anson 2010, p. 17, n. 57, n. 58; Woodard 2010, pp. 9–10; Hatzopoulos 2011a, pp. 43–45; Engels 2010, pp. 94–95.
  ^  Engels 2010, p. 95.
  ^  Engels 2010, p. 94.
  ^  Sansone 2017, p. 223.
  ^  Anson 2010, pp. 17–18; see also Christesen &amp; Murray 2010, pp. 428–445 for ways in which Macedonian religious beliefs diverged from mainstream Greek polytheism, although the latter was hardly "monolithic" throughout the Classical Greek and Hellenistic world and Macedonians were "linguistically and culturally Greek" according to Christesen and Murray. Christesen &amp; Murray 2010, pp. 428–429.
  ^  Errington 1990, pp. 225–226.
  ^  Errington 1990, p. 226; Christesen &amp; Murray 2010, pp. 430–431
^    a       b    Errington 1990, p. 226.
  ^  Borza 1992, pp. 257–260; Christesen &amp; Murray 2010, pp. 432–433; see also Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001, pp. 5–7 for further details.
  ^  Borza 1992, pp. 259–260; see also Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001, pp. 5–6 for further details.
  ^  Borza 1992, pp. 257, 260–261.
  ^  Borza 1992, p. 257.
  ^  Sansone 2017, pp. 224–225.
  ^  Hatzopoulos 2011a, pp. 47–48; Errington 1990, p. 7.
  ^  Hatzopoulos 2011a, p. 48; Errington 1990, pp. 7–8, 222–223.
  ^  Hatzopoulos 2011a, p. 48.
  ^  Anson 2010, pp. 9–10.
^    a       b       c    Anson 2010, p. 10.
  ^  Anson 2010, pp. 10–11.
  ^  Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001, pp. 12–13.
  ^  Hardiman 2010, p. 515.
  ^  Hardiman 2010, pp. 515–517.
^    a       b    Hardiman 2010, p. 517.
  ^  Palagia 2000, pp. 182, 185–186.
  ^  Head 2016, pp. 12–13; Piening 2013, p. 1182.
  ^  Head 2016, p. 13; Aldrete, Bartell &amp; Aldrete 2013, p. 49.
^    a       b       c       d    Hardiman 2010, p. 518.
  ^  Müller 2010, p. 182.
^    a       b       c    Errington 1990, p. 224.
^    a       b       c    Worthington 2014, p. 186.
  ^  Worthington 2014, p. 185.
^    a       b    Worthington 2014, pp. 183, 186.
  ^  Hatzopoulos 2011b, p. 58; Roisman 2010, p. 154; Errington 1990, pp. 223–224.
  ^  Hatzopoulos 2011b, pp. 58–59; see also Errington 1990, p. 224 for further details.
  ^  Chroust 2016, p. 137.
  ^  Rhodes 2010, p. 23.
  ^  Rhodes 2010, pp. 23–25; see also Errington 1990, p. 224 for further details.
^    a       b    Errington 1990, p. 225.
  ^  Badian 1982, p. 34, Anson 2010, p. 16; Sansone 2017, pp. 222–223.
  ^  Hatzopoulos 2011b, p. 59.
  ^  Nawotka 2010, p. 2.
  ^  Anson 2010, p. 19
  ^  Cohen 2010, p. 28.
^    a       b       c    Dalby 1997, p. 157.
  ^  Dalby 1997, pp. 155–156.
  ^  Dalby 1997, p. 156.
  ^  Dalby 1997, pp. 156–157.
  ^  Anson 2010, p. 10; Cohen 2010, p. 28.
  ^  Engels 2010, p. 87; Olbrycht 2010, pp. 343–344.
  ^  Badian 1982, p. 51, n. 72; Johannes Engels comes to a similar conclusion. See: Engels 2010, p. 82.
  ^  Hammond, N.G.L. (1997).  The Genius of Alexander the Great . The University of North Carolina Press. p. 11. ISBN  0807823503 . The other part of the Greek-speaking world extended from Pelagonia in the north to Macedonia in the south. It was occupied by several tribal states, which were constantly at war against Illyrians, Paeonians and Thracians. Each state had its own monarchy. Special prestige attached to the Lyncestae whose royal family, the Bacchiadae claimed descent from Heracles, and to the Macedonians, whose royal family had a similar ancestry. [...] In the opinion of the city-states these tribal states were backward and unworthy of the Greek name, although they spoke dialects of the Greek language. According to Aristotle, monarchy was the mark of people too stupid to govern themselves. 
  ^  Sakellariou 1983, p. 52.
  ^  Simon Hornblower (2016). "2: Greek Identity in the Archaic and Classical Periods". In Zacharia, Katerina (ed.). Hellenisms: Culture, Identity, and Ethnicity from Antiquity to Modernity. Routledge. p. 58. ISBN  978-0754665250 . The question "Were the Macedonians Greeks?" perhaps needs to be chopped up further. The Macedonian kings emerge as Greeks by criterion one, namely shared blood, and personal names indicate that Macedonians generally moved north from Greece. The kings, the elite, and the generality of the Macedonians were Greeks by criteria two and three, that is, religion and language. Macedonian customs (criterion four) were in certain respects unlike those of a normal apart, perhaps, from the institutions which I have characterized as feudal. The crude one-word answer to the question has to be "yes." 
  ^  Hatzopoulos 2011b, p. 74.
  ^  Bolman 2016, pp. 120–121.
^    a       b       c    Winter 2006, p. 163.
  ^  Winter 2006, pp. 164–165.
  ^  Winter 2006, p. 165.
  ^  Errington 1990, p. 227; see also Hammond &amp; Walbank 2001, pp. 3, 7–8 for further details.
  ^  Koumpis 2012, p. 34.
  ^  Treister 1996, pp. 375–376.
  ^  Humphrey, Oleson &amp; Sherwood 1998, p. 570.
  ^  Treister 1996, p. 376, no. 531.
^    a       b    Treister 1996, p. 376.
^    a       b    Humphrey, Oleson &amp; Sherwood 1998, pp. 570–571.
  ^  Humphrey, Oleson &amp; Sherwood 1998, pp. 570–572.
  ^  Curtis 2008, p. 380.
  ^  Stern 2008, pp. 530–532.
  ^  Cuomo 2008, pp. 17–20.
  ^  Errington 1990, p. 246.
  ^  Treister 1996, p. 379.
  ^  Meadows 2008, p. 773.
  ^  Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 432–433.
  ^  Kremydi 2011, p. 163.
  ^  Hatzopoulos 1996, p. 433.
  ^  Hatzopoulos 1996, p. 434.
  ^  Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 433–434; Roisman 2010, p. 163.
  ^  Treister 1996, pp. 373–375; see also Errington 1990, p. 223 for further details.
  ^  Treister 1996, pp. 374–375; see also Errington 1990, p. 223 for further details.
  ^  Treister 1996, p. 374.
  ^  Treister 1996, pp. 374–375.
  ^  Anson 2010, pp. 3–4.
  ^  Anson 2010, pp. 4–5.
  ^  Errington 1990, p. 249.
  ^  Asirvatham 2010, p. 104.
  ^  Anson 2010, p. 9.
  ^  Anson 2010, pp. 11–12.
  ^  Errington 1990, pp. 219–220.
  ^  Christesen &amp; Murray 2010, pp. 435–436.
  ^  Christesen &amp; Murray 2010, p. 436.
  ^  Anson 2010, p. 3.
 
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Further reading
  Autenrieth, Georg (1891).  A Homeric Dictionary for Schools and Colleges . New York: Harper and Brothers. 
 Bard, Kathryn A. (1999).  Encyclopaedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt . New York: Routledge. ISBN  978-1-134-66524-2 . 
 Borza, Eugene N. (1999).  Before Alexander: Constructing Early Macedonia . Claremont, CA: Regina Books. ISBN  0-941690-97-0 . 
 Bryant, Joseph M. (1996).  Moral Codes and Social Structure in Ancient Greece: A Sociology of Greek Ethics from Homer to the Epicureans and Stoics . Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. ISBN  0-7914-3042-1 . 
 Chamoux, François (2002).  Hellenistic Civilization . Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN  0-631-22241-3 . 
 Errington, Robert M. (1974). "Macedonian 'Royal Style' and Its Historical Significance". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 94: 20–37. doi:10.2307/630417. JSTOR 630417. S2CID 162629292. 
 Fine, John Van Antwerp (1983).  The Ancient Greeks: A Critical History . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN  0-674-03314-0 . 
 Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (2001).  Collected Studies: Further Studies on Various Topics . Amsterdam: Hakkert. 
 Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (1993).  Studies concerning Epirus and Macedonia before Alexander . Amsterdam: Hakkert. ISBN  9789025610500 . 
 Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (1989).  The Macedonian State: Origins, Institutions, and History . Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. ISBN  0-19-814883-6 . 
 Jones, Archer (2001).  The Art of War in the Western World . Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press. ISBN  0-252-06966-8 . 
 Levinson, David (1992).  Encyclopedia of World Cultures . Vol. 1. Boston, MA: G.K. Hall. ISBN  978-0-8168-8840-5 . 
 Starr, Chester G. (1991).  A History of the Ancient World . New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN  0-19-506628-6 . 
 Toynbee, Arnold Joseph (1981).  The Greeks and Their Heritages . Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN  978-0-19-215256-5 . 
 Wilcken, Ulrich (1967).  Alexander the Great . New York: W.W. Norton and Company, Inc. ISBN  978-0-393-00381-9 .  
External links
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Macedon. 
 
  Ancient Macedonia Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine at Livius, by Jona Lendering
 Heracles to Alexander The Great: Treasures From The Royal Capital of Macedon, A Hellenic Kingdom in the Age of Democracy, Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology, University of Oxford 
 "Macedonia, ancient kingdom", entry from the  Encyclopædia Britannica  
 "The Rise of Macedonia and the Conquests of Alexander the Great", from the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Timeline of Art History
Macedonia (ancient kingdom) - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)
https://www.historyhit.com/key-victories-of-alexander-the-greats-persian-campaign/
The 4 Key Victories of Alexander the Great’s Persian Campaign
2018-12-24
Tristan Hughes
<div><div>
 <p>In 334 BC Alexander III of Macedon, better known as Alexander ‘the Great’ set out on his grand campaign of conquest against the Persian Achaemenid Empire, aged just 22. Benefiting from the conquests, diplomacy and military reforms of his father, Philip II, Alexander had inherited a powerful professional army that utilised <a href="https://www.historyhit.com/how-the-macedonian-phalanx-conquered-the-world/">the phalanx formation</a>.</p>
<p>He would go on to forge one of the largest empires the world had yet seen, conquering the mighty Persian Empire and marching his army as far as the Beas River in India.</p>
<p>Here are the four key victories Alexander gained against the Persians.</p>
<h2>1. The Battle of the Granicus: May 334 BC</h2>
<div><p></p><p>Alexander the Great at the Granicus: 334 BC.</p></div>
<p>Alexander faced his first big test not long after crossing the Hellespont into Persian territory. After visiting Troy, he and his army found themselves opposed by a slightly larger Persian force, commanded by local satraps (governors), on the far bank of <a href="https://www.historyhit.com/334-bc-battle-granicus/">the Granicus River</a>.</p>
<p>The Persians were keen to engage Alexander and gain both the favour and praise of Darius, the Persian King. Alexander obliged.</p>
<p>The battle began when Alexander sent a portion of his cavalry across the river, but this was only a feint. As the Persians forced these men back, Alexander mounted his horse and led the Companions, his elite heavy cavalry, across the river against the centre of the Persian line.</p>
<div><p></p><p>A diagram showing the key movements of Alexander’s army at the Granicus.</p></div>
<p>A vicious cavalry fight ensued, during which <a href="https://www.historyhit.com/334-bc-battle-granicus/">Alexander very nearly lost his life</a>. In the end, however, after many of their leaders had fallen, the Persians broke and ran, leaving the Macedonians the victors.</p>
<p>Alexander’s success at the Granicus marked his first victory during his Persian campaign. It was only the beginning.</p>
<h2>2. The Battle of Issus: 5 November 333 BC</h2>
<div><p></p><p>This map hammers home the narrowness of the battlefield. Darius’ compact army is visible on the left of the river, contrasted with Alexander’s neatly extended line on the right.</p></div>
<p>Alexander’s victory at the Granicus and his subsequent capture of western Asia Minor forced Darius to act. He gathered a great army and marched from Babylon to confront Alexander. <a href="https://www.historyhit.com/how-significant-was-alexander-the-greats-victory-at-issus">The Persian King successfully outmanoeuvred his foe</a> and forced Alexander to confront his large army (600,000 according to ancient sources, although 60-100,000 is more likely) at the Pinarus River, near Issus in southern Turkey.</p>
<p>After containing a small Persian force in the foothills to his right, Alexander led his elite Macedonians across the Pinarus river against the Persian force stationed on the left side of Darius’ line. Seeing Alexander’s men charging down on them the Persian bowmen released one dreadfully-inaccurate volley of arrows before they turned tail and fled.</p>
<p>Having broken through on the right Alexander started enveloping the rest of the Persian army, causing Darius to flee and those that remained on the field to be surrounded and slaughtered by the Macedonians.</p>
<div><p></p><p>A Roman fresco from Pompeii showing Darius fleeing from Alexander during the Battle of Issus.</p></div>
<p>After this stunning victory Alexander took Syria and subdued the city of Tyre after a lengthy siege. He then marched to Egypt in 332 BC and founded the famous city of Alexandria.</p>
<h2>3. The Battle of Gaugamela: 1 October 331 BC</h2>
<p>Having rejected several offers of peace from Darius, Alexander’s army campaigned through Mesopotamia, encountering another large Persian force led by the Persian King <a href="https://www.historyhit.com/the-battle-of-gaugamela/">at Gaugamela on 1 October 331 BC</a>.</p>
<p>Once again Alexander’s 47,000-strong army found themselves greatly outnumbered by Darius’ force. Yet this time Darius had a further advantage, having chosen a site that greatly benefited his army: a wide, open plain his soldiers had deliberately flattened.</p>
<figure><a href="https://access.historyhit.com/videos/michael-scott-on-classical-connections?utm_source=InArticle&amp;utm_medium=COM"></a><p>The Mediterranean and the Near East was just one part of a much larger, interconnected ancient world. Professor Michael Scott discusses the immense age of the Silk Road and its importance to Imperial Rome.</p><a href="https://access.historyhit.com/videos/michael-scott-on-classical-connections?utm_source=InArticle&amp;utm_medium=COM">Watch Now</a></figure>
<p>Yet Alexander remained confident and executed an unusual strategy: with his best troops he rode to the edge of his right flank, enticing the Persian cavalry out from the centre of Darius’ line to counter him. Alexander then slowly filtered his troops back from the right and formed them into a giant wedge, smashing into the gap now created in the Persian middle.</p>
<p>Seeing the centre of his line carved in two Darius fled, quickly followed by many of the Persians fighting nearby. Rather than pursue, however, Alexander then needed to support the left flank of his army which allowed Darius to escape from the battlefield with a small force.</p>
<p>Following the battle Alexander entered Babylon, the most prestigious city in Mesopotamia, and was proclaimed King of Asia.</p>
<div><p></p><p>A diagram showing the key movements during the Battle of Gaugamela, recorded in detail by the later historian Arrian.</p></div>
<h2>4. The Battle of the Persian Gate: 20 January 330 BC</h2>
<p>Alexander may have won the Persian crown with victory at Gaugamela, but Persian resistance continued. Darius had survived the battle and had fled further east to raise a new army and Alexander now had to march through the hostile Persian heartlands.</p>
<p>Whilst he and his army were traversing the narrow mountain paths of the Zagros Mountains en-route to Persepolis, they encountered a strongly-fortified Persian defence at the end of a valley, called ‘<a href="https://www.historyhit.com/why-is-alexanders-victory-at-the-persian-gate-known-as-the-persian-thermopylae/">The Persian Gate</a>‘ due to the narrowness of the path at that point.</p>
<p>Surprised by a rain of missiles hailed down on them from the precipices above, Alexander ordered his men to retreat – the only time he did so during his military career.</p>
<div><p></p><p>A photo of the place of the Persian Gate today.</p></div>
<p>After discovering from a Persian captive in his army, who knew the region, that there was a mountain path that bypassed the Persian defence, Alexander gathered his best men and marched them through the night along this track.</p>
<p>By daybreak Alexander and his men had reached the end of the path behind the Persian defence and quickly began their revenge. Alexander and his men ran into the Persian camp from behind causing mayhem; meanwhile the rest of his force simultaneously attacked the Persian Gate from the front. Surrounded and overwhelmed what followed was a slaughter.</p>
<div><p></p><p>A map highlighting the key events of the Battle of the Persian Gate. The second attack track is the narrow mountain path taken by Alexander. Credit: <a href="http://www.livius.org/">Livius</a> / Commons.</p></div>
<p>After crushing resistance at the Persian Gate Alexander continued deeper into Asia in pursuit of Darius. After failing to raise a comparable force to Issus or Gaugamela however, Darius was murdered by one of his Satraps in July 330 BC, and Alexander had won the Persian crown.</p>
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 The 4 Key Victories of Alexander the Great’s Persian Campaign

 Tristan Hughes

 24 Dec 2018

 @ancientstristan

 In 334 BC Alexander III of Macedon, better known as Alexander ‘the Great’ set out on his grand campaign of conquest against the Persian Achaemenid Empire, aged just 22. Benefiting from the conquests, diplomacy and military reforms of his father, Philip II, Alexander had inherited a powerful professional army that utilised the phalanx formation.

 He would go on to forge one of the largest empires the world had yet seen, conquering the mighty Persian Empire and marching his army as far as the Beas River in India.

 Here are the four key victories Alexander gained against the Persians.

 1. The Battle of the Granicus: May 334 BC

 Alexander the Great at the Granicus: 334 BC.

 Alexander faced his first big test not long after crossing the Hellespont into Persian territory. After visiting Troy, he and his army found themselves opposed by a slightly larger Persian force, commanded by local satraps (governors), on the far bank of the Granicus River.

 The Persians were keen to engage Alexander and gain both the favour and praise of Darius, the Persian King. Alexander obliged.

 The battle began when Alexander sent a portion of his cavalry across the river, but this was only a feint. As the Persians forced these men back, Alexander mounted his horse and led the Companions, his elite heavy cavalry, across the river against the centre of the Persian line.

 A diagram showing the key movements of Alexander’s army at the Granicus.

 A vicious cavalry fight ensued, during which Alexander very nearly lost his life. In the end, however, after many of their leaders had fallen, the Persians broke and ran, leaving the Macedonians the victors.

 Alexander’s success at the Granicus marked his first victory during his Persian campaign. It was only the beginning.

 2. The Battle of Issus: 5 November 333 BC

 This map hammers home the narrowness of the battlefield. Darius’ compact army is visible on the left of the river, contrasted with Alexander’s neatly extended line on the right.

 Alexander’s victory at the Granicus and his subsequent capture of western Asia Minor forced Darius to act. He gathered a great army and marched from Babylon to confront Alexander. The Persian King successfully outmanoeuvred his foe and forced Alexander to confront his large army (600,000 according to ancient sources, although 60-100,000 is more likely) at the Pinarus River, near Issus in southern Turkey.

 After containing a small Persian force in the foothills to his right, Alexander led his elite Macedonians across the Pinarus river against the Persian force stationed on the left side of Darius’ line. Seeing Alexander’s men charging down on them the Persian bowmen released one dreadfully-inaccurate volley of arrows before they turned tail and fled.

 Having broken through on the right Alexander started enveloping the rest of the Persian army, causing Darius to flee and those that remained on the field to be surrounded and slaughtered by the Macedonians.

 A Roman fresco from Pompeii showing Darius fleeing from Alexander during the Battle of Issus.

 After this stunning victory Alexander took Syria and subdued the city of Tyre after a lengthy siege. He then marched to Egypt in 332 BC and founded the famous city of Alexandria.

 3. The Battle of Gaugamela: 1 October 331 BC

 Having rejected several offers of peace from Darius, Alexander’s army campaigned through Mesopotamia, encountering another large Persian force led by the Persian King at Gaugamela on 1 October 331 BC.

 Once again Alexander’s 47,000-strong army found themselves greatly outnumbered by Darius’ force. Yet this time Darius had a further advantage, having chosen a site that greatly benefited his army: a wide, open plain his soldiers had deliberately flattened.

 The Mediterranean and the Near East was just one part of a much larger, interconnected ancient world. Professor Michael Scott discusses the immense age of the Silk Road and its importance to Imperial Rome.
 Watch Now

 Yet Alexander remained confident and executed an unusual strategy: with his best troops he rode to the edge of his right flank, enticing the Persian cavalry out from the centre of Darius’ line to counter him. Alexander then slowly filtered his troops back from the right and formed them into a giant wedge, smashing into the gap now created in the Persian middle.

 Seeing the centre of his line carved in two Darius fled, quickly followed by many of the Persians fighting nearby. Rather than pursue, however, Alexander then needed to support the left flank of his army which allowed Darius to escape from the battlefield with a small force.

 Following the battle Alexander entered Babylon, the most prestigious city in Mesopotamia, and was proclaimed King of Asia.

 A diagram showing the key movements during the Battle of Gaugamela, recorded in detail by the later historian Arrian.

 4. The Battle of the Persian Gate: 20 January 330 BC

 Alexander may have won the Persian crown with victory at Gaugamela, but Persian resistance continued. Darius had survived the battle and had fled further east to raise a new army and Alexander now had to march through the hostile Persian heartlands.

 Whilst he and his army were traversing the narrow mountain paths of the Zagros Mountains en-route to Persepolis, they encountered a strongly-fortified Persian defence at the end of a valley, called ‘The Persian Gate‘ due to the narrowness of the path at that point.

 Surprised by a rain of missiles hailed down on them from the precipices above, Alexander ordered his men to retreat – the only time he did so during his military career.

 A photo of the place of the Persian Gate today.

 After discovering from a Persian captive in his army, who knew the region, that there was a mountain path that bypassed the Persian defence, Alexander gathered his best men and marched them through the night along this track.

 By daybreak Alexander and his men had reached the end of the path behind the Persian defence and quickly began their revenge. Alexander and his men ran into the Persian camp from behind causing mayhem; meanwhile the rest of his force simultaneously attacked the Persian Gate from the front. Surrounded and overwhelmed what followed was a slaughter.

 A map highlighting the key events of the Battle of the Persian Gate. The second attack track is the narrow mountain path taken by Alexander. Credit: Livius / Commons.

 After crushing resistance at the Persian Gate Alexander continued deeper into Asia in pursuit of Darius. After failing to raise a comparable force to Issus or Gaugamela however, Darius was murdered by one of his Satraps in July 330 BC, and Alexander had won the Persian crown.

 Tags: Alexander the Great
 Timeline
 Ancient, Ancient Greece
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 Tristan Hughes

 24 December 2018

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In 334 BC Alexander III of Macedon, better known as Alexander ‘the Great’ set out on his grand campaign of conquest against the Persian Achaemenid Empire, aged just 22. Benefiting from the conquests, diplomacy and military reforms of his father, Philip II, Alexander had inherited a powerful professional army that utilised the phalanx formation.
He would go on to forge one of the largest empires the world had yet seen, conquering the mighty Persian Empire and marching his army as far as the Beas River in India.
Here are the four key victories Alexander gained against the Persians.
1. The Battle of the Granicus: May 334 BC
   Alexander the Great at the Granicus: 334 BC. 
Alexander faced his first big test not long after crossing the Hellespont into Persian territory. After visiting Troy, he and his army found themselves opposed by a slightly larger Persian force, commanded by local satraps (governors), on the far bank of the Granicus River.
The Persians were keen to engage Alexander and gain both the favour and praise of Darius, the Persian King. Alexander obliged.
The battle began when Alexander sent a portion of his cavalry across the river, but this was only a feint. As the Persians forced these men back, Alexander mounted his horse and led the Companions, his elite heavy cavalry, across the river against the centre of the Persian line.
   A diagram showing the key movements of Alexander’s army at the Granicus. 
A vicious cavalry fight ensued, during which Alexander very nearly lost his life. In the end, however, after many of their leaders had fallen, the Persians broke and ran, leaving the Macedonians the victors.
Alexander’s success at the Granicus marked his first victory during his Persian campaign. It was only the beginning.
2. The Battle of Issus: 5 November 333 BC
   This map hammers home the narrowness of the battlefield. Darius’ compact army is visible on the left of the river, contrasted with Alexander’s neatly extended line on the right. 
Alexander’s victory at the Granicus and his subsequent capture of western Asia Minor forced Darius to act. He gathered a great army and marched from Babylon to confront Alexander. The Persian King successfully outmanoeuvred his foe and forced Alexander to confront his large army (600,000 according to ancient sources, although 60-100,000 is more likely) at the Pinarus River, near Issus in southern Turkey.
After containing a small Persian force in the foothills to his right, Alexander led his elite Macedonians across the Pinarus river against the Persian force stationed on the left side of Darius’ line. Seeing Alexander’s men charging down on them the Persian bowmen released one dreadfully-inaccurate volley of arrows before they turned tail and fled.
Having broken through on the right Alexander started enveloping the rest of the Persian army, causing Darius to flee and those that remained on the field to be surrounded and slaughtered by the Macedonians.
   A Roman fresco from Pompeii showing Darius fleeing from Alexander during the Battle of Issus. 
After this stunning victory Alexander took Syria and subdued the city of Tyre after a lengthy siege. He then marched to Egypt in 332 BC and founded the famous city of Alexandria.
3. The Battle of Gaugamela: 1 October 331 BC
Having rejected several offers of peace from Darius, Alexander’s army campaigned through Mesopotamia, encountering another large Persian force led by the Persian King at Gaugamela on 1 October 331 BC.
Once again Alexander’s 47,000-strong army found themselves greatly outnumbered by Darius’ force. Yet this time Darius had a further advantage, having chosen a site that greatly benefited his army: a wide, open plain his soldiers had deliberately flattened.
   The Mediterranean and the Near East was just one part of a much larger, interconnected ancient world. Professor Michael Scott discusses the immense age of the Silk Road and its importance to Imperial Rome. Watch Now 
Yet Alexander remained confident and executed an unusual strategy: with his best troops he rode to the edge of his right flank, enticing the Persian cavalry out from the centre of Darius’ line to counter him. Alexander then slowly filtered his troops back from the right and formed them into a giant wedge, smashing into the gap now created in the Persian middle.
Seeing the centre of his line carved in two Darius fled, quickly followed by many of the Persians fighting nearby. Rather than pursue, however, Alexander then needed to support the left flank of his army which allowed Darius to escape from the battlefield with a small force.
Following the battle Alexander entered Babylon, the most prestigious city in Mesopotamia, and was proclaimed King of Asia.
   A diagram showing the key movements during the Battle of Gaugamela, recorded in detail by the later historian Arrian. 
4. The Battle of the Persian Gate: 20 January 330 BC
Alexander may have won the Persian crown with victory at Gaugamela, but Persian resistance continued. Darius had survived the battle and had fled further east to raise a new army and Alexander now had to march through the hostile Persian heartlands.
Whilst he and his army were traversing the narrow mountain paths of the Zagros Mountains en-route to Persepolis, they encountered a strongly-fortified Persian defence at the end of a valley, called ‘The Persian Gate‘ due to the narrowness of the path at that point.
Surprised by a rain of missiles hailed down on them from the precipices above, Alexander ordered his men to retreat – the only time he did so during his military career.
   A photo of the place of the Persian Gate today. 
After discovering from a Persian captive in his army, who knew the region, that there was a mountain path that bypassed the Persian defence, Alexander gathered his best men and marched them through the night along this track.
By daybreak Alexander and his men had reached the end of the path behind the Persian defence and quickly began their revenge. Alexander and his men ran into the Persian camp from behind causing mayhem; meanwhile the rest of his force simultaneously attacked the Persian Gate from the front. Surrounded and overwhelmed what followed was a slaughter.
   A map highlighting the key events of the Battle of the Persian Gate. The second attack track is the narrow mountain path taken by Alexander. Credit: Livius / Commons. 
After crushing resistance at the Persian Gate Alexander continued deeper into Asia in pursuit of Darius. After failing to raise a comparable force to Issus or Gaugamela however, Darius was murdered by one of his Satraps in July 330 BC, and Alexander had won the Persian crown.
The 4 Key Victories of Alexander the Great’s Persian Campaign
https://www.historyhit.com/key-victories-of-alexander-the-greats-persian-campaign/
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