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William Shakespeare - Wikipedia
2001-10-14
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<table><tbody><tr><th><p>William Shakespeare</p></th></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:Shakespeare.jpg"></a><div><p>The <a href="/wiki/Chandos_portrait">Chandos portrait</a> (held by the <a href="/wiki/National_Portrait_Gallery,_London">National Portrait Gallery, London</a>)</p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Born</th><td><div><p><a href="/wiki/Stratford-upon-Avon">Stratford-upon-Avon</a>, England</p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Baptised</th><td>26 April 1564</td></tr><tr><th>Died</th><td>23 April 1616 (aged 52)<sup><a href="#cite_note-1">[a]</a></sup><p>Stratford-upon-Avon, England</p></td></tr><tr><th>Resting place</th><td><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Holy_Trinity,_Stratford-upon-Avon">Church of the Holy Trinity, Stratford-upon-Avon</a></td></tr><tr><th>Occupations</th><td><div><ul><li>Playwright</li><li>poet</li><li>actor</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Years active</th><td><abbr>c.</abbr> 1585–1613</td></tr><tr><th>Era</th><td><div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_era">Elizabethan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jacobean_era">Jacobean</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Movement</th><td><a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance">English Renaissance</a></td></tr><tr><th>Spouse</th><td><div><div><p><a href="/wiki/Anne_Hathaway_(wife_of_Shakespeare)">Anne Hathaway</a></p></div> <p>​</p><p>(<abbr>m.</abbr> 1582)<wbr></wbr>​</p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Children</th><td><div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Susanna_Hall">Susanna Hall</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hamnet_Shakespeare">Hamnet Shakespeare</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Quiney">Judith Quiney</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Parents</th><td><div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Shakespeare">John Shakespeare</a> (father)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Shakespeare">Mary Arden</a> (mother)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Signature</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:William_Shakespeare_Signature.svg"></a></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>William Shakespeare</b> (<a href="/wiki/Baptised"><abbr>bapt.</abbr></a> 26 April<sup><a href="#cite_note-2">[b]</a></sup> 1564 – 23 April 1616)<sup><a href="#cite_note-4">[c]</a></sup> was an English playwright, poet and actor. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenblatt200511-5">[2]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBevington20021–3-6">[3]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1997399-7">[4]</a></sup> He is often called England's <a href="/wiki/National_poet">national poet</a> and the "<a href="/wiki/Bard">Bard</a> of Avon" (or simply "the Bard").<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobson1992185–186-8">[5]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-10">[d]</a></sup> His extant works, including <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare%27s_collaborations">collaborations</a>, consist of some <a href="/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_plays">39 plays</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-11">[e]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_sonnets">154 sonnets</a>, three long <a href="/wiki/Narrative_poem">narrative poems</a>, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been <a href="/wiki/List_of_translations_of_works_by_William_Shakespeare">translated</a> into every major <a href="/wiki/Modern_language">living language</a> and are performed more often than those of any other playwright.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraig20033-12">[7]</a></sup> He remains arguably the most influential writer in the English language, and his works continue to be studied and reinterpreted.
</p><p>Shakespeare was born and raised in <a href="/wiki/Stratford-upon-Avon">Stratford-upon-Avon</a>, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married <a href="/wiki/Anne_Hathaway_(wife_of_Shakespeare)">Anne Hathaway</a>, with whom he had three children: <a href="/wiki/Susanna_Hall">Susanna</a>, and twins <a href="/wiki/Hamnet_Shakespeare">Hamnet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judith_Quiney">Judith</a>. Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a successful career in London as an actor, writer, and part-owner of a <a href="/wiki/Playing_company">playing company</a> called the <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chamberlain%27s_Men">Lord Chamberlain's Men</a>, later known as the <a href="/wiki/King%27s_Men_(playing_company)">King's Men</a>. At age 49 (around 1613), he appears to have retired to Stratford, where he died three years later. Few records of Shakespeare's private life survive; this has stimulated considerable speculation about such matters as <a href="/wiki/Portraits_of_Shakespeare">his physical appearance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sexuality_of_William_Shakespeare">his sexuality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religious_views_of_William_Shakespeare">his religious beliefs</a> and whether the works attributed to him were <a href="/wiki/Shakespeare_authorship_question">written by others</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShapiro2005xvii–xviii-13">[8]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum199141,_66,_397–398,_402,_409-14">[9]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor1990145,_210–223,_261–265-15">[10]</a></sup>
</p><p>Shakespeare produced most of his known works between 1589 and 1613.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambers1930a270–271-16">[11]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor1987109–134-17">[12]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-18">[f]</a></sup> His early plays were primarily <a href="/wiki/Shakespearean_comedy">comedies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shakespearean_history">histories</a> and are regarded as some of the best works produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly <a href="/wiki/Shakespearean_tragedy">tragedies</a> until 1608, among them <i><a href="/wiki/Hamlet">Hamlet</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Romeo_and_Juliet">Romeo and Juliet</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Othello">Othello</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/King_Lear">King Lear</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Macbeth">Macbeth</a></i>, all considered to be among the finest works in the English language.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenblatt200511-5">[2]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBevington20021–3-6">[3]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1997399-7">[4]</a></sup> In the last phase of his life, he wrote <a href="/wiki/Tragicomedy">tragicomedies</a> (also known as <a href="/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_late_romances">romances</a>) and collaborated with other playwrights.
</p><p>Many of Shakespeare's plays were published in editions of varying quality and accuracy in his lifetime. However, in 1623, <a href="/wiki/John_Heminges">John Heminges</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Condell">Henry Condell</a>, two fellow actors and friends of Shakespeare's, published a more definitive text known as the <a href="/wiki/First_Folio">First Folio</a>, a posthumous collected edition of Shakespeare's dramatic works that included all but two of his plays.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenblattAbrams20121168-19">[13]</a></sup> Its Preface was a prescient poem by <a href="/wiki/Ben_Jonson">Ben Jonson</a>, a former rival of Shakespeare, that hailed Shakespeare with the now famous epithet: "not of an age, but for all time".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenblattAbrams20121168-19">[13]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Life</h2>
<h3>Early life</h3>
<p>Shakespeare was the son of <a href="/wiki/John_Shakespeare">John Shakespeare</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Alderman">alderman</a> and a successful glover (glove-maker) originally from <a href="/wiki/Snitterfield">Snitterfield</a> in <a href="/wiki/Warwickshire">Warwickshire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mary_Shakespeare">Mary Arden</a>, the daughter of an <a href="/wiki/Arden_family">affluent landowning family</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum198714–22-20">[14]</a></sup> He was born in <a href="/wiki/Stratford-upon-Avon">Stratford-upon-Avon</a>, where he was <a href="/wiki/Baptism">baptised</a> on 26 April 1564. His date of birth is unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April, <a href="/wiki/Saint_George%27s_Day">Saint George's Day</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum198724–26-21">[15]</a></sup> This date, which can be traced to <a href="/wiki/William_Oldys">William Oldys</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Steevens">George Steevens</a>, has proved appealing to biographers because Shakespeare died on the same date in 1616.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum198724,_296-22">[16]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHonan199815–16-23">[17]</a></sup> He was the third of eight children, and the eldest surviving son.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum198723–24-24">[18]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:William_Shakespeares_birthplace,_Stratford-upon-Avon_26l2007.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Although no attendance records for the period survive, most biographers agree that Shakespeare was probably educated at the <a href="/wiki/King_Edward_VI_School,_Stratford-upon-Avon">King's New School</a> in Stratford,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum198762–63-25">[19]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAckroyd200653-26">[20]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005xv–xvi-27">[21]</a></sup> a free school chartered in 1553,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaldwin1944464-28">[22]</a></sup> about a quarter-mile (400 m) from his home. <a href="/wiki/Grammar_school">Grammar schools</a> varied in quality during the Elizabethan era, but grammar school curricula were largely similar: the basic <a href="/wiki/Latin">Latin</a> text was standardised by royal decree,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaldwin1944179–180,_183-29">[23]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECressy197528–29-30">[24]</a></sup> and the school would have provided an intensive education in grammar based upon Latin <a href="/wiki/Classics">classical</a> authors.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaldwin1944117-31">[25]</a></sup>
</p><p>At the age of 18, Shakespeare married 26-year-old <a href="/wiki/Anne_Hathaway_(Shakespeare%27s_wife)">Anne Hathaway</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Consistory_court">consistory court</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Anglican_Diocese_of_Worcester">Diocese of Worcester</a> issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. The next day, two of Hathaway's neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum198777–78-32">[26]</a></sup> The ceremony may have been arranged in some haste since the Worcester <a href="/wiki/Chancellor">chancellor</a> allowed the <a href="/wiki/Banns_of_marriage">marriage banns</a> to be read once instead of the usual three times,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood200384-33">[27]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum198778–79-34">[28]</a></sup> and six months after the marriage Anne gave birth to a daughter, <a href="/wiki/Susanna_Hall">Susanna</a>, baptised 26 May 1583.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum198793-35">[29]</a></sup> Twins, son <a href="/wiki/Hamnet_Shakespeare">Hamnet</a> and daughter <a href="/wiki/Judith_Quiney">Judith</a>, followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum198794-36">[30]</a></sup> Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987224-37">[31]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:William-Shakespeare_CoA_1602.jpg"></a></p><div><p><a href="/wiki/Shakespeare_coat_of_arms">Shakespeare's coat of arms</a>, from the 1602 book <i>The book of coates and creasts. Promptuarium armorum.</i> It features spears as a <a href="/wiki/Canting_arms">pun</a> on the family name.<sup><a href="#cite_note-38">[g]</a></sup></p></div></div>
<p>After the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592. The exception is the appearance of his name in the "complaints bill" of a law case before the Queen's Bench court at Westminster dated <a href="/wiki/Michaelmas_Term">Michaelmas Term</a> 1588 and 9 October 1589.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBate2008314-39">[32]</a></sup> Scholars refer to the years between 1585 and 1592 as Shakespeare's "lost years".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum198795-40">[33]</a></sup> Biographers attempting to account for this period have reported many <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/apocryphal">apocryphal</a> stories. <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rowe_(writer)">Nicholas Rowe</a>, Shakespeare's first biographer, recounted a Stratford legend that Shakespeare fled the town for London to escape prosecution for deer <a href="/wiki/Poaching">poaching</a> in the estate of local squire <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Lucy">Thomas Lucy</a>. Shakespeare is also supposed to have taken his revenge on Lucy by writing a scurrilous ballad about him.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum198797–108-41">[34]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowe1709-42">[35]</a></sup> Another 18th-century story has Shakespeare starting his theatrical career minding the horses of theatre patrons in London.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987144–145-43">[36]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_Aubrey">John Aubrey</a> reported that Shakespeare had been a country schoolmaster.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987110–111-44">[37]</a></sup> Some 20th-century scholars suggested that Shakespeare may have been employed as a schoolmaster by Alexander Hoghton of <a href="/wiki/Lancashire">Lancashire</a>, a Catholic landowner who named a certain "William Shakeshafte" in his will.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHonigmann19991-45">[38]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005xvii-46">[39]</a></sup> Little evidence substantiates such stories other than <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hearsay">hearsay</a> collected after his death, and Shakeshafte was a common name in the Lancashire area.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHonigmann199995–117-47">[40]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood200397–109-48">[41]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>London and theatrical career</h3>
<p>It is not known definitively when Shakespeare began writing, but contemporary allusions and records of performances show that several of his plays were on the London stage by 1592.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambers1930a287,_292-49">[42]</a></sup> By then, he was sufficiently known in London to be attacked in print by the playwright <a href="/wiki/Robert_Greene_(dramatist)">Robert Greene</a> in his <i><a href="/wiki/Greene%27s_Groats-Worth_of_Wit">Groats-Worth of Wit</a></i>:
</p>
<blockquote><p>... there is an upstart Crow, beautified with our feathers, that with his <i>Tiger's heart wrapped in a Player's hide</i>, supposes he is as well able to bombast out a blank verse as the best of you: and being an absolute <i>Johannes factotum</i>, is in his own conceit the only Shake-scene in a country.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenblatt2005213-50">[43]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>Scholars differ on the exact meaning of Greene's words,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenblatt2005213-50">[43]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987153-51">[44]</a></sup> but most agree that Greene was accusing Shakespeare of reaching above his rank in trying to match such university-educated writers as <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Marlowe">Christopher Marlowe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nashe">Thomas Nashe</a>, and Greene himself (the so-called "<a href="/wiki/University_Wits">University Wits</a>").<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAckroyd2006176-52">[45]</a></sup> The italicised phrase parodying the line "Oh, tiger's heart wrapped in a woman's hide" from Shakespeare's <i><a href="/wiki/Henry_VI,_Part_3">Henry VI, Part 3</a></i>, along with the pun "Shake-scene", clearly identify Shakespeare as Greene's target. As used here, <i><a href="/wiki/Jack_of_all_trades,_master_of_none">Johannes Factotum</a></i> ("Jack of all trades") refers to a second-rate tinkerer with the work of others, rather than the more common "universal genius".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenblatt2005213-50">[43]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987151–153-53">[46]</a></sup>
</p><p>Greene's attack is the earliest surviving mention of Shakespeare's work in the theatre. Biographers suggest that his career may have begun any time from the mid-1580s to just before Greene's remarks.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells200628-54">[47]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987144–146-55">[48]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambers1930a59-56">[49]</a></sup> After 1594, Shakespeare's plays were performed only by the <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chamberlain%27s_Men">Lord Chamberlain's Men</a>, a company owned by a group of players, including Shakespeare, that soon became the leading <a href="/wiki/Playing_company">playing company</a> in London.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987184-57">[50]</a></sup> After the death of <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I">Queen Elizabeth</a> in 1603, the company was awarded a royal patent by the new <a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I">King James I</a>, and changed its name to the <a href="/wiki/King%27s_Men_(playing_company)">King's Men</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambers1923208–209-58">[51]</a></sup>
</p>
<div>
<blockquote>
<p>"All the world's a stage,<br />
and all the men and women merely players:<br />
they have their exits and their entrances;<br />
and one man in his time plays many parts ..."
</p>
</blockquote>
<p><cite>—<i><a href="/wiki/As_You_Like_It">As You Like It</a></i>, Act II, Scene 7, 139–142<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005666-59">[52]</a></sup></cite>
</p>
</div>
<p>In 1599, a partnership of members of the company built their own theatre on the south bank of the <a href="/wiki/River_Thames">River Thames</a>, which they named the <a href="/wiki/Globe_Theatre">Globe</a>. In 1608, the partnership also took over the <a href="/wiki/Blackfriars_Theatre">Blackfriars indoor theatre</a>. Extant records of Shakespeare's property purchases and investments indicate that his association with the company made him a wealthy man,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambers1930b67–71-60">[53]</a></sup> and in 1597, he bought the second-largest house in Stratford, <a href="/wiki/New_Place">New Place</a>, and in 1605, invested in a share of the parish <a href="/wiki/Tithes">tithes</a> in Stratford.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentley196136-61">[54]</a></sup>
</p><p>Some of Shakespeare's plays were published in <a href="/wiki/Quarto_(binding)">quarto</a> editions, beginning in 1594, and by 1598, his name had become a selling point and began to appear on the <a href="/wiki/Title_page">title pages</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987188-62">[55]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKastan199937-63">[56]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnutson200117-64">[57]</a></sup> Shakespeare continued to act in his own and other plays after his success as a playwright. The 1616 edition of <a href="/wiki/Ben_Jonson">Ben Jonson</a>'s <i>Works</i> names him on the cast lists for <i><a href="/wiki/Every_Man_in_His_Humour">Every Man in His Humour</a></i> (1598) and <i><a href="/wiki/Sejanus_His_Fall">Sejanus His Fall</a></i> (1603).<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams1923275-65">[58]</a></sup> The absence of his name from the 1605 cast list for Jonson's <i><a href="/wiki/Volpone">Volpone</a></i> is taken by some scholars as a sign that his acting career was nearing its end.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells200628-54">[47]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/First_Folio">First Folio</a> of 1623, however, lists Shakespeare as one of "the Principal Actors in all these Plays", some of which were first staged after <i>Volpone</i>, although one cannot know for certain which roles he played.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987200-66">[59]</a></sup> In 1610, <a href="/wiki/John_Davies_of_Hereford">John Davies of Hereford</a> wrote that "good Will" played "kingly" roles.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987200–201-67">[60]</a></sup> In 1709, Rowe passed down a tradition that Shakespeare played the ghost of Hamlet's father.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowe1709-42">[35]</a></sup> Later traditions maintain that he also played Adam in <i><a href="/wiki/As_You_Like_It">As You Like It</a></i>, and the Chorus in <i><a href="/wiki/Henry_V_(play)">Henry V</a></i>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAckroyd2006357-68">[61]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005xxii-69">[62]</a></sup> though scholars doubt the sources of that information.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987202–203-70">[63]</a></sup>
</p><p>Throughout his career, Shakespeare divided his time between London and Stratford. In 1596, the year before he bought New Place as his family home in Stratford, Shakespeare was living in the parish of St. Helen's, <a href="/wiki/Bishopsgate">Bishopsgate</a>, north of the River Thames.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHales1904401–402-71">[64]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHonan1998121-72">[65]</a></sup> He moved across the river to <a href="/wiki/Southwark">Southwark</a> by 1599, the same year his company constructed the Globe Theatre there.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHales1904401–402-71">[64]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShapiro2005122-73">[66]</a></sup> By 1604, he had moved north of the river again, to an area north of <a href="/wiki/St_Paul%27s_Cathedral">St Paul's Cathedral</a> with many fine houses. There, he rented rooms from a French <a href="/wiki/Huguenot">Huguenot</a> named Christopher Mountjoy, a maker of women's wigs and other headgear.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHonan1998325-74">[67]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenblatt2005405-75">[68]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Later years and death</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Monument-ht6.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rowe_(writer)">Nicholas Rowe</a> was the first biographer to record the tradition, repeated by <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson">Samuel Johnson</a>, that Shakespeare retired to Stratford "some years before his death".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAckroyd2006476-76">[69]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood1806ix–x,_lxxii-77">[70]</a></sup> He was still working as an actor in London in 1608; in an answer to the sharers' petition in 1635, <a href="/wiki/Cuthbert_Burbage">Cuthbert Burbage</a> stated that after purchasing the lease of the <a href="/wiki/Blackfriars_Theatre">Blackfriars Theatre</a> in 1608 from <a href="/wiki/Henry_Evans_(theatre)">Henry Evans</a>, the King's Men "placed men players" there, "which were <a href="/wiki/John_Heminges">Heminges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Condell">Condell</a>, Shakespeare, etc.".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1964558-78">[71]</a></sup> However, it is perhaps relevant that the <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague">bubonic plague</a> raged in London throughout 1609.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAckroyd2006477-79">[72]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarroll1991179–182-80">[73]</a></sup> The London public playhouses were repeatedly closed during extended outbreaks of the plague (a total of over 60 months closure between May 1603 and February 1610),<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBate2008354–355-81">[74]</a></sup> which meant there was often no acting work. Retirement from all work was uncommon at that time.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHonan1998382–383-82">[75]</a></sup> Shakespeare continued to visit London during the years 1611–1614.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAckroyd2006476-76">[69]</a></sup> In 1612, he was called as a witness in <i><a href="/wiki/Bellott_v_Mountjoy">Bellott v Mountjoy</a></i>, a court case concerning the marriage settlement of Mountjoy's daughter, Mary.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHonan1998326-83">[76]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAckroyd2006462–464-84">[77]</a></sup> In March 1613, he bought a <a href="/wiki/Gatehouse">gatehouse</a> in the former <a href="/wiki/Blackfriars,_London">Blackfriars</a> priory;<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987272–274-85">[78]</a></sup> and from November 1614, he was in London for several weeks with his son-in-law, <a href="/wiki/John_Hall_(physician)">John Hall</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHonan1998387-86">[79]</a></sup> After 1610, Shakespeare wrote fewer plays, and none are attributed to him after 1613.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987279-87">[80]</a></sup> His last three plays were collaborations, probably with <a href="/wiki/John_Fletcher_(playwright)">John Fletcher</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHonan1998375–378-88">[81]</a></sup> who succeeded him as the house playwright of the King's Men. He retired in 1613, before the <a href="/wiki/Globe_Theatre">Globe Theatre</a> burned down during the performance of <i><a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII_(play)">Henry VIII</a></i> on 29 June.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987279-87">[80]</a></sup>
</p><p>Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616, at the age of 52.<sup><a href="#cite_note-89">[h]</a></sup> He died within a month of signing his will, a document which he begins by describing himself as being in "perfect health". No extant contemporary source explains how or why he died. Half a century later, <a href="/wiki/John_Ward_(vicar)">John Ward</a>, the vicar of Stratford, wrote in his notebook: "Shakespeare, Drayton, and Ben Jonson had a merry meeting and, it seems, drank too hard, for Shakespeare died of a fever there contracted",<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum199178-90">[82]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowse1963453-91">[83]</a></sup> not an impossible scenario since Shakespeare knew Jonson and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Drayton">Drayton</a>. Of the tributes from fellow authors, one refers to his relatively sudden death: "We wondered, Shakespeare, that thou went'st so soon / From the world's stage to the grave's tiring room."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinney201211-92">[84]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-93">[i]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Holy_Trinity_Church,_Stratford-upon-Avon.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>He was survived by his wife and two daughters. Susanna had married a physician, John Hall, in 1607,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987287-94">[85]</a></sup> and Judith had married <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Quiney">Thomas Quiney</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Vintner">vintner</a>, two months before Shakespeare's death.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987292–294-95">[86]</a></sup> Shakespeare signed his last will and testament on 25 March 1616; the following day, his new son-in-law, Thomas Quiney was found guilty of fathering an illegitimate son by Margaret Wheeler, who had died during childbirth. Thomas was ordered by the church court to do public penance, which would have caused much shame and embarrassment for the Shakespeare family.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987292–294-95">[86]</a></sup>
</p><p>Shakespeare bequeathed the bulk of his large estate to his elder daughter Susanna<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987304-96">[87]</a></sup> under stipulations that she pass it down intact to "the first son of her body".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHonan1998395–396-97">[88]</a></sup> The Quineys had three children, all of whom died without marrying.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambers1930b8,_11,_104-98">[89]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987296-99">[90]</a></sup> The Halls had one child, Elizabeth, who married twice but died without children in 1670, ending Shakespeare's direct line.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambers1930b7,_9,_13-100">[91]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987289,_318–319-101">[92]</a></sup> Shakespeare's will scarcely mentions his wife, Anne, who was probably entitled to one-third of his estate automatically.<sup><a href="#cite_note-103">[j]</a></sup> He did make a point, however, of leaving her "my second best bed", a bequest that has led to much speculation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAckroyd2006483-104">[94]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrye200516-105">[95]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenblatt2005145–146-106">[96]</a></sup> Some scholars see the bequest as an insult to Anne, whereas others believe that the second-best bed would have been the matrimonial bed and therefore rich in significance.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987301–303-107">[97]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Shakespeare_grave_-Stratford-upon-Avon_-3June2007.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Shakespeare's grave, next to those of Anne Shakespeare, his wife, and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nash_(relative_of_Shakespeare)">Thomas Nash</a>, the husband of his granddaughter</p></div></div>
<p>Shakespeare was buried in the <a href="/wiki/Chancel">chancel</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Trinity_Church,_Stratford-upon-Avon">Holy Trinity Church</a> two days after his death.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987306–307-108">[98]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005xviii-109">[99]</a></sup> The epitaph carved into the stone slab covering his grave includes a curse against moving his bones, which was carefully avoided during restoration of the church in 2008:<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBBC_News2008-110">[100]</a></sup>
</p>
<table>
<tbody><tr>
<td><p>Good frend for Iesvs sake forbeare,<br />
To digg the dvst encloased heare.<br />
Bleste be yͤ man yͭ spares thes stones,<br />
And cvrst be he yͭ moves my bones.<i><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987306-111">[101]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-112">[k]</a></sup></i>
</p>
</td>
<td><p>Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbear,<br />
To dig the dust enclosed here.<br />
Blessed be the man that spares these stones,<br />
And cursed be he that moves my bones.
</p>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<p>Some time before 1623, a <a href="/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_funerary_monument">funerary monument</a> was erected in his memory on the north wall, with a half-effigy of him in the act of writing. Its plaque compares him to <a href="/wiki/Nestor_(mythology)">Nestor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Socrates">Socrates</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Virgil">Virgil</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987308–310-113">[102]</a></sup> In 1623, in conjunction with the publication of the <a href="/wiki/First_Folio">First Folio</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Droeshout_engraving">Droeshout engraving</a> was published.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper200648-114">[103]</a></sup> Shakespeare has been commemorated in many <a href="/wiki/Memorials_to_William_Shakespeare">statues and memorials</a> around the world, including funeral monuments in <a href="/wiki/Southwark_Cathedral">Southwark Cathedral</a> and <a href="/wiki/Poets%27_Corner">Poets' Corner</a> in <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestminster_Abbeyn.d.-115">[104]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthwark_Cathedraln.d.-116">[105]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Plays</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Procession_of_Characters_from_Shakespeare%27s_Plays_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"></a></p><div><p><i>Procession of Characters from Shakespeare's Plays</i> by an unknown 19th-century artist</p></div></div>
<p>Most playwrights of the period typically collaborated with others at some point, as critics agree Shakespeare did, mostly early and late in his career.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson200349-117">[106]</a></sup>
</p><p>The first recorded works of Shakespeare are <i><a href="/wiki/Richard_III_(play)">Richard III</a></i> and the three parts of <i><a href="/wiki/Henry_VI,_Part_1">Henry VI</a></i>, written in the early 1590s during a vogue for <a href="/wiki/History_(theatrical_genre)">historical drama</a>. Shakespeare's plays are difficult to date precisely, however,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrye20059-118">[107]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHonan1998166-119">[108]</a></sup> and studies of the texts suggest that <i><a href="/wiki/Titus_Andronicus">Titus Andronicus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Comedy_of_Errors">The Comedy of Errors</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Taming_of_the_Shrew">The Taming of the Shrew</a>,</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Two_Gentlemen_of_Verona">The Two Gentlemen of Verona</a></i> may also belong to Shakespeare's earliest period.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987159–161-120">[109]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrye20059-118">[107]</a></sup> His first <a href="/wiki/Shakespearean_history">histories</a>, which draw heavily on the 1587 edition of Raphael Holinshed's <a href="/wiki/Holinshed%27s_Chronicles"><i>Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland</i></a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuttonHoward2003147-121">[110]</a></sup> dramatise the destructive results of weak or corrupt rule and have been interpreted as a justification for the origins of the <a href="/wiki/Tudor_dynasty">Tudor dynasty</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERibner2005154–155-122">[111]</a></sup> The early plays were influenced by the works of other Elizabethan dramatists, especially <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kyd">Thomas Kyd</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Marlowe">Christopher Marlowe</a>, by the traditions of medieval drama, and by the plays of <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger">Seneca</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrye2005105-123">[112]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERibner200567-124">[113]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBednarz2004100-125">[114]</a></sup> <i>The Comedy of Errors</i> was also based on classical models, but no source for <i>The Taming of the Shrew</i> has been found, though it is related to a separate play of the same name and may have derived from a folk story.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHonan1998136-126">[115]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987166-127">[116]</a></sup> Like <i>The Two Gentlemen of Verona</i>, in which two friends appear to approve of rape,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrye200591-128">[117]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHonan1998116–117-129">[118]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWerner200196–100-130">[119]</a></sup> the <i>Shrew</i>'s story of the taming of a woman's independent spirit by a man sometimes troubles modern critics, directors, and audiences.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFriedman2006159-131">[120]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Oberon,_Titania_and_Puck_with_Fairies_Dancing._William_Blake._c.1786.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Shakespeare's early classical and Italianate comedies, containing tight double plots and precise comic sequences, give way in the mid-1590s to the romantic atmosphere of his most acclaimed comedies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAckroyd2006235-132">[121]</a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/A_Midsummer_Night%27s_Dream">A Midsummer Night's Dream</a></i> is a witty mixture of romance, fairy magic, and comic lowlife scenes.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood2003161–162-133">[122]</a></sup> Shakespeare's next comedy, the equally romantic <i><a href="/wiki/The_Merchant_of_Venice">Merchant of Venice</a></i>, contains a portrayal of the vengeful Jewish moneylender <a href="/wiki/Shylock">Shylock</a>, which reflects dominant Elizabethan views but may appear derogatory to modern audiences.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood2003205–206-134">[123]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHonan1998258-135">[124]</a></sup> The wit and wordplay of <i><a href="/wiki/Much_Ado_About_Nothing">Much Ado About Nothing</a></i>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAckroyd2006359-136">[125]</a></sup> the charming rural setting of <i><a href="/wiki/As_You_Like_It">As You Like It</a></i>, and the lively merrymaking of <i><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Night">Twelfth Night</a></i> complete Shakespeare's sequence of great comedies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAckroyd2006362–383-137">[126]</a></sup> After the lyrical <i><a href="/wiki/Richard_II_(play)">Richard II</a></i>, written almost entirely in verse, Shakespeare introduced prose comedy into the histories of the late 1590s, <i><a href="/wiki/Henry_IV,_Part_1">Henry IV, parts 1</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Henry_IV,_Part_2">2</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Henry_V_(play)">Henry V</a></i>. His characters become more complex and tender as he switches deftly between comic and serious scenes, prose and poetry, and achieves the narrative variety of his mature work.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShapiro2005150-138">[127]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibbons19931-139">[128]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAckroyd2006356-140">[129]</a></sup> This period begins and ends with two tragedies: <i><a href="/wiki/Romeo_and_Juliet">Romeo and Juliet</a></i>, the famous romantic tragedy of sexually charged adolescence, love, and death;<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood2003161-141">[130]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHonan1998206-142">[131]</a></sup> and <i><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar_(play)">Julius Caesar</a></i>— based on Sir <a href="/wiki/Thomas_North">Thomas North</a>'s 1579 translation of <a href="/wiki/Plutarch">Plutarch</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Parallel_Lives">Parallel Lives</a></i>—which introduced a new kind of drama.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAckroyd2006353,_358-143">[132]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShapiro2005151–153-144">[133]</a></sup> According to Shakespearean scholar <a href="/wiki/James_S._Shapiro">James Shapiro</a>, in <i>Julius Caesar,</i> "the various strands of politics, character, inwardness, contemporary events, even Shakespeare's own reflections on the act of writing, began to infuse each other".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShapiro2005151-145">[134]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Henry_Fuseli_rendering_of_Hamlet_and_his_father%27s_Ghost.JPG"></a></p></div>
<p>In the early 17th century, Shakespeare wrote the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Shakespearean_problem_play">problem plays</a>" <i><a href="/wiki/Measure_for_Measure">Measure for Measure</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Troilus_and_Cressida">Troilus and Cressida</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/All%27s_Well_That_Ends_Well">All's Well That Ends Well</a></i> and a number of his best known <a href="/wiki/Shakespearean_tragedy">tragedies</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley199185-146">[135]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuir200512–16-147">[136]</a></sup> Many critics believe that Shakespeare's greatest tragedies represent the peak of his art. The titular hero of one of Shakespeare's greatest tragedies, <i><a href="/wiki/Hamlet">Hamlet</a></i>, has probably been discussed more than any other Shakespearean character, especially for his famous <a href="/wiki/Soliloquy">soliloquy</a> which begins "<a href="/wiki/To_be,_or_not_to_be">To be or not to be; that is the question</a>".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley199194-148">[137]</a></sup> Unlike the introverted Hamlet, whose fatal flaw is hesitation, the heroes of the tragedies that followed, Othello and King Lear, are undone by hasty errors of judgement.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley199186-149">[138]</a></sup> The plots of Shakespeare's tragedies often hinge on such fatal errors or flaws, which overturn order and destroy the hero and those he loves.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley199140,_48-150">[139]</a></sup> In <i><a href="/wiki/Othello">Othello</a></i>, the villain <a href="/wiki/Iago">Iago</a> stokes Othello's sexual jealousy to the point where he murders the innocent wife who loves him.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley199142,_169,_195-151">[140]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenblatt2005304-152">[141]</a></sup> In <i><a href="/wiki/King_Lear">King Lear</a></i>, the old king commits the tragic error of giving up his powers, initiating the events which lead to the torture and blinding of the Earl of Gloucester and the murder of Lear's youngest daughter Cordelia. According to the critic Frank Kermode, "the play...offers neither its good characters nor its audience any relief from its cruelty".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley1991226-153">[142]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAckroyd2006423-154">[143]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKermode2004141–142-155">[144]</a></sup> In <i><a href="/wiki/Macbeth">Macbeth</a></i>, the shortest and most compressed of Shakespeare's tragedies,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDonald200643–46-156">[145]</a></sup> uncontrollable ambition incites Macbeth and his wife, <a href="/wiki/Lady_Macbeth">Lady Macbeth</a>, to murder the rightful king and usurp the throne until their own guilt destroys them in turn.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley1991306-157">[146]</a></sup> In this play, Shakespeare adds a supernatural element to the tragic structure. His last major tragedies, <i><a href="/wiki/Antony_and_Cleopatra">Antony and Cleopatra</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Coriolanus">Coriolanus</a></i>, contain some of Shakespeare's finest poetry and were considered his most successful tragedies by the poet and critic <a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot">T. S. Eliot</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAckroyd2006444-158">[147]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDonald200669–70-159">[148]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEliot193459-160">[149]</a></sup>
</p><p>In his final period, Shakespeare turned to <a href="/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_late_romances">romance</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tragicomedy">tragicomedy</a> and completed three more major plays: <i><a href="/wiki/Cymbeline">Cymbeline</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Winter%27s_Tale">The Winter's Tale</a>,</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Tempest">The Tempest</a></i>, as well as the collaboration, <i><a href="/wiki/Pericles,_Prince_of_Tyre">Pericles, Prince of Tyre</a></i>. Less bleak than the tragedies, these four plays are graver in tone than the comedies of the 1590s, but they end with reconciliation and the forgiveness of potentially tragic errors.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowden188157-161">[150]</a></sup> Some commentators have seen this change in mood as evidence of a more serene view of life on Shakespeare's part, but it may merely reflect the theatrical fashion of the day.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowden188160-162">[151]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrye2005123-163">[152]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDonald200615-164">[153]</a></sup> Shakespeare collaborated on two further surviving plays, <i><a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII_(play)">Henry VIII</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Two_Noble_Kinsmen">The Two Noble Kinsmen</a></i>, probably with <a href="/wiki/John_Fletcher_(playwright)">John Fletcher</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery20051247,_1279-165">[154]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Performances</h3>
<p>It is not clear for which companies Shakespeare wrote his early plays. The title page of the 1594 edition of <i>Titus Andronicus</i> reveals that the play had been acted by three different troupes.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005xx-166">[155]</a></sup> After the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death_in_England">plagues</a> of 1592–93, Shakespeare's plays were performed by his own company at <a href="/wiki/The_Theatre">The Theatre</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Curtain_Theatre">Curtain</a> in <a href="/wiki/Shoreditch">Shoreditch</a>, north of the Thames.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005xxi-167">[156]</a></sup> Londoners flocked there to see the first part of <i>Henry IV</i>, <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Digges_(writer)">Leonard Digges</a> recording, "Let but Falstaff come, Hal, Poins, the rest ... and you scarce shall have a room".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShapiro200516-168">[157]</a></sup> When the company found themselves in dispute with their landlord, they pulled The Theatre down and used the timbers to construct the <a href="/wiki/Globe_Theatre">Globe Theatre</a>, the first playhouse built by actors for actors, on the south bank of the Thames at <a href="/wiki/Southwark">Southwark</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoakes19906-169">[158]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShapiro2005125–131-170">[159]</a></sup> The Globe opened in autumn 1599, with <i>Julius Caesar</i> one of the first plays staged. Most of Shakespeare's greatest post-1599 plays were written for the Globe, including <i>Hamlet</i>, <i>Othello,</i> and <i>King Lear</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoakes19906-169">[158]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENagler19587-171">[160]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShapiro2005131–132-172">[161]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Shakespeare%C2%B4s_Globe_(8162111781).jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>After the Lord Chamberlain's Men were renamed the <a href="/wiki/King%27s_Men_(playing_company)">King's Men</a> in 1603, they entered a special relationship with the new <a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I">King James</a>. Although the performance records are patchy, the King's Men performed seven of Shakespeare's plays at court between 1 November 1604, and 31 October 1605, including two performances of <i>The Merchant of Venice</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005xxii-69">[62]</a></sup> After 1608, they performed at the indoor <a href="/wiki/Blackfriars_Theatre">Blackfriars Theatre</a> during the winter and the Globe during the summer.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoakes199033-173">[162]</a></sup> The indoor setting, combined with the <a href="/wiki/Jacobean_era">Jacobean</a> fashion for lavishly staged <a href="/wiki/Masques">masques</a>, allowed Shakespeare to introduce more elaborate stage devices. In <i>Cymbeline</i>, for example, <a href="/wiki/Jupiter_(mythology)">Jupiter</a> descends "in thunder and lightning, sitting upon an eagle: he throws a thunderbolt. The ghosts fall on their knees."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAckroyd2006454-174">[163]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2000xli-175">[164]</a></sup>
</p><p>The actors in Shakespeare's company included the famous <a href="/wiki/Richard_Burbage">Richard Burbage</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Kempe">William Kempe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Condell">Henry Condell</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Heminges">John Heminges</a>. Burbage played the leading role in the first performances of many of Shakespeare's plays, including <i>Richard III</i>, <i>Hamlet</i>, <i>Othello</i>, and <i>King Lear</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERingler1997127-176">[165]</a></sup> The popular comic actor Will Kempe played the servant Peter in <i>Romeo and Juliet</i> and <a href="/wiki/Dogberry">Dogberry</a> in <i>Much Ado About Nothing</i>, among other characters.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987210-177">[166]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambers1930a341-178">[167]</a></sup> He was replaced around 1600 by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Armin">Robert Armin</a>, who played roles such as <a href="/wiki/Touchstone_(As_You_Like_It)">Touchstone</a> in <i>As You Like It</i> and the fool in <i>King Lear</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShapiro2005247–249-179">[168]</a></sup> In 1613, Sir <a href="/wiki/Henry_Wotton">Henry Wotton</a> recorded that <i>Henry VIII</i> "was set forth with many extraordinary circumstances of pomp and ceremony".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery20051247-180">[169]</a></sup> On 29 June, however, a cannon set fire to the thatch of the Globe and burned the theatre to the ground, an event which pinpoints the date of a Shakespeare play with rare precision.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery20051247-180">[169]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Textual sources</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Title_page_William_Shakespeare%27s_First_Folio_1623.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>In 1623, <a href="/wiki/John_Heminges">John Heminges</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Condell">Henry Condell</a>, two of Shakespeare's friends from the King's Men, published the <a href="/wiki/First_Folio">First Folio</a>, a collected edition of Shakespeare's plays. It contained 36 texts, including 18 printed for the first time.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005xxxvii-181">[170]</a></sup> Many of the plays had already appeared in <a href="/wiki/Book_size">quarto</a> versions—flimsy books made from sheets of paper folded twice to make four leaves.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005xxxiv-182">[171]</a></sup> No evidence suggests that Shakespeare approved these editions, which the First Folio describes as "stol'n and surreptitious copies".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard1909xi-183">[172]</a></sup> Nor did Shakespeare plan or expect his works to survive in any form at all; those works likely would have faded into oblivion but for his friends' spontaneous idea, after his death, to create and publish the First Folio.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaysSwanson2016-184">[173]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Alfred_W._Pollard">Alfred Pollard</a> termed some of the pre-1623 versions as "<a href="/wiki/Bad_quarto">bad quartos</a>" because of their adapted, paraphrased or garbled texts, which may in places have been reconstructed from memory.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005xxxiv-182">[171]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard1909xi-183">[172]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaguire199628-185">[174]</a></sup> Where several versions of a play survive, each <a href="/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_plays#Shakespeare_and_the_textual_problem">differs from the other</a>. The differences may stem from copying or <a href="/wiki/Typesetting#Letterpress_era">printing</a> errors, from notes by actors or audience members, or from Shakespeare's own <a href="/wiki/Foul_papers">papers</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowers19558–10-186">[175]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005xxxiv–xxxv-187">[176]</a></sup> In some cases, for example, <i>Hamlet</i>, <i>Troilus and Cressida,</i> and <i>Othello</i>, Shakespeare could have revised the texts between the quarto and folio editions. In the case of <i><a href="/wiki/King_Lear">King Lear</a></i>, however, while most modern editions do conflate them, the 1623 folio version is so different from the 1608 quarto that the <i>Oxford Shakespeare</i> prints them both, arguing that they cannot be conflated without confusion.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005909,_1153-188">[177]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Poems</h2>
<p>In 1593 and 1594, when the theatres were closed because of <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague">plague</a>, Shakespeare published two narrative poems on sexual themes, <i><a href="/wiki/Venus_and_Adonis_(Shakespeare_poem)">Venus and Adonis</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Rape_of_Lucrece">The Rape of Lucrece</a></i>. He dedicated them to <a href="/wiki/Henry_Wriothesley,_3rd_Earl_of_Southampton">Henry Wriothesley, Earl of Southampton</a>. In <i>Venus and Adonis</i>, an innocent <a href="/wiki/Adonis">Adonis</a> rejects the sexual advances of <a href="/wiki/Venus_(mythology)">Venus</a>; while in <i>The Rape of Lucrece</i>, the virtuous wife <a href="/wiki/Lucretia">Lucrece</a> is raped by the lustful <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Tarquinius">Tarquin</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoe200621-189">[178]</a></sup> Influenced by <a href="/wiki/Ovid">Ovid</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Metamorphoses">Metamorphoses</a></i>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrye2005288-190">[179]</a></sup> the poems show the guilt and moral confusion that result from uncontrolled lust.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoe20063,_21-191">[180]</a></sup> Both proved popular and were often reprinted during Shakespeare's lifetime. A third narrative poem, <i><a href="/wiki/A_Lover%27s_Complaint">A Lover's Complaint</a></i>, in which a young woman laments her seduction by a persuasive suitor, was printed in the first edition of the <i>Sonnets</i> in 1609. Most scholars now accept that Shakespeare wrote <i>A Lover's Complaint</i>. Critics consider that its fine qualities are marred by leaden effects.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoe20061-192">[181]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson2004267–294-193">[182]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHonan1998289-194">[183]</a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Phoenix_and_the_Turtle">The Phoenix and the Turtle</a></i>, printed in Robert Chester's 1601 <i>Love's Martyr</i>, mourns the deaths of the legendary <a href="/wiki/Phoenix_(mythology)">phoenix</a> and his lover, the faithful <a href="/wiki/European_turtle_dove">turtle dove</a>. In 1599, two early drafts of sonnets 138 and 144 appeared in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Passionate_Pilgrim">The Passionate Pilgrim</a></i>, published under Shakespeare's name but without his permission.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoe20061-192">[181]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHonan1998289-194">[183]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987327-195">[184]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Sonnets</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Sonnets1609titlepage.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Title page from 1609 edition of <i>Shake-Speares Sonnets</i></p></div></div>
<p>Published in 1609, the <i><a href="/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_sonnets">Sonnets</a></i> were the last of Shakespeare's non-dramatic works to be printed. Scholars are not certain when each of the 154 sonnets was composed, but evidence suggests that Shakespeare wrote sonnets throughout his career for a private readership.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood2003178-196">[185]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987180-197">[186]</a></sup> Even before the two unauthorised sonnets appeared in <i>The Passionate Pilgrim</i> in 1599, <a href="/wiki/Francis_Meres">Francis Meres</a> had referred in 1598 to Shakespeare's "sugred Sonnets among his private friends".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHonan1998180-198">[187]</a></sup> Few analysts believe that the published collection follows Shakespeare's intended sequence.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987268-199">[188]</a></sup> He seems to have planned two contrasting series: one about uncontrollable lust for a married woman of dark complexion (the "dark lady"), and one about conflicted love for a fair young man (the "fair youth"). It remains unclear if these figures represent real individuals, or if the authorial "I" who addresses them represents Shakespeare himself, though <a href="/wiki/Wordsworth">Wordsworth</a> believed that with the sonnets "Shakespeare unlocked his heart".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHonan1998180-198">[187]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987180-197">[186]</a></sup>
</p>
<div>
<blockquote>
<p>"Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?<br />
Thou art more lovely and more temperate ..."
</p>
</blockquote>
<p><cite>—Lines from Shakespeare's <i><a href="/wiki/Sonnet_18">Sonnet 18</a></i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMowatWerstinen.d.-200">[189]</a></sup></cite>
</p>
</div>
<p>The 1609 edition was dedicated to a "Mr. W.H.", credited as "the only begetter" of the poems. It is not known whether this was written by Shakespeare himself or by the publisher, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Thorpe">Thomas Thorpe</a>, whose initials appear at the foot of the dedication page; nor is it known who Mr. W.H. was, despite numerous theories, or whether Shakespeare even authorised the publication.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987268–269-201">[190]</a></sup> Critics praise the <i>Sonnets</i> as a profound meditation on the nature of love, sexual passion, procreation, death, and time.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood2003177-202">[191]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Style</h2>
<p>Shakespeare's first plays were written in the conventional style of the day. He wrote them in a stylised language that does not always spring naturally from the needs of the characters or the drama.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClemen2005a150-203">[192]</a></sup> The poetry depends on extended, sometimes elaborate metaphors and conceits, and the language is often rhetorical—written for actors to declaim rather than speak. The grand speeches in <i><a href="/wiki/Titus_Andronicus">Titus Andronicus</a></i>, in the view of some critics, often hold up the action, for example; and the verse in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Two_Gentlemen_of_Verona">The Two Gentlemen of Verona</a></i> has been described as stilted.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrye2005105,_177-204">[193]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClemen2005b29-205">[194]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:WilliamBlakePity.jpeg"></a></p><div><p><i><a href="/wiki/Pity_(William_Blake)">Pity</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/William_Blake">William Blake</a>, 1795, <a href="/wiki/Tate_Britain">Tate Britain</a>, is an illustration of two similes in <i>Macbeth</i>:</p><p>"And pity, like a naked new-born babe,<br />
Striding the blast, or heaven's cherubim, hors'd<br />
Upon the sightless couriers of the air."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Sélincourt1909174-206">[195]</a></sup>
</p></div></div>
<p>However, Shakespeare soon began to adapt the traditional styles to his own purposes. The opening <a href="/wiki/Soliloquy">soliloquy</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/Richard_III_(play)">Richard III</a></i> has its roots in the self-declaration of <a href="/wiki/The_Vice">Vice</a> in medieval drama. At the same time, Richard's vivid self-awareness looks forward to the soliloquies of Shakespeare's mature plays.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrooke200469-207">[196]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradbrook2004195-208">[197]</a></sup> No single play marks a change from the traditional to the freer style. Shakespeare combined the two throughout his career, with <i><a href="/wiki/Romeo_and_Juliet">Romeo and Juliet</a></i> perhaps the best example of the mixing of the styles.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClemen2005b63-209">[198]</a></sup> By the time of <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Richard_II_(play)">Richard II</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/A_Midsummer_Night%27s_Dream">A Midsummer Night's Dream</a></i> in the mid-1590s, Shakespeare had begun to write a more natural poetry. He increasingly tuned his metaphors and images to the needs of the drama itself.
</p><p>Shakespeare's standard poetic form was <a href="/wiki/Blank_verse">blank verse</a>, composed in <a href="/wiki/Iambic_pentameter">iambic pentameter</a>. In practice, this meant that his verse was usually unrhymed and consisted of ten syllables to a line, spoken with a stress on every second syllable. The blank verse of his early plays is quite different from that of his later ones. It is often beautiful, but its sentences tend to start, pause, and finish at the <a href="/wiki/End-stopping">end of lines</a>, with the risk of monotony.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrye2005185-210">[199]</a></sup> Once Shakespeare mastered traditional blank verse, he began to interrupt and vary its flow. This technique releases the new power and flexibility of the poetry in plays such as <i><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar_(play)">Julius Caesar</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Hamlet">Hamlet</a></i>. Shakespeare uses it, for example, to convey the turmoil in Hamlet's mind:<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright2004868-211">[200]</a></sup>
</p>
<blockquote><p>Sir, in my heart there was a kind of fighting<br />
That would not let me sleep. Methought I lay<br />
Worse than the mutines in the bilboes. Rashly—<br />
And prais'd be rashness for it—let us know<br />
Our indiscretion sometimes serves us well ...
</p>
<p>— <cite><i>Hamlet</i>, Act 5, Scene 2, 4–8<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright2004868-211">[200]</a></sup></cite></p></blockquote>
<p>After <i>Hamlet</i>, Shakespeare varied his poetic style further, particularly in the more emotional passages of the late tragedies. The literary critic <a href="/wiki/A._C._Bradley">A. C. Bradley</a> described this style as "more concentrated, rapid, varied, and, in construction, less regular, not seldom twisted or elliptical".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley199191-212">[201]</a></sup> In the last phase of his career, Shakespeare adopted many techniques to achieve these effects. These included <a href="/wiki/Enjambment">run-on lines</a>, irregular pauses and stops, and extreme variations in sentence structure and length.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDonald200642–46-213">[202]</a></sup> In <i><a href="/wiki/Macbeth">Macbeth</a></i>, for example, the language darts from one unrelated metaphor or simile to another: "was the hope drunk/ Wherein you dressed yourself?" (1.7.35–38); "... pity, like a naked new-born babe/ Striding the blast, or heaven's cherubim, hors'd/ Upon the sightless couriers of the air ..." (1.7.21–25). The listener is challenged to complete the sense.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDonald200642–46-213">[202]</a></sup> The late romances, with their shifts in time and surprising turns of plot, inspired a last poetic style in which long and short sentences are set against one another, clauses are piled up, subject and object are reversed, and words are omitted, creating an effect of spontaneity.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDonald200636,_39,_75-214">[203]</a></sup>
</p><p>Shakespeare combined poetic genius with a practical sense of the theatre.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibbons19934-215">[204]</a></sup> Like all playwrights of the time, he dramatised stories from sources such as <a href="/wiki/Plutarch">Plutarch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Raphael_Holinshed">Holinshed</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibbons19931–4-216">[205]</a></sup> He reshaped each plot to create several centres of interest and to show as many sides of a narrative to the audience as possible. This strength of design ensures that a Shakespeare play can survive translation, cutting, and wide interpretation without loss to its core drama.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibbons19931–7,_15-217">[206]</a></sup> As Shakespeare's mastery grew, he gave his characters clearer and more varied motivations and distinctive patterns of speech. He preserved aspects of his earlier style in the later plays, however. In <a href="/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_late_romances">Shakespeare's late romances</a>, he deliberately returned to a more artificial style, which emphasised the illusion of theatre.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDonald200613-218">[207]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeagher2003358-219">[208]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Influence</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Macbeth_consulting_the_Vision_of_the_Armed_Head.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Shakespeare's work has made a significant and lasting impression on later theatre and literature. In particular, he expanded the dramatic potential of <a href="/wiki/Characterisation">characterisation</a>, plot, <a href="/wiki/Language">language</a>, and genre.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambers194435-220">[209]</a></sup> Until <i><a href="/wiki/Romeo_and_Juliet">Romeo and Juliet</a></i>, for example, romance had not been viewed as a worthy topic for tragedy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevenson200049–50-221">[210]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Soliloquy">Soliloquies</a> had been used mainly to convey information about characters or events, but Shakespeare used them to explore characters' minds.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClemen1987179-222">[211]</a></sup> His work heavily influenced later poetry. The <a href="/wiki/Romanticism">Romantic poets</a> attempted to revive Shakespearean verse drama, though with little success. Critic <a href="/wiki/George_Steiner">George Steiner</a> described all English verse dramas from <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge">Coleridge</a> to <a href="/wiki/Alfred,_Lord_Tennyson">Tennyson</a> as "feeble variations on Shakespearean themes."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteiner1996145-223">[212]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_Milton">John Milton</a>, considered by many to be the most important English poet after Shakespeare, wrote in tribute: "Thou in our wonder and astonishment/ Has built thyself a live-long monument."<sup><a href="#cite_note-224">[213]</a></sup>
</p><p>Shakespeare influenced novelists such as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hardy_(writer)">Thomas Hardy</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Faulkner">William Faulkner</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Dickens">Charles Dickens</a>. The American novelist <a href="/wiki/Herman_Melville">Herman Melville</a>'s soliloquies owe much to Shakespeare; his Captain Ahab in <i><a href="/wiki/Moby-Dick">Moby-Dick</a></i> is a classic <a href="/wiki/Tragic_hero">tragic hero</a>, inspired by <i>King Lear</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryant199882-225">[214]</a></sup> Scholars have identified 20,000 pieces of music linked to Shakespeare's works. These include three operas by <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi">Giuseppe Verdi</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Macbeth_(opera)">Macbeth</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Otello">Otello</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Falstaff_(opera)">Falstaff</a></i>, whose critical standing compares with that of the source plays.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGross2003641–642-226">[215]</a></sup> Shakespeare has also inspired many painters, including the Romantics and the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Raphaelite_Brotherhood">Pre-Raphaelites</a>. The Swiss Romantic artist <a href="/wiki/Henry_Fuseli">Henry Fuseli</a>, a friend of <a href="/wiki/William_Blake">William Blake</a>, even translated <i>Macbeth</i> into German.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParaisz2006130-227">[216]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalyst">psychoanalyst</a> <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud">Sigmund Freud</a> drew on Shakespearean psychology, in particular, that of Hamlet, for his theories of human nature.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBloom1995346-228">[217]</a></sup> Shakespeare has been a rich source for filmmakers; <a href="/wiki/Akira_Kurosawa">Akira Kurosawa</a> adapted <i>Macbeth</i> and <i>King Lear</i> as <i><a href="/wiki/Throne_of_Blood">Throne of Blood</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Ran_(film)">Ran</a></i>, respectively. Other examples of Shakespeare on film include <a href="/wiki/Max_Reinhardt">Max Reinhardt</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/A_Midsummer_Night%27s_Dream_(1935_film)">A Midsummer Night's Dream</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Laurence_Olivier">Laurence Olivier</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Hamlet_(1948_film)">Hamlet</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Al_Pacino">Al Pacino</a>'s documentary <i><a href="/wiki/Looking_for_Richard">Looking For Richard</a></i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-229">[218]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Orson_Welles">Orson Welles</a>, a lifelong lover of Shakespeare, directed and starred in films of <i>Macbeth</i> and <i>Othello</i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Chimes_at_Midnight">Chimes at Midnight</a></i>, in which he plays <a href="/wiki/John_Falstaff">John Falstaff</a>, which Welles himself called his best work.<sup><a href="#cite_note-230">[219]</a></sup>
</p><p>In Shakespeare's day, English grammar, spelling, and pronunciation were less standardised than they are now,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECercignani1981-231">[220]</a></sup> and his use of language helped shape modern English.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal200155–65,_74-232">[221]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson">Samuel Johnson</a> quoted him more often than any other author in his <i><a href="/wiki/A_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language">A Dictionary of the English Language</a></i>, the first serious work of its type.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWain1975194-233">[222]</a></sup> Expressions such as "with bated breath" (<i>Merchant of Venice</i>) and "a foregone conclusion" (<i>Othello</i>) have found their way into everyday English speech.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson200212-234">[223]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal200163-235">[224]</a></sup>
</p><p>Shakespeare's influence extends far beyond his native England and the English language. His reception in Germany was particularly significant; as early as the 18th century Shakespeare was widely translated and popularised in Germany, and gradually became a "classic of the <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Classicism">German Weimar era</a>;" <a href="/wiki/Christoph_Martin_Wieland">Christoph Martin Wieland</a> was the first to produce complete translations of Shakespeare's plays in any language.<sup><a href="#cite_note-236">[225]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-237">[226]</a></sup> Actor and theatre director <a href="/wiki/Simon_Callow">Simon Callow</a> writes, "this master, this titan, this genius, so profoundly British and so effortlessly universal, each different culture – German, Italian, Russian – was obliged to respond to the Shakespearean example; for the most part, they embraced it, and him, with joyous abandon, as the possibilities of language and character in action that he celebrated liberated writers across the continent. Some of the most deeply affecting productions of Shakespeare have been non-English, and non-European. He is that unique writer: he has something for everyone."<sup><a href="#cite_note-238">[227]</a></sup>
</p><p>According to <i><a href="/wiki/Guinness_World_Records">Guinness World Records</a></i>, Shakespeare remains the world's best-selling playwright, with sales of his plays and poetry believed to have achieved in excess of four billion copies in the almost 400 years since his death. He is also the third <a href="/wiki/List_of_most_translated_individual_authors">most translated author in history</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-239">[228]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Critical reputation</h2>
<div>
<blockquote>
<p>"He was not of an age, but for all time."
</p>
</blockquote>
<p><cite>—<a href="/wiki/Ben_Jonson">Ben Jonson</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonson199610-240">[229]</a></sup></cite>
</p>
</div>
<p>Shakespeare was not revered in his lifetime, but he received a large amount of praise.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDominik19889-241">[230]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrady2001b267-242">[231]</a></sup> In 1598, the cleric and author <a href="/wiki/Francis_Meres">Francis Meres</a> singled him out from a group of English playwrights as "the most excellent" in both comedy and tragedy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrady2001b265-243">[232]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreer19869-244">[233]</a></sup> The authors of <a href="/wiki/Parnassus_plays">the <i>Parnassus</i> plays</a> at <a href="/wiki/St_John%27s_College,_Cambridge">St John's College, Cambridge</a>, numbered him with <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer">Chaucer</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Gower">Gower</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Spenser">Spenser</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrady2001b266-245">[234]</a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/First_Folio">First Folio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ben_Jonson">Ben Jonson</a> called Shakespeare the "Soul of the age, the applause, delight, the wonder of our stage", although he had remarked elsewhere that "Shakespeare wanted art" (lacked skill).<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonson199610-240">[229]</a></sup>
</p><p>Between <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Restoration">the Restoration</a> of the monarchy in 1660 and the end of the 17th century, classical ideas were in vogue. As a result, critics of the time mostly rated Shakespeare below <a href="/wiki/John_Fletcher_(playwright)">John Fletcher</a> and Ben Jonson.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrady2001b269-246">[235]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Rymer">Thomas Rymer</a>, for example, condemned Shakespeare for mixing the comic with the tragic. Nevertheless, poet and critic <a href="/wiki/John_Dryden">John Dryden</a> rated Shakespeare highly, saying of Jonson, "I admire him, but I love Shakespeare".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDryden188971-247">[236]</a></sup> He also famously remarked that Shakespeare "was naturally learned; he needed not the spectacles of books to read nature; he looked inwards, and found her there."<sup><a href="#cite_note-248">[237]</a></sup> For several decades, Rymer's view held sway. But during the 18th century, critics began to respond to Shakespeare on his own terms and, like Dryden, to acclaim what they termed his natural genius. A series of scholarly editions of his work, notably those of <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson">Samuel Johnson</a> in 1765 and <a href="/wiki/Edmond_Malone">Edmond Malone</a> in 1790, added to his growing reputation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrady2001b270–272-249">[238]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevin1986217-250">[239]</a></sup> By 1800, he was firmly enshrined as the national poet.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrady2001b270-251">[240]</a></sup> In the 18th and 19th centuries, his reputation also spread abroad. Among those who championed him were the writers <a href="/wiki/Voltaire">Voltaire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe">Goethe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stendhal">Stendhal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugo">Victor Hugo</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrady2001b272–74-252">[241]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-254">[l]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:William_Shakespeare_Statue_in_Lincoln_Park.JPG"></a></p><div><p>A garlanded statue of William Shakespeare in <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Park,_Chicago">Lincoln Park, Chicago</a>, typical of many created in the 19th and early 20th centuries</p></div></div>
<p>During the <a href="/wiki/Romanticism">Romantic era</a>, Shakespeare was praised by the poet and literary philosopher <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge">Samuel Taylor Coleridge</a>, and the critic <a href="/wiki/August_Wilhelm_Schlegel">August Wilhelm Schlegel</a> translated his plays in the spirit of <a href="/wiki/German_Romanticism">German Romanticism</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevin1986223-255">[243]</a></sup> In the 19th century, critical admiration for Shakespeare's genius often bordered on adulation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESawyer2003113-256">[244]</a></sup> "This King Shakespeare," the essayist <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a> wrote in 1840, "does not he shine, in crowned sovereignty, over us all, as the noblest, gentlest, yet strongest of rallying signs; indestructible".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarlyle1841161-257">[245]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Victorian_era">Victorians</a> produced his plays as lavish spectacles on a grand scale.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoch200258–59-258">[246]</a></sup> The playwright and critic <a href="/wiki/George_Bernard_Shaw">George Bernard Shaw</a> mocked the cult of Shakespeare worship as "<a href="/wiki/Bardolatry">bardolatry</a>", claiming that the new <a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(theatre)">naturalism</a> of <a href="/wiki/Henrik_Ibsen">Ibsen's</a> plays had made Shakespeare obsolete.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrady2001b276-259">[247]</a></sup>
</p><p>The modernist revolution in the arts during the early 20th century, far from discarding Shakespeare, eagerly enlisted his work in the service of the <a href="/wiki/Avant-garde">avant-garde</a>. The <a href="/wiki/German_Expressionism_(cinema)">Expressionists in Germany</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Futurism">Futurists</a> in Moscow mounted productions of his plays. Marxist playwright and director <a href="/wiki/Bertolt_Brecht">Bertolt Brecht</a> devised an <a href="/wiki/Epic_theatre">epic theatre</a> under the influence of Shakespeare. The poet and critic <a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot">T. S. Eliot</a> argued against Shaw that Shakespeare's "primitiveness" in fact made him truly modern.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrady2001a22–26-260">[248]</a></sup> Eliot, along with <a href="/wiki/G._Wilson_Knight">G. Wilson Knight</a> and the school of <a href="/wiki/New_Criticism">New Criticism</a>, led a movement towards a closer reading of Shakespeare's imagery. In the 1950s, a wave of new critical approaches replaced modernism and paved the way for <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism">post-modern</a> studies of Shakespeare.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrady2001a24-261">[249]</a></sup> By the 1980s, Shakespeare studies were open to movements such as <a href="/wiki/Structuralism">structuralism</a>, feminism, <a href="/wiki/New_Historicism">New Historicism</a>, <a href="/wiki/African-American_studies">African-American studies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Queer_studies">queer studies</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrady2001a29-262">[250]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrakakis198516–17,_23–25-263">[251]</a></sup> Comparing Shakespeare's accomplishments to those of leading figures in philosophy and theology, <a href="/wiki/Harold_Bloom">Harold Bloom</a> wrote, "Shakespeare was larger than <a href="/wiki/Plato">Plato</a> and than <a href="/wiki/St._Augustine">St. Augustine</a>. He <i>encloses</i> us because we <i>see</i> with his fundamental perceptions."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBloom2008xii-264">[252]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Works</h2>
<h3>Classification of the plays</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Gilbert_WShakespeares_Plays.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Shakespeare's works include the 36 plays printed in the <a href="/wiki/First_Folio">First Folio</a> of 1623, listed according to their folio classification as <a href="/wiki/Shakespearean_comedy">comedies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shakespearean_history">histories</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Shakespearean_tragedy">tragedies</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyce199691,_193,_513.-265">[253]</a></sup> Two plays not included in the First Folio, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Two_Noble_Kinsmen">The Two Noble Kinsmen</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Pericles,_Prince_of_Tyre">Pericles, Prince of Tyre</a></i>, are now accepted as part of the canon, with today's scholars agreeing that Shakespeare made major contributions to the writing of both.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKathman2003629-266">[254]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyce199691-267">[255]</a></sup> No Shakespearean poems were included in the First Folio.
</p><p>In the late 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Dowden">Edward Dowden</a> classified four of the late comedies as <a href="/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_late_romances">romances</a>, and though many scholars prefer to call them <i><a href="/wiki/Tragicomedy">tragicomedies</a></i>, Dowden's term is often used.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards19581–10-268">[256]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyderCurren-Aquino2007-269">[257]</a></sup> In 1896, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_S._Boas">Frederick S. Boas</a> coined the term "<a href="/wiki/Shakespearean_problem_play">problem plays</a>" to describe four plays: <i><a href="/wiki/All%27s_Well_That_Ends_Well">All's Well That Ends Well</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Measure_for_Measure">Measure for Measure</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Troilus_and_Cressida">Troilus and Cressida</a>,</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Hamlet">Hamlet</a></i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchanzer19631–10-270">[258]</a></sup> "Dramas as singular in theme and temper cannot be strictly called comedies or tragedies", he wrote. "We may, therefore, borrow a convenient phrase from the theatre of today and class them together as Shakespeare's problem plays."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoas1896345-271">[259]</a></sup> The term, much debated and sometimes applied to other plays, remains in use, though <i>Hamlet</i> is definitively classed as a tragedy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchanzer19631-272">[260]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBloom1999325–380-273">[261]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerry200537-274">[262]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Speculation</h2>
<h3></h3>
<p>Around 230 years after Shakespeare's death, doubts began to be expressed about the authorship of the works attributed to him.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShapiro201077–78-275">[263]</a></sup> Proposed alternative candidates include <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon">Francis Bacon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Marlowe">Christopher Marlowe</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Edward_de_Vere,_17th_Earl_of_Oxford">Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson200548,_72,_124-276">[264]</a></sup> Several "group theories" have also been proposed.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcMichaelGlenn196256-277">[265]</a></sup> All but a few Shakespeare scholars and literary historians consider it a <a href="/wiki/Fringe_theory">fringe theory</a>, with only a small minority of academics who believe that there is reason to question the traditional attribution,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_New_York_Times2007-278">[266]</a></sup> but interest in the subject, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Oxfordian_theory_of_Shakespeare_authorship">Oxfordian theory of Shakespeare authorship</a>, continues into the 21st century.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKathman2003620,_625–626-279">[267]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELove2002194–209-280">[268]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1991430–440-281">[269]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Religion</h3>
<p>Shakespeare conformed to the official state religion,<sup><a href="#cite_note-283">[m]</a></sup> but his private views on religion have been the subject of debate. <a href="/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_will">Shakespeare's will</a> uses a Protestant formula, and he was a confirmed member of the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England">Church of England</a>, where he was married, his children were baptised, and where he is buried. Some scholars claim that members of Shakespeare's family were Catholics, at a time when practising Catholicism in England was against the law.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritchard19793-284">[271]</a></sup> Shakespeare's mother, <a href="/wiki/Mary_Shakespeare">Mary Arden</a>, certainly came from a pious Catholic family. The strongest evidence might be a Catholic statement of faith signed by his father, <a href="/wiki/John_Shakespeare">John Shakespeare</a>, found in 1757 in the rafters of his former house in Henley Street. However, the document is now lost and scholars differ as to its authenticity.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood200375–78-285">[272]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAckroyd200622–23-286">[273]</a></sup> In 1591, the authorities reported that John Shakespeare had missed church "for fear of process for debt", a common Catholic excuse.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood200378-287">[274]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAckroyd2006416-288">[275]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum198741–42,_286-289">[276]</a></sup> In 1606, the name of William's daughter Susanna appears on a list of those who failed to attend Easter <a href="/wiki/Eucharist">communion</a> in Stratford.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood200378-287">[274]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAckroyd2006416-288">[275]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum198741–42,_286-289">[276]</a></sup> Other authors argue that there is a lack of evidence about Shakespeare's religious beliefs. Scholars find evidence both for and against Shakespeare's Catholicism, Protestantism, or lack of belief in his plays, but the truth may be impossible to prove.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson200434-290">[277]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShapiro2005167-291">[278]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Sexuality</h3>
<p>Few details of Shakespeare's sexuality are known. At 18, he married 26-year-old <a href="/wiki/Anne_Hathaway_(wife_of_Shakespeare)">Anne Hathaway</a>, who was pregnant. Susanna, the first of their three children, was born six months later on 26 May 1583. Over the centuries, some readers have posited that Shakespeare's sonnets are autobiographical,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee190055-292">[279]</a></sup> and point to them as evidence of his love for a young man. Others read the same passages as the expression of intense friendship rather than romantic love.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasey1998-293">[280]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPequigney1985-294">[281]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans1996132-295">[282]</a></sup> The 26 so-called <a href="/wiki/Dark_Lady_(Shakespeare)">"Dark Lady"</a> sonnets, addressed to a married woman, are taken as evidence of heterosexual liaisons.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFort1927406–414-296">[283]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Portraiture</h3>
<p>No written contemporary description of Shakespeare's physical appearance survives, and no evidence suggests that he ever commissioned a portrait, so the <a href="/wiki/Droeshout_engraving">Droeshout engraving</a>, which <a href="/wiki/Ben_Jonson">Ben Jonson</a> approved of as a good likeness,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper200648,_57-297">[284]</a></sup> and his <a href="/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_funerary_monument">Stratford monument</a> provide perhaps the best evidence of his appearance. From the 18th century, the desire for authentic Shakespeare portraits fuelled claims that various surviving pictures depicted Shakespeare. That demand also led to the production of several fake portraits, as well as misattributions, repaintings, and relabelling of portraits of other people.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1981190-298">[285]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_William_Shakespeare">Outline of William Shakespeare</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance_theatre">English Renaissance theatre</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spelling_of_Shakespeare%27s_name">Spelling of Shakespeare's name</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/World_Shakespeare_Bibliography">World Shakespeare Bibliography</a></i></li></ul>
<h2>Notes and references</h2>
<h3>Notes</h3>
<div>
<ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b> His monument states that he was in his 53rd year at death, i.e. 52 years old.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b> The concept that Shakespeare was born on 23 April, contrary to belief, is a tradition, and not a fact; see the section on Shakespeare's life below.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b> Dates follow the <a href="/wiki/Julian_calendar">Julian calendar</a>, used in England throughout Shakespeare's lifespan, but with the start of the year adjusted to 1 January (see <a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates">Old Style and New Style dates</a>). Under the <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar">Gregorian calendar</a>, adopted in Catholic countries in 1582, Shakespeare died on 3 May.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987xv-3">[1]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b> The "national cult" of Shakespeare, and the "bard" identification, dates from September 1769, when the actor <a href="/wiki/David_Garrick">David Garrick</a> organised a week-long carnival at Stratford to mark the town council awarding him the <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_City">freedom</a> of the town. In addition to presenting the town with a statue of Shakespeare, Garrick composed a doggerel verse, lampooned in the London newspapers, naming the banks of the Avon as the birthplace of the "matchless Bard".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcIntyre1999412–432-9">[6]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b> The exact figures are unknown. See <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare%27s_collaborations">Shakespeare's collaborations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shakespeare_Apocrypha">Shakespeare Apocrypha</a> for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b> Individual play dates and precise writing span are unknown. See <a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_William_Shakespeare%27s_plays">Chronology of Shakespeare's plays</a> for further details.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b> The <a href="/wiki/Crest_(heraldry)">crest</a> is a silver falcon supporting a spear, while the motto is <i>Non Sanz Droict</i> (French for "not without right"). This motto is still used by <a href="/wiki/Warwickshire_County_Council">Warwickshire County Council</a>, in reference to Shakespeare.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b> Inscribed in Latin on his funerary monument: <i>AETATIS 53 DIE 23 APR</i> (In his 53rd year he died 23 April).
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b> Verse by <a href="/wiki/James_Mabbe">James Mabbe</a> printed in the First Folio.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinney201211-92">[84]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Knight_(publisher)">Charles Knight</a>, 1842, in his notes on <i><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Night">Twelfth Night</a></i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1991275-102">[93]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b> In the scribal abbreviations <i>ye</i> for <i>the</i> (3rd line) and <i>yt</i> for <i>that</i> (3rd and 4th lines) the letter <i>y</i> represents <i>th</i>: see <i><a href="/wiki/Thorn_(letter)">thorn</a></i>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a></b> Grady cites <a href="/wiki/Voltaire">Voltaire</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Letters_on_the_English">Philosophical Letters</a></i> (1733); <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe">Goethe's</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Meister%27s_Apprenticeship">Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship</a></i> (1795); <a href="/wiki/Stendhal">Stendhal</a>'s two-part pamphlet <i>Racine et Shakespeare</i> (1823–25); and <a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugo">Victor Hugo</a>'s prefaces to <i><a href="/wiki/Cromwell_(play)">Cromwell</a></i> (1827) and <i><a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare_(essay)">William Shakespeare</a></i> (1864).<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrady2001b272–274-253">[242]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a></b> For example, <a href="/wiki/A.L._Rowse">A.L. Rowse</a>, the 20th-century Shakespeare scholar, was emphatic: "He died, as he had lived, a conforming member of the Church of England. His will made that perfectly clear—in facts, puts it beyond dispute, for it uses the Protestant formula."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowse1988240-282">[270]</a></sup>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h3>References</h3>
<div>
<ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987xv_3-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, p. xv.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenblatt200511_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenblatt200511_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFGreenblatt2005">Greenblatt 2005</a>, p. 11.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBevington20021–3_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBevington20021–3_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFBevington2002">Bevington 2002</a>, pp. 1–3.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1997399_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1997399_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFWells1997">Wells 1997</a>, p. 399.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobson1992185–186_8-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDobson1992">Dobson 1992</a>, pp. 185–186.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcIntyre1999412–432_9-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMcIntyre1999">McIntyre 1999</a>, pp. 412–432.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraig20033_12-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFCraig2003">Craig 2003</a>, p. 3.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShapiro2005xvii–xviii_13-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFShapiro2005">Shapiro 2005</a>, pp. xvii–xviii.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum199141,_66,_397–398,_402,_409_14-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1991">Schoenbaum 1991</a>, pp. 41, 66, 397–398, 402, 409.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor1990145,_210–223,_261–265_15-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFTaylor1990">Taylor 1990</a>, pp. 145, 210–223, 261–265.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambers1930a270–271_16-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFChambers1930a">Chambers 1930a</a>, pp. 270–271.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor1987109–134_17-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFTaylor1987">Taylor 1987</a>, pp. 109–134.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenblattAbrams20121168_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenblattAbrams20121168_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFGreenblattAbrams2012">Greenblatt &amp; Abrams 2012</a>, p. 1168.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum198714–22_20-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, pp. 14–22.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum198724–26_21-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, pp. 24–26.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum198724,_296_22-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, pp. 24, 296.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHonan199815–16_23-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHonan1998">Honan 1998</a>, pp. 15–16.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum198723–24_24-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, pp. 23–24.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum198762–63_25-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, pp. 62–63.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAckroyd200653_26-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAckroyd2006">Ackroyd 2006</a>, p. 53.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005xv–xvi_27-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005">Wells et al. 2005</a>, pp. xv–xvi.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaldwin1944464_28-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBaldwin1944">Baldwin 1944</a>, p. 464.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaldwin1944179–180,_183_29-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBaldwin1944">Baldwin 1944</a>, pp. 179–180, 183.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECressy197528–29_30-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFCressy1975">Cressy 1975</a>, pp. 28–29.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaldwin1944117_31-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBaldwin1944">Baldwin 1944</a>, p. 117.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum198777–78_32-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, pp. 77–78.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood200384_33-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWood2003">Wood 2003</a>, p. 84.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum198778–79_34-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, pp. 78–79.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum198793_35-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, p. 93.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum198794_36-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, p. 94.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987224_37-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, p. 224.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBate2008314_39-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBate2008">Bate 2008</a>, p. 314.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum198795_40-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, p. 95.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum198797–108_41-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, pp. 97–108.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowe1709_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowe1709_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFRowe1709">Rowe 1709</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987144–145_43-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, pp. 144–145.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987110–111_44-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, pp. 110–111.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHonigmann19991_45-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHonigmann1999">Honigmann 1999</a>, p. 1.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005xvii_46-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005">Wells et al. 2005</a>, p. xvii.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHonigmann199995–117_47-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHonigmann1999">Honigmann 1999</a>, pp. 95–117.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood200397–109_48-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWood2003">Wood 2003</a>, pp. 97–109.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambers1930a287,_292_49-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFChambers1930a">Chambers 1930a</a>, pp. 287, 292.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenblatt2005213_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenblatt2005213_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenblatt2005213_50-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFGreenblatt2005">Greenblatt 2005</a>, p. 213.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987153_51-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, p. 153.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAckroyd2006176_52-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAckroyd2006">Ackroyd 2006</a>, p. 176.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987151–153_53-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, p. 151–153.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells200628_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells200628_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFWells2006">Wells 2006</a>, p. 28.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987144–146_55-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, pp. 144–146.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambers1930a59_56-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFChambers1930a">Chambers 1930a</a>, p. 59.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987184_57-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, p. 184.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambers1923208–209_58-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFChambers1923">Chambers 1923</a>, pp. 208–209.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005666_59-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005">Wells et al. 2005</a>, p. 666.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambers1930b67–71_60-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFChambers1930b">Chambers 1930b</a>, pp. 67–71.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBentley196136_61-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBentley1961">Bentley 1961</a>, p. 36.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987188_62-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, p. 188.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKastan199937_63-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKastan1999">Kastan 1999</a>, p. 37.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnutson200117_64-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKnutson2001">Knutson 2001</a>, p. 17.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams1923275_65-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAdams1923">Adams 1923</a>, p. 275.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987200_66-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, p. 200.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987200–201_67-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, pp. 200–201.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAckroyd2006357_68-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAckroyd2006">Ackroyd 2006</a>, p. 357.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005xxii_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005xxii_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005">Wells et al. 2005</a>, p. xxii.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987202–203_70-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, pp. 202–203.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHales1904401–402_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHales1904401–402_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFHales1904">Hales 1904</a>, pp. 401–402.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHonan1998121_72-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHonan1998">Honan 1998</a>, p. 121.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShapiro2005122_73-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFShapiro2005">Shapiro 2005</a>, p. 122.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHonan1998325_74-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHonan1998">Honan 1998</a>, p. 325.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenblatt2005405_75-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGreenblatt2005">Greenblatt 2005</a>, p. 405.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAckroyd2006476_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAckroyd2006476_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFAckroyd2006">Ackroyd 2006</a>, p. 476.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood1806ix–x,_lxxii_77-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWood1806">Wood 1806</a>, pp. ix–x, lxxii.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1964558_78-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSmith1964">Smith 1964</a>, p. 558.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAckroyd2006477_79-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAckroyd2006">Ackroyd 2006</a>, p. 477.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarroll1991179–182_80-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBarroll1991">Barroll 1991</a>, pp. 179–182.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBate2008354–355_81-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBate2008">Bate 2008</a>, pp. 354–355.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHonan1998382–383_82-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHonan1998">Honan 1998</a>, pp. 382–383.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHonan1998326_83-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHonan1998">Honan 1998</a>, p. 326.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAckroyd2006462–464_84-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAckroyd2006">Ackroyd 2006</a>, pp. 462–464.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987272–274_85-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, pp. 272–274.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHonan1998387_86-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHonan1998">Honan 1998</a>, p. 387.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987279_87-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987279_87-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, p. 279.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHonan1998375–378_88-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHonan1998">Honan 1998</a>, pp. 375–378.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum199178_90-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1991">Schoenbaum 1991</a>, p. 78.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowse1963453_91-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRowse1963">Rowse 1963</a>, p. 453.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinney201211_92-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinney201211_92-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFKinney2012">Kinney 2012</a>, p. 11.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987287_94-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, p. 287.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987292–294_95-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987292–294_95-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, pp. 292–294.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987304_96-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, p. 304.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHonan1998395–396_97-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHonan1998">Honan 1998</a>, pp. 395–396.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambers1930b8,_11,_104_98-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFChambers1930b">Chambers 1930b</a>, pp. 8, 11, 104.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987296_99-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, p. 296.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambers1930b7,_9,_13_100-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFChambers1930b">Chambers 1930b</a>, pp. 7, 9, 13.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987289,_318–319_101-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, pp. 289, 318–319.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1991275_102-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1991">Schoenbaum 1991</a>, p. 275.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAckroyd2006483_104-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAckroyd2006">Ackroyd 2006</a>, p. 483.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrye200516_105-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFrye2005">Frye 2005</a>, p. 16.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenblatt2005145–146_106-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGreenblatt2005">Greenblatt 2005</a>, pp. 145–146.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987301–303_107-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, pp. 301–303.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987306–307_108-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, pp. 306–307.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005xviii_109-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005">Wells et al. 2005</a>, p. xviii.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBBC_News2008_110-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBBC_News2008">BBC News 2008</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987306_111-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, p. 306.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987308–310_113-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, pp. 308–310.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooper200648_114-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFCooper2006">Cooper 2006</a>, p. 48.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestminster_Abbeyn.d._115-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWestminster_Abbeyn.d.">Westminster Abbey n.d</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthwark_Cathedraln.d._116-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSouthwark_Cathedraln.d.">Southwark Cathedral n.d</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson200349_117-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFThomson2003">Thomson 2003</a>, p. 49.
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrye20059_118-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrye20059_118-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFFrye2005">Frye 2005</a>, p. 9.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHonan1998166_119-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHonan1998">Honan 1998</a>, p. 166.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987159–161_120-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, pp. 159–161.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuttonHoward2003147_121-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDuttonHoward2003">Dutton &amp; Howard 2003</a>, p. 147.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERibner2005154–155_122-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRibner2005">Ribner 2005</a>, pp. 154–155.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrye2005105_123-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFrye2005">Frye 2005</a>, p. 105.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERibner200567_124-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRibner2005">Ribner 2005</a>, p. 67.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBednarz2004100_125-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBednarz2004">Bednarz 2004</a>, p. 100.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHonan1998136_126-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHonan1998">Honan 1998</a>, p. 136.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1987166_127-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, p. 166.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrye200591_128-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFrye2005">Frye 2005</a>, p. 91.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHonan1998116–117_129-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHonan1998">Honan 1998</a>, pp. 116–117.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWerner200196–100_130-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWerner2001">Werner 2001</a>, pp. 96–100.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFriedman2006159_131-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFriedman2006">Friedman 2006</a>, p. 159.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAckroyd2006235_132-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAckroyd2006">Ackroyd 2006</a>, p. 235.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood2003161–162_133-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWood2003">Wood 2003</a>, pp. 161–162.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood2003205–206_134-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWood2003">Wood 2003</a>, pp. 205–206.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHonan1998258_135-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHonan1998">Honan 1998</a>, p. 258.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAckroyd2006359_136-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAckroyd2006">Ackroyd 2006</a>, p. 359.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAckroyd2006362–383_137-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAckroyd2006">Ackroyd 2006</a>, pp. 362–383.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShapiro2005150_138-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFShapiro2005">Shapiro 2005</a>, p. 150.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibbons19931_139-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGibbons1993">Gibbons 1993</a>, p. 1.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAckroyd2006356_140-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAckroyd2006">Ackroyd 2006</a>, p. 356.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood2003161_141-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWood2003">Wood 2003</a>, p. 161.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHonan1998206_142-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHonan1998">Honan 1998</a>, p. 206.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAckroyd2006353,_358_143-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAckroyd2006">Ackroyd 2006</a>, pp. 353, 358.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShapiro2005151–153_144-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFShapiro2005">Shapiro 2005</a>, pp. 151–153.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShapiro2005151_145-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFShapiro2005">Shapiro 2005</a>, p. 151.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley199185_146-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBradley1991">Bradley 1991</a>, p. 85.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuir200512–16_147-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMuir2005">Muir 2005</a>, pp. 12–16.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley199194_148-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBradley1991">Bradley 1991</a>, p. 94.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley199186_149-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBradley1991">Bradley 1991</a>, p. 86.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENagler19587_171-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFNagler1958">Nagler 1958</a>, p. 7.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambers1930a341_178-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFChambers1930a">Chambers 1930a</a>, p. 341.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaysSwanson2016_184-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMaysSwanson2016">Mays &amp; Swanson 2016</a>.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaguire199628_185-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMaguire1996">Maguire 1996</a>, p. 28.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowers19558–10_186-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBowers1955">Bowers 1955</a>, pp. 8–10.
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</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKathman2003629_266-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKathman2003">Kathman 2003</a>, p. 629.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyce199691_267-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBoyce1996">Boyce 1996</a>, p. 91.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwards19581–10_268-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEdwards1958">Edwards 1958</a>, pp. 1–10.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyderCurren-Aquino2007_269-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSnyderCurren-Aquino2007">Snyder &amp; Curren-Aquino 2007</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchanzer19631–10_270-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchanzer1963">Schanzer 1963</a>, pp. 1–10.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoas1896345_271-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBoas1896">Boas 1896</a>, p. 345.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchanzer19631_272-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchanzer1963">Schanzer 1963</a>, p. 1.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBloom1999325–380_273-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBloom1999">Bloom 1999</a>, pp. 325–380.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerry200537_274-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBerry2005">Berry 2005</a>, p. 37.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShapiro201077–78_275-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFShapiro2010">Shapiro 2010</a>, pp. 77–78.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibson200548,_72,_124_276-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGibson2005">Gibson 2005</a>, pp. 48, 72, 124.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcMichaelGlenn196256_277-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMcMichaelGlenn1962">McMichael &amp; Glenn 1962</a>, p. 56.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_New_York_Times2007_278-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFThe_New_York_Times2007">The New York Times 2007</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKathman2003620,_625–626_279-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKathman2003">Kathman 2003</a>, pp. 620, 625–626.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELove2002194–209_280-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLove2002">Love 2002</a>, pp. 194–209.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1991430–440_281-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1991">Schoenbaum 1991</a>, pp. 430–440.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowse1988240_282-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRowse1988">Rowse 1988</a>, p. 240.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchard19793_284-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPritchard1979">Pritchard 1979</a>, p. 3.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood200375–78_285-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWood2003">Wood 2003</a>, pp. 75–78.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAckroyd200622–23_286-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFAckroyd2006">Ackroyd 2006</a>, pp. 22–23.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood200378_287-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood200378_287-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFWood2003">Wood 2003</a>, p. 78.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAckroyd2006416_288-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAckroyd2006416_288-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFAckroyd2006">Ackroyd 2006</a>, p. 416.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum198741–42,_286_289-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum198741–42,_286_289-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987">Schoenbaum 1987</a>, pp. 41–42, 286.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson200434_290-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWilson2004">Wilson 2004</a>, p. 34.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShapiro2005167_291-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFShapiro2005">Shapiro 2005</a>, p. 167.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee190055_292-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLee1900">Lee 1900</a>, p. 55.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasey1998_293-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFCasey1998">Casey 1998</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPequigney1985_294-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPequigney1985">Pequigney 1985</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans1996132_295-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEvans1996">Evans 1996</a>, p. 132.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFort1927406–414_296-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFort1927">Fort 1927</a>, pp. 406–414.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooper200648,_57_297-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFCooper2006">Cooper 2006</a>, pp. 48, 57.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoenbaum1981190_298-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSchoenbaum1981">Schoenbaum 1981</a>, p. 190.
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2>Sources</h2>
<div>
<ul><li><cite><a href="/wiki/Peter_Ackroyd">Ackroyd, Peter</a> (2006). <a href="https://archive.org/details/shakespeare00pete"><i>Shakespeare: The Biography</i></a>. London: Vintage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7493-8655-9"><bdi>978-0-7493-8655-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Quincy_Adams">Adams, Joseph Quincy</a> (1923). <a href="https://archive.org/details/lifeofwilliamsha00adam_0"><i>A Life of William Shakespeare</i></a>. Boston: <a href="/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin">Houghton Mifflin</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/1935264">1935264</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Baldwin, T.W. (1944). <i>William Shakspere's Small Latine &amp; Lesse Greek</i>. Vol. 1. Urbana, Ill: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Press">University of Illinois Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/359037">359037</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Barroll, Leeds (1991). <a href="https://archive.org/details/politicsplaguesh0000barr"><i>Politics, Plague, and Shakespeare's Theater: The Stuart Years</i></a>. Ithaca: <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Press">Cornell University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-2479-3"><bdi>978-0-8014-2479-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Bate">Bate, Jonathan</a> (2008). <i>The Soul of the Age</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Publishing">Penguin</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-91482-1"><bdi>978-0-670-91482-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/coventry_warwickshire/7422986.stm">"Bard's 'cursed' tomb is revamped"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/BBC_News">BBC News</a></i>. 28 May 2008. Retrieved 23 April 2010.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Bednarz, James P. (2004). "Marlowe and the English literary scene". In Cheney, Patrick Gerard (ed.). <a href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00chen_319"><i>The Cambridge Companion to Christopher Marlowe</i></a>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. <a href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00chen_319/page/n108">90</a>–105. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCCOL0521820340">10.1017/CCOL0521820340</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-99905-5"><bdi>978-0-511-99905-5</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Core">Cambridge Core</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Eades_Bentley">Bentley, G.E.</a> (1961). <a href="https://archive.org/details/shakespearebiogr00bent"><i>Shakespeare: A Biographical Handbook</i></a>. New Haven: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-25042-2"><bdi>978-0-313-25042-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/356416">356416</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Berry, Ralph (2005). <i>Changing Styles in Shakespeare</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35316-8"><bdi>978-0-415-35316-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/David_Bevington">Bevington, David</a> (2002). <a href="https://archive.org/details/shakespeare0000bevi"><i>Shakespeare</i></a>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Blackwell_Publishing">Blackwell</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-22719-9"><bdi>978-0-631-22719-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Harold_Bloom">Bloom, Harold</a> (1995). <a href="https://archive.org/details/westerncanonbook00bloo"><i>The Western Canon: The Books and School of the Ages</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Riverhead_Books">Riverhead Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57322-514-4"><bdi>978-1-57322-514-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Harold_Bloom">Bloom, Harold</a> (1999). <i>Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Riverhead_Books">Riverhead Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57322-751-3"><bdi>978-1-57322-751-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Harold_Bloom">Bloom, Harold</a> (2008). Heims, Neil (ed.). <i>King Lear</i>. Bloom's Shakespeare Through the Ages. <a href="/wiki/Infobase_Publishing">Bloom's Literary Criticism</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7910-9574-4"><bdi>978-0-7910-9574-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Frederick_S._Boas">Boas, Frederick S.</a> (1896). <i>Shakspere and His Predecessors</i>. The University series. New York: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Scribner%27s_Sons">Charles Scribner's Sons</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)">hdl</a>:<a href="//hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fuc1.32106001899191">2027/uc1.32106001899191</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)">OL</a> <a href="//openlibrary.org/books/OL20577303M">20577303M</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Fredson_Bowers">Bowers, Fredson</a> (1955). <a href="https://archive.org/details/oneditingshakesp0000bowe"><i>On Editing Shakespeare and the Elizabethan Dramatists</i></a>. Philadelphia: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania_Press">University of Pennsylvania Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/2993883">2993883</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Boyce, Charles (1996). <i>Dictionary of Shakespeare</i>. Ware, Herts, UK: <a href="/wiki/Wordsworth_Editions">Wordsworth</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85326-372-9"><bdi>978-1-85326-372-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/M._C._Bradbrook">Bradbrook, M.C.</a> (2004). "Shakespeare's Recollection of Marlowe". In Edwards, Philip; <a href="/wiki/Inga-Stina_Ewbank">Ewbank, Inga-Stina</a>; Hunter, G.K. (eds.). <i>Shakespeare's Styles: Essays in Honour of Kenneth Muir</i>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 191–204. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-61694-2"><bdi>978-0-521-61694-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/A._C._Bradley">Bradley, A.C.</a> (1991). <i>Shakespearean Tragedy: Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear and Macbeth</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Group">Penguin</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-053019-3"><bdi>978-0-14-053019-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Brooke, Nicholas (2004). "Language and Speaker in Macbeth". In Edwards, Philip; <a href="/wiki/Inga-Stina_Ewbank">Ewbank, Inga-Stina</a>; Hunter, G.K. (eds.). <i>Shakespeare's Styles: Essays in Honour of Kenneth Muir</i>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 67–78. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-61694-2"><bdi>978-0-521-61694-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Bryant, John (1998). "<i>Moby-Dick</i> as Revolution". In Levine, Robert Steven (ed.). <a href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00levi"><i>The Cambridge Companion to Herman Melville</i></a>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. <a href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00levi/page/n64">65</a>–90. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCCOL0521554772">10.1017/CCOL0521554772</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-00037-6"><bdi>978-1-139-00037-6</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Core">Cambridge Core</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle">Carlyle, Thomas</a> (1841). <a href="/wiki/On_Heroes,_Hero-Worship,_and_The_Heroic_in_History"><i>On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and The Heroic in History</i></a>. London: <a href="/wiki/James_Fraser_(publisher)">James Fraser</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)">hdl</a>:<a href="//hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fhvd.hnlmmi">2027/hvd.hnlmmi</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/17473532">17473532</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)">OL</a> <a href="//openlibrary.org/books/OL13561584M">13561584M</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Casey, Charles (1998). "Was Shakespeare gay? Sonnet 20 and the politics of pedagogy". <i>College Literature</i>. <b>25</b> (3): 35–51. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/25112402">25112402</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Fausto_Cercignani">Cercignani, Fausto</a> (1981). <i>Shakespeare's Works and Elizabethan Pronunciation</i>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Clarendon_Press">Clarendon Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-811937-1"><bdi>978-0-19-811937-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/E._K._Chambers">Chambers, E.K.</a> (1923). <i>The Elizabethan Stage</i>. Vol. 2. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Clarendon_Press">Clarendon Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-811511-3"><bdi>978-0-19-811511-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/336379">336379</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/E._K._Chambers">Chambers, E.K.</a> (1930a). <i>William Shakespeare: A Study of Facts and Problems</i>. Vol. 1. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Clarendon_Press">Clarendon Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-811774-2"><bdi>978-0-19-811774-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/353406">353406</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/E._K._Chambers">Chambers, E.K.</a> (1930b). <i>William Shakespeare: A Study of Facts and Problems</i>. Vol. 2. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Clarendon_Press">Clarendon Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-811774-2"><bdi>978-0-19-811774-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/353406">353406</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/E._K._Chambers">Chambers, E.K.</a> (1944). <a href="https://archive.org/details/shakespeareangle0000cham"><i>Shakespearean Gleanings</i></a>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8492-0506-4"><bdi>978-0-8492-0506-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/2364570">2364570</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Clemen">Clemen, Wolfgang</a> (1987). <i>Shakespeare's Soliloquies</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35277-2"><bdi>978-0-415-35277-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Clemen">Clemen, Wolfgang</a> (2005a). <i>Shakespeare's Dramatic Art: Collected Essays</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35278-9"><bdi>978-0-415-35278-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Clemen">Clemen, Wolfgang</a> (2005b). <i>Shakespeare's Imagery</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35280-2"><bdi>978-0-415-35280-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Tarnya_Cooper">Cooper, Tarnya</a> (2006). <i>Searching for Shakespeare</i>. <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-11611-3"><bdi>978-0-300-11611-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Craig, Leon Harold (2003). <i>Of Philosophers and Kings: Political Philosophy in Shakespeare's </i>Macbeth<i> and </i>King Lear<i></i>. Toronto: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto_Press">University of Toronto Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-8605-1"><bdi>978-0-8020-8605-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Cressy, David (1975). <i>Education in Tudor and Stuart England</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/St_Martin%27s_Press">St Martin's Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7131-5817-5"><bdi>978-0-7131-5817-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/2148260">2148260</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/David_Crystal">Crystal, David</a> (2001). <a href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgeencyclo00crys"><i>The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language</i></a>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-40179-1"><bdi>978-0-521-40179-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Dobson, Michael (1992). <i>The Making of the National Poet: Shakespeare, Adaptation and Authorship, 1660–1769</i>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-818323-5"><bdi>978-0-19-818323-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Dominik, Mark (1988). <i>Shakespeare–Middleton Collaborations</i>. Beaverton, OR: Alioth Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-945088-01-1"><bdi>978-0-945088-01-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Edward_Dowden">Dowden, Edward</a> (1881). <a href="https://archive.org/details/shakspere01dowdgoog"><i>Shakspere</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/D._Appleton_%26_Company">D. Appleton &amp; Company</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/8164385">8164385</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)">OL</a> <a href="//openlibrary.org/books/OL6461529M">6461529M</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Drakakis, John (1985). "Introduction". In Drakakis, John (ed.). <a href="https://archive.org/details/alternativeshake0000unse"><i>Alternative Shakespeares</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Methuen_Publishing">Methuen</a>. pp. <a href="https://archive.org/details/alternativeshake0000unse/page/n16">1</a>–25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-416-36860-4"><bdi>978-0-416-36860-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/John_Dryden">Dryden, John</a> (1889). Arnold, Thomas (ed.). <i>Dryden: An Essay of Dramatic Poesy</i>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Clarendon_Press">Clarendon Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)">hdl</a>:<a href="//hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fumn.31951t00074232s">2027/umn.31951t00074232s</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7156-323-4"><bdi>978-81-7156-323-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/7847292">7847292</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)">OL</a> <a href="//openlibrary.org/books/OL23752217M">23752217M</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Dutton, Richard; Howard, Jean E. (2003). <i>A Companion to Shakespeare's Works: The Histories</i>. Vol. II. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Blackwell_Publishers">Blackwell</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-22633-8"><bdi>978-0-631-22633-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Edwards, Phillip (1958). <i>Shakespeare's Romances: 1900–1957</i>. <i><a href="/wiki/Shakespeare_Survey">Shakespeare Survey</a></i>. Vol. 11. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 1–18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCCOL0521064244.001">10.1017/CCOL0521064244.001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05291-7"><bdi>978-1-139-05291-7</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Core">Cambridge Core</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot">Eliot, T.S.</a> (1934). <i>Elizabethan Essays</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Faber_%26_Faber">Faber &amp; Faber</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-15-629051-7"><bdi>978-0-15-629051-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/9738219">9738219</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/G._Blakemore_Evans">Evans, G. Blakemore</a>, ed. (1996). <a href="https://archive.org/details/sonnets0000shak_s5k7"><i>The Sonnets</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_Cambridge_Shakespeare">The New Cambridge Shakespeare</a>. Vol. 26. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22225-9"><bdi>978-0-521-22225-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/R._A._Foakes">Foakes, R.A.</a> (1990). "Playhouses and players". In Braunmuller, A.R.; Hattaway, Michael (eds.). <a href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_m8d3/page/1"><i>The Cambridge Companion to English Renaissance Drama</i></a>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. <a href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_m8d3/page/1">1–52</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-38662-3"><bdi>978-0-521-38662-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Fort, J.A. (October 1927). "The Story Contained in the Second Series of Shakespeare's Sonnets". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Review_of_English_Studies">The Review of English Studies</a></i>. Original Series. <b>III</b> (12): 406–414. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fres%2Fos-III.12.406">10.1093/res/os-III.12.406</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0034-6551">0034-6551</a> – via <a href="/wiki/Oxford_Journals">Oxford Journals</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Friedman, Michael D. (2006). "'I'm not a feminist director but...': Recent Feminist Productions of <i>The Taming of the Shrew</i>". In Nelsen, Paul; Schlueter, June (eds.). <i>Acts of Criticism: Performance Matters in Shakespeare and his Contemporaries</i>. New Jersey: <a href="/wiki/Fairleigh_Dickinson_University_Press">Fairleigh Dickinson University Press</a>. pp. 159–174. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8386-4059-3"><bdi>978-0-8386-4059-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Roland_Frye">Frye, Roland Mushat</a> (2005). <i>The Art of the Dramatist</i>. London; New York: <a href="/wiki/Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35289-5"><bdi>978-0-415-35289-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Gibbons, Brian (1993). <a href="https://archive.org/details/shakespearemulti0000gibb"><i>Shakespeare and Multiplicity</i></a>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511553103">10.1017/CBO9780511553103</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-55310-3"><bdi>978-0-511-55310-3</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Core">Cambridge Core</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Gibson, H.N. (2005). <i>The Shakespeare Claimants: A Critical Survey of the Four Principal Theories Concerning the Authorship of the Shakespearean Plays</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35290-1"><bdi>978-0-415-35290-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Grady, Hugh (2001a). "Modernity, Modernism and Postmodernism in the Twentieth Century's Shakespeare". In Bristol, Michael; McLuskie, Kathleen (eds.). <a href="https://archive.org/details/shakespearemoder00bris"><i>Shakespeare and Modern Theatre: The Performance of Modernity</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. <a href="https://archive.org/details/shakespearemoder00bris/page/n34">20</a>–35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-21984-6"><bdi>978-0-415-21984-6</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Grady, Hugh (2001b). "Shakespeare criticism, 1600–1900". In de Grazia, Margreta; <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Wells">Wells, Stanley</a> (eds.). <i>The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare</i>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 265–278. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCCOL0521650941.017">10.1017/CCOL0521650941.017</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-00010-9"><bdi>978-1-139-00010-9</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Core">Cambridge Core</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Greenblatt">Greenblatt, Stephen</a> (2005). <i>Will in the World: How Shakespeare Became Shakespeare</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Pimlico_(publishing_imprint)">Pimlico</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7126-0098-9"><bdi>978-0-7126-0098-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Greenblatt">Greenblatt, Stephen</a>; <a href="/wiki/Meyer_Howard_Abrams">Abrams, Meyer Howard</a>, eds. (2012). <i>Sixteenth/Early Seventeenth Century</i>. The Norton Anthology of English Literature. Vol. 2. <a href="/wiki/W.W._Norton">W.W. Norton</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-91250-0"><bdi>978-0-393-91250-0</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Germaine_Greer">Greer, Germaine</a> (1986). <a href="https://archive.org/details/shakespeare00gree"><i>Shakespeare</i></a>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-287538-9"><bdi>978-0-19-287538-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Hales, John W. (26 March 1904). <a href="https://archive.org/stream/p1athenaeum1904lond#page/400/mode/2up">"London Residences of Shakespeare"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Athenaeum_(British_magazine)">The Athenaeum</a></i>. No. 3987. London: John C. Francis. pp. 401–402.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Holland, Peter, ed. (2000). <a href="/wiki/Cymbeline"><i>Cymbeline</i></a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Group">Penguin</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-071472-2"><bdi>978-0-14-071472-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Park_Honan">Honan, Park</a> (1998). <a href="https://archive.org/details/shakespearelife00hona"><i>Shakespeare: A Life</i></a>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Clarendon_Press">Clarendon Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-811792-6"><bdi>978-0-19-811792-6</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/E._A._J._Honigmann">Honigmann, E.A.J.</a> (1999). <i>Shakespeare: The 'Lost Years'</i> (Revised ed.). Manchester: <a href="/wiki/Manchester_University_Press">Manchester University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-5425-9"><bdi>978-0-7190-5425-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/MacDonald_P._Jackson">Jackson, MacDonald P.</a> (2004). Zimmerman, Susan (ed.). <a href="https://www.thefreelibrary.com/A+Lover%27s+Complaint+revisited.-a0125306072">"<i>A Lover's Complaint</i> revisited"</a>. <i>Shakespeare Studies</i>. <b>XXXII</b>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0582-9399">0582-9399</a> – via <a href="/wiki/The_Free_Library">The Free Library</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson">Johnson, Samuel</a> (2002) [first published 1755]. Lynch, Jack (ed.). <i>Samuel Johnson's Dictionary: Selections from the 1755 Work that Defined the English Language</i>. Delray Beach, FL: Levenger Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84354-296-4"><bdi>978-1-84354-296-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Ben_Jonson">Jonson, Ben</a> (1996) [first published 1623]. "To the memory of my beloued, The AVTHOR MR. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE: AND what he hath left vs". In <a href="/wiki/Charlton_Hinman">Hinman, Charlton</a> (ed.). <i>The First Folio of Shakespeare</i> (2nd ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/W.W._Norton_%26_Company">W.W. Norton &amp; Company</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-03985-6"><bdi>978-0-393-03985-6</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Kastan, David Scott (1999). <i>Shakespeare After Theory</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-90112-3"><bdi>978-0-415-90112-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Frank_Kermode">Kermode, Frank</a> (2004). <i>The Age of Shakespeare</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Weidenfeld_%26_Nicolson">Weidenfeld &amp; Nicolson</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-297-84881-3"><bdi>978-0-297-84881-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Kinney, Arthur F., ed. (2012). <i>The Oxford Handbook of Shakespeare</i>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956610-5"><bdi>978-0-19-956610-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Knutson, Roslyn (2001). <i>Playing Companies and Commerce in Shakespeare's Time</i>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511486043">10.1017/CBO9780511486043</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-48604-3"><bdi>978-0-511-48604-3</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Core">Cambridge Core</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Lee">Lee, Sidney</a> (1900). <a href="https://archive.org/details/shakespeareslif01leegoog"><i>Shakespeare's Life and Work</i></a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Smith,_Elder_%26_Co.">Smith, Elder &amp; Co.</a> <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)">OL</a> <a href="//openlibrary.org/books/OL21113614M">21113614M</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Levenson, Jill L., ed. (2000). <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-281496-8"><bdi>978-0-19-281496-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Levin, Harry (1986). "Critical Approaches to Shakespeare from 1660 to 1904". In <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Wells">Wells, Stanley</a> (ed.). <a href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00well"><i>The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare Studies</i></a>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-31841-9"><bdi>978-0-521-31841-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Love, Harold (2002). <i>Attributing Authorship: An Introduction</i>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511483165">10.1017/CBO9780511483165</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-48316-5"><bdi>978-0-511-48316-5</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Core">Cambridge Core</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Maguire, Laurie E. (1996). <a href="https://archive.org/details/shakespeareansus0000magu"><i>Shakespearean Suspect Texts: The 'Bad' Quartos and Their Contexts</i></a>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511553134">10.1017/CBO9780511553134</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-55313-4"><bdi>978-0-511-55313-4</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Core">Cambridge Core</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/James_L._Swanson">Mays, Andrea</a>; Swanson, James (20 April 2016). <a href="https://nypost.com/2016/04/20/how-shakespeares-works-were-nearly-lost-to-us/">"Shakespeare Died a Nobody, and then Got Famous by Accident"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Post">New York Post</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160421135740/http://nypost.com/2016/04/20/how-shakespeares-works-were-nearly-lost-to-us/">Archived</a> from the original on 21 April 2016. Retrieved 31 December 2017.</cite></li>
<li><cite>McDonald, Russ (2006). <a href="https://archive.org/details/shakespeareslate0000mcdo"><i>Shakespeare's Late Style</i></a>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511483783">10.1017/CBO9780511483783</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-48378-3"><bdi>978-0-511-48378-3</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Core">Cambridge Core</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>McIntyre, Ian (1999). <i>Garrick</i>. Harmondsworth, England: <a href="/wiki/Allen_Lane">Allen Lane</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-028323-5"><bdi>978-0-14-028323-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>McMichael, George; Glenn, Edgar M. (1962). <i>Shakespeare and his Rivals: A Casebook on the Authorship Controversy</i>. New York: Odyssey Press. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/2113359">2113359</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Meagher, John C. (2003). <i>Pursuing Shakespeare's Dramaturgy: Some Contexts, Resources, and Strategies in his Playmaking</i>. New Jersey: <a href="/wiki/Fairleigh_Dickinson_University_Press">Fairleigh Dickinson University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8386-3993-1"><bdi>978-0-8386-3993-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Mowat, Barbara; Werstine, Paul (n.d.). <a href="https://shakespeare.folger.edu/shakespeares-works/shakespeares-sonnets/sonnet-18/">"Sonnet 18"</a>. <i>Folger Digital Texts</i>. <a href="/wiki/Folger_Shakespeare_Library">Folger Shakespeare Library</a>. Retrieved 20 March 2021.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Muir_(scholar)">Muir, Kenneth</a> (2005). <i>Shakespeare's Tragic Sequence</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35325-0"><bdi>978-0-415-35325-0</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Nagler, A.M. (1958). <a href="https://archive.org/details/shakespearesstag0000nagl"><i>Shakespeare's Stage</i></a>. New Haven, CT: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-02689-4"><bdi>978-0-300-02689-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/22/education/edlife/22shakespeare-survey.html">"Did He or Didn't He? That Is the Question"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. 22 April 2007. Retrieved 31 December 2017.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Paraisz, Júlia (2006). "The Author, the Editor and the Translator: William Shakespeare, Alexander Chalmers and Sándor Petofi or the Nature of a Romantic Edition". <i>Editing Shakespeare</i>. <a href="/wiki/Shakespeare_Survey">Shakespeare Survey</a>. Vol. 59. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 124–135. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCCOL0521868386.010">10.1017/CCOL0521868386.010</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05271-9"><bdi>978-1-139-05271-9</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Core">Cambridge Core</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Pequigney, Joseph (1985). <i>Such Is My Love: A Study of Shakespeare's Sonnets</i>. Chicago: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-65563-5"><bdi>978-0-226-65563-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Alfred_W._Pollard">Pollard, Alfred W.</a> (1909). <i>Shakespeare Quartos and Folios: A Study in the Bibliography of Shakespeare's Plays, 1594–1685</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Methuen_Publishing">Methuen</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/46308204">46308204</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Pritchard, Arnold (1979). <a href="https://archive.org/details/catholicloyalism0000prit"><i>Catholic Loyalism in Elizabethan England</i></a>. Chapel Hill: <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_Press">University of North Carolina Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-1345-4"><bdi>978-0-8078-1345-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Ribner, Irving (2005). <i>The English History Play in the Age of Shakespeare</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35314-4"><bdi>978-0-415-35314-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Ringler, William, Jr. (1997). "Shakespeare and His Actors: Some Remarks on King Lear". In Ogden, James; Scouten, Arthur Hawley (eds.). <i>In Lear from Study to Stage: Essays in Criticism</i>. New Jersey: <a href="/wiki/Fairleigh_Dickinson_University_Press">Fairleigh Dickinson University Press</a>. pp. 123–134. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8386-3690-9"><bdi>978-0-8386-3690-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Roe, John, ed. (2006). <i>The Poems: Venus and Adonis, The Rape of Lucrece, The Phoenix and the Turtle, The Passionate Pilgrim, A Lover's Complaint</i>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_Cambridge_Shakespeare">The New Cambridge Shakespeare</a> (2nd revised ed.). Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85551-8"><bdi>978-0-521-85551-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rowe_(writer)">Rowe, Nicholas</a> (1997) [first published 1709]. Gray, Terry A. (ed.). <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/16275/16275-h/16275-h.htm"><i>Some Account of the Life &amp;c of Mr. William Shakespear</i></a>. Retrieved 30 July 2007.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/A._L._Rowse">Rowse, A.L.</a> (1963). <a href="https://archive.org/details/williamshakespea00rows"><i>William Shakespeare; A Biography</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Harper_%26_Row">Harper &amp; Row</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)">OL</a> <a href="//openlibrary.org/books/OL21462232M">21462232M</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/A._L._Rowse">Rowse, A.L.</a> (1988). <i>Shakespeare: the Man</i>. <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers">Macmillan</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-44354-5"><bdi>978-0-333-44354-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Sawyer, Robert (2003). <i>Victorian Appropriations of Shakespeare</i>. New Jersey: <a href="/wiki/Fairleigh_Dickinson_University_Press">Fairleigh Dickinson University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8386-3970-2"><bdi>978-0-8386-3970-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Schanzer, Ernest (1963). <a href="https://archive.org/details/problemplaysofsh0000scha"><i>The Problem Plays of Shakespeare</i></a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge">Routledge</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kegan_Paul">Kegan Paul</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35305-2"><bdi>978-0-415-35305-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/2378165">2378165</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Schoch, Richard W. (2002). "Pictorial Shakespeare". In <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Wells">Wells, Stanley</a>; Stanton, Sarah (eds.). <a href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00well_687"><i>The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Stage</i></a>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. <a href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00well_687/page/n74">58</a>–75. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCCOL0521792959.004">10.1017/CCOL0521792959.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-99957-4"><bdi>978-0-511-99957-4</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Core">Cambridge Core</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Schoenbaum">Schoenbaum, S.</a> (1981). <i>William Shakespeare: Records and Images</i>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-520234-2"><bdi>978-0-19-520234-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Basil_de_S%C3%A9lincourt">de Sélincourt, Basil</a> (1909). <a href="https://archive.org/details/williamblake007928mbp"><i>William Blake</i></a>. The library of art. London: <a href="/wiki/Duckworth_%26_co">Duckworth &amp; co</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)">hdl</a>:<a href="//hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fmdp.39015066033914">2027/mdp.39015066033914</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)">OL</a> <a href="//openlibrary.org/books/OL26411508M">26411508M</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Schoenbaum">Schoenbaum, S.</a> (1987). <i>William Shakespeare: A Compact Documentary Life</i> (Revised ed.). Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505161-2"><bdi>978-0-19-505161-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Schoenbaum">Schoenbaum, S.</a> (1991). <a href="https://archive.org/details/shakespeareslive00scho_0"><i>Shakespeare's Lives</i></a>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-818618-2"><bdi>978-0-19-818618-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/James_S._Shapiro">Shapiro, James</a> (2005). <i>1599: A Year in the Life of William Shakespeare</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Faber_and_Faber">Faber and Faber</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-571-21480-8"><bdi>978-0-571-21480-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/James_S._Shapiro">Shapiro, James</a> (2010). <i>Contested Will: Who Wrote Shakespeare?</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster">Simon &amp; Schuster</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4165-4162-2"><bdi>978-1-4165-4162-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Smith, Irwin (1964). <a href="https://archive.org/details/shakespearesblac0000smit"><i>Shakespeare's Blackfriars Playhouse</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/New_York_University_Press">New York University Press</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Snyder, Susan; Curren-Aquino, Deborah, eds. (2007). <a href="https://archive.org/details/winterstale00shakgoog"><i>The Winter's Tale</i></a>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22158-0"><bdi>978-0-521-22158-0</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304192458/http://www.southwark.anglican.org/cathedral/tour/bill.htm">"Shakespeare Memorial"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Southwark_Cathedral">Southwark Cathedral</a>. Archived from <a href="http://southwark.anglican.org/cathedral/tour/bill.htm">the original</a> on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 2 April 2016.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/George_Steiner">Steiner, George</a> (1996). <i>The Death of Tragedy</i>. New Haven: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-06916-7"><bdi>978-0-300-06916-7</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Gary_Taylor_(scholar)">Taylor, Gary</a> (1987). <a href="https://archive.org/details/williamshakespea0000well"><i>William Shakespeare: A Textual Companion</i></a>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-812914-1"><bdi>978-0-19-812914-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Gary_Taylor_(scholar)">Taylor, Gary</a> (1990). <i>Reinventing Shakespeare: A Cultural History from the Restoration to the Present</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Hogarth_Press">Hogarth Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7012-0888-2"><bdi>978-0-7012-0888-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/John_Wain">Wain, John</a> (1975). <a href="https://archive.org/details/samueljohnson00wain"><i>Samuel Johnson</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Viking_Press">Viking</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-61671-8"><bdi>978-0-670-61671-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Wells">Wells, Stanley</a>; <a href="/wiki/Gary_Taylor_(scholar)">Taylor, Gary</a>; <a href="/wiki/John_Jowett">Jowett, John</a>; Montgomery, William, eds. (2005). <a href="https://archive.org/details/completeworks0000shak_f0m2"><i>The Oxford Shakespeare: The Complete Works</i></a> (2nd ed.). Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926717-0"><bdi>978-0-19-926717-0</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Wells">Wells, Stanley</a> (1997). <i>Shakespeare: A Life in Drama</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/W.W._Norton">W.W. Norton</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-31562-2"><bdi>978-0-393-31562-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Wells">Wells, Stanley</a> (2006). <i>Shakespeare &amp; Co</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Pantheon_Books">Pantheon</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-375-42494-6"><bdi>978-0-375-42494-6</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Wells">Wells, Stanley</a>; Orlin, Lena Cowen, eds. (2003). <i>Shakespeare: An Oxford Guide</i>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924522-2"><bdi>978-0-19-924522-2</bdi></a>.</cite>
<ul><li><cite>Gross, John (2003). "Shakespeare's Influence". In <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Wells">Wells, Stanley</a>; Orlin, Lena Cowen (eds.). <i>Shakespeare: An Oxford Guide</i>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924522-2"><bdi>978-0-19-924522-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Kathman, David (2003). "The Question of Authorship". In <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Wells">Wells, Stanley</a>; Orlin, Lena Cowen (eds.). <i>Shakespeare: an Oxford Guide</i>. Oxford Guides. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 620–632. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924522-2"><bdi>978-0-19-924522-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Thomson, Peter (2003). "Conventions of Playwriting". In <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Wells">Wells, Stanley</a>; Orlin, Lena Cowen (eds.). <i>Shakespeare: An Oxford Guide</i>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924522-2"><bdi>978-0-19-924522-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li></ul></li>
<li><cite>Werner, Sarah (2001). <i>Shakespeare and Feminist Performance</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-22729-2"><bdi>978-0-415-22729-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160403162702/http://www.westminster-abbey.org/archive/visit-us/highlights/poets-corner">"Visiting the Abbey"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a>. Archived from <a href="http://www.westminster-abbey.org/archive/visit-us/highlights/poets-corner">the original</a> on 3 April 2016. Retrieved 2 April 2016.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Wilson, Richard (2004). <a href="https://archive.org/details/secretshakespear00wils"><i>Secret Shakespeare: Studies in Theatre, Religion and Resistance</i></a>. Manchester: <a href="/wiki/Manchester_University_Press">Manchester University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-7024-2"><bdi>978-0-7190-7024-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Wood, Manley, ed. (1806). <i>The Plays of William Shakespeare with Notes of Various Commentators</i>. Vol. I. London: George Kearsley.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Michael_Wood_(historian)">Wood, Michael</a> (2003). <a href="https://archive.org/details/shakespeare00wood"><i>Shakespeare</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Basic_Books">Basic Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-09264-2"><bdi>978-0-465-09264-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Wright, George T. (2004). "The Play of Phrase and Line". In McDonald, Russ (ed.). <i>Shakespeare: An Anthology of Criticism and Theory, 1945–2000</i>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Blackwell_Publishing">Blackwell</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-23488-3"><bdi>978-0-631-23488-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li></ul>
</div>
<h2>External links</h2>
<div><p></p><p><a href="/wiki/File:William_Shakespeare_(Spoken_Article).ogg">This audio file</a> was created from a revision of this article dated 11 April 2008, and does not reflect subsequent edits.</p></div>
<dl><dt>Digital editions</dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="https://bookwise.io/author/william-shakespeare">William Shakespeare's plays on Bookwise</a></li>
<li><a href="https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/william-shakespeare">Works by William Shakespeare in eBook form</a> at <a href="/wiki/Standard_Ebooks">Standard Ebooks</a></li>
<li><a href="https://internetshakespeare.uvic.ca/">Internet Shakespeare Editions</a></li>
<li><a href="https://shakespeare.folger.edu/">The Folger Shakespeare</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.opensourceshakespeare.org/">Open Source Shakespeare</a> complete works, with search engine and concordance</li>
<li><a href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/org-467/20191016094633/http://quartos.org/">The Shakespeare Quartos Archive</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/65">Works by William Shakespeare</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li>
<li><a href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Shakespeare%2C%20William%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22William%20Shakespeare%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Shakespeare%2C%20William%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22William%20Shakespeare%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Shakespeare%2C%20W%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22William%20Shakespeare%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Shakespeare%2C%20William%22%20OR%20description%3A%22William%20Shakespeare%22%29%20OR%20%28%221564-1616%22%20AND%20Shakespeare%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about William Shakespeare</a> at <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive">Internet Archive</a></li>
<li><a href="https://librivox.org/author/37">Works by William Shakespeare</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) </li></ul>
<dl><dt>Exhibitions</dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="https://shakespearedocumented.folger.edu/">Shakespeare Documented</a> an online exhibition documenting Shakespeare in his own time</li>
<li><a href="https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/+/https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/dol/images/examples/pdfs/shakespeare.pdf">Shakespeare's Will</a> from <a href="/wiki/The_National_Archives_(United_Kingdom)">The National Archives</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.bl.uk/shakespeare"><i>Discovering Literature: Shakespeare</i></a> at the British Library</li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110528205339/http://www.shakespeare.org.uk/home.html">The Shakespeare Birthplace Trust</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.bl.uk/people/william-shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a> at the British Library</li>
<li><a href="https://norman.hrc.utexas.edu/fasearch/findingAid.cfm?eadID=00878">Benjamin Blom Drama Collection: Shakespeare Materials</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Harry_Ransom_Center">Harry Ransom Center</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt>Legacy and criticism</dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/towncountry/towns/collections/collections-shakespeare/">Records on Shakespeare's Theatre Legacy from the UK Parliamentary Collections</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/private-lives/yourcountry/collections/churchillexhibition/churchill-death/herbert-samuel/">Winston Churchill &amp; Shakespeare – UK Parliament Living Heritage</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt>Other links</dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="http://www.cpdl.org/wiki/index.php/William_Shakespeare">Works by William Shakespeare set to music: free scores</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Choral_Public_Domain_Library">Choral Public Domain Library</a> (ChoralWiki)</li></ul>
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 Contents

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 * (Top)
 * 1 Life
 + 1.1 Early life
 + 1.2 London and theatrical career
 + 1.3 Later years and death
 * 2 Plays
 + 2.1 Performances
 + 2.2 Textual sources
 * 3 Poems
 + 3.1 Sonnets
 * 4 Style
 * 5 Influence
 * 6 Critical reputation
 * 7 Works
 + 7.1 Classification of the plays
 * 8 Speculation
 + 8.1 Authorship
 + 8.2 Religion
 + 8.3 Sexuality
 + 8.4 Portraiture
 * 9 See also
 * 10 Notes and references
 + 10.1 Notes
 + 10.2 References
 * 11 Sources
 * 12 External links
 Toggle the table of contents

 William Shakespeare

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 William Shakespeare 
 The Chandos portrait (held by the National Portrait Gallery, London)
 Born  Stratford-upon-Avon, England 
 Baptised 26 April 1564 
 Died  23 April 1616 (aged 52)[a] 
  Stratford-upon-Avon, England 
 Resting place Church of the Holy Trinity, Stratford-upon-Avon
  * Playwright 
 Occupations  * poet 
  * actor 
 Years active c. 1585–1613 
 Era  * Elizabethan 
  * Jacobean 
 Movement English Renaissance 
 Spouse  Anne Hathaway ​(m. 1582)​ 
  * Susanna Hall 
 Children  * Hamnet Shakespeare 
  * Judith Quiney 
 Parents  * John Shakespeare (father) 
  * Mary Arden (mother) 
 Signature 
  
 

 William Shakespeare (bapt. 26 April[b] 1564 – 23 April 1616)[c] was an English playwright, poet and actor. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist.[2][3][4] He is often called England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon" (or simply "the Bard").[5][d] His extant works, including collaborations, consist of some 39 plays,[e] 154 sonnets, three long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright.[7] He remains arguably the most influential writer in the English language, and his works continue to be studied and reinterpreted.

 Shakespeare was born and raised in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children: Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a successful career in London as an actor, writer, and part-owner of a playing company called the Lord Chamberlain's Men, later known as the King's Men. At age 49 (around 1613), he appears to have retired to Stratford, where he died three years later. Few records of Shakespeare's private life survive; this has stimulated considerable speculation about such matters as his physical appearance, his sexuality, his religious beliefs and whether the works attributed to him were written by others.[8][9][10]

 Shakespeare produced most of his known works between 1589 and 1613.[11][12][f] His early plays were primarily comedies and histories and are regarded as some of the best works produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until 1608, among them Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth, all considered to be among the finest works in the English language.[2][3][4] In the last phase of his life, he wrote tragicomedies (also known as romances) and collaborated with other playwrights.

 Many of Shakespeare's plays were published in editions of varying quality and accuracy in his lifetime. However, in 1623, John Heminges and Henry Condell, two fellow actors and friends of Shakespeare's, published a more definitive text known as the First Folio, a posthumous collected edition of Shakespeare's dramatic works that included all but two of his plays.[13] Its Preface was a prescient poem by Ben Jonson, a former rival of Shakespeare, that hailed Shakespeare with the now famous epithet: "not of an age, but for all time".[13]

 Life

 Main article: Life of William Shakespeare

 Early life

 Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, an alderman and a successful glover (glove-maker) originally from Snitterfield in Warwickshire, and Mary Arden, the daughter of an affluent landowning family.[14] He was born in Stratford-upon-Avon, where he was baptised on 26 April 1564. His date of birth is unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April, Saint George's Day.[15] This date, which can be traced to William Oldys and George Steevens, has proved appealing to biographers because Shakespeare died on the same date in 1616.[16][17] He was the third of eight children, and the eldest surviving son.[18]

 John Shakespeare's house, believed to be Shakespeare's birthplace, in Stratford-upon-Avon

 Although no attendance records for the period survive, most biographers agree that Shakespeare was probably educated at the King's New School in Stratford,[19][20][21] a free school chartered in 1553,[22] about a quarter-mile (400 m) from his home. Grammar schools varied in quality during the Elizabethan era, but grammar school curricula were largely similar: the basic Latin text was standardised by royal decree,[23][24] and the school would have provided an intensive education in grammar based upon Latin classical authors.[25]

 At the age of 18, Shakespeare married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway. The consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. The next day, two of Hathaway's neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage.[26] The ceremony may have been arranged in some haste since the Worcester chancellor allowed the marriage banns to be read once instead of the usual three times,[27][28] and six months after the marriage Anne gave birth to a daughter, Susanna, baptised 26 May 1583.[29] Twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585.[30] Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596.[31]

 Shakespeare's coat of arms, from the 1602 book The book of coates and creasts. Promptuarium armorum. It features spears as a pun on the family name.[g]

 After the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592. The exception is the appearance of his name in the "complaints bill" of a law case before the Queen's Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589.[32] Scholars refer to the years between 1585 and 1592 as Shakespeare's "lost years".[33] Biographers attempting to account for this period have reported many apocryphal stories. Nicholas Rowe, Shakespeare's first biographer, recounted a Stratford legend that Shakespeare fled the town for London to escape prosecution for deer poaching in the estate of local squire Thomas Lucy. Shakespeare is also supposed to have taken his revenge on Lucy by writing a scurrilous ballad about him.[34][35] Another 18th-century story has Shakespeare starting his theatrical career minding the horses of theatre patrons in London.[36] John Aubrey reported that Shakespeare had been a country schoolmaster.[37] Some 20th-century scholars suggested that Shakespeare may have been employed as a schoolmaster by Alexander Hoghton of Lancashire, a Catholic landowner who named a certain "William Shakeshafte" in his will.[38][39] Little evidence substantiates such stories other than hearsay collected after his death, and Shakeshafte was a common name in the Lancashire area.[40][41]

 London and theatrical career

 It is not known definitively when Shakespeare began writing, but contemporary allusions and records of performances show that several of his plays were on the London stage by 1592.[42] By then, he was sufficiently known in London to be attacked in print by the playwright Robert Greene in his Groats-Worth of Wit:

 ... there is an upstart Crow, beautified with our feathers, that with his Tiger's heart wrapped in a Player's hide, supposes he is as well able to bombast out a blank verse as the best of you: and being an absolute Johannes factotum, is in his own conceit the only Shake-scene in a country.[43]

 Scholars differ on the exact meaning of Greene's words,[43][44] but most agree that Greene was accusing Shakespeare of reaching above his rank in trying to match such university-educated writers as Christopher Marlowe, Thomas Nashe, and Greene himself (the so-called "University Wits").[45] The italicised phrase parodying the line "Oh, tiger's heart wrapped in a woman's hide" from Shakespeare's Henry VI, Part 3, along with the pun "Shake-scene", clearly identify Shakespeare as Greene's target. As used here, Johannes Factotum ("Jack of all trades") refers to a second-rate tinkerer with the work of others, rather than the more common "universal genius".[43][46]

 Greene's attack is the earliest surviving mention of Shakespeare's work in the theatre. Biographers suggest that his career may have begun any time from the mid-1580s to just before Greene's remarks.[47][48][49] After 1594, Shakespeare's plays were performed only by the Lord Chamberlain's Men, a company owned by a group of players, including Shakespeare, that soon became the leading playing company in London.[50] After the death of Queen Elizabeth in 1603, the company was awarded a royal patent by the new King James I, and changed its name to the King's Men.[51]

 "All the world's a stage,
 and all the men and women merely players:
 they have their exits and their entrances;
 and one man in his time plays many parts ..."

 —As You Like It, Act II, Scene 7, 139–142[52]

 In 1599, a partnership of members of the company built their own theatre on the south bank of the River Thames, which they named the Globe. In 1608, the partnership also took over the Blackfriars indoor theatre. Extant records of Shakespeare's property purchases and investments indicate that his association with the company made him a wealthy man,[53] and in 1597, he bought the second-largest house in Stratford, New Place, and in 1605, invested in a share of the parish tithes in Stratford.[54]

 Some of Shakespeare's plays were published in quarto editions, beginning in 1594, and by 1598, his name had become a selling point and began to appear on the title pages.[55][56][57] Shakespeare continued to act in his own and other plays after his success as a playwright. The 1616 edition of Ben Jonson's Works names him on the cast lists for Every Man in His Humour (1598) and Sejanus His Fall (1603).[58] The absence of his name from the 1605 cast list for Jonson's Volpone is taken by some scholars as a sign that his acting career was nearing its end.[47] The First Folio of 1623, however, lists Shakespeare as one of "the Principal Actors in all these Plays", some of which were first staged after Volpone, although one cannot know for certain which roles he played.[59] In 1610, John Davies of Hereford wrote that "good Will" played "kingly" roles.[60] In 1709, Rowe passed down a tradition that Shakespeare played the ghost of Hamlet's father.[35] Later traditions maintain that he also played Adam in As You Like It, and the Chorus in Henry V,[61][62] though scholars doubt the sources of that information.[63]

 Throughout his career, Shakespeare divided his time between London and Stratford. In 1596, the year before he bought New Place as his family home in Stratford, Shakespeare was living in the parish of St. Helen's, Bishopsgate, north of the River Thames.[64][65] He moved across the river to Southwark by 1599, the same year his company constructed the Globe Theatre there.[64][66] By 1604, he had moved north of the river again, to an area north of St Paul's Cathedral with many fine houses. There, he rented rooms from a French Huguenot named Christopher Mountjoy, a maker of women's wigs and other headgear.[67][68]

 Later years and death

 Shakespeare's funerary monument in Stratford-upon-Avon

 Nicholas Rowe was the first biographer to record the tradition, repeated by Samuel Johnson, that Shakespeare retired to Stratford "some years before his death".[69][70] He was still working as an actor in London in 1608; in an answer to the sharers' petition in 1635, Cuthbert Burbage stated that after purchasing the lease of the Blackfriars Theatre in 1608 from Henry Evans, the King's Men "placed men players" there, "which were Heminges, Condell, Shakespeare, etc.".[71] However, it is perhaps relevant that the bubonic plague raged in London throughout 1609.[72][73] The London public playhouses were repeatedly closed during extended outbreaks of the plague (a total of over 60 months closure between May 1603 and February 1610),[74] which meant there was often no acting work. Retirement from all work was uncommon at that time.[75] Shakespeare continued to visit London during the years 1611–1614.[69] In 1612, he was called as a witness in Bellott v Mountjoy, a court case concerning the marriage settlement of Mountjoy's daughter, Mary.[76][77] In March 1613, he bought a gatehouse in the former Blackfriars priory;[78] and from November 1614, he was in London for several weeks with his son-in-law, John Hall.[79] After 1610, Shakespeare wrote fewer plays, and none are attributed to him after 1613.[80] His last three plays were collaborations, probably with John Fletcher,[81] who succeeded him as the house playwright of the King's Men. He retired in 1613, before the Globe Theatre burned down during the performance of Henry VIII on 29 June.[80]

 Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616, at the age of 52.[h] He died within a month of signing his will, a document which he begins by describing himself as being in "perfect health". No extant contemporary source explains how or why he died. Half a century later, John Ward, the vicar of Stratford, wrote in his notebook: "Shakespeare, Drayton, and Ben Jonson had a merry meeting and, it seems, drank too hard, for Shakespeare died of a fever there contracted",[82][83] not an impossible scenario since Shakespeare knew Jonson and Drayton. Of the tributes from fellow authors, one refers to his relatively sudden death: "We wondered, Shakespeare, that thou went'st so soon / From the world's stage to the grave's tiring room."[84][i]

 Holy Trinity Church, Stratford-upon-Avon, where Shakespeare was baptised and is buried

 He was survived by his wife and two daughters. Susanna had married a physician, John Hall, in 1607,[85] and Judith had married Thomas Quiney, a vintner, two months before Shakespeare's death.[86] Shakespeare signed his last will and testament on 25 March 1616; the following day, his new son-in-law, Thomas Quiney was found guilty of fathering an illegitimate son by Margaret Wheeler, who had died during childbirth. Thomas was ordered by the church court to do public penance, which would have caused much shame and embarrassment for the Shakespeare family.[86]

 Shakespeare bequeathed the bulk of his large estate to his elder daughter Susanna[87] under stipulations that she pass it down intact to "the first son of her body".[88] The Quineys had three children, all of whom died without marrying.[89][90] The Halls had one child, Elizabeth, who married twice but died without children in 1670, ending Shakespeare's direct line.[91][92] Shakespeare's will scarcely mentions his wife, Anne, who was probably entitled to one-third of his estate automatically.[j] He did make a point, however, of leaving her "my second best bed", a bequest that has led to much speculation.[94][95][96] Some scholars see the bequest as an insult to Anne, whereas others believe that the second-best bed would have been the matrimonial bed and therefore rich in significance.[97]

 Shakespeare's grave, next to those of Anne Shakespeare, his wife, and Thomas Nash, the husband of his granddaughter

 Shakespeare was buried in the chancel of the Holy Trinity Church two days after his death.[98][99] The epitaph carved into the stone slab covering his grave includes a curse against moving his bones, which was carefully avoided during restoration of the church in 2008:[100]

 Good frend for Iesvs sake forbeare, Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbear, 
 To digg the dvst encloased heare. To dig the dust enclosed here. 
 Bleste be yͤ man yͭ spares thes stones, Blessed be the man that spares these stones,
 And cvrst be he yͭ moves my bones.[101][k] And cursed be he that moves my bones. 
  
  
 

 Some time before 1623, a funerary monument was erected in his memory on the north wall, with a half-effigy of him in the act of writing. Its plaque compares him to Nestor, Socrates, and Virgil.[102] In 1623, in conjunction with the publication of the First Folio, the Droeshout engraving was published.[103] Shakespeare has been commemorated in many statues and memorials around the world, including funeral monuments in Southwark Cathedral and Poets' Corner in Westminster Abbey.[104][105]

 Plays

 Main articles: Shakespeare's plays and William Shakespeare's collaborations
 Procession of Characters from Shakespeare's Plays by an unknown 19th-century artist

 Most playwrights of the period typically collaborated with others at some point, as critics agree Shakespeare did, mostly early and late in his career.[106]

 The first recorded works of Shakespeare are Richard III and the three parts of Henry VI, written in the early 1590s during a vogue for historical drama. Shakespeare's plays are difficult to date precisely, however,[107][108] and studies of the texts suggest that Titus Andronicus, The Comedy of Errors, The Taming of the Shrew, and The Two Gentlemen of Verona may also belong to Shakespeare's earliest period.[109][107] His first histories, which draw heavily on the 1587 edition of Raphael Holinshed's Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland,[110] dramatise the destructive results of weak or corrupt rule and have been interpreted as a justification for the origins of the Tudor dynasty.[111] The early plays were influenced by the works of other Elizabethan dramatists, especially Thomas Kyd and Christopher Marlowe, by the traditions of medieval drama, and by the plays of Seneca.[112][113][114] The Comedy of Errors was also based on classical models, but no source for The Taming of the Shrew has been found, though it is related to a separate play of the same name and may have derived from a folk story.[115][116] Like The Two Gentlemen of Verona, in which two friends appear to approve of rape,[117][118][119] the Shrew ' s story of the taming of a woman's independent spirit by a man sometimes troubles modern critics, directors, and audiences.[120]

 Oberon, Titania and Puck with Fairies Dancing. By William Blake, c. 1786. Tate Britain.

 Shakespeare's early classical and Italianate comedies, containing tight double plots and precise comic sequences, give way in the mid-1590s to the romantic atmosphere of his most acclaimed comedies.[121] A Midsummer Night's Dream is a witty mixture of romance, fairy magic, and comic lowlife scenes.[122] Shakespeare's next comedy, the equally romantic Merchant of Venice, contains a portrayal of the vengeful Jewish moneylender Shylock, which reflects dominant Elizabethan views but may appear derogatory to modern audiences.[123][124] The wit and wordplay of Much Ado About Nothing,[125] the charming rural setting of As You Like It, and the lively merrymaking of Twelfth Night complete Shakespeare's sequence of great comedies.[126] After the lyrical Richard II, written almost entirely in verse, Shakespeare introduced prose comedy into the histories of the late 1590s, Henry IV, parts 1 and 2, and Henry V. His characters become more complex and tender as he switches deftly between comic and serious scenes, prose and poetry, and achieves the narrative variety of his mature work.[127][128][129] This period begins and ends with two tragedies: Romeo and Juliet, the famous romantic tragedy of sexually charged adolescence, love, and death;[130][131] and Julius Caesar— based on Sir Thomas North's 1579 translation of Plutarch's Parallel Lives—which introduced a new kind of drama.[132][133] According to Shakespearean scholar James Shapiro, in Julius Caesar, "the various strands of politics, character, inwardness, contemporary events, even Shakespeare's own reflections on the act of writing, began to infuse each other".[134]

 Hamlet, Horatio, Marcellus, and the Ghost of Hamlet's Father. Henry Fuseli, 1780–1785. Kunsthaus Zürich.

 In the early 17th century, Shakespeare wrote the so-called "problem plays" Measure for Measure, Troilus and Cressida, and All's Well That Ends Well and a number of his best known tragedies.[135][136] Many critics believe that Shakespeare's greatest tragedies represent the peak of his art. The titular hero of one of Shakespeare's greatest tragedies, Hamlet, has probably been discussed more than any other Shakespearean character, especially for his famous soliloquy which begins "To be or not to be; that is the question".[137] Unlike the introverted Hamlet, whose fatal flaw is hesitation, the heroes of the tragedies that followed, Othello and King Lear, are undone by hasty errors of judgement.[138] The plots of Shakespeare's tragedies often hinge on such fatal errors or flaws, which overturn order and destroy the hero and those he loves.[139] In Othello, the villain Iago stokes Othello's sexual jealousy to the point where he murders the innocent wife who loves him.[140][141] In King Lear, the old king commits the tragic error of giving up his powers, initiating the events which lead to the torture and blinding of the Earl of Gloucester and the murder of Lear's youngest daughter Cordelia. According to the critic Frank Kermode, "the play...offers neither its good characters nor its audience any relief from its cruelty".[142][143][144] In Macbeth, the shortest and most compressed of Shakespeare's tragedies,[145] uncontrollable ambition incites Macbeth and his wife, Lady Macbeth, to murder the rightful king and usurp the throne until their own guilt destroys them in turn.[146] In this play, Shakespeare adds a supernatural element to the tragic structure. His last major tragedies, Antony and Cleopatra and Coriolanus, contain some of Shakespeare's finest poetry and were considered his most successful tragedies by the poet and critic T. S. Eliot.[147][148][149]

 In his final period, Shakespeare turned to romance or tragicomedy and completed three more major plays: Cymbeline, The Winter's Tale, and The Tempest, as well as the collaboration, Pericles, Prince of Tyre. Less bleak than the tragedies, these four plays are graver in tone than the comedies of the 1590s, but they end with reconciliation and the forgiveness of potentially tragic errors.[150] Some commentators have seen this change in mood as evidence of a more serene view of life on Shakespeare's part, but it may merely reflect the theatrical fashion of the day.[151][152][153] Shakespeare collaborated on two further surviving plays, Henry VIII and The Two Noble Kinsmen, probably with John Fletcher.[154]

 Performances

 Main article: Shakespeare in performance

 It is not clear for which companies Shakespeare wrote his early plays. The title page of the 1594 edition of Titus Andronicus reveals that the play had been acted by three different troupes.[155] After the plagues of 1592–93, Shakespeare's plays were performed by his own company at The Theatre and the Curtain in Shoreditch, north of the Thames.[156] Londoners flocked there to see the first part of Henry IV, Leonard Digges recording, "Let but Falstaff come, Hal, Poins, the rest ... and you scarce shall have a room".[157] When the company found themselves in dispute with their landlord, they pulled The Theatre down and used the timbers to construct the Globe Theatre, the first playhouse built by actors for actors, on the south bank of the Thames at Southwark.[158][159] The Globe opened in autumn 1599, with Julius Caesar one of the first plays staged. Most of Shakespeare's greatest post-1599 plays were written for the Globe, including Hamlet, Othello, and King Lear.[158][160][161]

 The reconstructed Globe Theatre on the south bank of the River Thames in London

 After the Lord Chamberlain's Men were renamed the King's Men in 1603, they entered a special relationship with the new King James. Although the performance records are patchy, the King's Men performed seven of Shakespeare's plays at court between 1 November 1604, and 31 October 1605, including two performances of The Merchant of Venice.[62] After 1608, they performed at the indoor Blackfriars Theatre during the winter and the Globe during the summer.[162] The indoor setting, combined with the Jacobean fashion for lavishly staged masques, allowed Shakespeare to introduce more elaborate stage devices. In Cymbeline, for example, Jupiter descends "in thunder and lightning, sitting upon an eagle: he throws a thunderbolt. The ghosts fall on their knees."[163][164]

 The actors in Shakespeare's company included the famous Richard Burbage, William Kempe, Henry Condell and John Heminges. Burbage played the leading role in the first performances of many of Shakespeare's plays, including Richard III, Hamlet, Othello, and King Lear.[165] The popular comic actor Will Kempe played the servant Peter in Romeo and Juliet and Dogberry in Much Ado About Nothing, among other characters.[166][167] He was replaced around 1600 by Robert Armin, who played roles such as Touchstone in As You Like It and the fool in King Lear.[168] In 1613, Sir Henry Wotton recorded that Henry VIII "was set forth with many extraordinary circumstances of pomp and ceremony".[169] On 29 June, however, a cannon set fire to the thatch of the Globe and burned the theatre to the ground, an event which pinpoints the date of a Shakespeare play with rare precision.[169]

 Textual sources

 Title page of the First Folio, 1623. Copper engraving of Shakespeare by Martin Droeshout.

 In 1623, John Heminges and Henry Condell, two of Shakespeare's friends from the King's Men, published the First Folio, a collected edition of Shakespeare's plays. It contained 36 texts, including 18 printed for the first time.[170] Many of the plays had already appeared in quarto versions—flimsy books made from sheets of paper folded twice to make four leaves.[171] No evidence suggests that Shakespeare approved these editions, which the First Folio describes as "stol'n and surreptitious copies".[172] Nor did Shakespeare plan or expect his works to survive in any form at all; those works likely would have faded into oblivion but for his friends' spontaneous idea, after his death, to create and publish the First Folio.[173]

 Alfred Pollard termed some of the pre-1623 versions as "bad quartos" because of their adapted, paraphrased or garbled texts, which may in places have been reconstructed from memory.[171][172][174] Where several versions of a play survive, each differs from the other. The differences may stem from copying or printing errors, from notes by actors or audience members, or from Shakespeare's own papers.[175][176] In some cases, for example, Hamlet, Troilus and Cressida, and Othello, Shakespeare could have revised the texts between the quarto and folio editions. In the case of King Lear, however, while most modern editions do conflate them, the 1623 folio version is so different from the 1608 quarto that the Oxford Shakespeare prints them both, arguing that they cannot be conflated without confusion.[177]

 Poems

 In 1593 and 1594, when the theatres were closed because of plague, Shakespeare published two narrative poems on sexual themes, Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece. He dedicated them to Henry Wriothesley, Earl of Southampton. In Venus and Adonis, an innocent Adonis rejects the sexual advances of Venus; while in The Rape of Lucrece, the virtuous wife Lucrece is raped by the lustful Tarquin.[178] Influenced by Ovid's Metamorphoses,[179] the poems show the guilt and moral confusion that result from uncontrolled lust.[180] Both proved popular and were often reprinted during Shakespeare's lifetime. A third narrative poem, A Lover's Complaint, in which a young woman laments her seduction by a persuasive suitor, was printed in the first edition of the Sonnets in 1609. Most scholars now accept that Shakespeare wrote A Lover's Complaint. Critics consider that its fine qualities are marred by leaden effects.[181][182][183] The Phoenix and the Turtle, printed in Robert Chester's 1601 Love's Martyr, mourns the deaths of the legendary phoenix and his lover, the faithful turtle dove. In 1599, two early drafts of sonnets 138 and 144 appeared in The Passionate Pilgrim, published under Shakespeare's name but without his permission.[181][183][184]

 Sonnets

 Main article: Shakespeare's sonnets
 Title page from 1609 edition of Shake-Speares Sonnets

 Published in 1609, the Sonnets were the last of Shakespeare's non-dramatic works to be printed. Scholars are not certain when each of the 154 sonnets was composed, but evidence suggests that Shakespeare wrote sonnets throughout his career for a private readership.[185][186] Even before the two unauthorised sonnets appeared in The Passionate Pilgrim in 1599, Francis Meres had referred in 1598 to Shakespeare's "sugred Sonnets among his private friends".[187] Few analysts believe that the published collection follows Shakespeare's intended sequence.[188] He seems to have planned two contrasting series: one about uncontrollable lust for a married woman of dark complexion (the "dark lady"), and one about conflicted love for a fair young man (the "fair youth"). It remains unclear if these figures represent real individuals, or if the authorial "I" who addresses them represents Shakespeare himself, though Wordsworth believed that with the sonnets "Shakespeare unlocked his heart".[187][186]

 "Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?
 Thou art more lovely and more temperate ..."

 —Lines from Shakespeare's Sonnet 18.[189]

 The 1609 edition was dedicated to a "Mr. W.H.", credited as "the only begetter" of the poems. It is not known whether this was written by Shakespeare himself or by the publisher, Thomas Thorpe, whose initials appear at the foot of the dedication page; nor is it known who Mr. W.H. was, despite numerous theories, or whether Shakespeare even authorised the publication.[190] Critics praise the Sonnets as a profound meditation on the nature of love, sexual passion, procreation, death, and time.[191]

 Style

 Main article: Shakespeare's writing style

 Shakespeare's first plays were written in the conventional style of the day. He wrote them in a stylised language that does not always spring naturally from the needs of the characters or the drama.[192] The poetry depends on extended, sometimes elaborate metaphors and conceits, and the language is often rhetorical—written for actors to declaim rather than speak. The grand speeches in Titus Andronicus, in the view of some critics, often hold up the action, for example; and the verse in The Two Gentlemen of Verona has been described as stilted.[193][194]

 Pity by William Blake, 1795, Tate Britain, is an illustration of two similes in Macbeth:

 "And pity, like a naked new-born babe,
 Striding the blast, or heaven's cherubim, hors'd
 Upon the sightless couriers of the air."[195]

 However, Shakespeare soon began to adapt the traditional styles to his own purposes. The opening soliloquy of Richard III has its roots in the self-declaration of Vice in medieval drama. At the same time, Richard's vivid self-awareness looks forward to the soliloquies of Shakespeare's mature plays.[196][197] No single play marks a change from the traditional to the freer style. Shakespeare combined the two throughout his career, with Romeo and Juliet perhaps the best example of the mixing of the styles.[198] By the time of Romeo and Juliet, Richard II, and A Midsummer Night's Dream in the mid-1590s, Shakespeare had begun to write a more natural poetry. He increasingly tuned his metaphors and images to the needs of the drama itself.

 Shakespeare's standard poetic form was blank verse, composed in iambic pentameter. In practice, this meant that his verse was usually unrhymed and consisted of ten syllables to a line, spoken with a stress on every second syllable. The blank verse of his early plays is quite different from that of his later ones. It is often beautiful, but its sentences tend to start, pause, and finish at the end of lines, with the risk of monotony.[199] Once Shakespeare mastered traditional blank verse, he began to interrupt and vary its flow. This technique releases the new power and flexibility of the poetry in plays such as Julius Caesar and Hamlet. Shakespeare uses it, for example, to convey the turmoil in Hamlet's mind:[200]

 Sir, in my heart there was a kind of fighting
 That would not let me sleep. Methought I lay
 Worse than the mutines in the bilboes. Rashly—
 And prais'd be rashness for it—let us know
 Our indiscretion sometimes serves us well ...

 — Hamlet, Act 5, Scene 2, 4–8[200]

 After Hamlet, Shakespeare varied his poetic style further, particularly in the more emotional passages of the late tragedies. The literary critic A. C. Bradley described this style as "more concentrated, rapid, varied, and, in construction, less regular, not seldom twisted or elliptical".[201] In the last phase of his career, Shakespeare adopted many techniques to achieve these effects. These included run-on lines, irregular pauses and stops, and extreme variations in sentence structure and length.[202] In Macbeth, for example, the language darts from one unrelated metaphor or simile to another: "was the hope drunk/ Wherein you dressed yourself?" (1.7.35–38); "... pity, like a naked new-born babe/ Striding the blast, or heaven's cherubim, hors'd/ Upon the sightless couriers of the air ..." (1.7.21–25). The listener is challenged to complete the sense.[202] The late romances, with their shifts in time and surprising turns of plot, inspired a last poetic style in which long and short sentences are set against one another, clauses are piled up, subject and object are reversed, and words are omitted, creating an effect of spontaneity.[203]

 Shakespeare combined poetic genius with a practical sense of the theatre.[204] Like all playwrights of the time, he dramatised stories from sources such as Plutarch and Holinshed.[205] He reshaped each plot to create several centres of interest and to show as many sides of a narrative to the audience as possible. This strength of design ensures that a Shakespeare play can survive translation, cutting, and wide interpretation without loss to its core drama.[206] As Shakespeare's mastery grew, he gave his characters clearer and more varied motivations and distinctive patterns of speech. He preserved aspects of his earlier style in the later plays, however. In Shakespeare's late romances, he deliberately returned to a more artificial style, which emphasised the illusion of theatre.[207][208]

 Influence

 Main article: Shakespeare's influence
 Macbeth Consulting the Vision of the Armed Head. By Henry Fuseli, 1793–1794. Folger Shakespeare Library, Washington.

 Shakespeare's work has made a significant and lasting impression on later theatre and literature. In particular, he expanded the dramatic potential of characterisation, plot, language, and genre.[209] Until Romeo and Juliet, for example, romance had not been viewed as a worthy topic for tragedy.[210] Soliloquies had been used mainly to convey information about characters or events, but Shakespeare used them to explore characters' minds.[211] His work heavily influenced later poetry. The Romantic poets attempted to revive Shakespearean verse drama, though with little success. Critic George Steiner described all English verse dramas from Coleridge to Tennyson as "feeble variations on Shakespearean themes."[212] John Milton, considered by many to be the most important English poet after Shakespeare, wrote in tribute: "Thou in our wonder and astonishment/ Has built thyself a live-long monument."[213]

 Shakespeare influenced novelists such as Thomas Hardy, William Faulkner, and Charles Dickens. The American novelist Herman Melville's soliloquies owe much to Shakespeare; his Captain Ahab in Moby-Dick is a classic tragic hero, inspired by King Lear.[214] Scholars have identified 20,000 pieces of music linked to Shakespeare's works. These include three operas by Giuseppe Verdi, Macbeth, Otello and Falstaff, whose critical standing compares with that of the source plays.[215] Shakespeare has also inspired many painters, including the Romantics and the Pre-Raphaelites. The Swiss Romantic artist Henry Fuseli, a friend of William Blake, even translated Macbeth into German.[216] The psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud drew on Shakespearean psychology, in particular, that of Hamlet, for his theories of human nature.[217] Shakespeare has been a rich source for filmmakers; Akira Kurosawa adapted Macbeth and King Lear as Throne of Blood and Ran, respectively. Other examples of Shakespeare on film include Max Reinhardt's A Midsummer Night's Dream, Laurence Olivier's Hamlet and Al Pacino's documentary Looking For Richard.[218] Orson Welles, a lifelong lover of Shakespeare, directed and starred in films of Macbeth and Othello, and Chimes at Midnight, in which he plays John Falstaff, which Welles himself called his best work.[219]

 In Shakespeare's day, English grammar, spelling, and pronunciation were less standardised than they are now,[220] and his use of language helped shape modern English.[221] Samuel Johnson quoted him more often than any other author in his A Dictionary of the English Language, the first serious work of its type.[222] Expressions such as "with bated breath" (Merchant of Venice) and "a foregone conclusion" (Othello) have found their way into everyday English speech.[223][224]

 Shakespeare's influence extends far beyond his native England and the English language. His reception in Germany was particularly significant; as early as the 18th century Shakespeare was widely translated and popularised in Germany, and gradually became a "classic of the German Weimar era;" Christoph Martin Wieland was the first to produce complete translations of Shakespeare's plays in any language.[225][226] Actor and theatre director Simon Callow writes, "this master, this titan, this genius, so profoundly British and so effortlessly universal, each different culture – German, Italian, Russian – was obliged to respond to the Shakespearean example; for the most part, they embraced it, and him, with joyous abandon, as the possibilities of language and character in action that he celebrated liberated writers across the continent. Some of the most deeply affecting productions of Shakespeare have been non-English, and non-European. He is that unique writer: he has something for everyone."[227]

 According to Guinness World Records, Shakespeare remains the world's best-selling playwright, with sales of his plays and poetry believed to have achieved in excess of four billion copies in the almost 400 years since his death. He is also the third most translated author in history.[228]

 Critical reputation

 Main articles: Reputation of William Shakespeare and Timeline of Shakespeare criticism

 "He was not of an age, but for all time."

 —Ben Jonson[229]

 Shakespeare was not revered in his lifetime, but he received a large amount of praise.[230][231] In 1598, the cleric and author Francis Meres singled him out from a group of English playwrights as "the most excellent" in both comedy and tragedy.[232][233] The authors of the Parnassus plays at St John's College, Cambridge, numbered him with Chaucer, Gower, and Spenser.[234] In the First Folio, Ben Jonson called Shakespeare the "Soul of the age, the applause, delight, the wonder of our stage", although he had remarked elsewhere that "Shakespeare wanted art" (lacked skill).[229]

 Between the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 and the end of the 17th century, classical ideas were in vogue. As a result, critics of the time mostly rated Shakespeare below John Fletcher and Ben Jonson.[235] Thomas Rymer, for example, condemned Shakespeare for mixing the comic with the tragic. Nevertheless, poet and critic John Dryden rated Shakespeare highly, saying of Jonson, "I admire him, but I love Shakespeare".[236] He also famously remarked that Shakespeare "was naturally learned; he needed not the spectacles of books to read nature; he looked inwards, and found her there."[237] For several decades, Rymer's view held sway. But during the 18th century, critics began to respond to Shakespeare on his own terms and, like Dryden, to acclaim what they termed his natural genius. A series of scholarly editions of his work, notably those of Samuel Johnson in 1765 and Edmond Malone in 1790, added to his growing reputation.[238][239] By 1800, he was firmly enshrined as the national poet.[240] In the 18th and 19th centuries, his reputation also spread abroad. Among those who championed him were the writers Voltaire, Goethe, Stendhal, and Victor Hugo.[241][l]

 A garlanded statue of William Shakespeare in Lincoln Park, Chicago, typical of many created in the 19th and early 20th centuries

 During the Romantic era, Shakespeare was praised by the poet and literary philosopher Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and the critic August Wilhelm Schlegel translated his plays in the spirit of German Romanticism.[243] In the 19th century, critical admiration for Shakespeare's genius often bordered on adulation.[244] "This King Shakespeare," the essayist Thomas Carlyle wrote in 1840, "does not he shine, in crowned sovereignty, over us all, as the noblest, gentlest, yet strongest of rallying signs; indestructible".[245] The Victorians produced his plays as lavish spectacles on a grand scale.[246] The playwright and critic George Bernard Shaw mocked the cult of Shakespeare worship as "bardolatry", claiming that the new naturalism of Ibsen's plays had made Shakespeare obsolete.[247]

 The modernist revolution in the arts during the early 20th century, far from discarding Shakespeare, eagerly enlisted his work in the service of the avant-garde. The Expressionists in Germany and the Futurists in Moscow mounted productions of his plays. Marxist playwright and director Bertolt Brecht devised an epic theatre under the influence of Shakespeare. The poet and critic T. S. Eliot argued against Shaw that Shakespeare's "primitiveness" in fact made him truly modern.[248] Eliot, along with G. Wilson Knight and the school of New Criticism, led a movement towards a closer reading of Shakespeare's imagery. In the 1950s, a wave of new critical approaches replaced modernism and paved the way for post-modern studies of Shakespeare.[249] By the 1980s, Shakespeare studies were open to movements such as structuralism, feminism, New Historicism, African-American studies, and queer studies.[250][251] Comparing Shakespeare's accomplishments to those of leading figures in philosophy and theology, Harold Bloom wrote, "Shakespeare was larger than Plato and than St. Augustine. He encloses us because we see with his fundamental perceptions."[252]

 Works

 Further information: Shakespeare bibliography and Chronology of Shakespeare's plays

 Classification of the plays

 The Plays of William Shakespeare. By Sir John Gilbert, 1849.

 Shakespeare's works include the 36 plays printed in the First Folio of 1623, listed according to their folio classification as comedies, histories, and tragedies.[253] Two plays not included in the First Folio, The Two Noble Kinsmen and Pericles, Prince of Tyre, are now accepted as part of the canon, with today's scholars agreeing that Shakespeare made major contributions to the writing of both.[254][255] No Shakespearean poems were included in the First Folio.

 In the late 19th century, Edward Dowden classified four of the late comedies as romances, and though many scholars prefer to call them tragicomedies, Dowden's term is often used.[256][257] In 1896, Frederick S. Boas coined the term "problem plays" to describe four plays: All's Well That Ends Well, Measure for Measure, Troilus and Cressida, and Hamlet.[258] "Dramas as singular in theme and temper cannot be strictly called comedies or tragedies", he wrote. "We may, therefore, borrow a convenient phrase from the theatre of today and class them together as Shakespeare's problem plays."[259] The term, much debated and sometimes applied to other plays, remains in use, though Hamlet is definitively classed as a tragedy.[260][261][262]

 Speculation

 Authorship

 Main article: Shakespeare authorship question

 Around 230 years after Shakespeare's death, doubts began to be expressed about the authorship of the works attributed to him.[263] Proposed alternative candidates include Francis Bacon, Christopher Marlowe, and Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford.[264] Several "group theories" have also been proposed.[265] All but a few Shakespeare scholars and literary historians consider it a fringe theory, with only a small minority of academics who believe that there is reason to question the traditional attribution,[266] but interest in the subject, particularly the Oxfordian theory of Shakespeare authorship, continues into the 21st century.[267][268][269]

 Religion

 Main article: Religious views of William Shakespeare

 Shakespeare conformed to the official state religion,[m] but his private views on religion have been the subject of debate. Shakespeare's will uses a Protestant formula, and he was a confirmed member of the Church of England, where he was married, his children were baptised, and where he is buried. Some scholars claim that members of Shakespeare's family were Catholics, at a time when practising Catholicism in England was against the law.[271] Shakespeare's mother, Mary Arden, certainly came from a pious Catholic family. The strongest evidence might be a Catholic statement of faith signed by his father, John Shakespeare, found in 1757 in the rafters of his former house in Henley Street. However, the document is now lost and scholars differ as to its authenticity.[272][273] In 1591, the authorities reported that John Shakespeare had missed church "for fear of process for debt", a common Catholic excuse.[274][275][276] In 1606, the name of William's daughter Susanna appears on a list of those who failed to attend Easter communion in Stratford.[274][275][276] Other authors argue that there is a lack of evidence about Shakespeare's religious beliefs. Scholars find evidence both for and against Shakespeare's Catholicism, Protestantism, or lack of belief in his plays, but the truth may be impossible to prove.[277][278]

 Sexuality

 Main article: Sexuality of William Shakespeare

 Few details of Shakespeare's sexuality are known. At 18, he married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway, who was pregnant. Susanna, the first of their three children, was born six months later on 26 May 1583. Over the centuries, some readers have posited that Shakespeare's sonnets are autobiographical,[279] and point to them as evidence of his love for a young man. Others read the same passages as the expression of intense friendship rather than romantic love.[280][281][282] The 26 so-called "Dark Lady" sonnets, addressed to a married woman, are taken as evidence of heterosexual liaisons.[283]

 Portraiture

 Main article: Portraits of Shakespeare

 No written contemporary description of Shakespeare's physical appearance survives, and no evidence suggests that he ever commissioned a portrait, so the Droeshout engraving, which Ben Jonson approved of as a good likeness,[284] and his Stratford monument provide perhaps the best evidence of his appearance. From the 18th century, the desire for authentic Shakespeare portraits fuelled claims that various surviving pictures depicted Shakespeare. That demand also led to the production of several fake portraits, as well as misattributions, repaintings, and relabelling of portraits of other people.[285]

 See also

 * Outline of William Shakespeare
 * English Renaissance theatre
 * Spelling of Shakespeare's name
 * World Shakespeare Bibliography

 Notes and references

 Notes

 1. ^ His monument states that he was in his 53rd year at death, i.e. 52 years old.
 2. ^ The concept that Shakespeare was born on 23 April, contrary to belief, is a tradition, and not a fact; see the section on Shakespeare's life below.
 3. ^ Dates follow the Julian calendar , used in England throughout Shakespeare's lifespan, but with the start of the year adjusted to 1 January (see Old Style and New Style dates ). Under the Gregorian calendar , adopted in Catholic countries in 1582, Shakespeare died on 3 May. [1]
 4. ^ The "national cult" of Shakespeare, and the "bard" identification, dates from September 1769, when the actor David Garrick organised a week-long carnival at Stratford to mark the town council awarding him the freedom of the town. In addition to presenting the town with a statue of Shakespeare, Garrick composed a doggerel verse, lampooned in the London newspapers, naming the banks of the Avon as the birthplace of the "matchless Bard". [6]
 5. ^ The exact figures are unknown. See Shakespeare's collaborations and Shakespeare Apocrypha for further details.
 6. ^ Individual play dates and precise writing span are unknown. See Chronology of Shakespeare's plays for further details.
 7. ^ The crest is a silver falcon supporting a spear, while the motto is Non Sanz Droict (French for "not without right"). This motto is still used by Warwickshire County Council , in reference to Shakespeare.
 8. ^ Inscribed in Latin on his funerary monument: AETATIS 53 DIE 23 APR (In his 53rd year he died 23 April).
 9. ^ Verse by James Mabbe printed in the First Folio. [84]
 10. ^ Charles Knight , 1842, in his notes on Twelfth Night . [93]
 11. ^ In the scribal abbreviations ye for the (3rd line) and yt for that (3rd and 4th lines) the letter y represents th : see thorn .
 12. ^ Grady cites Voltaire 's Philosophical Letters (1733); Goethe's Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship (1795); Stendhal 's two-part pamphlet Racine et Shakespeare (1823–25); and Victor Hugo 's prefaces to Cromwell (1827) and William Shakespeare (1864). [242]
 13. ^ For example, A.L. Rowse , the 20th-century Shakespeare scholar, was emphatic: "He died, as he had lived, a conforming member of the Church of England. His will made that perfectly clear—in facts, puts it beyond dispute, for it uses the Protestant formula." [270]

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 * Bednarz, James P. (2004). "Marlowe and the English literary scene". In Cheney, Patrick Gerard (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Christopher Marlowe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 90–105. doi:10.1017/CCOL0521820340. ISBN 978-0-511-99905-5 – via Cambridge Core.
 * Bentley, G.E. (1961). Shakespeare: A Biographical Handbook. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-313-25042-2. OCLC 356416.
 * Berry, Ralph (2005). Changing Styles in Shakespeare. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-35316-8.
 * Bevington, David (2002). Shakespeare. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-22719-9.
 * Bloom, Harold (1995). The Western Canon: The Books and School of the Ages. New York: Riverhead Books. ISBN 978-1-57322-514-4.
 * Bloom, Harold (1999). Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human. New York: Riverhead Books. ISBN 978-1-57322-751-3.
 * Bloom, Harold (2008). Heims, Neil (ed.). King Lear. Bloom's Shakespeare Through the Ages. Bloom's Literary Criticism. ISBN 978-0-7910-9574-4.
 * Boas, Frederick S. (1896). Shakspere and His Predecessors. The University series. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. hdl:2027/uc1.32106001899191. OL 20577303M.
 * Bowers, Fredson (1955). On Editing Shakespeare and the Elizabethan Dramatists. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. OCLC 2993883.
 * Boyce, Charles (1996). Dictionary of Shakespeare. Ware, Herts, UK: Wordsworth. ISBN 978-1-85326-372-9.
 * Bradbrook, M.C. (2004). "Shakespeare's Recollection of Marlowe". In Edwards, Philip; Ewbank, Inga-Stina; Hunter, G.K. (eds.). Shakespeare's Styles: Essays in Honour of Kenneth Muir. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 191–204. ISBN 978-0-521-61694-2.
 * Bradley, A.C. (1991). Shakespearean Tragedy: Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear and Macbeth. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-053019-3.
 * Brooke, Nicholas (2004). "Language and Speaker in Macbeth". In Edwards, Philip; Ewbank, Inga-Stina; Hunter, G.K. (eds.). Shakespeare's Styles: Essays in Honour of Kenneth Muir. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 67–78. ISBN 978-0-521-61694-2.
 * Bryant, John (1998). "Moby-Dick as Revolution". In Levine, Robert Steven (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Herman Melville. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 65–90. doi:10.1017/CCOL0521554772. ISBN 978-1-139-00037-6 – via Cambridge Core.
 * Carlyle, Thomas (1841). On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and The Heroic in History. London: James Fraser. hdl:2027/hvd.hnlmmi. OCLC 17473532. OL 13561584M.
 * Casey, Charles (1998). "Was Shakespeare gay? Sonnet 20 and the politics of pedagogy". College Literature. 25 (3): 35–51. JSTOR 25112402.
 * Cercignani, Fausto (1981). Shakespeare's Works and Elizabethan Pronunciation. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-811937-1.
 * Chambers, E.K. (1923). The Elizabethan Stage. Vol. 2. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-811511-3. OCLC 336379.
 * Chambers, E.K. (1930a). William Shakespeare: A Study of Facts and Problems. Vol. 1. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-811774-2. OCLC 353406.
 * Chambers, E.K. (1930b). William Shakespeare: A Study of Facts and Problems. Vol. 2. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-811774-2. OCLC 353406.
 * Chambers, E.K. (1944). Shakespearean Gleanings. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8492-0506-4. OCLC 2364570.
 * Clemen, Wolfgang (1987). Shakespeare's Soliloquies. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-35277-2.
 * Clemen, Wolfgang (2005a). Shakespeare's Dramatic Art: Collected Essays. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-35278-9.
 * Clemen, Wolfgang (2005b). Shakespeare's Imagery. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-35280-2.
 * Cooper, Tarnya (2006). Searching for Shakespeare. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11611-3.
 * Craig, Leon Harold (2003). Of Philosophers and Kings: Political Philosophy in Shakespeare's Macbeth and King Lear. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-8605-1.
 * Cressy, David (1975). Education in Tudor and Stuart England. New York: St Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-7131-5817-5. OCLC 2148260.
 * Crystal, David (2001). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-40179-1.
 * Dobson, Michael (1992). The Making of the National Poet: Shakespeare, Adaptation and Authorship, 1660–1769. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-818323-5.
 * Dominik, Mark (1988). Shakespeare–Middleton Collaborations. Beaverton, OR: Alioth Press. ISBN 978-0-945088-01-1.
 * Dowden, Edward (1881). Shakspere. New York: D. Appleton & Company. OCLC 8164385. OL 6461529M.
 * Drakakis, John (1985). "Introduction". In Drakakis, John (ed.). Alternative Shakespeares. New York: Methuen. pp. 1–25. ISBN 978-0-416-36860-4.
 * Dryden, John (1889). Arnold, Thomas (ed.). Dryden: An Essay of Dramatic Poesy. Oxford: Clarendon Press. hdl:2027/umn.31951t00074232s. ISBN 978-81-7156-323-4. OCLC 7847292. OL 23752217M.
 * Dutton, Richard; Howard, Jean E. (2003). A Companion to Shakespeare's Works: The Histories. Vol. II. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-22633-8.
 * Edwards, Phillip (1958). Shakespeare's Romances: 1900–1957. Shakespeare Survey. Vol. 11. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–18. doi:10.1017/CCOL0521064244.001. ISBN 978-1-139-05291-7 – via Cambridge Core.
 * Eliot, T.S. (1934). Elizabethan Essays. London: Faber & Faber. ISBN 978-0-15-629051-7. OCLC 9738219.
 * Evans, G. Blakemore, ed. (1996). The Sonnets. The New Cambridge Shakespeare. Vol. 26. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-22225-9.
 * Foakes, R.A. (1990). "Playhouses and players". In Braunmuller, A.R.; Hattaway, Michael (eds.). The Cambridge Companion to English Renaissance Drama. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–52. ISBN 978-0-521-38662-3.
 * Fort, J.A. (October 1927). "The Story Contained in the Second Series of Shakespeare's Sonnets". The Review of English Studies. Original Series. III (12): 406–414. doi:10.1093/res/os-III.12.406. ISSN 0034-6551 – via Oxford Journals.
 * Friedman, Michael D. (2006). "'I'm not a feminist director but...': Recent Feminist Productions of The Taming of the Shrew". In Nelsen, Paul; Schlueter, June (eds.). Acts of Criticism: Performance Matters in Shakespeare and his Contemporaries. New Jersey: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. pp. 159–174. ISBN 978-0-8386-4059-3.
 * Frye, Roland Mushat (2005). The Art of the Dramatist. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-35289-5.
 * Gibbons, Brian (1993). Shakespeare and Multiplicity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511553103. ISBN 978-0-511-55310-3 – via Cambridge Core.
 * Gibson, H.N. (2005). The Shakespeare Claimants: A Critical Survey of the Four Principal Theories Concerning the Authorship of the Shakespearean Plays. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-35290-1.
 * Grady, Hugh (2001a). "Modernity, Modernism and Postmodernism in the Twentieth Century's Shakespeare". In Bristol, Michael; McLuskie, Kathleen (eds.). Shakespeare and Modern Theatre: The Performance of Modernity. New York: Routledge. pp. 20–35. ISBN 978-0-415-21984-6.
 * Grady, Hugh (2001b). "Shakespeare criticism, 1600–1900". In de Grazia, Margreta; Wells, Stanley (eds.). The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 265–278. doi:10.1017/CCOL0521650941.017. ISBN 978-1-139-00010-9 – via Cambridge Core.
 * Greenblatt, Stephen (2005). Will in the World: How Shakespeare Became Shakespeare. London: Pimlico. ISBN 978-0-7126-0098-9.
 * Greenblatt, Stephen; Abrams, Meyer Howard, eds. (2012). Sixteenth/Early Seventeenth Century. The Norton Anthology of English Literature. Vol. 2. W.W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-91250-0.
 * Greer, Germaine (1986). Shakespeare. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-287538-9.
 * Hales, John W. (26 March 1904). "London Residences of Shakespeare". The Athenaeum. No. 3987. London: John C. Francis. pp. 401–402.
 * Holland, Peter, ed. (2000). Cymbeline. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-071472-2.
 * Honan, Park (1998). Shakespeare: A Life. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-811792-6.
 * Honigmann, E.A.J. (1999). Shakespeare: The 'Lost Years' (Revised ed.). Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-5425-9.
 * Jackson, MacDonald P. (2004). Zimmerman, Susan (ed.). "A Lover's Complaint revisited". Shakespeare Studies. XXXII. ISSN 0582-9399 – via The Free Library.
 * Johnson, Samuel (2002) [first published 1755]. Lynch, Jack (ed.). Samuel Johnson's Dictionary: Selections from the 1755 Work that Defined the English Language. Delray Beach, FL: Levenger Press. ISBN 978-1-84354-296-4.
 * Jonson, Ben (1996) [first published 1623]. "To the memory of my beloued, The AVTHOR MR. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE: AND what he hath left vs". In Hinman, Charlton (ed.). The First Folio of Shakespeare (2nd ed.). New York: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-03985-6.
 * Kastan, David Scott (1999). Shakespeare After Theory. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-90112-3.
 * Kermode, Frank (2004). The Age of Shakespeare. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-84881-3.
 * Kinney, Arthur F., ed. (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Shakespeare. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-956610-5.
 * Knutson, Roslyn (2001). Playing Companies and Commerce in Shakespeare's Time. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511486043. ISBN 978-0-511-48604-3 – via Cambridge Core.
 * Lee, Sidney (1900). Shakespeare's Life and Work. London: Smith, Elder & Co. OL 21113614M.
 * Levenson, Jill L., ed. (2000). Romeo and Juliet. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-281496-8.
 * Levin, Harry (1986). "Critical Approaches to Shakespeare from 1660 to 1904". In Wells, Stanley (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare Studies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-31841-9.
 * Love, Harold (2002). Attributing Authorship: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511483165. ISBN 978-0-511-48316-5 – via Cambridge Core.
 * Maguire, Laurie E. (1996). Shakespearean Suspect Texts: The 'Bad' Quartos and Their Contexts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511553134. ISBN 978-0-511-55313-4 – via Cambridge Core.
 * Mays, Andrea; Swanson, James (20 April 2016). "Shakespeare Died a Nobody, and then Got Famous by Accident". New York Post. Archived from the original on 21 April 2016 . Retrieved 31 December 2017 .
 * McDonald, Russ (2006). Shakespeare's Late Style. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511483783. ISBN 978-0-511-48378-3 – via Cambridge Core.
 * McIntyre, Ian (1999). Garrick. Harmondsworth, England: Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-14-028323-5.
 * McMichael, George; Glenn, Edgar M. (1962). Shakespeare and his Rivals: A Casebook on the Authorship Controversy. New York: Odyssey Press. OCLC 2113359.
 * Meagher, John C. (2003). Pursuing Shakespeare's Dramaturgy: Some Contexts, Resources, and Strategies in his Playmaking. New Jersey: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. ISBN 978-0-8386-3993-1.
 * Mowat, Barbara; Werstine, Paul (n.d.). "Sonnet 18". Folger Digital Texts. Folger Shakespeare Library . Retrieved 20 March 2021 .
 * Muir, Kenneth (2005). Shakespeare's Tragic Sequence. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-35325-0.
 * Nagler, A.M. (1958). Shakespeare's Stage. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-02689-4.
 * "Did He or Didn't He? That Is the Question". The New York Times. 22 April 2007 . Retrieved 31 December 2017 .
 * Paraisz, Júlia (2006). "The Author, the Editor and the Translator: William Shakespeare, Alexander Chalmers and Sándor Petofi or the Nature of a Romantic Edition". Editing Shakespeare. Shakespeare Survey. Vol. 59. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 124–135. doi:10.1017/CCOL0521868386.010. ISBN 978-1-139-05271-9 – via Cambridge Core.
 * Pequigney, Joseph (1985). Such Is My Love: A Study of Shakespeare's Sonnets. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-65563-5.
 * Pollard, Alfred W. (1909). Shakespeare Quartos and Folios: A Study in the Bibliography of Shakespeare's Plays, 1594–1685. London: Methuen. OCLC 46308204.
 * Pritchard, Arnold (1979). Catholic Loyalism in Elizabethan England. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-1345-4.
 * Ribner, Irving (2005). The English History Play in the Age of Shakespeare. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-35314-4.
 * Ringler, William, Jr. (1997). "Shakespeare and His Actors: Some Remarks on King Lear". In Ogden, James; Scouten, Arthur Hawley (eds.). In Lear from Study to Stage: Essays in Criticism. New Jersey: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. pp. 123–134. ISBN 978-0-8386-3690-9.
 * Roe, John, ed. (2006). The Poems: Venus and Adonis, The Rape of Lucrece, The Phoenix and the Turtle, The Passionate Pilgrim, A Lover's Complaint. The New Cambridge Shakespeare (2nd revised ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85551-8.
 * Rowe, Nicholas (1997) [first published 1709]. Gray, Terry A. (ed.). Some Account of the Life &c of Mr. William Shakespear . Retrieved 30 July 2007 .
 * Rowse, A.L. (1963). William Shakespeare; A Biography. New York: Harper & Row. OL 21462232M.
 * Rowse, A.L. (1988). Shakespeare: the Man. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-44354-5.
 * Sawyer, Robert (2003). Victorian Appropriations of Shakespeare. New Jersey: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. ISBN 978-0-8386-3970-2.
 * Schanzer, Ernest (1963). The Problem Plays of Shakespeare. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. ISBN 978-0-415-35305-2. OCLC 2378165.
 * Schoch, Richard W. (2002). "Pictorial Shakespeare". In Wells, Stanley; Stanton, Sarah (eds.). The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Stage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 58–75. doi:10.1017/CCOL0521792959.004. ISBN 978-0-511-99957-4 – via Cambridge Core.
 * Schoenbaum, S. (1981). William Shakespeare: Records and Images. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-520234-2.
 * de Sélincourt, Basil (1909). William Blake. The library of art. London: Duckworth & co. hdl:2027/mdp.39015066033914. OL 26411508M.
 * Schoenbaum, S. (1987). William Shakespeare: A Compact Documentary Life (Revised ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-505161-2.
 * Schoenbaum, S. (1991). Shakespeare's Lives. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-818618-2.
 * Shapiro, James (2005). 1599: A Year in the Life of William Shakespeare. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-21480-8.
 * Shapiro, James (2010). Contested Will: Who Wrote Shakespeare?. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4165-4162-2.
 * Smith, Irwin (1964). Shakespeare's Blackfriars Playhouse. New York: New York University Press.
 * Snyder, Susan; Curren-Aquino, Deborah, eds. (2007). The Winter's Tale. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-22158-0.
 * "Shakespeare Memorial". Southwark Cathedral. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016 . Retrieved 2 April 2016 .
 * Steiner, George (1996). The Death of Tragedy. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-06916-7.
 * Taylor, Gary (1987). William Shakespeare: A Textual Companion. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-812914-1.
 * Taylor, Gary (1990). Reinventing Shakespeare: A Cultural History from the Restoration to the Present. London: Hogarth Press. ISBN 978-0-7012-0888-2.
 * Wain, John (1975). Samuel Johnson. New York: Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-61671-8.
 * Wells, Stanley; Taylor, Gary; Jowett, John; Montgomery, William, eds. (2005). The Oxford Shakespeare: The Complete Works (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926717-0.
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 * Wells, Stanley; Orlin, Lena Cowen, eds. (2003). Shakespeare: An Oxford Guide. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-924522-2.
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  * Anne Hathaway (wife) 
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 Family * Mary Arden (mother) 
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 * v     
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 William Shakespeare's family tree    
 Direct ascendants and descendants of William Shakespeare are shown with a blue background     
 Shakespeare's siblings are shown with a red background    Years given are usually approximate and typically reflect baptismal and burial years, rather than birth and death. 
 Anne Hathaway and ascendants are shown with a yellow background    For remarriages, the number in parentheses after the name indicates the order of the marriages. 
 People related to Shakespeare only through marriage are shown with a green background      
 Relations whose identity is not known are shown with a dashed border      
 Richard  Robert   
 Shakespeare (unknown) (unknown) Arden   
 (1490–before 1561)  (died 1556)   
     
     
     
  John Mary  Richard Joan 
  Shakespeare Arden  (unknown) (1) Hathaway Hathaway (2) 
  (c. 1531–1601) (c. 1537–1608)  (–1581) (–1599) 
     
     
     
 Joan Margaret Gilbert Joan William Anne  
 (1558–1558) (1562–1563) Shakespeare Shakespeare Shakespeare Hathaway  
  (1566–1612) (1569–1646) (1564–1616) (1555–1623)  
     
     
     
 Anne Richard Edmund    
 (1571–1579) (1574–1613) Shakespeare    
  (1580–1607)    
     
     
     
  John Susanna  Judith Thomas Hamnet 
  Hall Hall  Quiney Quiney Shakespeare 
  (1575–1635) (1583–1649)  (1585–1662) (1589–1662) (1585–1596) 
     
     
     
 Thomas Elisabeth John Shakespeare Richard Thomas  
 Nash (1) Barnard Barnard (2) Quiney Quiney Quiney  
 (1593–1647) (1608–1670) (1604–1674) (1616–1617) (1618–1639) (1620–1639)  
     
     
 Sources     
 * Chambers, E. K. (1930). William Shakespeare: A Study of Facts and Problems. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. Vol. I 11–12, 18, Vol. II 8–9. OCLC 353406.   
 * Schoenbaum, S. (1977). William Shakespeare: A Compact Documentary Life. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 292. ISBN 0195051610.   
 
 Links to related articles         
 * v         
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 * e         
 Early editions of William Shakespeare's works        
  * Foul papers        
  * List of Shakespeare plays in quarto        
  * Quarto        
  * Folio        
 Folios and quartos * Bad quarto        
  * First Quarto        
  * First Folio        
  * Second Folio        
  * False Folio        
  * John Heminges        
 Early editors * Henry Condell        
  * Edward Knight        
  * Robert Allot        
  * William Aspley        
  * John Benson        
  * Edward Blount        
  * Cuthbert Burby        
  * Nathaniel Butter        
  * Philip Chetwinde        
  * Richard Hawkins        
 Publishers * Henry Herringman        
  * William Leake        
  * Richard Meighen        
  * Thomas Millington        
  * Thomas Pavier        
  * John Smethwick        
  * Thomas Thorpe        
  * Thomas Walkley        
  * John Waterson        
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 Printers * William Jaggard        
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  * Nicholas Okes        
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  * Peter Short        
  * Valentine Simmes        
  * William Stansby        
          
 Shakespearean tragedy         
 * v         
 * t         
 * e         
 William Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra        
  * Mark Antony        
  * Octavius Caesar        
  * Lepidus        
  * Cleopatra        
  * Sextus Pompey        
  * Domitius Enobarbus        
  * Ventidius        
  * Canidius        
 Characters * Scarus        
  * Octavia        
  * Maecenas        
  * Agrippa        
  * Taurus        
  * Dolabella        
  * Gallus        
  * Menas        
  * Charmian        
 Sources * Parallel Lives        
 Stage adaptations * The False One (c.1620)        
  * All for Love (1677)        
 Opera * Antony and Cleopatra (1966)        
  * 1908        
  * 1913        
  * 1959 (TV)        
 On screen * The Spread of the Eagle (1963; TV)        
  * 1972        
  * 1974 (TV)        
  * 1981 (TV)        
  * Zulfiqar (2016; film)        
  * List of cultural depictions of Cleopatra       
  * Cultural depictions of Augustus        
  * Salad days        
 Related * Asp        
  * Thomas North        
  * Cleopatra (1912)        
  * Cleopatra (1917)        
  * Roman Tragedies (2007)        
 * Category         
          
 * v         
 * t         
 * e         
 William Shakespeare's Coriolanus        
  * Caius Martius Coriolanus        
  * Menenius Agrippa        
  * Cominius        
  Historical * Titus Lartius        
 Characters * Sicinius Velutus        
  * Junius Brutus        
  * Tullus Aufidius        
  Fictional * Volumnia        
  * Virgilia        
          
  * Roman Antiquities        
  * Parallel Lives        
 Sources * Ab Urbe Condita        
  * Policraticus        
  * A Mervalious Combat of Contrarieties (William Averell)       
  * Coriolanus (1953)        
 Adaptations * The Spread of the Eagle (1963; TV)        
  * The Tragedy of Coriolanus (1984; TV)        
  * Coriolanus (2011)        
  * Veturia        
 Related * Thomas North        
  * Roman Tragedies (2007)        
          
 * v         
 * t         
 * e         
 William Shakespeare's Cymbeline        
  * Cymbeline        
  * Queen        
  * Imogen        
  * Posthumus Leonatus        
 Characters * Cloten        
  * Belarius        
  * Guiderius        
  * Arvirargus        
  * Jupiter        
  * Historia Regum Britanniae (c. 1136)        
 Sources * The Decameron (c. 1353)        
  * Holinshed's Chronicles (1577)        
 Adaptations * Cymbeline (1982; TV)        
  * Cymbeline (2014)        
  * Shakespeare's late romances        
 Related * Philaster (c.1609)        
  * Deus ex machina        
  * Milford Haven        
          
 * v         
 * t         
 * e         
 William Shakespeare's Hamlet        
  * Hamlet        
  * Claudius        
  * Gertrude        
  * Ghost        
  * Polonius        
 Characters * Laertes        
  * Ophelia        
  * Horatio        
  * Rosencrantz and Guildenstern        
  * Fortinbras        
  * The Gravediggers        
  * Yorick        
  * " To be, or not to be "        
 Soliloquies + " Mortal coil "        
  * " What a piece of work is a man "        
  * " Speak the speech "        
 Words and phrases * " The lady doth protest too much, methinks "        
  * " Thy name is "        
  * Dumbshow        
 Terminology * Induction        
  * Quiddity        
  * Substitution        
  * Legend of Hamlet        
  * The Spanish Tragedy        
  * Ur-Hamlet        
 * Sources * Critical approaches        
 * Criticism * Bibliographies        
  * Saxo Grammaticus        
  * House of Gonzaga        
  * Damon and Pythias        
  * Common phrases from Hamlet        
  * Cultural references to Hamlet        
 Influence * Cultural references to Ophelia        
  * Language of flowers        
  * Human skull symbolism        
 Performances * Moscow Art Theatre (1911–1912)        
  * Richard Burton (1964)        
  * 1900        
  * 1907        
  * 1908        
  * 1912        
  * 1913        
  * 1917        
  * 1921        
  * 1935        
 On screen * 1948        
  * 1954        
  * 1961        
  * 1964        
  * 1969        
  * 1974        
  * 1990        
  * 1996        
  * 2000        
  * 2011        
  * The Rest Is Silence (1959)        
  * The Bad Sleep Well (1960)        
  * Ophelia (1963)        
  * Johnny Hamlet (1968)        
  * One Hamlet Less (1973)        
  * The Angel of Vengeance – The Female Hamlet (1977)       
  * Strange Brew (1983)        
  * Hamlet Goes Business (1987)        
  Films * The Lion King (1994)        
  * Let the Devil Wear Black (1999)        
  * The Banquet (2006)        
  * Doubt (2009)        
  * Karmayogi (2012)        
  * Haider (2014)        
  * Hamlet A.D.D. (2014)        
  * Hemanta (2016)        
  * Ophelia (2018)        
 Adaptations * The Lion King (2019)        
  * Hamlet Had an Uncle (1940)        
  * Too, Too Solid Flesh (1989)        
  * Gertrude and Claudius (2000)        
  Novels * Dating Hamlet (2002)        
  * The Dead Fathers Club (2006)        
  * Something Rotten (2007)        
  * Hamlet's Father (2008)        
  * The Story of Edgar Sawtelle (2008)        
  * Hamletmachine (1977)        
  Plays * Dogg's Hamlet (1979)        
  * Fortinbras (1991)        
  Musicals * Rockabye Hamlet (1973)        
  * Hamlet (Australian TV, 1959)        
  * Hamlet at Elsinore (BBC, 1964)        
  Television * Hamlet, Prince of Denmark (BBC, 1980)       
  * Hamlet (BBC 2, animated, 1992)        
  * Hamlet (BBC 2, 2009)        
          
  * 15-Minute Hamlet        
  * The Complete Works of William Shakespeare (Abridged)       
  * Rosencrantz and Guildenstern        
  * I, Hamlet        
 Parodies * The Klingon Hamlet        
  * " Lyle the Kindly Viking "        
  * To Be or Not to Be: That is the Adventure        
  * " Tales from the Public Domain "        
  * The Skinhead Hamlet        
  * " My Robin is to the greenwood gone " (16th century)       
 Songs * " Pull Me Under " (1992)        
  * " Song for Athene " (1997)        
  * Hamlet (Thomas)        
  * Amleto (Faccio)        
 Opera/classical * Hamlet (Tchaikovsky)        
  * Tristia (Berlioz)        
  * Die Hamletmaschine (Rihm)        
  * Hamlet (Dean)        
  * To Be or Not to Be (1942)        
  * A Performance of Hamlet in the Village of Mrdusa Donja (1973)       
  * To Be or Not to Be (1983)        
  * Rosencrantz & Guildenstern Are Dead (1990)       
  * Highlander II: The Quickening (1991)       
  Films * Last Action Hero (1993)        
  * Renaissance Man (1994)        
  * In the Bleak Midwinter (1995)        
  * War (2002)        
  * Hamlet 2 (2008)        
  * Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Undead (2009)       
  * Three Days (2012)        
  * Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead (1966)       
  Plays * Stage Blood (1974)        
  * I Hate Hamlet (1991)        
  * To Be or Not to Be (2008)        
 In popular culture * Hamlet, Revenge! (1937)        
  * Theatre of War (1994)        
  Novels * " The Undiscovered " (1997)        
  * The Shakespeare Stealer (1998)        
  * Interred with Their Bones (2007)        
  * Hamnet (2020)        
  * " The Producer " (1966)        
  * " The Conscience of the King " (1966)       
  Television * " Born to Be King " (1983)        
  * " Terrance and Phillip: Behind the Blow " (2001)       
  * Slings & Arrows (2003)        
  * Last Action Hero (1993)        
  Video games * Hamlet (2010)        
  * Elsinore (2019)        
  * Asterix and the Great Crossing        
  Books * The Seagull        
  * Sharpe's Havoc        
          
 Art * Ophelia        
  * Affe mit Schädel        
  * Hamlet and Oedipus        
  * Hamlet and His Problems        
  * Hebenon        
  * Hamlet Q1        
  * Ostalo je ćutanje        
 Related * The Chronicles of Amber        
  * " Symphony No. 65 " (Haydn)        
  * The Hobart Shakespeareans        
  * Gertrude – The Cry        
  * Poor Murderer        
  * Something Rotten!        
  * Sons of Anarchy        
          
 * v         
 * t         
 * e         
 William Shakespeare's Julius Caesar        
 Sources * Parallel Lives        
  * Julius Caesar (1914 film)        
  * Julius Caesar (1950 film)        
 Screen * Julius Caesar (1953 film)        
 adaptations * The Spread of the Eagle (1963; TV)        
  * Julius Caesar (1970 film)        
  * BBC Television Shakespeare (TV)        
  * Shakespeare: The Animated Tales (TV)        
  * La morte di Cesare (1788)        
  * The Assassination of Julius Caesar (Sullivan)       
  * Shakespeare Writing "Julius Caesar" (1907)       
  * Caesar (1937)        
 Inspired work * Die Ermordung Cäsars (1959)        
  * Dead Caesar (2007)        
  * The Karaoke King (2007)        
  * Roman Tragedies (2007)        
  * Julius Caesar (overture, 1851)        
  * Zulfiqar (2016)        
  * "The dogs of war"        
 Quotes * "Et tu, Brute?"        
  * "Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears"       
  * "Greek to me"        
  * Cultural depictions of Julius Caesar        
  * Assassination of Julius Caesar        
  * Caesar's Comet        
 Related * Ides of March        
  * Battle of Philippi        
  * Me and Orson Welles (2008)        
  * Caesar Must Die (2012)        
 * Category         
          
 * v         
 * t         
 * e         
 William Shakespeare's King Lear        
  * King Lear        
  * Cordelia        
 Characters * Goneril        
  * Regan        
  * Edmund        
  * The Fool        
  * Historia Regum Britanniae (1136)        
  * The Mirror for Magistrates (1555)        
 Sources * Holinshed's Chronicles (1577)        
  * King Leir (1594)        
  * "Water and Salt"        
  * Llŷr        
 Related * Leir of Britain        
  * Cordelia of Britain        
  * The History of King Lear (1681)       
  * The Yiddish King Lear (1892)       
  Plays * Safed Khoon (1907)        
  * Lear (1971)        
  * King Lear (1978)        
  * La Terre (1887)        
  Novels * A Thousand Acres (1991)       
  * Fool (2009)        
  * Re Lear (Libretto only) (1896)       
  Operas * Lear (1978)        
  * Vision of Lear (1998)       
  * Kuningas Lear (2000)       
  * King Lear (1910)        
  * King Lear (1916)        
  * Gunasundari Katha (1949)       
  * King Lear (1971 USSR)       
  * King Lear (1971 UK)       
  Films * Ran (1985)        
 Adaptations * King Lear (1987)        
  * A Thousand Acres (1997)       
  * Gypsy Lore (1997)        
  * King Lear (1999)        
  * My Kingdom (2001)        
  * Second Generation (2003)       
  * King Lear (1953)        
  * BBC Television Shakespeare (1982)       
  Television * King Lear (1983)        
  * King of Texas (2002)       
  * King Lear (2008)        
  * King Lear (2018)        
  * The Dresser (1980 play)       
  Story within a story * The Dresser (1983 film)       
  * The Dresser (2015 film)       
  * Tiriel (1789, poem)       
  Other * The Prince of the Pagodas (1957, ballet)       
  * The Tragedy of King Lear (screenplay)       
          
          
 * v         
 * t         
 * e         
 William Shakespeare's Macbeth        
  * Macbeth        
  * Lady Macbeth        
  * Banquo        
  * Macduff        
  * King Duncan        
  * Malcolm        
 Characters * Donalbain        
  * Three Witches        
  * Fleance        
  * Lady Macduff        
  * Macduff's son        
  * Third Murderer        
  * Young Siward        
  * Macbeth, King of Scotland        
  * Gruoch of Scotland        
  * Duncan I of Scotland        
 Inspirations * Malcolm III of Scotland        
  * Donald III of Scotland        
  * Siward, Earl of Northumbria        
  * King James VI and I        
  * Daemonologie (1597)        
 Sources * The Witch (play)        
  * Holinshed's Chronicles        
  * Darraðarljóð        
  * 1908        
  * 1909 (French)        
  * 1909 (Italian)        
  * 1911        
  * 1913        
  * 1915        
  * 1916        
 Film * 1922        
  * 1948        
  * Unfinished        
  * 1971        
  * 2006        
  * 2015        
  * 2021        
  + accolades        
  * 1954        
  * 1960 US TV        
  * 1960 Australian TV        
  * 1961        
 Television * 1979        
  * 1982        
  * 1983        
  * 1992        
  * 2005        
  * 2010        
  * The Real Thing at Last (1916)        
  * Marmayogi (1951)        
  * Joe MacBeth (1955)        
  * Throne of Blood (1957)        
  * Macbeth (Verdi opera) (1987)        
  * Men of Respect (1990)        
 TV / film adaptations * Scotland, PA (2001)        
  * Makibefo (2001)        
  * Maqbool (2003)        
  * The Last King of Scotland (2006)        
  * Shakespeare Must Die (2012)        
  * Veeram (2016)        
  * Joji (2021)        
  * Khwab-e-Hasti (1909)        
  * Voodoo Macbeth (1936)        
  * MacBird! (1967)        
  * uMabatha (1970)        
  * Macbett (1972)        
 Plays * Cahoot's Macbeth (1979)        
  * MacHomer (1995)        
  * Just Macbeth! (2008)        
  * Sleep No More (2009)        
  * Dunsinane (2010)        
  * Sleep No More (2011)        
  * Macbeth (1847, Verdi)        
 Operas + discography        
  * Macbeth (1910, Bloch)        
  * Wyrd Sisters (1988)        
 Literary adaptations * The Last King of Scotland (1998)        
  * Macbeth (2018)        
  * Music from Macbeth (1972)        
  * Macbeth (1990)        
 Albums * Thane to the Throne (2000)        
  * Shakespeare's Macbeth – A Tragedy in Steel (2003)       
  * Lady Macbeth (2005)        
  * Pity (1795)        
 Art * The Night of Enitharmon's Joy (1795)        
  * Ellen Terry as Lady Macbeth (1889)        
  * Lady Macbeth (1905 sculpture)        
  * "On the Knocking at the Gate in Macbeth" (1823)       
 Scenes and speeches * Sleepwalking Scene (5.1)        
  * "Tomorrow and tomorrow and tomorrow"        
  * "What's done is done"        
 Words and phrases * "Crack of doom"        
  * The Scottish play        
  * Thane of Cawdor        
  * We Work Again        
  * Light Thickens        
  Novels, film and theatre * The Deadly Affair       
  * Mécanisme de la physionomie humaine       
  * The Scottish Play       
  * Burke & Hare        
  * "A Witch's Tangled Hare" (1959, Looney Tunes)       
  * "The Bellero Shield" (1964, The Outer Limits)       
 In popular culture * "The Movies" (1975, The Goodies)       
  * "Sense and Senility" (1987, Blackadder the Third)       
  Television * "Sleeping with the Enemy" (2004, The Simpsons)       
  * "The Coup" (2006, The Office)       
  * "Dial 'N' for Nerder" (2008, The Simpsons)       
  * "Four Great Women and a Manicure" (2009, The Simpsons)       
  * "The Shower Principle" (2012, 30 Rock)       
  * "The Understudy" (2014, Inside No. 9)       
          
  * Macbeth (Strauss)        
  * The Scottish Play        
  * Piano Trios, Op. 70 (Beethoven)        
 Other * The Ruins of Cawdor        
  * House of Cards (UK, 1990)        
  * House of Cards (US, 2013–2018)        
  * ‘’Something Wicked This Way Comes’’ (Ray Bradbury)       
          
 * v         
 * t         
 * e         
 William Shakespeare's Othello        
  * Othello        
  * Desdemona        
  * Iago        
 Characters * Cassio        
  * Emilia        
  * Bianca        
  * Roderigo        
  * Brabantio        
 Source * Della descrittione dell’Africa (1550) by Leo Africanus       
  * "Un Capitano Moro" from Gli Hecatommithi (1565) by Cintio       
  * The Duke of Milan (1623)        
  * Love's Sacrifice (1633)        
 Stage * Masquerade (1835)        
 adaptations * Othello (1951)        
  * Catch My Soul (US; 1969)        
  * Catch My Soul (UK; 1970)        
  * Desdemona (2011)        
  * Otello (1816; opera by Rossini)        
  * Otello (1887; opera by Verdi)        
 Opera and ballet * Othello (1892; overture)        
 adaptations * The Moor's Pavane (1949; ballet)        
  * Othello (1998; ballet score)        
  * Bandanna (1999; opera)        
  * 1922        
  * 1951        
 Films * 1955        
  * 1965        
  * 1995        
  * 1964 Australia        
  * 1981        
 TV * 1990        
  * 1994        
  * 2001        
  * Jubal (1956)        
  * All Night Long (1962)        
  * Catch My Soul (1974)        
 Film * Kaliyattam (1997)        
 adaptations * O (2001)        
  * Souli (2004)        
  * Omkara (2006)        
  * Jarum Halus (2008)        
  * Otello (1906; film)        
 From Verdi * Othello Ballet Suite/Electronic Organ Sonata No. 1 (1967; ballet suite)       
  * Otello (1986; film)        
  * The Othello Syndrome (2008; album)        
 Paintings * Othello        
 Phrases * "Beast with two backs"        
 Related * Othello error        
  * Filming Othello        
  * Carnival (1921 film)        
  * Carnival (1931 film)        
  * The Deceiver (1931)        
  * Men Are Not Gods (1936)        
  * A Double Life (1947)        
 Story within * Saptapadi (1961)        
 a story * The Dresser (1980 play)        
  * The Dresser (1983 film)        
  * Goodnight Desdemona (1988)        
  * An Imaginary Tale (1990)        
  * Red Velvet (2012 play)        
  * The Dresser (2015 film)        
 Related * Cultural references to Othello        
          
 * v         
 * t         
 * e         
 William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet        
  * Romeo        
  * Juliet        
  * Mercutio        
  * Tybalt        
  * Benvolio        
 Characters * Friar Laurence        
  * Nurse        
  * Paris        
  * Rosaline        
  * Queen Mab        
  * Atomy        
  * The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet       
  * Pyramus and Thisbe        
 Sources * Palace of Pleasure        
  * Troilus and Criseyde        
  * Ephesiaca        
  * Romeo and Juliet (1938, Prokofiev)       
  * Romeo and Juliet (1962, Cranko)       
  * Romeo and Juliet (1965, MacMillan)       
 Ballets * Romeo and Juliet (1977, Nureyev)       
  * Romeo and Juliet (1965, Lavery)       
  * Radio and Juliet (2005)        
  * Romeo + Juliet (2007, Martins)       
  * Romeo and Juliet (2008, Pastor)       
  * Romeo und Julie (1776, Benda)       
  * Giulietta e Romeo (1796, Zingarelli)       
  * Giulietta e Romeo (1825, Vaccai)       
  * I Capuleti e i Montecchi (1830, Bellini)       
 Operas * Gloria (1874, Cilea)        
  * Roméo et Juliette (1867, Gounod)       
  * A Village Romeo and Juliet (1907, Delius)       
  * Romeo und Julia (1940, Sutermeister)       
  * Romeo und Julia (1943, Blacher)       
  * The Belle of Mayfair (1906)        
  * West Side Story (1957)        
 Musicals * Once on This Island (1990)        
  * Roméo et Juliette, de la Haine à l'Amour (2001)       
  * Giulietta e Romeo (2007)        
  * & Juliet (2019)        
  * Beethoven's String Quartet No. 1 (c. 1800)       
 Classical * Roméo et Juliette (1839, Berlioz)       
  * Romeo and Juliet (1870, Tchaikovsky)       
  * 1900        
  * 1908        
  * 1916 Metro Pictures        
  * 1916 Fox        
  * 1936        
  * 1940        
  * 1953        
  * 1954        
 On screen * 1955        
  * 1964        
  * 1967        
  * 1968        
  * BBC 1978 (TV)        
  * 1992 (TV)        
  * 1996        
  * 2006        
  * 2013        
  * Film adaptations        
  * Sons and Daughters (1982)        
  * Family and Friends (1990)        
  * Villa Quintana (1995)        
  * Mobile Suit Gundam: The 08th MS Team (1996)       
  * Yo amo a Paquita Gallego (1998)       
  * Skin (2003)        
  * A Touch Away (2006)        
 TV series * Dangerous (2007)        
  * Romeo × Juliet (2007)        
  * Romeo y Julieta (2007)        
  * Saints & Sinners (2007)        
  * Harina de otro costal (2010)       
  * Villa Quintana (2013)        
  * Westside (2013 pilot)        
  * Star-Crossed (2014)        
  * Still Star-Crossed (2017)        
  * Romanoff and Juliet (1956)        
 Plays * People's Romeo (2010)        
  * Romeo and Juliet (2013)        
  * Lan và Điệp (1930s)        
  * "Montagues and Capulets" (1935)       
  * "Fever" (1956)        
  * "Love Theme from Romeo and Juliet" (1968)       
  * "(Don't Fear) The Reaper" (1976)       
  * "Angelo" (1978)        
  * "Romeo and Juliet" (1978)        
  * "Romeo and Juliet" (1981)        
  * "Cherish" (1989)        
  * "Ranjana" (1994)        
 Songs * "Amor Prohibido" (1994)        
  * "Kissing You" (1996)        
  * "Starcrossed" (2004)        
  * "Peut-être toi" (2006)        
  * "Mademoiselle Juliette" (2007)       
  * "Love Story" (2008)        
  * "Love Me Again"        
  * "Laal Ishq"        
  * "Mor Bani Thanghat Kare"        
  * "Nagada Sang Dhol"        
  * "Ram Chahe Leela" (2013)        
  * Romeo and Juliet (1968)        
  * Romeo + Juliet (1996)        
 Albums * Romeo & Julia (2006)        
  * Tragic Lovers (2008)        
  * Star-Crossed (2021)        
  * Les Chouans        
  * The Wandering Jew (1844)        
  * The Stolen Dormouse (1941)        
 Literature * The Faraway Lurs (1963)        
  * The Destruction of Faena (1989)       
  * Romiette and Julio (2001)        
  * New Moon (2006)        
  * Warm Bodies (2010)        
 Art * Romeo and Juliet: the Tomb Scene (1790)       
  * Romeo and Juliet (1978)        
 Phrases * "Star-crossed"        
  * "A rose by any other name would smell as sweet"       
  * Nicholas Nickleby        
  + 1912 film        
  + 1947 film        
  + 1980 play        
  + 2001 film        
  + 2002 film        
  * The Picture of Dorian Gray        
  + 1910 film        
  + 1913 film        
  + 1915 film        
  + 1916 film        
  + 1917 German film        
  + 1917 Hungarian film        
  + 1945 film        
  + 1976 TV special        
  + 2009 film        
  * Harlequinade        
  * W Juliet        
  * "Nothing Broken but My Heart"       
  * Panic Button        
  * Bare: A Pop Opera        
 Story within * Bolji život        
 a story * The Sky Is Everywhere        
  * Pay as You Exit        
  * The White Mercedes        
  * She Died a Lady        
  * "Moonshine River"        
  * Rendez-vous        
  * Fame        
  * "I Am Unicorn"        
  * The Frog Prince        
  * Molly        
  * Smart Girls Get What They Want       
  * Tumbleweeds        
  * "The Thief of Baghead"        
  * The Songs of a Sentimental Bloke       
  * Prince Charming        
  * Km. 0        
  * Phileine Says Sorry        
  * Hamateur Night        
  * "Say You'll Be Mine"        
  * Into the Gauntlet        
  * Wandering Son        
  * K-On!        
  * Such Tweet Sorrow        
  * Romeo and Juliet effect        
  * Romeo and Juliet laws        
  * After Juliet        
  * "Upper West Side Story" (2012)       
  * Millennium Dome Show        
 Other * Inge Sylten and Heinz Drosihn       
  * Boys Don't Cry        
  * My Wedding and Other Secrets       
  * Donkey in Lahore        
  * Upside Down        
  * Letters to Juliet        
  * Sherlock Gnomes        
  * Romeo and Juliet in Sarajevo       
          
 * v         
 * t         
 * e         
 William Shakespeare's Timon of Athens        
  * Timon        
 Characters * Alcibiades        
  * Apemantus        
 Sources * Palace of Pleasure (1566)        
 Adaptations * Timon (1973)        
  * Timon of Athens (1981)        
 Revisions * The History of Timon of Athens the Man-hater (1677)       
 Related * Thomas Middleton        
          
 * v         
 * t         
 * e         
 William Shakespeare's Titus Andronicus        
  * Titus Andronicus        
  * Tamora        
  * Aaron        
 Characters * Lavinia        
  * Emperor Saturninus        
  * Marcus        
  * Lucius        
  * Ab Urbe Condita (c.26 BC)       
 Sources * Metamorphoses (c.AD 8)        
  * Thyestes (first century AD)       
  * Gesta Romanorum (late third century AD)       
  * Titus Andronicus (1985; TV)       
 Adaptations * Titus (1999)        
  * "Scott Tenorman Must Die" (2001; TV)       
  * The Hungry (2017)        
  * Peacham drawing        
  * Authorship question        
  * Themes        
  * "Titus Andronicus' Complaint"       
  * George Peele        
  * Philomela        
 Related * Thyestes        
  * Revenge play        
  * Grand Guignol        
  * Gorboduc (1561)        
  * Edmund Ironside (1590)        
  * Jan Vos        
  * Titus (soundtrack)        
          
  * v        
  * t        
  * e        
 William Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida        
  * Priam        
  * Hector        
  * Deiphobus       
  * Helenus        
  * Paris        
  * Troilus        
  Trojans * Cassandra       
  * Andromache       
  * Aeneas        
  * Pandarus        
  * Cressida        
 Characters * Calchas        
  * Helen        
  * Agamemnon       
  * Menelaus        
  * Nestor        
  * Ulysses        
  Greeks * Achilles        
  * Patroclus       
  * Diomedes        
  * Ajax        
  * Thersites       
  * Myrmidons       
          
  * Troilus and Criseyde       
 Sources * Troy Book        
  * Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye       
 Adaptations * The Face of Love (1954, TV)       
  * Troilus and Cressida (1981, TV)       
  * Trojan War        
  * Trojan War in popular culture       
 Related * Troilus and Cressida (Dryden play)       
  * Achilles and Patroclus       
  * Shakespearean problem play       
          
          
 Shakespearean comedy         
 * v         
 * t         
 * e         
 William Shakespeare's All's Well That Ends Well        
  * Bertram        
  * Countess of Roussillon        
  * Helen        
  * Rinaldo        
  * Lavatch        
 Characters * Paroles        
  * King of France        
  * Lafeu        
  * Duke of Florence        
  * Widow        
  * Diana        
  * Mariana        
 Sources * The Decameron (c.1353)        
  * Palace of Pleasure (1566)        
 Adaptations * All's Well That Ends Well (1981; TV)       
  * Shakespearean problem play        
 Related * Diana        
  * Alazôn        
  * Bed trick        
          
 * v         
 * t         
 * e         
 William Shakespeare's As You Like It        
  * Rosalind        
  * Orlando        
 Characters * Celia        
  * Jaques        
  * Touchstone        
  * 1912        
  * 1936        
 Screen * Sollu Thambi Sollu (1959)        
  * 1978 (TV)        
  * 1994 (TV)        
  * 2006        
 Related * "All the world's a stage"        
          
 * v         
 * t         
 * e         
 William Shakespeare's The Comedy of Errors        
  * Antipholus of Syracuse        
  * Antipholus of Ephesus        
  * Dromio of Syracuse        
  * Dromio of Ephesus        
 Characters * Adriana        
  * Luciana        
  * Egeon        
  * Emilia        
  * Solinus        
  * Menaechmi        
 Sources * Amphitryon        
  * Apollonius of Tyre        
  * Gli equivoci (1786)        
  * The Boys from Syracuse (1938)        
 Opera and musicals * Pozdvižení v Efesu (1943)        
  * The Comedy of Errors (1976)        
  * The Bomb-itty of Errors (2000)        
  * The Boys from Syracuse (1940)        
  * Bhranti Bilas (1963)        
  * Do Dooni Char (1968)        
  * Angoor (1982)        
  * The Comedy of Errors (1983; TV)        
  * Big Business (1988)        
 Film/TV * Ulta Palta (1997)        
  * Bade Miyan Chote Miyan (1998)        
  * Dam Dama Dam (1998)        
  * Ulta Palta (1998)        
  * Heeralal Pannalal (1999)        
  * Ambuttu Imbuttu Embuttu (2005)        
  * Double Di Trouble (2014)        
  * Cirkus (2022)        
  * Classical unities        
 Related * Gesta Grayorum (1688)        
  * The Flying Karamazov Brothers        
          
 * v         
 * t         
 * e         
 William Shakespeare's Love's Labour's Lost        
  * King Ferdinand of Navarre        
  * Lord Berowne        
  * Lord Longaville        
  * Lord Dumaine        
  * Princess of France        
  * Lady Rosaline        
  * Lady Maria        
  * Lady Katharine        
 Characters * Boyet        
  * Don Adriano de Armado        
  * Moth        
  * Sir Nathaniel        
  * Holofernes        
  * Dull        
  * Costard        
  * Jaquenetta        
  * Marcadé        
  * Love's Labor Lost (animated; 1920)       
 Adaptations * Love's Labour's Lost (opera; 1973)       
  * Love's Labour's Lost (TV; 1985)        
  * Love's Labour's Lost (film; 2000)       
  * Love's Labour's Won        
  * Honorificabilitudinitatibus        
 Related * Nine Worthies        
  * The School of Night        
  * Robert Tofte        
  * The Princess (poem; 1847)        
          
 * v         
 * t         
 * e         
 William Shakespeare's Measure for Measure        
 Characters * Angelo        
 Sources * Hecatommithi by Cinthio        
  * Promos and Cassandra by George Whetstone       
  * The Law Against Lovers (1662)        
 Theatrical adaptations * Das Liebesverbot (1834)        
  * Round Heads and Pointed Heads (1936)       
  * Desperate Measures (2004)        
  * Measure for Measure (1943)        
 Film adaptations * Measure for Measure (1979; TV)        
  * Measure for Measure (2020)        
  * Thomas Middleton        
  * Mariana (Tennyson)        
  * Mariana in the South (Tennyson)       
 Related * Bletting        
  * Bed trick        
  * Shakespearean problem play        
  * Mariana (Millais)        
          
 * v         
 * t         
 * e         
 William Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice        
  * Shylock        
 Characters * Antonio        
  * Portia        
  * Jessica        
  * Gesta Romanorum        
 Sources * Il Pecorone        
  * The Jew of Malta        
  * 1914        
  * 1916        
  * 1923        
  * Shylock (1940)        
 On screen * 1953        
  * 1961        
  * 1969        
  * 1980 (TV)        
  * 2004        
  * Incidental music: Shylock (1889)       
 Music * Opera: Le marchand de Venise (1935); The Merchant of Venice (1982)       
  * Musical: Shylock (1987)        
  * Serenade to Music (1938)        
  * The Merchant (1976)        
 Adaptations * Shylock (1996)        
  * Yasser (2001)        
  * The Maori Merchant of Venice (2002)       
  * "All that glitters is not gold"       
 Related * "Between you and I"        
  * "The quality of mercy"        
          
 * v         
 * t         
 * e         
 William Shakespeare's The Merry Wives of Windsor        
  * Falstaff        
  * Mistress Quickly        
 Characters * Ancient Pistol        
  * Bardolph        
  * Robert Shallow        
  * Corporal Nym        
  * The Merry Wives of Windsor (1950)       
 Film/Television * Overture to The Merry Wives of Windsor (1953)       
  * The Merry Wives of Windsor (1982; TV)       
  * Falstaff (1799)        
  * The Merry Wives of Windsor (1849)       
 Opera/Musical * Falstaff (1893)        
  * Sir John in Love (1929)       
  * Lone Star Love (2004)       
 Related * "You Banbury cheese!"       
          
 * v         
 * t         
 * e         
 William Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream        
  * Theseus and Hippolyta       
  Lovers * Oberon and Titania       
  * Hermia and Lysander       
  * Helena and Demetrius       
  * Nick Bottom       
  * Peter Quince       
 Characters Mechanicals * Francis Flute       
  * Robin Starveling       
  * Tom Snout       
  * Snug        
  * Puck        
  Others * Egeus        
  * Philostrate       
          
  * 1935        
  * 1959        
  Film * 1968        
  * 1999        
  * 2017        
 Productions * 1969        
  Television * 1981        
  * 1992        
  * 2016        
  Stage * 1970        
          
  * A Midsummer Night's Dream (1909, silent)       
  * Wood Love (1925)       
  * Dream of a Summer Night (1983)       
  Film * Get Over It (2001)       
  * A Midsummer Night's Rave (2002)       
  * Midsummer Dream (2005)       
  * Were the World Mine (2008)       
  * Strange Magic (2015)       
  * A Midsummer Tempest (1974)       
  * Lords and Ladies (1992)       
  Literature * A Midsummer Night's Gene (1997)       
  * A Midsummer's Nightmare (1997)       
  * The Great Night (2011)       
  * A Midsummer Night's Dream (1842, Mendelssohn)       
  * "Wedding March" (1842, Mendelssohn)       
  Music * Three Shakespeare Songs (1951)       
  * Symphony No. 8 (1992, Henze)       
  * Il Sogno (2004)       
  * The Fairy-Queen (1692)       
  * Pyramus and Thisbe (1745)       
  Opera * Puck (1949)       
 Adaptations * A Midsummer Night's Dream (1960, opera)       
  * The Enchanted Island (2011)       
  * The Triumph of Beauty (1646, masque)       
  * St. John's Eve (1852, play)       
  Stage * The Park (1983, play)       
  * The Donkey Show (1999, musical)       
  * The Dreaming (2001, musical)       
  * The Lovers (2022, musical)       
  * The Sandman: Dream Country (1991)       
  Comics * Auberon       
  * Faerie        
  * Titania       
  * Hermia and Lysander       
  Art * The Quarrel of Oberon and Titania       
  * Scene from A Midsummer Night's Dream       
  * Titania and Bottom       
  Ballet * A Midsummer Night's Dream (1962)       
  * The Dream (1964)       
  * "Fascination" (1994, Star Trek: Deep Space Nine)       
  Television * "A Midsummer Night's Dream" (1994, ShakespeaRe-Told)       
  * A Midsummer's Nightmare (2017)       
          
  * Love-in-idleness        
  * Pyramus and Thisbe (8 CE)       
 Related * Dead Poets Society (1989)       
  * The Apartment (1996)       
  * Wicker Park (2004)        
          
 * v         
 * t         
 * e         
 William Shakespeare's Much Ado About Nothing        
  * Beatrice        
 Characters * Don Pedro        
  * Dogberry        
  * Hero        
  * 1984 (TV)        
  Screen * 1993        
  * 2005 (TV)        
  * 2012        
 Adaptations Opera * Béatrice et Bénédict (1862)       
  * Much Ado About Nothing (opera) (1901)       
  Musical * Much Ado (1995)       
  * The Boys Are Coming Home (2005)       
          
  * The Law Against Lovers (1662)       
 Adaptations * Dil Chahta Hai (2001)       
  * Imogen Says Nothing (2017)       
  * Dogberryism        
 Related * "Curiosity killed the cat"       
  * Pleaching        
          
 * v         
 * t         
 * e         
 William Shakespeare's Pericles, Prince of Tyre        
 Characters * John Gower        
  * Diana        
 Sources * Confessio Amantis (1390)       
  * The Pattern of Painful Adventures (1576)       
 Adaptations * Pericles, Prince of Tyre (1984; TV)       
  * George Wilkins        
  * Shakespeare's late romances       
  * Shakespeare apocrypha       
 Related * Apollonius of Tyre       
  * The Pattern of Painful Adventures (2008; radio)       
  * First water        
  * The Porpoise        
          
  * v        
  * t        
  * e        
 William Shakespeare's The Taming of the Shrew        
  * Kate        
 Characters * Petruchio        
  * Bianca Minola        
  * Christopher Sly       
  * The Woman's Prize (c1611)       
  * Catharine and Petruchio (1754)       
  * Las bravías (1896)       
  * Der Widerspänstigen Zähmung (1872)       
 Stage adaptations * Sly, ovvero La leggenda del dormiente risvegliato (1927)       
  * Kiss Me, Kate (1948)       
  * The Taming of the Shrew (1953)       
  * Ukroshchenye Stroptivoy (1957)       
  * Christopher Sly (1963)       
  * 1908        
  * 1929        
 Direct adaptations * 1962 (TV)        
  * 1967        
  * 1980 (TV)        
  * 1994 (TV)        
  * Daring Youth (1924)       
  * You Made Me Love You (1933)       
  * Second Best Bed (1938)       
  * The Taming of the Shrew (1942)       
  * Enamorada (1946)       
  * Kiss Me Kate (1953)       
  * Abba Aa Hudugi (1959)       
  * Gundamma Katha (1962)       
  * Manithan Maravillai (1962)       
  * McLintock! (1963)       
  * Arivaali (1963)       
 Other adaptations * Kiss Me Kate (1968)       
  * Pattikada Pattanama (1972)       
  * O Machão (1974; TV)       
  * Il Bisbetico Domato (1980)       
  * Nanjundi Kalyana (1989)       
  * Banarasi Babu (1997)       
  * 10 Things I Hate About You (1999)       
  * O Cravo e a Rosa (2000; TV)       
  * Deliver Us from Eva (2003)       
  * The Taming of the Shrew (2005; TV)       
  * Frivolous Wife (2008)       
  * 10 Things I Hate About You (2009; TV)       
  * Isi Life Mein...! (2010)       
  * The Taming of the Shrew in performance       
 Related * The Taming of the Shrew on screen       
  * Shrew (stock character)       
  * Vinegar Girl (2016)       
          
  * v        
  * t        
  * e        
  William Shakespeare's The Tempest        
  * Prospero        
  * Miranda        
  * Ariel        
 Characters * Caliban        
  * Sycorax        
  * Ferdinand        
  * Gonzalo        
  * Stephano        
  * A True Reportory of the Wracke and Redemption of Sir Thomas Gates, Knight       
  * Decades of the New World        
  * Montaigne's Essays        
 Sources * Ovid's Metamorphoses        
  * Erasmus's Naufragium        
  * Commedia dell'arte        
  * Sea Venture        
  * 1908        
  * 1911        
  * 1960        
 Films * 1963        
  * 1979        
  * 1980        
  * 1992        
  * 2010        
  * Three Shakespeare Songs (Vaughan Williams)       
  * The Tempest (Sullivan)       
  Music * The Tempest (Sibelius)       
  * The Tempest (Tchaikovsky)       
  * The Tempest (ballet) (Nordheim)       
  * "Don't Pay the Ferryman" (1982)       
  * Yellow Sky (1948)       
  * Forbidden Planet (1956)       
  * Tempest (1982)       
  Screen * The Journey to Melonia (1989)       
  * Prospero's Books (1991)       
  * The Tempest (1998)       
  * Shakespeare's Shitstorm (2020)       
  Painting * Scene from Shakespeare's The Tempest (c, 1736-1738, Hogarth)       
  * Ferdinand Lured by Ariel (1850, Millais)       
  * Beach Blanket Tempest       
  Musicals * Return to the Forbidden Planet       
  * Amaluna        
  * The Tempest (Dryden)       
 Adaptations * The Sea Voyage       
  Plays * The Mock Tempest (1674 Duffet)       
  * Une Tempête (1969 Césaire)       
  * The Sea (play) (1973)       
  * I'll Be The Devil (2008)       
  * The Tempest (1756 Smith)       
  * Die Geisterinsel (libretto 1796)       
  * Die Geisterinsel (1798 Reichardt)       
  Opera * Die Geisterinsel (1805 Zumsteeg)       
  * Der Sturm (1955 Martin)       
  * Noises, Sounds & Sweet Airs (1991 Nyman)       
  * The Tempest (Adès 2004)       
  * The Enchanted Island (2011 Sams)       
  * "Caliban upon Setebos" (Browning)       
  * "The Sea and the Mirror" (Auden)       
  Poetry and * Indigo (Warner)       
  prose fiction * A Midsummer Tempest (Anderson)       
  * Island (Rogers)       
  * Hag-Seed (Atwood)       
          
  * "Ariel's Song"        
 Phrases * "Full fathom five"        
  * "Sea change"        
  * "What's past is prologue"       
 Sculpture * The Tempest (1966)        
          
  * v        
  * t        
  * e        
  William Shakespeare's Twelfth Night        
  * Viola        
  * Orsino        
  * Olivia        
  * Sebastian        
  Characters * Malvolio        
  * Maria        
  * Sir Toby Belch        
  * Sir Andrew Aguecheek        
  * Feste        
  * 1933        
  * 1955        
  * 1966 (TV)        
  * 1970 (TV)        
  On screen * 1980 (TV)        
  * 1986        
  * 1988 (TV)        
  * 1992 (TV)        
  * 1996        
  * Your Own Thing (1968)       
  * Music Is (1976)        
  Musical * Play On! (1997)        
  * Illyria (2004)        
  * All Shook Up (2004)        
  * Kanniyin Kathali (1949)       
  * Just One of the Guys (1985)       
  Adaptations * Motocrossed (2001)        
  * She's the Man (2006)        
  * Dil Bole Hadippa! (2009)       
  Opera * Viola (unfinished)        
          
  * v        
  * t        
  * e        
  William Shakespeare's The Two Gentlemen of Verona        
  * Valentine       
  * Proteus       
  * Julia       
  Characters * Silvia       
  * Launce       
  * Speed       
  * Crab        
  * The Boke Named the Governour (1531)       
  Sources * Los Siete Libros de la Diana (1559)       
  * Euphues, The Anatomy of Wit (1578)       
  * The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia (1580)       
  Theatrical adaptations * Two Gentlemen of Verona (1971)       
  Screen adaptations * A Spray of Plum Blossoms (1931)       
  * The Two Gentlemen of Verona (TV; 1983)       
  * Proteus       
  * Jorge de Montemor       
  Related * Stuart Draper       
  * "An Sylvia" (1826)       
  * Shakespeare in Love (1998)       
  * The Goat, or Who Is Sylvia? (2002)       
          
  * v        
  * t        
  * e        
  William Shakespeare's The Two Noble Kinsmen        
  * Theseus        
  * Hippolyta       
  * Emilia        
  * Pirithous       
  * Palamon        
  * Arcite        
  * Hymen        
  Characters * Lafeu        
  * Artesius        
  * Valerius        
  * Jailer        
  * Doctor        
  * Gerald        
  * Nell        
  * Timothy        
  Sources * "The Knight's Tale"       
  + The Canterbury Tales       
  * Shakespeare apocrypha       
  * Shakespeare's late romances       
  * John Fletcher       
  Related * Creon        
  * William Davenant       
  * Stoolball       
  * The Masque of the Inner Temple and Gray's Inn (1613)       
          
  * v        
  * t        
  * e        
  William Shakespeare's The Winter's Tale        
  * Leontes        
  Characters * Perdita        
  * Florizel        
  * The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia (c.1580)       
  Sources * Pandosto (1588)       
  * Oberon, the Faery Prince (1611)       
  * The Winter's Tale (1910)       
  Adaptations * The Winter's Tale (1967)       
  * The Winter's Tale (1981)       
  * "The Winter's Tale" (1994)       
  * Hermione (1872 opera)       
  Stage works * Perdita (1897 opera)       
  * The Winter's Tale (2014 ballet)       
  * The Winter's Tale (2017 opera)       
          
          
 Shakespearean history         
 * v         
 * t         
 * e         
 William Shakespeare's King John        
  * King John        
  * Queen Eleanor        
  * Prince Henry        
  * Blanche of Castile        
  * Earl of Essex        
  * Earl of Salisbury        
  * Earl of Pembroke        
 Characters * Lord Bigot        
  * Philip Faulconbridge        
  * King Philip of France        
  * Louis the Dauphin        
  * Lady Constance        
  * Arthur        
  * Cardinal Pandulf        
  * Hubert        
 Sources * Holinshed's Chronicles (1577)        
  * The Troublesome Reign of King John (c.1589)        
  * King John (1899)        
 Adaptations * Said-e-Hawas (1908)        
  * Said-e-Havas (1936)        
  * The Life and Death of King John (1984; TV)        
  * King Johan        
 Related * Cultural depictions of John, King of England        
  * Anglo-French War (1213–1214)        
          
 * v         
 * t         
 * e         
 William Shakespeare's Edward III        
  * Edward III        
  * Queen Philippa        
  * Edward the Black Prince        
  * Earl of Salisbury        
  * Countess of Salisbury        
  English * Earl of Warwick        
  * Sir William Montague        
  * Earl of Derby        
  * Lord Audley        
 Characters * Lord Percy        
  * Robert of Artois        
  * Lord Montfort        
  * King John II of France        
  * Prince Charles        
  French * Prince Philip        
  * Duke of Lorraine        
  * King of Bohemia        
  Scottish * King David of Scotland        
  * Sir William Douglas        
          
  * Froissart's Chronicles (c.1370)        
 Sources * Palace of Pleasure (1566)        
  * Holinshed's Chronicles (1577)        
  * Shakespeare apocrypha        
  * Thomas Kyd        
  * George Peele        
  * Robert Greene        
 Related * Hundred Years' War        
  * Battle of Halidon Hill        
  * Siege of Calais        
  * Battle of Crécy        
  * Battle of Poitiers        
          
 * v         
 * t         
 * e         
 William Shakespeare's Henriad        
 * Richard II         
 * Henry IV, Part 1        
 * Henry IV, Part 2        
 * Henry V         
  * Richard II        
  * Henry Bolingbroke        
  * Duke of York        
  * Earl of Northumberland        
  * Duke of Aumerle        
  * John of Gaunt        
  * Queen (unnamed composite of Anne of Bohemia and Isabella of Valois)       
  * Henry 'Hotspur' Percy        
  * Duchess of York (unnamed composite of Infanta Isabella of Castile and Joan Holland)       
  Richard II * Duchess of Gloucester        
  * Thomas Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk        
  * Bishop of Carlisle        
  * Duke of Surrey        
  * Bushy        
  * Bagot        
  * Green        
  * Lord Ross        
  * Earl of Salisbury        
  * Lord Berkeley        
  * Henry IV        
  * Prince Hal        
  * Henry 'Hotspur' Percy        
  * Sir John Falstaff        
  * Ned Poins        
  * Mistress Quickly        
  * Bardolph        
  * Thomas Percy, Earl of Worcester        
  * Earl of Douglas        
  * Sir Walter Blunt        
  1 Henry IV * Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland       
  * Lady Percy        
  * Earl of Westmorland        
  * Owen Glendower        
  * Edmund Mortimer        
  * Lady Mortimer        
  * Owen Glendower        
  * Archbishop of York        
  * John, Duke of Bedford        
  * Battle of Humbleton Hill        
  * Battle of Shrewsbury        
  * Henry IV        
  * Prince Hal        
  * Sir John Falstaff        
  * Ned Poins        
  * Ancient Pistol        
  * Bardolph        
 Characters * Mistress Quickly        
 and events * Doll Tearsheet        
  * Robert Shallow        
  * Earl of Westmorland        
  2 Henry IV * Archbishop of York        
  * John, Duke of Bedford        
  * Earl of Warwick        
  * Lord Chief Justice        
  * Lord Bardolf        
  * Earl of Northumberland        
  * Lord Mowbray        
  * Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester        
  * Thomas, Duke of Clarence        
  * Earl of Surrey        
  * Rumour        
  * Henry V        
  * King of France        
  * Louis the Dauphin        
  * Fluellen        
  * Ancient Pistol        
  * Mistress Quickly        
  * Bardolph        
  * Corporal Nym        
  * Katharine        
  * Constable of France        
  * Chorus        
  * Duke of Exeter        
  * John, Duke of Bedford        
  * Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester        
  * Thomas, Duke of Clarence        
  Henry V * Earl of Westmorland        
  * Duke of Orléans        
  * Duke of Burgundy        
  * Duke of York        
  * Earl of Salisbury        
  * Earl of Warwick        
  * Duke of Bourbon        
  * Archbishop of Canterbury        
  * Bishop of Ely        
  * Queen Isabel        
  * Earl of Cambridge        
  * Lord Scroop        
  * Sir Thomas Grey        
  * Michael Williams        
  * Sir Thomas Erpingham        
  * Duke of Berry        
  * Battle of Agincourt        
          
  * King Richard II (1954; TV)        
  * An Age of Kings (1960; TV)        
  Richard II * The Life and Death of King Richard II (1960; TV)       
  * King Richard the Second (1978; TV)       
  * Richard the Second (2001)        
  * The Hollow Crown: Richard II (2012; TV)       
  * An Age of Kings (1960; TV)        
  * Chimes at Midnight (1966)        
  1 Henry IV * The First Part of King Henry the Fourth, with the life and death of Henry surnamed Hotspur (1979; TV)      
  * The Hollow Crown: Henry IV, Part 1 (2012; TV)       
  * The King (2019)        
 On screen * An Age of Kings (1960; TV)        
  * Chimes at Midnight (1966)        
  2 Henry IV * The Second Part of King Henry the Fourth containing his Death: and the Coronation of King Henry the Fift (1979; TV)      
  * The Hollow Crown: Henry IV, Part 2 (2012)       
  * The King (2019)        
  * Henry V (1944)        
  * An Age of Kings (1960; TV)        
  * Chimes at Midnight (1966)        
  Henry V * The Life of Henry the Fift (1979; TV)       
  * Henry V (1989)        
  * The Hollow Crown: Henry V (2012)        
  * The King (2019)        
          
  * Holinshed's Chronicles        
 Sources * The Famous Victories of Henry V (c.1585)        
  * Thomas of Woodstock/Richard the Second, Part One (c.1593)       
  * The Merry Wives of Windsor (c.1597)        
 Related plays * Sir John Oldcastle (1599)        
  * Falstaff's Wedding (1760)        
  * Falstaff (1913)        
 Related music * At the Boar's Head (1925)        
  * Suite from Henry V (1963)        
  * Hundred Years' War        
  * Wars of the Roses        
 Historical context * Divine right of kings        
  * Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex        
  * John Oldcastle        
          
 * v         
 * t         
 * e         
 William Shakespeare's first historical tetralogy        
 * Henry VI, Part 1        
 * Henry VI, Part 2        
 * Henry VI, Part 3        
 * Richard III         
  * Henry VI        
  * Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester       
  * Duke of Exeter       
  * Lord Talbot       
  * Duke of Bedford       
  * Richard, Duke of York       
  * Bishop of Winchester       
  * Earl of Suffolk       
  * Duke of Somerset (conflation of John Beaufort, 1st Duke of Somerset and Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset)      
  * Earl of Warwick       
  * Earl of Salisbury       
  1 Henry VI * John Talbot       
  * Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March (conflation of Sir Edmund Mortimer and Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March)      
  * Sir John Fastolf       
  * Charles the Dauphin       
  * Joan la Pucelle       
  * Margaret of Anjou       
  * Reignier, Duke of Anjou       
  * Duke of Alençon       
  * Bastard of Orléans       
  * Duke of Burgundy       
  * Jacques d'Arc       
  * Siege of Orléans       
  * Battle of Patay       
  * Henry VI        
  * Queen Margaret       
  * Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester       
  * Richard, Duke of York       
  * Earl of Salisbury       
  * Earl of Warwick       
  * Cardinal of Winchester       
  * Duke of Suffolk       
  * Duke of Buckingham       
  * Jack Cade        
  2 Henry VI * Duke of Somerset (conflation of John Beaufort, 1st Duke of Somerset and Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset)      
  * Duchess of Gloucester       
  * Edward Plantagenet       
  * Richard Plantagenet       
  * Lord Clifford       
  * Young Clifford       
  * Margery Jourdayne       
  * Lord Saye        
  * Lord Scales       
  * First Battle of St Albans       
  * Peasants' Revolt       
  * Henry VI        
  * Queen Margaret       
  * Richard, Duke of York       
  * Earl of Warwick       
  * Edward IV        
  * Richard, Duke of Gloucester       
  * George, Duke of Clarence       
  * Edward, Prince of Wales       
  * Lord Clifford       
  * Lady Grey        
  * Montague        
  * Earl of Oxford       
  * Duke of Somerset (conflation of Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset and Edmund Beaufort, 4th Duke of Somerset)      
 Characters * Lord Hastings       
 and events * Sir William Stanley       
  * Earl of Northumberland       
  3 Henry VI * Duke of Exeter       
  * Duke of Norfolk       
  * Earl of Westmorland       
  * Lord Rivers       
  * Edmund, Earl of Rutland       
  * Henry, Earl of Richmond       
  * Louis XI of France       
  * Bona of Savoy       
  * Prince Edward       
  * Earl of Pembroke       
  * Lord Stafford       
  * Lord Bourbon       
  * Battle of Towton       
  * Battle of Barnet       
  * Battle of Wakefield       
  * Second Battle of St Albans       
  * Battle of Tewkesbury       
  * Richard III       
  * Duke of Buckingham       
  * Queen Elizabeth       
  * Duchess of York       
  * Queen Margaret       
  * Lady Neville       
  * George, Duke of Clarence       
  * Edward IV        
  * Lord Hastings       
  * Lord Stanley, Earl of Derby       
  * Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond       
  * Sir William Catesby       
  * Sir Richard Ratcliffe       
  * Lord Rivers       
  * Marquis of Dorset       
  * Sir James Tyrrell       
  * Lord Richard Grey       
  * Prince Edward       
  * Richard, Duke of York       
  Richard III * Earl of Warwick       
  * Countess of Salisbury       
  * Duke of Norfolk       
  * Archbishop of Canterbury       
  * Archbishop of York       
  * Earl of Surrey       
  * Sir Thomas Vaughan       
  * Sir Christopher       
  * Robert Brackenbury       
  * Lord Lovel        
  * Ghost of Henry VI       
  * Ghost of Edward, Prince of Wales       
  * Lord Mayor of London       
  * Earl of Oxford       
  * Sir James Blunt       
  * Sir William Brandon       
  * Bishop of Ely       
  * Sheriff of Wiltshire       
  * Wars of the Roses       
  * Princes in the Tower       
  * Battle of Bosworth Field       
          
  * An Age of Kings (1960; TV)       
  * The Wars of the Roses (1965; TV)       
  * BBC Television Shakespeare (1983; TV)       
  Tetralogy * The Hollow Crown       
  + Henry VI, Part 1       
  + Henry VI, Part 2       
  + Richard III (2016; TV)       
 On screen * The Life and Death of King Richard III (1912)       
  * Richard III (1955)       
  * "The Foretelling" (1983; TV)       
  Richard III * "King Richard III" (1994; TV)       
  * Richard III (1995)       
  * Looking for Richard (1996)       
  * Richard III (2007)       
          
  * The Mirror for Magistrates (1559)       
  * Holinshed's Chronicles (1577)       
 Sources * Richardus Tertius (1580)       
  * The Spanish Tragedy        
  * The True Tragedy of Richard III (c.1590)       
  * Hundred Years' War        
  * Wars of the Roses        
 Historical context * House of Plantagenet        
  * House of York        
  * House of Lancaster        
  * "Let's kill all the lawyers"       
 Related * "Even a worm will turn"        
  * The Tragical History of King Richard the Third (1699)       
  * David Garrick as Richard III (1745)       
          
 * v         
 * t         
 * e         
 William Shakespeare's Henry VIII        
  * Henry VIII        
  * Cardinal Wolsey        
  * Queen Katherine        
  * Anne Bullen        
  * Duke of Buckingham        
  * Thomas Cranmer        
  * Stephen Gardiner        
  * Lord Chamberlain        
  * Duke of Norfolk        
  * Duke of Suffolk        
  * Earl of Surrey        
 Characters * Cardinal Campeius        
  * Capucius        
  * Thomas Cromwell        
  * Lord Sands        
  * Lord Abergavenny        
  * Lord Chancellor        
  * Bishop of Lincoln        
  * Thomas Lovell        
  * Henry Guildford        
  * Nicholas Vaux        
  * Anthony Denny        
  * Dr. Butts        
  * Garter King-of-Arms        
 Sources * Thomas Wolsey, Late Cardinall, his Lyffe and Deathe (1558)       
  * Holinshed's Chronicles (1577)        
 Adaptations * Henry VIII (1911)        
  * The Famous History of the Life of King Henry the Eight (1979)       
  * John Fletcher        
 Related * Cultural depictions of Henry VIII        
  * Cultural depictions of Anne Boleyn        
  * Globe Theatre        
 * Category         
          
          
 * v         
 * t         
 * e         
 Shakespeare's sonnets         
  Procreation sonnets 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17        
          
  * 18        
  * 19        
  * 20        
  * 21        
  * 22        
  * 23        
  * 24        
  * 25        
  * 26        
  * 27        
  * 28        
  * 29        
  * 30        
  * 31        
  * 32        
  * 33        
  * 34        
  * 35        
  * 36        
  * 37        
  * 38        
  * 39        
  * 40        
  * 41        
  * 42        
  * 43        
  * 44        
  * 45        
  * 46        
  * 47        
  * 48        
  * 49        
  * 50        
  * 51        
  * 52        
  * 53        
  * 54        
  * 55        
  * 56        
  * 57        
  * 58        
  * 59        
  * 60        
  * 61        
  * 62        
  * 63        
  * 64        
  * 65        
  * 66        
  * 67        
 "Fair Youth" sonnets * 68        
  * 69        
  * 70        
  * 71        
  * 72        
  * 73        
  * 74        
  * 75        
  * 76        
  * 77        
  Rival Poet sonnets 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86        
          
  * 87        
  * 88        
  * 89        
  * 90        
  * 91        
  * 92        
  * 93        
  * 94        
  * 95        
  * 96        
  * 97        
  * 98        
  * 99        
  * 100        
  * 101        
  * 102        
  * 103        
  * 104        
  * 105        
  * 106        
  * 107        
  * 108        
  * 109        
  * 110        
  * 111        
  * 112        
  * 113        
  * 114        
  * 115        
  * 116        
  * 117        
  * 118        
  * 119        
  * 120        
  * 121        
  * 122        
  * 123        
  * 124        
  * 125        
  "Envoy" 126        
          
  * 127        
  * 128        
  * 129        
  * 130        
  * 131        
  * 132        
  * 133        
  * 134        
  * 135        
  * 136        
  * 137        
  * 138        
  * 139        
 "Dark Lady" sonnets * 140        
  * 141        
  * 142        
  * 143        
  * 144        
  * 145        
  * 146        
  * 147        
  * 148        
  * 149        
  * 150        
  * 151        
  * 152        
  "Anacreontics" 153 154        
          
          
 * v         
 * t         
 * e         
 Portraits, sculptures and memorials to William Shakespeare        
  * Chandos portrait        
  * Droeshout portrait        
  * Ashbourne portrait       
 Portraits Disputed * Cobbe portrait       
  * Flower portrait       
  * Sanders portrait       
          
  * Shakespeare's funerary monument       
  * Heminges and Condell Memorial       
 Sculptures  * Central Park, New York       
  Statues * Leicester Square, London       
  * British Library       
          
 Memorials * Boydell Shakespeare Gallery       
  * Garrick's Temple to Shakespeare       
          
 * v         
 * t         
 * e         
 The "Beaumont and Fletcher" Canon        
 * Francis Beaumont         
 * John Fletcher         
 * Philip Massinger         
 * Nathan Field         
 * William Shakespeare        
 * James Shirley         
 * Thomas Middleton         
 * William Rowley         
 * John Ford         
 * Ben Jonson         
 * George Chapman         
 * John Webster         
  Beaumont * The Knight of the Burning Pestle       
  * The Masque of the Inner Temple and Gray's Inn       
  * The Woman Hater       
  * Cupid's Revenge       
  * The Coxcomb       
  * Philaster        
  Beaumont * The Captain       
  and Fletcher * The Maid's Tragedy       
  * A King and No King       
  * Love's Pilgrimage       
  * The Scornful Lady       
  * The Noble Gentleman       
  * The Faithful Shepherdess       
  * The Woman's Prize       
  * Valentinian       
  * Bonduca        
  * Monsieur Thomas       
  * The Mad Lover       
  * The Chances       
  Fletcher * The Loyal Subject       
 Plays  * Women Pleased       
 (some  * The Humorous Lieutenant       
 attributions * The Island Princess       
 conjectural) * The Pilgrim       
  * The Wild Goose Chase       
  * A Wife for a Month       
  * Rule a Wife and Have a Wife       
  * †Barnavelt        
  * The Little French Lawyer       
  * The False One       
  * The Double Marriage       
  Fletcher and * The Custom of the Country       
  Massinger * The Lovers' Progress       
  * The Spanish Curate       
  * The Prophetess       
  * The Sea Voyage       
  * The Elder Brother       
  * †A Very Woman       
  Fletcher with Beaumont & Massinger Thierry and Theodoret Beggars' Bush Love's Cure with Massinger & Field The Honest Man's Fortune The Queen of Corinth The Knight of Malta with Field Four Plays, or Moral Representations, in One with Shakespeare †Henry VIII The Two Noble Kinsmen with Shirley The Night Walker Wit Without Money with Rowley The Maid in the Mill with Massinger, Chapman & Jonson Rollo, Duke of Normandy with Massinger, Ford & Webster The Fair Maid of the Inn
  and others        
  * The Nice Valour (Middleton)       
  Others * Wit at Several Weapons (Middleton & Rowley)       
  * The Laws of Candy (Ford)       
  * The Coronation (Shirley)       
          
  * English Renaissance theatre       
 Performance * King's Men        
 and publication * Beaumont and Fletcher folios       
  * Humphrey Moseley        
  * Humphrey Robinson        
 Related * †The History of Cardenio (Shakespeare & Fletcher?)       
  * †Double Falsehood (possibly based on Cardenio)       
 † = Not published in the Beaumont and Fletcher folios        
          
 
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William Shakespeare        The Chandos portrait (held by the National Portrait Gallery, London)     Born    Stratford-upon-Avon, England     Baptised 26 April 1564   Died 23 April 1616 (aged 52) [a]  Stratford-upon-Avon, England    Resting place  Church of the Holy Trinity, Stratford-upon-Avon    Occupations    Playwright poet actor      Years active  c. 1585–1613   Era     Elizabethan   Jacobean       Movement  English Renaissance    Spouse     Anne Hathaway   ​ (m. 1582) ​     Children     Susanna Hall   Hamnet Shakespeare   Judith Quiney       Parents     John Shakespeare (father)  Mary Arden (mother)      Signature         
 William Shakespeare ( bapt.  26 April [b]  1564 – 23 April 1616) [c]  was an English playwright, poet and actor. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. [2]   [3]   [4]  He is often called England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon" (or simply "the Bard"). [5]   [d]  His extant works, including collaborations, consist of some 39 plays, [e]  154 sonnets, three long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright. [7]  He remains arguably the most influential writer in the English language, and his works continue to be studied and reinterpreted.
 Shakespeare was born and raised in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children: Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a successful career in London as an actor, writer, and part-owner of a playing company called the Lord Chamberlain's Men, later known as the King's Men. At age 49 (around 1613), he appears to have retired to Stratford, where he died three years later. Few records of Shakespeare's private life survive; this has stimulated considerable speculation about such matters as his physical appearance, his sexuality, his religious beliefs and whether the works attributed to him were written by others. [8]   [9]   [10] 
 Shakespeare produced most of his known works between 1589 and 1613. [11]   [12]   [f]  His early plays were primarily comedies and histories and are regarded as some of the best works produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until 1608, among them  Hamlet ,  Romeo and Juliet ,  Othello ,  King Lear , and  Macbeth , all considered to be among the finest works in the English language. [2]   [3]   [4]  In the last phase of his life, he wrote tragicomedies (also known as romances) and collaborated with other playwrights.
 Many of Shakespeare's plays were published in editions of varying quality and accuracy in his lifetime. However, in 1623, John Heminges and Henry Condell, two fellow actors and friends of Shakespeare's, published a more definitive text known as the First Folio, a posthumous collected edition of Shakespeare's dramatic works that included all but two of his plays. [13]  Its Preface was a prescient poem by Ben Jonson, a former rival of Shakespeare, that hailed Shakespeare with the now famous epithet: "not of an age, but for all time". [13] 
Life
Early life
Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, an alderman and a successful glover (glove-maker) originally from Snitterfield in Warwickshire, and Mary Arden, the daughter of an affluent landowning family. [14]  He was born in Stratford-upon-Avon, where he was baptised on 26 April 1564. His date of birth is unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April, Saint George's Day. [15]  This date, which can be traced to William Oldys and George Steevens, has proved appealing to biographers because Shakespeare died on the same date in 1616. [16]   [17]  He was the third of eight children, and the eldest surviving son. [18] 
     
Although no attendance records for the period survive, most biographers agree that Shakespeare was probably educated at the King's New School in Stratford, [19]   [20]   [21]  a free school chartered in 1553, [22]  about a quarter-mile (400 m) from his home. Grammar schools varied in quality during the Elizabethan era, but grammar school curricula were largely similar: the basic Latin text was standardised by royal decree, [23]   [24]  and the school would have provided an intensive education in grammar based upon Latin classical authors. [25] 
 At the age of 18, Shakespeare married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway. The consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. The next day, two of Hathaway's neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage. [26]  The ceremony may have been arranged in some haste since the Worcester chancellor allowed the marriage banns to be read once instead of the usual three times, [27]   [28]  and six months after the marriage Anne gave birth to a daughter, Susanna, baptised 26 May 1583. [29]  Twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585. [30]  Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596. [31] 
       Shakespeare's coat of arms, from the 1602 book The book of coates and creasts. Promptuarium armorum. It features spears as a pun on the family name. [g]    
After the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592. The exception is the appearance of his name in the "complaints bill" of a law case before the Queen's Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589. [32]  Scholars refer to the years between 1585 and 1592 as Shakespeare's "lost years". [33]  Biographers attempting to account for this period have reported many apocryphal stories. Nicholas Rowe, Shakespeare's first biographer, recounted a Stratford legend that Shakespeare fled the town for London to escape prosecution for deer poaching in the estate of local squire Thomas Lucy. Shakespeare is also supposed to have taken his revenge on Lucy by writing a scurrilous ballad about him. [34]   [35]  Another 18th-century story has Shakespeare starting his theatrical career minding the horses of theatre patrons in London. [36]  John Aubrey reported that Shakespeare had been a country schoolmaster. [37]  Some 20th-century scholars suggested that Shakespeare may have been employed as a schoolmaster by Alexander Hoghton of Lancashire, a Catholic landowner who named a certain "William Shakeshafte" in his will. [38]   [39]  Little evidence substantiates such stories other than hearsay collected after his death, and Shakeshafte was a common name in the Lancashire area. [40]   [41] 
London and theatrical career
It is not known definitively when Shakespeare began writing, but contemporary allusions and records of performances show that several of his plays were on the London stage by 1592. [42]  By then, he was sufficiently known in London to be attacked in print by the playwright Robert Greene in his  Groats-Worth of Wit :
 ... there is an upstart Crow, beautified with our feathers, that with his Tiger's heart wrapped in a Player's hide, supposes he is as well able to bombast out a blank verse as the best of you: and being an absolute Johannes factotum, is in his own conceit the only Shake-scene in a country. [43]   
Scholars differ on the exact meaning of Greene's words, [43]   [44]  but most agree that Greene was accusing Shakespeare of reaching above his rank in trying to match such university-educated writers as Christopher Marlowe, Thomas Nashe, and Greene himself (the so-called "University Wits"). [45]  The italicised phrase parodying the line "Oh, tiger's heart wrapped in a woman's hide" from Shakespeare's  Henry VI, Part 3 , along with the pun "Shake-scene", clearly identify Shakespeare as Greene's target. As used here,  Johannes Factotum  ("Jack of all trades") refers to a second-rate tinkerer with the work of others, rather than the more common "universal genius". [43]   [46] 
 Greene's attack is the earliest surviving mention of Shakespeare's work in the theatre. Biographers suggest that his career may have begun any time from the mid-1580s to just before Greene's remarks. [47]   [48]   [49]  After 1594, Shakespeare's plays were performed only by the Lord Chamberlain's Men, a company owned by a group of players, including Shakespeare, that soon became the leading playing company in London. [50]  After the death of Queen Elizabeth in 1603, the company was awarded a royal patent by the new King James I, and changed its name to the King's Men. [51] 
"All the world's a stage,
and all the men and women merely players:
they have their exits and their entrances;
and one man in his time plays many parts ..."
 — As You Like It , Act II, Scene 7, 139–142 [52]  
In 1599, a partnership of members of the company built their own theatre on the south bank of the River Thames, which they named the Globe. In 1608, the partnership also took over the Blackfriars indoor theatre. Extant records of Shakespeare's property purchases and investments indicate that his association with the company made him a wealthy man, [53]  and in 1597, he bought the second-largest house in Stratford, New Place, and in 1605, invested in a share of the parish tithes in Stratford. [54] 
 Some of Shakespeare's plays were published in quarto editions, beginning in 1594, and by 1598, his name had become a selling point and began to appear on the title pages. [55]   [56]   [57]  Shakespeare continued to act in his own and other plays after his success as a playwright. The 1616 edition of Ben Jonson's Works names him on the cast lists for  Every Man in His Humour  (1598) and  Sejanus His Fall  (1603). [58]  The absence of his name from the 1605 cast list for Jonson's  Volpone  is taken by some scholars as a sign that his acting career was nearing its end. [47]  The First Folio of 1623, however, lists Shakespeare as one of "the Principal Actors in all these Plays", some of which were first staged after Volpone, although one cannot know for certain which roles he played. [59]  In 1610, John Davies of Hereford wrote that "good Will" played "kingly" roles. [60]  In 1709, Rowe passed down a tradition that Shakespeare played the ghost of Hamlet's father. [35]  Later traditions maintain that he also played Adam in  As You Like It , and the Chorus in  Henry V , [61]   [62]  though scholars doubt the sources of that information. [63] 
 Throughout his career, Shakespeare divided his time between London and Stratford. In 1596, the year before he bought New Place as his family home in Stratford, Shakespeare was living in the parish of St. Helen's, Bishopsgate, north of the River Thames. [64]   [65]  He moved across the river to Southwark by 1599, the same year his company constructed the Globe Theatre there. [64]   [66]  By 1604, he had moved north of the river again, to an area north of St Paul's Cathedral with many fine houses. There, he rented rooms from a French Huguenot named Christopher Mountjoy, a maker of women's wigs and other headgear. [67]   [68] 
Later years and death
     
 Nicholas Rowe was the first biographer to record the tradition, repeated by Samuel Johnson, that Shakespeare retired to Stratford "some years before his death". [69]   [70]  He was still working as an actor in London in 1608; in an answer to the sharers' petition in 1635, Cuthbert Burbage stated that after purchasing the lease of the Blackfriars Theatre in 1608 from Henry Evans, the King's Men "placed men players" there, "which were Heminges, Condell, Shakespeare, etc.". [71]  However, it is perhaps relevant that the bubonic plague raged in London throughout 1609. [72]   [73]  The London public playhouses were repeatedly closed during extended outbreaks of the plague (a total of over 60 months closure between May 1603 and February 1610), [74]  which meant there was often no acting work. Retirement from all work was uncommon at that time. [75]  Shakespeare continued to visit London during the years 1611–1614. [69]  In 1612, he was called as a witness in  Bellott v Mountjoy , a court case concerning the marriage settlement of Mountjoy's daughter, Mary. [76]   [77]  In March 1613, he bought a gatehouse in the former Blackfriars priory; [78]  and from November 1614, he was in London for several weeks with his son-in-law, John Hall. [79]  After 1610, Shakespeare wrote fewer plays, and none are attributed to him after 1613. [80]  His last three plays were collaborations, probably with John Fletcher, [81]  who succeeded him as the house playwright of the King's Men. He retired in 1613, before the Globe Theatre burned down during the performance of  Henry VIII  on 29 June. [80] 
 Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616, at the age of 52. [h]  He died within a month of signing his will, a document which he begins by describing himself as being in "perfect health". No extant contemporary source explains how or why he died. Half a century later, John Ward, the vicar of Stratford, wrote in his notebook: "Shakespeare, Drayton, and Ben Jonson had a merry meeting and, it seems, drank too hard, for Shakespeare died of a fever there contracted", [82]   [83]  not an impossible scenario since Shakespeare knew Jonson and Drayton. Of the tributes from fellow authors, one refers to his relatively sudden death: "We wondered, Shakespeare, that thou went'st so soon / From the world's stage to the grave's tiring room." [84]   [i] 
     
He was survived by his wife and two daughters. Susanna had married a physician, John Hall, in 1607, [85]  and Judith had married Thomas Quiney, a vintner, two months before Shakespeare's death. [86]  Shakespeare signed his last will and testament on 25 March 1616; the following day, his new son-in-law, Thomas Quiney was found guilty of fathering an illegitimate son by Margaret Wheeler, who had died during childbirth. Thomas was ordered by the church court to do public penance, which would have caused much shame and embarrassment for the Shakespeare family. [86] 
 Shakespeare bequeathed the bulk of his large estate to his elder daughter Susanna [87]  under stipulations that she pass it down intact to "the first son of her body". [88]  The Quineys had three children, all of whom died without marrying. [89]   [90]  The Halls had one child, Elizabeth, who married twice but died without children in 1670, ending Shakespeare's direct line. [91]   [92]  Shakespeare's will scarcely mentions his wife, Anne, who was probably entitled to one-third of his estate automatically. [j]  He did make a point, however, of leaving her "my second best bed", a bequest that has led to much speculation. [94]   [95]   [96]  Some scholars see the bequest as an insult to Anne, whereas others believe that the second-best bed would have been the matrimonial bed and therefore rich in significance. [97] 
      Shakespeare's grave, next to those of Anne Shakespeare, his wife, and Thomas Nash, the husband of his granddaughter  
Shakespeare was buried in the chancel of the Holy Trinity Church two days after his death. [98]   [99]  The epitaph carved into the stone slab covering his grave includes a curse against moving his bones, which was carefully avoided during restoration of the church in 2008: [100] 
 
 Good frend for Iesvs sake forbeare,
To digg the dvst encloased heare.
Bleste be yͤ man yͭ spares thes stones,
And cvrst be he yͭ moves my bones.  [101]   [k]  
 Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbear,
To dig the dust enclosed here.
Blessed be the man that spares these stones,
And cursed be he that moves my bones.
 
 
Some time before 1623, a funerary monument was erected in his memory on the north wall, with a half-effigy of him in the act of writing. Its plaque compares him to Nestor, Socrates, and Virgil. [102]  In 1623, in conjunction with the publication of the First Folio, the Droeshout engraving was published. [103]  Shakespeare has been commemorated in many statues and memorials around the world, including funeral monuments in Southwark Cathedral and Poets' Corner in Westminster Abbey. [104]   [105] 
Plays
       Procession of Characters from Shakespeare's Plays by an unknown 19th-century artist  
Most playwrights of the period typically collaborated with others at some point, as critics agree Shakespeare did, mostly early and late in his career. [106] 
 The first recorded works of Shakespeare are  Richard III  and the three parts of  Henry VI , written in the early 1590s during a vogue for historical drama. Shakespeare's plays are difficult to date precisely, however, [107]   [108]  and studies of the texts suggest that  Titus Andronicus ,  The Comedy of Errors ,  The Taming of the Shrew, and  The Two Gentlemen of Verona  may also belong to Shakespeare's earliest period. [109]   [107]  His first histories, which draw heavily on the 1587 edition of Raphael Holinshed's  Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland , [110]  dramatise the destructive results of weak or corrupt rule and have been interpreted as a justification for the origins of the Tudor dynasty. [111]  The early plays were influenced by the works of other Elizabethan dramatists, especially Thomas Kyd and Christopher Marlowe, by the traditions of medieval drama, and by the plays of Seneca. [112]   [113]   [114]  The Comedy of Errors was also based on classical models, but no source for The Taming of the Shrew has been found, though it is related to a separate play of the same name and may have derived from a folk story. [115]   [116]  Like The Two Gentlemen of Verona, in which two friends appear to approve of rape, [117]   [118]   [119]  the Shrew's story of the taming of a woman's independent spirit by a man sometimes troubles modern critics, directors, and audiences. [120] 
     
Shakespeare's early classical and Italianate comedies, containing tight double plots and precise comic sequences, give way in the mid-1590s to the romantic atmosphere of his most acclaimed comedies. [121]   A Midsummer Night's Dream  is a witty mixture of romance, fairy magic, and comic lowlife scenes. [122]  Shakespeare's next comedy, the equally romantic  Merchant of Venice , contains a portrayal of the vengeful Jewish moneylender Shylock, which reflects dominant Elizabethan views but may appear derogatory to modern audiences. [123]   [124]  The wit and wordplay of  Much Ado About Nothing , [125]  the charming rural setting of  As You Like It , and the lively merrymaking of  Twelfth Night  complete Shakespeare's sequence of great comedies. [126]  After the lyrical  Richard II , written almost entirely in verse, Shakespeare introduced prose comedy into the histories of the late 1590s,  Henry IV, parts 1  and  2 , and  Henry V . His characters become more complex and tender as he switches deftly between comic and serious scenes, prose and poetry, and achieves the narrative variety of his mature work. [127]   [128]   [129]  This period begins and ends with two tragedies:  Romeo and Juliet , the famous romantic tragedy of sexually charged adolescence, love, and death; [130]   [131]  and  Julius Caesar — based on Sir Thomas North's 1579 translation of Plutarch's  Parallel Lives —which introduced a new kind of drama. [132]   [133]  According to Shakespearean scholar James Shapiro, in Julius Caesar, "the various strands of politics, character, inwardness, contemporary events, even Shakespeare's own reflections on the act of writing, began to infuse each other". [134] 
     
In the early 17th century, Shakespeare wrote the so-called "problem plays"  Measure for Measure ,  Troilus and Cressida , and  All's Well That Ends Well  and a number of his best known tragedies. [135]   [136]  Many critics believe that Shakespeare's greatest tragedies represent the peak of his art. The titular hero of one of Shakespeare's greatest tragedies,  Hamlet , has probably been discussed more than any other Shakespearean character, especially for his famous soliloquy which begins "To be or not to be; that is the question". [137]  Unlike the introverted Hamlet, whose fatal flaw is hesitation, the heroes of the tragedies that followed, Othello and King Lear, are undone by hasty errors of judgement. [138]  The plots of Shakespeare's tragedies often hinge on such fatal errors or flaws, which overturn order and destroy the hero and those he loves. [139]  In  Othello , the villain Iago stokes Othello's sexual jealousy to the point where he murders the innocent wife who loves him. [140]   [141]  In  King Lear , the old king commits the tragic error of giving up his powers, initiating the events which lead to the torture and blinding of the Earl of Gloucester and the murder of Lear's youngest daughter Cordelia. According to the critic Frank Kermode, "the play...offers neither its good characters nor its audience any relief from its cruelty". [142]   [143]   [144]  In  Macbeth , the shortest and most compressed of Shakespeare's tragedies, [145]  uncontrollable ambition incites Macbeth and his wife, Lady Macbeth, to murder the rightful king and usurp the throne until their own guilt destroys them in turn. [146]  In this play, Shakespeare adds a supernatural element to the tragic structure. His last major tragedies,  Antony and Cleopatra  and  Coriolanus , contain some of Shakespeare's finest poetry and were considered his most successful tragedies by the poet and critic T. S. Eliot. [147]   [148]   [149] 
 In his final period, Shakespeare turned to romance or tragicomedy and completed three more major plays:  Cymbeline ,  The Winter's Tale, and  The Tempest , as well as the collaboration,  Pericles, Prince of Tyre . Less bleak than the tragedies, these four plays are graver in tone than the comedies of the 1590s, but they end with reconciliation and the forgiveness of potentially tragic errors. [150]  Some commentators have seen this change in mood as evidence of a more serene view of life on Shakespeare's part, but it may merely reflect the theatrical fashion of the day. [151]   [152]   [153]  Shakespeare collaborated on two further surviving plays,  Henry VIII  and  The Two Noble Kinsmen , probably with John Fletcher. [154] 
Performances
It is not clear for which companies Shakespeare wrote his early plays. The title page of the 1594 edition of Titus Andronicus reveals that the play had been acted by three different troupes. [155]  After the plagues of 1592–93, Shakespeare's plays were performed by his own company at The Theatre and the Curtain in Shoreditch, north of the Thames. [156]  Londoners flocked there to see the first part of Henry IV, Leonard Digges recording, "Let but Falstaff come, Hal, Poins, the rest ... and you scarce shall have a room". [157]  When the company found themselves in dispute with their landlord, they pulled The Theatre down and used the timbers to construct the Globe Theatre, the first playhouse built by actors for actors, on the south bank of the Thames at Southwark. [158]   [159]  The Globe opened in autumn 1599, with Julius Caesar one of the first plays staged. Most of Shakespeare's greatest post-1599 plays were written for the Globe, including Hamlet, Othello, and King Lear. [158]   [160]   [161] 
     
After the Lord Chamberlain's Men were renamed the King's Men in 1603, they entered a special relationship with the new King James. Although the performance records are patchy, the King's Men performed seven of Shakespeare's plays at court between 1 November 1604, and 31 October 1605, including two performances of The Merchant of Venice. [62]  After 1608, they performed at the indoor Blackfriars Theatre during the winter and the Globe during the summer. [162]  The indoor setting, combined with the Jacobean fashion for lavishly staged masques, allowed Shakespeare to introduce more elaborate stage devices. In Cymbeline, for example, Jupiter descends "in thunder and lightning, sitting upon an eagle: he throws a thunderbolt. The ghosts fall on their knees." [163]   [164] 
 The actors in Shakespeare's company included the famous Richard Burbage, William Kempe, Henry Condell and John Heminges. Burbage played the leading role in the first performances of many of Shakespeare's plays, including Richard III, Hamlet, Othello, and King Lear. [165]  The popular comic actor Will Kempe played the servant Peter in Romeo and Juliet and Dogberry in Much Ado About Nothing, among other characters. [166]   [167]  He was replaced around 1600 by Robert Armin, who played roles such as Touchstone in As You Like It and the fool in King Lear. [168]  In 1613, Sir Henry Wotton recorded that Henry VIII "was set forth with many extraordinary circumstances of pomp and ceremony". [169]  On 29 June, however, a cannon set fire to the thatch of the Globe and burned the theatre to the ground, an event which pinpoints the date of a Shakespeare play with rare precision. [169] 
Textual sources
     
In 1623, John Heminges and Henry Condell, two of Shakespeare's friends from the King's Men, published the First Folio, a collected edition of Shakespeare's plays. It contained 36 texts, including 18 printed for the first time. [170]  Many of the plays had already appeared in quarto versions—flimsy books made from sheets of paper folded twice to make four leaves. [171]  No evidence suggests that Shakespeare approved these editions, which the First Folio describes as "stol'n and surreptitious copies". [172]  Nor did Shakespeare plan or expect his works to survive in any form at all; those works likely would have faded into oblivion but for his friends' spontaneous idea, after his death, to create and publish the First Folio. [173] 
  Alfred Pollard termed some of the pre-1623 versions as "bad quartos" because of their adapted, paraphrased or garbled texts, which may in places have been reconstructed from memory. [171]   [172]   [174]  Where several versions of a play survive, each differs from the other. The differences may stem from copying or printing errors, from notes by actors or audience members, or from Shakespeare's own papers. [175]   [176]  In some cases, for example, Hamlet, Troilus and Cressida, and Othello, Shakespeare could have revised the texts between the quarto and folio editions. In the case of  King Lear , however, while most modern editions do conflate them, the 1623 folio version is so different from the 1608 quarto that the Oxford Shakespeare prints them both, arguing that they cannot be conflated without confusion. [177] 
Poems
In 1593 and 1594, when the theatres were closed because of plague, Shakespeare published two narrative poems on sexual themes,  Venus and Adonis  and  The Rape of Lucrece . He dedicated them to Henry Wriothesley, Earl of Southampton. In Venus and Adonis, an innocent Adonis rejects the sexual advances of Venus; while in The Rape of Lucrece, the virtuous wife Lucrece is raped by the lustful Tarquin. [178]  Influenced by Ovid's  Metamorphoses , [179]  the poems show the guilt and moral confusion that result from uncontrolled lust. [180]  Both proved popular and were often reprinted during Shakespeare's lifetime. A third narrative poem,  A Lover's Complaint , in which a young woman laments her seduction by a persuasive suitor, was printed in the first edition of the Sonnets in 1609. Most scholars now accept that Shakespeare wrote A Lover's Complaint. Critics consider that its fine qualities are marred by leaden effects. [181]   [182]   [183]   The Phoenix and the Turtle , printed in Robert Chester's 1601 Love's Martyr, mourns the deaths of the legendary phoenix and his lover, the faithful turtle dove. In 1599, two early drafts of sonnets 138 and 144 appeared in  The Passionate Pilgrim , published under Shakespeare's name but without his permission. [181]   [183]   [184] 
Sonnets
      Title page from 1609 edition of Shake-Speares Sonnets   
Published in 1609, the  Sonnets  were the last of Shakespeare's non-dramatic works to be printed. Scholars are not certain when each of the 154 sonnets was composed, but evidence suggests that Shakespeare wrote sonnets throughout his career for a private readership. [185]   [186]  Even before the two unauthorised sonnets appeared in The Passionate Pilgrim in 1599, Francis Meres had referred in 1598 to Shakespeare's "sugred Sonnets among his private friends". [187]  Few analysts believe that the published collection follows Shakespeare's intended sequence. [188]  He seems to have planned two contrasting series: one about uncontrollable lust for a married woman of dark complexion (the "dark lady"), and one about conflicted love for a fair young man (the "fair youth"). It remains unclear if these figures represent real individuals, or if the authorial "I" who addresses them represents Shakespeare himself, though Wordsworth believed that with the sonnets "Shakespeare unlocked his heart". [187]   [186] 
"Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?
Thou art more lovely and more temperate ..."
 —Lines from Shakespeare's  Sonnet 18 . [189]  
The 1609 edition was dedicated to a "Mr. W.H.", credited as "the only begetter" of the poems. It is not known whether this was written by Shakespeare himself or by the publisher, Thomas Thorpe, whose initials appear at the foot of the dedication page; nor is it known who Mr. W.H. was, despite numerous theories, or whether Shakespeare even authorised the publication. [190]  Critics praise the Sonnets as a profound meditation on the nature of love, sexual passion, procreation, death, and time. [191] 
Style
Shakespeare's first plays were written in the conventional style of the day. He wrote them in a stylised language that does not always spring naturally from the needs of the characters or the drama. [192]  The poetry depends on extended, sometimes elaborate metaphors and conceits, and the language is often rhetorical—written for actors to declaim rather than speak. The grand speeches in  Titus Andronicus , in the view of some critics, often hold up the action, for example; and the verse in  The Two Gentlemen of Verona  has been described as stilted. [193]   [194] 
        Pity  by William Blake, 1795, Tate Britain, is an illustration of two similes in Macbeth: "And pity, like a naked new-born babe,
Striding the blast, or heaven's cherubim, hors'd
Upon the sightless couriers of the air." [195] 
  
However, Shakespeare soon began to adapt the traditional styles to his own purposes. The opening soliloquy of  Richard III  has its roots in the self-declaration of Vice in medieval drama. At the same time, Richard's vivid self-awareness looks forward to the soliloquies of Shakespeare's mature plays. [196]   [197]  No single play marks a change from the traditional to the freer style. Shakespeare combined the two throughout his career, with  Romeo and Juliet  perhaps the best example of the mixing of the styles. [198]  By the time of Romeo and Juliet,  Richard II , and  A Midsummer Night's Dream  in the mid-1590s, Shakespeare had begun to write a more natural poetry. He increasingly tuned his metaphors and images to the needs of the drama itself.
 Shakespeare's standard poetic form was blank verse, composed in iambic pentameter. In practice, this meant that his verse was usually unrhymed and consisted of ten syllables to a line, spoken with a stress on every second syllable. The blank verse of his early plays is quite different from that of his later ones. It is often beautiful, but its sentences tend to start, pause, and finish at the end of lines, with the risk of monotony. [199]  Once Shakespeare mastered traditional blank verse, he began to interrupt and vary its flow. This technique releases the new power and flexibility of the poetry in plays such as  Julius Caesar  and  Hamlet . Shakespeare uses it, for example, to convey the turmoil in Hamlet's mind: [200] 
 Sir, in my heart there was a kind of fighting
That would not let me sleep. Methought I lay
Worse than the mutines in the bilboes. Rashly—
And prais'd be rashness for it—let us know
Our indiscretion sometimes serves us well ...
—  Hamlet, Act 5, Scene 2, 4–8 [200]    
After Hamlet, Shakespeare varied his poetic style further, particularly in the more emotional passages of the late tragedies. The literary critic A. C. Bradley described this style as "more concentrated, rapid, varied, and, in construction, less regular, not seldom twisted or elliptical". [201]  In the last phase of his career, Shakespeare adopted many techniques to achieve these effects. These included run-on lines, irregular pauses and stops, and extreme variations in sentence structure and length. [202]  In  Macbeth , for example, the language darts from one unrelated metaphor or simile to another: "was the hope drunk/ Wherein you dressed yourself?" (1.7.35–38); "... pity, like a naked new-born babe/ Striding the blast, or heaven's cherubim, hors'd/ Upon the sightless couriers of the air ..." (1.7.21–25). The listener is challenged to complete the sense. [202]  The late romances, with their shifts in time and surprising turns of plot, inspired a last poetic style in which long and short sentences are set against one another, clauses are piled up, subject and object are reversed, and words are omitted, creating an effect of spontaneity. [203] 
 Shakespeare combined poetic genius with a practical sense of the theatre. [204]  Like all playwrights of the time, he dramatised stories from sources such as Plutarch and Holinshed. [205]  He reshaped each plot to create several centres of interest and to show as many sides of a narrative to the audience as possible. This strength of design ensures that a Shakespeare play can survive translation, cutting, and wide interpretation without loss to its core drama. [206]  As Shakespeare's mastery grew, he gave his characters clearer and more varied motivations and distinctive patterns of speech. He preserved aspects of his earlier style in the later plays, however. In Shakespeare's late romances, he deliberately returned to a more artificial style, which emphasised the illusion of theatre. [207]   [208] 
Influence
     
Shakespeare's work has made a significant and lasting impression on later theatre and literature. In particular, he expanded the dramatic potential of characterisation, plot, language, and genre. [209]  Until  Romeo and Juliet , for example, romance had not been viewed as a worthy topic for tragedy. [210]  Soliloquies had been used mainly to convey information about characters or events, but Shakespeare used them to explore characters' minds. [211]  His work heavily influenced later poetry. The Romantic poets attempted to revive Shakespearean verse drama, though with little success. Critic George Steiner described all English verse dramas from Coleridge to Tennyson as "feeble variations on Shakespearean themes." [212]  John Milton, considered by many to be the most important English poet after Shakespeare, wrote in tribute: "Thou in our wonder and astonishment/ Has built thyself a live-long monument." [213] 
 Shakespeare influenced novelists such as Thomas Hardy, William Faulkner, and Charles Dickens. The American novelist Herman Melville's soliloquies owe much to Shakespeare; his Captain Ahab in  Moby-Dick  is a classic tragic hero, inspired by King Lear. [214]  Scholars have identified 20,000 pieces of music linked to Shakespeare's works. These include three operas by Giuseppe Verdi,  Macbeth ,  Otello  and  Falstaff , whose critical standing compares with that of the source plays. [215]  Shakespeare has also inspired many painters, including the Romantics and the Pre-Raphaelites. The Swiss Romantic artist Henry Fuseli, a friend of William Blake, even translated Macbeth into German. [216]  The psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud drew on Shakespearean psychology, in particular, that of Hamlet, for his theories of human nature. [217]  Shakespeare has been a rich source for filmmakers; Akira Kurosawa adapted Macbeth and King Lear as  Throne of Blood  and  Ran , respectively. Other examples of Shakespeare on film include Max Reinhardt's  A Midsummer Night's Dream , Laurence Olivier's  Hamlet  and Al Pacino's documentary  Looking For Richard . [218]  Orson Welles, a lifelong lover of Shakespeare, directed and starred in films of Macbeth and Othello, and  Chimes at Midnight , in which he plays John Falstaff, which Welles himself called his best work. [219] 
 In Shakespeare's day, English grammar, spelling, and pronunciation were less standardised than they are now, [220]  and his use of language helped shape modern English. [221]  Samuel Johnson quoted him more often than any other author in his  A Dictionary of the English Language , the first serious work of its type. [222]  Expressions such as "with bated breath" (Merchant of Venice) and "a foregone conclusion" (Othello) have found their way into everyday English speech. [223]   [224] 
 Shakespeare's influence extends far beyond his native England and the English language. His reception in Germany was particularly significant; as early as the 18th century Shakespeare was widely translated and popularised in Germany, and gradually became a "classic of the German Weimar era;" Christoph Martin Wieland was the first to produce complete translations of Shakespeare's plays in any language. [225]   [226]  Actor and theatre director Simon Callow writes, "this master, this titan, this genius, so profoundly British and so effortlessly universal, each different culture – German, Italian, Russian – was obliged to respond to the Shakespearean example; for the most part, they embraced it, and him, with joyous abandon, as the possibilities of language and character in action that he celebrated liberated writers across the continent. Some of the most deeply affecting productions of Shakespeare have been non-English, and non-European. He is that unique writer: he has something for everyone." [227] 
 According to  Guinness World Records , Shakespeare remains the world's best-selling playwright, with sales of his plays and poetry believed to have achieved in excess of four billion copies in the almost 400 years since his death. He is also the third most translated author in history. [228] 
Critical reputation
"He was not of an age, but for all time."
 —Ben Jonson  [229]  
Shakespeare was not revered in his lifetime, but he received a large amount of praise. [230]   [231]  In 1598, the cleric and author Francis Meres singled him out from a group of English playwrights as "the most excellent" in both comedy and tragedy. [232]   [233]  The authors of the Parnassus plays at St John's College, Cambridge, numbered him with Chaucer, Gower, and Spenser. [234]  In the First Folio, Ben Jonson called Shakespeare the "Soul of the age, the applause, delight, the wonder of our stage", although he had remarked elsewhere that "Shakespeare wanted art" (lacked skill). [229] 
 Between the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 and the end of the 17th century, classical ideas were in vogue. As a result, critics of the time mostly rated Shakespeare below John Fletcher and Ben Jonson. [235]  Thomas Rymer, for example, condemned Shakespeare for mixing the comic with the tragic. Nevertheless, poet and critic John Dryden rated Shakespeare highly, saying of Jonson, "I admire him, but I love Shakespeare". [236]  He also famously remarked that Shakespeare "was naturally learned; he needed not the spectacles of books to read nature; he looked inwards, and found her there." [237]  For several decades, Rymer's view held sway. But during the 18th century, critics began to respond to Shakespeare on his own terms and, like Dryden, to acclaim what they termed his natural genius. A series of scholarly editions of his work, notably those of Samuel Johnson in 1765 and Edmond Malone in 1790, added to his growing reputation. [238]   [239]  By 1800, he was firmly enshrined as the national poet. [240]  In the 18th and 19th centuries, his reputation also spread abroad. Among those who championed him were the writers Voltaire, Goethe, Stendhal, and Victor Hugo. [241]   [l] 
      A garlanded statue of William Shakespeare in Lincoln Park, Chicago, typical of many created in the 19th and early 20th centuries  
During the Romantic era, Shakespeare was praised by the poet and literary philosopher Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and the critic August Wilhelm Schlegel translated his plays in the spirit of German Romanticism. [243]  In the 19th century, critical admiration for Shakespeare's genius often bordered on adulation. [244]  "This King Shakespeare," the essayist Thomas Carlyle wrote in 1840, "does not he shine, in crowned sovereignty, over us all, as the noblest, gentlest, yet strongest of rallying signs; indestructible". [245]  The Victorians produced his plays as lavish spectacles on a grand scale. [246]  The playwright and critic George Bernard Shaw mocked the cult of Shakespeare worship as "bardolatry", claiming that the new naturalism of Ibsen's plays had made Shakespeare obsolete. [247] 
 The modernist revolution in the arts during the early 20th century, far from discarding Shakespeare, eagerly enlisted his work in the service of the avant-garde. The Expressionists in Germany and the Futurists in Moscow mounted productions of his plays. Marxist playwright and director Bertolt Brecht devised an epic theatre under the influence of Shakespeare. The poet and critic T. S. Eliot argued against Shaw that Shakespeare's "primitiveness" in fact made him truly modern. [248]  Eliot, along with G. Wilson Knight and the school of New Criticism, led a movement towards a closer reading of Shakespeare's imagery. In the 1950s, a wave of new critical approaches replaced modernism and paved the way for post-modern studies of Shakespeare. [249]  By the 1980s, Shakespeare studies were open to movements such as structuralism, feminism, New Historicism, African-American studies, and queer studies. [250]   [251]  Comparing Shakespeare's accomplishments to those of leading figures in philosophy and theology, Harold Bloom wrote, "Shakespeare was larger than Plato and than St. Augustine. He encloses us because we see with his fundamental perceptions." [252] 
Works
Classification of the plays
     
Shakespeare's works include the 36 plays printed in the First Folio of 1623, listed according to their folio classification as comedies, histories, and tragedies. [253]  Two plays not included in the First Folio,  The Two Noble Kinsmen  and  Pericles, Prince of Tyre , are now accepted as part of the canon, with today's scholars agreeing that Shakespeare made major contributions to the writing of both. [254]   [255]  No Shakespearean poems were included in the First Folio.
 In the late 19th century, Edward Dowden classified four of the late comedies as romances, and though many scholars prefer to call them  tragicomedies , Dowden's term is often used. [256]   [257]  In 1896, Frederick S. Boas coined the term "problem plays" to describe four plays:  All's Well That Ends Well ,  Measure for Measure ,  Troilus and Cressida, and  Hamlet . [258]  "Dramas as singular in theme and temper cannot be strictly called comedies or tragedies", he wrote. "We may, therefore, borrow a convenient phrase from the theatre of today and class them together as Shakespeare's problem plays." [259]  The term, much debated and sometimes applied to other plays, remains in use, though Hamlet is definitively classed as a tragedy. [260]   [261]   [262] 
Speculation
 
Around 230 years after Shakespeare's death, doubts began to be expressed about the authorship of the works attributed to him. [263]  Proposed alternative candidates include Francis Bacon, Christopher Marlowe, and Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford. [264]  Several "group theories" have also been proposed. [265]  All but a few Shakespeare scholars and literary historians consider it a fringe theory, with only a small minority of academics who believe that there is reason to question the traditional attribution, [266]  but interest in the subject, particularly the Oxfordian theory of Shakespeare authorship, continues into the 21st century. [267]   [268]   [269] 
Religion
Shakespeare conformed to the official state religion, [m]  but his private views on religion have been the subject of debate. Shakespeare's will uses a Protestant formula, and he was a confirmed member of the Church of England, where he was married, his children were baptised, and where he is buried. Some scholars claim that members of Shakespeare's family were Catholics, at a time when practising Catholicism in England was against the law. [271]  Shakespeare's mother, Mary Arden, certainly came from a pious Catholic family. The strongest evidence might be a Catholic statement of faith signed by his father, John Shakespeare, found in 1757 in the rafters of his former house in Henley Street. However, the document is now lost and scholars differ as to its authenticity. [272]   [273]  In 1591, the authorities reported that John Shakespeare had missed church "for fear of process for debt", a common Catholic excuse. [274]   [275]   [276]  In 1606, the name of William's daughter Susanna appears on a list of those who failed to attend Easter communion in Stratford. [274]   [275]   [276]  Other authors argue that there is a lack of evidence about Shakespeare's religious beliefs. Scholars find evidence both for and against Shakespeare's Catholicism, Protestantism, or lack of belief in his plays, but the truth may be impossible to prove. [277]   [278] 
Sexuality
Few details of Shakespeare's sexuality are known. At 18, he married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway, who was pregnant. Susanna, the first of their three children, was born six months later on 26 May 1583. Over the centuries, some readers have posited that Shakespeare's sonnets are autobiographical, [279]  and point to them as evidence of his love for a young man. Others read the same passages as the expression of intense friendship rather than romantic love. [280]   [281]   [282]  The 26 so-called "Dark Lady" sonnets, addressed to a married woman, are taken as evidence of heterosexual liaisons. [283] 
Portraiture
No written contemporary description of Shakespeare's physical appearance survives, and no evidence suggests that he ever commissioned a portrait, so the Droeshout engraving, which Ben Jonson approved of as a good likeness, [284]  and his Stratford monument provide perhaps the best evidence of his appearance. From the 18th century, the desire for authentic Shakespeare portraits fuelled claims that various surviving pictures depicted Shakespeare. That demand also led to the production of several fake portraits, as well as misattributions, repaintings, and relabelling of portraits of other people. [285] 
See also
  Outline of William Shakespeare 
 English Renaissance theatre 
 Spelling of Shakespeare's name 
  World Shakespeare Bibliography   
Notes and references
Notes
  ^  His monument states that he was in his 53rd year at death, i.e. 52 years old.
  ^  The concept that Shakespeare was born on 23 April, contrary to belief, is a tradition, and not a fact; see the section on Shakespeare's life below.
  ^  Dates follow the Julian calendar, used in England throughout Shakespeare's lifespan, but with the start of the year adjusted to 1 January (see Old Style and New Style dates). Under the Gregorian calendar, adopted in Catholic countries in 1582, Shakespeare died on 3 May. [1] 
  ^  The "national cult" of Shakespeare, and the "bard" identification, dates from September 1769, when the actor David Garrick organised a week-long carnival at Stratford to mark the town council awarding him the freedom of the town. In addition to presenting the town with a statue of Shakespeare, Garrick composed a doggerel verse, lampooned in the London newspapers, naming the banks of the Avon as the birthplace of the "matchless Bard". [6] 
  ^  The exact figures are unknown. See Shakespeare's collaborations and Shakespeare Apocrypha for further details.
  ^  Individual play dates and precise writing span are unknown. See Chronology of Shakespeare's plays for further details.
  ^  The crest is a silver falcon supporting a spear, while the motto is Non Sanz Droict (French for "not without right"). This motto is still used by Warwickshire County Council, in reference to Shakespeare.
  ^  Inscribed in Latin on his funerary monument: AETATIS 53 DIE 23 APR (In his 53rd year he died 23 April).
  ^  Verse by James Mabbe printed in the First Folio. [84] 
  ^  Charles Knight, 1842, in his notes on  Twelfth Night . [93] 
  ^  In the scribal abbreviations ye for the (3rd line) and yt for that (3rd and 4th lines) the letter y represents th: see  thorn .
  ^  Grady cites Voltaire's  Philosophical Letters  (1733); Goethe's  Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship  (1795); Stendhal's two-part pamphlet Racine et Shakespeare (1823–25); and Victor Hugo's prefaces to  Cromwell  (1827) and  William Shakespeare  (1864). [242] 
  ^  For example, A.L. Rowse, the 20th-century Shakespeare scholar, was emphatic: "He died, as he had lived, a conforming member of the Church of England. His will made that perfectly clear—in facts, puts it beyond dispute, for it uses the Protestant formula." [270] 
 
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^    a       b    Bevington 2002, pp. 1–3.
^    a       b    Wells 1997, p. 399.
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^    a       b    Rowe 1709.
  ^  Schoenbaum 1987, pp. 144–145.
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  ^  Honigmann 1999, p. 1.
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^    a       b    Hales 1904, pp. 401–402.
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^    a       b    Ackroyd 2006, p. 476.
  ^  Wood 1806, pp. ix–x, lxxii.
  ^  Smith 1964, p. 558.
  ^  Ackroyd 2006, p. 477.
  ^  Barroll 1991, pp. 179–182.
  ^  Bate 2008, pp. 354–355.
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  ^  Honan 1998, p. 326.
  ^  Ackroyd 2006, pp. 462–464.
  ^  Schoenbaum 1987, pp. 272–274.
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^    a       b    Schoenbaum 1987, p. 279.
  ^  Honan 1998, pp. 375–378.
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^    a       b    Schoenbaum 1987, pp. 292–294.
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  ^  Chambers 1930b, pp. 7, 9, 13.
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  ^  Frye 2005, p. 16.
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  ^  Schoenbaum 1987, pp. 306–307.
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  ^  BBC News 2008.
  ^  Schoenbaum 1987, p. 306.
  ^  Schoenbaum 1987, pp. 308–310.
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  ^  Westminster Abbey n.d.
  ^  Southwark Cathedral n.d.
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  ^  Frye 2005, p. 91.
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  ^  Muir 2005, pp. 12–16.
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  ^  Bradley 1991, pp. 40, 48.
  ^  Bradley 1991, pp. 42, 169, 195.
  ^  Greenblatt 2005, p. 304.
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  ^  Ackroyd 2006, p. 423.
  ^  Kermode 2004, pp. 141–142.
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  ^  Dowden 1881, p. 57.
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  ^  Wells et al. 2005, p. xxxvii.
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^    a       b    Pollard 1909, p. xi.
  ^  Mays &amp; Swanson 2016.
  ^  Maguire 1996, p. 28.
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 Paraisz, Júlia (2006). "The Author, the Editor and the Translator: William Shakespeare, Alexander Chalmers and Sándor Petofi or the Nature of a Romantic Edition". Editing Shakespeare. Shakespeare Survey. Vol. 59. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 124–135. doi:10.1017/CCOL0521868386.010. ISBN  978-1-139-05271-9  – via Cambridge Core. 
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External links
    This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 11 April 2008, and does not reflect subsequent edits. 
 Digital editions 
  William Shakespeare's plays on Bookwise 
 Works by William Shakespeare in eBook form at Standard Ebooks 
 Internet Shakespeare Editions 
 The Folger Shakespeare 
 Open Source Shakespeare complete works, with search engine and concordance
 The Shakespeare Quartos Archive 
 Works by William Shakespeare at Project Gutenberg 
 Works by or about William Shakespeare at Internet Archive 
 Works by William Shakespeare at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)  
 Exhibitions 
  Shakespeare Documented an online exhibition documenting Shakespeare in his own time
 Shakespeare's Will from The National Archives 
  Discovering Literature: Shakespeare  at the British Library
 The Shakespeare Birthplace Trust 
 William Shakespeare at the British Library
 Benjamin Blom Drama Collection: Shakespeare Materials at the Harry Ransom Center  
 Legacy and criticism 
  Records on Shakespeare's Theatre Legacy from the UK Parliamentary Collections 
 Winston Churchill &amp; Shakespeare – UK Parliament Living Heritage  
 Other links 
  Works by William Shakespeare set to music: free scores in the Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki)
William Shakespeare - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_I
Elizabeth I - Wikipedia
2001-11-22
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<div><div>
<table><tbody><tr><th>Elizabeth I</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:Darnley_stage_3.jpg"></a><div><p>The "<a href="/wiki/Portraiture_of_Elizabeth_I#The_Darnley_Portrait">Darnley Portrait</a>", <abbr>c.</abbr> 1575</p></div></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_monarchs">Queen of England</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Irish_monarchs">Ireland</a> <div><p>(<a href="/wiki/Style_of_the_English_sovereigns">more...</a>) </p></div></th></tr><tr><th>Reign</th><td>17 November 1558 – <br />24 March 1603</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_Elizabeth_I">Coronation</a></th><td>15 January 1559</td></tr><tr><th>Predecessor</th><td><a href="/wiki/Mary_I_of_England">Mary I</a></td></tr><tr><th>Successor</th><td><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I">James I</a></td></tr><tr><th></th></tr><tr><th>Born</th><td>7 September 1533<br /><a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Placentia">Palace of Placentia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greenwich">Greenwich</a>, England</td></tr><tr><th>Died</th><td>24 March 1603 (aged 69)<br /><a href="/wiki/Richmond_Palace">Richmond Palace</a>, Surrey, England</td></tr><tr><th>Burial</th><td>28 April 1603<br /><div><p><a href="/wiki/Westminster_Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a></p></div></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/Dynasty">House</a></th><td><a href="/wiki/House_of_Tudor">Tudor</a></td></tr><tr><th>Father</th><td><a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII">Henry VIII</a></td></tr><tr><th>Mother</th><td><a href="/wiki/Anne_Boleyn">Anne Boleyn</a></td></tr><tr><th>Religion</th><td><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a></td></tr><tr><th>Signature</th><td><a href="/wiki/File:Autograph_of_Elizabeth_I_of_England.svg"></a></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Elizabeth I</b> (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603)<sup><a href="#cite_note-1">[a]</a></sup> was <a href="/wiki/List_of_English_monarchs">Queen of England</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Irish_monarchs">Ireland</a> from 17 November 1558 until her death in 1603. Elizabeth was the last monarch of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Tudor">House of Tudor</a> and is sometimes referred to as the "Virgin Queen".<sup><a href="#cite_note-2">[1]</a></sup>
</p><p>Elizabeth was the daughter of <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII">Henry VIII</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anne_Boleyn">Anne Boleyn</a>, his second wife, who was executed when Elizabeth was two years old. Anne's marriage to Henry was annulled, and Elizabeth was for a time declared <a href="/wiki/Royal_bastard">illegitimate</a>. Her half-brother <a href="/wiki/Edward_VI">Edward VI</a> ruled until his death in 1553, bequeathing the crown to <a href="/wiki/Lady_Jane_Grey">Lady Jane Grey</a> and ignoring the claims of his two half-sisters, the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church">Catholic</a> <a href="/wiki/Mary_I_of_England">Mary</a> and the younger Elizabeth, in spite of <a href="/wiki/Third_Succession_Act">statute law to the contrary</a>. Edward's will was set aside and Mary became queen, deposing Lady Jane Grey. During Mary's reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels.
</p><p>Upon her half-sister's death in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded to the throne and set out to rule by good counsel.<sup><a href="#cite_note-4">[b]</a></sup> She depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers led by <a href="/wiki/William_Cecil,_1st_Baron_Burghley">William Cecil</a>, whom she created 1st <a href="/wiki/Baron_Burghley">Baron Burghley</a>. One of her first actions as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_governor">supreme governor</a>. This <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_Religious_Settlement">Elizabethan Religious Settlement</a> was to evolve into the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England">Church of England</a>. It was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir; however, despite numerous courtships, she never did. She was eventually succeeded by her first cousin twice removed, <a href="/wiki/James_VI_of_Scotland">James VI of Scotland</a>; this laid the foundation for the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain">Kingdom of Great Britain</a>. She had earlier been reluctantly responsible for the imprisonment and execution of James's mother, <a href="/wiki/Mary,_Queen_of_Scots">Mary, Queen of Scots</a>.
</p><p>In government, Elizabeth was more moderate than her father and half-siblings had been.<sup><a href="#cite_note-starkey5-5">[3]</a></sup> One of her mottoes was <i>"video et taceo"</i> ("I see and keep silent").<sup><a href="#cite_note-6">[4]</a></sup> In religion, she was relatively tolerant and avoided systematic persecution. After the pope <a href="/wiki/Regnans_in_Excelsis">declared her illegitimate</a> in 1570 and released her subjects from obedience to her, several conspiracies threatened her life, all of which were defeated with the help of her ministers' secret service, run by <a href="/wiki/Francis_Walsingham">Francis Walsingham</a>. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs, manoeuvring between the major powers of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France">France</a> and <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain">Spain</a>. She half-heartedly supported a number of ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic">Netherlands</a>, France, and Ireland. By the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1585%E2%80%931604)">war with Spain</a>.
</p><p>As she grew older, Elizabeth became celebrated for her <a href="/wiki/Virginity">virginity</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Cult_of_personality">cult of personality</a> grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, and literature of the day. Elizabeth's reign became known as the <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_era">Elizabethan era</a>. The period is famous for the flourishing of <a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance_theatre">English drama</a>, led by playwrights such as <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Marlowe">Christopher Marlowe</a>, the prowess of English maritime adventurers, such as <a href="/wiki/Francis_Drake">Francis Drake</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Raleigh">Walter Raleigh</a>, and for the defeat of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada">Spanish Armada</a>. Some historians depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler,<sup><a href="#cite_note-7">[5]</a></sup> who enjoyed more than her fair share of luck. Towards the end of her reign, a series of economic and military problems weakened her popularity. Elizabeth is acknowledged as a charismatic performer ("Gloriana") and a dogged survivor ("Good Queen Bess") in an era when government was ramshackle and limited, and when monarchs in neighbouring countries faced internal problems that jeopardised their thrones. After the short reigns of her half-siblings, her 44 years on the throne provided welcome stability for the kingdom and helped to forge a sense of national identity.<sup><a href="#cite_note-starkey5-5">[3]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Early life</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:HenryAndAnneBoleynPortraits.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Elizabeth's parents, <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII">Henry VIII</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anne_Boleyn">Anne Boleyn</a>. Anne was executed within three years of Elizabeth's birth.</p></div></div>
<p>Elizabeth was born at <a href="/wiki/Greenwich_Palace">Greenwich Palace</a> on 7 September 1533 and was named after her grandmothers, <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_of_York">Elizabeth of York</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lady_Elizabeth_Howard">Lady Elizabeth Howard</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-8">[6]</a></sup> She was the second child of <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England">Henry VIII of England</a> born in wedlock to survive infancy. Her mother was Henry's second wife, <a href="/wiki/Anne_Boleyn">Anne Boleyn</a>. At birth, Elizabeth was the <a href="/wiki/Heir_presumptive">heir presumptive</a> to the English throne. Her elder half-sister <a href="/wiki/Mary_I_of_England">Mary</a> had lost her position as a legitimate heir when Henry annulled his marriage to Mary's mother, <a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Aragon">Catherine of Aragon</a>, to marry Anne, with the intent to sire a male heir and ensure the Tudor succession.<sup><a href="#cite_note-9">[7]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-10">[8]</a></sup> She was baptised on 10 September 1533, and her godparents were <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cranmer">Thomas Cranmer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury">Archbishop of Canterbury</a>; <a href="/wiki/Henry_Courtenay,_1st_Marquess_of_Exeter">Henry Courtenay, 1st Marquess of Exeter</a>; <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Stafford,_Duchess_of_Norfolk">Elizabeth Stafford, Duchess of Norfolk</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Wotton,_Marchioness_of_Dorset">Margaret Wotton, Dowager Marchioness of Dorset</a>. A canopy was carried at the ceremony over the infant by her uncle <a href="/wiki/George_Boleyn,_Viscount_Rochford">George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford</a>; <a href="/wiki/John_Hussey,_1st_Baron_Hussey_of_Sleaford">John Hussey, 1st Baron Hussey of Sleaford</a>; <a href="/wiki/Lord_Thomas_Howard">Lord Thomas Howard</a>; and <a href="/wiki/William_Howard,_1st_Baron_Howard_of_Effingham">William Howard, 1st Baron Howard of Effingham</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-11">[9]</a></sup>
</p><p>Elizabeth was two years and eight months old when her mother was beheaded on 19 May 1536,<sup><a href="#cite_note-12">[10]</a></sup> four months after Catherine of Aragon's death from natural causes. Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and deprived of her place in the royal succession.<sup><a href="#cite_note-14">[c]</a></sup> Eleven days after Anne Boleyn's execution, Henry married <a href="/wiki/Jane_Seymour">Jane Seymour</a>. Queen Jane died the next year shortly after the birth of their son, <a href="/wiki/Edward_VI_of_England">Edward</a>, who was undisputed <a href="/wiki/Heir_apparent">heir apparent</a> to the throne. Elizabeth was placed in her half-brother's household and carried the <a href="/wiki/Chrisom">chrisom</a>, or baptismal cloth, at his christening.<sup><a href="#cite_note-15">[12]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Elizabeth_I_when_a_Princess.jpg"></a></p><div><p>A rare portrait of Elizabeth prior to her accession, attributed to <a href="/wiki/William_Scrots">William Scrots</a>. It was painted for her father in <abbr>c.</abbr> 1546.</p></div></div>
<p>Elizabeth's first <a href="/wiki/Governess">governess</a>, <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Bryan">Margaret Bryan</a>, wrote that she was "as toward a child and as gentle of conditions as ever I knew any in my life".<sup><a href="#cite_note-16">[13]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Champernowne">Catherine Champernowne</a>, better known by her later, married name of Catherine "Kat" Ashley, was appointed as Elizabeth's governess in 1537, and she remained Elizabeth's friend until her death in 1565. Champernowne taught Elizabeth four languages: French, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language">Dutch</a>, Italian and Spanish.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeir19977-17">[14]</a></sup> By the time <a href="/wiki/William_Grindal">William Grindal</a> became her tutor in 1544, Elizabeth could write English, <a href="/wiki/Latin">Latin</a>, and Italian. Under Grindal, a talented and skilful tutor, she also progressed in French and Greek.<sup><a href="#cite_note-L8-18">[15]</a></sup> By the age of 12 she was able to translate her stepmother <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Parr">Catherine Parr</a>'s religious work <i><a href="/wiki/Prayers_or_Meditations">Prayers or Meditations</a></i> from English into Italian, Latin, and French, which she presented to her father as a New Year's gift.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Seth_Sanders-19">[16]</a></sup> From her teenage years and throughout her life she translated works in Latin and Greek by numerous classical authors, including the <i><a href="/wiki/Pro_Marcello">Pro Marcello</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Cicero">Cicero</a>, the <i><a href="/wiki/The_Consolation_of_Philosophy">De consolatione philosophiae</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Boethius">Boethius</a>, a treatise by <a href="/wiki/Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, and the <i><a href="/wiki/Annals_(Tacitus)">Annals</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Tacitus">Tacitus</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-20">[17]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Seth_Sanders-19">[16]</a></sup> A translation of Tacitus from <a href="/wiki/Lambeth_Palace">Lambeth Palace</a> Library, one of only four surviving English translations from the early modern era, was confirmed as Elizabeth's own in 2019, after a detailed analysis of the handwriting and paper was undertaken.<sup><a href="#cite_note-21">[18]</a></sup>
</p><p>After Grindal died in 1548, Elizabeth received her education under her brother Edward's tutor, <a href="/wiki/Roger_Ascham">Roger Ascham</a>, a sympathetic teacher who believed that learning should be engaging.<sup><a href="#cite_note-22">[19]</a></sup> Current knowledge of Elizabeth's schooling and precocity comes largely from Ascham's memoirs.<sup><a href="#cite_note-L8-18">[15]</a></sup> By the time her formal education ended in 1550, Elizabeth was one of the best educated women of her generation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-23">[20]</a></sup> At the end of her life, she was believed to speak the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language">Welsh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cornish_language">Cornish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scots_language">Scottish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irish_language">Irish languages</a> in addition to those mentioned above. The Venetian ambassador stated in 1603 that she "possessed [these] languages so thoroughly that each appeared to be her native tongue".<sup><a href="#cite_note-24">[21]</a></sup> Historian <a href="/wiki/Mark_Stoyle">Mark Stoyle</a> suggests that she was probably taught Cornish by <a href="/wiki/William_Killigrew_(Chamberlain_of_the_Exchequer)">William Killigrew</a>, Groom of the Privy Chamber and later Chamberlain of the Exchequer.<sup><a href="#cite_note-25">[22]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Thomas Seymour</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Thomas_Seymour_Denizot.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Henry VIII died in 1547 and Elizabeth's half-brother, Edward VI, became king at the age of nine. Catherine Parr, Henry's widow, soon married <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Seymour,_1st_Baron_Seymour_of_Sudeley">Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley</a>, Edward VI's uncle and the brother of Lord Protector <a href="/wiki/Edward_Seymour,_1st_Duke_of_Somerset">Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset</a>. The couple took Elizabeth into their household at <a href="/wiki/Chelsea,_London">Chelsea</a>. There Elizabeth experienced an emotional crisis that some historians believe affected her for the rest of her life.<sup><a href="#cite_note-loades2-26">[23]</a></sup> Thomas Seymour engaged in romps and horseplay with the 14-year-old Elizabeth, including entering her bedroom in his nightgown, tickling her, and slapping her on the buttocks. Elizabeth rose early and surrounded herself with maids to avoid his unwelcome morning visits. Parr, rather than confront her husband over his inappropriate activities, joined in. Twice she accompanied him in tickling Elizabeth, and once held her while he cut her black gown "into a thousand pieces".<sup><a href="#cite_note-27">[24]</a></sup> However, after Parr discovered the pair in an embrace, she ended this state of affairs.<sup><a href="#cite_note-28">[25]</a></sup> In May 1548, Elizabeth was sent away.
</p><p>Thomas Seymour nevertheless continued scheming to control the royal family and tried to have himself appointed the governor of the King's person.<sup><a href="#cite_note-29">[26]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-30">[27]</a></sup> When Parr died after childbirth on 5 September 1548, he renewed his attentions towards Elizabeth, intent on marrying her.<sup><a href="#cite_note-31">[28]</a></sup> Her governess <a href="/wiki/Kat_Ashley">Kat Ashley</a>, who was fond of Seymour, sought to convince Elizabeth to take him as her husband. She tried to convince Elizabeth to write to Seymour and "comfort him in his sorrow",<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeir1997-32">[29]</a></sup> but Elizabeth claimed that Thomas was not so saddened by her stepmother's death as to need comfort.
</p><p>In January 1549, Seymour was arrested and imprisoned in the Tower on suspicion of conspiring to depose his brother Somerset as Protector, marry <a href="/wiki/Lady_Jane_Grey">Lady Jane Grey</a> to King Edward VI, and take Elizabeth as his own wife. Elizabeth, living at <a href="/wiki/Hatfield_House">Hatfield House</a>, would admit nothing. Her stubbornness exasperated her interrogator, Sir <a href="/wiki/Robert_Tyrwhitt_(courtier)">Robert Tyrwhitt</a>, who reported, "I do see it in her face that she is guilty".<sup><a href="#cite_note-neale-33">[30]</a></sup> Seymour was beheaded on 20 March 1549.<sup><a href="#cite_note-34">[31]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Reign of Mary I</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Mary_I_of_England,_1516-58_and_Philip_II_of_Spain,_1527-98_RMG_BHC2952.tiff"></a></p><div><p><a href="/wiki/Mary_I_of_England">Mary I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain">Philip</a>, during whose reign Elizabeth was heir presumptive</p></div></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Balustrade_and_steps_Hatfield_House_Old_Palace_Hertfordshire_England.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Edward VI died on 6 July 1553, aged 15. His will ignored the <a href="/wiki/Succession_to_the_Crown_Act_1543">Succession to the Crown Act 1543</a>, excluded both Mary and Elizabeth from the succession, and instead declared as his heir Lady Jane Grey, granddaughter of Henry VIII's younger sister <a href="/wiki/Mary_Tudor,_Queen_of_France">Mary Tudor, Queen of France</a>. Jane was proclaimed queen by the <a href="/wiki/Privy_Council_of_England">privy council</a>, but her support quickly crumbled, and she was deposed after nine days. On 3 August 1553, Mary rode triumphantly into London, with Elizabeth at her side.<sup><a href="#cite_note-36">[d]</a></sup>
The show of solidarity between the sisters did not last long. Mary, a devout <a href="/wiki/Catholic">Catholic</a>, was determined to crush the <a href="/wiki/Protestant">Protestant</a> faith in which Elizabeth had been educated, and she ordered that everyone attend Catholic Mass; Elizabeth had to outwardly conform. Mary's initial popularity ebbed away in 1554 when she announced plans to marry <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain">Philip of Spain</a>, the son of <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor_Charles_V">Holy Roman Emperor Charles V</a> and an active Catholic.<sup><a href="#cite_note-37">[33]</a></sup> Discontent spread rapidly through the country, and many looked to Elizabeth as a focus for their opposition to Mary's religious policies.
</p><p>In January and February 1554, <a href="/wiki/Wyatt%27s_rebellion">Wyatt's rebellion</a> broke out; it was soon suppressed.<sup><a href="#cite_note-38">[34]</a></sup> Elizabeth was brought to court and interrogated regarding her role, and on 18 March, she was imprisoned in the <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_London">Tower of London</a>. Elizabeth fervently protested her innocence.<sup><a href="#cite_note-39">[35]</a></sup> Though it is unlikely that she had plotted with the rebels, some of them were known to have approached her. Mary's closest confidant, Emperor Charles's ambassador <a href="/wiki/Simon_Renard">Simon Renard</a>, argued that her throne would never be safe while Elizabeth lived; and <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chancellor">Lord Chancellor</a> <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Gardiner">Stephen Gardiner</a>, worked to have Elizabeth put on trial.<sup><a href="#cite_note-40">[36]</a></sup> Elizabeth's supporters in the government, including <a href="/wiki/William_Paget,_1st_Baron_Paget">William Paget, 1st Baron Paget</a>, convinced Mary to spare her sister in the absence of hard evidence against her. Instead, on 22 May, Elizabeth was moved from the Tower to <a href="/wiki/Woodstock,_Oxfordshire">Woodstock</a>, where she was to spend almost a year under house arrest in the charge of Sir <a href="/wiki/Henry_Bedingfeld">Henry Bedingfeld</a>. Crowds cheered her all along the way.<sup><a href="#cite_note-loades29-41">[37]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-43">[e]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 17 April 1555, Elizabeth was recalled to court to attend the final stages of Mary's <a href="/wiki/Mary_I_of_England#False_pregnancy">apparent pregnancy</a>. If Mary and her child died, Elizabeth would become queen, but if Mary gave birth to a healthy child, Elizabeth's chances of becoming queen would recede sharply. When it became clear that Mary was not pregnant, no one believed any longer that she could have a child.<sup><a href="#cite_note-44">[39]</a></sup> Elizabeth's succession seemed assured.<sup><a href="#cite_note-45">[40]</a></sup>
</p><p>King Philip, who ascended the Spanish throne in 1556, acknowledged the new political reality and cultivated his sister-in-law. She was a better ally than the chief alternative, <a href="/wiki/Mary,_Queen_of_Scots">Mary, Queen of Scots</a>, who had grown up in France and was betrothed to the <a href="/wiki/Francis_II_of_France">Dauphin of France</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-46">[41]</a></sup> When his wife fell ill in 1558, King Philip sent the <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B3mez_Su%C3%A1rez_de_Figueroa_y_C%C3%B3rdoba,_1st_Duke_of_Feria">Count of Feria</a> to consult with Elizabeth.<sup><a href="#cite_note-47">[42]</a></sup> This interview was conducted at <a href="/wiki/Hatfield_House">Hatfield House</a>, where she had returned to live in October 1555. By October 1558, Elizabeth was already making plans for her government. Mary recognised Elizabeth as her heir on 6 November 1558,<sup><a href="#cite_note-48">[43]</a></sup> and Elizabeth became queen when Mary died on 17 November.<sup><a href="#cite_note-49">[44]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Accession</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Elizabeth_I_in_coronation_robes.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Elizabeth I in her coronation robes, patterned with <a href="/wiki/Tudor_rose">Tudor roses</a> and trimmed with <a href="/wiki/Stoat">ermine</a></p></div></div>
<p>Elizabeth became queen at the age of 25, and declared her intentions to her council and other peers who had come to Hatfield to swear allegiance. The speech contains the first record of her adoption of the medieval <a href="/wiki/Political_theology">political theology</a> of the sovereign's "two bodies": the body natural and the <a href="/wiki/Body_politic">body politic</a>:<sup><a href="#cite_note-50">[45]</a></sup>
</p>
<blockquote><p>My lords, the law of nature moves me to sorrow for my sister; the burden that is fallen upon me makes me amazed, and yet, considering I am God's creature, ordained to obey His appointment, I will thereto yield, desiring from the bottom of my heart that I may have assistance of His grace to be the minister of His heavenly will in this office now committed to me. And as I am but one body naturally considered, though by His permission a body politic to govern, so shall I desire you all ... to be assistant to me, that I with my ruling and you with your service may make a good account to Almighty God and leave some comfort to our posterity on earth. I mean to direct all my actions by good advice and counsel.<sup><a href="#cite_note-51">[46]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>As her <a href="/wiki/Triumphal_progress">triumphal progress</a> wound through the city on the eve of the <a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_Elizabeth_I_of_England">coronation ceremony</a>, she was welcomed wholeheartedly by the citizens and greeted by orations and pageants, most with a strong Protestant flavour. Elizabeth's open and gracious responses endeared her to the spectators, who were "wonderfully ravished".<sup><a href="#cite_note-52">[47]</a></sup> The following day, 15 January 1559, a date chosen by her astrologer <a href="/wiki/John_Dee">John Dee</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-IHR-53">[48]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-54">[49]</a></sup> Elizabeth was crowned and anointed by <a href="/wiki/Owen_Oglethorpe">Owen Oglethorpe</a>, the Catholic <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Carlisle">bishop of Carlisle</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a>. She was then presented for the people's acceptance, amidst a deafening noise of organs, fifes, trumpets, drums, and bells.<sup><a href="#cite_note-55">[50]</a></sup> Although Elizabeth was welcomed as queen in England, the country was still in a state of anxiety over the perceived Catholic threat at home and overseas, as well as the choice of whom she would marry.<sup><a href="#cite_note-56">[51]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Church settlement</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Nicholas_Hilliard_(called)_-_Portrait_of_Queen_Elizabeth_I_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Elizabeth's personal religious convictions have been much debated by scholars. She was a Protestant, but kept Catholic symbols (such as the <a href="/wiki/Crucifix">crucifix</a>), and downplayed the role of sermons in defiance of a key Protestant belief.<sup><a href="#cite_note-collinson-58">[53]</a></sup>
</p><p>Elizabeth and her advisers perceived the threat of a Catholic crusade against heretical England. The queen therefore sought a Protestant solution that would not offend Catholics too greatly while addressing the desires of English Protestants, but she would not tolerate the <a href="/wiki/Puritan">Puritans</a>, who were pushing for far-reaching reforms.<sup><a href="#cite_note-59">[54]</a></sup> As a result, the Parliament of 1559 started to legislate for a church based on the <a href="/wiki/Edward_VI_of_England#Reformation">Protestant settlement of Edward VI</a>, with the monarch as its head, but with many Catholic elements, such as <a href="/wiki/Vestments">vestments</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-60">[55]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_England">House of Commons</a> backed the proposals strongly, but the bill of supremacy met opposition in the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords">House of Lords</a>, particularly from the bishops. Elizabeth was fortunate that many bishoprics were vacant at the time, including the <a href="/wiki/Archbishopric_of_Canterbury">Archbishopric of Canterbury</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-62">[f]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-64">[g]</a></sup> This enabled supporters amongst peers to outvote the bishops and conservative peers. Nevertheless, Elizabeth was forced to accept the title of <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Governor_of_the_Church_of_England">Supreme Governor of the Church of England</a> rather than the more contentious title of <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Head">Supreme Head</a>, which many thought unacceptable for a woman to bear. The new <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Supremacy_1559">Act of Supremacy</a> became law on 8 May 1559. All public officials were to swear an oath of loyalty to the monarch as the supreme governor or risk disqualification from office; the <a href="/wiki/Heresy">heresy</a> laws were repealed, to avoid a repeat of the persecution of dissenters practised by Mary. At the same time, a new <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Uniformity_1559">Act of Uniformity</a> was passed, which made attendance at church and the use of an adapted version of the <a href="/wiki/1552_Book_of_Common_Prayer">1552 <i>Book of Common Prayer</i></a> compulsory, though the penalties for <a href="/wiki/Recusancy">recusancy</a>, or failure to attend and conform, were not extreme.<sup><a href="#cite_note-65">[58]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Marriage question</h2>
<p>From the start of Elizabeth's reign it was expected that she would marry, and the question arose to whom. Although she received many offers, she never married and remained childless; the reasons for this are not clear. Historians have speculated that Thomas Seymour had put her off sexual relationships.<sup><a href="#cite_note-66">[59]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-67">[60]</a></sup> She considered several suitors until she was about fifty. Her last courtship was with <a href="/wiki/Francis,_Duke_of_Anjou">Francis, Duke of Anjou</a>, 22 years her junior. While risking possible loss of power like her sister, who played into the hands of King Philip II of Spain, marriage offered the chance of an heir.<sup><a href="#cite_note-68">[61]</a></sup> However, the choice of a husband might also provoke political instability or even insurrection.<sup><a href="#cite_note-69">[62]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Robert Dudley</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Elizabeth_and_Leicester_miniatures_by_Hilliard.png"></a></p><div><p>Pair of <a href="/wiki/Portrait_miniature">miniatures</a> of Elizabeth and Leicester, <abbr>c.</abbr> 1575, by <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Hilliard">Nicholas Hilliard</a>. Their friendship lasted for over thirty years, until his death.</p></div></div>
<p>In the spring of 1559, it became evident that Elizabeth was in love with her childhood friend <a href="/wiki/Robert_Dudley,_1st_Earl_of_Leicester">Robert Dudley</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-70">[63]</a></sup> It was said that his wife <a href="/wiki/Amy_Robsart">Amy</a> was suffering from a "malady in one of her breasts" and that the queen would like to marry Robert if his wife should die.<sup><a href="#cite_note-71">[64]</a></sup> By the autumn of 1559, several foreign suitors were vying for Elizabeth's hand; their impatient envoys engaged in ever more scandalous talk and reported that a marriage with her <a href="/wiki/Favourite">favourite</a> was not welcome in England:<sup><a href="#cite_note-72">[65]</a></sup> "There is not a man who does not cry out on him and her with indignation ... she will marry none but the favoured Robert."<sup><a href="#cite_note-73">[66]</a></sup> Amy Dudley died in September 1560, from a fall from a flight of stairs and, despite the coroner's <a href="/wiki/Inquest">inquest</a> finding of accident, many people suspected her husband of having arranged her death so that he could marry the queen.<sup><a href="#cite_note-74">[67]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-77">[h]</a></sup> Elizabeth seriously considered marrying Dudley for some time. However, <a href="/wiki/William_Cecil,_1st_Baron_Burghley">William Cecil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Throckmorton">Nicholas Throckmorton</a>, and some conservative <a href="/wiki/Peerage_of_England">peers</a> made their disapproval unmistakably clear.<sup><a href="#cite_note-78">[70]</a></sup> There were even rumours that the nobility would rise if the marriage took place.<sup><a href="#cite_note-79">[71]</a></sup>
</p><p>Among other marriage candidates being considered for the queen, Robert Dudley continued to be regarded as a possible candidate for nearly another decade.<sup><a href="#cite_note-80">[72]</a></sup> Elizabeth was extremely jealous of his affections, even when she no longer meant to marry him herself.<sup><a href="#cite_note-81">[73]</a></sup> She raised Dudley to the peerage as <a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Leicester">Earl of Leicester</a> in 1564. In 1578, he finally married <a href="/wiki/Lettice_Knollys">Lettice Knollys</a>, to whom the queen reacted with repeated scenes of displeasure and lifelong hatred.<sup><a href="#cite_note-82">[74]</a></sup> Still, Dudley always "remained at the centre of [Elizabeth's] emotional life", as historian <a href="/wiki/Susan_Doran">Susan Doran</a> has described the situation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-83">[75]</a></sup> He died shortly after the defeat of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada">Spanish Armada</a> in 1588. After Elizabeth's own death, a note from him was found among her most personal belongings, marked "his last letter" in her handwriting.<sup><a href="#cite_note-84">[76]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Foreign candidates</h3>
<p>Marriage negotiations constituted a key element in Elizabeth's foreign policy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-haigh2-85">[77]</a></sup> She turned down the hand of Philip, her half-sister's widower, early in 1559 but for several years entertained the proposal of King <a href="/wiki/Eric_XIV_of_Sweden">Eric XIV of Sweden</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-86">[78]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-87">[79]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-88">[80]</a></sup> Earlier in Elizabeth's life a Danish match for her had been discussed; <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII">Henry VIII</a> had proposed one with the Danish prince <a href="/wiki/Adolf,_Duke_of_Holstein-Gottorp">Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp</a>, in 1545, and Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset, suggested a marriage with <a href="/wiki/Frederick_II_of_Denmark">Prince Frederick</a> (later Frederick II) several years later, but the negotiations had abated in 1551.<sup><a href="#cite_note-adams-89">[81]</a></sup> In the years around 1559 a Dano-English Protestant alliance was considered,<sup><a href="#cite_note-90">[82]</a></sup> and to counter Sweden's proposal, King Frederick II proposed to Elizabeth in late 1559.<sup><a href="#cite_note-adams-89">[81]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Fd%27Alen%C3%A7on.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Elizabeth was engaged for a time to <a href="/wiki/Francis,_Duke_of_Anjou">Francis, Duke of Anjou</a>. The queen called him her "frog", finding him "not so deformed" as she had been led to expect.<sup><a href="#cite_note-91">[83]</a></sup></p></div></div>
<p>For several years she also seriously negotiated to marry Philip's cousin <a href="/wiki/Charles_II,_Archduke_of_Austria">Charles II, Archduke of Austria</a>. By 1569, relations with the Habsburgs had deteriorated. Elizabeth considered marriage to two French <a href="/wiki/House_of_Valois">Valois</a> princes in turn, first <a href="/wiki/Henry_III_of_France">Henry, Duke of Anjou</a>, and then from 1572 to 1581 his brother Francis, Duke of Anjou, formerly Duke of Alençon.<sup><a href="#cite_note-92">[84]</a></sup> This last proposal was tied to a planned alliance against Spanish control of the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Netherlands">Southern Netherlands</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-93">[85]</a></sup> Elizabeth seems to have taken the courtship seriously for a time, and wore a frog-shaped earring that Francis had sent her.<sup><a href="#cite_note-94">[86]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1563, Elizabeth told an imperial envoy: "If I follow the inclination of my nature, it is this: beggar-woman and single, far rather than queen and married".<sup><a href="#cite_note-haigh2-85">[77]</a></sup> Later in the year, following Elizabeth's illness with <a href="/wiki/Smallpox">smallpox</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Elizabeth_I_of_England">succession question</a> became a heated issue in Parliament. Members urged the queen to marry or nominate an heir, to prevent a civil war upon her death. She refused to do either. In April she <a href="/wiki/Legislative_session#Procedure_in_Commonwealth_realms">prorogued</a> the Parliament, which did not reconvene until she needed its support to raise taxes in 1566.
</p><p>Having previously promised to marry, she told an unruly House:
</p>
<blockquote><p>I will never break the word of a prince spoken in public place, for my honour's sake. And therefore I say again, I will marry as soon as I can conveniently, if God take not him away with whom I mind to marry, or myself, or else some other great let happen.<sup><a href="#cite_note-95">[87]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>By 1570, senior figures in the government privately accepted that Elizabeth would never marry or name a successor. William Cecil was already seeking solutions to the succession problem.<sup><a href="#cite_note-haigh2-85">[77]</a></sup> For her failure to marry, Elizabeth was often accused of irresponsibility.<sup><a href="#cite_note-96">[88]</a></sup> Her silence, however, strengthened her own political security: she knew that if she named an heir, her throne would be vulnerable to a coup; she remembered the way that "a second person, as I have been" had been used as the focus of plots against her predecessor.<sup><a href="#cite_note-97">[89]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Virginity</h3>
<p>Elizabeth's unmarried status inspired a cult of virginity related to that of the Virgin Mary. In poetry and portraiture, she was depicted as a virgin, a goddess, or both, not as a normal woman.<sup><a href="#cite_note-98">[90]</a></sup> At first, only Elizabeth made a virtue of her ostensible virginity: in 1559, she told the Commons, "And, in the end, this shall be for me sufficient, that a marble stone shall declare that a queen, having reigned such a time, lived and died a virgin".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Hh-99">[91]</a></sup> Later on, poets and writers took up the theme and developed an <a href="/wiki/Iconography">iconography</a> that exalted Elizabeth. Public tributes to the Virgin by 1578 acted as a coded assertion of opposition to the queen's marriage negotiations with the Duke of Alençon.<sup><a href="#cite_note-100">[92]</a></sup> Ultimately, Elizabeth would insist she was married to her kingdom and subjects, under divine protection. In 1599, she spoke of "all my husbands, my good people".<sup><a href="#cite_note-101">[93]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Procession_Portrait_of_Elizabeth_I.jpg"></a></p><div><p><i>The Procession Picture</i>, c. 1600, showing Elizabeth I borne along by her courtiers</p></div></div>
<p>This claim of virginity was not universally accepted. Catholics accused Elizabeth of engaging in "filthy lust" that symbolically defiled the nation along with her body.<sup><a href="#cite_note-102">[94]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France">Henry IV of France</a> said that one of the great questions of Europe was "whether Queen Elizabeth was a maid or no".<sup><a href="#cite_note-103">[95]</a></sup>
</p><p>A central issue, when it comes to the question of Elizabeth's virginity, was whether the queen ever consummated her love affair with Robert Dudley. In 1559, she had Dudley's bedchambers moved next to her own apartments. In 1561, she was mysteriously bedridden with an illness that caused her body to swell.<sup><a href="#cite_note-104">[96]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-105">[97]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1587, a young man calling himself <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Dudley">Arthur Dudley</a> was arrested on the coast of Spain under suspicion of being a spy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-simancas-106">[98]</a></sup> The man claimed to be the illegitimate son of Elizabeth and Robert Dudley, with his age being consistent with birth during the 1561 illness.<sup><a href="#cite_note-levin1-107">[99]</a></sup> He was taken to <a href="/wiki/Madrid">Madrid</a> for investigation, where he was examined by <a href="/wiki/Francis_Englefield">Francis Englefield</a>, a Catholic aristocrat exiled to Spain and secretary to King Philip II.<sup><a href="#cite_note-simancas-106">[98]</a></sup> Three letters exist today describing the interview, detailing what Arthur proclaimed to be the story of his life, from birth in the royal palace to the time of his arrival in Spain.<sup><a href="#cite_note-simancas-106">[98]</a></sup> However, this failed to convince the Spanish: Englefield admitted to King Philip that Arthur's "claim at present amounts to nothing", but suggested that "he should not be allowed to get away, but [...] kept very secure."<sup><a href="#cite_note-levin1-107">[99]</a></sup> The king agreed, and Arthur was never heard from again.<sup><a href="#cite_note-levin2-108">[100]</a></sup> Modern scholarship dismisses the story's basic premise as "impossible",<sup><a href="#cite_note-levin1-107">[99]</a></sup> and asserts that Elizabeth's life was so closely observed by contemporaries that she could not have hidden a pregnancy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-levin2-108">[100]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-109">[101]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Mary, Queen of Scots</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Mary_Queen_of_Scots_portrait.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Elizabeth's first policy toward <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland">Scotland</a> was to oppose the French presence there.<sup><a href="#cite_note-111">[103]</a></sup> She feared that the French planned to invade England and put her Catholic cousin <a href="/wiki/Mary,_Queen_of_Scots">Mary, Queen of Scots</a>, on the throne. Mary was considered by many to be the heir to the English crown, being the granddaughter of Henry VIII's elder sister, <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Tudor">Margaret</a>. Mary boasted being "the nearest kinswoman she hath".<sup><a href="#cite_note-112">[104]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-113">[i]</a></sup> Elizabeth was persuaded to send a force into Scotland to aid the Protestant rebels, and though the campaign was inept, the resulting <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Edinburgh">Treaty of Edinburgh</a> of July 1560 removed the French threat in the north.<sup><a href="#cite_note-115">[j]</a></sup> When Mary returned to Scotland in 1561 to take up the reins of power, the country had an established Protestant church and was run by a council of Protestant nobles supported by Elizabeth.<sup><a href="#cite_note-116">[106]</a></sup> Mary refused to ratify the treaty.<sup><a href="#cite_note-loades-117">[107]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1563 Elizabeth proposed her own suitor, Robert Dudley, as a husband for Mary, without asking either of the two people concerned. Both proved unenthusiastic,<sup><a href="#cite_note-118">[108]</a></sup> and in 1565 Mary married <a href="/wiki/Henry_Stuart,_Lord_Darnley">Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley</a>, who carried his own claim to the English throne. The marriage was the first of a series of errors of judgement by Mary that handed the victory to the Scottish Protestants and to Elizabeth. Darnley quickly became unpopular and was murdered in February 1567 by conspirators almost certainly led by <a href="/wiki/James_Hepburn,_4th_Earl_of_Bothwell">James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell</a>. Shortly afterwards, on 15 May 1567, Mary married Bothwell, arousing suspicions that she had been party to the murder of her husband. Elizabeth confronted Mary about the marriage, writing to her:
</p>
<blockquote><p>How could a worse choice be made for your honour than in such haste to marry such a subject, who besides other and notorious lacks, public fame has charged with the murder of your late husband, besides the touching of yourself also in some part, though we trust in that behalf falsely.<sup><a href="#cite_note-119">[109]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>These events led rapidly to Mary's defeat and imprisonment in <a href="/wiki/Loch_Leven_Castle">Loch Leven Castle</a>. The Scottish lords forced her to <a href="/wiki/Abdicate">abdicate</a> in favour of her son <a href="/wiki/James_VI">James VI</a>, who had been born in June 1566. James was taken to <a href="/wiki/Stirling_Castle">Stirling Castle</a> to be raised as a Protestant. Mary escaped from <a href="/wiki/Loch_Leven_(Kinross)">Loch Leven</a> in 1568 but after another defeat fled across the border into England, where she had once been assured of support from Elizabeth. Elizabeth's first instinct was to restore her fellow monarch but she and her council instead chose to play safe. Rather than risk returning Mary to Scotland with an English army or sending her to France and the Catholic enemies of England, they detained her in England, where she was imprisoned for the next nineteen years.<sup><a href="#cite_note-120">[110]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Catholic cause</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Sir_Francis_Walsingham_by_John_De_Critz_the_Elder.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Mary was soon the focus for rebellion. In 1569 there was a major Catholic <a href="/wiki/Rising_of_the_North">rising in the North</a>; the goal was to free Mary, marry her to <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Howard,_4th_Duke_of_Norfolk">Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk</a>, and put her on the English throne.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Loades,_73-121">[111]</a></sup> After the rebels' defeat, over 750 of them were executed on Elizabeth's orders.<sup><a href="#cite_note-122">[112]</a></sup> In the belief that the revolt had been successful, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_V">Pope Pius V</a> issued a <a href="/wiki/Papal_bull">bull</a> in 1570, titled <i><a href="/wiki/Regnans_in_Excelsis">Regnans in Excelsis</a></i>, which declared "Elizabeth, the pretended Queen of England and the servant of crime" to be excommunicated and a <a href="/wiki/Heretic">heretic</a>, releasing all her subjects from any allegiance to her.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McGrath,_69-123">[113]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Collinson_p._67-124">[114]</a></sup> Catholics who obeyed her orders were threatened with <a href="/wiki/Excommunication">excommunication</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McGrath,_69-123">[113]</a></sup> The papal bull provoked legislative initiatives against Catholics by Parliament, which were, however, mitigated by Elizabeth's intervention.<sup><a href="#cite_note-125">[115]</a></sup> In 1581, to convert English subjects to Catholicism with "the intent" to withdraw them from their allegiance to Elizabeth was made a <a href="/wiki/Treason">treasonable</a> offence, carrying the death penalty.<sup><a href="#cite_note-126">[116]</a></sup> From the 1570s <a href="/wiki/Missionary">missionary</a> priests from continental <a href="/wiki/Seminaries">seminaries</a> went to England secretly in the cause of the "reconversion of England".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Collinson_p._67-124">[114]</a></sup> Many suffered execution, engendering a cult of <a href="/wiki/Martyrdom">martyrdom</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Collinson_p._67-124">[114]</a></sup>
</p><p><i>Regnans in Excelsis</i> gave English Catholics a strong incentive to look to Mary as the legitimate sovereign of England. Mary may not have been told of every Catholic plot to put her on the English throne, but from the <a href="/wiki/Ridolfi_Plot">Ridolfi Plot</a> of 1571 (which caused Mary's suitor, the Duke of Norfolk, to lose his head) to the <a href="/wiki/Babington_Plot">Babington Plot</a> of 1586, Elizabeth's spymaster Sir <a href="/wiki/Francis_Walsingham">Francis Walsingham</a> and the royal council keenly assembled a case against her.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Loades,_73-121">[111]</a></sup> At first, Elizabeth resisted calls for Mary's death. By late 1586, she had been persuaded to sanction Mary's trial and execution on the evidence of letters written during the Babington Plot.<sup><a href="#cite_note-127">[117]</a></sup> Elizabeth's proclamation of the sentence announced that "the said Mary, pretending title to the same Crown, had compassed and imagined within the same realm diverse things tending to the hurt, death and destruction of our royal person."<sup><a href="#cite_note-128">[118]</a></sup> On 8 February 1587, Mary was beheaded at <a href="/wiki/Fotheringhay_Castle">Fotheringhay Castle</a>, Northamptonshire.<sup><a href="#cite_note-129">[119]</a></sup> After the execution, Elizabeth claimed that she had not intended for the signed execution warrant to be dispatched, and blamed her secretary, <a href="/wiki/William_Davison_(diplomat)">William Davison</a>, for implementing it without her knowledge. The sincerity of Elizabeth's remorse and whether or not she wanted to delay the warrant have been called into question both by her contemporaries and later historians.<sup><a href="#cite_note-collinson-58">[53]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Wars and overseas trade</h2>
<p>Elizabeth's foreign policy was largely defensive. The exception was the English occupation of <a href="/wiki/Le_Havre">Le Havre</a> from October 1562 to June 1563, which ended in failure when Elizabeth's <a href="/wiki/Huguenot">Huguenot</a> allies joined with the Catholics to retake the port. Elizabeth's intention had been to exchange Le Havre for <a href="/wiki/Calais">Calais</a>, lost to France in January 1558.<sup><a href="#cite_note-130">[120]</a></sup> Only through the activities of her fleets did Elizabeth pursue an aggressive policy. This paid off in the war against Spain, 80% of which was fought at sea.<sup><a href="#cite_note-loades61-131">[121]</a></sup> She knighted <a href="/wiki/Francis_Drake">Francis Drake</a> after <a href="/wiki/Francis_Drake%27s_Circumnavigation">his circumnavigation</a> of the globe from 1577 to 1580, and he won fame for his raids on Spanish ports and fleets. An element of <a href="/wiki/Piracy">piracy</a> and self-enrichment drove Elizabethan seafarers, over whom the queen had little control.<sup><a href="#cite_note-132">[122]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-133">[123]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Netherlands</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Elzbieta_przyjmuj_ca_ambasador%C3%B3.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Elizabeth receiving Dutch ambassadors, 1560s, attributed to <a href="/wiki/Levina_Teerlinc">Levina Teerlinc</a></p></div></div>
<p>After the occupation and loss of Le Havre in 1562–1563, Elizabeth avoided military expeditions on the continent until 1585, when she sent an English army to aid the Protestant <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Revolt">Dutch rebels</a> against Philip II.<sup><a href="#cite_note-haigh135-134">[124]</a></sup> This followed the deaths in 1584 of the queen's allies <a href="/wiki/William_the_Silent">William the Silent</a>, Prince of Orange, and the Duke of Anjou, and the surrender of a series of Dutch towns to <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Farnese,_Duke_of_Parma">Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma</a>, Philip's governor of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands">Spanish Netherlands</a>. In December 1584, an alliance between Philip II and the French <a href="/wiki/Catholic_League_(French)">Catholic League</a> at <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Joinville">Joinville</a> undermined the ability of Anjou's brother, Henry III of France, to counter <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire">Spanish</a> domination of the Netherlands. It also extended Spanish influence along the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel">channel</a> coast of France, where the Catholic League was strong, and exposed England to invasion.<sup><a href="#cite_note-haigh135-134">[124]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Antwerp_(1584%E2%80%931585)">siege of Antwerp</a> in the summer of 1585 by the Duke of Parma necessitated some reaction on the part of the English and the Dutch. The outcome was the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nonsuch">Treaty of Nonsuch</a> of August 1585, in which Elizabeth promised military support to the Dutch.<sup><a href="#cite_note-135">[125]</a></sup> The treaty marked the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1585%E2%80%931604)">Anglo-Spanish War</a>, which lasted until the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_London_(1604)">Treaty of London</a> in 1604.
</p><p>The expedition was led by Elizabeth's former suitor, the Earl of Leicester. Elizabeth from the start did not really back this course of action. Her strategy, to support the Dutch on the surface with an English army, while beginning secret peace talks with Spain within days of Leicester's arrival in Holland,<sup><a href="#cite_note-136">[126]</a></sup> had necessarily to be at odds with Leicester's, who wanted and was expected by the Dutch to fight an active campaign. Elizabeth, on the other hand, wanted him "to avoid at all costs any decisive action with the enemy".<sup><a href="#cite_note-137">[127]</a></sup> He enraged Elizabeth by accepting the post of Governor-General from the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_States_General">Dutch States General</a>. Elizabeth saw this as a Dutch ploy to force her to accept sovereignty over the Netherlands,<sup><a href="#cite_note-138">[128]</a></sup> which so far she had always declined. She wrote to Leicester:
</p>
<blockquote><p>We could never have imagined (had we not seen it fall out in experience) that a man raised up by ourself and extraordinarily favoured by us, above any other subject of this land, would have in so contemptible a sort broken our commandment in a cause that so greatly touches us in honour ... And therefore our express pleasure and commandment is that, all delays and excuses laid apart, you do presently upon the duty of your allegiance obey and fulfill whatsoever the bearer hereof shall direct you to do in our name. Whereof fail you not, as you will answer the contrary at your utmost peril.<sup><a href="#cite_note-139">[129]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>Elizabeth's "commandment" was that her emissary read out her letters of disapproval publicly before the Dutch Council of State, Leicester having to stand nearby.<sup><a href="#cite_note-140">[130]</a></sup> This public humiliation of her "Lieutenant-General" combined with her continued talks for a separate peace with Spain<sup><a href="#cite_note-142">[k]</a></sup> irreversibly undermined Leicester's standing among the Dutch. The military campaign was severely hampered by Elizabeth's repeated refusals to send promised funds for her starving soldiers. Her unwillingness to commit herself to the cause, Leicester's own shortcomings as a political and military leader, and the faction-ridden and chaotic situation of Dutch politics led to the failure of the campaign.<sup><a href="#cite_note-143">[132]</a></sup> Leicester finally resigned his command in December 1587.<sup><a href="#cite_note-144">[133]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Spanish Armada</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:N%C3%ADcholas-Hilliard-Elizabeth-I-Queen-of-England-c-1586-87.tif"></a></p><div><p>Portrait from 1586 to 1587, by Nicholas Hilliard, around the time of the voyages of Sir <a href="/wiki/Francis_Drake">Francis Drake</a></p></div></div>
<p>Meanwhile, Sir Francis Drake had undertaken a major voyage against Spanish ports and ships in the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean">Caribbean</a> in 1585 and 1586. In 1587 he made a <a href="/wiki/Singeing_the_King_of_Spain%27s_Beard">successful raid</a> on <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A1diz">Cádiz</a>, destroying the Spanish fleet of war ships intended for the <i>Enterprise of England</i>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-145">[134]</a></sup> as Philip II had decided to take the war to England.<sup><a href="#cite_note-haigh138-146">[135]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 12 July 1588, the Spanish Armada, a great fleet of ships, set sail for the channel, planning to ferry a Spanish invasion force under the Duke of Parma to the coast of southeast England from the Netherlands. A combination of miscalculation,<sup><a href="#cite_note-148">[l]</a></sup> misfortune, and an attack of English <a href="/wiki/Fire_ships">fire ships</a> on 29 July off <a href="/wiki/Gravelines">Gravelines</a>, which dispersed the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain">Spanish</a> ships to the northeast, defeated the Armada.<sup><a href="#cite_note-149">[137]</a></sup> The Armada straggled home to Spain in shattered remnants, after disastrous losses on the coast of Ireland (after some ships had tried to struggle back to Spain via the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea">North Sea</a>, and then back south past the west coast of Ireland).<sup><a href="#cite_note-neale300-150">[138]</a></sup> Unaware of the Armada's fate, English militias mustered to defend the country under the Earl of Leicester's command. Leicester invited Elizabeth to inspect her troops at <a href="/wiki/Tilbury">Tilbury</a> in Essex on 8 August. Wearing a silver breastplate over a white velvet dress, she addressed them in one of her <a href="/wiki/Speech_to_the_Troops_at_Tilbury">most famous speeches</a>:
</p>
<blockquote><p>My loving people, we have been persuaded by some that are careful of our safety, to take heed how we commit ourself to armed multitudes for fear of treachery; but I assure you, I do not desire to live to distrust my faithful and loving people ... I know I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a King of England too, and think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, or any Prince of Europe should dare to invade the borders of my realm.<sup><a href="#cite_note-151">[139]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Elizabeth_I_(Armada_Portrait).jpg"></a></p><div><p>Portrait commemorating the defeat of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada">Spanish Armada</a>, depicted in the background. Elizabeth's hand rests on the globe, symbolising her international power. One of three known versions of the "<a href="/wiki/Armada_Portrait">Armada Portrait</a>".</p></div></div>
<p>When no invasion came, the nation rejoiced. Elizabeth's procession to a thanksgiving service at <a href="/wiki/Old_St_Paul%27s_Cathedral">St Paul's Cathedral</a> rivalled that of her coronation as a spectacle.<sup><a href="#cite_note-neale300-150">[138]</a></sup> The defeat of the armada was a potent propaganda victory, both for Elizabeth and for Protestant England. The English took their delivery as a symbol of God's favour and of the nation's inviolability under a virgin queen.<sup><a href="#cite_note-loades61-131">[121]</a></sup> However, the victory was not a turning point in the war, which continued and often favoured Spain.<sup><a href="#cite_note-xucglh-152">[140]</a></sup> The Spanish still controlled the southern provinces of the Netherlands, and the threat of invasion remained.<sup><a href="#cite_note-haigh138-146">[135]</a></sup> Sir <a href="/wiki/Walter_Raleigh">Walter Raleigh</a> claimed after her death that Elizabeth's caution had impeded the war against Spain:
</p>
<blockquote><p>If the late queen would have believed her men of war as she did her scribes, we had in her time beaten that great empire in pieces and made their kings of figs and oranges as in old times. But her Majesty did all by halves, and by petty invasions taught the Spaniard how to defend himself, and to see his own weakness.<sup><a href="#cite_note-153">[141]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>Though some historians have criticised Elizabeth on similar grounds,<sup><a href="#cite_note-155">[m]</a></sup> Raleigh's verdict has more often been judged unfair. Elizabeth had good reason not to place too much trust in her commanders, who once in action tended, as she put it herself, "to be transported with an haviour of vainglory".<sup><a href="#cite_note-156">[143]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1589, the year after the Spanish Armada, Elizabeth sent to Spain the <i><a href="/wiki/English_Armada">English Armada</a></i> or <i>Counter Armada</i> with 23,375 men and 150 ships, led by Sir Francis Drake as admiral and Sir <a href="/wiki/John_Norris_(soldier)">John Norreys</a> as general. The English fleet suffered a catastrophic defeat with 11,000–15,000 killed, wounded or died of disease<sup><a href="#cite_note-157">[144]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-158">[145]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Fernández_Duro_1972_p.51-159">[146]</a></sup> and 40 ships sunk or captured.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Fernández_Duro_1972_p.51-159">[146]</a></sup> The advantage England had won upon the destruction of the Spanish Armada was lost, and the Spanish victory marked a revival of Philip II's naval power through the next decade.<sup><a href="#cite_note-160">[147]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>France</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:England_Queen_Elizabeth_I_sixpence_1593.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>When the Protestant Henry IV inherited the French throne in 1589, Elizabeth sent him military support. It was her first venture into France since the retreat from Le Havre in 1563. Henry's succession was strongly contested by the Catholic League and by Philip II, and Elizabeth feared a Spanish takeover of the channel ports. The subsequent English campaigns in France, however, were disorganised and ineffective.<sup><a href="#cite_note-haigh142-161">[148]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Peregrine_Bertie,_13th_Baron_Willoughby_de_Eresby">Peregrine Bertie, 13th Baron Willoughby de Eresby</a>, largely ignoring Elizabeth's orders, roamed northern France to little effect, with an army of 4,000 men. He withdrew in disarray in December 1589, having lost half his troops. In 1591, the campaign of John Norreys, who led 3,000 men to <a href="/wiki/Brittany">Brittany</a>, was even more of a disaster. As for all such expeditions, Elizabeth was unwilling to invest in the supplies and reinforcements requested by the commanders. Norreys left for London to plead in person for more support. In his absence, a Catholic League army almost destroyed the remains of his army at <a href="/wiki/Craon,_Mayenne">Craon</a>, north-west France, in May 1591. In July, Elizabeth sent out another force under <a href="/wiki/Robert_Devereux,_2nd_Earl_of_Essex">Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex</a>, to help Henry IV in besieging <a href="/wiki/Rouen">Rouen</a>. The result was just as dismal. Essex accomplished nothing and returned home in January 1592. Henry abandoned the siege in April.<sup><a href="#cite_note-162">[149]</a></sup> As usual, Elizabeth lacked control over her commanders once they were abroad. "Where he is, or what he doth, or what he is to do," she wrote of Essex, "we are ignorant".<sup><a href="#cite_note-163">[150]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Ireland</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:The_Image_of_Irelande_-_plate12.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Although Ireland was one of her two kingdoms, Elizabeth faced a hostile, and in places virtually autonomous,<sup><a href="#cite_note-165">[n]</a></sup> Irish population that adhered to Catholicism and was willing to defy her authority and plot with her enemies. Her policy there was to grant land to her courtiers and prevent the rebels from giving Spain a base from which to attack England.<sup><a href="#cite_note-166">[152]</a></sup> In the course of a series of uprisings, Crown forces pursued <a href="/wiki/Scorched-earth">scorched-earth</a> tactics, burning the land and slaughtering man, woman and child. During a revolt in <a href="/wiki/Munster">Munster</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Gerald_FitzGerald,_14th_Earl_of_Desmond">Gerald FitzGerald, 14th Earl of Desmond</a>, in 1582, an estimated 30,000 Irish people starved to death. The poet and colonist <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Spenser">Edmund Spenser</a> wrote that the victims "were brought to such wretchedness as that any stony heart would have rued the same".<sup><a href="#cite_note-167">[153]</a></sup> Elizabeth advised her commanders that the Irish, "that rude and barbarous nation", be well treated, but she or her commanders showed no remorse when force and bloodshed served their <a href="/wiki/Authoritarian">authoritarian</a> purpose.<sup><a href="#cite_note-168">[154]</a></sup>
</p><p>Between 1594 and 1603, Elizabeth faced her most severe test in Ireland during the <a href="/wiki/Nine_Years%27_War_(Ireland)">Nine Years' War</a>, a revolt that took place at the height of hostilities with <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1585%E2%80%931604)">Spain</a>, who backed the rebel leader, <a href="/wiki/Hugh_O%27Neill,_Earl_of_Tyrone">Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Loades,_98-169">[155]</a></sup> In spring 1599, Elizabeth sent <a href="/wiki/Essex_in_Ireland">Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex</a>, to put the revolt down. To her frustration,<sup><a href="#cite_note-170">[o]</a></sup> he made little progress and returned to England in defiance of her orders. He was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Blount,_8th_Baron_Mountjoy">Charles Blount, 8th Baron Mountjoy</a>, who took three years to defeat the rebels. O'Neill finally surrendered in 1603, a few days after Elizabeth's death.<sup><a href="#cite_note-171">[156]</a></sup> Soon afterwards, a peace treaty was signed between England and Spain.
</p>
<h3>Russia</h3>
<p>Elizabeth continued to maintain the diplomatic relations with the <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia">Tsardom of Russia</a> that were originally established by her half-brother, Edward VI. She often wrote to Tsar <a href="/wiki/Ivan_the_Terrible">Ivan the Terrible</a> on amicable terms, though the Tsar was often annoyed by her focus on commerce rather than on the possibility of a military alliance. Ivan even proposed to her once, and during his later reign, asked for a guarantee to be granted asylum in England should his rule be jeopardised.<sup><a href="#cite_note-muscovy-172">[157]</a></sup> English merchant and explorer <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Jenkinson">Anthony Jenkinson</a>, who began his career as a representative of the <a href="/wiki/Muscovy_Company">Muscovy Company</a>, became the queen's <a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_Kingdom_of_England_to_Russia">special ambassador</a> to the court of Tsar Ivan.<sup><a href="#cite_note-173">[158]</a></sup> Upon his death in 1584, Ivan was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Feodor_I">Feodor I</a>. Unlike his father, Feodor had no enthusiasm in maintaining exclusive trading rights with England. He declared his kingdom open to all foreigners, and dismissed the English ambassador Sir <a href="/wiki/Jerome_Bowes">Jerome Bowes</a>, whose pomposity had been tolerated by Ivan. Elizabeth sent a new ambassador, Dr. Giles Fletcher, to demand from the regent <a href="/wiki/Boris_Godunov">Boris Godunov</a> that he convince the Tsar to reconsider. The negotiations failed, due to Fletcher addressing Feodor with two of his many titles omitted. Elizabeth continued to appeal to Feodor in half appealing, half reproachful letters. She proposed an alliance, something which she had refused to do when offered one by Feodor's father, but was turned down.<sup><a href="#cite_note-muscovy-172">[157]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Muslim states</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:MoorishAmbassador_to_Elizabeth_I.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud was the Moorish ambassador to Elizabeth in 1600.</p></div></div>
<p>Trade and diplomatic relations developed between England and the <a href="/wiki/Barbary_states">Barbary states</a> during the rule of Elizabeth.<sup><a href="#cite_note-vaughan-174">[159]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-175">[160]</a></sup> England established a trading relationship with <a href="/wiki/Morocco">Morocco</a> in opposition to Spain, selling armour, ammunition, timber, and metal in exchange for Moroccan sugar, in spite of a <a href="/wiki/Papal">papal</a> ban.<sup><a href="#cite_note-176">[161]</a></sup> In 1600, <a href="/wiki/Abd_el-Ouahed_ben_Messaoud">Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud</a>, the principal secretary to the Moroccan ruler Mulai <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_al-Mansur">Ahmad al-Mansur</a>, visited England as an ambassador to the English court,<sup><a href="#cite_note-vaughan-174">[159]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-177">[162]</a></sup> to negotiate an <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Moroccan_alliance">Anglo-Moroccan alliance</a> against Spain.<sup><a href="#cite_note-tate.org.uk-178">[163]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-vaughan-174">[159]</a></sup> Elizabeth "agreed to sell munitions supplies to Morocco, and she and Mulai Ahmad al-Mansur talked on and off about mounting a joint operation against the Spanish".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Kupperman39-179">[164]</a></sup> Discussions, however, remained inconclusive, and both rulers died within two years of the embassy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-180">[165]</a></sup>
</p><p>Diplomatic relations were also established with the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> with the chartering of the <a href="/wiki/Levant_Company">Levant Company</a> and the dispatch of the first English ambassador to the <a href="/wiki/Sublime_Porte">Sublime Porte</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Harborne">William Harborne</a>, in 1578.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Kupperman39-179">[164]</a></sup> For the first time, a treaty of commerce was signed in 1580.<sup><a href="#cite_note-181">[166]</a></sup> Numerous envoys were dispatched in both directions and epistolar exchanges occurred between Elizabeth and Sultan <a href="/wiki/Murad_III">Murad III</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Kupperman39-179">[164]</a></sup> In one correspondence, Murad entertained the notion that <a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Protestantism">Islam and Protestantism</a> had "much more in common than either did with Roman Catholicism, as both rejected the worship of idols", and argued for an alliance between England and the Ottoman Empire.<sup><a href="#cite_note-182">[167]</a></sup> To the dismay of Catholic Europe, England exported tin and lead (for cannon-casting) and ammunitions to the Ottoman Empire, and Elizabeth seriously discussed joint military operations with Murad III during the outbreak of war with Spain in 1585, as Francis Walsingham was lobbying for a direct Ottoman military involvement against the common Spanish enemy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-183">[168]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>America</h3>
<p>In 1583, <a href="/wiki/Sir_Humphrey_Gilbert">Sir Humphrey Gilbert</a> sailed west to establish a colony in Newfoundland. He never returned to England. Gilbert's half-brother <a href="/wiki/Sir_Walter_Raleigh">Sir Walter Raleigh</a> explored the Atlantic Coast and claimed the territory of <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Virginia">Virginia</a>, perhaps named in honour of Elizabeth, the "Virgin Queen". This territory was much larger than the present-day state of <a href="/wiki/Virginia">Virginia</a>, extending from <a href="/wiki/New_England">New England</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Carolinas">Carolinas</a>. In 1585, Raleigh returned to Virginia with a small group of people. They landed on <a href="/wiki/Roanoke_Island">Roanoke Island</a>, off present-day <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina">North Carolina</a>. After the failure of the first colony, Raleigh recruited another group and put <a href="/wiki/John_White_(colonist_and_artist)">John White</a> in command. When Raleigh returned in 1590, there was no trace of the <a href="/wiki/Roanoke_Colony">Roanoke Colony</a> he had left, but it was the first English settlement in North America.<sup><a href="#cite_note-184">[169]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>East India Company</h3>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company">East India Company</a> was formed to trade in the Indian Ocean region and China, and received its charter from Queen Elizabeth on 31 December 1600. For a period of 15 years, the company was awarded a monopoly on English trade with all countries east of the <a href="/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope">Cape of Good Hope</a> and west of the <a href="/wiki/Straits_of_Magellan">Straits of Magellan</a>. Sir <a href="/wiki/James_Lancaster">James Lancaster</a> commanded the first expedition in 1601. The Company eventually controlled half of world trade and substantial territory in India in the 18th and 19th centuries.<sup><a href="#cite_note-185">[170]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Later years</h2>
<p>The period after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 brought new difficulties for Elizabeth that lasted until the end of her reign.<sup><a href="#cite_note-xucglh-152">[140]</a></sup> The conflicts with Spain and in Ireland dragged on, the tax burden grew heavier, and the economy was hit by poor harvests and the cost of war. Prices rose and the <a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living">standard of living</a> fell.<sup><a href="#cite_note-haigh-186">[171]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-187">[172]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-xucglh-152">[140]</a></sup> During this time, repression of Catholics intensified, and Elizabeth authorised commissions in 1591 to interrogate and monitor Catholic householders.<sup><a href="#cite_note-188">[173]</a></sup> To maintain the illusion of peace and prosperity, she increasingly relied on internal spies and propaganda.<sup><a href="#cite_note-haigh-186">[171]</a></sup> In her last years, mounting criticism reflected a decline in the public's affection for her.<sup><a href="#cite_note-190">[p]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-192">[q]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Devereaux_essex4.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Lord Essex was a favourite of Elizabeth I despite his petulance and irresponsibility.</p></div></div>
<p>One of the causes for this "second reign" of Elizabeth, as it is sometimes called,<sup><a href="#cite_note-193">[176]</a></sup> was the changed character of Elizabeth's governing body, the privy council in the 1590s. A new generation was in power. With the exception of William Cecil, Baron Burghley, the most important politicians had died around 1590: the Earl of Leicester in 1588; Sir Francis Walsingham in 1590; and Sir <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Hatton">Christopher Hatton</a> in 1591.<sup><a href="#cite_note-194">[177]</a></sup> Factional strife in the government, which had not existed in a noteworthy form before the 1590s,<sup><a href="#cite_note-195">[178]</a></sup> now became its hallmark.<sup><a href="#cite_note-196">[179]</a></sup> A bitter rivalry arose between <a href="/wiki/Robert_Devereux,_2nd_Earl_of_Essex">Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Cecil,_1st_Earl_of_Salisbury">Robert Cecil</a>, son of Lord Burghley, with both being supported by their respective adherents. The struggle for the most powerful positions in the state marred the kingdom's politics.<sup><a href="#cite_note-197">[180]</a></sup> The queen's personal authority was lessening,<sup><a href="#cite_note-198">[181]</a></sup> as is shown in the 1594 affair of Dr. Lopez, her trusted physician. When he was wrongly accused by the Earl of Essex of treason out of personal pique, she could not prevent the doctor's execution, although she had been angry about his arrest and seems not to have believed in his guilt.<sup><a href="#cite_note-199">[182]</a></sup>
</p><p>During the last years of her reign, Elizabeth came to rely on the granting of monopolies as a cost-free system of patronage, rather than asking Parliament for more subsidies in a time of war.<sup><a href="#cite_note-201">[r]</a></sup> The practice soon led to <a href="/wiki/Price-fixing">price-fixing</a>, the enrichment of courtiers at the public's expense, and widespread resentment.<sup><a href="#cite_note-202">[184]</a></sup> This culminated in agitation in the House of Commons during the parliament of 1601.<sup><a href="#cite_note-203">[185]</a></sup> In her famous "<a href="/wiki/Golden_Speech">Golden Speech</a>" of 30 November 1601 at <a href="/wiki/Whitehall_Palace">Whitehall Palace</a> to a deputation of 140 members, Elizabeth professed ignorance of the abuses, and won the members over with promises and her usual appeal to the emotions:<sup><a href="#cite_note-204">[186]</a></sup>
</p>
<blockquote><p>Who keeps their sovereign from the lapse of error, in which, by ignorance and not by intent they might have fallen, what thank they deserve, we know, though you may guess. And as nothing is more dear to us than the loving conservation of our subjects' hearts, what an undeserved doubt might we have incurred if the abusers of our liberality, the thrallers of our people, the wringers of the poor, had not been told us!<sup><a href="#cite_note-205">[187]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Elizabeth_I_portrait,_Marcus_Gheeraerts_the_Younger_c.1595.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>This same period of economic and political uncertainty, however, produced an unsurpassed literary flowering in England.<sup><a href="#cite_note-206">[188]</a></sup> The first signs of a new literary movement had appeared at the end of the second decade of Elizabeth's reign, with <a href="/wiki/John_Lyly">John Lyly</a>'s <i>Euphues</i> and <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Spenser">Edmund Spenser</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Shepheardes_Calender">The Shepheardes Calender</a></i> in 1578. During the 1590s, some of the great names of <a href="/wiki/English_literature">English literature</a> entered their maturity, including <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Marlowe">Christopher Marlowe</a>. Continuing into the <a href="/wiki/Jacobean_era">Jacobean era</a>, the English theatre would reach its peak.<sup><a href="#cite_note-207">[189]</a></sup> The notion of a great <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_era">Elizabethan era</a> depends largely on the builders, dramatists, poets, and musicians who were active during Elizabeth's reign. They owed little directly to the queen, who was never a major patron of the arts.<sup><a href="#cite_note-208">[190]</a></sup>
</p><p>As Elizabeth aged her image gradually changed. She was portrayed as <a href="/wiki/Belphoebe">Belphoebe</a> or <a href="/wiki/Astraea_(mythology)">Astraea</a>, and after the Armada, as <a href="/wiki/Gloriana">Gloriana</a>, the eternally youthful <a href="/wiki/Faerie_Queene">Faerie Queene</a> of <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Spenser">Edmund Spenser</a>'s poem. Elizabeth gave Edmund Spenser a pension; as this was unusual for her, it indicates that she liked his work.<sup><a href="#cite_note-209">[191]</a></sup> Her painted portraits became less realistic and more a set of enigmatic <a href="/wiki/Iconography">icons</a> that made her look much younger than she was. In fact, her skin had been scarred by <a href="/wiki/Smallpox">smallpox</a> in 1562, leaving her half bald and dependent on wigs and <a href="/wiki/Skin_whitening">cosmetics</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-loades92-210">[192]</a></sup> Her love of sweets and fear of dentists contributed to severe tooth decay and loss to such an extent that foreign ambassadors had a hard time understanding her speech.<sup><a href="#cite_note-211">[193]</a></sup> André Hurault de Maisse, Ambassador Extraordinary from Henry IV of France, reported an audience with the queen, during which he noticed, "her teeth are very yellow and unequal ... and on the left side less than on the right. Many of them are missing, so that one cannot understand her easily when she speaks quickly." Yet he added, "her figure is fair and tall and graceful in whatever she does; so far as may be she keeps her dignity, yet humbly and graciously withal."<sup><a href="#cite_note-212">[194]</a></sup> Sir Walter Raleigh called her "a lady whom time had surprised".<sup><a href="#cite_note-213">[195]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Christoffel_van_Sichem_I,_Elizabeth,_Queen_of_Great_Britain,_published_1601,_NGA_38052.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Christoffel van Sichem I, Elizabeth, Queen of Great Britain, published 1601</p></div></div>
<p>The more Elizabeth's beauty faded, the more her <a href="/wiki/Courtiers">courtiers</a> praised it.<sup><a href="#cite_note-loades92-210">[192]</a></sup> Elizabeth was happy to play the part,<sup><a href="#cite_note-215">[s]</a></sup> but it is possible that in the last decade of her life she began to believe her own performance. She became fond and indulgent of the charming but petulant young Earl of Essex, who was Leicester's stepson and took liberties with her for which she forgave him.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Lds-216">[197]</a></sup> She repeatedly appointed him to military posts despite his growing record of irresponsibility. After Essex's desertion of his command in Ireland in 1599, Elizabeth had him placed under house arrest and the following year deprived him of his monopolies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-217">[198]</a></sup> In February 1601, Essex tried to raise a rebellion in London. He intended to seize the queen but few rallied to his support, and he was beheaded on 25 February. Elizabeth knew that her own misjudgements were partly to blame for this turn of events. An observer wrote in 1602: "Her delight is to sit in the dark, and sometimes with shedding tears to bewail Essex."<sup><a href="#cite_note-218">[199]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Death</h2>
<p>Elizabeth's senior adviser, Lord Burghley, died on 4 August 1598. His political mantle passed to his son Robert, who soon became the leader of the government.<sup><a href="#cite_note-220">[t]</a></sup> One task he addressed was to prepare the way for a <a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Elizabeth_I_of_England">smooth succession</a>. Since Elizabeth would never name her successor, Robert Cecil was obliged to proceed in secret.<sup><a href="#cite_note-222">[u]</a></sup> He therefore entered into a <a href="/wiki/Secret_correspondence_of_James_VI">coded negotiation</a> with <a href="/wiki/James_VI_of_Scotland">James VI of Scotland</a>, who had a strong but unrecognised claim.<sup><a href="#cite_note-223">[v]</a></sup> Cecil coached the impatient James to humour Elizabeth and "secure the heart of the highest, to whose sex and quality nothing is so improper as either needless expostulations or over much curiosity in her own actions".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Willson,_154-221">[201]</a></sup> The advice worked. James's tone delighted Elizabeth, who responded: "So trust I that you will not doubt but that your last letters are so acceptably taken as my thanks cannot be lacking for the same, but yield them to you in grateful sort".<sup><a href="#cite_note-224">[202]</a></sup> In historian J. E. Neale's view, Elizabeth may not have declared her wishes openly to James, but she made them known with "unmistakable if veiled phrases".<sup><a href="#cite_note-225">[203]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Funeral_Elisabeth.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Elizabeth's funeral cortège, 1603, with banners of her royal ancestors</p></div></div>
<p>The queen's health remained fair until the autumn of 1602, when a series of deaths among her friends plunged her into a severe depression. In February 1603, the death of <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Carey,_Countess_of_Nottingham">Catherine Carey, Countess of Nottingham</a>, the niece of her cousin and close friend <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Carey">Lady Knollys</a>, came as a particular blow. In March, Elizabeth fell sick and remained in a "settled and unremovable melancholy", and sat motionless on a cushion for hours on end.<sup><a href="#cite_note-226">[204]</a></sup> When Robert Cecil told her that she must go to bed, she snapped: "Must is not a word to use to princes, little man." She died on 24 March 1603 at <a href="/wiki/Richmond_Palace">Richmond Palace</a>, between two and three in the morning. A few hours later, Cecil and the council set their plans in motion and proclaimed James King of England.<sup><a href="#cite_note-227">[205]</a></sup>
</p><p>While it has become normative to record Elizabeth's death as occurring in 1603, following <a href="/wiki/Calendar_(New_Style)_Act_1750">English calendar reform</a> in the 1750s, at the time England observed <a href="/wiki/New_Year%27s_Day">New Year's Day</a> on 25 March, commonly known as <a href="/wiki/Lady_Day">Lady Day</a>. Thus Elizabeth died on the last day of the year 1602 in the old calendar. The modern convention is to use the old style calendar for the day and month while using the new style calendar for the year.<sup><a href="#cite_note-228">[206]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Elizabeth_I_of_England_grave_(left)_2013_crop2.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Elizabeth as shown on her tomb at Westminster Abbey</p></div></div>
<p>Elizabeth's coffin was carried downriver at night to <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Whitehall">Whitehall</a>, on a barge lit with torches. At her funeral on 28 April, the coffin was taken to <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Hearse">hearse</a> drawn by four horses hung with black velvet. In the words of the chronicler <a href="/wiki/John_Stow">John Stow</a>:
</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Westminster was surcharged with multitudes of all sorts of people in their streets, houses, windows, leads and gutters, that came out to see the <a href="/wiki/Obsequy">obsequy</a>, and when they beheld her statue lying upon the coffin, there was such a general sighing, groaning and weeping as the like hath not been seen or known in the memory of man.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeir1999486-229">[207]</a></sup>
</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Elizabeth was interred in Westminster Abbey, in a tomb shared with her half-sister, Mary I. The Latin inscription on their tomb, <i>"Regno consortes &amp; urna, hic obdormimus Elizabetha et Maria sorores, in spe resurrectionis"</i>, translates to "Consorts in realm and tomb, here we sleep, Elizabeth and Mary, sisters, in hope of resurrection".<sup><a href="#cite_note-230">[208]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Legacy</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Elizabeth-I-Allegorical-Po.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Elizabeth I, painted around 1610, during the first revival of interest in her reign. Time sleeps on her right and Death looks over her left shoulder; two <a href="/wiki/Putto">putti</a> hold the crown above her head.<sup><a href="#cite_note-231">[209]</a></sup></p></div></div>
<p>Elizabeth was lamented by many of her subjects, but others were relieved at her death.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Ld-232">[210]</a></sup> Expectations of King James started high but then declined. By the 1620s, there was a nostalgic revival of the cult of Elizabeth.<sup><a href="#cite_note-somerset726-233">[211]</a></sup> Elizabeth was praised as a heroine of the Protestant cause and the ruler of a golden age. James was depicted as a Catholic sympathiser, presiding over a corrupt court.<sup><a href="#cite_note-234">[212]</a></sup> The triumphalist image that Elizabeth had cultivated towards the end of her reign, against a background of factionalism and military and economic difficulties,<sup><a href="#cite_note-235">[213]</a></sup> was taken at face value and her reputation inflated. <a href="/wiki/Godfrey_Goodman">Godfrey Goodman</a>, Bishop of Gloucester, recalled: "When we had experience of a Scottish government, the Queen did seem to revive. Then was her memory much magnified."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeir1999488-236">[214]</a></sup> Elizabeth's reign became idealised as a time when crown, church and parliament had worked in constitutional balance.<sup><a href="#cite_note-237">[215]</a></sup>
</p><p>The picture of Elizabeth painted by her Protestant admirers of the early 17th century has proved lasting and influential.<sup><a href="#cite_note-238">[216]</a></sup> Her memory was also revived during the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>, when the nation again found itself on the brink of invasion.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Dobson_and_Watson,_258-239">[217]</a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Victorian_era">Victorian era</a>, the Elizabethan legend was adapted to the imperial ideology of the day,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Ld-232">[210]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-240">[w]</a></sup> and in the mid-20th century, Elizabeth was a romantic symbol of the national resistance to foreign threat.<sup><a href="#cite_note-241">[218]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-242">[x]</a></sup> Historians of that period, such as <a href="/wiki/J._E._Neale">J. E. Neale</a> (1934) and <a href="/wiki/A._L._Rowse">A. L. Rowse</a> (1950), interpreted Elizabeth's reign as a golden age of progress.<sup><a href="#cite_note-243">[219]</a></sup> Neale and Rowse also idealised the Queen personally: she always did everything right; her more unpleasant traits were ignored or explained as signs of stress.<sup><a href="#cite_note-244">[220]</a></sup>
</p><p>Recent historians, however, have taken a more complicated view of Elizabeth.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Haigh,_183-154">[142]</a></sup> Her reign is famous for the defeat of the Armada, and for successful raids against the Spanish, such as those on Cádiz in 1587 and 1596, but some historians point to military failures on land and at sea.<sup><a href="#cite_note-haigh142-161">[148]</a></sup> In Ireland, Elizabeth's forces ultimately prevailed, but their tactics stain her record.<sup><a href="#cite_note-245">[221]</a></sup> Rather than as a brave defender of the Protestant nations against Spain and the Habsburgs, she is more often regarded as cautious in her foreign policies. She offered very limited aid to foreign Protestants and failed to provide her commanders with the funds to make a difference abroad.<sup><a href="#cite_note-246">[222]</a></sup>
</p><p>Elizabeth established an English church that helped shape a national identity and remains in place today.<sup><a href="#cite_note-247">[223]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeir1999487-248">[224]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-249">[225]</a></sup> Those who praised her later as a Protestant heroine overlooked her refusal to drop all practices of Catholic origin from the Church of England.<sup><a href="#cite_note-251">[y]</a></sup> Historians note that in her day, strict Protestants regarded the <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_Religious_Settlement">Acts of Settlement and Uniformity of 1559</a> as a compromise.<sup><a href="#cite_note-252">[227]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-253">[228]</a></sup> In fact, Elizabeth believed that faith was personal and did not wish, as <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon">Francis Bacon</a> put it, to "make windows into men's hearts and secret thoughts".<sup><a href="#cite_note-254">[229]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-255">[230]</a></sup>
</p><p>Though Elizabeth followed a largely defensive foreign policy, her reign raised England's status abroad. "She is only a woman, only mistress of half an island," marvelled <a href="/wiki/Pope_Sixtus_V">Pope Sixtus V</a>, "and yet she makes herself feared by Spain, by France, by <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire">the Empire</a>, by all".<sup><a href="#cite_note-somerset1-256">[231]</a></sup> Under Elizabeth, the nation gained a new self-confidence and sense of sovereignty, as <a href="/wiki/Christendom">Christendom</a> fragmented.<sup><a href="#cite_note-somerset726-233">[211]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-257">[232]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-258">[233]</a></sup> Elizabeth was the first Tudor to recognise that a monarch ruled by popular consent.<sup><a href="#cite_note-260">[z]</a></sup> She therefore always worked with parliament and advisers she could trust to tell her the truth—a style of government that her Stuart successors failed to follow. Some historians have called her lucky;<sup><a href="#cite_note-somerset1-256">[231]</a></sup> she believed that God was protecting her.<sup><a href="#cite_note-261">[235]</a></sup> Priding herself on being "mere English",<sup><a href="#cite_note-262">[236]</a></sup> Elizabeth trusted in God, honest advice, and the love of her subjects for the success of her rule.<sup><a href="#cite_note-263">[237]</a></sup> In a prayer, she offered thanks to God that:
</p>
<blockquote><p>[At a time] when wars and seditions with grievous persecutions have vexed almost all kings and countries round about me, my reign hath been peacable, and my realm a receptacle to thy afflicted Church. The love of my people hath appeared firm, and the devices of my enemies frustrate.<sup><a href="#cite_note-somerset1-256">[231]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<h2>Family tree</h2>
<h2>See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism_in_the_United_Kingdom">Anti-Catholicism in the United Kingdom</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Britain">Early modern Britain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance">English Renaissance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inventory_of_Elizabeth_I">Inventory of Elizabeth I</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Portraiture_of_Elizabeth_I">Portraiture of Elizabeth I</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Arms_of_England">Royal Arms of England</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Royal_eponyms_in_Canada#Queen_Elizabeth_I">Royal eponyms in Canada for Queen Elizabeth I</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Standards_of_England">Royal Standards of England</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_period">Tudor period</a></li></ul>
<h2>Notes</h2>
<div><ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b> Dates in this article <a href="/wiki/Calendar_(New_Style)_Act_1750">before 14 September 1752</a> are in the <a href="/wiki/Julian_calendar">Julian calendar</a> and 1 January is treated as the beginning of the year, even though 25 March was treated as the beginning of the year in England during Elizabeth's life.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b> "I mean to direct all my actions by good advice and counsel."<sup><a href="#cite_note-3">[2]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b> An Act of July 1536 stated that Elizabeth was "illegitimate ... and utterly foreclosed, excluded and banned to claim, challenge, or demand any inheritance as lawful heir ... to [the King] by lineal descent".<sup><a href="#cite_note-13">[11]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b> Elizabeth had assembled 2,000 horsemen, "a remarkable tribute to the size of her affinity".<sup><a href="#cite_note-35">[32]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b> "The wives of Wycombe passed cake and wafers to her until her litter became so burdened that she had to beg them to stop."<sup><a href="#cite_note-42">[38]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b> "It was fortunate that ten out of twenty-six bishoprics were vacant, for of late there had been a high rate of mortality among the episcopate, and a fever had conveniently carried off Mary's Archbishop of Canterbury, <a href="/wiki/Reginald_Pole">Reginald Pole</a>, less than twenty-four hours after her own death".<sup><a href="#cite_note-61">[56]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b> "There were no less than ten sees unrepresented through death or illness and the carelessness of 'the accursed cardinal' [Pole]".<sup><a href="#cite_note-63">[57]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b> Most modern historians have considered murder unlikely; breast cancer and suicide being the most widely accepted explanations.<sup><a href="#cite_note-75">[68]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Coroner">coroner</a>'s report, hitherto believed lost, came to light in <a href="/wiki/The_National_Archives_(United_Kingdom)">The National Archives</a> in the late 2000s and is compatible with a downstairs fall as well as other violence.<sup><a href="#cite_note-76">[69]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b> On Elizabeth's accession, Mary's <a href="/wiki/Counts_and_dukes_of_Guise">Guise</a> relatives had pronounced her Queen of England and had the English arms emblazoned with those of Scotland and France on her plate and furniture.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Guy,_96–97-110">[102]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b> By the terms of the treaty, both English and French troops withdrew from Scotland.<sup><a href="#cite_note-114">[105]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b> Elizabeth's ambassador in France was actively misleading her as to the true intentions of the Spanish king, who only tried to buy time for his great assault upon England<sup><a href="#cite_note-141">[131]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b> When the Spanish naval commander, the <a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Guzm%C3%A1n_El_Bueno,_7th_Duke_of_Medina_Sidonia">Duke of Medina Sidonia</a>, reached the coast near Calais, he found the Duke of Parma's troops unready and was forced to wait, giving the English the opportunity to launch their attack.<sup><a href="#cite_note-147">[136]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b> For example, C. H. Wilson castigates Elizabeth for half-heartedness in the war against Spain.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Haigh,_183-154">[142]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b> One observer wrote that <a href="/wiki/Ulster">Ulster</a>, for example, was "as unknown to the English here as the most inland part of Virginia".<sup><a href="#cite_note-164">[151]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b> In a letter of 19 July 1599 to Essex, Elizabeth wrote: "For what can be more true (if things be rightly examined) than that your two month's journey has brought in never a capital rebel against whom it had been worthy to have adventured one thousand men".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Loades,_98-169">[155]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b> This criticism of Elizabeth was noted by Elizabeth's early biographers <a href="/wiki/William_Camden">William Camden</a> and John Clapham. For a detailed account of such criticisms and of Elizabeth's "government by illusion"<sup><a href="#cite_note-189">[174]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a></b> John Cramsie, in reviewing the recent scholarship in 2003, argued "the period 1585–1603 is now recognised by scholars as distinctly more troubled than the first half of Elizabeth's long reign. Costly wars against Spain and the Irish, involvement in the Netherlands, socio-economic distress, and an authoritarian turn by the regime all cast a pall over Gloriana's final years, underpinning a weariness with the queen's rule and open criticism of her government and its failures."<sup><a href="#cite_note-191">[175]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a></b> A Patent of Monopoly gave the holder control over an aspect of trade or manufacture.<sup><a href="#cite_note-200">[183]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a></b> "The metaphor of drama is an appropriate one for Elizabeth's reign, for her power was an illusion—and an illusion was her power. Like Henry IV of France, she projected an image of herself which brought stability and prestige to her country. By constant attention to the details of her total performance, she kept the rest of the cast on their toes and kept her own part as queen."<sup><a href="#cite_note-214">[196]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a></b> After Essex's downfall, James VI of Scotland referred to Robert Cecil as "king there in effect".<sup><a href="#cite_note-219">[200]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a></b> Cecil wrote to James, "The subject itself is so perilous to touch amongst us as it setteth a mark upon his head forever that hatcheth such a bird".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Willson,_154-221">[201]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a></b> James VI of Scotland was a great-great-grandson of <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England">Henry VII of England</a>, and thus Elizabeth's first cousin twice removed, since Henry VII was Elizabeth's paternal grandfather.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a></b> The age of Elizabeth was redrawn as one of <a href="/wiki/Chivalry">chivalry</a>, epitomised by courtly encounters between the queen and sea-dog "heroes" such as Drake and Raleigh. Some Victorian narratives, such as Raleigh laying his cloak before the queen or presenting her with a potato, remain part of the myth.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Dobson_and_Watson,_258-239">[217]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a></b> In his preface to the 1952 reprint of <i>Queen Elizabeth I</i>, J. E. Neale observed: "The book was written before such words as "ideological", "fifth column", and "cold war" became current; and it is perhaps as well that they are not there. But the ideas are present, as is the idea of romantic leadership of a nation in peril, because they were present in Elizabethan times".
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a></b> The new state religion was condemned at the time in such terms as "a cloaked papistry, or mingle mangle".<sup><a href="#cite_note-250">[226]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a></b> As Elizabeth's <a href="/wiki/Lord_Keeper_of_the_Great_Seal">Lord Keeper</a>, Sir <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Bacon_(courtier)">Nicholas Bacon</a>, put it on her behalf to parliament in 1559, the queen "is not, nor ever meaneth to be, so wedded to her own will and fantasy that for the satisfaction thereof she will do anything ... to bring any bondage or servitude to her people, or give any just occasion to them of any inward grudge whereby any tumults or stirs might arise as hath done of late days".<sup><a href="#cite_note-259">[234]</a></sup>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2>Citations</h2>
<div>
<ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/House-of-Tudor">"House of Tudor | History, Monarchs, &amp; Facts"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>. Retrieved 31 August 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b> Elizabeth's first speech as queen, <a href="/wiki/Hatfield_House">Hatfield House</a>, 20 November 1558. Loades, 35.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-starkey5_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-starkey5_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Starkey <i>Elizabeth: Woman</i>, 5.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b> Neale, 386.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b> Somerset, 729.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b> Somerset, 4.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b> Loades, 3–5.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b> Somerset, 4–5.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b> <cite>Stanley, Earl of Derby, Edward (1890). <i>Correspondence of Edward, Third Earl of Derby, During the Years 24 to 31 Henry VIII.: Preserved in a Ms. in the Possession of Miss Pfarington, of Worden Hall</i>. Vol. 19. Chetham Society. p. 89.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b> Loades, 6–7.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b> Somerset, 10.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b> Loades, 7–8.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b> Somerset, 11. Jenkins (1957), 13
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeir19977_17-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWeir1997">Weir (1997)</a>, p. 7.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-L8_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-L8_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Loades, 8–10.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Seth_Sanders_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seth_Sanders_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Seth Sanders (10 October 2002). <a href="http://chronicle.uchicago.edu/021010/elizabeth.shtml">"Book of translations reveals intellectualism of England's powerful Queen Elizabeth I"</a>. University of Chicago Chronicle. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191228063115/http://chronicle.uchicago.edu/021010/elizabeth.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 28 December 2019. Retrieved 9 January 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b> <cite>Rosie McCall (29 November 2019). <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/mystery-author-forgotten-tacitus-translation-elizabeth-i-1474704">"Mystery author of forgotten Tacitus translation turns out to be Elizabeth I"</a>. <i>Newsweek</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200110110438/https://www.newsweek.com/mystery-author-forgotten-tacitus-translation-elizabeth-i-1474704">Archived</a> from the original on 10 January 2020. Retrieved 9 January 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b> <cite>Guy Faulconbridge (29 November 2019). <a href="https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-royals-elizabethi/elizabeth-i-revealed-as-the-translator-of-tacitus-into-english-idUKKBN1Y30Y6">"Elizabeth I revealed as the translator of Tacitus into English"</a>. Reuters. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191224041110/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-royals-elizabethi/elizabeth-i-revealed-as-the-translator-of-tacitus-into-english-idUKKBN1Y30Y6">Archived</a> from the original on 24 December 2019. Retrieved 9 January 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b> Somerset, 25.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b> Loades, 21.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=95577">"Venice: April 1603"</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140413182850/http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=95577">Archived</a> 13 April 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Calendar of State Papers Relating to English Affairs in the Archives of Venice</i>, Volume 9: 1592–1603 (1897), 562–570. Retrieved 22 March 2012.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b> <a href="/wiki/Stoyle,_Mark">Stoyle, Mark</a>. <i>West Britons, Cornish Identities and the Early Modern British State</i>, University of Exeter Press, 2002, p. 220.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-loades2_26-0">^</a></b> Loades, 11.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b> Starkey <i>Elizabeth: Apprenticeship</i>, p. 69
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b> Loades, 14.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b> Haigh, 8.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b> Neale, 32.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b> Williams <i>Elizabeth</i>, 24.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeir1997_32-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWeir1997">Weir (1997)</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-neale_33-0">^</a></b> Neale, 33.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Thomas-Seymour-Baron-Seymour-of-Sudeley">"Thomas Seymour, Baron Seymour | English admiral"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200611235302/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Thomas-Seymour-Baron-Seymour-of-Sudeley">Archived</a> from the original on 11 June 2020. Retrieved 22 January 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b> Loades 24–25.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b> Loades, 27.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b> Neale, 45.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b> Loades, 28.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b> Somerset, 51.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-loades29_41-0">^</a></b> Loades, 29.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b> Neale, 49.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b> Loades, 32.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b> Somerset, 66.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b> Neale, 53.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b> Loades, 33.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b> Neale, 59.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/tudors/elizabeth_i_01.shtml">"BBC – History – Elizabeth I: An Overview"</a>. <i>www.bbc.co.uk</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201117110845/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/tudors/elizabeth_i_01.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 17 November 2020. Retrieved 15 November 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b> Kantorowicz, ix
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b> Full document reproduced by Loades, 36–37.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b> Somerset, 89–90. <a href="http://special-1.bl.uk/treasures/festivalbooks/BookDetails.aspx?strFest=0231">The "Festival Book" account, from the British Library</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160416020206/http://special-1.bl.uk/treasures/festivalbooks/BookDetails.aspx?strFest=0231">Archived</a> 16 April 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-IHR_53-0">^</a></b> <cite>Dr. Robert Poole (6 September 2005). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930073802/http://www.history.ac.uk/eseminars/sem2.html">"John Dee and the English Calendar: Science, Religion and Empire"</a>. Institute of Historical Research. Archived from <a href="http://www.history.ac.uk/eseminars/sem2.html">the original</a> on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 26 October 2006.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b> <cite>Szönyi, György E. (2004). "John Dee and Early Modern Occult Philosophy". <i>Literature Compass</i>. <b>1</b> (1): 1–12. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1741-4113.2004.00110.x">10.1111/j.1741-4113.2004.00110.x</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b> Neale, 70.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b> Loades, xv.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140416214748/http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/walker/collections/13c-16c/elizabeth.aspx">"'Queen Elizabeth I: The Pelican Portrait', called Nicholas Hilliard (c. 1573)"</a>, <i>Walker Art Gallery</i>, Liverpool, United Kingdom: National Museums Liverpool, 1998, archived from <a href="http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/walker/collections/13c-16c/elizabeth.aspx">the original</a> on 16 April 2014, retrieved 29 July 2012</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-collinson_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-collinson_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Collinson, Patrick, <a href="http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8636">"Elizabeth I (1533–1603)"</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210819042621/https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-8636;jsessionid=4B33E8F1E68F70E307BFE7BBF6367B30">Archived</a> 19 August 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</i> (2008). Retrieved 23 August 2011.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lee_(historian)">Lee, Christopher</a> (1998) [1995]. "Disc 1". <a href="/wiki/This_Sceptred_Isle_(radio_series)"><i>This Sceptred Isle 1547–1660</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-563-55769-2"><bdi>978-0-563-55769-2</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b> Loades, 46.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b> Somerset, 98.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b> Black, 10.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b> Somerset, 101–103.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b> Loades, 38.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b> Haigh, 19.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b> Loades, 39.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b> <cite>Warnicke, Retha (September 2010). "Why Elizabeth I Never Married". <i>History Review</i> (67): 15–20.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b> Loades, 42; Wilson, 95.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b> Wilson, 95.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b> Skidmore, 162, 165, 166–168.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b> Chamberlin, 118
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b> Somerset, 166–167.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b> Doran, <i>Monarchy</i>, 44
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b> Skidmore, 230–233
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b> Wilson, 126–128.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b> Doran, <i>Monarchy</i>, 45.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b> Doran, <i>Monarchy</i>, 212.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b> Adams, 384, 146.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b> Jenkins (1961), 245, 247; Hammer, 46.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b> Doran, <i>Queen Elizabeth I</i>, 61.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b> Wilson, 303.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-haigh2_85-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-haigh2_85-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-haigh2_85-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> Haigh, 17.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Jenkins_(author)">Jenkins, Elizabeth</a> (1959) [1958]. <i>Elizabeth the Great</i>. Victor Gollancz. p. 59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-698-10110-4"><bdi>978-0-698-10110-4</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b> <cite>Falkdalen, Karin Tegenborg (2010). <i>Vasadöttrarna</i>. Historiska media. p. 126. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-91-87031-26-7"><bdi>978-91-87031-26-7</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Michael_Roberts_(historian)">Roberts, Michael</a> (1968). <i>The Early Vasas: A History of Sweden, 1523–1611</i>. Cambridge. pp. 159, 207. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-001-29698-2"><bdi>978-1-001-29698-2</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-adams_89-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-adams_89-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Adams, S.; Gehring, D. S. (2013). "Elizabeth I's Former Tutor Reports on the Parliament of 1559: Johannes Spithovius to the Chancellor of Denmark, 27 February 1559". <i>The English Historical Review</i>. <b>128</b> (530): 43. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fehr%2Fces310">10.1093/ehr/ces310</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0013-8266">0013-8266</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b> <cite>Lockhart, Paul Douglas (2011). <i>Denmark, 1513–1660: the rise and decline of a Renaissance monarchy</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 111. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-927121-4"><bdi>978-0-19-927121-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/844083309">844083309</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b> Frieda, 397.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b> Loades, 53–54.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b> Loades, 54.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b> Somerset, 408.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b> Doran, <i>Monarchy</i>, 87.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b> Haigh, 20–21.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b> Haigh, 22–23.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b> <cite>King, John N. (1990). "Queen Elizabeth I: Representations of the Virgin Queen". <i>Renaissance Quarterly</i>. <b>43</b> (1): 30–74. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2861792">10.2307/2861792</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/2861792">2861792</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hh_99-0">^</a></b> Haigh, 23.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b> <cite>Doran, Susan (1995). "Juno versus Diana: The Treatment of Elizabeth I's Marriage in Plays and Entertainments, 1561–1581". <i>The Historical Journal</i>. <b>38</b> (2): 257–274. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0018246X00019427">10.1017/S0018246X00019427</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/2639984">2639984</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b> Haigh, 24.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.realclearhistory.com/2019/02/04/elizabeth_i_was_likely_anything_but_a_virgin_queen_10097.html">"Elizabeth I Was Likely Anything But a Virgin Queen"</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201001181000/https://www.realclearhistory.com/2019/02/04/elizabeth_i_was_likely_anything_but_a_virgin_queen_10097.html">Archived</a> from the original on 1 October 2020. Retrieved 1 August 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=va6kKyjQOMYC&amp;pg=PA125&amp;dq=%22whether+Queen+Elizabeth+was+a+maid+or+no%22">"Elizabeth and Leicester"</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210126124137/https://books.google.com/books?id=va6kKyjQOMYC&amp;pg=PA125&amp;lpg=PA125&amp;dq=%22whether+Queen+Elizabeth+was+a+maid+or+no%22">Archived</a> from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 1 August 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.historyextra.com/period/elizabethan/robert-dudley-queen-elizabeth-is-great-love/">"Robert Dudley: Queen Elizabeth I's great love"</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200808120644/https://www.historyextra.com/period/elizabethan/robert-dudley-queen-elizabeth-is-great-love/">Archived</a> from the original on 8 August 2020. Retrieved 1 August 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b> <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9yRtr1fsaBwC&amp;pg=PA56&amp;dq=%22arthur+dudley%22+1561+body+swell">Famous Past Lives</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210125192659/https://books.google.com/books?id=9yRtr1fsaBwC&amp;pg=PA56&amp;lpg=PA56&amp;dq=%22arthur+dudley%22+1561+body+swell">Archived</a> 25 January 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a><br />"Could it be that when Elizabeth was confined to bed in 1561 (at the time when her love affair with Dudley was at its height) with a mysterious illness she was in fact pregnant?[...] The Spanish ambassador reported that she had a swelling of the abdomen..."
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-simancas_106-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-simancas_106-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-simancas_106-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="https://www.british-history.ac.uk/cal-state-papers/simancas/vol4/pp101-118">"British History Online: Simancas: June 1587, 16-30"</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200927080610/https://www.british-history.ac.uk/cal-state-papers/simancas/vol4/pp101-118">Archived</a> from the original on 27 September 2020. Retrieved 1 August 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-levin1_107-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-levin1_107-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-levin1_107-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Levin, Carole (1994). <i>The Heart and Stomach of a King: Elizabeth I and the Politics of Sex and Power</i>. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 81–82. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-3252-3"><bdi>978-0-8122-3252-3</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-levin2_108-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-levin2_108-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Levin, Carole (2 December 2004). <a href="https://brill.com/view/journals/erc/30/1/article-p57_5.xml">"All the Queen's Children: Elizabeth I and the Meanings of Motherhood"</a>. <i>Explorations in Renaissance Culture</i>. <b>30</b> (1): 57–76. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F23526963-90000274">10.1163/23526963-90000274</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/2352-6963">2352-6963</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210819042547/https://brill.com/view/journals/erc/30/1/article-p57_5.xml">Archived</a> from the original on 19 August 2021. Retrieved 10 August 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b> <cite>Rozett, Martha (2003). <i>Constructing a World: Shakespeare's England and the New Historical Fiction</i>. State University of New York Press. p. 129. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-5551-7"><bdi>978-0-7914-5551-7</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Guy,_96–97_110-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Guy,_96–97_110-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Guy, 96–97.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b> Haigh, 131.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b> Guy, 115.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b> Haigh, 132.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b> Loades, 67.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-loades_117-0">^</a></b> Loades, 68.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b> Simon Adams: <a href="http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8160">"Dudley, Robert, earl of Leicester (1532/3–1588)"</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924162056/http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8160">Archived</a> 24 September 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a></i> online edn. May 2008 (subscription required). Retrieved 3 April 2010.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b> Letter to Mary, Queen of Scots, 23 June 1567." Quoted by Loades, 69–70.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b> Loades, 72–73.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Loades,_73_121-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Loades,_73_121-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Loades, 73.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b> Williams, <i>Norfolk</i>, 174.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-McGrath,_69_123-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McGrath,_69_123-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> McGrath, 69
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Collinson_p._67_124-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Collinson_p._67_124-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Collinson_p._67_124-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> Collinson, 67.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b> Collinson, 67–68.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b> Collinson, 68.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b> Guy, 483–484.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b> Loades, 78–79.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b> Guy, 1–11.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b> Frieda, 191.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-loades61_131-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-loades61_131-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Loades, 61.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b> Flynn and Spence, 126–128.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b> Somerset, 607–611.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-haigh135_134-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-haigh135_134-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Haigh, 135.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b> Strong and van Dorsten, 20–26.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b> Strong and van Dorsten, 43.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b> Strong and van Dorsten, 72.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b> Strong and van Dorsten, 50.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b> Letter to Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, 10 February 1586, delivered by Sir <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Heneage">Thomas Heneage</a>. Loades, 94.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b> Chamberlin, 263–264
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b> Parker, 193.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b> Haynes, 15; Strong and van Dorsten, 72–79.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b> Wilson, 294–295.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b> Parker, 193–194.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-haigh138_146-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-haigh138_146-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Haigh, 138.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b> Loades, 64.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b> Black, 349.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-neale300_150-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-neale300_150-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Neale, 300.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b> Somerset, 591; Neale, 297–298.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-xucglh_152-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-xucglh_152-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-xucglh_152-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> Black, 353.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b> Haigh, 145.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Haigh,_183_154-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haigh,_183_154-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Haigh, 183.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b> Somerset, 655.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b> R. O. Bucholz, Newton Key <i>Early modern England 1485–1714: a narrative history</i> (John Wiley and Sons, 2009). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-6275-3">978-1-4051-6275-3</a>, 145.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b> John Hampden <i>Francis Drake, privateer: contemporary narratives and documents</i> (Taylor &amp; Francis, 1972). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8173-5703-0">978-0-8173-5703-0</a>, 254.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fernández_Duro_1972_p.51_159-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fernández_Duro_1972_p.51_159-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Fernández Duro, Cesáreo (1972). <i>Armada Española desde la Unión de los Reinos de Castilla y Aragón.</i> Museo Naval de Madrid, Instituto de Historia y Cultura Naval, Tomo III, Capítulo III. Madrid, p. 51.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b> J. H. Elliott <i>La Europa dividida (1559–1598)</i> (Editorial Critica, 2002). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-8432-669-4">978-84-8432-669-4</a>, 333.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-haigh142_161-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-haigh142_161-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Haigh, 142.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b> Haigh, 143.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b> Haigh, 143–144.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b> Somerset, 667.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b> Loades, 55.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b> Somerset, 668.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b> Somerset, 668–669.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Loades,_98_169-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Loades,_98_169-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Loades, 98.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b> Loades, 98–99.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-muscovy_172-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-muscovy_172-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Crankshaw, Edward, <i>Russia and Britain</i>, Collins, <i>The Nations and Britain</i> series.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b> <cite>Coote, Charles Henry (2017). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NAkkDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT20"><i>Early Voyages and Travels to Russia and Persia by Anthony Jenkinson and other Englishmen</i></a>. Taylor &amp; Francis. p. 1, Introduction. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-14661-2"><bdi>978-1-317-14661-2</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210819042642/https://books.google.com/books?id=NAkkDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT20">Archived</a> from the original on 19 August 2021. Retrieved 3 February 2019.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-vaughan_174-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-vaughan_174-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-vaughan_174-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Virginia Mason Vaughan (2005). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=19_SIlq3ZvsC&amp;pg=PA57"><i>Performing Blackness on English Stages, 1500–1800</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84584-7"><bdi>978-0-521-84584-7</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200714114006/https://books.google.com/books?id=19_SIlq3ZvsC&amp;pg=PA57">Archived</a> from the original on 14 July 2020. Retrieved 22 October 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b> <cite>Allardyce Nicoll (2002). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OeakAOji13EC&amp;pg=PA90"><i>Shakespeare Survey With Index 1–10</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 90. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52347-9"><bdi>978-0-521-52347-9</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191222173632/https://books.google.com/books?id=OeakAOji13EC&amp;pg=PA90">Archived</a> from the original on 22 December 2019. Retrieved 22 October 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b> <cite>Bartels, Emily Carroll (2008). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S6Z9J0OJmmQC&amp;pg=PA24"><i>Speaking of the Moor</i></a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4076-4"><bdi>978-0-8122-4076-4</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200714114007/https://books.google.com/books?id=S6Z9J0OJmmQC&amp;pg=PA24">Archived</a> from the original on 14 July 2020. Retrieved 22 October 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b> <a href="/wiki/University_of_Birmingham">University of Birmingham</a> Collections <a href="http://mimsy.bham.ac.uk/detail.php?t=objects&amp;type=related&amp;kv=101212">Mimsy.bham.ac.uk</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090228082016/http://mimsy.bham.ac.uk/detail.php?t=objects&amp;type=related&amp;kv=101212">Archived</a> 28 February 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-tate.org.uk_178-0">^</a></b> <a href="/wiki/Tate_Gallery">Tate Gallery</a> exhibition "East-West: Objects between cultures", <a href="http://www.tate.org.uk/whats-on/tate-britain/exhibition/east-west-objects-between-cultures/east-west-room-1">Tate.org.uk</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131226012823/http://www.tate.org.uk/whats-on/tate-britain/exhibition/east-west-objects-between-cultures/east-west-room-1">Archived</a> 26 December 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kupperman39_179-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kupperman39_179-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kupperman39_179-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> Kupperman, 39.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b> Nicoll, 96.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MziRd4ddZz4C&amp;pg=PA353"><i>The Encyclopedia of world history by Peter N. Stearns</i></a>. p. 353. Retrieved 2 May 2010.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a></b> Kupperman, 40.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b> Kupperman, 41.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b> <cite>Daniel Farabaugh (2016). "Chapter 2". <i>United States History</i> (Fourth ed.). McGraw-Hill. pp. 45–47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-259-58409-1"><bdi>978-1-259-58409-1</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b> <cite>Foster, Sir William (1998) [1933]. <i>England's Quest of Eastern Trade</i>. London: A. &amp; C. Black. pp. 155–157. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-15518-2"><bdi>978-0-415-15518-2</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-haigh_186-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-haigh_186-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Haigh, 155.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b> Black, 355–356.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b> Black, 355.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b> see chapter 8, "The Queen and the People", Haigh, 149–169.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b> <cite>Cramsie, John (June 2003). <a href="http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/review/334">"The Changing Reputations of Elizabeth I and James VI &amp; I"</a>. <i>Reviews and History: Covering books and digital resources across all fields of history</i> (review no. 334). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181023195747/https://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/review/334">Archived</a> from the original on 23 October 2018. Retrieved 19 July 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a></b> Adams, 7; Hammer, 1; Collinson, 89.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a></b> Collinson, 89.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a></b> Doran, <i>Monarchy</i>, 216.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a></b> Hammer, 1–2.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a></b> Hammer, 1, 9.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a></b> Hammer, 9–10
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a></b> Lacey, 117–120
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a></b> See Neale, 382.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a></b> Williams <i>Elizabeth</i>, 208.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a></b> Black, 192–194.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a></b> Neale, 383–384.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a></b> Loades, 86.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a></b> Black, 239.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a></b> Black, 239–245.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a></b> Haigh, 176.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://fivebooks.com/best-books/helen-hackett-on-elizabeth-i/">"The best books on Elizabeth I – a Five Books interview with Helen Hackett"</a>. <i>Five Books</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190225162219/https://fivebooks.com/best-books/helen-hackett-on-elizabeth-i/">Archived</a> from the original on 25 February 2019. Retrieved 25 February 2019.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-loades92_210-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-loades92_210-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Loades, 92.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a></b> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150119215805/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/history/11353064/The-Tudors-had-bad-teeth-What-rot.html">"The Tudors had bad teeth? What rot!"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph">The Daily Telegraph</a></i>, 18 January 2015. Retrieved 28 May 2016.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a></b> De Maisse: a journal of all that was accomplished by Monsieur De Maisse, ambassador in England from King Henri IV to Queen Elizabeth, anno domini 1597, Nonesuch Press, 1931, pp. 25–26.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a></b> Haigh, 171.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a></b> Haigh, 179.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lds_216-0">^</a></b> Loades, 93.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a></b> Loades, 97.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a></b> Black, 410.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a></b> Croft, 48.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Willson,_154_221-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Willson,_154_221-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Willson, 154.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a></b> Willson, 155.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a></b> Neale, 385.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a></b> Black, 411.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a></b> Black, 410–411.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a></b> <cite>Lee, Christopher (2004). <a href="https://archive.org/details/1603deathofqueen0000leec/page/"><i>1603: The Death of Queen Elizabeth, the Return of the Black Plague, the Rise of Shakespeare, Piracy, Witchcraft and the Birth of the Stuart Era</i></a>. St. Martin's Press. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/1603deathofqueen0000leec/page/">viii</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-32139-0"><bdi>978-0-312-32139-0</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeir1999486_229-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWeir1999">Weir (1999)</a>, p. 486.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Penrhyn_Stanley">Stanley, Arthur Penrhyn</a> (1868). "The royal tombs". <a href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.38508"><i>Historical memorials of Westminster Abbey</i></a>. London: John Murray. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.38508/page/n216">178</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/24223816">24223816</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a></b> Strong, 163–164.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ld_232-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ld_232-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Loades, 100–101.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-somerset726_233-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-somerset726_233-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Somerset, 726.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a></b> Strong, 164.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a></b> Haigh, 170.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeir1999488_236-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWeir1999">Weir (1999)</a>, p. 488.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a></b> Dobson and Watson, 257.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a></b> Haigh, 175, 182.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dobson_and_Watson,_258_239-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dobson_and_Watson,_258_239-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Dobson and Watson, 258.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a></b> Haigh, 175.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a></b> Haigh, 182.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a></b> Kenyon, 207
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a></b> Black, 408–409.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a></b> Haigh, 142–147, 174–177.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a></b> Loades, 46–50.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeir1999487_248-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWeir1999">Weir (1999)</a>, p. 487.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a></b> Hogge, 9–10.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a></b> Somerset, 102.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a></b> Haigh, 45–46, 177.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a></b> Black, 14–15.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a></b> Williams <i>Elizabeth</i>, 50.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a></b> Haigh, 42.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-somerset1_256-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-somerset1_256-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-somerset1_256-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> Somerset, 727.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a></b> Hogge, 9<i>n</i>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a></b> Loades, 1.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a></b> Starkey <i>Elizabeth: Woman</i>, 7.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a></b> Somerset, 75–76.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a></b> Edwards, 205.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a></b> Starkey <i>Elizabeth: Woman</i>, 6–7.
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2>References</h2>
<div>
<ul><li><cite>Adams, Simon (2002), <i>Leicester and the Court: Essays in Elizabethan Politics</i>, Manchester: Manchester University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-5325-2"><bdi>978-0-7190-5325-2</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Black, J. B. (1945) [1936], <i>The Reign of Elizabeth: 1558–1603</i>, Oxford: Clarendon, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/5077207">5077207</a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Chamberlin, Frederick (1939), <i>Elizabeth and Leycester</i>, Dodd, Mead &amp; Co.</cite>.</li>
<li>Collinson, Patrick. "Elizabeth I (1533–1603)" in <i>Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</i> (2008) <a href="http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8636">Retrieved 23 Aug 2011</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210819042648/https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-8636;jsessionid=7273E8C04B29F8E50B82500DC80C3CCC">Archived</a> 19 August 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Collinson">Collinson, Patrick</a> (2007), <a href="https://archive.org/details/elizabethi0000coll"><i>Elizabeth I</i></a>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-921356-6"><bdi>978-0-19-921356-6</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Croft, Pauline (2003), <a href="https://archive.org/details/kingjames00crof"><i>King James</i></a>, Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-61395-5"><bdi>978-0-333-61395-5</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Davenport, Cyril (1899), Pollard, Alfred (ed.), <i>English Embroidered Bookbindings</i>, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner and Co., <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/705685">705685</a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Dobson, Michael &amp; Watson, Nicola (2003), "Elizabeth's Legacy", in Doran, Susan (ed.), <i>Elizabeth: The Exhibition at the National Maritime Museum</i>, London: Chatto and Windus, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7011-7476-7"><bdi>978-0-7011-7476-7</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Susan_Doran">Doran, Susan</a> (1996), <i>Monarchy and Matrimony: The Courtships of Elizabeth I</i>, London: Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-11969-6"><bdi>978-0-415-11969-6</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Doran, Susan (2003), <i>Queen Elizabeth I</i>, London: British Library, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7123-4802-7"><bdi>978-0-7123-4802-7</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Doran, Susan (2003), "The Queen's Suitors and the Problem of the Succession", in Doran, Susan (ed.), <i>Elizabeth: The Exhibition at the National Maritime Museum</i>, London: Chatto and Windus, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7011-7476-7"><bdi>978-0-7011-7476-7</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Edwards, Philip (2004), <i>The Making of the Modern English State: 1460–1660</i>, Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-23614-4"><bdi>978-0-312-23614-4</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Flynn, Sian &amp; Spence, David (2003), "Elizabeth's Adventurers", in Doran, Susan (ed.), <i>Elizabeth: The Exhibition at the National Maritime Museum</i>, London: Chatto and Windus, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7011-7476-7"><bdi>978-0-7011-7476-7</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Leonie_Frieda">Frieda, Leonie</a> (2005), <i>Catherine de Medici</i>, London: Phoenix, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7538-2039-1"><bdi>978-0-7538-2039-1</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/John_Guy_(historian)">Guy, John</a> (2004), <i>My Heart is My Own: The Life of Mary Queen of Scots</i>, London and New York: Fourth Estate, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84115-752-8"><bdi>978-1-84115-752-8</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Haigh">Haigh, Christopher</a> (2000), <i>Elizabeth I</i> (2nd ed.), Harlow (UK): Longman Pearson, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-43754-8"><bdi>978-0-582-43754-8</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Hammer, P. E. J. (1999), <i>The Polarisation of Elizabethan Politics: The Political Career of Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, 1585–1597</i>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01941-5"><bdi>978-0-521-01941-5</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Haynes, Alan (1987), <a href="https://archive.org/details/whitebearrobertd0000hayn"><i>The White Bear: The Elizabethan Earl of Leicester</i></a>, Peter Owen, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7206-0672-0"><bdi>978-0-7206-0672-0</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Hogge, Alice (2005), <i>God's Secret Agents: Queen Elizabeth's Forbidden Priests and the Hatching of the Gunpowder Plot</i>, London: HarperCollins, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-715637-5"><bdi>978-0-00-715637-5</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Jenkins_(author)">Jenkins, Elizabeth</a> (2002) [1961], <i>Elizabeth and Leicester</i>, The Phoenix Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84212-560-1"><bdi>978-1-84212-560-1</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Jenkins_(author)">Jenkins, Elizabeth</a> (1967) [1957], <i>Elizabeth the Great</i>, New York: Capricorn Books, G.P. Putnam's and Sons, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-898799-70-2"><bdi>978-1-898799-70-2</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Kantorowicz">Kantorowicz, Ernst Hartwig</a> (1997). <i>The king's two bodies: a study in mediaeval political theology</i> (2 ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01704-4"><bdi>978-0-691-01704-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/John_Phillipps_Kenyon">Kenyon, John P.</a> (1983), <a href="https://archive.org/details/historymen0000keny"><i>The History Men: The Historical Profession in England since the Renaissance</i></a>, London: Weidenfeld &amp; Nicolson, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-297-78254-4"><bdi>978-0-297-78254-4</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Karen_Ordahl_Kupperman">Kupperman, Karen Ordahl</a> (2007), <a href="https://archive.org/details/jamestownproject00kupp"><i>The Jamestown Project</i></a>, Harvard University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02474-8"><bdi>978-0-674-02474-8</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Robert_Lacey">Lacey, Robert</a> (1971), <a href="https://archive.org/details/robertearlofesse0000lace"><i>Robert Earl of Essex: An Elizabethan Icarus</i></a>, London: Weidenfeld &amp; Nicolson, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-297-00320-5"><bdi>978-0-297-00320-5</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/David_Loades">Loades, David</a> (2003), <i>Elizabeth I: The Golden Reign of Gloriana</i>, London: <a href="/wiki/The_National_Archives_(United_Kingdom)">The National Archives</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-903365-43-4"><bdi>978-1-903365-43-4</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>McGrath, Patrick (1967), <i>Papists and Puritans under Elizabeth I</i>, London: Blandford Press</cite>.</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/J._E._Neale">Neale, J. E.</a> (1954) [1934], <i>Queen Elizabeth I: A Biography</i> (reprint ed.), London: Jonathan Cape, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/220518">220518</a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Parker_(historian)">Parker, Geoffrey</a> (2000), <i>The Grand Strategy of Philip II</i>, New Haven: Yale University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08273-9"><bdi>978-0-300-08273-9</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/A._L._Rowse">Rowse, A. L.</a> (1950), <i>The England of Elizabeth</i>, London: Macmillan, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/181656553">181656553</a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Chris_Skidmore">Skidmore, Chris</a> (2010), <i>Death and the Virgin: Elizabeth, Dudley and the Mysterious Fate of Amy Robsart</i>, London: Weidenfeld &amp; Nicolson, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-297-84650-5"><bdi>978-0-297-84650-5</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Somerset, Anne (2003), <a href="https://archive.org/details/elizabethi00some_0"><i>Elizabeth I</i></a> (1st Anchor Books ed.), London: Anchor Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-72157-8"><bdi>978-0-385-72157-8</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/David_Starkey">Starkey, David</a> (2001), <a href="https://archive.org/details/elizabeth00davi"><i>Elizabeth: Apprenticeship</i></a>, London: Vintage, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-09-928657-8"><bdi>978-0-09-928657-8</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/David_Starkey">Starkey, David</a> (2003), "Elizabeth: Woman, Monarch, Mission", in Doran, Susan (ed.), <i>Elizabeth: The Exhibition at the National Maritime Museum</i>, London: Chatto and Windus, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7011-7476-7"><bdi>978-0-7011-7476-7</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Roy_Strong">Strong, Roy C.</a> (2003) [1987], <i>Gloriana: The Portraits of Queen Elizabeth I</i>, London: Pimlico, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7126-0944-9"><bdi>978-0-7126-0944-9</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Strong, Roy C. &amp; van Dorsten, J. A. (1964), <i>Leicester's Triumph</i>, Oxford University Press</cite>.</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Alison_Weir">Weir, Alison</a> (1997), <i>The Children of Henry VIII</i>, London: Random House, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-345-40786-3"><bdi>978-0-345-40786-3</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Alison_Weir">Weir, Alison</a> (1999), <i>Elizabeth the Queen</i>, London: Pimlico, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7126-7312-9"><bdi>978-0-7126-7312-9</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Williams, Neville (1964), <i>Thomas Howard, Fourth Duke of Norfolk</i>, London: Barrie &amp; Rockliff</cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Williams, Neville (1972), <a href="https://archive.org/details/lifetimesofeliza0000will_z0l3"><i>The Life and Times of Elizabeth I</i></a>, London: Weidenfeld &amp; Nicolson, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-297-83168-6"><bdi>978-0-297-83168-6</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Willson, David Harris (1963) [1956], <i>King James VI &amp; I</i>, London: Jonathan Cape, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-224-60572-4"><bdi>978-0-224-60572-4</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Wilson, Derek (1981), <i>Sweet Robin: A Biography of Robert Dudley Earl of Leicester 1533–1588</i>, London: Hamish Hamilton, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-241-10149-0"><bdi>978-0-241-10149-0</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Woodward, Jennifer (1997), <i>The Theatre of Death: The Ritual Management of Royal Funerals in Renaissance England, 1570–1625</i>, Boydell &amp; Brewer, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-704-7"><bdi>978-0-85115-704-7</bdi></a></cite></li></ul>
</div>
<h2>Further reading</h2>
<div>
<ul><li>Beem, Charles. <i>The Foreign Relations of Elizabeth I</i> (2011) <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Foreign-Relations-Elizabeth-Queenship-Power/dp/0230112145/">excerpt and text search</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170126121756/https://www.amazon.com/Foreign-Relations-Elizabeth-Queenship-Power/dp/0230112145">Archived</a> 26 January 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li><cite>Bridgen, Susan (2001). <i>New Worlds, Lost Worlds: The Rule of the Tudors, 1485–1603</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Viking_Penguin">Viking Penguin</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-89985-2"><bdi>978-0-670-89985-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li>Hodges, J. P. <i>The Nature of the Lion: Elizabeth I and Our Anglican Heritage</i> (London: Faith Press, 1962).</li>
<li>Jones, Norman. <i>The Birth of the Elizabethan Age: England in the 1560s</i> (Blackwell, 1993)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wallace_T._MacCaffrey">MacCaffrey Wallace T.</a> <i>Elizabeth I</i> (1993), political biography summarising his multivolume study:
<ul><li>MacCaffrey Wallace T. <i>The Shaping of the Elizabethan Regime: Elizabethan Politics, 1558–1572</i> (1969)</li>
<li>MacCaffrey Wallace T. <i>Queen Elizabeth and the Making of Policy, 1572–1588</i> (1988)</li>
<li>MacCaffrey Wallace T. <i>Elizabeth I: War and Politics, 1588–1603</i> (1994)</li></ul></li>
<li>McLaren, A. N. <i>Political Culture in the Reign of Elizabeth I: Queen and Commonwealth, 1558–1585</i> (Cambridge University Press, 1999) <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Political-Culture-Reign-Elizabeth-Commonwealth/dp/0521024838/">excerpt and text search</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160308224405/http://www.amazon.com/Political-Culture-Reign-Elizabeth-Commonwealth/dp/0521024838">Archived</a> 8 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li>Palliser, D. M. <i>The Age of Elizabeth: England Under the Later Tudors, 1547–1603</i> (1983) survey of social and economic history</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Albert_Pollard">Pollard, Albert Frederick</a> (1911). <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Elizabeth_of_England">"Elizabeth of England" </a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). pp. 282–283.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Ridley, Jasper Godwin (1989). <a href="https://archive.org/details/elizabethishrewd00ridl"><i>Elizabeth I: The Shrewdness of Virtue</i></a>. Fromm International. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88064-110-4"><bdi>978-0-88064-110-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/R._B._Wernham">Wernham, R. B.</a> <i>Before the Armada: the growth of English foreign policy, 1485–1588</i> (1966), a standard history of foreign policy</li>
<li><cite>Whitelock, Anna (2013). <i>Elizabeth's Bedfellows: An Intimate History of the Queen's Court</i>. London: Bloomsbury. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781408808801"><bdi>9781408808801</bdi></a>.</cite></li></ul>
<h3>Primary sources and early histories</h3>
<ul><li><cite>Elizabeth I (2002). <i>Elizabeth I: Collected Works</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-50465-0"><bdi>978-0-226-50465-0</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li>Susan M. Felch, ed. <i>Elizabeth I and Her Age</i> (Norton Critical Editions) (2009); primary and secondary sources, with an emphasis on literature</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Camden">William Camden</a>. <i>History of the Most Renowned and Victorious Princess Elizabeth</i>. Wallace T. MacCaffrey (ed). Chicago: University of Chicago Press, selected chapters, 1970 edition. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/59210072">59210072</a>.</li>
<li>William Camden. <a href="http://www.philological.bham.ac.uk/camden/"><i>Annales Rerum Gestarum Angliae et Hiberniae Regnante Elizabetha.</i></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201218151933/http://www.philological.bham.ac.uk/camden/">Archived</a> 18 December 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (1615 and 1625.) Hypertext edition, with English translation. Dana F. Sutton (ed.), 2000. Retrieved 7 December 2007.</li>
<li>Clapham, John. <i>Elizabeth of England</i>. E. P. Read and <a href="/wiki/Conyers_Read">Conyers Read</a> (eds). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1951. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1350639">1350639</a>.</li></ul>
<h3>Historiography and memory</h3>
<ul><li>Carlson, Eric Josef. "Teaching Elizabeth Tudor with Movies: Film, Historical Thinking, and the Classroom," <i>Sixteenth Century Journal,</i> Summer 2007, Vol. 38 Issue 2, pp. 419–440</li>
<li>Collinson, Patrick. "Elizabeth I and the verdicts of history," <i>Historical Research,</i> Nov 2003, Vol. 76 Issue 194, pp. 469–491</li>
<li><cite>Dobson, Michael; Watson, Nicola Jane (2002). <a href="https://archive.org/details/englandselizabet00dobs_0"><i>England's Elizabeth: An Afterlife in Fame and Fantasy</i></a>. Oxford University Press, USA. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-818377-8"><bdi>978-0-19-818377-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li>Doran, Susan, and Thomas S. Freeman, eds. <i>The Myth of Elizabeth.</i>(2003).</li>
<li><cite>Epstein, Joel (2022). "Elizabeth I: Queen of Music". <i>Music for the Love of It: Episodes in Amateur Music-Making</i>. Juwal Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9659278237"><bdi>978-9659278237</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li>Greaves, Richard L., ed. <i>Elizabeth I, Queen of England</i> (1974), excerpts from historians</li>
<li>Haigh, Christopher, ed. <i>The Reign of Elizabeth I</i> (1984), essays by scholars</li>
<li>Howard, Maurice. "Elizabeth I: A Sense Of Place In Stone, Print And Paint," <i>Transactions of the Royal Historical Society,</i> Dec 2004, Vol. 14 Issue 1, pp. 261–268</li>
<li><cite>Hulme, Harold (1958). "Elizabeth I and Her Parliaments: The Work of Sir John Neale". <i>Journal of Modern History</i>. <b>30</b> (3): 236–240. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F238230">10.1086/238230</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1872838">1872838</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144764596">144764596</a>.</cite></li>
<li>Montrose, Louis. <i>The Subject of Elizabeth: Authority, Gender, and Representation.</i> (2006).</li>
<li>Rowse, A. L. "Queen Elizabeth and the Historians." <i>History Today</i> (Sept 1953) 3#9 pp 630–641.</li>
<li>Watkins, John. <i>Representing Elizabeth in Stuart England: Literature, History, Sovereignty</i> (2002)</li>
<li>Woolf, D. R. "Two Elizabeths? James I and the Late Queen's Famous Memory," <i>Canadian Journal of History,</i> August 1985, Vol. 20 Issue 2, pp. 167–191</li></ul>
</div>
<h2>External links</h2>
<div><p></p><p>These audio files were created from a revision of this article dated 20 June 2015, and do not reflect subsequent edits.</p></div>
<table>
<tbody><tr>
<td><p>Elizabeth I </p><div><p><b><a href="/wiki/House_of_Tudor">House of Tudor</a></b></p></div><b>Born:</b> 7 September 1533 <b>Died:</b> 24 March 1603
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th>Regnal titles
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>Preceded by<div><p><a href="/wiki/Mary_I">Mary I</a> <b>and</b> <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain">Philip</a></p></div>
</td>
<td><b> <a href="/wiki/List_of_English_monarchs">Queen of England</a> and <a href="/wiki/King_of_Ireland">Ireland</a> </b><br />1558–1603
</td>
<td>Succeeded by<div><p><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I">James I</a></p></div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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 Contents

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 * (Top)
 * 1 Early life
 * 2 Thomas Seymour
 * 3 Reign of Mary I
 * 4 Accession
 * 5 Church settlement
 * 6 Marriage question
 + 6.1 Robert Dudley
 + 6.2 Foreign candidates
 + 6.3 Virginity
 * 7 Mary, Queen of Scots
 + 7.1 Catholic cause
 * 8 Wars and overseas trade
 + 8.1 Netherlands
 + 8.2 Spanish Armada
 + 8.3 France
 + 8.4 Ireland
 + 8.5 Russia
 + 8.6 Muslim states
 + 8.7 America
 + 8.8 East India Company
 * 9 Later years
 * 10 Death
 * 11 Legacy
 * 12 Family tree
 * 13 See also
 * 14 Notes
 * 15 Citations
 * 16 References
 * 17 Further reading
 + 17.1 Primary sources and early histories
 + 17.2 Historiography and memory
 * 18 External links
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 Elizabeth I

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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 "Elizabeth of England" and "Elizabeth Tudor" redirect here. For other uses, see Elizabeth I (disambiguation), Elizabeth of England (disambiguation), and Elizabeth Tudor (disambiguation).

 Elizabeth I 
 The "Darnley Portrait", c. 1575 
 Queen of England and Ireland (more...)
 Reign 17 November 1558 – 
 24 March 1603 
 Coronation 15 January 1559 
 Predecessor Mary I 
 Successor James I 
 
 Born 7 September 1533 
 Palace of Placentia, Greenwich, England
 Died 24 March 1603 (aged 69) 
 Richmond Palace, Surrey, England 
 Burial 28 April 1603 
 Westminster Abbey 
 House Tudor 
 Father Henry VIII 
 Mother Anne Boleyn 
 Religion Anglicanism 
 Signature  
 

 Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603)[a] was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death in 1603. Elizabeth was the last monarch of the House of Tudor and is sometimes referred to as the "Virgin Queen".[1]

 Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, his second wife, who was executed when Elizabeth was two years old. Anne's marriage to Henry was annulled, and Elizabeth was for a time declared illegitimate. Her half-brother Edward VI ruled until his death in 1553, bequeathing the crown to Lady Jane Grey and ignoring the claims of his two half-sisters, the Catholic Mary and the younger Elizabeth, in spite of statute law to the contrary. Edward's will was set aside and Mary became queen, deposing Lady Jane Grey. During Mary's reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels.

 Upon her half-sister's death in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded to the throne and set out to rule by good counsel.[b] She depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers led by William Cecil, whom she created 1st Baron Burghley. One of her first actions as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the supreme governor. This Elizabethan Religious Settlement was to evolve into the Church of England. It was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir; however, despite numerous courtships, she never did. She was eventually succeeded by her first cousin twice removed, James VI of Scotland; this laid the foundation for the Kingdom of Great Britain. She had earlier been reluctantly responsible for the imprisonment and execution of James's mother, Mary, Queen of Scots.

 In government, Elizabeth was more moderate than her father and half-siblings had been.[3] One of her mottoes was "video et taceo" ("I see and keep silent").[4] In religion, she was relatively tolerant and avoided systematic persecution. After the pope declared her illegitimate in 1570 and released her subjects from obedience to her, several conspiracies threatened her life, all of which were defeated with the help of her ministers' secret service, run by Francis Walsingham. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs, manoeuvring between the major powers of France and Spain. She half-heartedly supported a number of ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, and Ireland. By the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid war with Spain.

 As she grew older, Elizabeth became celebrated for her virginity. A cult of personality grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, and literature of the day. Elizabeth's reign became known as the Elizabethan era. The period is famous for the flourishing of English drama, led by playwrights such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe, the prowess of English maritime adventurers, such as Francis Drake and Walter Raleigh, and for the defeat of the Spanish Armada. Some historians depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler,[5] who enjoyed more than her fair share of luck. Towards the end of her reign, a series of economic and military problems weakened her popularity. Elizabeth is acknowledged as a charismatic performer ("Gloriana") and a dogged survivor ("Good Queen Bess") in an era when government was ramshackle and limited, and when monarchs in neighbouring countries faced internal problems that jeopardised their thrones. After the short reigns of her half-siblings, her 44 years on the throne provided welcome stability for the kingdom and helped to forge a sense of national identity.[3]

 Early life

 Elizabeth's parents, Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. Anne was executed within three years of Elizabeth's birth.

 Elizabeth was born at Greenwich Palace on 7 September 1533 and was named after her grandmothers, Elizabeth of York and Lady Elizabeth Howard.[6] She was the second child of Henry VIII of England born in wedlock to survive infancy. Her mother was Henry's second wife, Anne Boleyn. At birth, Elizabeth was the heir presumptive to the English throne. Her elder half-sister Mary had lost her position as a legitimate heir when Henry annulled his marriage to Mary's mother, Catherine of Aragon, to marry Anne, with the intent to sire a male heir and ensure the Tudor succession.[7][8] She was baptised on 10 September 1533, and her godparents were Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury; Henry Courtenay, 1st Marquess of Exeter; Elizabeth Stafford, Duchess of Norfolk; and Margaret Wotton, Dowager Marchioness of Dorset. A canopy was carried at the ceremony over the infant by her uncle George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford; John Hussey, 1st Baron Hussey of Sleaford; Lord Thomas Howard; and William Howard, 1st Baron Howard of Effingham.[9]

 Elizabeth was two years and eight months old when her mother was beheaded on 19 May 1536,[10] four months after Catherine of Aragon's death from natural causes. Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and deprived of her place in the royal succession.[c] Eleven days after Anne Boleyn's execution, Henry married Jane Seymour. Queen Jane died the next year shortly after the birth of their son, Edward, who was undisputed heir apparent to the throne. Elizabeth was placed in her half-brother's household and carried the chrisom, or baptismal cloth, at his christening.[12]

 A rare portrait of Elizabeth prior to her accession, attributed to William Scrots. It was painted for her father in c. 1546.

 Elizabeth's first governess, Margaret Bryan, wrote that she was "as toward a child and as gentle of conditions as ever I knew any in my life".[13] Catherine Champernowne, better known by her later, married name of Catherine "Kat" Ashley, was appointed as Elizabeth's governess in 1537, and she remained Elizabeth's friend until her death in 1565. Champernowne taught Elizabeth four languages: French, Dutch, Italian and Spanish.[14] By the time William Grindal became her tutor in 1544, Elizabeth could write English, Latin, and Italian. Under Grindal, a talented and skilful tutor, she also progressed in French and Greek.[15] By the age of 12 she was able to translate her stepmother Catherine Parr's religious work Prayers or Meditations from English into Italian, Latin, and French, which she presented to her father as a New Year's gift.[16] From her teenage years and throughout her life she translated works in Latin and Greek by numerous classical authors, including the Pro Marcello of Cicero, the De consolatione philosophiae of Boethius, a treatise by Plutarch, and the Annals of Tacitus.[17][16] A translation of Tacitus from Lambeth Palace Library, one of only four surviving English translations from the early modern era, was confirmed as Elizabeth's own in 2019, after a detailed analysis of the handwriting and paper was undertaken.[18]

 After Grindal died in 1548, Elizabeth received her education under her brother Edward's tutor, Roger Ascham, a sympathetic teacher who believed that learning should be engaging.[19] Current knowledge of Elizabeth's schooling and precocity comes largely from Ascham's memoirs.[15] By the time her formal education ended in 1550, Elizabeth was one of the best educated women of her generation.[20] At the end of her life, she was believed to speak the Welsh, Cornish, Scottish and Irish languages in addition to those mentioned above. The Venetian ambassador stated in 1603 that she "possessed [these] languages so thoroughly that each appeared to be her native tongue".[21] Historian Mark Stoyle suggests that she was probably taught Cornish by William Killigrew, Groom of the Privy Chamber and later Chamberlain of the Exchequer.[22]

 Thomas Seymour

 Elizabeth's guardian Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley, may have sexually abused her.

 Henry VIII died in 1547 and Elizabeth's half-brother, Edward VI, became king at the age of nine. Catherine Parr, Henry's widow, soon married Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley, Edward VI's uncle and the brother of Lord Protector Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset. The couple took Elizabeth into their household at Chelsea. There Elizabeth experienced an emotional crisis that some historians believe affected her for the rest of her life.[23] Thomas Seymour engaged in romps and horseplay with the 14-year-old Elizabeth, including entering her bedroom in his nightgown, tickling her, and slapping her on the buttocks. Elizabeth rose early and surrounded herself with maids to avoid his unwelcome morning visits. Parr, rather than confront her husband over his inappropriate activities, joined in. Twice she accompanied him in tickling Elizabeth, and once held her while he cut her black gown "into a thousand pieces".[24] However, after Parr discovered the pair in an embrace, she ended this state of affairs.[25] In May 1548, Elizabeth was sent away.

 Thomas Seymour nevertheless continued scheming to control the royal family and tried to have himself appointed the governor of the King's person.[26][27] When Parr died after childbirth on 5 September 1548, he renewed his attentions towards Elizabeth, intent on marrying her.[28] Her governess Kat Ashley, who was fond of Seymour, sought to convince Elizabeth to take him as her husband. She tried to convince Elizabeth to write to Seymour and "comfort him in his sorrow",[29] but Elizabeth claimed that Thomas was not so saddened by her stepmother's death as to need comfort.

 In January 1549, Seymour was arrested and imprisoned in the Tower on suspicion of conspiring to depose his brother Somerset as Protector, marry Lady Jane Grey to King Edward VI, and take Elizabeth as his own wife. Elizabeth, living at Hatfield House, would admit nothing. Her stubbornness exasperated her interrogator, Sir Robert Tyrwhitt, who reported, "I do see it in her face that she is guilty".[30] Seymour was beheaded on 20 March 1549.[31]

 Reign of Mary I

 Mary I and Philip, during whose reign Elizabeth was heir presumptive
 The Old Palace at Hatfield House in Hertfordshire, where Elizabeth lived during Mary's reign

 Edward VI died on 6 July 1553, aged 15. His will ignored the Succession to the Crown Act 1543, excluded both Mary and Elizabeth from the succession, and instead declared as his heir Lady Jane Grey, granddaughter of Henry VIII's younger sister Mary Tudor, Queen of France. Jane was proclaimed queen by the privy council, but her support quickly crumbled, and she was deposed after nine days. On 3 August 1553, Mary rode triumphantly into London, with Elizabeth at her side.[d] The show of solidarity between the sisters did not last long. Mary, a devout Catholic, was determined to crush the Protestant faith in which Elizabeth had been educated, and she ordered that everyone attend Catholic Mass; Elizabeth had to outwardly conform. Mary's initial popularity ebbed away in 1554 when she announced plans to marry Philip of Spain, the son of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and an active Catholic.[33] Discontent spread rapidly through the country, and many looked to Elizabeth as a focus for their opposition to Mary's religious policies.

 In January and February 1554, Wyatt's rebellion broke out; it was soon suppressed.[34] Elizabeth was brought to court and interrogated regarding her role, and on 18 March, she was imprisoned in the Tower of London. Elizabeth fervently protested her innocence.[35] Though it is unlikely that she had plotted with the rebels, some of them were known to have approached her. Mary's closest confidant, Emperor Charles's ambassador Simon Renard, argued that her throne would never be safe while Elizabeth lived; and Lord Chancellor Stephen Gardiner, worked to have Elizabeth put on trial.[36] Elizabeth's supporters in the government, including William Paget, 1st Baron Paget, convinced Mary to spare her sister in the absence of hard evidence against her. Instead, on 22 May, Elizabeth was moved from the Tower to Woodstock, where she was to spend almost a year under house arrest in the charge of Sir Henry Bedingfeld. Crowds cheered her all along the way.[37][e]

 On 17 April 1555, Elizabeth was recalled to court to attend the final stages of Mary's apparent pregnancy. If Mary and her child died, Elizabeth would become queen, but if Mary gave birth to a healthy child, Elizabeth's chances of becoming queen would recede sharply. When it became clear that Mary was not pregnant, no one believed any longer that she could have a child.[39] Elizabeth's succession seemed assured.[40]

 King Philip, who ascended the Spanish throne in 1556, acknowledged the new political reality and cultivated his sister-in-law. She was a better ally than the chief alternative, Mary, Queen of Scots, who had grown up in France and was betrothed to the Dauphin of France.[41] When his wife fell ill in 1558, King Philip sent the Count of Feria to consult with Elizabeth.[42] This interview was conducted at Hatfield House, where she had returned to live in October 1555. By October 1558, Elizabeth was already making plans for her government. Mary recognised Elizabeth as her heir on 6 November 1558,[43] and Elizabeth became queen when Mary died on 17 November.[44]

 Accession

 Elizabeth I in her coronation robes, patterned with Tudor roses and trimmed with ermine

 Elizabeth became queen at the age of 25, and declared her intentions to her council and other peers who had come to Hatfield to swear allegiance. The speech contains the first record of her adoption of the medieval political theology of the sovereign's "two bodies": the body natural and the body politic:[45]

 My lords, the law of nature moves me to sorrow for my sister; the burden that is fallen upon me makes me amazed, and yet, considering I am God's creature, ordained to obey His appointment, I will thereto yield, desiring from the bottom of my heart that I may have assistance of His grace to be the minister of His heavenly will in this office now committed to me. And as I am but one body naturally considered, though by His permission a body politic to govern, so shall I desire you all ... to be assistant to me, that I with my ruling and you with your service may make a good account to Almighty God and leave some comfort to our posterity on earth. I mean to direct all my actions by good advice and counsel.[46]

 As her triumphal progress wound through the city on the eve of the coronation ceremony, she was welcomed wholeheartedly by the citizens and greeted by orations and pageants, most with a strong Protestant flavour. Elizabeth's open and gracious responses endeared her to the spectators, who were "wonderfully ravished".[47] The following day, 15 January 1559, a date chosen by her astrologer John Dee,[48][49] Elizabeth was crowned and anointed by Owen Oglethorpe, the Catholic bishop of Carlisle, in Westminster Abbey. She was then presented for the people's acceptance, amidst a deafening noise of organs, fifes, trumpets, drums, and bells.[50] Although Elizabeth was welcomed as queen in England, the country was still in a state of anxiety over the perceived Catholic threat at home and overseas, as well as the choice of whom she would marry.[51]

 Church settlement

 Main article: Elizabethan Religious Settlement
 The Pelican Portrait by Nicholas Hilliard. The pelican was thought to nourish its young with its own blood and served to depict Elizabeth as the "mother of the Church of England".[52]

 Elizabeth's personal religious convictions have been much debated by scholars. She was a Protestant, but kept Catholic symbols (such as the crucifix), and downplayed the role of sermons in defiance of a key Protestant belief.[53]

 Elizabeth and her advisers perceived the threat of a Catholic crusade against heretical England. The queen therefore sought a Protestant solution that would not offend Catholics too greatly while addressing the desires of English Protestants, but she would not tolerate the Puritans, who were pushing for far-reaching reforms.[54] As a result, the Parliament of 1559 started to legislate for a church based on the Protestant settlement of Edward VI, with the monarch as its head, but with many Catholic elements, such as vestments.[55]

 The House of Commons backed the proposals strongly, but the bill of supremacy met opposition in the House of Lords, particularly from the bishops. Elizabeth was fortunate that many bishoprics were vacant at the time, including the Archbishopric of Canterbury.[f][g] This enabled supporters amongst peers to outvote the bishops and conservative peers. Nevertheless, Elizabeth was forced to accept the title of Supreme Governor of the Church of England rather than the more contentious title of Supreme Head, which many thought unacceptable for a woman to bear. The new Act of Supremacy became law on 8 May 1559. All public officials were to swear an oath of loyalty to the monarch as the supreme governor or risk disqualification from office; the heresy laws were repealed, to avoid a repeat of the persecution of dissenters practised by Mary. At the same time, a new Act of Uniformity was passed, which made attendance at church and the use of an adapted version of the 1552 Book of Common Prayer compulsory, though the penalties for recusancy, or failure to attend and conform, were not extreme.[58]

 Marriage question

 From the start of Elizabeth's reign it was expected that she would marry, and the question arose to whom. Although she received many offers, she never married and remained childless; the reasons for this are not clear. Historians have speculated that Thomas Seymour had put her off sexual relationships.[59][60] She considered several suitors until she was about fifty. Her last courtship was with Francis, Duke of Anjou, 22 years her junior. While risking possible loss of power like her sister, who played into the hands of King Philip II of Spain, marriage offered the chance of an heir.[61] However, the choice of a husband might also provoke political instability or even insurrection.[62]

 Robert Dudley

 Pair of miniatures of Elizabeth and Leicester, c. 1575 , by Nicholas Hilliard. Their friendship lasted for over thirty years, until his death.

 In the spring of 1559, it became evident that Elizabeth was in love with her childhood friend Robert Dudley.[63] It was said that his wife Amy was suffering from a "malady in one of her breasts" and that the queen would like to marry Robert if his wife should die.[64] By the autumn of 1559, several foreign suitors were vying for Elizabeth's hand; their impatient envoys engaged in ever more scandalous talk and reported that a marriage with her favourite was not welcome in England:[65] "There is not a man who does not cry out on him and her with indignation ... she will marry none but the favoured Robert."[66] Amy Dudley died in September 1560, from a fall from a flight of stairs and, despite the coroner's inquest finding of accident, many people suspected her husband of having arranged her death so that he could marry the queen.[67][h] Elizabeth seriously considered marrying Dudley for some time. However, William Cecil, Nicholas Throckmorton, and some conservative peers made their disapproval unmistakably clear.[70] There were even rumours that the nobility would rise if the marriage took place.[71]

 Among other marriage candidates being considered for the queen, Robert Dudley continued to be regarded as a possible candidate for nearly another decade.[72] Elizabeth was extremely jealous of his affections, even when she no longer meant to marry him herself.[73] She raised Dudley to the peerage as Earl of Leicester in 1564. In 1578, he finally married Lettice Knollys, to whom the queen reacted with repeated scenes of displeasure and lifelong hatred.[74] Still, Dudley always "remained at the centre of [Elizabeth's] emotional life", as historian Susan Doran has described the situation.[75] He died shortly after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588. After Elizabeth's own death, a note from him was found among her most personal belongings, marked "his last letter" in her handwriting.[76]

 Foreign candidates

 Marriage negotiations constituted a key element in Elizabeth's foreign policy.[77] She turned down the hand of Philip, her half-sister's widower, early in 1559 but for several years entertained the proposal of King Eric XIV of Sweden.[78][79][80] Earlier in Elizabeth's life a Danish match for her had been discussed; Henry VIII had proposed one with the Danish prince Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, in 1545, and Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset, suggested a marriage with Prince Frederick (later Frederick II) several years later, but the negotiations had abated in 1551.[81] In the years around 1559 a Dano-English Protestant alliance was considered,[82] and to counter Sweden's proposal, King Frederick II proposed to Elizabeth in late 1559.[81]

 Elizabeth was engaged for a time to Francis, Duke of Anjou. The queen called him her "frog", finding him "not so deformed" as she had been led to expect.[83]

 For several years she also seriously negotiated to marry Philip's cousin Charles II, Archduke of Austria. By 1569, relations with the Habsburgs had deteriorated. Elizabeth considered marriage to two French Valois princes in turn, first Henry, Duke of Anjou, and then from 1572 to 1581 his brother Francis, Duke of Anjou, formerly Duke of Alençon.[84] This last proposal was tied to a planned alliance against Spanish control of the Southern Netherlands.[85] Elizabeth seems to have taken the courtship seriously for a time, and wore a frog-shaped earring that Francis had sent her.[86]

 In 1563, Elizabeth told an imperial envoy: "If I follow the inclination of my nature, it is this: beggar-woman and single, far rather than queen and married".[77] Later in the year, following Elizabeth's illness with smallpox, the succession question became a heated issue in Parliament. Members urged the queen to marry or nominate an heir, to prevent a civil war upon her death. She refused to do either. In April she prorogued the Parliament, which did not reconvene until she needed its support to raise taxes in 1566.

 Having previously promised to marry, she told an unruly House:

 I will never break the word of a prince spoken in public place, for my honour's sake. And therefore I say again, I will marry as soon as I can conveniently, if God take not him away with whom I mind to marry, or myself, or else some other great let happen.[87]

 By 1570, senior figures in the government privately accepted that Elizabeth would never marry or name a successor. William Cecil was already seeking solutions to the succession problem.[77] For her failure to marry, Elizabeth was often accused of irresponsibility.[88] Her silence, however, strengthened her own political security: she knew that if she named an heir, her throne would be vulnerable to a coup; she remembered the way that "a second person, as I have been" had been used as the focus of plots against her predecessor.[89]

 Virginity

 Elizabeth's unmarried status inspired a cult of virginity related to that of the Virgin Mary. In poetry and portraiture, she was depicted as a virgin, a goddess, or both, not as a normal woman.[90] At first, only Elizabeth made a virtue of her ostensible virginity: in 1559, she told the Commons, "And, in the end, this shall be for me sufficient, that a marble stone shall declare that a queen, having reigned such a time, lived and died a virgin".[91] Later on, poets and writers took up the theme and developed an iconography that exalted Elizabeth. Public tributes to the Virgin by 1578 acted as a coded assertion of opposition to the queen's marriage negotiations with the Duke of Alençon.[92] Ultimately, Elizabeth would insist she was married to her kingdom and subjects, under divine protection. In 1599, she spoke of "all my husbands, my good people".[93]

 The Procession Picture, c. 1600, showing Elizabeth I borne along by her courtiers

 This claim of virginity was not universally accepted. Catholics accused Elizabeth of engaging in "filthy lust" that symbolically defiled the nation along with her body.[94] Henry IV of France said that one of the great questions of Europe was "whether Queen Elizabeth was a maid or no".[95]

 A central issue, when it comes to the question of Elizabeth's virginity, was whether the queen ever consummated her love affair with Robert Dudley. In 1559, she had Dudley's bedchambers moved next to her own apartments. In 1561, she was mysteriously bedridden with an illness that caused her body to swell.[96][97]

 In 1587, a young man calling himself Arthur Dudley was arrested on the coast of Spain under suspicion of being a spy.[98] The man claimed to be the illegitimate son of Elizabeth and Robert Dudley, with his age being consistent with birth during the 1561 illness.[99] He was taken to Madrid for investigation, where he was examined by Francis Englefield, a Catholic aristocrat exiled to Spain and secretary to King Philip II.[98] Three letters exist today describing the interview, detailing what Arthur proclaimed to be the story of his life, from birth in the royal palace to the time of his arrival in Spain.[98] However, this failed to convince the Spanish: Englefield admitted to King Philip that Arthur's "claim at present amounts to nothing", but suggested that "he should not be allowed to get away, but [...] kept very secure."[99] The king agreed, and Arthur was never heard from again.[100] Modern scholarship dismisses the story's basic premise as "impossible",[99] and asserts that Elizabeth's life was so closely observed by contemporaries that she could not have hidden a pregnancy.[100][101]

 Mary, Queen of Scots

 The French relatives of Mary, Queen of Scots, considered her the rightful Queen of England.[102]

 Elizabeth's first policy toward Scotland was to oppose the French presence there.[103] She feared that the French planned to invade England and put her Catholic cousin Mary, Queen of Scots, on the throne. Mary was considered by many to be the heir to the English crown, being the granddaughter of Henry VIII's elder sister, Margaret. Mary boasted being "the nearest kinswoman she hath".[104][i] Elizabeth was persuaded to send a force into Scotland to aid the Protestant rebels, and though the campaign was inept, the resulting Treaty of Edinburgh of July 1560 removed the French threat in the north.[j] When Mary returned to Scotland in 1561 to take up the reins of power, the country had an established Protestant church and was run by a council of Protestant nobles supported by Elizabeth.[106] Mary refused to ratify the treaty.[107]

 In 1563 Elizabeth proposed her own suitor, Robert Dudley, as a husband for Mary, without asking either of the two people concerned. Both proved unenthusiastic,[108] and in 1565 Mary married Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, who carried his own claim to the English throne. The marriage was the first of a series of errors of judgement by Mary that handed the victory to the Scottish Protestants and to Elizabeth. Darnley quickly became unpopular and was murdered in February 1567 by conspirators almost certainly led by James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell. Shortly afterwards, on 15 May 1567, Mary married Bothwell, arousing suspicions that she had been party to the murder of her husband. Elizabeth confronted Mary about the marriage, writing to her:

 How could a worse choice be made for your honour than in such haste to marry such a subject, who besides other and notorious lacks, public fame has charged with the murder of your late husband, besides the touching of yourself also in some part, though we trust in that behalf falsely.[109]

 These events led rapidly to Mary's defeat and imprisonment in Loch Leven Castle. The Scottish lords forced her to abdicate in favour of her son James VI, who had been born in June 1566. James was taken to Stirling Castle to be raised as a Protestant. Mary escaped from Loch Leven in 1568 but after another defeat fled across the border into England, where she had once been assured of support from Elizabeth. Elizabeth's first instinct was to restore her fellow monarch but she and her council instead chose to play safe. Rather than risk returning Mary to Scotland with an English army or sending her to France and the Catholic enemies of England, they detained her in England, where she was imprisoned for the next nineteen years.[110]

 Catholic cause

 Sir Francis Walsingham, Elizabeth's spymaster, uncovered several plots against her life.

 Mary was soon the focus for rebellion. In 1569 there was a major Catholic rising in the North; the goal was to free Mary, marry her to Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk, and put her on the English throne.[111] After the rebels' defeat, over 750 of them were executed on Elizabeth's orders.[112] In the belief that the revolt had been successful, Pope Pius V issued a bull in 1570, titled Regnans in Excelsis, which declared "Elizabeth, the pretended Queen of England and the servant of crime" to be excommunicated and a heretic, releasing all her subjects from any allegiance to her.[113][114] Catholics who obeyed her orders were threatened with excommunication.[113] The papal bull provoked legislative initiatives against Catholics by Parliament, which were, however, mitigated by Elizabeth's intervention.[115] In 1581, to convert English subjects to Catholicism with "the intent" to withdraw them from their allegiance to Elizabeth was made a treasonable offence, carrying the death penalty.[116] From the 1570s missionary priests from continental seminaries went to England secretly in the cause of the "reconversion of England".[114] Many suffered execution, engendering a cult of martyrdom.[114]

 Regnans in Excelsis gave English Catholics a strong incentive to look to Mary as the legitimate sovereign of England. Mary may not have been told of every Catholic plot to put her on the English throne, but from the Ridolfi Plot of 1571 (which caused Mary's suitor, the Duke of Norfolk, to lose his head) to the Babington Plot of 1586, Elizabeth's spymaster Sir Francis Walsingham and the royal council keenly assembled a case against her.[111] At first, Elizabeth resisted calls for Mary's death. By late 1586, she had been persuaded to sanction Mary's trial and execution on the evidence of letters written during the Babington Plot.[117] Elizabeth's proclamation of the sentence announced that "the said Mary, pretending title to the same Crown, had compassed and imagined within the same realm diverse things tending to the hurt, death and destruction of our royal person."[118] On 8 February 1587, Mary was beheaded at Fotheringhay Castle, Northamptonshire.[119] After the execution, Elizabeth claimed that she had not intended for the signed execution warrant to be dispatched, and blamed her secretary, William Davison, for implementing it without her knowledge. The sincerity of Elizabeth's remorse and whether or not she wanted to delay the warrant have been called into question both by her contemporaries and later historians.[53]

 Wars and overseas trade

 Elizabeth's foreign policy was largely defensive. The exception was the English occupation of Le Havre from October 1562 to June 1563, which ended in failure when Elizabeth's Huguenot allies joined with the Catholics to retake the port. Elizabeth's intention had been to exchange Le Havre for Calais, lost to France in January 1558.[120] Only through the activities of her fleets did Elizabeth pursue an aggressive policy. This paid off in the war against Spain, 80% of which was fought at sea.[121] She knighted Francis Drake after his circumnavigation of the globe from 1577 to 1580, and he won fame for his raids on Spanish ports and fleets. An element of piracy and self-enrichment drove Elizabethan seafarers, over whom the queen had little control.[122][123]

 Netherlands

 Elizabeth receiving Dutch ambassadors, 1560s, attributed to Levina Teerlinc

 After the occupation and loss of Le Havre in 1562–1563, Elizabeth avoided military expeditions on the continent until 1585, when she sent an English army to aid the Protestant Dutch rebels against Philip II.[124] This followed the deaths in 1584 of the queen's allies William the Silent, Prince of Orange, and the Duke of Anjou, and the surrender of a series of Dutch towns to Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, Philip's governor of the Spanish Netherlands. In December 1584, an alliance between Philip II and the French Catholic League at Joinville undermined the ability of Anjou's brother, Henry III of France, to counter Spanish domination of the Netherlands. It also extended Spanish influence along the channel coast of France, where the Catholic League was strong, and exposed England to invasion.[124] The siege of Antwerp in the summer of 1585 by the Duke of Parma necessitated some reaction on the part of the English and the Dutch. The outcome was the Treaty of Nonsuch of August 1585, in which Elizabeth promised military support to the Dutch.[125] The treaty marked the beginning of the Anglo-Spanish War, which lasted until the Treaty of London in 1604.

 The expedition was led by Elizabeth's former suitor, the Earl of Leicester. Elizabeth from the start did not really back this course of action. Her strategy, to support the Dutch on the surface with an English army, while beginning secret peace talks with Spain within days of Leicester's arrival in Holland,[126] had necessarily to be at odds with Leicester's, who wanted and was expected by the Dutch to fight an active campaign. Elizabeth, on the other hand, wanted him "to avoid at all costs any decisive action with the enemy".[127] He enraged Elizabeth by accepting the post of Governor-General from the Dutch States General. Elizabeth saw this as a Dutch ploy to force her to accept sovereignty over the Netherlands,[128] which so far she had always declined. She wrote to Leicester:

 We could never have imagined (had we not seen it fall out in experience) that a man raised up by ourself and extraordinarily favoured by us, above any other subject of this land, would have in so contemptible a sort broken our commandment in a cause that so greatly touches us in honour ... And therefore our express pleasure and commandment is that, all delays and excuses laid apart, you do presently upon the duty of your allegiance obey and fulfill whatsoever the bearer hereof shall direct you to do in our name. Whereof fail you not, as you will answer the contrary at your utmost peril.[129]

 Elizabeth's "commandment" was that her emissary read out her letters of disapproval publicly before the Dutch Council of State, Leicester having to stand nearby.[130] This public humiliation of her "Lieutenant-General" combined with her continued talks for a separate peace with Spain[k] irreversibly undermined Leicester's standing among the Dutch. The military campaign was severely hampered by Elizabeth's repeated refusals to send promised funds for her starving soldiers. Her unwillingness to commit herself to the cause, Leicester's own shortcomings as a political and military leader, and the faction-ridden and chaotic situation of Dutch politics led to the failure of the campaign.[132] Leicester finally resigned his command in December 1587.[133]

 Spanish Armada

 Portrait from 1586 to 1587, by Nicholas Hilliard, around the time of the voyages of Sir Francis Drake

 Meanwhile, Sir Francis Drake had undertaken a major voyage against Spanish ports and ships in the Caribbean in 1585 and 1586. In 1587 he made a successful raid on Cádiz, destroying the Spanish fleet of war ships intended for the Enterprise of England,[134] as Philip II had decided to take the war to England.[135]

 On 12 July 1588, the Spanish Armada, a great fleet of ships, set sail for the channel, planning to ferry a Spanish invasion force under the Duke of Parma to the coast of southeast England from the Netherlands. A combination of miscalculation,[l] misfortune, and an attack of English fire ships on 29 July off Gravelines, which dispersed the Spanish ships to the northeast, defeated the Armada.[137] The Armada straggled home to Spain in shattered remnants, after disastrous losses on the coast of Ireland (after some ships had tried to struggle back to Spain via the North Sea, and then back south past the west coast of Ireland).[138] Unaware of the Armada's fate, English militias mustered to defend the country under the Earl of Leicester's command. Leicester invited Elizabeth to inspect her troops at Tilbury in Essex on 8 August. Wearing a silver breastplate over a white velvet dress, she addressed them in one of her most famous speeches:

 My loving people, we have been persuaded by some that are careful of our safety, to take heed how we commit ourself to armed multitudes for fear of treachery; but I assure you, I do not desire to live to distrust my faithful and loving people ... I know I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a King of England too, and think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, or any Prince of Europe should dare to invade the borders of my realm.[139]

 Portrait commemorating the defeat of the Spanish Armada, depicted in the background. Elizabeth's hand rests on the globe, symbolising her international power. One of three known versions of the "Armada Portrait".

 When no invasion came, the nation rejoiced. Elizabeth's procession to a thanksgiving service at St Paul's Cathedral rivalled that of her coronation as a spectacle.[138] The defeat of the armada was a potent propaganda victory, both for Elizabeth and for Protestant England. The English took their delivery as a symbol of God's favour and of the nation's inviolability under a virgin queen.[121] However, the victory was not a turning point in the war, which continued and often favoured Spain.[140] The Spanish still controlled the southern provinces of the Netherlands, and the threat of invasion remained.[135] Sir Walter Raleigh claimed after her death that Elizabeth's caution had impeded the war against Spain:

 If the late queen would have believed her men of war as she did her scribes, we had in her time beaten that great empire in pieces and made their kings of figs and oranges as in old times. But her Majesty did all by halves, and by petty invasions taught the Spaniard how to defend himself, and to see his own weakness.[141]

 Though some historians have criticised Elizabeth on similar grounds,[m] Raleigh's verdict has more often been judged unfair. Elizabeth had good reason not to place too much trust in her commanders, who once in action tended, as she put it herself, "to be transported with an haviour of vainglory".[143]

 In 1589, the year after the Spanish Armada, Elizabeth sent to Spain the English Armada or Counter Armada with 23,375 men and 150 ships, led by Sir Francis Drake as admiral and Sir John Norreys as general. The English fleet suffered a catastrophic defeat with 11,000–15,000 killed, wounded or died of disease[144][145][146] and 40 ships sunk or captured.[146] The advantage England had won upon the destruction of the Spanish Armada was lost, and the Spanish victory marked a revival of Philip II's naval power through the next decade.[147]

 France

 Silver sixpence struck 1593 identifying Elizabeth as "by the Grace of God Queen of England, France, and Ireland"

 When the Protestant Henry IV inherited the French throne in 1589, Elizabeth sent him military support. It was her first venture into France since the retreat from Le Havre in 1563. Henry's succession was strongly contested by the Catholic League and by Philip II, and Elizabeth feared a Spanish takeover of the channel ports. The subsequent English campaigns in France, however, were disorganised and ineffective.[148] Peregrine Bertie, 13th Baron Willoughby de Eresby, largely ignoring Elizabeth's orders, roamed northern France to little effect, with an army of 4,000 men. He withdrew in disarray in December 1589, having lost half his troops. In 1591, the campaign of John Norreys, who led 3,000 men to Brittany, was even more of a disaster. As for all such expeditions, Elizabeth was unwilling to invest in the supplies and reinforcements requested by the commanders. Norreys left for London to plead in person for more support. In his absence, a Catholic League army almost destroyed the remains of his army at Craon, north-west France, in May 1591. In July, Elizabeth sent out another force under Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, to help Henry IV in besieging Rouen. The result was just as dismal. Essex accomplished nothing and returned home in January 1592. Henry abandoned the siege in April.[149] As usual, Elizabeth lacked control over her commanders once they were abroad. "Where he is, or what he doth, or what he is to do," she wrote of Essex, "we are ignorant".[150]

 Ireland

 Main article: Tudor conquest of Ireland
 The Irish Gaelic chieftain O'Neale and the other kerns kneel to Sir Henry Sidney in submission.

 Although Ireland was one of her two kingdoms, Elizabeth faced a hostile, and in places virtually autonomous,[n] Irish population that adhered to Catholicism and was willing to defy her authority and plot with her enemies. Her policy there was to grant land to her courtiers and prevent the rebels from giving Spain a base from which to attack England.[152] In the course of a series of uprisings, Crown forces pursued scorched-earth tactics, burning the land and slaughtering man, woman and child. During a revolt in Munster led by Gerald FitzGerald, 14th Earl of Desmond, in 1582, an estimated 30,000 Irish people starved to death. The poet and colonist Edmund Spenser wrote that the victims "were brought to such wretchedness as that any stony heart would have rued the same".[153] Elizabeth advised her commanders that the Irish, "that rude and barbarous nation", be well treated, but she or her commanders showed no remorse when force and bloodshed served their authoritarian purpose.[154]

 Between 1594 and 1603, Elizabeth faced her most severe test in Ireland during the Nine Years' War, a revolt that took place at the height of hostilities with Spain, who backed the rebel leader, Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone.[155] In spring 1599, Elizabeth sent Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, to put the revolt down. To her frustration,[o] he made little progress and returned to England in defiance of her orders. He was replaced by Charles Blount, 8th Baron Mountjoy, who took three years to defeat the rebels. O'Neill finally surrendered in 1603, a few days after Elizabeth's death.[156] Soon afterwards, a peace treaty was signed between England and Spain.

 Russia

 Elizabeth continued to maintain the diplomatic relations with the Tsardom of Russia that were originally established by her half-brother, Edward VI. She often wrote to Tsar Ivan the Terrible on amicable terms, though the Tsar was often annoyed by her focus on commerce rather than on the possibility of a military alliance. Ivan even proposed to her once, and during his later reign, asked for a guarantee to be granted asylum in England should his rule be jeopardised.[157] English merchant and explorer Anthony Jenkinson, who began his career as a representative of the Muscovy Company, became the queen's special ambassador to the court of Tsar Ivan.[158] Upon his death in 1584, Ivan was succeeded by his son Feodor I. Unlike his father, Feodor had no enthusiasm in maintaining exclusive trading rights with England. He declared his kingdom open to all foreigners, and dismissed the English ambassador Sir Jerome Bowes, whose pomposity had been tolerated by Ivan. Elizabeth sent a new ambassador, Dr. Giles Fletcher, to demand from the regent Boris Godunov that he convince the Tsar to reconsider. The negotiations failed, due to Fletcher addressing Feodor with two of his many titles omitted. Elizabeth continued to appeal to Feodor in half appealing, half reproachful letters. She proposed an alliance, something which she had refused to do when offered one by Feodor's father, but was turned down.[157]

 Muslim states

 Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud was the Moorish ambassador to Elizabeth in 1600.

 Trade and diplomatic relations developed between England and the Barbary states during the rule of Elizabeth.[159][160] England established a trading relationship with Morocco in opposition to Spain, selling armour, ammunition, timber, and metal in exchange for Moroccan sugar, in spite of a papal ban.[161] In 1600, Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud, the principal secretary to the Moroccan ruler Mulai Ahmad al-Mansur, visited England as an ambassador to the English court,[159][162] to negotiate an Anglo-Moroccan alliance against Spain.[163][159] Elizabeth "agreed to sell munitions supplies to Morocco, and she and Mulai Ahmad al-Mansur talked on and off about mounting a joint operation against the Spanish".[164] Discussions, however, remained inconclusive, and both rulers died within two years of the embassy.[165]

 Diplomatic relations were also established with the Ottoman Empire with the chartering of the Levant Company and the dispatch of the first English ambassador to the Sublime Porte, William Harborne, in 1578.[164] For the first time, a treaty of commerce was signed in 1580.[166] Numerous envoys were dispatched in both directions and epistolar exchanges occurred between Elizabeth and Sultan Murad III.[164] In one correspondence, Murad entertained the notion that Islam and Protestantism had "much more in common than either did with Roman Catholicism, as both rejected the worship of idols", and argued for an alliance between England and the Ottoman Empire.[167] To the dismay of Catholic Europe, England exported tin and lead (for cannon-casting) and ammunitions to the Ottoman Empire, and Elizabeth seriously discussed joint military operations with Murad III during the outbreak of war with Spain in 1585, as Francis Walsingham was lobbying for a direct Ottoman military involvement against the common Spanish enemy.[168]

 America

 In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert sailed west to establish a colony in Newfoundland. He never returned to England. Gilbert's half-brother Sir Walter Raleigh explored the Atlantic Coast and claimed the territory of Virginia, perhaps named in honour of Elizabeth, the "Virgin Queen". This territory was much larger than the present-day state of Virginia, extending from New England to the Carolinas. In 1585, Raleigh returned to Virginia with a small group of people. They landed on Roanoke Island, off present-day North Carolina. After the failure of the first colony, Raleigh recruited another group and put John White in command. When Raleigh returned in 1590, there was no trace of the Roanoke Colony he had left, but it was the first English settlement in North America.[169]

 East India Company

 The East India Company was formed to trade in the Indian Ocean region and China, and received its charter from Queen Elizabeth on 31 December 1600. For a period of 15 years, the company was awarded a monopoly on English trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. Sir James Lancaster commanded the first expedition in 1601. The Company eventually controlled half of world trade and substantial territory in India in the 18th and 19th centuries.[170]

 Later years

 The period after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 brought new difficulties for Elizabeth that lasted until the end of her reign.[140] The conflicts with Spain and in Ireland dragged on, the tax burden grew heavier, and the economy was hit by poor harvests and the cost of war. Prices rose and the standard of living fell.[171][172][140] During this time, repression of Catholics intensified, and Elizabeth authorised commissions in 1591 to interrogate and monitor Catholic householders.[173] To maintain the illusion of peace and prosperity, she increasingly relied on internal spies and propaganda.[171] In her last years, mounting criticism reflected a decline in the public's affection for her.[p][q]

 Lord Essex was a favourite of Elizabeth I despite his petulance and irresponsibility.

 One of the causes for this "second reign" of Elizabeth, as it is sometimes called,[176] was the changed character of Elizabeth's governing body, the privy council in the 1590s. A new generation was in power. With the exception of William Cecil, Baron Burghley, the most important politicians had died around 1590: the Earl of Leicester in 1588; Sir Francis Walsingham in 1590; and Sir Christopher Hatton in 1591.[177] Factional strife in the government, which had not existed in a noteworthy form before the 1590s,[178] now became its hallmark.[179] A bitter rivalry arose between Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, and Robert Cecil, son of Lord Burghley, with both being supported by their respective adherents. The struggle for the most powerful positions in the state marred the kingdom's politics.[180] The queen's personal authority was lessening,[181] as is shown in the 1594 affair of Dr. Lopez, her trusted physician. When he was wrongly accused by the Earl of Essex of treason out of personal pique, she could not prevent the doctor's execution, although she had been angry about his arrest and seems not to have believed in his guilt.[182]

 During the last years of her reign, Elizabeth came to rely on the granting of monopolies as a cost-free system of patronage, rather than asking Parliament for more subsidies in a time of war.[r] The practice soon led to price-fixing, the enrichment of courtiers at the public's expense, and widespread resentment.[184] This culminated in agitation in the House of Commons during the parliament of 1601.[185] In her famous "Golden Speech" of 30 November 1601 at Whitehall Palace to a deputation of 140 members, Elizabeth professed ignorance of the abuses, and won the members over with promises and her usual appeal to the emotions:[186]

 Who keeps their sovereign from the lapse of error, in which, by ignorance and not by intent they might have fallen, what thank they deserve, we know, though you may guess. And as nothing is more dear to us than the loving conservation of our subjects' hearts, what an undeserved doubt might we have incurred if the abusers of our liberality, the thrallers of our people, the wringers of the poor, had not been told us![187]

 Portrait attributed to Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger or his studio, c. 1595

 This same period of economic and political uncertainty, however, produced an unsurpassed literary flowering in England.[188] The first signs of a new literary movement had appeared at the end of the second decade of Elizabeth's reign, with John Lyly's Euphues and Edmund Spenser's The Shepheardes Calender in 1578. During the 1590s, some of the great names of English literature entered their maturity, including William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe. Continuing into the Jacobean era, the English theatre would reach its peak.[189] The notion of a great Elizabethan era depends largely on the builders, dramatists, poets, and musicians who were active during Elizabeth's reign. They owed little directly to the queen, who was never a major patron of the arts.[190]

 As Elizabeth aged her image gradually changed. She was portrayed as Belphoebe or Astraea, and after the Armada, as Gloriana, the eternally youthful Faerie Queene of Edmund Spenser's poem. Elizabeth gave Edmund Spenser a pension; as this was unusual for her, it indicates that she liked his work.[191] Her painted portraits became less realistic and more a set of enigmatic icons that made her look much younger than she was. In fact, her skin had been scarred by smallpox in 1562, leaving her half bald and dependent on wigs and cosmetics.[192] Her love of sweets and fear of dentists contributed to severe tooth decay and loss to such an extent that foreign ambassadors had a hard time understanding her speech.[193] André Hurault de Maisse, Ambassador Extraordinary from Henry IV of France, reported an audience with the queen, during which he noticed, "her teeth are very yellow and unequal ... and on the left side less than on the right. Many of them are missing, so that one cannot understand her easily when she speaks quickly." Yet he added, "her figure is fair and tall and graceful in whatever she does; so far as may be she keeps her dignity, yet humbly and graciously withal."[194] Sir Walter Raleigh called her "a lady whom time had surprised".[195]

 Christoffel van Sichem I, Elizabeth, Queen of Great Britain, published 1601

 The more Elizabeth's beauty faded, the more her courtiers praised it.[192] Elizabeth was happy to play the part,[s] but it is possible that in the last decade of her life she began to believe her own performance. She became fond and indulgent of the charming but petulant young Earl of Essex, who was Leicester's stepson and took liberties with her for which she forgave him.[197] She repeatedly appointed him to military posts despite his growing record of irresponsibility. After Essex's desertion of his command in Ireland in 1599, Elizabeth had him placed under house arrest and the following year deprived him of his monopolies.[198] In February 1601, Essex tried to raise a rebellion in London. He intended to seize the queen but few rallied to his support, and he was beheaded on 25 February. Elizabeth knew that her own misjudgements were partly to blame for this turn of events. An observer wrote in 1602: "Her delight is to sit in the dark, and sometimes with shedding tears to bewail Essex."[199]

 Death

 Elizabeth's senior adviser, Lord Burghley, died on 4 August 1598. His political mantle passed to his son Robert, who soon became the leader of the government.[t] One task he addressed was to prepare the way for a smooth succession. Since Elizabeth would never name her successor, Robert Cecil was obliged to proceed in secret.[u] He therefore entered into a coded negotiation with James VI of Scotland, who had a strong but unrecognised claim.[v] Cecil coached the impatient James to humour Elizabeth and "secure the heart of the highest, to whose sex and quality nothing is so improper as either needless expostulations or over much curiosity in her own actions".[201] The advice worked. James's tone delighted Elizabeth, who responded: "So trust I that you will not doubt but that your last letters are so acceptably taken as my thanks cannot be lacking for the same, but yield them to you in grateful sort".[202] In historian J. E. Neale's view, Elizabeth may not have declared her wishes openly to James, but she made them known with "unmistakable if veiled phrases".[203]

 Elizabeth's funeral cortège, 1603, with banners of her royal ancestors

 The queen's health remained fair until the autumn of 1602, when a series of deaths among her friends plunged her into a severe depression. In February 1603, the death of Catherine Carey, Countess of Nottingham, the niece of her cousin and close friend Lady Knollys, came as a particular blow. In March, Elizabeth fell sick and remained in a "settled and unremovable melancholy", and sat motionless on a cushion for hours on end.[204] When Robert Cecil told her that she must go to bed, she snapped: "Must is not a word to use to princes, little man." She died on 24 March 1603 at Richmond Palace, between two and three in the morning. A few hours later, Cecil and the council set their plans in motion and proclaimed James King of England.[205]

 While it has become normative to record Elizabeth's death as occurring in 1603, following English calendar reform in the 1750s, at the time England observed New Year's Day on 25 March, commonly known as Lady Day. Thus Elizabeth died on the last day of the year 1602 in the old calendar. The modern convention is to use the old style calendar for the day and month while using the new style calendar for the year.[206]

 Elizabeth as shown on her tomb at Westminster Abbey

 Elizabeth's coffin was carried downriver at night to Whitehall, on a barge lit with torches. At her funeral on 28 April, the coffin was taken to Westminster Abbey on a hearse drawn by four horses hung with black velvet. In the words of the chronicler John Stow:

 Westminster was surcharged with multitudes of all sorts of people in their streets, houses, windows, leads and gutters, that came out to see the obsequy, and when they beheld her statue lying upon the coffin, there was such a general sighing, groaning and weeping as the like hath not been seen or known in the memory of man.[207]

 Elizabeth was interred in Westminster Abbey, in a tomb shared with her half-sister, Mary I. The Latin inscription on their tomb, "Regno consortes & urna, hic obdormimus Elizabetha et Maria sorores, in spe resurrectionis", translates to "Consorts in realm and tomb, here we sleep, Elizabeth and Mary, sisters, in hope of resurrection".[208]

 Legacy

 Further information: Cultural depictions of Elizabeth I
 Elizabeth I, painted around 1610, during the first revival of interest in her reign. Time sleeps on her right and Death looks over her left shoulder; two putti hold the crown above her head.[209]

 Elizabeth was lamented by many of her subjects, but others were relieved at her death.[210] Expectations of King James started high but then declined. By the 1620s, there was a nostalgic revival of the cult of Elizabeth.[211] Elizabeth was praised as a heroine of the Protestant cause and the ruler of a golden age. James was depicted as a Catholic sympathiser, presiding over a corrupt court.[212] The triumphalist image that Elizabeth had cultivated towards the end of her reign, against a background of factionalism and military and economic difficulties,[213] was taken at face value and her reputation inflated. Godfrey Goodman, Bishop of Gloucester, recalled: "When we had experience of a Scottish government, the Queen did seem to revive. Then was her memory much magnified."[214] Elizabeth's reign became idealised as a time when crown, church and parliament had worked in constitutional balance.[215]

 The picture of Elizabeth painted by her Protestant admirers of the early 17th century has proved lasting and influential.[216] Her memory was also revived during the Napoleonic Wars, when the nation again found itself on the brink of invasion.[217] In the Victorian era, the Elizabethan legend was adapted to the imperial ideology of the day,[210][w] and in the mid-20th century, Elizabeth was a romantic symbol of the national resistance to foreign threat.[218][x] Historians of that period, such as J. E. Neale (1934) and A. L. Rowse (1950), interpreted Elizabeth's reign as a golden age of progress.[219] Neale and Rowse also idealised the Queen personally: she always did everything right; her more unpleasant traits were ignored or explained as signs of stress.[220]

 Recent historians, however, have taken a more complicated view of Elizabeth.[142] Her reign is famous for the defeat of the Armada, and for successful raids against the Spanish, such as those on Cádiz in 1587 and 1596, but some historians point to military failures on land and at sea.[148] In Ireland, Elizabeth's forces ultimately prevailed, but their tactics stain her record.[221] Rather than as a brave defender of the Protestant nations against Spain and the Habsburgs, she is more often regarded as cautious in her foreign policies. She offered very limited aid to foreign Protestants and failed to provide her commanders with the funds to make a difference abroad.[222]

 Elizabeth established an English church that helped shape a national identity and remains in place today.[223][224][225] Those who praised her later as a Protestant heroine overlooked her refusal to drop all practices of Catholic origin from the Church of England.[y] Historians note that in her day, strict Protestants regarded the Acts of Settlement and Uniformity of 1559 as a compromise.[227][228] In fact, Elizabeth believed that faith was personal and did not wish, as Francis Bacon put it, to "make windows into men's hearts and secret thoughts".[229][230]

 Though Elizabeth followed a largely defensive foreign policy, her reign raised England's status abroad. "She is only a woman, only mistress of half an island," marvelled Pope Sixtus V, "and yet she makes herself feared by Spain, by France, by the Empire, by all".[231] Under Elizabeth, the nation gained a new self-confidence and sense of sovereignty, as Christendom fragmented.[211][232][233] Elizabeth was the first Tudor to recognise that a monarch ruled by popular consent.[z] She therefore always worked with parliament and advisers she could trust to tell her the truth—a style of government that her Stuart successors failed to follow. Some historians have called her lucky;[231] she believed that God was protecting her.[235] Priding herself on being "mere English",[236] Elizabeth trusted in God, honest advice, and the love of her subjects for the success of her rule.[237] In a prayer, she offered thanks to God that:

 [At a time] when wars and seditions with grievous persecutions have vexed almost all kings and countries round about me, my reign hath been peacable, and my realm a receptacle to thy afflicted Church. The love of my people hath appeared firm, and the devices of my enemies frustrate.[231]

 Family tree

 Thomas Boleyn, Earl of Wiltshire Elizabeth Howard   Henry VII of England Elizabeth of York
  
       
      
 Mary Boleyn Anne Boleyn   Henry VIII of England Margaret Tudor James IV of Scotland Mary Tudor, Queen of France
    
       
     
 Catherine Carey Henry Carey, Baron Hunsdon Elizabeth I of England Philip II of Spain Mary I of England Edward VI of England James V of Scotland Margaret Douglas Frances Brandon 
 
       
 
  Catherine Howard, Countess of Nottingham   Mary, Queen of Scots Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley Jane Grey 
 
       
 
      James VI and I
 
 

 See also

 * Biography portal
 * England portal
 * Monarchy portal
 * Anti-Catholicism in the United Kingdom
 * Early modern Britain
 * English Renaissance
 * Inventory of Elizabeth I
 * Portraiture of Elizabeth I
 * Protestant Reformation
 * Royal Arms of England
 * Royal eponyms in Canada for Queen Elizabeth I
 * Royal Standards of England
 * Tudor period

 Notes

 1. ^ Dates in this article before 14 September 1752 are in the Julian calendar and 1 January is treated as the beginning of the year, even though 25 March was treated as the beginning of the year in England during Elizabeth's life.
 2. ^ "I mean to direct all my actions by good advice and counsel." [2]
 3. ^ An Act of July 1536 stated that Elizabeth was "illegitimate ... and utterly foreclosed, excluded and banned to claim, challenge, or demand any inheritance as lawful heir ... to [the King] by lineal descent". [11]
 4. ^ Elizabeth had assembled 2,000 horsemen, "a remarkable tribute to the size of her affinity". [32]
 5. ^ "The wives of Wycombe passed cake and wafers to her until her litter became so burdened that she had to beg them to stop." [38]
 6. ^ "It was fortunate that ten out of twenty-six bishoprics were vacant, for of late there had been a high rate of mortality among the episcopate, and a fever had conveniently carried off Mary's Archbishop of Canterbury, Reginald Pole , less than twenty-four hours after her own death". [56]
 7. ^ "There were no less than ten sees unrepresented through death or illness and the carelessness of 'the accursed cardinal' [Pole]". [57]
 8. ^ Most modern historians have considered murder unlikely; breast cancer and suicide being the most widely accepted explanations. [68] The coroner 's report, hitherto believed lost, came to light in The National Archives in the late 2000s and is compatible with a downstairs fall as well as other violence. [69]
 9. ^ On Elizabeth's accession, Mary's Guise relatives had pronounced her Queen of England and had the English arms emblazoned with those of Scotland and France on her plate and furniture. [102]
 10. ^ By the terms of the treaty, both English and French troops withdrew from Scotland. [105]
 11. ^ Elizabeth's ambassador in France was actively misleading her as to the true intentions of the Spanish king, who only tried to buy time for his great assault upon England [131]
 12. ^ When the Spanish naval commander, the Duke of Medina Sidonia , reached the coast near Calais, he found the Duke of Parma's troops unready and was forced to wait, giving the English the opportunity to launch their attack. [136]
 13. ^ For example, C. H. Wilson castigates Elizabeth for half-heartedness in the war against Spain. [142]
 14. ^ One observer wrote that Ulster , for example, was "as unknown to the English here as the most inland part of Virginia". [151]
 15. ^ In a letter of 19 July 1599 to Essex, Elizabeth wrote: "For what can be more true (if things be rightly examined) than that your two month's journey has brought in never a capital rebel against whom it had been worthy to have adventured one thousand men". [155]
 16. ^ This criticism of Elizabeth was noted by Elizabeth's early biographers William Camden and John Clapham. For a detailed account of such criticisms and of Elizabeth's "government by illusion" [174]
 17. ^ John Cramsie, in reviewing the recent scholarship in 2003, argued "the period 1585–1603 is now recognised by scholars as distinctly more troubled than the first half of Elizabeth's long reign. Costly wars against Spain and the Irish, involvement in the Netherlands, socio-economic distress, and an authoritarian turn by the regime all cast a pall over Gloriana's final years, underpinning a weariness with the queen's rule and open criticism of her government and its failures." [175]
 18. ^ A Patent of Monopoly gave the holder control over an aspect of trade or manufacture. [183]
 19. ^ "The metaphor of drama is an appropriate one for Elizabeth's reign, for her power was an illusion—and an illusion was her power. Like Henry IV of France, she projected an image of herself which brought stability and prestige to her country. By constant attention to the details of her total performance, she kept the rest of the cast on their toes and kept her own part as queen." [196]
 20. ^ After Essex's downfall, James VI of Scotland referred to Robert Cecil as "king there in effect". [200]
 21. ^ Cecil wrote to James, "The subject itself is so perilous to touch amongst us as it setteth a mark upon his head forever that hatcheth such a bird". [201]
 22. ^ James VI of Scotland was a great-great-grandson of Henry VII of England , and thus Elizabeth's first cousin twice removed, since Henry VII was Elizabeth's paternal grandfather.
 23. ^ The age of Elizabeth was redrawn as one of chivalry , epitomised by courtly encounters between the queen and sea-dog "heroes" such as Drake and Raleigh. Some Victorian narratives, such as Raleigh laying his cloak before the queen or presenting her with a potato, remain part of the myth. [217]
 24. ^ In his preface to the 1952 reprint of Queen Elizabeth I , J. E. Neale observed: "The book was written before such words as "ideological", "fifth column", and "cold war" became current; and it is perhaps as well that they are not there. But the ideas are present, as is the idea of romantic leadership of a nation in peril, because they were present in Elizabethan times".
 25. ^ The new state religion was condemned at the time in such terms as "a cloaked papistry, or mingle mangle". [226]
 26. ^ As Elizabeth's Lord Keeper , Sir Nicholas Bacon , put it on her behalf to parliament in 1559, the queen "is not, nor ever meaneth to be, so wedded to her own will and fantasy that for the satisfaction thereof she will do anything ... to bring any bondage or servitude to her people, or give any just occasion to them of any inward grudge whereby any tumults or stirs might arise as hath done of late days". [234]

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 * Haynes, Alan (1987), The White Bear: The Elizabethan Earl of Leicester, Peter Owen, ISBN 978-0-7206-0672-0.
 * Hogge, Alice (2005), God's Secret Agents: Queen Elizabeth's Forbidden Priests and the Hatching of the Gunpowder Plot, London: HarperCollins, ISBN 978-0-00-715637-5.
 * Jenkins, Elizabeth (2002) [1961], Elizabeth and Leicester, The Phoenix Press, ISBN 978-1-84212-560-1.
 * Jenkins, Elizabeth (1967) [1957], Elizabeth the Great, New York: Capricorn Books, G.P. Putnam's and Sons, ISBN 978-1-898799-70-2.
 * Kantorowicz, Ernst Hartwig (1997). The king's two bodies: a study in mediaeval political theology (2 ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-01704-4.
 * Kenyon, John P. (1983), The History Men: The Historical Profession in England since the Renaissance, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 978-0-297-78254-4.
 * Kupperman, Karen Ordahl (2007), The Jamestown Project, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-02474-8.
 * Lacey, Robert (1971), Robert Earl of Essex: An Elizabethan Icarus, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 978-0-297-00320-5.
 * Loades, David (2003), Elizabeth I: The Golden Reign of Gloriana, London: The National Archives, ISBN 978-1-903365-43-4.
 * McGrath, Patrick (1967), Papists and Puritans under Elizabeth I, London: Blandford Press.
 * Neale, J. E. (1954) [1934], Queen Elizabeth I: A Biography (reprint ed.), London: Jonathan Cape, OCLC 220518.
 * Parker, Geoffrey (2000), The Grand Strategy of Philip II, New Haven: Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-08273-9.
 * Rowse, A. L. (1950), The England of Elizabeth, London: Macmillan, OCLC 181656553.
 * Skidmore, Chris (2010), Death and the Virgin: Elizabeth, Dudley and the Mysterious Fate of Amy Robsart, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 978-0-297-84650-5.
 * Somerset, Anne (2003), Elizabeth I (1st Anchor Books ed.), London: Anchor Books, ISBN 978-0-385-72157-8.
 * Starkey, David (2001), Elizabeth: Apprenticeship, London: Vintage, ISBN 978-0-09-928657-8.
 * Starkey, David (2003), "Elizabeth: Woman, Monarch, Mission", in Doran, Susan (ed.), Elizabeth: The Exhibition at the National Maritime Museum, London: Chatto and Windus, ISBN 978-0-7011-7476-7.
 * Strong, Roy C. (2003) [1987], Gloriana: The Portraits of Queen Elizabeth I, London: Pimlico, ISBN 978-0-7126-0944-9.
 * Strong, Roy C. & van Dorsten, J. A. (1964), Leicester's Triumph, Oxford University Press.
 * Weir, Alison (1997), The Children of Henry VIII, London: Random House, ISBN 978-0-345-40786-3.
 * Weir, Alison (1999), Elizabeth the Queen, London: Pimlico, ISBN 978-0-7126-7312-9.
 * Williams, Neville (1964), Thomas Howard, Fourth Duke of Norfolk, London: Barrie & Rockliff.
 * Williams, Neville (1972), The Life and Times of Elizabeth I, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 978-0-297-83168-6.
 * Willson, David Harris (1963) [1956], King James VI & I, London: Jonathan Cape, ISBN 978-0-224-60572-4.
 * Wilson, Derek (1981), Sweet Robin: A Biography of Robert Dudley Earl of Leicester 1533–1588, London: Hamish Hamilton, ISBN 978-0-241-10149-0.
 * Woodward, Jennifer (1997), The Theatre of Death: The Ritual Management of Royal Funerals in Renaissance England, 1570–1625, Boydell & Brewer, ISBN 978-0-85115-704-7

 Further reading

 * Beem, Charles. The Foreign Relations of Elizabeth I (2011) excerpt and text search Archived 26 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine
 * Bridgen, Susan (2001). New Worlds, Lost Worlds: The Rule of the Tudors, 1485–1603. New York: Viking Penguin. ISBN 978-0-670-89985-2.
 * Hodges, J. P. The Nature of the Lion: Elizabeth I and Our Anglican Heritage (London: Faith Press, 1962).
 * Jones, Norman. The Birth of the Elizabethan Age: England in the 1560s (Blackwell, 1993)
 * MacCaffrey Wallace T. Elizabeth I (1993), political biography summarising his multivolume study:
 + MacCaffrey Wallace T. The Shaping of the Elizabethan Regime: Elizabethan Politics, 1558–1572 (1969)
 + MacCaffrey Wallace T. Queen Elizabeth and the Making of Policy, 1572–1588 (1988)
 + MacCaffrey Wallace T. Elizabeth I: War and Politics, 1588–1603 (1994)
 * McLaren, A. N. Political Culture in the Reign of Elizabeth I: Queen and Commonwealth, 1558–1585 (Cambridge University Press, 1999) excerpt and text search Archived 8 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
 * Palliser, D. M. The Age of Elizabeth: England Under the Later Tudors, 1547–1603 (1983) survey of social and economic history
 * Pollard, Albert Frederick (1911). "Elizabeth of England" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). pp. 282–283.
 * Ridley, Jasper Godwin (1989). Elizabeth I: The Shrewdness of Virtue. Fromm International. ISBN 978-0-88064-110-4.
 * Wernham, R. B. Before the Armada: the growth of English foreign policy, 1485–1588 (1966), a standard history of foreign policy
 * Whitelock, Anna (2013). Elizabeth's Bedfellows: An Intimate History of the Queen's Court. London: Bloomsbury. ISBN 9781408808801.

 Primary sources and early histories

 * Elizabeth I (2002). Elizabeth I: Collected Works. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-50465-0.
 * Susan M. Felch, ed. Elizabeth I and Her Age (Norton Critical Editions) (2009); primary and secondary sources, with an emphasis on literature
 * William Camden. History of the Most Renowned and Victorious Princess Elizabeth. Wallace T. MacCaffrey (ed). Chicago: University of Chicago Press, selected chapters, 1970 edition. OCLC 59210072.
 * William Camden. Annales Rerum Gestarum Angliae et Hiberniae Regnante Elizabetha. Archived 18 December 2020 at the Wayback Machine (1615 and 1625.) Hypertext edition, with English translation. Dana F. Sutton (ed.), 2000. Retrieved 7 December 2007.
 * Clapham, John. Elizabeth of England. E. P. Read and Conyers Read (eds). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1951. OCLC 1350639.

 Historiography and memory

 * Carlson, Eric Josef. "Teaching Elizabeth Tudor with Movies: Film, Historical Thinking, and the Classroom," Sixteenth Century Journal, Summer 2007, Vol. 38 Issue 2, pp. 419–440
 * Collinson, Patrick. "Elizabeth I and the verdicts of history," Historical Research, Nov 2003, Vol. 76 Issue 194, pp. 469–491
 * Dobson, Michael; Watson, Nicola Jane (2002). England's Elizabeth: An Afterlife in Fame and Fantasy. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-818377-8.
 * Doran, Susan, and Thomas S. Freeman, eds. The Myth of Elizabeth.(2003).
 * Epstein, Joel (2022). "Elizabeth I: Queen of Music". Music for the Love of It: Episodes in Amateur Music-Making. Juwal Publications. ISBN 978-9659278237.
 * Greaves, Richard L., ed. Elizabeth I, Queen of England (1974), excerpts from historians
 * Haigh, Christopher, ed. The Reign of Elizabeth I (1984), essays by scholars
 * Howard, Maurice. "Elizabeth I: A Sense Of Place In Stone, Print And Paint," Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, Dec 2004, Vol. 14 Issue 1, pp. 261–268
 * Hulme, Harold (1958). "Elizabeth I and Her Parliaments: The Work of Sir John Neale". Journal of Modern History. 30 (3): 236–240. doi:10.1086/238230. JSTOR 1872838. S2CID 144764596.
 * Montrose, Louis. The Subject of Elizabeth: Authority, Gender, and Representation. (2006).
 * Rowse, A. L. "Queen Elizabeth and the Historians." History Today (Sept 1953) 3#9 pp 630–641.
 * Watkins, John. Representing Elizabeth in Stuart England: Literature, History, Sovereignty (2002)
 * Woolf, D. R. "Two Elizabeths? James I and the Late Queen's Famous Memory," Canadian Journal of History, August 1985, Vol. 20 Issue 2, pp. 167–191

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Elizabeth I       The "Darnley Portrait", c. 1575      Queen of England and Ireland  (more...)      Reign 17 November 1558 – 24 March 1603    Coronation  15 January 1559   Predecessor  Mary I    Successor  James I        Born 7 September 1533 Palace of Placentia, Greenwich, England   Died 24 March 1603 (aged 69) Richmond Palace, Surrey, England   Burial 28 April 1603   Westminster Abbey       House   Tudor    Father  Henry VIII    Mother  Anne Boleyn    Religion  Anglicanism    Signature       
 Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603) [a]  was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death in 1603. Elizabeth was the last monarch of the House of Tudor and is sometimes referred to as the "Virgin Queen". [1] 
 Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, his second wife, who was executed when Elizabeth was two years old. Anne's marriage to Henry was annulled, and Elizabeth was for a time declared illegitimate. Her half-brother Edward VI ruled until his death in 1553, bequeathing the crown to Lady Jane Grey and ignoring the claims of his two half-sisters, the Catholic Mary and the younger Elizabeth, in spite of statute law to the contrary. Edward's will was set aside and Mary became queen, deposing Lady Jane Grey. During Mary's reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels.
 Upon her half-sister's death in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded to the throne and set out to rule by good counsel. [b]  She depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers led by William Cecil, whom she created 1st Baron Burghley. One of her first actions as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the supreme governor. This Elizabethan Religious Settlement was to evolve into the Church of England. It was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir; however, despite numerous courtships, she never did. She was eventually succeeded by her first cousin twice removed, James VI of Scotland; this laid the foundation for the Kingdom of Great Britain. She had earlier been reluctantly responsible for the imprisonment and execution of James's mother, Mary, Queen of Scots.
 In government, Elizabeth was more moderate than her father and half-siblings had been. [3]  One of her mottoes was "video et taceo" ("I see and keep silent"). [4]  In religion, she was relatively tolerant and avoided systematic persecution. After the pope declared her illegitimate in 1570 and released her subjects from obedience to her, several conspiracies threatened her life, all of which were defeated with the help of her ministers' secret service, run by Francis Walsingham. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs, manoeuvring between the major powers of France and Spain. She half-heartedly supported a number of ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, and Ireland. By the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid war with Spain.
 As she grew older, Elizabeth became celebrated for her virginity. A cult of personality grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, and literature of the day. Elizabeth's reign became known as the Elizabethan era. The period is famous for the flourishing of English drama, led by playwrights such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe, the prowess of English maritime adventurers, such as Francis Drake and Walter Raleigh, and for the defeat of the Spanish Armada. Some historians depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler, [5]  who enjoyed more than her fair share of luck. Towards the end of her reign, a series of economic and military problems weakened her popularity. Elizabeth is acknowledged as a charismatic performer ("Gloriana") and a dogged survivor ("Good Queen Bess") in an era when government was ramshackle and limited, and when monarchs in neighbouring countries faced internal problems that jeopardised their thrones. After the short reigns of her half-siblings, her 44 years on the throne provided welcome stability for the kingdom and helped to forge a sense of national identity. [3] 
Early life
      Elizabeth's parents, Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. Anne was executed within three years of Elizabeth's birth.  
Elizabeth was born at Greenwich Palace on 7 September 1533 and was named after her grandmothers, Elizabeth of York and Lady Elizabeth Howard. [6]  She was the second child of Henry VIII of England born in wedlock to survive infancy. Her mother was Henry's second wife, Anne Boleyn. At birth, Elizabeth was the heir presumptive to the English throne. Her elder half-sister Mary had lost her position as a legitimate heir when Henry annulled his marriage to Mary's mother, Catherine of Aragon, to marry Anne, with the intent to sire a male heir and ensure the Tudor succession. [7]   [8]  She was baptised on 10 September 1533, and her godparents were Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury; Henry Courtenay, 1st Marquess of Exeter; Elizabeth Stafford, Duchess of Norfolk; and Margaret Wotton, Dowager Marchioness of Dorset. A canopy was carried at the ceremony over the infant by her uncle George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford; John Hussey, 1st Baron Hussey of Sleaford; Lord Thomas Howard; and William Howard, 1st Baron Howard of Effingham. [9] 
 Elizabeth was two years and eight months old when her mother was beheaded on 19 May 1536, [10]  four months after Catherine of Aragon's death from natural causes. Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and deprived of her place in the royal succession. [c]  Eleven days after Anne Boleyn's execution, Henry married Jane Seymour. Queen Jane died the next year shortly after the birth of their son, Edward, who was undisputed heir apparent to the throne. Elizabeth was placed in her half-brother's household and carried the chrisom, or baptismal cloth, at his christening. [12] 
      A rare portrait of Elizabeth prior to her accession, attributed to William Scrots. It was painted for her father in c. 1546.  
Elizabeth's first governess, Margaret Bryan, wrote that she was "as toward a child and as gentle of conditions as ever I knew any in my life". [13]  Catherine Champernowne, better known by her later, married name of Catherine "Kat" Ashley, was appointed as Elizabeth's governess in 1537, and she remained Elizabeth's friend until her death in 1565. Champernowne taught Elizabeth four languages: French, Dutch, Italian and Spanish. [14]  By the time William Grindal became her tutor in 1544, Elizabeth could write English, Latin, and Italian. Under Grindal, a talented and skilful tutor, she also progressed in French and Greek. [15]  By the age of 12 she was able to translate her stepmother Catherine Parr's religious work  Prayers or Meditations  from English into Italian, Latin, and French, which she presented to her father as a New Year's gift. [16]  From her teenage years and throughout her life she translated works in Latin and Greek by numerous classical authors, including the  Pro Marcello  of Cicero, the  De consolatione philosophiae  of Boethius, a treatise by Plutarch, and the  Annals  of Tacitus. [17]   [16]  A translation of Tacitus from Lambeth Palace Library, one of only four surviving English translations from the early modern era, was confirmed as Elizabeth's own in 2019, after a detailed analysis of the handwriting and paper was undertaken. [18] 
 After Grindal died in 1548, Elizabeth received her education under her brother Edward's tutor, Roger Ascham, a sympathetic teacher who believed that learning should be engaging. [19]  Current knowledge of Elizabeth's schooling and precocity comes largely from Ascham's memoirs. [15]  By the time her formal education ended in 1550, Elizabeth was one of the best educated women of her generation. [20]  At the end of her life, she was believed to speak the Welsh, Cornish, Scottish and Irish languages in addition to those mentioned above. The Venetian ambassador stated in 1603 that she "possessed [these] languages so thoroughly that each appeared to be her native tongue". [21]  Historian Mark Stoyle suggests that she was probably taught Cornish by William Killigrew, Groom of the Privy Chamber and later Chamberlain of the Exchequer. [22] 
Thomas Seymour
     
Henry VIII died in 1547 and Elizabeth's half-brother, Edward VI, became king at the age of nine. Catherine Parr, Henry's widow, soon married Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley, Edward VI's uncle and the brother of Lord Protector Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset. The couple took Elizabeth into their household at Chelsea. There Elizabeth experienced an emotional crisis that some historians believe affected her for the rest of her life. [23]  Thomas Seymour engaged in romps and horseplay with the 14-year-old Elizabeth, including entering her bedroom in his nightgown, tickling her, and slapping her on the buttocks. Elizabeth rose early and surrounded herself with maids to avoid his unwelcome morning visits. Parr, rather than confront her husband over his inappropriate activities, joined in. Twice she accompanied him in tickling Elizabeth, and once held her while he cut her black gown "into a thousand pieces". [24]  However, after Parr discovered the pair in an embrace, she ended this state of affairs. [25]  In May 1548, Elizabeth was sent away.
 Thomas Seymour nevertheless continued scheming to control the royal family and tried to have himself appointed the governor of the King's person. [26]   [27]  When Parr died after childbirth on 5 September 1548, he renewed his attentions towards Elizabeth, intent on marrying her. [28]  Her governess Kat Ashley, who was fond of Seymour, sought to convince Elizabeth to take him as her husband. She tried to convince Elizabeth to write to Seymour and "comfort him in his sorrow", [29]  but Elizabeth claimed that Thomas was not so saddened by her stepmother's death as to need comfort.
 In January 1549, Seymour was arrested and imprisoned in the Tower on suspicion of conspiring to depose his brother Somerset as Protector, marry Lady Jane Grey to King Edward VI, and take Elizabeth as his own wife. Elizabeth, living at Hatfield House, would admit nothing. Her stubbornness exasperated her interrogator, Sir Robert Tyrwhitt, who reported, "I do see it in her face that she is guilty". [30]  Seymour was beheaded on 20 March 1549. [31] 
Reign of Mary I
       Mary I and Philip, during whose reign Elizabeth was heir presumptive  
     
Edward VI died on 6 July 1553, aged 15. His will ignored the Succession to the Crown Act 1543, excluded both Mary and Elizabeth from the succession, and instead declared as his heir Lady Jane Grey, granddaughter of Henry VIII's younger sister Mary Tudor, Queen of France. Jane was proclaimed queen by the privy council, but her support quickly crumbled, and she was deposed after nine days. On 3 August 1553, Mary rode triumphantly into London, with Elizabeth at her side. [d] 
The show of solidarity between the sisters did not last long. Mary, a devout Catholic, was determined to crush the Protestant faith in which Elizabeth had been educated, and she ordered that everyone attend Catholic Mass; Elizabeth had to outwardly conform. Mary's initial popularity ebbed away in 1554 when she announced plans to marry Philip of Spain, the son of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and an active Catholic. [33]  Discontent spread rapidly through the country, and many looked to Elizabeth as a focus for their opposition to Mary's religious policies.
 In January and February 1554, Wyatt's rebellion broke out; it was soon suppressed. [34]  Elizabeth was brought to court and interrogated regarding her role, and on 18 March, she was imprisoned in the Tower of London. Elizabeth fervently protested her innocence. [35]  Though it is unlikely that she had plotted with the rebels, some of them were known to have approached her. Mary's closest confidant, Emperor Charles's ambassador Simon Renard, argued that her throne would never be safe while Elizabeth lived; and Lord Chancellor Stephen Gardiner, worked to have Elizabeth put on trial. [36]  Elizabeth's supporters in the government, including William Paget, 1st Baron Paget, convinced Mary to spare her sister in the absence of hard evidence against her. Instead, on 22 May, Elizabeth was moved from the Tower to Woodstock, where she was to spend almost a year under house arrest in the charge of Sir Henry Bedingfeld. Crowds cheered her all along the way. [37]   [e] 
 On 17 April 1555, Elizabeth was recalled to court to attend the final stages of Mary's apparent pregnancy. If Mary and her child died, Elizabeth would become queen, but if Mary gave birth to a healthy child, Elizabeth's chances of becoming queen would recede sharply. When it became clear that Mary was not pregnant, no one believed any longer that she could have a child. [39]  Elizabeth's succession seemed assured. [40] 
 King Philip, who ascended the Spanish throne in 1556, acknowledged the new political reality and cultivated his sister-in-law. She was a better ally than the chief alternative, Mary, Queen of Scots, who had grown up in France and was betrothed to the Dauphin of France. [41]  When his wife fell ill in 1558, King Philip sent the Count of Feria to consult with Elizabeth. [42]  This interview was conducted at Hatfield House, where she had returned to live in October 1555. By October 1558, Elizabeth was already making plans for her government. Mary recognised Elizabeth as her heir on 6 November 1558, [43]  and Elizabeth became queen when Mary died on 17 November. [44] 
Accession
      Elizabeth I in her coronation robes, patterned with Tudor roses and trimmed with ermine   
Elizabeth became queen at the age of 25, and declared her intentions to her council and other peers who had come to Hatfield to swear allegiance. The speech contains the first record of her adoption of the medieval political theology of the sovereign's "two bodies": the body natural and the body politic: [45] 
 My lords, the law of nature moves me to sorrow for my sister; the burden that is fallen upon me makes me amazed, and yet, considering I am God's creature, ordained to obey His appointment, I will thereto yield, desiring from the bottom of my heart that I may have assistance of His grace to be the minister of His heavenly will in this office now committed to me. And as I am but one body naturally considered, though by His permission a body politic to govern, so shall I desire you all ... to be assistant to me, that I with my ruling and you with your service may make a good account to Almighty God and leave some comfort to our posterity on earth. I mean to direct all my actions by good advice and counsel. [46]   
As her triumphal progress wound through the city on the eve of the coronation ceremony, she was welcomed wholeheartedly by the citizens and greeted by orations and pageants, most with a strong Protestant flavour. Elizabeth's open and gracious responses endeared her to the spectators, who were "wonderfully ravished". [47]  The following day, 15 January 1559, a date chosen by her astrologer John Dee, [48]   [49]  Elizabeth was crowned and anointed by Owen Oglethorpe, the Catholic bishop of Carlisle, in Westminster Abbey. She was then presented for the people's acceptance, amidst a deafening noise of organs, fifes, trumpets, drums, and bells. [50]  Although Elizabeth was welcomed as queen in England, the country was still in a state of anxiety over the perceived Catholic threat at home and overseas, as well as the choice of whom she would marry. [51] 
Church settlement
     
Elizabeth's personal religious convictions have been much debated by scholars. She was a Protestant, but kept Catholic symbols (such as the crucifix), and downplayed the role of sermons in defiance of a key Protestant belief. [53] 
 Elizabeth and her advisers perceived the threat of a Catholic crusade against heretical England. The queen therefore sought a Protestant solution that would not offend Catholics too greatly while addressing the desires of English Protestants, but she would not tolerate the Puritans, who were pushing for far-reaching reforms. [54]  As a result, the Parliament of 1559 started to legislate for a church based on the Protestant settlement of Edward VI, with the monarch as its head, but with many Catholic elements, such as vestments. [55] 
 The House of Commons backed the proposals strongly, but the bill of supremacy met opposition in the House of Lords, particularly from the bishops. Elizabeth was fortunate that many bishoprics were vacant at the time, including the Archbishopric of Canterbury. [f]   [g]  This enabled supporters amongst peers to outvote the bishops and conservative peers. Nevertheless, Elizabeth was forced to accept the title of Supreme Governor of the Church of England rather than the more contentious title of Supreme Head, which many thought unacceptable for a woman to bear. The new Act of Supremacy became law on 8 May 1559. All public officials were to swear an oath of loyalty to the monarch as the supreme governor or risk disqualification from office; the heresy laws were repealed, to avoid a repeat of the persecution of dissenters practised by Mary. At the same time, a new Act of Uniformity was passed, which made attendance at church and the use of an adapted version of the 1552 Book of Common Prayer  compulsory, though the penalties for recusancy, or failure to attend and conform, were not extreme. [58] 
Marriage question
From the start of Elizabeth's reign it was expected that she would marry, and the question arose to whom. Although she received many offers, she never married and remained childless; the reasons for this are not clear. Historians have speculated that Thomas Seymour had put her off sexual relationships. [59]   [60]  She considered several suitors until she was about fifty. Her last courtship was with Francis, Duke of Anjou, 22 years her junior. While risking possible loss of power like her sister, who played into the hands of King Philip II of Spain, marriage offered the chance of an heir. [61]  However, the choice of a husband might also provoke political instability or even insurrection. [62] 
Robert Dudley
      Pair of miniatures of Elizabeth and Leicester, c. 1575, by Nicholas Hilliard. Their friendship lasted for over thirty years, until his death.  
In the spring of 1559, it became evident that Elizabeth was in love with her childhood friend Robert Dudley. [63]  It was said that his wife Amy was suffering from a "malady in one of her breasts" and that the queen would like to marry Robert if his wife should die. [64]  By the autumn of 1559, several foreign suitors were vying for Elizabeth's hand; their impatient envoys engaged in ever more scandalous talk and reported that a marriage with her favourite was not welcome in England: [65]  "There is not a man who does not cry out on him and her with indignation ... she will marry none but the favoured Robert." [66]  Amy Dudley died in September 1560, from a fall from a flight of stairs and, despite the coroner's inquest finding of accident, many people suspected her husband of having arranged her death so that he could marry the queen. [67]   [h]  Elizabeth seriously considered marrying Dudley for some time. However, William Cecil, Nicholas Throckmorton, and some conservative peers made their disapproval unmistakably clear. [70]  There were even rumours that the nobility would rise if the marriage took place. [71] 
 Among other marriage candidates being considered for the queen, Robert Dudley continued to be regarded as a possible candidate for nearly another decade. [72]  Elizabeth was extremely jealous of his affections, even when she no longer meant to marry him herself. [73]  She raised Dudley to the peerage as Earl of Leicester in 1564. In 1578, he finally married Lettice Knollys, to whom the queen reacted with repeated scenes of displeasure and lifelong hatred. [74]  Still, Dudley always "remained at the centre of [Elizabeth's] emotional life", as historian Susan Doran has described the situation. [75]  He died shortly after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588. After Elizabeth's own death, a note from him was found among her most personal belongings, marked "his last letter" in her handwriting. [76] 
Foreign candidates
Marriage negotiations constituted a key element in Elizabeth's foreign policy. [77]  She turned down the hand of Philip, her half-sister's widower, early in 1559 but for several years entertained the proposal of King Eric XIV of Sweden. [78]   [79]   [80]  Earlier in Elizabeth's life a Danish match for her had been discussed; Henry VIII had proposed one with the Danish prince Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, in 1545, and Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset, suggested a marriage with Prince Frederick (later Frederick II) several years later, but the negotiations had abated in 1551. [81]  In the years around 1559 a Dano-English Protestant alliance was considered, [82]  and to counter Sweden's proposal, King Frederick II proposed to Elizabeth in late 1559. [81] 
      Elizabeth was engaged for a time to Francis, Duke of Anjou. The queen called him her "frog", finding him "not so deformed" as she had been led to expect. [83]    
For several years she also seriously negotiated to marry Philip's cousin Charles II, Archduke of Austria. By 1569, relations with the Habsburgs had deteriorated. Elizabeth considered marriage to two French Valois princes in turn, first Henry, Duke of Anjou, and then from 1572 to 1581 his brother Francis, Duke of Anjou, formerly Duke of Alençon. [84]  This last proposal was tied to a planned alliance against Spanish control of the Southern Netherlands. [85]  Elizabeth seems to have taken the courtship seriously for a time, and wore a frog-shaped earring that Francis had sent her. [86] 
 In 1563, Elizabeth told an imperial envoy: "If I follow the inclination of my nature, it is this: beggar-woman and single, far rather than queen and married". [77]  Later in the year, following Elizabeth's illness with smallpox, the succession question became a heated issue in Parliament. Members urged the queen to marry or nominate an heir, to prevent a civil war upon her death. She refused to do either. In April she prorogued the Parliament, which did not reconvene until she needed its support to raise taxes in 1566.
 Having previously promised to marry, she told an unruly House:
 I will never break the word of a prince spoken in public place, for my honour's sake. And therefore I say again, I will marry as soon as I can conveniently, if God take not him away with whom I mind to marry, or myself, or else some other great let happen. [87]   
By 1570, senior figures in the government privately accepted that Elizabeth would never marry or name a successor. William Cecil was already seeking solutions to the succession problem. [77]  For her failure to marry, Elizabeth was often accused of irresponsibility. [88]  Her silence, however, strengthened her own political security: she knew that if she named an heir, her throne would be vulnerable to a coup; she remembered the way that "a second person, as I have been" had been used as the focus of plots against her predecessor. [89] 
Virginity
Elizabeth's unmarried status inspired a cult of virginity related to that of the Virgin Mary. In poetry and portraiture, she was depicted as a virgin, a goddess, or both, not as a normal woman. [90]  At first, only Elizabeth made a virtue of her ostensible virginity: in 1559, she told the Commons, "And, in the end, this shall be for me sufficient, that a marble stone shall declare that a queen, having reigned such a time, lived and died a virgin". [91]  Later on, poets and writers took up the theme and developed an iconography that exalted Elizabeth. Public tributes to the Virgin by 1578 acted as a coded assertion of opposition to the queen's marriage negotiations with the Duke of Alençon. [92]  Ultimately, Elizabeth would insist she was married to her kingdom and subjects, under divine protection. In 1599, she spoke of "all my husbands, my good people". [93] 
       The Procession Picture, c. 1600, showing Elizabeth I borne along by her courtiers  
This claim of virginity was not universally accepted. Catholics accused Elizabeth of engaging in "filthy lust" that symbolically defiled the nation along with her body. [94]  Henry IV of France said that one of the great questions of Europe was "whether Queen Elizabeth was a maid or no". [95] 
 A central issue, when it comes to the question of Elizabeth's virginity, was whether the queen ever consummated her love affair with Robert Dudley. In 1559, she had Dudley's bedchambers moved next to her own apartments. In 1561, she was mysteriously bedridden with an illness that caused her body to swell. [96]   [97] 
 In 1587, a young man calling himself Arthur Dudley was arrested on the coast of Spain under suspicion of being a spy. [98]  The man claimed to be the illegitimate son of Elizabeth and Robert Dudley, with his age being consistent with birth during the 1561 illness. [99]  He was taken to Madrid for investigation, where he was examined by Francis Englefield, a Catholic aristocrat exiled to Spain and secretary to King Philip II. [98]  Three letters exist today describing the interview, detailing what Arthur proclaimed to be the story of his life, from birth in the royal palace to the time of his arrival in Spain. [98]  However, this failed to convince the Spanish: Englefield admitted to King Philip that Arthur's "claim at present amounts to nothing", but suggested that "he should not be allowed to get away, but [...] kept very secure." [99]  The king agreed, and Arthur was never heard from again. [100]  Modern scholarship dismisses the story's basic premise as "impossible", [99]  and asserts that Elizabeth's life was so closely observed by contemporaries that she could not have hidden a pregnancy. [100]   [101] 
Mary, Queen of Scots
     
Elizabeth's first policy toward Scotland was to oppose the French presence there. [103]  She feared that the French planned to invade England and put her Catholic cousin Mary, Queen of Scots, on the throne. Mary was considered by many to be the heir to the English crown, being the granddaughter of Henry VIII's elder sister, Margaret. Mary boasted being "the nearest kinswoman she hath". [104]   [i]  Elizabeth was persuaded to send a force into Scotland to aid the Protestant rebels, and though the campaign was inept, the resulting Treaty of Edinburgh of July 1560 removed the French threat in the north. [j]  When Mary returned to Scotland in 1561 to take up the reins of power, the country had an established Protestant church and was run by a council of Protestant nobles supported by Elizabeth. [106]  Mary refused to ratify the treaty. [107] 
 In 1563 Elizabeth proposed her own suitor, Robert Dudley, as a husband for Mary, without asking either of the two people concerned. Both proved unenthusiastic, [108]  and in 1565 Mary married Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, who carried his own claim to the English throne. The marriage was the first of a series of errors of judgement by Mary that handed the victory to the Scottish Protestants and to Elizabeth. Darnley quickly became unpopular and was murdered in February 1567 by conspirators almost certainly led by James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell. Shortly afterwards, on 15 May 1567, Mary married Bothwell, arousing suspicions that she had been party to the murder of her husband. Elizabeth confronted Mary about the marriage, writing to her:
 How could a worse choice be made for your honour than in such haste to marry such a subject, who besides other and notorious lacks, public fame has charged with the murder of your late husband, besides the touching of yourself also in some part, though we trust in that behalf falsely. [109]   
These events led rapidly to Mary's defeat and imprisonment in Loch Leven Castle. The Scottish lords forced her to abdicate in favour of her son James VI, who had been born in June 1566. James was taken to Stirling Castle to be raised as a Protestant. Mary escaped from Loch Leven in 1568 but after another defeat fled across the border into England, where she had once been assured of support from Elizabeth. Elizabeth's first instinct was to restore her fellow monarch but she and her council instead chose to play safe. Rather than risk returning Mary to Scotland with an English army or sending her to France and the Catholic enemies of England, they detained her in England, where she was imprisoned for the next nineteen years. [110] 
Catholic cause
     
Mary was soon the focus for rebellion. In 1569 there was a major Catholic rising in the North; the goal was to free Mary, marry her to Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk, and put her on the English throne. [111]  After the rebels' defeat, over 750 of them were executed on Elizabeth's orders. [112]  In the belief that the revolt had been successful, Pope Pius V issued a bull in 1570, titled  Regnans in Excelsis , which declared "Elizabeth, the pretended Queen of England and the servant of crime" to be excommunicated and a heretic, releasing all her subjects from any allegiance to her. [113]   [114]  Catholics who obeyed her orders were threatened with excommunication. [113]  The papal bull provoked legislative initiatives against Catholics by Parliament, which were, however, mitigated by Elizabeth's intervention. [115]  In 1581, to convert English subjects to Catholicism with "the intent" to withdraw them from their allegiance to Elizabeth was made a treasonable offence, carrying the death penalty. [116]  From the 1570s missionary priests from continental seminaries went to England secretly in the cause of the "reconversion of England". [114]  Many suffered execution, engendering a cult of martyrdom. [114] 
  Regnans in Excelsis gave English Catholics a strong incentive to look to Mary as the legitimate sovereign of England. Mary may not have been told of every Catholic plot to put her on the English throne, but from the Ridolfi Plot of 1571 (which caused Mary's suitor, the Duke of Norfolk, to lose his head) to the Babington Plot of 1586, Elizabeth's spymaster Sir Francis Walsingham and the royal council keenly assembled a case against her. [111]  At first, Elizabeth resisted calls for Mary's death. By late 1586, she had been persuaded to sanction Mary's trial and execution on the evidence of letters written during the Babington Plot. [117]  Elizabeth's proclamation of the sentence announced that "the said Mary, pretending title to the same Crown, had compassed and imagined within the same realm diverse things tending to the hurt, death and destruction of our royal person." [118]  On 8 February 1587, Mary was beheaded at Fotheringhay Castle, Northamptonshire. [119]  After the execution, Elizabeth claimed that she had not intended for the signed execution warrant to be dispatched, and blamed her secretary, William Davison, for implementing it without her knowledge. The sincerity of Elizabeth's remorse and whether or not she wanted to delay the warrant have been called into question both by her contemporaries and later historians. [53] 
Wars and overseas trade
Elizabeth's foreign policy was largely defensive. The exception was the English occupation of Le Havre from October 1562 to June 1563, which ended in failure when Elizabeth's Huguenot allies joined with the Catholics to retake the port. Elizabeth's intention had been to exchange Le Havre for Calais, lost to France in January 1558. [120]  Only through the activities of her fleets did Elizabeth pursue an aggressive policy. This paid off in the war against Spain, 80% of which was fought at sea. [121]  She knighted Francis Drake after his circumnavigation of the globe from 1577 to 1580, and he won fame for his raids on Spanish ports and fleets. An element of piracy and self-enrichment drove Elizabethan seafarers, over whom the queen had little control. [122]   [123] 
Netherlands
      Elizabeth receiving Dutch ambassadors, 1560s, attributed to Levina Teerlinc   
After the occupation and loss of Le Havre in 1562–1563, Elizabeth avoided military expeditions on the continent until 1585, when she sent an English army to aid the Protestant Dutch rebels against Philip II. [124]  This followed the deaths in 1584 of the queen's allies William the Silent, Prince of Orange, and the Duke of Anjou, and the surrender of a series of Dutch towns to Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, Philip's governor of the Spanish Netherlands. In December 1584, an alliance between Philip II and the French Catholic League at Joinville undermined the ability of Anjou's brother, Henry III of France, to counter Spanish domination of the Netherlands. It also extended Spanish influence along the channel coast of France, where the Catholic League was strong, and exposed England to invasion. [124]  The siege of Antwerp in the summer of 1585 by the Duke of Parma necessitated some reaction on the part of the English and the Dutch. The outcome was the Treaty of Nonsuch of August 1585, in which Elizabeth promised military support to the Dutch. [125]  The treaty marked the beginning of the Anglo-Spanish War, which lasted until the Treaty of London in 1604.
 The expedition was led by Elizabeth's former suitor, the Earl of Leicester. Elizabeth from the start did not really back this course of action. Her strategy, to support the Dutch on the surface with an English army, while beginning secret peace talks with Spain within days of Leicester's arrival in Holland, [126]  had necessarily to be at odds with Leicester's, who wanted and was expected by the Dutch to fight an active campaign. Elizabeth, on the other hand, wanted him "to avoid at all costs any decisive action with the enemy". [127]  He enraged Elizabeth by accepting the post of Governor-General from the Dutch States General. Elizabeth saw this as a Dutch ploy to force her to accept sovereignty over the Netherlands, [128]  which so far she had always declined. She wrote to Leicester:
 We could never have imagined (had we not seen it fall out in experience) that a man raised up by ourself and extraordinarily favoured by us, above any other subject of this land, would have in so contemptible a sort broken our commandment in a cause that so greatly touches us in honour ... And therefore our express pleasure and commandment is that, all delays and excuses laid apart, you do presently upon the duty of your allegiance obey and fulfill whatsoever the bearer hereof shall direct you to do in our name. Whereof fail you not, as you will answer the contrary at your utmost peril. [129]   
Elizabeth's "commandment" was that her emissary read out her letters of disapproval publicly before the Dutch Council of State, Leicester having to stand nearby. [130]  This public humiliation of her "Lieutenant-General" combined with her continued talks for a separate peace with Spain [k]  irreversibly undermined Leicester's standing among the Dutch. The military campaign was severely hampered by Elizabeth's repeated refusals to send promised funds for her starving soldiers. Her unwillingness to commit herself to the cause, Leicester's own shortcomings as a political and military leader, and the faction-ridden and chaotic situation of Dutch politics led to the failure of the campaign. [132]  Leicester finally resigned his command in December 1587. [133] 
Spanish Armada
      Portrait from 1586 to 1587, by Nicholas Hilliard, around the time of the voyages of Sir Francis Drake   
Meanwhile, Sir Francis Drake had undertaken a major voyage against Spanish ports and ships in the Caribbean in 1585 and 1586. In 1587 he made a successful raid on Cádiz, destroying the Spanish fleet of war ships intended for the Enterprise of England, [134]  as Philip II had decided to take the war to England. [135] 
 On 12 July 1588, the Spanish Armada, a great fleet of ships, set sail for the channel, planning to ferry a Spanish invasion force under the Duke of Parma to the coast of southeast England from the Netherlands. A combination of miscalculation, [l]  misfortune, and an attack of English fire ships on 29 July off Gravelines, which dispersed the Spanish ships to the northeast, defeated the Armada. [137]  The Armada straggled home to Spain in shattered remnants, after disastrous losses on the coast of Ireland (after some ships had tried to struggle back to Spain via the North Sea, and then back south past the west coast of Ireland). [138]  Unaware of the Armada's fate, English militias mustered to defend the country under the Earl of Leicester's command. Leicester invited Elizabeth to inspect her troops at Tilbury in Essex on 8 August. Wearing a silver breastplate over a white velvet dress, she addressed them in one of her most famous speeches:
 My loving people, we have been persuaded by some that are careful of our safety, to take heed how we commit ourself to armed multitudes for fear of treachery; but I assure you, I do not desire to live to distrust my faithful and loving people ... I know I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a King of England too, and think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, or any Prince of Europe should dare to invade the borders of my realm. [139]   
      Portrait commemorating the defeat of the Spanish Armada, depicted in the background. Elizabeth's hand rests on the globe, symbolising her international power. One of three known versions of the "Armada Portrait".  
When no invasion came, the nation rejoiced. Elizabeth's procession to a thanksgiving service at St Paul's Cathedral rivalled that of her coronation as a spectacle. [138]  The defeat of the armada was a potent propaganda victory, both for Elizabeth and for Protestant England. The English took their delivery as a symbol of God's favour and of the nation's inviolability under a virgin queen. [121]  However, the victory was not a turning point in the war, which continued and often favoured Spain. [140]  The Spanish still controlled the southern provinces of the Netherlands, and the threat of invasion remained. [135]  Sir Walter Raleigh claimed after her death that Elizabeth's caution had impeded the war against Spain:
 If the late queen would have believed her men of war as she did her scribes, we had in her time beaten that great empire in pieces and made their kings of figs and oranges as in old times. But her Majesty did all by halves, and by petty invasions taught the Spaniard how to defend himself, and to see his own weakness. [141]   
Though some historians have criticised Elizabeth on similar grounds, [m]  Raleigh's verdict has more often been judged unfair. Elizabeth had good reason not to place too much trust in her commanders, who once in action tended, as she put it herself, "to be transported with an haviour of vainglory". [143] 
 In 1589, the year after the Spanish Armada, Elizabeth sent to Spain the  English Armada  or Counter Armada with 23,375 men and 150 ships, led by Sir Francis Drake as admiral and Sir John Norreys as general. The English fleet suffered a catastrophic defeat with 11,000–15,000 killed, wounded or died of disease [144]   [145]   [146]  and 40 ships sunk or captured. [146]  The advantage England had won upon the destruction of the Spanish Armada was lost, and the Spanish victory marked a revival of Philip II's naval power through the next decade. [147] 
France
     
When the Protestant Henry IV inherited the French throne in 1589, Elizabeth sent him military support. It was her first venture into France since the retreat from Le Havre in 1563. Henry's succession was strongly contested by the Catholic League and by Philip II, and Elizabeth feared a Spanish takeover of the channel ports. The subsequent English campaigns in France, however, were disorganised and ineffective. [148]  Peregrine Bertie, 13th Baron Willoughby de Eresby, largely ignoring Elizabeth's orders, roamed northern France to little effect, with an army of 4,000 men. He withdrew in disarray in December 1589, having lost half his troops. In 1591, the campaign of John Norreys, who led 3,000 men to Brittany, was even more of a disaster. As for all such expeditions, Elizabeth was unwilling to invest in the supplies and reinforcements requested by the commanders. Norreys left for London to plead in person for more support. In his absence, a Catholic League army almost destroyed the remains of his army at Craon, north-west France, in May 1591. In July, Elizabeth sent out another force under Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, to help Henry IV in besieging Rouen. The result was just as dismal. Essex accomplished nothing and returned home in January 1592. Henry abandoned the siege in April. [149]  As usual, Elizabeth lacked control over her commanders once they were abroad. "Where he is, or what he doth, or what he is to do," she wrote of Essex, "we are ignorant". [150] 
Ireland
     
Although Ireland was one of her two kingdoms, Elizabeth faced a hostile, and in places virtually autonomous, [n]  Irish population that adhered to Catholicism and was willing to defy her authority and plot with her enemies. Her policy there was to grant land to her courtiers and prevent the rebels from giving Spain a base from which to attack England. [152]  In the course of a series of uprisings, Crown forces pursued scorched-earth tactics, burning the land and slaughtering man, woman and child. During a revolt in Munster led by Gerald FitzGerald, 14th Earl of Desmond, in 1582, an estimated 30,000 Irish people starved to death. The poet and colonist Edmund Spenser wrote that the victims "were brought to such wretchedness as that any stony heart would have rued the same". [153]  Elizabeth advised her commanders that the Irish, "that rude and barbarous nation", be well treated, but she or her commanders showed no remorse when force and bloodshed served their authoritarian purpose. [154] 
 Between 1594 and 1603, Elizabeth faced her most severe test in Ireland during the Nine Years' War, a revolt that took place at the height of hostilities with Spain, who backed the rebel leader, Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone. [155]  In spring 1599, Elizabeth sent Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, to put the revolt down. To her frustration, [o]  he made little progress and returned to England in defiance of her orders. He was replaced by Charles Blount, 8th Baron Mountjoy, who took three years to defeat the rebels. O'Neill finally surrendered in 1603, a few days after Elizabeth's death. [156]  Soon afterwards, a peace treaty was signed between England and Spain.
Russia
Elizabeth continued to maintain the diplomatic relations with the Tsardom of Russia that were originally established by her half-brother, Edward VI. She often wrote to Tsar Ivan the Terrible on amicable terms, though the Tsar was often annoyed by her focus on commerce rather than on the possibility of a military alliance. Ivan even proposed to her once, and during his later reign, asked for a guarantee to be granted asylum in England should his rule be jeopardised. [157]  English merchant and explorer Anthony Jenkinson, who began his career as a representative of the Muscovy Company, became the queen's special ambassador to the court of Tsar Ivan. [158]  Upon his death in 1584, Ivan was succeeded by his son Feodor I. Unlike his father, Feodor had no enthusiasm in maintaining exclusive trading rights with England. He declared his kingdom open to all foreigners, and dismissed the English ambassador Sir Jerome Bowes, whose pomposity had been tolerated by Ivan. Elizabeth sent a new ambassador, Dr. Giles Fletcher, to demand from the regent Boris Godunov that he convince the Tsar to reconsider. The negotiations failed, due to Fletcher addressing Feodor with two of his many titles omitted. Elizabeth continued to appeal to Feodor in half appealing, half reproachful letters. She proposed an alliance, something which she had refused to do when offered one by Feodor's father, but was turned down. [157] 
Muslim states
      Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud was the Moorish ambassador to Elizabeth in 1600.  
Trade and diplomatic relations developed between England and the Barbary states during the rule of Elizabeth. [159]   [160]  England established a trading relationship with Morocco in opposition to Spain, selling armour, ammunition, timber, and metal in exchange for Moroccan sugar, in spite of a papal ban. [161]  In 1600, Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud, the principal secretary to the Moroccan ruler Mulai Ahmad al-Mansur, visited England as an ambassador to the English court, [159]   [162]  to negotiate an Anglo-Moroccan alliance against Spain. [163]   [159]  Elizabeth "agreed to sell munitions supplies to Morocco, and she and Mulai Ahmad al-Mansur talked on and off about mounting a joint operation against the Spanish". [164]  Discussions, however, remained inconclusive, and both rulers died within two years of the embassy. [165] 
 Diplomatic relations were also established with the Ottoman Empire with the chartering of the Levant Company and the dispatch of the first English ambassador to the Sublime Porte, William Harborne, in 1578. [164]  For the first time, a treaty of commerce was signed in 1580. [166]  Numerous envoys were dispatched in both directions and epistolar exchanges occurred between Elizabeth and Sultan Murad III. [164]  In one correspondence, Murad entertained the notion that Islam and Protestantism had "much more in common than either did with Roman Catholicism, as both rejected the worship of idols", and argued for an alliance between England and the Ottoman Empire. [167]  To the dismay of Catholic Europe, England exported tin and lead (for cannon-casting) and ammunitions to the Ottoman Empire, and Elizabeth seriously discussed joint military operations with Murad III during the outbreak of war with Spain in 1585, as Francis Walsingham was lobbying for a direct Ottoman military involvement against the common Spanish enemy. [168] 
America
In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert sailed west to establish a colony in Newfoundland. He never returned to England. Gilbert's half-brother Sir Walter Raleigh explored the Atlantic Coast and claimed the territory of Virginia, perhaps named in honour of Elizabeth, the "Virgin Queen". This territory was much larger than the present-day state of Virginia, extending from New England to the Carolinas. In 1585, Raleigh returned to Virginia with a small group of people. They landed on Roanoke Island, off present-day North Carolina. After the failure of the first colony, Raleigh recruited another group and put John White in command. When Raleigh returned in 1590, there was no trace of the Roanoke Colony he had left, but it was the first English settlement in North America. [169] 
East India Company
The East India Company was formed to trade in the Indian Ocean region and China, and received its charter from Queen Elizabeth on 31 December 1600. For a period of 15 years, the company was awarded a monopoly on English trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. Sir James Lancaster commanded the first expedition in 1601. The Company eventually controlled half of world trade and substantial territory in India in the 18th and 19th centuries. [170] 
Later years
The period after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 brought new difficulties for Elizabeth that lasted until the end of her reign. [140]  The conflicts with Spain and in Ireland dragged on, the tax burden grew heavier, and the economy was hit by poor harvests and the cost of war. Prices rose and the standard of living fell. [171]   [172]   [140]  During this time, repression of Catholics intensified, and Elizabeth authorised commissions in 1591 to interrogate and monitor Catholic householders. [173]  To maintain the illusion of peace and prosperity, she increasingly relied on internal spies and propaganda. [171]  In her last years, mounting criticism reflected a decline in the public's affection for her. [p]   [q] 
      Lord Essex was a favourite of Elizabeth I despite his petulance and irresponsibility.  
One of the causes for this "second reign" of Elizabeth, as it is sometimes called, [176]  was the changed character of Elizabeth's governing body, the privy council in the 1590s. A new generation was in power. With the exception of William Cecil, Baron Burghley, the most important politicians had died around 1590: the Earl of Leicester in 1588; Sir Francis Walsingham in 1590; and Sir Christopher Hatton in 1591. [177]  Factional strife in the government, which had not existed in a noteworthy form before the 1590s, [178]  now became its hallmark. [179]  A bitter rivalry arose between Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, and Robert Cecil, son of Lord Burghley, with both being supported by their respective adherents. The struggle for the most powerful positions in the state marred the kingdom's politics. [180]  The queen's personal authority was lessening, [181]  as is shown in the 1594 affair of Dr. Lopez, her trusted physician. When he was wrongly accused by the Earl of Essex of treason out of personal pique, she could not prevent the doctor's execution, although she had been angry about his arrest and seems not to have believed in his guilt. [182] 
 During the last years of her reign, Elizabeth came to rely on the granting of monopolies as a cost-free system of patronage, rather than asking Parliament for more subsidies in a time of war. [r]  The practice soon led to price-fixing, the enrichment of courtiers at the public's expense, and widespread resentment. [184]  This culminated in agitation in the House of Commons during the parliament of 1601. [185]  In her famous "Golden Speech" of 30 November 1601 at Whitehall Palace to a deputation of 140 members, Elizabeth professed ignorance of the abuses, and won the members over with promises and her usual appeal to the emotions: [186] 
 Who keeps their sovereign from the lapse of error, in which, by ignorance and not by intent they might have fallen, what thank they deserve, we know, though you may guess. And as nothing is more dear to us than the loving conservation of our subjects' hearts, what an undeserved doubt might we have incurred if the abusers of our liberality, the thrallers of our people, the wringers of the poor, had not been told us! [187]   
     
This same period of economic and political uncertainty, however, produced an unsurpassed literary flowering in England. [188]  The first signs of a new literary movement had appeared at the end of the second decade of Elizabeth's reign, with John Lyly's Euphues and Edmund Spenser's  The Shepheardes Calender  in 1578. During the 1590s, some of the great names of English literature entered their maturity, including William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe. Continuing into the Jacobean era, the English theatre would reach its peak. [189]  The notion of a great Elizabethan era depends largely on the builders, dramatists, poets, and musicians who were active during Elizabeth's reign. They owed little directly to the queen, who was never a major patron of the arts. [190] 
 As Elizabeth aged her image gradually changed. She was portrayed as Belphoebe or Astraea, and after the Armada, as Gloriana, the eternally youthful Faerie Queene of Edmund Spenser's poem. Elizabeth gave Edmund Spenser a pension; as this was unusual for her, it indicates that she liked his work. [191]  Her painted portraits became less realistic and more a set of enigmatic icons that made her look much younger than she was. In fact, her skin had been scarred by smallpox in 1562, leaving her half bald and dependent on wigs and cosmetics. [192]  Her love of sweets and fear of dentists contributed to severe tooth decay and loss to such an extent that foreign ambassadors had a hard time understanding her speech. [193]  André Hurault de Maisse, Ambassador Extraordinary from Henry IV of France, reported an audience with the queen, during which he noticed, "her teeth are very yellow and unequal ... and on the left side less than on the right. Many of them are missing, so that one cannot understand her easily when she speaks quickly." Yet he added, "her figure is fair and tall and graceful in whatever she does; so far as may be she keeps her dignity, yet humbly and graciously withal." [194]  Sir Walter Raleigh called her "a lady whom time had surprised". [195] 
      Christoffel van Sichem I, Elizabeth, Queen of Great Britain, published 1601  
The more Elizabeth's beauty faded, the more her courtiers praised it. [192]  Elizabeth was happy to play the part, [s]  but it is possible that in the last decade of her life she began to believe her own performance. She became fond and indulgent of the charming but petulant young Earl of Essex, who was Leicester's stepson and took liberties with her for which she forgave him. [197]  She repeatedly appointed him to military posts despite his growing record of irresponsibility. After Essex's desertion of his command in Ireland in 1599, Elizabeth had him placed under house arrest and the following year deprived him of his monopolies. [198]  In February 1601, Essex tried to raise a rebellion in London. He intended to seize the queen but few rallied to his support, and he was beheaded on 25 February. Elizabeth knew that her own misjudgements were partly to blame for this turn of events. An observer wrote in 1602: "Her delight is to sit in the dark, and sometimes with shedding tears to bewail Essex." [199] 
Death
Elizabeth's senior adviser, Lord Burghley, died on 4 August 1598. His political mantle passed to his son Robert, who soon became the leader of the government. [t]  One task he addressed was to prepare the way for a smooth succession. Since Elizabeth would never name her successor, Robert Cecil was obliged to proceed in secret. [u]  He therefore entered into a coded negotiation with James VI of Scotland, who had a strong but unrecognised claim. [v]  Cecil coached the impatient James to humour Elizabeth and "secure the heart of the highest, to whose sex and quality nothing is so improper as either needless expostulations or over much curiosity in her own actions". [201]  The advice worked. James's tone delighted Elizabeth, who responded: "So trust I that you will not doubt but that your last letters are so acceptably taken as my thanks cannot be lacking for the same, but yield them to you in grateful sort". [202]  In historian J. E. Neale's view, Elizabeth may not have declared her wishes openly to James, but she made them known with "unmistakable if veiled phrases". [203] 
      Elizabeth's funeral cortège, 1603, with banners of her royal ancestors  
The queen's health remained fair until the autumn of 1602, when a series of deaths among her friends plunged her into a severe depression. In February 1603, the death of Catherine Carey, Countess of Nottingham, the niece of her cousin and close friend Lady Knollys, came as a particular blow. In March, Elizabeth fell sick and remained in a "settled and unremovable melancholy", and sat motionless on a cushion for hours on end. [204]  When Robert Cecil told her that she must go to bed, she snapped: "Must is not a word to use to princes, little man." She died on 24 March 1603 at Richmond Palace, between two and three in the morning. A few hours later, Cecil and the council set their plans in motion and proclaimed James King of England. [205] 
 While it has become normative to record Elizabeth's death as occurring in 1603, following English calendar reform in the 1750s, at the time England observed New Year's Day on 25 March, commonly known as Lady Day. Thus Elizabeth died on the last day of the year 1602 in the old calendar. The modern convention is to use the old style calendar for the day and month while using the new style calendar for the year. [206] 
      Elizabeth as shown on her tomb at Westminster Abbey  
Elizabeth's coffin was carried downriver at night to Whitehall, on a barge lit with torches. At her funeral on 28 April, the coffin was taken to Westminster Abbey on a hearse drawn by four horses hung with black velvet. In the words of the chronicler John Stow:
Westminster was surcharged with multitudes of all sorts of people in their streets, houses, windows, leads and gutters, that came out to see the obsequy, and when they beheld her statue lying upon the coffin, there was such a general sighing, groaning and weeping as the like hath not been seen or known in the memory of man. [207] 
Elizabeth was interred in Westminster Abbey, in a tomb shared with her half-sister, Mary I. The Latin inscription on their tomb, "Regno consortes &amp; urna, hic obdormimus Elizabetha et Maria sorores, in spe resurrectionis", translates to "Consorts in realm and tomb, here we sleep, Elizabeth and Mary, sisters, in hope of resurrection". [208] 
Legacy
      Elizabeth I, painted around 1610, during the first revival of interest in her reign. Time sleeps on her right and Death looks over her left shoulder; two putti hold the crown above her head. [209]    
Elizabeth was lamented by many of her subjects, but others were relieved at her death. [210]  Expectations of King James started high but then declined. By the 1620s, there was a nostalgic revival of the cult of Elizabeth. [211]  Elizabeth was praised as a heroine of the Protestant cause and the ruler of a golden age. James was depicted as a Catholic sympathiser, presiding over a corrupt court. [212]  The triumphalist image that Elizabeth had cultivated towards the end of her reign, against a background of factionalism and military and economic difficulties, [213]  was taken at face value and her reputation inflated. Godfrey Goodman, Bishop of Gloucester, recalled: "When we had experience of a Scottish government, the Queen did seem to revive. Then was her memory much magnified." [214]  Elizabeth's reign became idealised as a time when crown, church and parliament had worked in constitutional balance. [215] 
 The picture of Elizabeth painted by her Protestant admirers of the early 17th century has proved lasting and influential. [216]  Her memory was also revived during the Napoleonic Wars, when the nation again found itself on the brink of invasion. [217]  In the Victorian era, the Elizabethan legend was adapted to the imperial ideology of the day, [210]   [w]  and in the mid-20th century, Elizabeth was a romantic symbol of the national resistance to foreign threat. [218]   [x]  Historians of that period, such as J. E. Neale (1934) and A. L. Rowse (1950), interpreted Elizabeth's reign as a golden age of progress. [219]  Neale and Rowse also idealised the Queen personally: she always did everything right; her more unpleasant traits were ignored or explained as signs of stress. [220] 
 Recent historians, however, have taken a more complicated view of Elizabeth. [142]  Her reign is famous for the defeat of the Armada, and for successful raids against the Spanish, such as those on Cádiz in 1587 and 1596, but some historians point to military failures on land and at sea. [148]  In Ireland, Elizabeth's forces ultimately prevailed, but their tactics stain her record. [221]  Rather than as a brave defender of the Protestant nations against Spain and the Habsburgs, she is more often regarded as cautious in her foreign policies. She offered very limited aid to foreign Protestants and failed to provide her commanders with the funds to make a difference abroad. [222] 
 Elizabeth established an English church that helped shape a national identity and remains in place today. [223]   [224]   [225]  Those who praised her later as a Protestant heroine overlooked her refusal to drop all practices of Catholic origin from the Church of England. [y]  Historians note that in her day, strict Protestants regarded the Acts of Settlement and Uniformity of 1559 as a compromise. [227]   [228]  In fact, Elizabeth believed that faith was personal and did not wish, as Francis Bacon put it, to "make windows into men's hearts and secret thoughts". [229]   [230] 
 Though Elizabeth followed a largely defensive foreign policy, her reign raised England's status abroad. "She is only a woman, only mistress of half an island," marvelled Pope Sixtus V, "and yet she makes herself feared by Spain, by France, by the Empire, by all". [231]  Under Elizabeth, the nation gained a new self-confidence and sense of sovereignty, as Christendom fragmented. [211]   [232]   [233]  Elizabeth was the first Tudor to recognise that a monarch ruled by popular consent. [z]  She therefore always worked with parliament and advisers she could trust to tell her the truth—a style of government that her Stuart successors failed to follow. Some historians have called her lucky; [231]  she believed that God was protecting her. [235]  Priding herself on being "mere English", [236]  Elizabeth trusted in God, honest advice, and the love of her subjects for the success of her rule. [237]  In a prayer, she offered thanks to God that:
 [At a time] when wars and seditions with grievous persecutions have vexed almost all kings and countries round about me, my reign hath been peacable, and my realm a receptacle to thy afflicted Church. The love of my people hath appeared firm, and the devices of my enemies frustrate. [231]   
Family tree
See also
  Anti-Catholicism in the United Kingdom 
 Early modern Britain 
 English Renaissance 
 Inventory of Elizabeth I 
 Portraiture of Elizabeth I 
 Protestant Reformation 
 Royal Arms of England 
 Royal eponyms in Canada for Queen Elizabeth I 
 Royal Standards of England 
 Tudor period  
Notes
 
  ^  Dates in this article before 14 September 1752 are in the Julian calendar and 1 January is treated as the beginning of the year, even though 25 March was treated as the beginning of the year in England during Elizabeth's life.
  ^  "I mean to direct all my actions by good advice and counsel." [2] 
  ^  An Act of July 1536 stated that Elizabeth was "illegitimate ... and utterly foreclosed, excluded and banned to claim, challenge, or demand any inheritance as lawful heir ... to [the King] by lineal descent". [11] 
  ^  Elizabeth had assembled 2,000 horsemen, "a remarkable tribute to the size of her affinity". [32] 
  ^  "The wives of Wycombe passed cake and wafers to her until her litter became so burdened that she had to beg them to stop." [38] 
  ^  "It was fortunate that ten out of twenty-six bishoprics were vacant, for of late there had been a high rate of mortality among the episcopate, and a fever had conveniently carried off Mary's Archbishop of Canterbury, Reginald Pole, less than twenty-four hours after her own death". [56] 
  ^  "There were no less than ten sees unrepresented through death or illness and the carelessness of 'the accursed cardinal' [Pole]". [57] 
  ^  Most modern historians have considered murder unlikely; breast cancer and suicide being the most widely accepted explanations. [68]  The coroner's report, hitherto believed lost, came to light in The National Archives in the late 2000s and is compatible with a downstairs fall as well as other violence. [69] 
  ^  On Elizabeth's accession, Mary's Guise relatives had pronounced her Queen of England and had the English arms emblazoned with those of Scotland and France on her plate and furniture. [102] 
  ^  By the terms of the treaty, both English and French troops withdrew from Scotland. [105] 
  ^  Elizabeth's ambassador in France was actively misleading her as to the true intentions of the Spanish king, who only tried to buy time for his great assault upon England [131] 
  ^  When the Spanish naval commander, the Duke of Medina Sidonia, reached the coast near Calais, he found the Duke of Parma's troops unready and was forced to wait, giving the English the opportunity to launch their attack. [136] 
  ^  For example, C. H. Wilson castigates Elizabeth for half-heartedness in the war against Spain. [142] 
  ^  One observer wrote that Ulster, for example, was "as unknown to the English here as the most inland part of Virginia". [151] 
  ^  In a letter of 19 July 1599 to Essex, Elizabeth wrote: "For what can be more true (if things be rightly examined) than that your two month's journey has brought in never a capital rebel against whom it had been worthy to have adventured one thousand men". [155] 
  ^  This criticism of Elizabeth was noted by Elizabeth's early biographers William Camden and John Clapham. For a detailed account of such criticisms and of Elizabeth's "government by illusion" [174] 
  ^  John Cramsie, in reviewing the recent scholarship in 2003, argued "the period 1585–1603 is now recognised by scholars as distinctly more troubled than the first half of Elizabeth's long reign. Costly wars against Spain and the Irish, involvement in the Netherlands, socio-economic distress, and an authoritarian turn by the regime all cast a pall over Gloriana's final years, underpinning a weariness with the queen's rule and open criticism of her government and its failures." [175] 
  ^  A Patent of Monopoly gave the holder control over an aspect of trade or manufacture. [183] 
  ^  "The metaphor of drama is an appropriate one for Elizabeth's reign, for her power was an illusion—and an illusion was her power. Like Henry IV of France, she projected an image of herself which brought stability and prestige to her country. By constant attention to the details of her total performance, she kept the rest of the cast on their toes and kept her own part as queen." [196] 
  ^  After Essex's downfall, James VI of Scotland referred to Robert Cecil as "king there in effect". [200] 
  ^  Cecil wrote to James, "The subject itself is so perilous to touch amongst us as it setteth a mark upon his head forever that hatcheth such a bird". [201] 
  ^  James VI of Scotland was a great-great-grandson of Henry VII of England, and thus Elizabeth's first cousin twice removed, since Henry VII was Elizabeth's paternal grandfather.
  ^  The age of Elizabeth was redrawn as one of chivalry, epitomised by courtly encounters between the queen and sea-dog "heroes" such as Drake and Raleigh. Some Victorian narratives, such as Raleigh laying his cloak before the queen or presenting her with a potato, remain part of the myth. [217] 
  ^  In his preface to the 1952 reprint of Queen Elizabeth I, J. E. Neale observed: "The book was written before such words as "ideological", "fifth column", and "cold war" became current; and it is perhaps as well that they are not there. But the ideas are present, as is the idea of romantic leadership of a nation in peril, because they were present in Elizabethan times".
  ^  The new state religion was condemned at the time in such terms as "a cloaked papistry, or mingle mangle". [226] 
  ^  As Elizabeth's Lord Keeper, Sir Nicholas Bacon, put it on her behalf to parliament in 1559, the queen "is not, nor ever meaneth to be, so wedded to her own will and fantasy that for the satisfaction thereof she will do anything ... to bring any bondage or servitude to her people, or give any just occasion to them of any inward grudge whereby any tumults or stirs might arise as hath done of late days". [234] 
 
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  ^  Haigh, 145.
^    a       b    Haigh, 183.
  ^  Somerset, 655.
  ^  R. O. Bucholz, Newton Key Early modern England 1485–1714: a narrative history (John Wiley and Sons, 2009). ISBN 978-1-4051-6275-3, 145.
  ^  John Hampden Francis Drake, privateer: contemporary narratives and documents (Taylor &amp; Francis, 1972). ISBN 978-0-8173-5703-0, 254.
^    a       b    Fernández Duro, Cesáreo (1972). Armada Española desde la Unión de los Reinos de Castilla y Aragón. Museo Naval de Madrid, Instituto de Historia y Cultura Naval, Tomo III, Capítulo III. Madrid, p. 51.
  ^  J. H. Elliott La Europa dividida (1559–1598) (Editorial Critica, 2002). ISBN 978-84-8432-669-4, 333.
^    a       b    Haigh, 142.
  ^  Haigh, 143.
  ^  Haigh, 143–144.
  ^  Somerset, 667.
  ^  Loades, 55.
  ^  Somerset, 668.
  ^  Somerset, 668–669.
^    a       b    Loades, 98.
  ^  Loades, 98–99.
^    a       b    Crankshaw, Edward, Russia and Britain, Collins, The Nations and Britain series.
  ^  Coote, Charles Henry (2017).  Early Voyages and Travels to Russia and Persia by Anthony Jenkinson and other Englishmen . Taylor &amp; Francis. p. 1, Introduction. ISBN  978-1-317-14661-2 . Archived from the original on 19 August 2021. Retrieved 3 February 2019.
^    a       b       c    Virginia Mason Vaughan (2005).  Performing Blackness on English Stages, 1500–1800 . Cambridge University Press. p. 57. ISBN  978-0-521-84584-7 . Archived from the original on 14 July 2020. Retrieved 22 October 2020.
  ^  Allardyce Nicoll (2002).  Shakespeare Survey With Index 1–10 . Cambridge University Press. p. 90. ISBN  978-0-521-52347-9 . Archived from the original on 22 December 2019. Retrieved 22 October 2020.
  ^  Bartels, Emily Carroll (2008).  Speaking of the Moor . University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 24. ISBN  978-0-8122-4076-4 . Archived from the original on 14 July 2020. Retrieved 22 October 2020.
  ^  University of Birmingham Collections Mimsy.bham.ac.uk Archived 28 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  ^  Tate Gallery exhibition "East-West: Objects between cultures", Tate.org.uk Archived 26 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine
^    a       b       c    Kupperman, 39.
  ^  Nicoll, 96.
  ^    The Encyclopedia of world history by Peter N. Stearns . p. 353. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
  ^  Kupperman, 40.
  ^  Kupperman, 41.
  ^  Daniel Farabaugh (2016). "Chapter 2". United States History (Fourth ed.). McGraw-Hill. pp. 45–47. ISBN  978-1-259-58409-1 .
  ^  Foster, Sir William (1998) [1933]. England's Quest of Eastern Trade. London: A. &amp; C. Black. pp. 155–157. ISBN  978-0-415-15518-2 .
^    a       b    Haigh, 155.
  ^  Black, 355–356.
  ^  Black, 355.
  ^  see chapter 8, "The Queen and the People", Haigh, 149–169.
  ^  Cramsie, John (June 2003). "The Changing Reputations of Elizabeth I and James VI &amp; I". Reviews and History: Covering books and digital resources across all fields of history (review no. 334). Archived from the original on 23 October 2018. Retrieved 19 July 2017.
  ^  Adams, 7; Hammer, 1; Collinson, 89.
  ^  Collinson, 89.
  ^  Doran, Monarchy, 216.
  ^  Hammer, 1–2.
  ^  Hammer, 1, 9.
  ^  Hammer, 9–10
  ^  Lacey, 117–120
  ^  See Neale, 382.
  ^  Williams Elizabeth, 208.
  ^  Black, 192–194.
  ^  Neale, 383–384.
  ^  Loades, 86.
  ^  Black, 239.
  ^  Black, 239–245.
  ^  Haigh, 176.
  ^   "The best books on Elizabeth I – a Five Books interview with Helen Hackett". Five Books. Archived from the original on 25 February 2019. Retrieved 25 February 2019.
^    a       b    Loades, 92.
  ^  "The Tudors had bad teeth? What rot!",  The Daily Telegraph , 18 January 2015. Retrieved 28 May 2016.
  ^  De Maisse: a journal of all that was accomplished by Monsieur De Maisse, ambassador in England from King Henri IV to Queen Elizabeth, anno domini 1597, Nonesuch Press, 1931, pp. 25–26.
  ^  Haigh, 171.
  ^  Haigh, 179.
  ^  Loades, 93.
  ^  Loades, 97.
  ^  Black, 410.
  ^  Croft, 48.
^    a       b    Willson, 154.
  ^  Willson, 155.
  ^  Neale, 385.
  ^  Black, 411.
  ^  Black, 410–411.
  ^  Lee, Christopher (2004).  1603: The Death of Queen Elizabeth, the Return of the Black Plague, the Rise of Shakespeare, Piracy, Witchcraft and the Birth of the Stuart Era . St. Martin's Press. p. viii. ISBN  978-0-312-32139-0 .
  ^  Weir (1999), p. 486.
  ^   Stanley, Arthur Penrhyn (1868). "The royal tombs".  Historical memorials of Westminster Abbey . London: John Murray. p. 178. OCLC 24223816.
  ^  Strong, 163–164.
^    a       b    Loades, 100–101.
^    a       b    Somerset, 726.
  ^  Strong, 164.
  ^  Haigh, 170.
  ^  Weir (1999), p. 488.
  ^  Dobson and Watson, 257.
  ^  Haigh, 175, 182.
^    a       b    Dobson and Watson, 258.
  ^  Haigh, 175.
  ^  Haigh, 182.
  ^  Kenyon, 207
  ^  Black, 408–409.
  ^  Haigh, 142–147, 174–177.
  ^  Loades, 46–50.
  ^  Weir (1999), p. 487.
  ^  Hogge, 9–10.
  ^  Somerset, 102.
  ^  Haigh, 45–46, 177.
  ^  Black, 14–15.
  ^  Williams Elizabeth, 50.
  ^  Haigh, 42.
^    a       b       c    Somerset, 727.
  ^  Hogge, 9n.
  ^  Loades, 1.
  ^  Starkey Elizabeth: Woman, 7.
  ^  Somerset, 75–76.
  ^  Edwards, 205.
  ^  Starkey Elizabeth: Woman, 6–7.
 
References
  Adams, Simon (2002), Leicester and the Court: Essays in Elizabethan Politics, Manchester: Manchester University Press, ISBN  978-0-7190-5325-2  .
 Black, J. B. (1945) [1936], The Reign of Elizabeth: 1558–1603, Oxford: Clarendon, OCLC 5077207 .
 Chamberlin, Frederick (1939), Elizabeth and Leycester, Dodd, Mead &amp; Co..
Collinson, Patrick. "Elizabeth I (1533–1603)" in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (2008) Retrieved 23 Aug 2011 Archived 19 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine 
  Collinson, Patrick (2007),  Elizabeth I , Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN  978-0-19-921356-6  .
 Croft, Pauline (2003),  King James , Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN  978-0-333-61395-5  .
 Davenport, Cyril (1899), Pollard, Alfred (ed.), English Embroidered Bookbindings, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner and Co., OCLC 705685 .
 Dobson, Michael &amp; Watson, Nicola (2003), "Elizabeth's Legacy", in Doran, Susan (ed.), Elizabeth: The Exhibition at the National Maritime Museum, London: Chatto and Windus, ISBN  978-0-7011-7476-7  .
  Doran, Susan (1996), Monarchy and Matrimony: The Courtships of Elizabeth I, London: Routledge, ISBN  978-0-415-11969-6  .
 Doran, Susan (2003), Queen Elizabeth I, London: British Library, ISBN  978-0-7123-4802-7  .
 Doran, Susan (2003), "The Queen's Suitors and the Problem of the Succession", in Doran, Susan (ed.), Elizabeth: The Exhibition at the National Maritime Museum, London: Chatto and Windus, ISBN  978-0-7011-7476-7  .
 Edwards, Philip (2004), The Making of the Modern English State: 1460–1660, Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN  978-0-312-23614-4  .
 Flynn, Sian &amp; Spence, David (2003), "Elizabeth's Adventurers", in Doran, Susan (ed.), Elizabeth: The Exhibition at the National Maritime Museum, London: Chatto and Windus, ISBN  978-0-7011-7476-7  .
  Frieda, Leonie (2005), Catherine de Medici, London: Phoenix, ISBN  978-0-7538-2039-1  .
  Guy, John (2004), My Heart is My Own: The Life of Mary Queen of Scots, London and New York: Fourth Estate, ISBN  978-1-84115-752-8  .
  Haigh, Christopher (2000), Elizabeth I (2nd ed.), Harlow (UK): Longman Pearson, ISBN  978-0-582-43754-8  .
 Hammer, P. E. J. (1999), The Polarisation of Elizabethan Politics: The Political Career of Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, 1585–1597, Cambridge University Press, ISBN  978-0-521-01941-5  .
 Haynes, Alan (1987),  The White Bear: The Elizabethan Earl of Leicester , Peter Owen, ISBN  978-0-7206-0672-0  .
 Hogge, Alice (2005), God's Secret Agents: Queen Elizabeth's Forbidden Priests and the Hatching of the Gunpowder Plot, London: HarperCollins, ISBN  978-0-00-715637-5  .
  Jenkins, Elizabeth (2002) [1961], Elizabeth and Leicester, The Phoenix Press, ISBN  978-1-84212-560-1  .
  Jenkins, Elizabeth (1967) [1957], Elizabeth the Great, New York: Capricorn Books, G.P. Putnam's and Sons, ISBN  978-1-898799-70-2  .
  Kantorowicz, Ernst Hartwig (1997). The king's two bodies: a study in mediaeval political theology (2 ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN  978-0-691-01704-4 . 
  Kenyon, John P. (1983),  The History Men: The Historical Profession in England since the Renaissance , London: Weidenfeld &amp; Nicolson, ISBN  978-0-297-78254-4  .
  Kupperman, Karen Ordahl (2007),  The Jamestown Project , Harvard University Press, ISBN  978-0-674-02474-8  .
  Lacey, Robert (1971),  Robert Earl of Essex: An Elizabethan Icarus , London: Weidenfeld &amp; Nicolson, ISBN  978-0-297-00320-5  .
  Loades, David (2003), Elizabeth I: The Golden Reign of Gloriana, London: The National Archives, ISBN  978-1-903365-43-4  .
 McGrath, Patrick (1967), Papists and Puritans under Elizabeth I, London: Blandford Press.
  Neale, J. E. (1954) [1934], Queen Elizabeth I: A Biography (reprint ed.), London: Jonathan Cape, OCLC 220518 .
  Parker, Geoffrey (2000), The Grand Strategy of Philip II, New Haven: Yale University Press, ISBN  978-0-300-08273-9  .
  Rowse, A. L. (1950), The England of Elizabeth, London: Macmillan, OCLC 181656553 .
  Skidmore, Chris (2010), Death and the Virgin: Elizabeth, Dudley and the Mysterious Fate of Amy Robsart, London: Weidenfeld &amp; Nicolson, ISBN  978-0-297-84650-5  .
 Somerset, Anne (2003),  Elizabeth I  (1st Anchor Books ed.), London: Anchor Books, ISBN  978-0-385-72157-8  .
  Starkey, David (2001),  Elizabeth: Apprenticeship , London: Vintage, ISBN  978-0-09-928657-8  .
  Starkey, David (2003), "Elizabeth: Woman, Monarch, Mission", in Doran, Susan (ed.), Elizabeth: The Exhibition at the National Maritime Museum, London: Chatto and Windus, ISBN  978-0-7011-7476-7  .
  Strong, Roy C. (2003) [1987], Gloriana: The Portraits of Queen Elizabeth I, London: Pimlico, ISBN  978-0-7126-0944-9  .
 Strong, Roy C. &amp; van Dorsten, J. A. (1964), Leicester's Triumph, Oxford University Press.
  Weir, Alison (1997), The Children of Henry VIII, London: Random House, ISBN  978-0-345-40786-3  .
  Weir, Alison (1999), Elizabeth the Queen, London: Pimlico, ISBN  978-0-7126-7312-9  .
 Williams, Neville (1964), Thomas Howard, Fourth Duke of Norfolk, London: Barrie &amp; Rockliff.
 Williams, Neville (1972),  The Life and Times of Elizabeth I , London: Weidenfeld &amp; Nicolson, ISBN  978-0-297-83168-6  .
 Willson, David Harris (1963) [1956], King James VI &amp; I, London: Jonathan Cape, ISBN  978-0-224-60572-4  .
 Wilson, Derek (1981), Sweet Robin: A Biography of Robert Dudley Earl of Leicester 1533–1588, London: Hamish Hamilton, ISBN  978-0-241-10149-0  .
 Woodward, Jennifer (1997), The Theatre of Death: The Ritual Management of Royal Funerals in Renaissance England, 1570–1625, Boydell &amp; Brewer, ISBN  978-0-85115-704-7    
Further reading
 Beem, Charles. The Foreign Relations of Elizabeth I (2011) excerpt and text search Archived 26 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine 
 Bridgen, Susan (2001). New Worlds, Lost Worlds: The Rule of the Tudors, 1485–1603. New York: Viking Penguin. ISBN  978-0-670-89985-2 . 
Hodges, J. P. The Nature of the Lion: Elizabeth I and Our Anglican Heritage (London: Faith Press, 1962).
Jones, Norman. The Birth of the Elizabethan Age: England in the 1560s (Blackwell, 1993)
 MacCaffrey Wallace T. Elizabeth I (1993), political biography summarising his multivolume study:
 MacCaffrey Wallace T. The Shaping of the Elizabethan Regime: Elizabethan Politics, 1558–1572 (1969)
MacCaffrey Wallace T. Queen Elizabeth and the Making of Policy, 1572–1588 (1988)
MacCaffrey Wallace T. Elizabeth I: War and Politics, 1588–1603 (1994)  
McLaren, A. N. Political Culture in the Reign of Elizabeth I: Queen and Commonwealth, 1558–1585 (Cambridge University Press, 1999) excerpt and text search Archived 8 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine 
Palliser, D. M. The Age of Elizabeth: England Under the Later Tudors, 1547–1603 (1983) survey of social and economic history
  Pollard, Albert Frederick (1911). "Elizabeth of England" .  Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 11 (11th ed.). pp. 282–283. 
 Ridley, Jasper Godwin (1989).  Elizabeth I: The Shrewdness of Virtue . Fromm International. ISBN  978-0-88064-110-4 . 
 Wernham, R. B. Before the Armada: the growth of English foreign policy, 1485–1588 (1966), a standard history of foreign policy
 Whitelock, Anna (2013). Elizabeth's Bedfellows: An Intimate History of the Queen's Court. London: Bloomsbury. ISBN  9781408808801 .  
Primary sources and early histories
  Elizabeth I (2002). Elizabeth I: Collected Works. University of Chicago Press. ISBN  978-0-226-50465-0 . 
Susan M. Felch, ed. Elizabeth I and Her Age (Norton Critical Editions) (2009); primary and secondary sources, with an emphasis on literature
 William Camden. History of the Most Renowned and Victorious Princess Elizabeth. Wallace T. MacCaffrey (ed). Chicago: University of Chicago Press, selected chapters, 1970 edition. OCLC 59210072.
William Camden.  Annales Rerum Gestarum Angliae et Hiberniae Regnante Elizabetha.  Archived 18 December 2020 at the Wayback Machine (1615 and 1625.) Hypertext edition, with English translation. Dana F. Sutton (ed.), 2000. Retrieved 7 December 2007.
Clapham, John. Elizabeth of England. E. P. Read and Conyers Read (eds). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1951. OCLC 1350639. 
Historiography and memory
 Carlson, Eric Josef. "Teaching Elizabeth Tudor with Movies: Film, Historical Thinking, and the Classroom," Sixteenth Century Journal, Summer 2007, Vol. 38 Issue 2, pp. 419–440
Collinson, Patrick. "Elizabeth I and the verdicts of history," Historical Research, Nov 2003, Vol. 76 Issue 194, pp. 469–491
 Dobson, Michael; Watson, Nicola Jane (2002).  England's Elizabeth: An Afterlife in Fame and Fantasy . Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN  978-0-19-818377-8 . 
Doran, Susan, and Thomas S. Freeman, eds. The Myth of Elizabeth.(2003).
 Epstein, Joel (2022). "Elizabeth I: Queen of Music". Music for the Love of It: Episodes in Amateur Music-Making. Juwal Publications. ISBN  978-9659278237 . 
Greaves, Richard L., ed. Elizabeth I, Queen of England (1974), excerpts from historians
Haigh, Christopher, ed. The Reign of Elizabeth I (1984), essays by scholars
Howard, Maurice. "Elizabeth I: A Sense Of Place In Stone, Print And Paint," Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, Dec 2004, Vol. 14 Issue 1, pp. 261–268
 Hulme, Harold (1958). "Elizabeth I and Her Parliaments: The Work of Sir John Neale". Journal of Modern History. 30 (3): 236–240. doi:10.1086/238230. JSTOR 1872838. S2CID 144764596. 
Montrose, Louis. The Subject of Elizabeth: Authority, Gender, and Representation. (2006).
Rowse, A. L. "Queen Elizabeth and the Historians." History Today (Sept 1953) 3#9 pp 630–641.
Watkins, John. Representing Elizabeth in Stuart England: Literature, History, Sovereignty (2002)
Woolf, D. R. "Two Elizabeths? James I and the Late Queen's Famous Memory," Canadian Journal of History, August 1985, Vol. 20 Issue 2, pp. 167–191 
External links
   These audio files were created from a revision of this article dated 20 June 2015, and do not reflect subsequent edits. 
 
 Elizabeth I     House of Tudor    Born: 7 September 1533 Died: 24 March 1603
 
Regnal titles
 
Preceded by  Mary I and Philip  
  Queen of England and Ireland  1558–1603
Succeeded by  James I
Elizabeth I - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_I
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei
Galileo Galilei - Wikipedia
2001-10-30
Authority control
<div><div>
<table><tbody><tr><th><p>Galileo Galilei</p></th></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei,_1636.jpg"></a><div><p>Portrait by <a href="/wiki/Justus_Sustermans">Justus Sustermans</a>, 1636</p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Born</th><td><p>Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de' Galilei<sup><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup></p><br />15 February 1564<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake19781-2">[2]</a></sup><p><a href="/wiki/Pisa">Pisa</a>, Duchy of Florence</p></td></tr><tr><th>Died</th><td>8 January 1642 (aged 77)<p><a href="/wiki/Arcetri">Arcetri</a>, Grand Duchy of Tuscany</p></td></tr><tr><th>Education</th><td><a href="/wiki/University_of_Pisa">University of Pisa</a></td></tr><tr><th>Known for</th><td><div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_dynamics">Analytical dynamics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism">heliocentrism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kinematics">kinematics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Observational_astronomy">observational astronomy</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th>Fields</th><td><div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy">Astronomy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Physics">physics</a></li><li>engineering</li><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy">natural philosophy</a></li><li>mathematics</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Institutions</th><td><div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Pisa">University of Pisa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Padua">University of Padua</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Patrons</th><td><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosimo_II_de_Medici">Cosimo II de Medici</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Federico_Cesi">Federico Cesi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinando_II_de_Medici">Ferdinando II de Medici</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fra_Paolo_Sarpi">Fra Paolo Sarpi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Maria_del_Monte">Francesco Maria del Monte</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th>Academic advisors</th><td><a href="/wiki/Ostilio_Ricci_da_Fermo">Ostilio Ricci da Fermo</a></td></tr><tr><th>Notable students</th><td><div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Castelli">Benedetto Castelli</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Guiducci">Mario Guiducci</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Viviani">Vincenzo Viviani</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Influences</th><td><div><ul><li>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus">John Philoponus</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</a></li></ul>
</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Signature</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:Galileo_Galilei_Signature_2.svg"></a></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de' Galilei</b> (15 February 1564 – 8 January 1642) was an Italian <a href="/wiki/Astronomer">astronomer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physicist">physicist</a> and engineer, sometimes described as a <a href="/wiki/Polymath">polymath</a>. Commonly referred to as <b>Galileo</b>, his name was pronounced (<a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key"><i>GAL-ih-LAY-oh GAL-ih-LAY-ee</i></a>, <small>Italian: </small><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Italian">[ɡaliˈlɛːo ɡaliˈlɛi]</a>). He was born in the city of <a href="/wiki/Pisa">Pisa</a>, then part of the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Florence">Duchy of Florence</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> Galileo has been called the "father" of <a href="/wiki/Observational_astronomy">observational astronomy</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> modern physics,<sup><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method">scientific method</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Modern_science">modern science</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup>
</p><p>Galileo studied <a href="/wiki/Speed">speed</a> and <a href="/wiki/Velocity">velocity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gravity">gravity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Free_fall">free fall</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_relativity">principle of relativity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inertia">inertia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Projectile_motion">projectile motion</a> and also worked in applied science and technology, describing the properties of <a href="/wiki/Pendulum">pendulums</a> and "<a href="/wiki/Hydrostatic">hydrostatic</a> balances". He invented the <a href="/wiki/Thermoscope">thermoscope</a> and various <a href="/wiki/Sector_(instrument)">military compasses</a>, and used the <a href="/wiki/Telescope">telescope</a> for scientific observations of celestial objects. His contributions to observational astronomy include telescopic confirmation of the <a href="/wiki/Phases_of_Venus">phases of Venus</a>, observation of the <a href="/wiki/Galilean_moons">four largest satellites</a> of <a href="/wiki/Jupiter">Jupiter</a>, observation of <a href="/wiki/Saturn%27s_rings">Saturn's rings</a>, and analysis of <a href="/wiki/Lunar_craters">lunar craters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sunspot">sunspots</a>.
</p><p>Galileo's championing of <a href="/wiki/Copernican_heliocentrism">Copernican heliocentrism</a> (Earth rotating daily and revolving around the Sun) was met with opposition from within the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church">Catholic Church</a> and from some astronomers. The matter was investigated by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Inquisition">Roman Inquisition</a> in 1615, which concluded that heliocentrism was foolish, absurd, and heretical since it contradicted Holy Scripture.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannam2009329–344-9">[9]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994127–131-10">[10]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro201074-11">[11]</a></sup>
</p><p>Galileo later defended his views in <i><a href="/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems">Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems</a></i> (1632), which appeared to attack <a href="/wiki/Pope_Urban_VIII">Pope Urban VIII</a> and thus alienated both the Pope and the <a href="/wiki/Jesuits">Jesuits</a>, who had both supported Galileo up until this point.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannam2009329–344-9">[9]</a></sup> He was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently suspect of heresy", and forced to recant. He spent the rest of his life under house arrest.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro199747-12">[12]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHilliam200596-13">[13]</a></sup> During this time, he wrote <i><a href="/wiki/Two_New_Sciences">Two New Sciences</a></i> (1638), primarily concerning <a href="/wiki/Kinematics">kinematics</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Strength_of_materials">strength of materials</a>, summarizing work he had done around forty years earlier.<sup><a href="#cite_note-JoCarney-14">[14]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Early life and family</h2>
<p>Galileo was born in <a href="/wiki/Pisa">Pisa</a> (then part of the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Florence">Duchy of Florence</a>), Italy, on 15 February 1564,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Galileo_Galilei-15">[15]</a></sup> the first of six children of <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Galilei">Vincenzo Galilei</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Lutenist">lutenist</a>, composer, and <a href="/wiki/Music_theory">music theorist</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Giulia_Ammannati">Giulia Ammannati</a>, who had married in 1562. Galileo became an accomplished lutenist himself and would have learned early from his father a scepticism for established authority.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGribbin200826-16">[16]</a></sup>
</p><p>Three of Galileo's five siblings survived infancy. The youngest, <a href="/wiki/Michelagnolo_Galilei">Michelangelo</a> (or Michelagnolo), also became a lutenist and composer who added to Galileo's financial burdens for the rest of his life.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGribbin200830-17">[17]</a></sup> Michelangelo was unable to contribute his fair share of their father's promised dowries to their brothers-in-law, who would later attempt to seek legal remedies for payments due. Michelangelo would also occasionally have to borrow funds from Galileo to support his musical endeavours and excursions. These financial burdens may have contributed to Galileo's early desire to develop inventions that would bring him additional income.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGribbin200831-18">[18]</a></sup>
</p><p>When Galileo Galilei was eight, his family moved to <a href="/wiki/Florence,_Italy">Florence</a>, but he was left under the care of Muzio Tedaldi for two years. When Galileo was ten, he left Pisa to join his family in Florence and there he was under the tutelage of Jacopo Borghini.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Galileo_Galilei-15">[15]</a></sup> He was educated, particularly in logic, from 1575 to 1578 in the <a href="/wiki/Vallombrosa_Abbey">Vallombrosa Abbey</a>, about 30 km southeast of Florence.<sup><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Gilbert,_N._W._1963_223–231-20">[20]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Name</h3>
<p>Galileo tended to refer to himself only by his given name. At the time, surnames were optional in Italy, and his given name had the same origin as his sometimes-family name, Galilei. Both his given and family name ultimately derive from an ancestor, <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Bonaiuti">Galileo Bonaiuti</a>, an important physician, professor, and politician in Florence in the 15th century.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel200016-21">[21]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup> Galileo Bonaiuti was buried in the same church, the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Santa_Croce,_Florence">Basilica of Santa Croce in Florence</a>, where about 200 years later, Galileo Galilei was also buried.<sup><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup>
</p><p>When he did refer to himself with more than one name, it was sometimes as Galileo Galilei Linceo, a reference to his being a member of the <a href="/wiki/Accademia_dei_Lincei">Accademia dei Lincei</a>, an elite pro-science organization in Italy. It was common for mid-sixteenth-century Tuscan families to name the eldest son after the parents' surname.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel200013-24">[24]</a></sup> Hence, Galileo Galilei was not necessarily named after his ancestor Galileo Bonaiuti. The Italian male given name "Galileo" (and thence the surname "Galilei") derives from the Latin "Galilaeus", meaning "of <a href="/wiki/Galilee">Galilee</a>", a biblically significant region in Northern <a href="/wiki/Israel">Israel</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel200016-21">[21]</a></sup> Because of that region, the adjective <i>galilaios</i> (<a href="/wiki/Greek_language">Greek</a> Γαλιλαῖος, <a href="/wiki/Latin">Latin</a> <i>Galilaeus</i>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_language">Italian</a> <i>Galileo</i>), which means "Galilean", was used in antiquity (particularly by <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Julian">emperor Julian</a>) to refer to <a href="/wiki/Christ">Christ</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christianity">his followers</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup>
</p><p>The biblical roots of Galileo's name and surname were to become the subject of a famous pun.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro1989300,_330-27">[27]</a></sup> In 1614, during the <a href="/wiki/Galileo_affair">Galileo affair</a>, one of Galileo's opponents, the Dominican priest <a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Caccini">Tommaso Caccini</a>, delivered against Galileo a controversial and influential <a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Caccini#Sermon_at_Santa_Maria_Novella">sermon</a>. In it he made a point of quoting <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles">Acts</a> <a href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts+1%3A11&amp;version=KJV">1:11</a>, "Ye men of Galilee, why stand ye gazing up into heaven?" (in the <a href="/wiki/Latin">Latin</a> version found in the <a href="/wiki/Vulgate">Vulgate</a>: <i>Viri Galilaei, quid statis aspicientes in caelum?</i>).<sup><a href="#cite_note-naess-28">[28]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:A_nun,_traditionally_identified_as_Suor_Maria_Celeste,_daugh_Wellcome_L0031890.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Portrait believed to be of Galileo's elder daughter <a href="/wiki/Maria_Celeste">Virginia</a>, who was particularly devoted to her father</p></div></div>
<h3>Children</h3>
<p>Despite being a genuinely pious Roman Catholic,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt199417,_213-29">[29]</a></sup> Galileo fathered three children out of wedlock with <a href="/wiki/Marina_Gamba">Marina Gamba</a>. They had two daughters, Virginia (born 1600) and Livia (born 1601), and a son, <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Gamba">Vincenzo</a> (born 1606).<sup><a href="#cite_note-RosenGothard2009-30">[30]</a></sup>
</p><p>Due to their illegitimate birth, Galileo considered the girls unmarriageable, if not posing problems of prohibitively expensive support or dowries, which would have been similar to Galileo's previous extensive financial problems with two of his sisters.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGribbin200842-31">[31]</a></sup> Their only worthy alternative was the religious life. Both girls were accepted by the convent of San Matteo in <a href="/wiki/Arcetri">Arcetri</a> and remained there for the rest of their lives.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel20005-32">[32]</a></sup>
</p><p>Virginia took the name <a href="/wiki/Maria_Celeste">Maria Celeste</a> upon entering the convent. She died on 2 April 1634, and is buried with Galileo at the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Santa_Croce,_Florence">Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence</a>. Livia took the name Sister Arcangela and was ill for most of her life. Vincenzo was later <a href="/wiki/Legitimation">legitimised</a> as the legal heir of Galileo and married Sestilia Bocchineri.<sup><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Career as a scientist</h2>
<p>Although Galileo seriously considered the priesthood as a young man, at his father's urging he instead enrolled in 1580 at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pisa">University of Pisa</a> for a medical degree.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReston20003–14-34">[34]</a></sup> He was influenced by the lectures of <a href="/wiki/Girolamo_Borro">Girolamo Borro</a> and Francesco Buonamici of Florence.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Gilbert,_N._W._1963_223–231-20">[20]</a></sup> In 1581, when he was studying medicine, he noticed a swinging <a href="/wiki/Chandelier">chandelier</a>, which air currents shifted about to swing in larger and smaller arcs. To him, it seemed, by comparison with his heartbeat, that the chandelier took the same amount of time to swing back and forth, no matter how far it was swinging. When he returned home, he set up two <a href="/wiki/Pendulum">pendulums</a> of equal length and swung one with a large sweep and the other with a small sweep and found that they kept time together. It was not until the work of <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a>, almost one hundred years later, that the <a href="/wiki/Tautochrone_curve">tautochrone</a> nature of a swinging pendulum was used to create an accurate timepiece.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Asimov-35">[35]</a></sup> Up to this point, Galileo had deliberately been kept away from mathematics, since a physician earned a higher income than a mathematician. However, after accidentally attending a lecture on geometry, he talked his reluctant father into letting him study mathematics and <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy">natural philosophy</a> instead of medicine.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Asimov-35">[35]</a></sup> He created a <a href="/wiki/Thermoscope">thermoscope</a>, a forerunner of the <a href="/wiki/Thermometer">thermometer</a>, and, in 1586, published a small book on the design of a <a href="/wiki/Hydrostatic">hydrostatic</a> balance he had invented (which first brought him to the attention of the scholarly world). Galileo also studied <i>disegno</i>, a term encompassing fine art, and, in 1588, obtained the position of instructor in the <a href="/wiki/Accademia_delle_Arti_del_Disegno">Accademia delle Arti del Disegno</a> in Florence, teaching perspective and <a href="/wiki/Chiaroscuro">chiaroscuro</a>. In the same year, upon invitation by the <a href="/wiki/Florentine_Academy">Florentine Academy</a>, he presented two lectures, <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Shape,_Location,_and_Size_of_Dante%27s_Inferno">On the Shape, Location, and Size of Dante's Inferno</a></i>, in an attempt to propose a rigorous cosmological model of <a href="/wiki/Inferno_(Dante)">Dante's hell</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup> Being inspired by the artistic tradition of the city and the works of the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_art">Renaissance artists</a>, Galileo acquired an <a href="/wiki/Aestheticism">aesthetic mentality</a>. While a young teacher at the Accademia, he began a lifelong friendship with the Florentine painter <a href="/wiki/Cigoli">Cigoli</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:0-37">[37]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-panofsky-38">[38]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1589, he was appointed to the chair of mathematics in Pisa. In 1591, his father died, and he was entrusted with the care of his younger brother <a href="/wiki/Michelagnolo_Galilei">Michelagnolo</a>. In 1592, he moved to the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Padua">University of Padua</a> where he taught geometry, <a href="/wiki/Mechanics">mechanics</a>, and astronomy until 1610.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt199445–66-39">[39]</a></sup> During this period, Galileo made significant discoveries in both pure <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_science">fundamental science</a> (for example, <a href="/wiki/Kinematics">kinematics</a> of motion and astronomy) as well as practical <a href="/wiki/Applied_science">applied science</a> (for example, strength of materials and pioneering the telescope). His multiple interests included the study of <a href="/wiki/Astrology">astrology</a>, which at the time was a discipline tied to the studies of mathematics and astronomy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Astronomy</h3>
<h4>Kepler's supernova</h4>
<p><a href="/wiki/Tycho_Brahe">Tycho Brahe</a> and others had observed the <a href="/wiki/Supernova_of_1572">supernova of 1572</a>. Ottavio Brenzoni's letter of 15 January 1605 to Galileo brought the 1572 supernova and the less bright nova of 1601 to Galileo's notice. Galileo observed and discussed <a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_Supernova">Kepler's Supernova</a> in 1604. Since these new stars displayed no detectable <a href="/wiki/Parallax#Diurnal_parallax">diurnal parallax</a>, Galileo concluded that they were distant stars, and, therefore, disproved the Aristotelian belief in the immutability of the heavens.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:1-42">[42]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Refracting telescope</h4>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Galileo_galilei,_telescopi_del_1609-10_ca..JPG"></a></p></div>
<p>Based only on uncertain descriptions of the first practical telescope which <a href="/wiki/Hans_Lippershey">Hans Lippershey</a> tried to patent in the Netherlands in 1608,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing200330–32-43">[43]</a></sup> Galileo, in the following year, made a telescope with about 3x magnification. He later made improved versions with up to about 30x magnification.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1990133–134-44">[44]</a></sup> With a <a href="/wiki/Galilean_telescope">Galilean telescope</a>, the observer could see magnified, upright images on the Earth—it was what is commonly known as a terrestrial telescope or a spyglass. He could also use it to observe the sky; for a time he was one of those who could construct telescopes good enough for that purpose. On 25 August 1609, he demonstrated one of his early telescopes, with a magnification of about 8 or 9, to <a href="/wiki/Venice">Venetian</a> lawmakers. His telescopes were also a profitable sideline for Galileo, who sold them to merchants who found them useful both at sea and as items of trade. He published his initial telescopic astronomical observations in March 1610 in a brief <a href="/wiki/Treatise">treatise</a> entitled <i><a href="/wiki/Sidereus_Nuncius">Sidereus Nuncius</a></i> (<i>Starry Messenger</i>).<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt19941–2-45">[45]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Sidereus,_nuncius_magna_longeqve_admirabilia_spectacula..._Wellcome_L0072633.jpg"></a></p><div><p>An illustration of the Moon from <i>Sidereus Nuncius</i>, published in Venice, 1610</p></div></div>
<h4>Moon</h4>
<p>On 30 November 1609, Galileo aimed his telescope at the <a href="/wiki/Moon">Moon</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdgerton2009159-46">[46]</a></sup> While not being the first person to observe the Moon through a telescope (English mathematician <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Harriot">Thomas Harriot</a> had done it four months before but only saw a "strange spottednesse"),<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdgerton2009155-47">[47]</a></sup> Galileo was the first to deduce the cause of the uneven waning as light occlusion from lunar mountains and <a href="/wiki/Impact_crater">craters</a>. In his study, he also made topographical charts, estimating the heights of the mountains. The Moon was not what was long thought to have been a translucent and perfect sphere, as Aristotle claimed, and hardly the first "planet", an "eternal pearl to magnificently ascend into the heavenly empyrian", as put forth by <a href="/wiki/Dante">Dante</a>. Galileo is sometimes credited with the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Libration#Lunar_libration">lunar libration in latitude</a> in 1632,<sup><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup> although Thomas Harriot or <a href="/wiki/William_Gilbert_(astronomer)">William Gilbert</a> might have done it before.<sup><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup>
</p><p>A friend of Galileo's, the painter Cigoli, included a realistic depiction of the Moon in one of his paintings, though probably used his own telescope to make the observation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:0-37">[37]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Jupiter's moons</h4>
<p>On 7 January 1610, Galileo observed with his telescope what he described at the time as "three fixed stars, totally invisible<sup><a href="#cite_note-50">[a]</a></sup> by their smallness", all close to Jupiter, and lying on a straight line through it.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978146-51">[50]</a></sup> Observations on subsequent nights showed that the positions of these "stars" relative to Jupiter were changing in a way that would have been inexplicable if they had really been <a href="/wiki/Fixed_stars">fixed stars</a>. On 10 January, Galileo noted that one of them had disappeared, an observation which he attributed to its being hidden behind Jupiter. Within a few days, he concluded that they were <a href="/wiki/Orbit">orbiting</a> Jupiter: he had discovered <a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Jupiter">three of Jupiter's four largest moons</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978152-52">[51]</a></sup> He discovered the fourth on 13 January. Galileo named the group of four the <i>Medicean stars</i>, in honour of his future patron, <a href="/wiki/Cosimo_II_de%27_Medici,_Grand_Duke_of_Tuscany">Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany</a>, and Cosimo's three brothers.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt199417-53">[52]</a></sup> Later astronomers, however, renamed them <i><a href="/wiki/Galilean_moons">Galilean satellites</a></i> in honour of their discoverer. These satellites were independently discovered by <a href="/wiki/Simon_Marius">Simon Marius</a> on 8 January 1610 and are now called <a href="/wiki/Io_(moon)">Io</a>, <a href="/wiki/Europa_(moon)">Europa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ganymede_(moon)">Ganymede</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Callisto_(moon)">Callisto</a>, the names given by Marius in his <i>Mundus Iovialis</i> published in 1614.<sup><a href="#cite_note-54">[53]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Carte_de_France_corrig%C3%A9e_par_ordre_du_Roy.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Map of France presented in 1684, showing the outline of an earlier map (light outline) compared to a new survey conducted using the moons of Jupiter as an accurate timing reference (heavier outline).</p></div></div>
<p>Galileo's observations of the satellites of Jupiter caused a revolution in astronomy: a planet with smaller planets orbiting it did not conform to the principles of <a href="/wiki/On_the_Heavens">Aristotelian cosmology</a>, which held that all heavenly bodies should circle the Earth,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELinton200498,_205-55">[54]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978157-56">[55]</a></sup> and many astronomers and philosophers initially refused to believe that Galileo could have discovered such a thing.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978158–168-57">[56]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt199418–19-58">[57]</a></sup> His observations were confirmed by the observatory of <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Clavius">Christopher Clavius</a> and he received a hero's welcome when he visited Rome in 1611.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannam2009313-59">[58]</a></sup> Galileo continued to observe the satellites over the next eighteen months, and by mid-1611, he had obtained remarkably accurate estimates for their periods—a feat which <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a> had believed impossible.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978168-60">[59]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt199493-61">[60]</a></sup>
</p><p>Galileo saw a practical use for his discovery. Determining the east-west position of ships at sea required their clocks be synchronized with clocks at the <a href="/wiki/Prime_meridian">prime meridian</a>. Solving this <a href="/wiki/Longitude_problem">longitude problem</a> had great importance to safe navigation and large prizes were established by Spain and later Holland for its solution. Since eclipses of the moons he discovered were relatively frequent and their times could be predicted with great accuracy, they could be used to set shipboard clocks and Galileo applied for the prizes. Observing the moons from a ship proved too difficult, but the method was used for land surveys, including the remapping of France.<sup><a href="#cite_note-danson-wtw-62">[61]</a></sup><sup>: 15–16 </sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-rgm-63">[62]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Phases of Venus</h4>
<div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Phases-of-Venus2.svg"></a></p></div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Phases-of-Venus-Geocentric.svg"></a></p></div></div>
<p>From September 1610, Galileo observed that <a href="/wiki/Venus">Venus</a> exhibits <a href="/wiki/Phases_of_Venus">a full set of phases</a> similar to <a href="/wiki/Lunar_phase">that of the Moon</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Heliocentric_model">heliocentric model</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System">Solar System</a> developed by <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</a> predicted that all phases would be visible since the orbit of Venus around the <a href="/wiki/Sun">Sun</a> would cause its illuminated hemisphere to face the Earth when it was on the opposite side of the Sun and to face away from the Earth when it was on the Earth-side of the Sun. In <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model#Ptolemaic_model">Ptolemy's geocentric model</a>, it was impossible for any of the planets' orbits to intersect the spherical shell carrying the Sun. Traditionally, the orbit of Venus was placed entirely on the near side of the Sun, where it could exhibit only crescent and new phases. It was also possible to place it entirely on the far side of the Sun, where it could exhibit only gibbous and full phases. After Galileo's telescopic observations of the crescent, gibbous and full phases of Venus, the Ptolemaic model became untenable. In the early 17th century, as a result of his discovery, the great majority of astronomers converted to one of the various geo-heliocentric planetary models,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThoren19898-64">[63]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoskin1999117-65">[64]</a></sup> such as the <a href="/wiki/Tychonic_system">Tychonic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martianus_Capella">Capellan</a> and Extended Capellan models,<sup><a href="#cite_note-66">[b]</a></sup> each either with or without a daily rotating Earth. These all explained the phases of Venus without the 'refutation' of full heliocentrism's prediction of stellar parallax. Galileo's discovery of the phases of Venus was thus his most empirically practically influential contribution to the two-stage transition from full geocentrism to full heliocentrism via geo-heliocentrism.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h4>Saturn and Neptune</h4>
<p>In 1610, Galileo also observed the planet <a href="/wiki/Saturn">Saturn</a>, and at first mistook its rings for planets,<sup><a href="#cite_note-:2-67">[65]</a></sup> thinking it was a three-bodied system. When he observed the planet later, Saturn's rings were directly oriented at Earth, causing him to think that two of the bodies had disappeared. The rings reappeared when he observed the planet in 1616, further confusing him.<sup><a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a></sup>
</p><p>Galileo observed the planet <a href="/wiki/Neptune">Neptune</a> in 1612. It appears in his notebooks as one of many unremarkable dim stars. He did not realise that it was a planet, but he did note its motion relative to the stars before losing track of it.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrakeKowal1980-69">[67]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Sunspots</h4>
<p>Galileo made naked-eye and telescopic studies of <a href="/wiki/Sunspot">sunspots</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:3-70">[68]</a></sup> Their existence raised another difficulty with the unchanging perfection of the heavens as posited in orthodox Aristotelian celestial physics. An apparent annual variation in their trajectories, observed by <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Sizzi">Francesco Sizzi</a> and others in 1612–1613,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978209-71">[69]</a></sup> also provided a powerful argument against both the Ptolemaic system and the geoheliocentric system of Tycho Brahe.<sup><a href="#cite_note-75">[c]</a></sup> A dispute over claimed priority in the discovery of sunspots, and in their interpretation, led Galileo to a long and bitter feud with the <a href="/wiki/Jesuit">Jesuit</a> <a href="/wiki/Christoph_Scheiner">Christoph Scheiner</a>. In the middle was <a href="/wiki/Mark_Welser">Mark Welser</a>, to whom Scheiner had announced his discovery, and who asked Galileo for his opinion. Both of them were unaware of <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Fabricius">Johannes Fabricius</a>' earlier observation and publication of sunspots.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGribbin200840-76">[73]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Milky Way and stars</h4>
<p>Galileo observed the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way">Milky Way</a>, previously believed to be <a href="/wiki/Nebula">nebulous</a>, and found it to be a multitude of stars packed so densely that they appeared from Earth to be clouds. He located many other stars too distant to be visible with the naked eye. He observed the double star <a href="/wiki/Mizar_(star)">Mizar</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ursa_Major">Ursa Major</a> in 1617.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOndra200472–73-77">[74]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the <i>Starry Messenger</i>, Galileo reported that stars appeared as mere blazes of light, essentially unaltered in appearance by the telescope, and contrasted them to planets, which the telescope revealed to be discs. But shortly thereafter, in his <i><a href="/wiki/Letters_on_Sunspots">Letters on Sunspots</a></i>, he reported that the telescope revealed the shapes of both stars and planets to be "quite round". From that point forward, he continued to report that telescopes showed the roundness of stars, and that stars seen through the telescope measured a few seconds of arc in diameter.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraney2010455-78">[75]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraneyGrayson2011353-79">[76]</a></sup> He also devised a method for measuring the apparent size of a star without a telescope. As described in his <i><a href="/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems">Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems</a></i>, his method was to hang a thin rope in his line of sight to the star and measure the maximum distance from which it would wholly obscure the star. From his measurements of this distance and of the width of the rope, he could calculate the angle subtended by the star at his viewing point.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Helden198575-80">[77]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChalmers199925-81">[78]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalilei1953361–362-82">[79]</a></sup>
</p><p>In his <i>Dialogue</i>, he reported that he had found the apparent diameter of a star of <a href="/wiki/Stellar_magnitude">first magnitude</a> to be no more than 5 <a href="/wiki/Arcsecond">arcseconds</a>, and that of one of sixth magnitude to be about <sup>5</sup>/<sub>6</sub> arcseconds. Like most astronomers of his day, Galileo did not recognise that the apparent sizes of stars that he measured were spurious, caused by diffraction and atmospheric distortion, and did not represent the true sizes of stars. However, Galileo's values were much smaller than previous estimates of the apparent sizes of the brightest stars, such as those made by Brahe, and enabled Galileo to counter anti-Copernican arguments such as those made by Tycho that these stars would have to be absurdly large for their annual <a href="/wiki/Stellar_parallax">parallaxes</a> to be undetectable.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro1989167–176-83">[80]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalilei1953359–360-84">[81]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOndra200474–75-85">[82]</a></sup> Other astronomers such as Simon Marius, <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Riccioli">Giovanni Battista Riccioli</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Martin_van_den_Hove">Martinus Hortensius</a> made similar measurements of stars, and Marius and Riccioli concluded the smaller sizes were not small enough to answer Tycho's argument.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraney2010454–462-86">[83]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraneyGrayson2011352–355-87">[84]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Theory of tides</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Galileo_Galilei_2.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Cardinal_Bellarmine">Cardinal Bellarmine</a> had written in 1615 that the <a href="/wiki/Copernican_heliocentrism">Copernican system</a> could not be defended without "a true physical demonstration that the sun does not circle the earth but the earth circles the sun".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro198967–69-88">[85]</a></sup> Galileo considered his theory of the <a href="/wiki/Tide">tides</a> to provide such evidence.<sup><a href="#cite_note-89">[86]</a></sup> This theory was so important to him that he originally intended to call his <i>Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems</i> the <i>Dialogue on the Ebb and Flow of the Sea</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro1989354-90">[87]</a></sup> The reference to tides was removed from the title by order of the Inquisition.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>For Galileo, the tides were caused by the sloshing back and forth of water in the seas as a point on the Earth's surface sped up and slowed down because of the Earth's rotation on its axis and revolution around the Sun. He circulated his first account of the tides in 1616, addressed to <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Orsini_(cardinal)">Cardinal Orsini</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro1989119–133-91">[88]</a></sup> His theory gave the first insight into the importance of the shapes of ocean basins in the size and timing of tides; he correctly accounted, for instance, for the negligible tides halfway along the <a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Sea">Adriatic Sea</a> compared to those at the ends. As a general account of the cause of tides, however, his theory was a failure.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>If this theory were correct, there would be only one high tide per day. Galileo and his contemporaries were aware of this inadequacy because there are two daily high tides at <a href="/wiki/Venice">Venice</a> instead of one, about 12 hours apart. Galileo dismissed this anomaly as the result of several secondary causes including the shape of the sea, its depth, and other factors.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro1989127–131-92">[89]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalilei1953432–436-93">[90]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> later expressed the opinion that Galileo developed his "fascinating arguments" and accepted them uncritically out of a desire for physical proof of the motion of the Earth.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1953xvii-94">[91]</a></sup> Galileo also dismissed the idea, <a href="/wiki/Tide#History">known from antiquity</a> and by his contemporary Johannes Kepler, that the <a href="/wiki/Moon">Moon</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalilei1953462-95">[92]</a></sup> caused the tides—Galileo also took no interest in Kepler's <a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws_of_planetary_motion">elliptical orbits of the planets</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-96">[93]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-97">[94]</a></sup> Galileo continued to argue in favour of his theory of tides, considering it the ultimate proof of Earth's motion.<sup><a href="#cite_note-98">[95]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Controversy over comets and <i>The Assayer</i></h3>
<p>In 1619, Galileo became embroiled in a controversy with Father <a href="/wiki/Orazio_Grassi">Orazio Grassi</a>, professor of mathematics at the Jesuit <a href="/wiki/Collegio_Romano">Collegio Romano</a>. It began as a dispute over the nature of comets, but by the time Galileo had published <i><a href="/wiki/The_Assayer">The Assayer</a></i> (<i>Il Saggiatore</i>) in 1623, his last salvo in the dispute, it had become a much wider controversy over the very nature of science itself. The title page of the book describes Galileo as philosopher and "Matematico Primario" of the Grand Duke of Tuscany.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Because <i>The Assayer</i> contains such a wealth of Galileo's ideas on how science should be practised, it has been referred to as his scientific manifesto.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1960vii,_xxiii–xxiv-99">[96]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994139–140-100">[97]</a></sup> Early in 1619, Father Grassi had anonymously published a pamphlet, <i>An Astronomical Disputation on the Three Comets of the Year 1618</i>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrassi1960a-101">[98]</a></sup> which discussed the nature of a comet that had appeared late in November of the previous year. Grassi concluded that the comet was a fiery body that had moved along a segment of a great circle at a constant distance from the earth,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978268-102">[99]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrassi1960a16)-103">[100]</a></sup> and since it moved in the sky more slowly than the Moon, it must be farther away than the Moon.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Grassi's arguments and conclusions were criticised in a subsequent article, <i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Comets">Discourse on Comets</a></i>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalileiGuiducci1960-104">[101]</a></sup> published under the name of one of Galileo's disciples, a Florentine lawyer named <a href="/wiki/Mario_Guiducci">Mario Guiducci</a>, although it had been largely written by Galileo himself.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1960xvi-105">[102]</a></sup> Galileo and Guiducci offered no definitive theory of their own on the nature of comets,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1957222-106">[103]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1960xvii-107">[104]</a></sup> although they did present some tentative conjectures that are now known to be mistaken. (The correct approach to the study of comets had been proposed at the time by Tycho Brahe.) In its opening passage, Galileo and Guiducci's <i>Discourse</i> gratuitously insulted the Jesuit <a href="/wiki/Christoph_Scheiner">Christoph Scheiner</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994135-108">[105]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1960xii-109">[106]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalileiGuiducci196024-110">[107]</a></sup> and various uncomplimentary remarks about the professors of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_College">Collegio Romano</a> were scattered throughout the work.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994135-108">[105]</a></sup> The Jesuits were offended,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994135-108">[105]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1960xvii-107">[104]</a></sup> and Grassi soon replied with a <a href="/wiki/Polemical">polemical</a> tract of his own, <i>The Astronomical and Philosophical Balance</i>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrassi1960b-111">[108]</a></sup> under the pseudonym Lothario Sarsio Sigensano,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978494-112">[109]</a></sup> purporting to be one of his own pupils.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p><i>The Assayer</i> was Galileo's devastating reply to the <i>Astronomical Balance</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalileiGuiducci1960-104">[101]</a></sup> It has been widely recognized as a masterpiece of polemical literature,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994137-113">[110]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1957227-114">[111]</a></sup> in which "Sarsi's" arguments are subjected to withering scorn.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994138–142-115">[112]</a></sup> It was greeted with wide acclaim, and particularly pleased the new pope, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Urban_VIII">Urban VIII</a>, to whom it had been dedicated.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1960xix-116">[113]</a></sup> In Rome, in the previous decade, Barberini, the future Urban VIII, had come down on the side of Galileo and the <a href="/wiki/Lincean_Academy">Lincean Academy</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-117">[114]</a></sup>
</p><p>Galileo's dispute with Grassi permanently alienated many Jesuits,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1960vii-118">[115]</a></sup> and Galileo and his friends were convinced that they were responsible for bringing about his later condemnation,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994175-119">[116]</a></sup> although supporting evidence for this is not conclusive.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994175–178-120">[117]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackwell200630-121">[118]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Controversy over heliocentrism</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Galileo_facing_the_Roman_Inquisition.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>At the time of Galileo's conflict with the Church, the majority of educated people subscribed to the <a href="/wiki/Aristotle">Aristotelian</a> <a href="/wiki/Geocentric">geocentric</a> view that the Earth is the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_center_of_the_Universe">center of the Universe</a> and the orbit of all heavenly bodies, or Tycho Brahe's new system blending geocentrism with heliocentrism.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannam2009303–316-122">[119]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-123">[120]</a></sup> Opposition to heliocentrism and Galileo's writings on it combined religious and scientific objections. Religious opposition to heliocentrism arose from biblical passages implying the fixed nature of the Earth.<sup><a href="#cite_note-bible-125">[d]</a></sup> Scientific opposition came from Brahe, who argued that if heliocentrism were true, an annual stellar parallax should be observed, though none was at the time.<sup><a href="#cite_note-127">[e]</a></sup> Aristarchus and Copernicus had correctly postulated that parallax was negligible because the stars were so distant. However, Tycho countered that since stars <a href="/wiki/Airy_disk">appear to have measurable angular size</a>, if the stars were that distant and their apparent size is due to their physical size, they would be far larger than the Sun. In fact, <a href="/wiki/Magnitude_(astronomy)#History">it is not possible to observe the physical size of distant stars</a> without modern telescopes.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraneyDanielson2014-128">[123]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-129">[f]</a></sup>
</p><p>Galileo defended heliocentrism based on <a href="/wiki/Sidereus_Nuncius">his astronomical observations of 1609</a>. In December 1613, the Grand Duchess <a href="/wiki/Christina_of_Lorraine">Christina of Florence</a> confronted one of Galileo's friends and followers, <a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Castelli">Benedetto Castelli</a>, with biblical objections to the motion of the Earth.<sup><a href="#cite_note-131">[g]</a></sup> Prompted by this incident, Galileo wrote a <a href="/wiki/Letter_to_Benedetto_Castelli">letter to Castelli</a> in which he argued that heliocentrism was actually not contrary to biblical texts, and that the Bible was an authority on faith and morals, not science. This letter was not published, but circulated widely.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro198927–28-130">[124]</a></sup> Two years later, Galileo wrote a <a href="/wiki/Letter_to_the_Grand_Duchess_Christina">letter to Christina</a> that expanded his arguments previously made in eight pages to forty pages.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro1989-132">[125]</a></sup>
</p><p>By 1615, Galileo's writings on heliocentrism had been submitted to the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Inquisition">Roman Inquisition</a> by Father <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Lorini">Niccolò Lorini</a>, who claimed that Galileo and his followers were attempting to reinterpret the Bible,<sup><a href="#cite_note-bible-125">[d]</a></sup> which was seen as a violation of the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent">Council of Trent</a> and looked dangerously like <a href="/wiki/Protestantism">Protestantism</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELangford199856–57-133">[126]</a></sup> Lorini specifically cited Galileo's letter to Castelli.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro198928,_134-134">[127]</a></sup> Galileo went to Rome to defend himself and his ideas. At the start of 1616, Monsignor <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Ingoli">Francesco Ingoli</a> initiated a debate with Galileo, sending him an essay disputing the Copernican system. Galileo later stated that he believed this essay to have been instrumental in the action against Copernicanism that followed.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraney201568–69-135">[128]</a></sup> Ingoli may have been commissioned by the Inquisition to write an expert opinion on the controversy, with the essay providing the basis for the Inquisition's actions.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro201072-136">[129]</a></sup> The essay focused on eighteen physical and mathematical arguments against heliocentrism. It borrowed primarily from Tycho Brahe's arguments, notably that heliocentrism would require the stars as they appeared to be much larger than the Sun.<sup><a href="#cite_note-138">[h]</a></sup> The essay also included four theological arguments, but Ingoli suggested Galileo focus on the physical and mathematical arguments, and he did not mention Galileo's biblical ideas.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraney201566–76,_164–175,_187–195-139">[131]</a></sup>
</p><p>In February 1616, an Inquisitorial commission declared heliocentrism to be "foolish and absurd in philosophy, and formally heretical since it explicitly contradicts in many places the sense of Holy Scripture". The Inquisition found that the idea of the Earth's movement "receives the same judgement in philosophy and ... in regard to theological truth it is at least erroneous in faith".<sup><a href="#cite_note-wcumf-140">[132]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pope_Paul_V">Pope Paul V</a> instructed Cardinal Bellarmine to deliver this finding to Galileo, and to order him to abandon heliocentrism. On 26 February, Galileo was called to Bellarmine's residence and ordered "to abandon completely ... the opinion that the sun stands still at the center of the world and the Earth moves, and henceforth not to hold, teach, or defend it in any way whatever, either orally or in writing."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2010218-141">[133]</a></sup> The decree of the <a href="/wiki/Congregation_of_the_Index">Congregation of the Index</a> banned Copernicus's <i>De Revolutionibus</i> and other heliocentric works until correction.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2010218-141">[133]</a></sup>
</p><p>For the next decade, Galileo stayed well away from the controversy. He revived his project of writing a book on the subject, encouraged by the election of Cardinal Maffeo <a href="/wiki/Barberini">Barberini</a> as <a href="/wiki/Pope_Urban_VIII">Pope Urban VIII</a> in 1623. Barberini was a friend and admirer of Galileo, and had opposed the admonition of Galileo in 1616. Galileo's resulting book, <i>Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems</i>, was published in 1632, with formal authorization from the Inquisition and papal permission.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Pope_Urban_VIII-142">[134]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Galileo-sustermans4.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Earlier, Pope Urban VIII had personally asked Galileo to give arguments for and against heliocentrism in the book, and to be careful not to advocate heliocentrism. Whether unknowingly or deliberately, Simplicio, the defender of the Aristotelian geocentric view in <i>Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems</i>, was often caught in his own errors and sometimes came across as a fool. Indeed, although Galileo states in the preface of his book that the character is named after a famous Aristotelian philosopher (<a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia">Simplicius</a> in Latin, "Simplicio" in Italian), the name "Simplicio" in Italian also has the connotation of "simpleton".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro199782-143">[135]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMossWallace200311-144">[136]</a></sup> This portrayal of Simplicio made <i>Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems</i> appear as an advocacy book: an attack on Aristotelian geocentrism and defence of the Copernican theory.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Most historians agree Galileo did not act out of malice and felt blindsided by the reaction to his book.<sup><a href="#cite_note-148">[i]</a></sup> However, the Pope did not take the suspected public ridicule lightly, nor the Copernican advocacy.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Galileo had alienated one of his biggest and most powerful supporters, the Pope, and was called to Rome to defend his writings<sup><a href="#cite_note-149">[140]</a></sup> in September 1632. He finally arrived in February 1633 and was brought before inquisitor <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Maculani">Vincenzo Maculani</a> to be <a href="/wiki/Criminal_charge">charged</a>. Throughout his trial, Galileo steadfastly maintained that since 1616 he had faithfully kept his promise not to hold any of the condemned opinions, and initially he denied even defending them. However, he was eventually persuaded to admit that, contrary to his true intention, a reader of his <i>Dialogue</i> could well have obtained the impression that it was intended to be a defence of Copernicanism. In view of Galileo's rather implausible denial that he had ever held Copernican ideas after 1616 or ever intended to defend them in the <i>Dialogue</i>, his final interrogation, in July 1633, concluded with his being threatened with torture if he did not tell the truth, but he maintained his denial despite the threat.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994171–175-150">[141]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2010308–317-151">[142]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGingerich1992117–118-152">[143]</a></sup>
</p><p>The sentence of the Inquisition was delivered on 22 June. It was in three essential parts:
</p>
<ul><li>Galileo was found "vehemently suspect of heresy" (though he was never formally charged with heresy, relieving him of facing corporal punishment),<sup><a href="#cite_note-153">[144]</a></sup> namely of having held the opinions that the Sun lies motionless at the centre of the universe, that the Earth is not at its centre and moves, and that one may hold and defend an opinion as probable after it has been declared contrary to Holy Scripture. He was required to "<a href="/wiki/Abjure">abjure</a>, curse and detest" those opinions.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFantoli2005139-154">[145]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro1989288–293-155">[146]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFantoli2005140-156">[147]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2005282–284-157">[148]</a></sup></li>
<li>He was sentenced to formal imprisonment at the pleasure of the Inquisition.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro198938,_291,_306-158">[149]</a></sup> On the following day, this was commuted to house arrest, under which he remained for the rest of his life.<sup><a href="#cite_note-159">[150]</a></sup></li>
<li>His offending <i>Dialogue</i> was banned; and in an action not announced at the trial, publication of any of his works was forbidden, including any he might write in the future.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978367-160">[151]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994184-161">[152]</a></sup></li></ul>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:E_pur_si_muove.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Portrait, originally attributed to Murillo, of Galileo gazing at the words "E pur si muove" (<i><a href="/wiki/E_pur_si_muove!">And yet it moves</a></i>) (not legible in this image) scratched on the wall of his prison cell. The attribution and narrative surrounding the painting have since been contested.</p></div></div>
<p>According to popular legend, after recanting his theory that the Earth moved around the Sun, Galileo allegedly muttered the rebellious phrase "<a href="/wiki/E_pur_si_muove!">And yet it moves</a>". There was a claim that a 1640s painting by the Spanish painter <a href="/wiki/Bartolom%C3%A9_Esteban_Murillo">Bartolomé Esteban Murillo</a> or an artist of his school, in which the words were hidden until restoration work in 1911, depicts an imprisoned Galileo apparently gazing at the words "E pur si muove" written on the wall of his dungeon. The earliest known written account of the legend dates to a century after his death. Based on the painting, <a href="/wiki/Stillman_Drake">Stillman Drake</a> wrote "there is no doubt now that the famous words were already attributed to Galileo before his death".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978356–357-162">[153]</a></sup> However, an intensive investigation by astrophysicist <a href="/wiki/Mario_Livio">Mario Livio</a> has revealed that said painting is most probably a copy of a 1837 painting by the Flemish painter Roman-Eugene Van Maldeghem.<sup><a href="#cite_note-163">[154]</a></sup>
</p><p>After a period with the friendly <a href="/wiki/Ascanio_II_Piccolomini">Ascanio Piccolomini</a> (the Archbishop of <a href="/wiki/Siena">Siena</a>), Galileo was allowed to return to his villa at <a href="/wiki/Arcetri">Arcetri</a> near Florence in 1634, where he spent part of his life under house arrest. Galileo was ordered to read the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Penitential_Psalms">Seven Penitential Psalms</a> once a week for the next three years. However, his daughter Maria Celeste relieved him of the burden after securing <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical">ecclesiastical</a> permission to take it upon herself.<sup><a href="#cite_note-164">[155]</a></sup>
</p><p>It was while Galileo was under house arrest that he dedicated his time to one of his finest works, <i><a href="/wiki/Two_New_Sciences">Two New Sciences</a></i>. Here he summarised work he had done some forty years earlier, on the two sciences now called <a href="/wiki/Kinematics">kinematics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Strength_of_materials">strength of materials</a>, published in Holland to avoid the censor. This book was highly praised by Albert Einstein.<sup><a href="#cite_note-165">[156]</a></sup> As a result of this work, Galileo is often called the "father of modern physics". He went completely blind in 1638 and had developed a painful <a href="/wiki/Hernia">hernia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Insomnia">insomnia</a>, so he was permitted to travel to Florence for medical advice.<sup><a href="#cite_note-JoCarney-14">[14]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Dava_Sobel">Dava Sobel</a> argues that prior to Galileo's 1633 trial and judgement for heresy, Pope Urban VIII had become preoccupied with court intrigue and problems of state and began to fear persecution or threats to his own life. In this context, Sobel argues that the problem of Galileo was presented to the pope by court insiders and enemies of Galileo. Having been accused of weakness in defending the church, Urban reacted against Galileo out of anger and fear.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel2000232–234-166">[157]</a></sup> Mario Livio places Galileo and his discoveries in modern scientific and social contexts. In particular, he argues that the Galileo affair has its counterpart in science denial.<sup><a href="#cite_note-167">[158]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Death</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Tomb_of_Galileo_Galilei.JPG"></a></p></div>
<p>Galileo continued to receive visitors until 1642, when, after suffering fever and heart palpitations, he died on 8 January 1642, aged 77.<sup><a href="#cite_note-JoCarney-14">[14]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-168">[159]</a></sup> The Grand Duke of Tuscany, <a href="/wiki/Ferdinando_II_de%27_Medici,_Grand_Duke_of_Tuscany">Ferdinando II</a>, wished to bury him in the main body of the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_di_Santa_Croce_di_Firenze">Basilica of Santa Croce</a>, next to the tombs of his father and other ancestors, and to erect a marble mausoleum in his honour.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheaArtigas2003199-169">[160]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel2000378-170">[161]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Dito_della_mano_destra_di_galileo,_in_teca_del_1737.JPG"></a></p><div><p>Middle finger of Galileo's right hand</p></div></div>
<p>These plans were dropped, however, after Pope Urban VIII and his nephew, Cardinal Francesco Barberini, protested,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheaArtigas2003199-169">[160]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel2000378-170">[161]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994207-171">[162]</a></sup> because Galileo had been condemned by the Catholic Church for "vehement suspicion of heresy".<sup><a href="#cite_note-172">[163]</a></sup> He was instead buried in a small room next to the novices' chapel at the end of a corridor from the southern transept of the basilica to the sacristy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheaArtigas2003199-169">[160]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel2000380-173">[164]</a></sup> He was reburied in the main body of the basilica in 1737 after a monument had been erected there in his honour;<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheaArtigas2003200-174">[165]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel2000380–384-175">[166]</a></sup> during this move, three fingers and a tooth were removed from his remains.<sup><a href="#cite_note-176">[167]</a></sup> These fingers are currently on exhibition at the <a href="/wiki/Museo_Galileo">Museo Galileo</a> in Florence, Italy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-177">[168]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Scientific contributions</h2>
<h3>Scientific methods</h3>
<p>Galileo made original contributions to the science of motion through an innovative combination of experiment and mathematics.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994204–205-178">[169]</a></sup> More typical of science at the time were the qualitative studies of <a href="/wiki/William_Gilbert_(astronomer)">William Gilbert</a>, on magnetism and electricity. Galileo's father, <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Galilei">Vincenzo Galilei</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Lute">lutenist</a> and music theorist, had performed experiments establishing perhaps the oldest known non-linear relation in physics: for a stretched string, the pitch varies as the square root of the tension.<sup><a href="#cite_note-179">[170]</a></sup> These observations lay within the framework of the <a href="/wiki/Pythagoras#Musical_theories_and_investigations">Pythagorean</a> tradition of music, well known to instrument makers, which included the fact that subdividing a string by a whole number produces a harmonious scale. Thus, a limited amount of mathematics had long related music and physical science, and young Galileo could see his own father's observations expand on that tradition.<sup><a href="#cite_note-180">[171]</a></sup>
</p><p>Galileo was one of the first modern thinkers to clearly state that the <a href="/wiki/Physical_law">laws of nature</a> are mathematical. In <i>The Assayer</i>, he wrote "Philosophy is written in this grand book, the universe ... It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometric figures;...."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1957237–238-181">[172]</a></sup> His mathematical analyses are a further development of a tradition employed by late <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism">scholastic</a> natural philosophers, which Galileo learned when he studied philosophy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWallace1984-182">[173]</a></sup> His work marked another step towards the eventual separation of science from both philosophy and religion; a major development in human thought. He was often willing to change his views in accordance with observation. In order to perform his experiments, Galileo had to set up standards of length and time, so that measurements made on different days and in different laboratories could be compared in a reproducible fashion. This provided a reliable foundation on which to confirm mathematical laws using <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning">inductive reasoning</a>.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Galileo showed a modern appreciation for the proper relationship between mathematics, theoretical physics, and experimental physics. He understood the <a href="/wiki/Parabola">parabola</a>, both in terms of <a href="/wiki/Conic_section">conic sections</a> and in terms of the <a href="/wiki/Ordinate">ordinate</a> (y) varying as the square of the <a href="/wiki/Abscissa">abscissa</a> (x). Galileo further asserted that the parabola was the theoretically ideal <a href="/wiki/Trajectory">trajectory</a> of a uniformly accelerated projectile in the absence of <a href="/wiki/Air_resistance">air resistance</a> or other disturbances. He conceded that there are limits to the validity of this theory, noting on theoretical grounds that a projectile trajectory of a size comparable to that of the Earth could not possibly be a parabola,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994202–204-183">[174]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalilei1954250–252-184">[175]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFavaro1890274–275-185">[176]</a></sup> but he nevertheless maintained that for distances up to the range of the artillery of his day, the deviation of a projectile's trajectory from a parabola would be only very slight.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994202–204-183">[174]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalilei1954252-186">[177]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFavaro1890275-187">[178]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Astronomy</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Galileo_telescope_replica.jpg"></a></p><div><p>A replica of the earliest surviving telescope attributed to Galileo Galilei, on display at the <a href="/wiki/Griffith_Observatory">Griffith Observatory</a></p></div></div>
<p>Using his <a href="/wiki/Refracting_telescope">refracting telescope</a>, Galileo observed in late 1609 that the surface of the Moon is not smooth.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:0-37">[37]</a></sup> Early the next year, he observed the four largest moons of Jupiter.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt199417-53">[52]</a></sup> Later in 1610, he observed the phases of Venus—a proof of heliocentrism—as well as Saturn, though he thought the planet's rings were two other planets.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:2-67">[65]</a></sup> In 1612, he observed Neptune and noted its motion, but did not identify it as a planet.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrakeKowal1980-69">[67]</a></sup>
</p><p>Galileo made studies of sunspots,<sup><a href="#cite_note-:3-70">[68]</a></sup> the Milky Way, and made various observations about stars, including how to measure their apparent size without a telescope.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Helden198575-80">[77]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChalmers199925-81">[78]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalilei1953361–362-82">[79]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Engineering</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Galileo%27s_geometrical_and_military_compass_in_Putnam_Gallery,_2009-11-24.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Galileo made a number of contributions to what is now known as <a href="/wiki/Engineering">engineering</a>, as distinct from pure <a href="/wiki/Physics">physics</a>. Between 1595 and 1598, Galileo devised and improved a <a href="/wiki/Sector_(instrument)">geometric and military compass</a> suitable for use by <a href="/wiki/Artillery">gunners</a> and <a href="/wiki/Surveying">surveyors</a>. This expanded on earlier instruments designed by <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Tartaglia">Niccolò Tartaglia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guidobaldo_del_Monte">Guidobaldo del Monte</a>. For gunners, it offered, in addition to a new and safer way of elevating <a href="/wiki/Cannon">cannons</a> accurately, a way of quickly computing the charge of <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder">gunpowder</a> for <a href="/wiki/Round_shot">cannonballs</a> of different sizes and materials. As a geometric instrument, it enabled the construction of any regular <a href="/wiki/Polygon">polygon</a>, computation of the area of any polygon or circular sector, and a variety of other calculations. Under Galileo's direction, instrument maker <a href="/wiki/Marc%27Antonio_Mazzoleni">Marc'Antonio Mazzoleni</a> produced more than 100 of these compasses, which Galileo sold (along with an instruction manual he wrote) for 50 <i>lire</i> and offered a course of instruction in the use of the compasses for 120 <i>lire</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReston200056-188">[179]</a></sup>
</p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_temperature_and_pressure_measurement_technology">1593</a>, Galileo constructed a <a href="/wiki/Galileo_thermometer">thermometer</a>, using the expansion and contraction of air in a bulb to move water in an attached tube.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>In 1609, Galileo was, along with Englishman <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Harriot">Thomas Harriot</a> and others, among the first to use a refracting telescope as an instrument to observe stars, planets or moons. The name "telescope" was coined for Galileo's instrument by a Greek mathematician, <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Demisiani">Giovanni Demisiani</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel200043-189">[180]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978196-190">[181]</a></sup> at a banquet held in 1611 by Prince <a href="/wiki/Federico_Cesi">Federico Cesi</a> to make Galileo a member of his <a href="/wiki/Accademia_dei_Lincei">Accademia dei Lincei</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-191">[182]</a></sup> In 1610, he used a telescope at close range to magnify the parts of insects.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978163–164-192">[183]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFavaro1890163-193">[184]</a></sup> By 1624, Galileo had used a compound <a href="/wiki/Microscope">microscope</a>. He gave one of these instruments to Cardinal Zollern in May of that year for presentation to the Duke of Bavaria,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978289-194">[185]</a></sup> and in September, he sent another to Prince Cesi.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978286-195">[186]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Accademia_dei_Lincei">Linceans</a> played a role again in naming the "microscope" a year later when fellow academy member <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Faber">Giovanni Faber</a> coined the word for Galileo's invention from the Greek words <i>μικρόν</i> (<i>micron</i>) meaning "small", and <i>σκοπεῖν</i> (<i>skopein</i>) meaning "to look at". The word was meant to be analogous with "telescope".<sup><a href="#cite_note-196">[187]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-197">[188]</a></sup> Illustrations of insects made using one of Galileo's microscopes and published in 1625, appear to have been the first clear documentation of the <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_microscope_technology">use of a compound microscope</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978286-195">[186]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Galileo_Pendulum_Clock.jpg"></a></p><div><p>The earliest known pendulum clock design. Conceived by Galileo Galilei</p></div></div>
<p>In 1612, having determined the orbital periods of Jupiter's satellites, Galileo proposed that with sufficiently accurate knowledge of their orbits, one could use their positions as a universal clock, and this would make possible the determination of <a href="/wiki/Longitude">longitude</a>. He worked on this problem from time to time during the remainder of his life, but the practical problems were severe. The method was first successfully applied by <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Domenico_Cassini">Giovanni Domenico Cassini</a> in 1681 and was later used extensively for large land surveys; this method, for example, was used to survey France, and later by <a href="/wiki/Zebulon_Pike">Zebulon Pike</a> of the midwestern United States in 1806. For sea navigation, where delicate telescopic observations were more difficult, the longitude problem eventually required the development of a practical portable <a href="/wiki/Marine_chronometer">marine chronometer</a>, such as that of <a href="/wiki/John_Harrison">John Harrison</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-198">[189]</a></sup> Late in his life, when totally blind, Galileo designed an <a href="/wiki/Escapement">escapement</a> mechanism for a pendulum clock (called <a href="/wiki/Galileo%27s_escapement">Galileo's escapement</a>), although no clock using this was built until after the first fully operational pendulum clock was made by <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a> in the 1650s.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Galileo was invited on several occasions to advise on engineering schemes to alleviate river flooding. In 1630 Mario Guiducci was probably instrumental in ensuring that he was consulted on a <a href="/wiki/Mario_Guiducci#Hydrology_of_the_Bisenzio_River">scheme by Bartolotti</a> to cut a new channel for the <a href="/wiki/Bisenzio_(river)">Bisenzio River</a> near Florence.<sup><a href="#cite_note-199">[190]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Physics</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Tito_Lessi_-_Galileo_and_Viviani.jpg"></a></p></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Pisa.Duomo.dome.Riminaldi01.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Galileo's theoretical and experimental work on the motions of bodies, along with the largely independent work of Kepler and <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes">René Descartes</a>, was a precursor of the <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics">classical mechanics</a> developed by <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton">Sir Isaac Newton</a>. Galileo conducted several experiments with <a href="/wiki/Pendulum">pendulums</a>. It is popularly believed (thanks to the biography by <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Viviani">Vincenzo Viviani</a>) that these began by watching the swings of the bronze chandelier in the cathedral of Pisa, using his pulse as a timer. Later experiments are described in his <i>Two New Sciences</i>. Galileo claimed that a simple pendulum is <a href="/wiki/Pendulum#Period_of_oscillation">isochronous</a>, i.e. that its swings always take the same amount of time, independently of the <a href="/wiki/Amplitude">amplitude</a>. In fact, this is only approximately true,<sup><a href="#cite_note-200">[191]</a></sup> as was discovered by <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a>. Galileo also found that the square of the period varies directly with the length of the pendulum. Galileo's son, Vincenzo, sketched a clock based on his father's theories in 1642. The clock was never built and, because of the large swings required by its <a href="/wiki/Verge_escapement">verge escapement</a>, would have been a poor timekeeper.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Galileo is lesser known for, yet still credited with, being one of the first to understand sound frequency. By scraping a chisel at different speeds, he linked the pitch of the sound produced to the spacing of the chisel's skips, a measure of frequency. In 1638, Galileo described an experimental method to measure the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light#Measurement">speed of light</a> by arranging that two observers, each having lanterns equipped with shutters, observe each other's lanterns at some distance. The first observer opens the shutter of his lamp, and, the second, upon seeing the light, immediately opens the shutter of his own lantern. The time between the first observer's opening his shutter and seeing the light from the second observer's lamp indicates the time it takes light to travel back and forth between the two observers. Galileo reported that when he tried this at a distance of less than a mile, he was unable to determine whether or not the light appeared instantaneously.<sup><a href="#cite_note-201">[192]</a></sup> Sometime between Galileo's death and 1667, the members of the Florentine <i><a href="/wiki/Accademia_del_Cimento">Accademia del Cimento</a></i> repeated the experiment over a distance of about a mile and obtained a similarly inconclusive result.<sup><a href="#cite_note-202">[193]</a></sup> The speed of light has since been determined to be far too fast to be measured by such methods.
</p><p>Galileo put forward <a href="/wiki/Galilean_invariance">the basic principle of relativity</a>, that the laws of physics are the same in any system that is moving at a constant speed in a straight line, regardless of its particular speed or direction. Hence, there is no absolute motion or absolute rest. This principle provided the basic framework for Newton's laws of motion and is central to Einstein's <a href="/wiki/Special_theory_of_relativity">special theory of relativity</a>.
</p>
<h4>Falling bodies</h4>
<p>A biography by Galileo's pupil <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Viviani">Vincenzo Viviani</a> stated that Galileo had <a href="/wiki/Galileo%27s_Leaning_Tower_of_Pisa_experiment">dropped balls</a> of the same material, but different <a href="/wiki/Mass">masses</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Leaning_Tower_of_Pisa">Leaning Tower of Pisa</a> to demonstrate that their time of descent was independent of their mass.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake197819–20-203">[194]</a></sup> This was contrary to what Aristotle had taught: that heavy objects fall faster than lighter ones, in direct proportion to weight.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake19789-204">[195]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt199431-205">[196]</a></sup> While this story has been retold in popular accounts, there is no account by Galileo himself of such an experiment, and it is generally accepted by historians that it was at most a <a href="/wiki/Thought_experiment">thought experiment</a> which did not actually take place.<sup><a href="#cite_note-206">[197]</a></sup> An exception is Stillman Drake,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake197819–21,_414–416-207">[198]</a></sup> who argues that the experiment did take place, more or less as Viviani described it. The experiment described was actually performed by <a href="/wiki/Simon_Stevin">Simon Stevin</a> (commonly known as Stevinus) and Jan Cornets de Groot,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Asimov-35">[35]</a></sup> although the building used was actually the church tower in Delft in 1586. However, most of his experiments with falling bodies were carried out using inclined planes where both the issues of timing and <a href="/wiki/Air_resistance">air resistance</a> were much reduced.<sup><a href="#cite_note-208">[199]</a></sup> In any case, observations that similarly sized objects of different weights fell at the same speed is documented in works as early as those of <a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus">John Philoponus</a> in the sixth century and which Galileo was aware of.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannam2009305–306-209">[200]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-210">[201]</a></sup>
</p>
<div> <div><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Apollo_15">Apollo 15</a> mission in 1971, astronaut <a href="/wiki/David_Scott">David Scott</a> showed that Galileo was right: acceleration is the same for all bodies subject to gravity on the Moon, even for a hammer and a feather.</p></div></div>
<p>In his 1638 <i>Discorsi</i>, Galileo's character Salviati, widely regarded as Galileo's spokesman, held that all unequal weights would fall with the same finite speed in a vacuum. But this had previously been proposed by <a href="/wiki/Lucretius">Lucretius</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-211">[202]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Simon_Stevin">Simon Stevin</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-212">[203]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cristiano_Banti">Cristiano Banti</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Filippo_Salviati">Salviati</a> also held it could be experimentally demonstrated by the comparison of pendulum motions in air with bobs of lead and of cork which had different weight but which were otherwise similar.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Galileo proposed that a falling body would fall with a uniform acceleration, as long as the resistance of the medium through which it was falling remained negligible, or in the limiting case of its falling through a vacuum.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994203-213">[204]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalilei1954251–254-214">[205]</a></sup> He also derived the correct kinematical law for the distance traveled during a uniform acceleration starting from rest—namely, that it is proportional to the square of the elapsed time (<i>d</i>∝<i>t</i><sup>2</sup>).<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994198-215">[206]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalilei1954174-216">[207]</a></sup> Prior to Galileo, <a href="/wiki/Nicole_Oresme">Nicole Oresme</a>, in the 14th century, had derived the times-squared law for uniformly accelerated change,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClagett1968561-217">[208]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant1996103-218">[209]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Domingo_de_Soto">Domingo de Soto</a> had suggested in the 16th century that bodies falling through a homogeneous medium would be uniformly accelerated.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994198-215">[206]</a></sup> Soto, however, did not anticipate many of the qualifications and refinements contained in Galileo's theory of falling bodies. He did not, for instance, recognise, as Galileo did, that a body would fall with a strictly uniform acceleration only in a vacuum, and that it would otherwise eventually reach a uniform terminal velocity. Galileo expressed the time-squared law using geometrical constructions and mathematically precise words, adhering to the standards of the day. (It remained for others to re-express the law in algebraic terms.)<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>He also concluded that objects <i>retain their velocity</i> in the absence of any impediments to their motion,<sup><a href="#cite_note-219">[210]</a></sup> thereby contradicting the generally accepted Aristotelian hypothesis that a body could only remain in so-called <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics#Unnatural_motion">"violent", "unnatural", or "forced" motion</a> so long as an agent of change (the "mover") continued to act on it.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJung2011504-220">[211]</a></sup> Philosophical ideas relating to <a href="/wiki/Inertia">inertia</a> had been proposed by <a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus">John Philoponus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean_Buridan">Jean Buridan</a>. Galileo stated: "Imagine any particle projected along a horizontal plane without friction; then we know, from what has been more fully explained in the preceding pages, that this particle will move along this same plane with a motion which is uniform and perpetual, provided the plane has no limits".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalilei1954268-221">[212]</a></sup> But the surface of the earth would be an instance of such a plane if all its unevenness could be removed.<sup><a href="#cite_note-222">[213]</a></sup> This was incorporated into <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion">Newton's laws of motion</a> (first law), except for the direction of the motion: Newton's is straight, Galileo's is circular (for example, the planets' motion around the Sun, which according to him, and unlike Newton, takes place in absence of gravity). According to <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Jan_Dijksterhuis">Dijksterhuis</a> Galileo's conception of inertia as a tendency to persevere in circular motion is closely related to his Copernican conviction.<sup><a href="#cite_note-223">[214]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Mathematics</h3>
<p>While Galileo's application of mathematics to experimental physics was innovative, his mathematical methods were the standard ones of the day, including dozens of examples of an inverse proportion <a href="/wiki/Square_root">square root</a> method passed down from <a href="/wiki/Fibonacci">Fibonacci</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archimedes">Archimedes</a>. The analysis and proofs relied heavily on the <a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cnidus#Mathematics">Eudoxian theory of proportion</a>, as set forth in the fifth book of <a href="/wiki/Euclid%27s_Elements">Euclid's Elements</a>. This theory had become available only a century before, thanks to accurate translations by <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Tartaglia">Tartaglia</a> and others; but by the end of Galileo's life, it was being superseded by the algebraic methods of <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes">Descartes</a>. The concept now named <a href="/wiki/Galileo%27s_paradox">Galileo's paradox</a> was not original with him. His proposed solution, that <a href="/wiki/Infinite_number">infinite numbers</a> cannot be compared, is no longer considered useful.<sup><a href="#cite_note-224">[215]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Legacy</h2>
<h3>Later Church reassessments</h3>
<p>The Galileo affair was largely forgotten after Galileo's death, and the controversy subsided. The Inquisition's ban on reprinting Galileo's works was lifted in 1718 when permission was granted to publish an edition of his works (excluding the condemned <i>Dialogue</i>) in Florence.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2005299-225">[216]</a></sup> In 1741, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XIV">Pope Benedict XIV</a> authorised the publication of an edition of Galileo's complete scientific works<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoyne2005347-226">[217]</a></sup> which included a mildly censored version of the <i>Dialogue</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2005303–304-227">[218]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoyne2005347-226">[217]</a></sup> In 1758, the general prohibition against works advocating heliocentrism was removed from the <a href="/wiki/Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum">Index of prohibited books</a>, although the specific ban on uncensored versions of the <i>Dialogue</i> and Copernicus's <i>De Revolutionibus</i> remained.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2005307-228">[219]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoyne2005347-226">[217]</a></sup> All traces of official opposition to heliocentrism by the church disappeared in 1835 when these works were finally dropped from the Index.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcMullin20056-229">[220]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoyne2005346-230">[221]</a></sup>
</p><p>Interest in the Galileo affair was revived in the early 19th century, when Protestant polemicists used it (and other events such as the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Myth_of_the_flat_Earth">myth of the flat Earth</a>) to attack Roman Catholicism.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannam2009329–344-9">[9]</a></sup> Interest in it has waxed and waned ever since. In 1939, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII">Pope Pius XII</a>, in his first speech to the <a href="/wiki/Pontifical_Academy_of_Sciences">Pontifical Academy of Sciences</a>, within a few months of his election to the papacy, described Galileo as being among the "most audacious heroes of research... not afraid of the stumbling blocks and the risks on the way, nor fearful of the funereal monuments".<sup><a href="#cite_note-231">[222]</a></sup> His close advisor of 40 years, Professor Robert Leiber, wrote: "Pius XII was very careful not to close any doors (to science) prematurely. He was energetic on this point and regretted that in the case of Galileo."<sup><a href="#cite_note-232">[223]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 15 February 1990, in a speech delivered at the <a href="/wiki/Sapienza_University_of_Rome">Sapienza University of Rome</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatzinger199481-233">[224]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeyerabend1995178-234">[225]</a></sup> Cardinal Ratzinger (later <a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI">Pope Benedict XVI</a>) cited some current views on the Galileo affair as forming what he called "a symptomatic case that permits us to see how deep the self-doubt of the modern age, of science and technology goes today".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatzinger199498-235">[226]</a></sup> Some of the views he cited were those of the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a>, whom he quoted as saying: "The Church at the time of Galileo kept much more closely to reason than did Galileo himself, and she took into consideration the ethical and social consequences of Galileo's teaching too. Her verdict against Galileo was rational and just and the revision of this verdict can be justified only on the grounds of what is politically opportune."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatzinger199498-235">[226]</a></sup> The Cardinal did not clearly indicate whether he agreed or disagreed with Feyerabend's assertions. He did, however, say: "It would be foolish to construct an impulsive apologetic on the basis of such views."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatzinger199498-235">[226]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 31 October 1992, <a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II">Pope John Paul II</a> acknowledged that the Church had erred in condemning Galileo for asserting that the Earth revolves around the Sun. "John Paul said the theologians who condemned Galileo did not recognize the formal distinction between the Bible and its interpretation."<sup><a href="#cite_note-236">[227]</a></sup>
</p><p>In March 2008, the head of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, <a href="/wiki/Nicola_Cabibbo">Nicola Cabibbo</a>, announced a plan to honour Galileo by erecting a statue of him inside the Vatican walls.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwenDelaney2008-237">[228]</a></sup> In December of the same year, during events to mark the 400th anniversary of Galileo's earliest telescopic observations, Pope Benedict XVI praised his contributions to astronomy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-238">[229]</a></sup> A month later, however, the head of the Pontifical Council for Culture, Gianfranco Ravasi, revealed that the plan to erect a statue of Galileo on the grounds of the Vatican had been suspended.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen2009-239">[230]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Impact on modern science</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>According to <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a>, Galileo probably bears more of the responsibility for the birth of modern science than anybody else,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawking1988179-240">[231]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> called him the father of modern science.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1954271-241">[232]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-242">[233]</a></sup>
</p><p>Galileo's astronomical discoveries and investigations into the Copernican theory have led to a lasting legacy which includes the categorisation of the four large moons of <a href="/wiki/Jupiter">Jupiter</a> discovered by Galileo (<a href="/wiki/Io_(moon)">Io</a>, <a href="/wiki/Europa_(moon)">Europa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ganymede_(moon)">Ganymede</a> and <a href="/wiki/Callisto_(moon)">Callisto</a>) as the <a href="/wiki/Galilean_moons">Galilean moons</a>. Other scientific endeavours and principles are named after Galileo including the <a href="/wiki/Galileo_(spacecraft)">Galileo spacecraft</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-243">[234]</a></sup> the first spacecraft to enter orbit around Jupiter, the proposed <a href="/wiki/Galileo_(satellite_navigation)">Galileo</a> <a href="/wiki/Global_Navigation_Satellite_System">global satellite navigation system</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Transformation_(geometry)">transformation</a> between <a href="/wiki/Inertial_system">inertial systems</a> in <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics">classical mechanics</a> denoted <a href="/wiki/Galilean_transformation">Galilean transformation</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Gal_(unit)">Gal (unit)</a>, sometimes known as the <i>Galileo,</i> which is a non-<a href="/wiki/SI">SI</a> unit of <a href="/wiki/Acceleration">acceleration</a>.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Partly because the year 2009 was the fourth centenary of Galileo's first recorded astronomical observations with the telescope, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations">United Nations</a> scheduled it to be the <a href="/wiki/International_Year_of_Astronomy">International Year of Astronomy</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-244">[235]</a></sup> A global scheme was laid out by the <a href="/wiki/International_Astronomical_Union">International Astronomical Union</a> (IAU), also endorsed by <a href="/wiki/UNESCO">UNESCO</a>—the UN body responsible for educational, scientific and cultural matters. The <a href="/wiki/International_Year_of_Astronomy">International Year of Astronomy</a> 2009 was intended to be a global celebration of astronomy and its contributions to society and culture, stimulating worldwide interest not only in astronomy but science in general, with a particular slant towards young people.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Planet <a href="/wiki/55_Cancri_b">Galileo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asteroid">asteroid</a> <a href="/wiki/697_Galilea">697 Galilea</a> are named in his honour.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h3>In artistic and popular media</h3>
<p>Galileo is mentioned several times in the "opera" section of the <a href="/wiki/Queen_(band)">Queen</a> song, "<a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Rhapsody">Bohemian Rhapsody</a>".<sup><a href="#cite_note-245">[236]</a></sup> He features prominently in the song "<a href="/wiki/Galileo_(song)">Galileo</a>" performed by the <a href="/wiki/Indigo_Girls">Indigo Girls</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amy_Grant">Amy Grant</a>'s "Galileo" on her <i><a href="/wiki/Heart_in_Motion">Heart in Motion</a></i> album.<sup><a href="#cite_note-246">[237]</a></sup>
</p><p>Twentieth-century plays have been written on Galileo's life, including <i><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Galileo">Life of Galileo</a></i> (1943) by the German playwright <a href="/wiki/Bertolt_Brecht">Bertolt Brecht</a>, with a <a href="/wiki/Galileo_(1975_film)">film adaptation</a> (1975) of it, and <i><a href="/wiki/Lamp_at_Midnight">Lamp at Midnight</a></i> (1947) by <a href="/wiki/Barrie_Stavis">Barrie Stavis</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-247">[238]</a></sup> as well as the 2008 play "Galileo Galilei".<sup><a href="#cite_note-248">[239]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Kim_Stanley_Robinson">Kim Stanley Robinson</a> wrote a science fiction novel entitled <i><a href="/wiki/Galileo%27s_Dream">Galileo's Dream</a></i> (2009), in which Galileo is brought into the future to help resolve a crisis of scientific philosophy; the story moves back and forth between Galileo's own time and a hypothetical distant future and contains a great deal of biographical information.<sup><a href="#cite_note-249">[240]</a></sup>
</p><p>Galileo Galilei was recently selected as a main motif for a high-value collectors' coin: the €25 <a href="/wiki/Euro_gold_and_silver_commemorative_coins_(Austria)#2009_Coinage">International Year of Astronomy commemorative coin</a>, minted in 2009. This coin also commemorates the 400th anniversary of the invention of <a href="/wiki/Refracting_telescope#Galilean_telescope">Galileo's telescope</a>. The obverse shows a portion of his portrait and his telescope. The background shows one of his first drawings of the surface of the moon. In the silver ring, other telescopes are depicted: the <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton_Telescope">Isaac Newton Telescope</a>, the observatory in <a href="/wiki/Kremsm%C3%BCnster_Abbey">Kremsmünster Abbey</a>, a modern telescope, a <a href="/wiki/Radio_telescope">radio telescope</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Space_observatory">space telescope</a>. In 2009, the <a href="/wiki/Galileoscope">Galileoscope</a> was also released. This is a mass-produced, low-cost educational 2-inch (51 mm) telescope with relatively high quality.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h2>Writings</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Galileo_Galilei01.jpg"></a></p></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Statue_of_Galileo_by_Pio_Fedi.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Galileo's early works describing scientific instruments include the 1586 tract entitled <i>The Little Balance</i> (<i>La Billancetta</i>) describing an accurate balance to weigh objects in air or water<sup><a href="#cite_note-250">[241]</a></sup> and the 1606 printed manual <i>Le Operazioni del Compasso Geometrico et Militare</i> on the operation of a geometrical and military compass.<sup><a href="#cite_note-251">[242]</a></sup>
</p><p>His early works on dynamics, the science of motion and mechanics were his <i>circa</i> 1590 Pisan <i><a href="/wiki/De_Motu_Antiquiora">De Motu</a></i> (On Motion) and his <i>circa</i> 1600 Paduan <i>Le Meccaniche</i> (Mechanics). The former was based on Aristotelian–Archimedean fluid dynamics and held that the speed of gravitational fall in a fluid medium was proportional to the excess of a body's specific weight over that of the medium, whereby in a vacuum, bodies would fall with speeds in proportion to their specific weights. It also subscribed to the Philoponan <a href="/wiki/Impetus_dynamics">impetus dynamics</a> in which impetus is self-dissipating and free-fall in a vacuum would have an essential terminal speed according to specific weight after an initial period of acceleration.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Galileo's 1610 <i><a href="/wiki/Sidereus_Nuncius">The Starry Messenger</a></i> (<i>Sidereus Nuncius</i>) was the first scientific treatise to be published based on observations made through a telescope. It reported his discoveries of:
</p>
<ul><li>the <a href="/wiki/Galilean_moons">Galilean moons</a></li>
<li>the roughness of the Moon's surface</li>
<li>the existence of a large number of stars invisible to the naked eye, particularly those responsible for the appearance of the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way">Milky Way</a></li>
<li>differences between the appearances of the planets and those of the fixed stars—the former appearing as small discs, while the latter appeared as unmagnified points of light</li></ul>
<p>Galileo published a description of sunspots in 1613 entitled <i><a href="/wiki/Letters_on_Sunspots">Letters on Sunspots</a></i> suggesting the Sun and heavens are corruptible.<sup><a href="#cite_note-252">[243]</a></sup> The <i>Letters on Sunspots</i> also reported his 1610 telescopic observations of the full set of phases of Venus, and his discovery of the puzzling "appendages" of Saturn and their even more puzzling subsequent disappearance. In 1615, Galileo prepared a manuscript known as the "<a href="/wiki/Letter_to_the_Grand_Duchess_Christina">Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina</a>" which was not published in printed form until 1636. This letter was a revised version of the <i>Letter to Castelli</i>, which was denounced by the Inquisition as an incursion upon theology by advocating Copernicanism both as physically true and as consistent with Scripture.<sup><a href="#cite_note-253">[244]</a></sup> In 1616, after the order by the Inquisition for Galileo not to hold or defend the Copernican position, Galileo wrote the "<a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_the_Tides">Discourse on the Tides</a>" (<i>Discorso sul flusso e il reflusso del mare</i>) based on the Copernican earth, in the form of a private letter to <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Orsini_(cardinal)">Cardinal Orsini</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-254">[245]</a></sup> In 1619, Mario Guiducci, a pupil of Galileo's, published a lecture written largely by Galileo under the title <i>Discourse on the Comets</i> (<i>Discorso Delle Comete</i>), arguing against the Jesuit interpretation of comets.<sup><a href="#cite_note-255">[246]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1623, Galileo published <i><a href="/wiki/The_Assayer">The Assayer</a>—Il Saggiatore</i>, which attacked theories based on Aristotle's authority and promoted experimentation and the mathematical formulation of scientific ideas. The book was highly successful and even found support among the higher echelons of the Christian church.<sup><a href="#cite_note-256">[247]</a></sup> Following the success of <i>The Assayer</i>, Galileo published the <i>Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems</i> (<i>Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo</i>) in 1632. Despite taking care to adhere to the Inquisition's 1616 instructions, the claims in the book favouring Copernican theory and a non-geocentric model of the solar system led to Galileo being tried and banned on publication. Despite the publication ban, Galileo published his <i><a href="/wiki/Two_New_Sciences">Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences</a></i> (<i>Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno a due nuove scienze</i>) in 1638 in <a href="/wiki/House_of_Elzevir">Holland</a>, outside the jurisdiction of the Inquisition.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h3>Published written works</h3>
<p>Galileo's main written works are as follows:<sup><a href="#cite_note-257">[248]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul><li><i>The Little Balance</i> (1586; in Italian: <i>La Bilancetta</i>)</li>
<li><i>On Motion</i> (<abbr>c.</abbr> 1590; in Latin: <i><a href="/wiki/De_Motu_Antiquiora">De Motu Antiquiora</a></i>)<sup><a href="#cite_note-258">[249]</a></sup></li>
<li><i>Mechanics</i> (<abbr>c.</abbr> 1600; in Italian: <i>Le Meccaniche</i>)</li>
<li><i>The Operations of Geometrical and Military Compass</i> (1606; in Italian: <i>Le operazioni del compasso geometrico et militare</i>)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Sidereus_Nuncius">The Starry Messenger</a></i> (1610; in Latin: <i>Sidereus Nuncius</i>)</li>
<li><i>Discourse on Floating Bodies</i> (1612; in Italian: <i>Discorso intorno alle cose che stanno in su l'acqua, o che in quella si muovono</i>, "Discourse on Bodies that Stay Atop Water, or Move in It")</li>
<li><i>History and Demonstration Concerning Sunspots</i> (1613; in Italian: <i>Istoria e dimostrazioni intorno alle macchie solari</i>; work based on the <i>Three Letters on Sunspots</i>, <i>Tre lettere sulle macchie solari</i>, 1612)</li>
<li>"<a href="/wiki/Letter_to_the_Grand_Duchess_Christina">Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina</a>" (1615; published in 1636)</li>
<li>"<a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_the_Tides">Discourse on the Tides</a>" (1616; in Italian: <i>Discorso del flusso e reflusso del mare</i>)</li>
<li><i>Discourse on the Comets</i> (1619; in Italian: <i>Discorso delle Comete</i>)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Assayer">The Assayer</a></i> (1623; in Italian: <i>Il Saggiatore</i>)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems">Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems</a></i> (1632; in Italian: <i>Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo</i>)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_New_Sciences">Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences</a></i> (1638; in Italian: <i>Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno a due nuove scienze</i>)</li></ul>
<h3>Personal library</h3>
<p>In the last years of his life, Galileo Galilei kept a library of at least 598 volumes (560 of which have been identified) at <a href="/wiki/Villa_Il_Gioiello">Villa Il Gioiello</a>, on the outskirts of Florence.<sup><a href="#cite_note-259">[250]</a></sup> Under the restrictions of house arrest, he was forbidden to write or publish his ideas. However, he continued to receive visitors right up to his death and it was through them that he remained supplied with the latest scientific texts from Northern Europe.<sup><a href="#cite_note-librarything.com-260">[251]</a></sup>
</p><p>With his past experience, Galileo may have feared that his collection of books and manuscripts would be seized by the authorities and burned, as no reference to such items was made in his last will and testament. An itemized inventory was only later produced after Galileo's death, when the majority of his possessions including his library passed to his son, Vincenzo Galilei, Jr. On his death in 1649, the collection was inherited by his wife Sestilia Bocchineri.<sup><a href="#cite_note-librarything.com-260">[251]</a></sup>
</p><p>Galileo's books, personal papers and unedited manuscripts were then collected by <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Viviani">Vincenzo Viviani</a>, his former assistant and student, with the intent of preserving his old teacher's works in published form. Unfortunately, it was a project that never materialised and in his final will, Viviani bequeathed a significant portion of the collection to the <a href="/wiki/Hospital_of_Santa_Maria_Nuova">Hospital of Santa Maria Nuova</a> in Florence, where there already existed an extensive library. The value of Galileo's possessions were not realised, and duplicate copies were dispersed to other libraries, such as the <a href="/wiki/Biblioteca_Comunale_degli_Intronati">Biblioteca Comunale degli Intronati</a>, the public library in Sienna. In a later attempt to specialise the library's holdings, volumes unrelated to medicine were transferred to the Biblioteca Magliabechiana, an early foundation for what was to become the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale di Firenze, the <a href="/wiki/National_Central_Library_(Florence)">National Central Library</a> in Florence.<sup><a href="#cite_note-librarything.com-260">[251]</a></sup>
</p><p>A small portion of Viviani's collection, including the manuscripts of Galileo and those of his peers <a href="/wiki/Evangelista_Torricelli">Evangelista Torricelli</a> and <a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Castelli">Benedetto Castelli</a>, were left to his nephew, Abbot Jacopo Panzanini. This minor collection was preserved until Panzanini's death when it passed to his great-nephews, Carlo and Angelo Panzanini. The books from both Galileo and Viviani's collection began to disperse as the heirs failed to protect their inheritance. Their servants sold several of the volumes for waste paper. Around 1750 the Florentine senator Giovanni Battista Clemente de'Nelli heard of this and purchased the books and manuscripts from the shopkeepers, and the remainder of Viviani's collection from the Panzanini brothers. As recounted in Nelli's memoirs: <i>"My great fortune in obtaining such a wonderful treasure so cheaply came about through the ignorance of the people selling it, who were not aware of the value of those manuscripts..."</i>
</p><p>The library remained in Nelli's care until his death in 1793. Knowing the value of their father's collected manuscripts, Nelli's sons attempted to sell what was left to them to the French government. <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_III,_Grand_Duke_of_Tuscany">Grand Duke Ferdinand III</a> of Tuscany intervened in the sale and purchased the entire collection. The archive of manuscripts, printed books and personal papers were deposited with the <a href="/wiki/Biblioteca_Palatina,_Parma">Biblioteca Palatina</a> in Florence, merging the collection with the Biblioteca Magliabechiana in 1861.<sup><a href="#cite_note-261">[252]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_science#Galileo_Galilei">Catholic Church and science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Seconds_pendulum">Seconds pendulum</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_Galileo">Tribune of Galileo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Villa_Il_Gioiello">Villa Il Gioiello</a></li></ul>
<h2>Notes</h2>
<div><ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b> <i>i.e.</i>, invisible to the naked eye.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b> In the Capellan model only Mercury and Venus orbit the Sun, whilst in its extended version such as expounded by Riccioli, Mars also orbits the Sun, but the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn are centred on the Earth
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b> In geostatic systems the apparent annual variation in the motion of sunspots could only be explained as the result of an implausibly complicated precession of the Sun's axis of rotation<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELinton2004212-72">[70]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994166-73">[71]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1970191–196-74">[72]</a></sup> This did not apply, however, to the modified version of Tycho's system introduced by his protégé, <a href="/wiki/Longomontanus">Longomontanus</a>, in which the Earth was assumed to rotate. Longomontanus's system could account for the apparent motions of sunspots just as well as the Copernican.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-bible_125-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bible_125-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Such passages include <a href="/wiki/Psalms">Psalm</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(World_English)/Psalms#Psalm_93">93:1</a>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(World_English)/Psalms#Psalm_96">96:10</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Books_of_Chronicles">1 Chronicles</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(World_English)/1_Chronicles#Chapter_16">16:30</a> which include text stating, "The world also is established. It can not be moved." In the same manner, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(World_English)/Psalms#Psalm_104">Psalm 104:5</a> says, "He (the Lord) laid the foundations of the earth, that it should not be moved forever." Further, <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastes">Ecclesiastes</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(World_English)/Ecclesiastes#Chapter_1">1:5</a> states, "The sun also rises, and the sun goes down, and hurries to its place where it rises", and <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Joshua">Joshua</a> 10:14 states, "Sun, stand still on Gibeon...".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrodrick196595-124">[121]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b> The discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Aberration_(astronomy)">aberration of light</a> by <a href="/wiki/James_Bradley">James Bradley</a> in January 1729 was the first conclusive evidence for the movement of the Earth, and hence for <a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos">Aristarchus</a>, Copernicus and Kepler's theories; it was announced in January 1729.<sup><a href="#cite_note-126">[122]</a></sup> The second evidence was produced by <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Bessel">Friedrich Bessel</a> in 1838.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b> In Tycho's system, the stars were a little more distant than Saturn, and the Sun and stars were comparable in size.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraneyDanielson2014-128">[123]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b> According to Maurice Finocchiaro, this was done in a friendly and gracious manner, out of curiosity.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro198927–28-130">[124]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b> Ingoli wrote that the great distance to the stars in the heliocentric theory "clearly proves ... the fixed stars to be of such size, as they may surpass or equal the size of the orbit circle of the Earth itself".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraney201571-137">[130]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b> Drake asserts that Simplicio's character is modelled on the Aristotelian philosophers Lodovico delle Colombe and <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Cremonini_(philosopher)">Cesare Cremonini</a>, rather than Urban.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978355-145">[137]</a></sup> He also considers that the demand for Galileo to include the Pope's argument in the <i>Dialogue</i> left him with no option but to put it in the mouth of Simplicio.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1953491-146">[138]</a></sup> Even <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Koestler">Arthur Koestler</a>, who is generally quite harsh on Galileo in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Sleepwalkers_(Koestler_book)">The Sleepwalkers</a></i>, after noting that Urban suspected Galileo of having intended Simplicio to be a caricature of him, says "this of course is untrue".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoestler1990483-147">[139]</a></sup>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2>References</h2>
<h3>Citations</h3>
<div><ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sFiJFuzRVFQC&amp;pg=PA83"><i>Science: The Definitive Visual Guide</i></a>. United Kingdom: DK Publishing. 2009. p. 83. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7566-6490-9"><bdi>978-0-7566-6490-9</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake19781_2-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1978">Drake 1978</a>, p. 1.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b> Willam A. Wallace, <i>Prelude to Galileo: Essays on Medieval and Sixteenth Century Sources of Galileo's Thought</i> (Dordrecht, 1981), pp. 136, 196–97.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b> <cite>Modinos, A. (2013). <i>From Aristotle to Schrödinger: The Curiosity of Physics, Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics</i> (illustrated ed.). Springer Science &amp; Business Media. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-00750-2"><bdi>978-3-319-00750-2</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b> <cite>Singer, C. (1941). <a href="https://www.google.com/books?id=mPIgAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1">"A Short History of Science to the Nineteenth Century"</a>. Clarendon Press: 217.</cite> 
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b> <cite>Whitehouse, D. (2009). <a href="https://archive.org/details/renaissancegeniu0000whit"><i>Renaissance Genius: Galileo Galilei &amp; His Legacy to Modern Science</i></a>. Sterling Publishing. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/renaissancegeniu0000whit/page/219">219</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4027-6977-1"><bdi>978-1-4027-6977-1</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b> <i>Thomas Hobbes: Critical Assessments</i>, Volume 1. Preston King. 1993. p. 59
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b> <cite>Disraeli, I. (1835). <i>Curiosities of Literature</i>. W. Pearson &amp; Company. p. 371.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannam2009329–344_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannam2009329–344_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannam2009329–344_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFHannam2009">Hannam 2009</a>, pp. 329–344.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharratt1994127–131_10-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSharratt1994">Sharratt 1994</a>, pp. 127–131.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro201074_11-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFinocchiaro2010">Finocchiaro 2010</a>, p. 74.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro199747_12-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFinocchiaro1997">Finocchiaro 1997</a>, p. 47.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHilliam200596_13-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHilliam2005">Hilliam 2005</a>, p. 96.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-JoCarney_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JoCarney_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JoCarney_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Carney, J. E. (2000). <i>Renaissance and Reformation, 1500–1620: a</i>. Greenwood Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-30574-0"><bdi>978-0-313-30574-0</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Galileo_Galilei_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Galileo_Galilei_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E .F. <a href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Galileo.html">"Galileo Galilei"</a>. <i>The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews">University of St Andrews</a>, Scotland. Retrieved 24 July 2007.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGribbin200826_16-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGribbin2008">Gribbin 2008</a>, p. 26.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGribbin200830_17-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGribbin2008">Gribbin 2008</a>, p. 30.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGribbin200831_18-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGribbin2008">Gribbin 2008</a>, p. 31.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/John_Gribbin">Gribbin, J.</a> (2009). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DCUD9E-x8iEC"><i>Science. A History. 1543–2001</i></a>. London: Penguin. p. 107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-104222-0"><bdi>978-0-14-104222-0</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gilbert,_N._W._1963_223–231_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gilbert,_N._W._1963_223–231_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Gilbert, N. W. (1963). "Galileo and the School of Padua". <i>Journal of the History of Philosophy</i>. <b>1</b> (2): 223–231. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fhph.2008.1474">10.1353/hph.2008.1474</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144276512">144276512</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel200016_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel200016_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFSobel2000">Sobel 2000</a>, p. 16.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b> <cite>Williams, Matt (5 November 2015). <a href="https://www.universetoday.com/48756/galileo-facts/">"Who Was Galileo Galilei?"</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b> Robin Santos Doak, <i>Galileo: Astronomer and Physicist</i>, Capstone, 2005, p. 89.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel200013_24-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSobel2000">Sobel 2000</a>, p. 13.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b> <cite>"Galilean". <i>The Century Dictionary and Encyclopedia</i>. Vol. III. New York: The Century Co. 1903 [1889]. p. 2436.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b> <a href="/wiki/Against_the_Galilaeans">Against the Galilaeans</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro1989300,_330_27-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFinocchiaro1989">Finocchiaro 1989</a>, pp. 300, 330.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-naess_28-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Atle_N%C3%A6ss">Naess, A.</a> (2004). <i>Galileo Galilei: When the World Stood Still</i>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media">Springer Science &amp; Business Media</a>. pp. 89–91. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-27054-6"><bdi>978-3-540-27054-6</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharratt199417,_213_29-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSharratt1994">Sharratt 1994</a>, pp. 17, 213.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-RosenGothard2009_30-0">^</a></b> <cite>Rosen, J.; Gothard, L. Q. (2009). <a href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofph0001rose"><i>Encyclopedia of Physical Science</i></a>. New York: Infobase Publishing. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofph0001rose/page/268">268</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-7011-4"><bdi>978-0-8160-7011-4</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGribbin200842_31-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGribbin2008">Gribbin 2008</a>, p. 42.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel20005_32-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSobel2000">Sobel 2000</a>, p. 5.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Olaf_Pedersen">Pedersen, O.</a> (1985). "Galileo's Religion". In <a href="/wiki/George_V._Coyne">Coyne, G.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Heller">Heller, M.</a>; <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_%C5%BByci%C5%84ski">Życiński, J.</a> (eds.). <i>The Galileo Affair: A Meeting of Faith and Science</i>. Vatican City: Specola Vaticana. pp. 75–102. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985gamf.conf...75P">1985gamf.conf...75P</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/16831024">16831024</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReston20003–14_34-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFReston2000">Reston 2000</a>, pp. 3–14.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Asimov_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Asimov_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Asimov_35-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> Asimov, Isaac (1964). <i>Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-17771-9">978-0-385-17771-9</a>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b> <cite>Len Fisher (16 February 2016). <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/ockhamsrazor/galileo-mapped-dimensions-dante-inferno-hell/7164468">"Galileo, Dante Alighieri, and how to calculate the dimensions of hell"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation">Australian Broadcasting Corporation</a>. Retrieved 9 January 2022.</cite>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Ostrow, Steven F. (June 1996). <a href="https://www.mutualart.com/Article/Cigoli-s-Immacolata-and-Galileo-s-Moon--/0F2C437DF2829CF5">"Cigoli's Immacolata and Galileo's Moon: Astronomy and the Virgin in early seicento Rome"</a>. <i>MutualArt</i>. Retrieved 27 September 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-panofsky_38-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Erwin_Panofsky">Panofsky, Erwin</a> (1956). "Galileo as a Critic of the Arts: Aesthetic Attitude and Scientific Thought". <i>Isis</i>. <b>47</b> (1): 3–15. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F348450">10.1086/348450</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/227542">227542</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145451645">145451645</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharratt199445–66_39-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSharratt1994">Sharratt 1994</a>, pp. 45–66.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b> <cite>Rutkin, H. D. <a href="http://www.stanford.edu/dept/HPST/colloquia0405.html">"Galileo, Astrology, and the Scientific Revolution: Another Look"</a>. Program in History &amp; Philosophy of Science &amp; Technology, Stanford University. Retrieved 15 April 2007.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b> <cite>Battistini, Andrea (2018). <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021828618793218">"Galileo as Practising Astrologer"</a>. <i>Journal for the History of Astronomy</i>. Journal of the History Of Astronomy, Sage. <b>49</b> (3): 388–391. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018JHA....49..345.">2018JHA....49..345.</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0021828618793218">10.1177/0021828618793218</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220119861">220119861</a>. Retrieved 30 December 2020.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_42-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Kollerstrom">Kollerstrom, N.</a> (October 2004). <a href="http://www.dioi.org/kn/NewStar.pdf">"Galileo and the new star"</a> (PDF). <i><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_Now">Astronomy Now</a></i>. <b>18</b> (10): 58–59. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004AsNow..18j..58K">2004AsNow..18j..58K</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0951-9726">0951-9726</a>. Retrieved 20 February 2017.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing200330–32_43-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKing2003">King 2003</a>, pp. 30–32.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1990133–134_44-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1990">Drake 1990</a>, pp. 133–134.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharratt19941–2_45-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSharratt1994">Sharratt 1994</a>, pp. 1–2.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdgerton2009159_46-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEdgerton2009">Edgerton 2009</a>, p. 159.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdgerton2009155_47-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEdgerton2009">Edgerton 2009</a>, p. 155.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b> <cite>Jacqueline Bergeron, ed. (2013). <i>Highlights of Astronomy: As Presented at the XXIst General Assembly of the IAU, 1991</i>. Springer Science &amp; Business Media. p. 521. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-011-2828-5"><bdi>978-94-011-2828-5</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b> <cite>Stephen Pumfrey (15 April 2009). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsnr.2008.0062">"Harriot's maps of the Moon: new interpretations"</a>. <i>Notes and Records of the Royal Society</i>. <b>63</b> (2): 163–168. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsnr.2008.0062">10.1098/rsnr.2008.0062</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1978146_51-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1978">Drake 1978</a>, p. 146.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1978152_52-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1978">Drake 1978</a>, p. 152.
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharratt199417_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharratt199417_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFSharratt1994">Sharratt 1994</a>, p. 17.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b> <cite>Pasachoff, J. M. (May 2015). "Simon Marius's Mundus Iovialis: 400th Anniversary in Galileo's Shadow". <i>Journal for the History of Astronomy</i>. <b>46</b> (2): 218–234. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015JHA....46..218P">2015JHA....46..218P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0021828615585493">10.1177/0021828615585493</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:120470649">120470649</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELinton200498,_205_55-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLinton2004">Linton 2004</a>, pp. 98, 205.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1978157_56-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1978">Drake 1978</a>, p. 157.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1978158–168_57-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1978">Drake 1978</a>, pp. 158–168.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharratt199418–19_58-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSharratt1994">Sharratt 1994</a>, pp. 18–19.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannam2009313_59-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHannam2009">Hannam 2009</a>, p. 313.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1978168_60-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1978">Drake 1978</a>, p. 168.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharratt199493_61-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSharratt1994">Sharratt 1994</a>, p. 93.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-danson-wtw_62-0">^</a></b> <cite>Edwin Danson (2006). <i>Weighing the World</i>. Qxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-518169-7"><bdi>0-19-518169-7</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-rgm_63-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/blog/solving-longitude-jupiters-moons">"Solving Longitude: Jupiter's Moons"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Royal_Museums_Greenwich">Royal Museums Greenwich</a>. 16 October 2014.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThoren19898_64-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFThoren1989">Thoren 1989</a>, p. 8.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoskin1999117_65-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHoskin1999">Hoskin 1999</a>, p. 117.
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Cain, Fraser (3 July 2008). <a href="http://www.universetoday.com/15390/history-of-saturn/">"History of Saturn"</a>. <i>Universe Today</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120126005747/http://www.universetoday.com/15390/history-of-saturn/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 January 2012. Retrieved 5 October 2020.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b> Baalke, Ron. <a href="http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/saturn/back.html">Historical Background of Saturn's Rings.</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090321071339/http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/saturn/back.html">Archived</a> 21 March 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, NASA. Retrieved on 11 March 2007
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrakeKowal1980_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrakeKowal1980_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFDrakeKowal1980">Drake &amp; Kowal 1980</a>.
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Vaquero, J. M.; Vázquez, M. (2010). <i>The Sun Recorded Through History</i>. Springer.</cite> Chapter 2, p. 77: "Drawing of the large sunspot seen by naked-eye by Galileo, and shown in the same way to everybody during the days 19, 20, and 21 August 1612"
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1978209_71-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1978">Drake 1978</a>, p. 209.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELinton2004212_72-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLinton2004">Linton 2004</a>, p. 212.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharratt1994166_73-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSharratt1994">Sharratt 1994</a>, p. 166.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1970191–196_74-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1970">Drake 1970</a>, pp. 191–196.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGribbin200840_76-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGribbin2008">Gribbin 2008</a>, p. 40.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOndra200472–73_77-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFOndra2004">Ondra 2004</a>, pp. 72–73.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraney2010455_78-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGraney2010">Graney 2010</a>, p. 455.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraneyGrayson2011353_79-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGraneyGrayson2011">Graney &amp; Grayson 2011</a>, p. 353.
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Helden198575_80-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Helden198575_80-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFVan_Helden1985">Van Helden 1985</a>, p. 75.
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChalmers199925_81-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChalmers199925_81-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFChalmers1999">Chalmers 1999</a>, p. 25.
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalilei1953361–362_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalilei1953361–362_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFGalilei1953">Galilei 1953</a>, pp. 361–362.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro1989167–176_83-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFinocchiaro1989">Finocchiaro 1989</a>, pp. 167–176.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalilei1953359–360_84-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGalilei1953">Galilei 1953</a>, pp. 359–360.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOndra200474–75_85-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFOndra2004">Ondra 2004</a>, pp. 74–75.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraney2010454–462_86-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGraney2010">Graney 2010</a>, pp. 454–462.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraneyGrayson2011352–355_87-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGraneyGrayson2011">Graney &amp; Grayson 2011</a>, pp. 352–355.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro198967–69_88-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFinocchiaro1989">Finocchiaro 1989</a>, pp. 67–69.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b> <cite>Naylor, R. (2007). "Galileo's Tidal Theory". <i><a href="/wiki/Isis_(journal)">Isis</a></i>. <b>98</b> (1): 1–22. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007Isis...98....1N">2007Isis...98....1N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F512829">10.1086/512829</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)">PMID</a> <a href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17539198">17539198</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:46174715">46174715</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro1989354_90-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFinocchiaro1989">Finocchiaro 1989</a>, p. 354.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro1989119–133_91-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFinocchiaro1989">Finocchiaro 1989</a>, pp. 119–133.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro1989127–131_92-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFinocchiaro1989">Finocchiaro 1989</a>, pp. 127–131.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalilei1953432–436_93-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGalilei1953">Galilei 1953</a>, pp. 432–436.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinstein1953xvii_94-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEinstein1953">Einstein 1953</a>, p. xvii.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalilei1953462_95-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGalilei1953">Galilei 1953</a>, p. 462.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b> James Robert Voelkel. <i>The Composition of Kepler's Astronomia Nova</i>. Princeton University Press, 2001. p. 74
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b> Stillman Drake. <i>Essays on Galileo and the History and Philosophy of Science, Volume 1</i>. University of Toronto Press, 1999. p. 343
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b> <i><a href="/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems">Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems</a></i>, fourth <i>giornata</i>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1960vii,_xxiii–xxiv_99-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1960">Drake 1960</a>, pp. vii, xxiii–xxiv.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharratt1994139–140_100-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSharratt1994">Sharratt 1994</a>, pp. 139–140.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrassi1960a_101-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGrassi1960a">Grassi 1960a</a>.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1978268_102-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1978">Drake 1978</a>, p. 268.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrassi1960a16)_103-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGrassi1960a">Grassi 1960a</a>, p. 16).
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalileiGuiducci1960_104-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalileiGuiducci1960_104-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFGalileiGuiducci1960">Galilei &amp; Guiducci 1960</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1960xvi_105-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1960">Drake 1960</a>, p. xvi.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1957222_106-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1957">Drake 1957</a>, p. 222.
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1960xvii_107-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1960xvii_107-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1960">Drake 1960</a>, p. xvii.
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharratt1994135_108-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharratt1994135_108-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharratt1994135_108-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFSharratt1994">Sharratt 1994</a>, p. 135.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1960xii_109-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1960">Drake 1960</a>, p. xii.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalileiGuiducci196024_110-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGalileiGuiducci1960">Galilei &amp; Guiducci 1960</a>, p. 24.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrassi1960b_111-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGrassi1960b">Grassi 1960b</a>.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1978494_112-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1978">Drake 1978</a>, p. 494.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharratt1994137_113-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSharratt1994">Sharratt 1994</a>, p. 137.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1957227_114-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1957">Drake 1957</a>, p. 227.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharratt1994138–142_115-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSharratt1994">Sharratt 1994</a>, pp. 138–142.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1960xix_116-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1960">Drake 1960</a>, p. xix.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Amir_Alexander">Alexander, A.</a> (2014). <a href="https://archive.org/details/infinitesimalhow0000alex"><i>Infinitesimal: How a Dangerous Mathematical Theory Shaped the Modern World</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American">Scientific American</a> / <a href="/wiki/Farrar,_Straus_and_Giroux">Farrar, Straus and Giroux</a>. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/infinitesimalhow0000alex/page/131">131</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-374-17681-5"><bdi>978-0-374-17681-5</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1960vii_118-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1960">Drake 1960</a>, p. vii.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackwell200630_121-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBlackwell2006">Blackwell 2006</a>, p. 30.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannam2009303–316_122-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHannam2009">Hannam 2009</a>, pp. 303–316.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b> <cite>Blackwell, R. (1991). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MHnwAAAAMAAJ"><i>Galileo, Bellarmine, and the Bible</i></a>. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press. p. 25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-268-01024-9"><bdi>978-0-268-01024-9</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrodrick196595_124-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBrodrick1965">Brodrick 1965</a>, p. 95.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b> <cite>Bradley, James (1728). "A Letter from the Reverend Mr. James Bradley Savilian Professor of Astronomy at Oxford, and F.R.S. to Dr. Edmond Halley Astronom. Reg. &amp;c. Giving an Account of a New Discovered Motion of the Fix'd Stars". <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London</i>. <b>35</b>: 637–661.</cite>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraneyDanielson2014_128-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraneyDanielson2014_128-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFGraneyDanielson2014">Graney &amp; Danielson 2014</a>.
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro198927–28_130-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro198927–28_130-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFFinocchiaro1989">Finocchiaro 1989</a>, pp. 27–28.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro1989_132-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFinocchiaro1989">Finocchiaro 1989</a>.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELangford199856–57_133-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLangford1998">Langford 1998</a>, pp. 56–57.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro198928,_134_134-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFinocchiaro1989">Finocchiaro 1989</a>, pp. 28, 134.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraney201568–69_135-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGraney2015">Graney 2015</a>, pp. 68–69.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro201072_136-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFinocchiaro2010">Finocchiaro 2010</a>, p. 72.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraney201571_137-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGraney2015">Graney 2015</a>, p. 71.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraney201566–76,_164–175,_187–195_139-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGraney2015">Graney 2015</a>, pp. 66–76, 164–175, 187–195.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-wcumf_140-0">^</a></b> <cite>Finocchiaro, M. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930013053/http://astro.wcupa.edu/mgagne/ess362/resources/finocchiaro.html#conreport">"West Chester University – History of Astronomy; Lecture notes: Texts from The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History"</a>. West Chester University. ESS 362 / 562. Archived from <a href="http://astro.wcupa.edu/mgagne/ess362/resources/finocchiaro.html#conreport">the original</a> on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 18 February 2014.</cite>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2010218_141-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2010218_141-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFHeilbron2010">Heilbron 2010</a>, p. 218.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pope_Urban_VIII_142-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://galileo.rice.edu/gal/urban.html">"Pope Urban VIII Biography"</a>. <i>Galileo Project</i>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro199782_143-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFinocchiaro1997">Finocchiaro 1997</a>, p. 82.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMossWallace200311_144-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMossWallace2003">Moss &amp; Wallace 2003</a>, p. 11.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1978355_145-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1978">Drake 1978</a>, p. 355.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1953491_146-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1953">Drake 1953</a>, p. 491.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoestler1990483_147-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKoestler1990">Koestler 1990</a>, p. 483.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b> <cite>Lindberg, D. <a href="http://www.asa3.org/ASA/PSCF/1987/PSCF9-87Lindberg.html">"Beyond War and Peace: A Reappraisal of the Encounter between Christianity and Science"</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharratt1994171–175_150-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSharratt1994">Sharratt 1994</a>, pp. 171–175.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGingerich1992117–118_152-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGingerich1992">Gingerich 1992</a>, pp. 117–118.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b> Numbers, Ronald L., ed. Galileo goes to jail and other myths about science and religion. No. 74. Harvard University Press, 2009, 77
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro1989288–293_155-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFinocchiaro1989">Finocchiaro 1989</a>, pp. 288–293.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFantoli2005140_156-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFantoli2005">Fantoli 2005</a>, p. 140.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2005282–284_157-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHeilbron2005">Heilbron 2005</a>, pp. 282–284.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro198938,_291,_306_158-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFinocchiaro1989">Finocchiaro 1989</a>, pp. 38, 291, 306.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b> <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/galileo/">Galileo Galileo</a>, <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>, Brief Biography.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1978367_160-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1978">Drake 1978</a>, p. 367.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharratt1994184_161-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSharratt1994">Sharratt 1994</a>, p. 184.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b> <cite>Livio, Mario (2020). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1400/280789">""Did Galileo Truly Say, 'And Yet It Moves'? A modern Detective Story""</a>. <i>Galilaeana</i>. <b>XVII</b> (17): 289. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1400%2F280789">10.1400/280789</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b> <cite>Shea, W. (January 2006). <a href="http://www.unav.es/cryf/galileoaffair.html">"The Galileo Affair"</a> (unpublished work). Grupo de Investigación sobre Ciencia, Razón y Fe (CRYF). Retrieved 12 September 2010.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b> "Galileo ... is the father of modern <a href="/wiki/Physics">physics</a>—indeed of modern science" —<a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>, quoted in <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a>, ed. p. 398, <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Shoulders_of_Giants_(book)">On the Shoulders of Giants</a></i>.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel2000232–234_166-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSobel2000">Sobel 2000</a>, pp. 232–234.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b> <cite>Livio, Mario (2020). <i>Galileo and the Science Deniers</i>. New York, NY: Simon &amp; Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5011-9473-3"><bdi>978-1-5011-9473-3</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b> <cite>Gerard, J. (1909). <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06342b.htm">"Galileo Galilei"</a>. In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel2000380_173-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSobel2000">Sobel 2000</a>, p. 380.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b> <a href="http://catalogue.museogalileo.it/section/GalileanIconographyRelics.html">Section of Room VII Galilean iconography and relics</a>, Museo Galileo. Accessed on line 27 May 2011.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b> <cite>Cohen, H. F. (1984). <i>Quantifying Music: The Science of Music at</i>. Springer. pp. 78–84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-277-1637-8"><bdi>978-90-277-1637-8</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Judith_V._Field">Field, J. V.</a> (2005). <i>Piero Della Francesca: A Mathematician's Art</i>. Yale University Press. pp. 317–320. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10342-7"><bdi>978-0-300-10342-7</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1957237–238_181-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1957">Drake 1957</a>, pp. 237–238.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWallace1984_182-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWallace1984">Wallace 1984</a>.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharratt1994202–204_183-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharratt1994202–204_183-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFSharratt1994">Sharratt 1994</a>, pp. 202–204.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalilei1954250–252_184-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGalilei1954">Galilei 1954</a>, pp. 250–252.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFavaro1890274–275_185-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFavaro1890">Favaro 1890</a>, pp. 274–275.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalilei1954252_186-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGalilei1954">Galilei 1954</a>, p. 252.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFavaro1890275_187-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFavaro1890">Favaro 1890</a>, p. 275.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReston200056_188-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFReston2000">Reston 2000</a>, p. 56.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel200043_189-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSobel2000">Sobel 2000</a>, p. 43.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1978196_190-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1978">Drake 1978</a>, p. 196.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b> Rosen, Edward, <i>The Naming of the Telescope</i> (1947)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1978163–164_192-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1978">Drake 1978</a>, pp. 163–164.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFavaro1890163_193-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFavaro1890">Favaro 1890</a>, p. 163.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1978289_194-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1978">Drake 1978</a>, p. 289.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1978286_195-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1978286_195-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1978">Drake 1978</a>, p. 286.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080409010159/http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/esplora/microscopio/dswmedia/risorse/testi_completi.pdf">"brunelleschi.imss.fi.it "Il microscopio di Galileo""</a> (PDF). Archived from <a href="http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/esplora/microscopio/dswmedia/risorse/testi_completi.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 9 April 2008.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a></b> Van Helden, Al. <a href="http://galileo.rice.edu/chron/galileo.html">Galileo Timeline</a> (last updated 1995), The Galileo Project. Retrieved 28 August 2007.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a></b> <i>Longitude: the true story of a lone genius who solved the greatest scientific problem of his time</i>, Dava Sobel Penguin, 1996 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-025879-0">978-0-14-025879-0</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a></b> <cite>Cesare S. Maffioli (2008). <a href="https://www.academia.edu/28086359">"Galileo, Guiducci and the Engineer Bartolotti on the Bisenzio River"</a>. <i>academia.edu</i>. Galileana (V). Retrieved 11 August 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a></b> <cite>Newton, R. G. (2004). <i>Galileo's Pendulum: From the Rhythm of Time to the Making of Matter</i>. Harvard University Press. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01331-5"><bdi>978-0-674-01331-5</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a></b> Galileo Galilei, <i>Two New Sciences,</i> (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Pr., 1974) p. 50.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a></b> I. Bernard Cohen, "Roemer and the First Determination of the Velocity of Light (1676)", <i>Isis</i>, 31 (1940): 327–379.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake197819–20_203-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1978">Drake 1978</a>, pp. 19–20.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake19789_204-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1978">Drake 1978</a>, p. 9.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharratt199431_205-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSharratt1994">Sharratt 1994</a>, p. 31.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a></b> <cite>Groleau, R. <a href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/galileo/experiments.html">"Galileo's Battle for the Heavens. July 2002"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/PBS">PBS</a></i>.</cite> <cite>Ball, P. (30 June 2005). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140620021642/http://www.hindu.com/seta/2005/06/30/stories/2005063000351500.htm">"Science history: setting the record straight. 30 June 2005"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hindu">The Hindu</a></i>. Chennai. Archived from <a href="http://www.hindu.com/seta/2005/06/30/stories/2005063000351500.htm">the original</a> on 20 June 2014. Retrieved 31 October 2007.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake197819–21,_414–416_207-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1978">Drake 1978</a>, pp. 19–21, 414–416.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.maplesoft.com/support/help/maple/view.aspx?path=MathApps%2FGalileosInclinedPlaneExperiment">"Galileo's Inclined Plane Experiment"</a>. <i>Online Help : Math Apps : Natural Sciences : Physics : MathApps/GalileosInclinedPlaneExperiment</i>. <a href="/wiki/Waterloo_Maple">Maplesoft</a>. Retrieved 30 June 2018.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannam2009305–306_209-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHannam2009">Hannam 2009</a>, pp. 305–306.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a></b> Lemons, Don S. <i>Drawing Physics: 2,600 Years of Discovery From Thales to Higgs.</i> MIT Press, 2017, 80
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a></b> Lucretius, <i>De rerum natura</i> II, 225–229; Relevant passage appears in: Lane Cooper, <i>Aristotle, Galileo, and the Tower of Pisa</i> (Ithaca, N.Y.: <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Press">Cornell University Press</a>, 1935), p. 49.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a></b> Simon Stevin, <i>De Beghinselen des Waterwichts, Anvang der Waterwichtdaet, en de Anhang komen na de Beghinselen der Weeghconst en de Weeghdaet</i> [The Elements of Hydrostatics, Preamble to the Practice of Hydrostatics, and Appendix to The Elements of the Statics and The Practice of Weighing] (Leiden, Netherlands: <a href="/wiki/Christoffel_Plantijn">Christoffel Plantijn</a>, 1586) reports an experiment by Stevin and Jan Cornets de Groot in which they dropped lead balls from a church tower in Delft; relevant passage is translated in: <a href="/wiki/E._J._Dijksterhuis">E. J. Dijksterhuis</a>, ed., <i>The Principal Works of Simon Stevin</i> Amsterdam, Netherlands: C.V. Swets &amp; Zeitlinger, 1955 vol. 1, pp. 509, 511.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharratt1994203_213-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFSharratt1994">Sharratt 1994</a>, p. 203.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalilei1954251–254_214-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGalilei1954">Galilei 1954</a>, pp. 251–254.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharratt1994198_215-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharratt1994198_215-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFSharratt1994">Sharratt 1994</a>, p. 198.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalilei1954174_216-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGalilei1954">Galilei 1954</a>, p. 174.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClagett1968561_217-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFClagett1968">Clagett 1968</a>, p. 561.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrant1996103_218-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGrant1996">Grant 1996</a>, p. 103.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/law-of-inertia">"law of inertia | Discovery, Facts, &amp; History"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. Retrieved 10 November 2019.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJung2011504_220-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFJung2011">Jung 2011</a>, p. 504.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalilei1954268_221-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGalilei1954">Galilei 1954</a>, p. 268.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a></b> <i><a href="/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems">Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems</a></i>, first <i>giornata</i>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a></b> Dijksterhuis, E.J. <i>The Mechanization of the World Picture</i>, p. 349 (IV, 105), Oxford University Press, 1961. <a href="https://archive.org/details/e.j.dijksterhuisthemechanizationoftheworldpictureoxforduniversitypress1961/page/n1">The Mechanization of the World Picture</a> C. Dikshoorn translator, via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive">Internet Archive</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a></b> Raffaele Pisano, and Paolo Bussotti, "Galileo in Padua: architecture, fortifications, mathematics and "practical" science." <i>Lettera Matematica </i> 2.4 (2015): 209–222. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273302069">online</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2005299_225-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHeilbron2005">Heilbron 2005</a>, p. 299.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoyne2005347_226-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoyne2005347_226-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoyne2005347_226-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFCoyne2005">Coyne 2005</a>, p. 347.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2005303–304_227-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHeilbron2005">Heilbron 2005</a>, pp. 303–304.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2005307_228-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHeilbron2005">Heilbron 2005</a>, p. 307.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcMullin20056_229-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMcMullin2005">McMullin 2005</a>, p. 6.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoyne2005346_230-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFCoyne2005">Coyne 2005</a>, p. 346.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a></b> Discourse of His Holiness Pope Pius XII given on 3 December 1939 at the Solemn Audience granted to the Plenary Session of the Academy, Discourses of the Popes from Pius XI to John Paul II to the <a href="/wiki/Pontifical_Academy_of_Sciences">Pontifical Academy of the Sciences</a> 1939–1986, Vatican City, p. 34
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a></b> Robert Leiber, Pius XII Stimmen der Zeit, November 1958 in Pius XII. Sagt, Frankfurt 1959, p. 411
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERatzinger199481_233-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRatzinger1994">Ratzinger 1994</a>, p. 81.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFeyerabend1995178_234-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFeyerabend1995">Feyerabend 1995</a>, p. 178.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERatzinger199498_235-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERatzinger199498_235-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERatzinger199498_235-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFRatzinger1994">Ratzinger 1994</a>, p. 98.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1992/11/01/world/vatican-science-panel-told-by-pope-galileo-was-right.html">"Vatican Science Panel Told By Pope: Galileo Was Right"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. 1 November 1992.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwenDelaney2008_237-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFOwenDelaney2008">Owen &amp; Delaney 2008</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7794668.stm">"Pope praises Galileo's astronomy"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 21 December 2008. Retrieved 22 December 2008.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwen2009_239-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFOwen2009">Owen 2009</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHawking1988179_240-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFHawking1988">Hawking 1988</a>, p. 179.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinstein1954271_241-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEinstein1954">Einstein 1954</a>, p. 271.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a></b> Stephen Hawking, <a href="http://www.medici.org/press/galileo-and-birth-modern-science"><i>Galileo and the Birth of Modern Science</i></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120324162930/http://www.medici.org/press/galileo-and-birth-modern-science">Archived</a> 24 March 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, American Heritage's Invention &amp; Technology, Spring 2009, Vol. 24, No. 1, p. 36
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a></b> <cite>Fischer, D. (2001). <a href="https://archive.org/details/missionjupitersp0000fisc"><i>Mission Jupiter: The Spectacular Journey of the </i>Galileo<i> Spacecraft</i></a>. Springer. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/missionjupitersp0000fisc/page/">v</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-98764-4"><bdi>978-0-387-98764-4</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a></b> <cite>United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (11 August 2005). <a href="http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001403/140317e.pdf">"Proclamation of 2009 as International year of Astronomy"</a> (PDF). UNESCO. Retrieved 10 June 2008.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://everything2.com/title/Bohemian+Rhapsody">"Bohemian Rhapsody"</a>. everything2. Retrieved 20 August 2010.</cite> 
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.allmusic.com/album/release/heart-in-motion-mr0000107076">"Heart in Motion — Amy Grant"</a>. <a href="/wiki/AllMusic">AllMusic</a>. Retrieved 19 June 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a></b> Stavis, Barrie. <i>Lamp at Midnight</i>. South Brunswick, New Jersey: A.S. Barnes, 1966.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a></b> Lalonde, Robert. <a href="//archive.org/details/GalileoGalileivesaliusAndServetus">Galileo Galilei/Vesalius and Servetus</a>. February 2008. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9783909-1-4">978-0-9783909-1-4</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Kim_Stanley_Robinson">Robinson, K. S.</a> (2009). <a href="//archive.org/details/galileosdream00robi"><i>Galileo's Dream</i></a>. New York: Ballantine Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-553-80659-5"><bdi>978-0-553-80659-5</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/instruments/balance.html">"Hydrostatic balance"</a>. The Galileo Project. Retrieved 17 July 2008.</cite> 
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100717090321/http://hsci.ou.edu/exhibits/exhibit.php?exbgrp=1&amp;exbid=10&amp;exbpg=1">"The Works of Galileo"</a>. The University of Oklahoma, College of Arts and Sciences. Archived from <a href="http://hsci.ou.edu/exhibits/exhibit.php?exbgrp=1&amp;exbid=10&amp;exbpg=1">the original</a> on 17 July 2010. Retrieved 17 July 2008.</cite> 
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081024203933/http://hsci.ou.edu/exhibits/exhibit.php?exbgrp=1&amp;exbid=13&amp;exbpg=2">"Sunspots and Floating Bodies"</a>. The University of Oklahoma, College of Arts and Sciences. Archived from <a href="http://hsci.ou.edu/exhibits/exhibit.php?exbgrp=1&amp;exbid=13&amp;exbpg=2">the original</a> on 24 October 2008. Retrieved 17 July 2008.</cite> 
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100716205613/http://hsci.ou.edu/exhibits/exhibit.php?exbgrp=1&amp;exbid=14&amp;exbpg=3">"Galileo, Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina"</a>. The University of Oklahoma, College of Arts and Sciences. Archived from <a href="http://hsci.ou.edu/exhibits/exhibit.php?exbgrp=1&amp;exbid=14&amp;exbpg=3">the original</a> on 16 July 2010. Retrieved 17 July 2008.</cite> 
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/observations/tides.html">"Galileo's Theory of the Tides"</a>. The Galileo Project. Retrieved 17 July 2008.</cite> 
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://galileo.rice.edu/chron/galileo.html">"Galileo Timeline"</a>. The Galileo Project. Retrieved 17 July 2008.</cite> 
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://muse.tau.ac.il/museum/galileo/galileo.html">"Galileo Galilei"</a>. Tel-Aviv University, Science and Technology Education Center. Retrieved 17 July 2008.</cite> 
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a></b> For details see William A. Wallace, <i>Galileo and His Sources</i> (Princeton University Press, 2014).
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/content/scientific_revolution/galileo">"Collection of Galileo Galilei's Manuscripts and Related Translations"</a>. Retrieved 4 December 2009.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a></b> "Galileo Galilei," <i>LibraryThing</i>. <a href="https://www.librarything.com/legacylibraries/profile/GalileoGalilei">https://www.librarything.com/legacylibraries/profile/GalileoGalilei</a> Accessed 23 October 2021.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-librarything.com_260-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-librarything.com_260-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-librarything.com_260-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> Galileo Galilei: About My Library," <i>LibraryThing</i>. <a href="https://www.librarything.com/profile/GalileoGalilei">https://www.librarything.com/profile/GalileoGalilei</a> Accessed 23 October 2021.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a></b> "Galileo Galilei: About My Library," <i>LibraryThing</i>. <a href="https://www.librarything.com/profile/GalileoGalilei">https://www.librarything.com/profile/GalileoGalilei</a> Accessed 23 October 2021.
</li>
</ol></div>
<h3>General sources</h3>
<div>
<ul><li><cite>Allan-Olney, M. (1870). <i>The Private Life of Galileo: Compiled primarily from his correspondence and that of his eldest daughter, Sister Maria Celeste</i>. Boston: Nichols and Noyes.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Blackwell, R. J. (2006). <a href="https://archive.org/details/behindscenesatga0000blac"><i>Behind the Scenes at Galileo's Trial</i></a>. Notre Dame: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Notre_Dame_Press">University of Notre Dame Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-268-02201-3"><bdi>978-0-268-02201-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Brecht, Bertolt (1980) [1938-9]. <i>The Life of Galileo</i>. Eyre Methuen. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-413-47140-3"><bdi>0-413-47140-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Brodrick, J. S. J. (1965). <i>Galileo: the man, his work, his misfortunes</i>. London: G. Chapman.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Chalmers, A. F. (1999) [1976]. <i>What is this thing called Science?</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7022-3093-6"><bdi>978-0-7022-3093-6</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
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<li><cite>Cooper, L. (1935). <a href="//archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.59618"><i>Aristotle, Galileo, and the Tower of Pisa</i></a>. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4067-5263-2"><bdi>978-1-4067-5263-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
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<li><cite>Drake, S. (1960). "Introduction". <i>Controversy on the Comets of 1618</i>. pp. vii–xxv.</cite></li>
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<li><cite>Drake, S. (1990). <a href="//archive.org/details/galileo00stil_0"><i>Galileo: Pioneer Scientist</i></a>. Toronto: The University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-2725-2"><bdi>978-0-8020-2725-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
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<li><cite>Finocchiaro, M. A. (1997). <i>Galileo on the world systems: a new abridged translation and guide</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20548-2"><bdi>978-0-520-20548-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Finocchiaro, M. A. (1989). <i>The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06662-5"><bdi>978-0-520-06662-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
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<li><cite>Sharratt, M. (1994). <i>Galileo: Decisive Innovator</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56671-1"><bdi>978-0-521-56671-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Shapere, D. (1974). <i>Galileo, a Philosophical Study</i>. University of Chicago Press.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Shea, W. R. &amp; Artigas, M. (2003). <a href="//archive.org/details/galileoinromeris00shea"><i>Galileo in Rome: The Rise and Fall of a Troublesome Genius</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-516598-2"><bdi>978-0-19-516598-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Dava_Sobel">Sobel, D.</a> (2000) [1999]. <a href="/wiki/Galileo%27s_Daughter"><i>Galileo's Daughter</i></a>. London: Fourth Estate. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85702-712-9"><bdi>978-1-85702-712-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Taton, R., ed. (1964) [1958]. <i>The Beginnings of Modern Science from 1450 to 1800</i>. London: Thames and Hudson.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Taton, R.; Wilson, C., eds. (1989). <i>Planetary astronomy from the Renaissance to the rise of astrophysics Part A: Tycho Brahe to Newton</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24254-7"><bdi>978-0-521-24254-7</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Thoren, V. E. (1989). "Tycho Brahe". In Taton, R.; Wilson, C. (eds.). <i>Planetary astronomy from the Renaissance to the rise of astrophysics Part A: Tycho Brahe to Newton</i>. pp. 3–21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-35158-4"><bdi>978-0-521-35158-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Van Helden, A. (1989). "Galileo, telescopic astronomy, and the Copernican system". In Taton, R.; Wilson, C. (eds.). <i>Planetary astronomy from the Renaissance to the rise of astrophysics Part A: Tycho Brahe to Newton</i>. pp. 81–105.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Van Helden, A. (1985). <i>Measuring the Universe: Cosmic Dimensions from Aristarchus to Halley</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-84881-5"><bdi>978-0-226-84881-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Wallace, W. A. (1984). <a href="//archive.org/details/galileohissource00wall"><i>Galileo and His Sources: The Heritage of the Collegio Romano in Galileo's Science</i></a>. Princeton: Princeton Univ. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984gshc.book.....W">1984gshc.book.....W</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-08355-1"><bdi>978-0-691-08355-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Wallace, W. A. (2004). <i>Domingo de Soto and the Early Galileo</i>. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86078-964-2"><bdi>978-0-86078-964-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Walusinsky, G. (1964) [1958]. "The Golden age of Observational Astronomy". In Taton, R. (ed.). <i>The Beginnings of Modern Science from 1450 to 1800</i>. pp. 268–286.</cite></li>
<li><cite>White, A. D. (1898). <a href="http://cscs.umich.edu/~crshalizi/White/"><i>A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom</i></a>. New York: D. Appleton and Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7905-8168-2"><bdi>978-0-7905-8168-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>White, M. (2007). <i>Galileo: Antichrist: A Biography</i>. London: Weidenfeld &amp; Nicolson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-297-84868-4"><bdi>978-0-297-84868-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Wisan, W. L. (1984). "Galileo and the Process of Scientific Creation". <i>Isis</i>. <b>75</b> (2): 269–286. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F353480">10.1086/353480</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145410913">145410913</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Zik, Y. (2001). "Science and Instruments: The telescope as a scientific instrument at the beginning of the seventeenth century". <i>Perspectives on Science</i>. <b>9</b> (3): 259–284. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2F10636140160176143">10.1162/10636140160176143</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:57571555">57571555</a>.</cite></li></ul>
</div>
<h2>Further reading</h2>
<div>
<ul><li><cite>Biagioli, M. (1993). <a href="//archive.org/details/galileocourtier00mari"><i>Galileo, Courtier: The Practice of Science in the Culture of Absolutism</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-04559-7"><bdi>978-0-226-04559-7</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Clavelin, M. (1974). <i>The Natural Philosophy of Galileo</i>. MIT Press.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Agnes_Mary_Clerke">Clerke, Agnes Mary</a> (1911). <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Galileo_Galilei">"Galileo Galilei" </a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). pp. 406–410.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Coffa, J. (1968). "Galileo's Concept of Inertia". <i>Physis Riv. Internaz. Storia Sci</i>. <b>10</b>: 261–281.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Consolmagno, G.; Schaefer, M. (1994). <i>Worlds Apart, A Textbook in Planetary Science</i>. Englewood: Prentice-Hall. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994watp.book.....C">1994watp.book.....C</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-964131-2"><bdi>978-0-13-964131-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Drabkin, I.; Drake, S., eds. (1960). <i>On Motion and On Mechanics</i>. University of Wisconsin Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-02030-9"><bdi>978-0-299-02030-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li>Drake, Stillman. <i>Galileo</i> (University of Toronto Press, 2017).</li>
<li>Drake, Stillman. <i>Essays on Galileo and the History and Philosophy of Science</i> (U of Toronto Press, 2019).</li>
<li>Drake, Stillman. <i>Galileo and the First Mechanical Computing Device</i> (U of Toronto Press, 2019).</li>
<li><cite>Dugas, R. (1988) [1955]. <i>A History of Mechanics</i>. Dover Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-65632-8"><bdi>978-0-486-65632-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li> <cite>Duhem, P. (1911). <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12047a.htm">"History of Physics"</a>. In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Fantoli, A. (2003). <i>Galileo: For Copernicanism and the Church</i> (third English ed.). Vatican Observatory Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-209-7427-5"><bdi>978-88-209-7427-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Feyerabend, P. (1975). <i>Against Method</i>. Verso.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Galilei, G. (1960) [1623]. "The Assayer". <i>The Controversy on the Comets of 1618</i>. Translated by Drake, S. pp. 151–336. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-158-34578-6"><bdi>978-1-158-34578-6</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Galilei, G. (1974). "Galileo's 1638 <i>Discourses and mathematical demonstrations concerning two new sciences</i>". <a href="https://archive.org/details/twonewsciencesin0000gali"><i>Galileo: Two New Sciences</i></a>. Translated by Drake, S. University of Wisconsin Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-06400-6"><bdi>978-0-299-06400-6</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Galilei, G.; Scheiner, C. (2010). <i>On Sunspots</i>. Translated by Reeves, E.; Van Helden, A. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-70715-0"><bdi>978-0-226-70715-0</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Ludovico_Geymonat">Geymonat, L.</a> (1965). <i>Galileo Galilei, A biography and inquiry into his philosophy and science</i>. Translated by Drake, S. McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1965ggbi.book.....G">1965ggbi.book.....G</a>.</cite></li>
<li>Gilbert, Neal Ward. "Galileo and the School of Padua." <i>Journal of the History of Philosophy </i> 1.2 (1963): 223–231. <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/229899/summary">online</a></li>
<li><cite>Grant, E. (1965–1967). "Aristotle, Philoponus, Avempace, and Galileo's Pisan Dynamics". <i><a href="/wiki/Centaurus_(journal)">Centaurus</a></i>. <b>11</b> (2): 79–95. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1966Cent...11...79G">1966Cent...11...79G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1600-0498.1966.tb00051.x">10.1111/j.1600-0498.1966.tb00051.x</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Hall, A. R. (1963). <i>From Galileo to Newton, 1630–1720</i>. Collins.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Hall, A. R. (1964–1965). "Galileo and the Science of Motion". <i>British Journal for the History of Science</i>. <b>2</b> (3): 185. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0007087400002193">10.1017/s0007087400002193</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145683472">145683472</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Humphreys, W. C. (1967). "Galileo, Falling Bodies and Inclined Planes. An Attempt at Reconstructing Galileo's Discovery of the Law of Squares". <i><a href="/wiki/British_Journal_for_the_History_of_Science">British Journal for the History of Science</a></i>. <b>3</b> (3): 225–244. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0007087400002673">10.1017/S0007087400002673</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145468106">145468106</a>.</cite></li>
<li>Koyré, Alexandre. "Galileo and Plato." <i>Journal of the History of Ideas</i> 4.4 (1943): 400–428. <a href="https://www.hyperdream.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Galileo__Plato.pdf">online</a> (PDF)</li>
<li>Koyré, Alexandre. "Galileo and the scientific revolution of the seventeenth century." <i>Philosophical Review</i> 52.4 (1943): 333–348. <a href="http://cbbp.thep.lu.se/~henrik/fyta13/litteratur/Koyre1943.pdf">online</a> (PDF)</li></ul>
</div>
<h2>External links</h2>
<ul><li><a href="//openlibrary.org/authors/OL1287184A">Works by Galileo Galilei</a> at <a href="/wiki/Open_Library">Open Library</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/author/Galilei,+Galileo">Works by Galileo Galilei</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li>
<li><a href="https://librivox.org/author/5427">Works by Galileo Galilei</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) </li>
<li><a href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Galilei%2C%20Galileo%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Galileo%20Galilei%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Galilei%2C%20Galileo%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Galileo%20Galilei%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Galilei%2C%20G%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Galileo%20Galilei%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Galilei%2C%20Galileo%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Galileo%20Galilei%22%29%20OR%20%28%221564-1642%22%20AND%20Galilei%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Galileo Galilei</a> at <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive">Internet Archive</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.librarything.com/catalog/GalileoGalilei">Works in Galileo's Personal Library</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibraryThing">LibraryThing</a></li></ul>
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 Contents

 move to sidebar hide
 * (Top)
 * 1 Early life and family
 + 1.1 Name
 + 1.2 Children
 * 2 Career as a scientist
 + 2.1 Astronomy
 o 2.1.1 Kepler's supernova
 o 2.1.2 Refracting telescope
 o 2.1.3 Moon
 o 2.1.4 Jupiter's moons
 o 2.1.5 Phases of Venus
 o 2.1.6 Saturn and Neptune
 o 2.1.7 Sunspots
 o 2.1.8 Milky Way and stars
 + 2.2 Theory of tides
 + 2.3 Controversy over comets and The Assayer
 + 2.4 Controversy over heliocentrism
 * 3 Death
 * 4 Scientific contributions
 + 4.1 Scientific methods
 + 4.2 Astronomy
 + 4.3 Engineering
 + 4.4 Physics
 o 4.4.1 Falling bodies
 + 4.5 Mathematics
 * 5 Legacy
 + 5.1 Later Church reassessments
 + 5.2 Impact on modern science
 + 5.3 In artistic and popular media
 * 6 Writings
 + 6.1 Published written works
 + 6.2 Personal library
 * 7 See also
 * 8 Notes
 * 9 References
 + 9.1 Citations
 + 9.2 General sources
 * 10 Further reading
 * 11 External links
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 Galileo Galilei

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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 "Galileo" redirects here. For other uses, see Galileo (disambiguation) and Galileo Galilei (disambiguation).

 Galileo Galilei 
 Portrait by Justus Sustermans, 1636
 Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de' Galilei[1]
 Born 15 February 1564[2] 
 Pisa, Duchy of Florence 
 Died 8 January 1642 (aged 77) 
 Arcetri, Grand Duchy of Tuscany 
 Education University of Pisa 
 * Analytical dynamics 
 Known for * heliocentrism 
 * kinematics 
 * observational astronomy 
 Scientific career 
 * Astronomy 
 * physics 
 Fields * engineering 
 * natural philosophy 
 * mathematics 
 Institutions * University of Pisa 
 * University of Padua 
 * Cosimo II de Medici 
 * Federico Cesi 
 Patrons * Ferdinando II de Medici 
 * Fra Paolo Sarpi 
 * Francesco Maria del Monte 
 Academic advisors Ostilio Ricci da Fermo 
 * Benedetto Castelli 
 Notable students * Mario Guiducci 
 * Vincenzo Viviani 
 * 
 Influences + John Philoponus[3] 
 + Nicolaus Copernicus 
 
 Signature 
 
 
 Part of a series on 
 Physical cosmology 
 * Big Bang · Universe 
 * Age of the universe 
 * Chronology of the universe 
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 * Inflation · Nucleosynthesis 
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 * Microwave (CMB) · Neutrino (CNB) 
 
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 * Hubble's law · Redshift 
 * Metric expansion of space 
 * FLRW metric · Friedmann equations 
 * Inhomogeneous cosmology 
 * Future of an expanding universe 
 * Ultimate fate of the universe 
 Components · Structure 
 Components 
 * Lambda-CDM model 
 * Dark energy · Dark fluid · Dark matter
 Structure 
 * Shape of the universe 
 * Galaxy filament · Galaxy formation 
 * Large quasar group 
 * Large-scale structure 
 * Reionization · Structure formation 
 
 Experiments 
 * Black Hole Initiative (BHI) 
 * BOOMERanG 
 * Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) 
 * Dark Energy Survey 
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 * Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) 
 * 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey ("2dF") 
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 Probe (WMAP) 
 Scientists 
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 * de Sitter 
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 * List of cosmologists 
 Subject history 
 * Discovery of cosmic microwave 
 background radiation 
 * History of the Big Bang theory 
 * Religious interpretations of 
 the Big Bang theory 
 * Timeline of cosmological theories 
 * Category 
 * Astronomy portal 
 * v 
 * t 
 * e 
 

 Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de' Galilei (15 February 1564 – 8 January 1642) was an Italian astronomer, physicist and engineer, sometimes described as a polymath. Commonly referred to as Galileo, his name was pronounced / ˌ ɡ æ l ɪ ˈ l eɪ . oʊ ˌ ɡ æ l ɪ ˈ l eɪ . i ˌ / ( GAL -ih- LAY -oh GAL -ih- LAY -ee, Italian: [ɡaliˈlɛːo ɡaliˈlɛi]). He was born in the city of Pisa, then part of the Duchy of Florence.[4] Galileo has been called the "father" of observational astronomy,[5] modern physics,[6] the scientific method,[7] and modern science.[8]

 Galileo studied speed and velocity, gravity and free fall, the principle of relativity, inertia, projectile motion and also worked in applied science and technology, describing the properties of pendulums and "hydrostatic balances". He invented the thermoscope and various military compasses, and used the telescope for scientific observations of celestial objects. His contributions to observational astronomy include telescopic confirmation of the phases of Venus, observation of the four largest satellites of Jupiter, observation of Saturn's rings, and analysis of lunar craters and sunspots.

 Galileo's championing of Copernican heliocentrism (Earth rotating daily and revolving around the Sun) was met with opposition from within the Catholic Church and from some astronomers. The matter was investigated by the Roman Inquisition in 1615, which concluded that heliocentrism was foolish, absurd, and heretical since it contradicted Holy Scripture.[9][10][11]

 Galileo later defended his views in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632), which appeared to attack Pope Urban VIII and thus alienated both the Pope and the Jesuits, who had both supported Galileo up until this point.[9] He was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently suspect of heresy", and forced to recant. He spent the rest of his life under house arrest.[12][13] During this time, he wrote Two New Sciences (1638), primarily concerning kinematics and the strength of materials, summarizing work he had done around forty years earlier.[14]

 Early life and family

 Galileo was born in Pisa (then part of the Duchy of Florence), Italy, on 15 February 1564,[15] the first of six children of Vincenzo Galilei, a lutenist, composer, and music theorist, and Giulia Ammannati, who had married in 1562. Galileo became an accomplished lutenist himself and would have learned early from his father a scepticism for established authority.[16]

 Three of Galileo's five siblings survived infancy. The youngest, Michelangelo (or Michelagnolo), also became a lutenist and composer who added to Galileo's financial burdens for the rest of his life.[17] Michelangelo was unable to contribute his fair share of their father's promised dowries to their brothers-in-law, who would later attempt to seek legal remedies for payments due. Michelangelo would also occasionally have to borrow funds from Galileo to support his musical endeavours and excursions. These financial burdens may have contributed to Galileo's early desire to develop inventions that would bring him additional income.[18]

 When Galileo Galilei was eight, his family moved to Florence, but he was left under the care of Muzio Tedaldi for two years. When Galileo was ten, he left Pisa to join his family in Florence and there he was under the tutelage of Jacopo Borghini.[15] He was educated, particularly in logic, from 1575 to 1578 in the Vallombrosa Abbey, about 30 km southeast of Florence.[19][20]

 Name

 Galileo tended to refer to himself only by his given name. At the time, surnames were optional in Italy, and his given name had the same origin as his sometimes-family name, Galilei. Both his given and family name ultimately derive from an ancestor, Galileo Bonaiuti, an important physician, professor, and politician in Florence in the 15th century.[21][22] Galileo Bonaiuti was buried in the same church, the Basilica of Santa Croce in Florence, where about 200 years later, Galileo Galilei was also buried.[23]

 When he did refer to himself with more than one name, it was sometimes as Galileo Galilei Linceo, a reference to his being a member of the Accademia dei Lincei, an elite pro-science organization in Italy. It was common for mid-sixteenth-century Tuscan families to name the eldest son after the parents' surname.[24] Hence, Galileo Galilei was not necessarily named after his ancestor Galileo Bonaiuti. The Italian male given name "Galileo" (and thence the surname "Galilei") derives from the Latin "Galilaeus", meaning "of Galilee", a biblically significant region in Northern Israel.[25][21] Because of that region, the adjective galilaios (Greek Γαλιλαῖος, Latin Galilaeus, Italian Galileo), which means "Galilean", was used in antiquity (particularly by emperor Julian) to refer to Christ and his followers.[26]

 The biblical roots of Galileo's name and surname were to become the subject of a famous pun.[27] In 1614, during the Galileo affair, one of Galileo's opponents, the Dominican priest Tommaso Caccini, delivered against Galileo a controversial and influential sermon. In it he made a point of quoting Acts 1:11, "Ye men of Galilee, why stand ye gazing up into heaven?" (in the Latin version found in the Vulgate: Viri Galilaei, quid statis aspicientes in caelum?).[28]

 Portrait believed to be of Galileo's elder daughter Virginia, who was particularly devoted to her father

 Children

 Despite being a genuinely pious Roman Catholic,[29] Galileo fathered three children out of wedlock with Marina Gamba. They had two daughters, Virginia (born 1600) and Livia (born 1601), and a son, Vincenzo (born 1606).[30]

 Due to their illegitimate birth, Galileo considered the girls unmarriageable, if not posing problems of prohibitively expensive support or dowries, which would have been similar to Galileo's previous extensive financial problems with two of his sisters.[31] Their only worthy alternative was the religious life. Both girls were accepted by the convent of San Matteo in Arcetri and remained there for the rest of their lives.[32]

 Virginia took the name Maria Celeste upon entering the convent. She died on 2 April 1634, and is buried with Galileo at the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence. Livia took the name Sister Arcangela and was ill for most of her life. Vincenzo was later legitimised as the legal heir of Galileo and married Sestilia Bocchineri.[33]

 Career as a scientist

 Although Galileo seriously considered the priesthood as a young man, at his father's urging he instead enrolled in 1580 at the University of Pisa for a medical degree.[34] He was influenced by the lectures of Girolamo Borro and Francesco Buonamici of Florence.[20] In 1581, when he was studying medicine, he noticed a swinging chandelier, which air currents shifted about to swing in larger and smaller arcs. To him, it seemed, by comparison with his heartbeat, that the chandelier took the same amount of time to swing back and forth, no matter how far it was swinging. When he returned home, he set up two pendulums of equal length and swung one with a large sweep and the other with a small sweep and found that they kept time together. It was not until the work of Christiaan Huygens, almost one hundred years later, that the tautochrone nature of a swinging pendulum was used to create an accurate timepiece.[35] Up to this point, Galileo had deliberately been kept away from mathematics, since a physician earned a higher income than a mathematician. However, after accidentally attending a lecture on geometry, he talked his reluctant father into letting him study mathematics and natural philosophy instead of medicine.[35] He created a thermoscope, a forerunner of the thermometer, and, in 1586, published a small book on the design of a hydrostatic balance he had invented (which first brought him to the attention of the scholarly world). Galileo also studied disegno, a term encompassing fine art, and, in 1588, obtained the position of instructor in the Accademia delle Arti del Disegno in Florence, teaching perspective and chiaroscuro. In the same year, upon invitation by the Florentine Academy, he presented two lectures, On the Shape, Location, and Size of Dante's Inferno, in an attempt to propose a rigorous cosmological model of Dante's hell.[36] Being inspired by the artistic tradition of the city and the works of the Renaissance artists, Galileo acquired an aesthetic mentality. While a young teacher at the Accademia, he began a lifelong friendship with the Florentine painter Cigoli.[37][38]

 In 1589, he was appointed to the chair of mathematics in Pisa. In 1591, his father died, and he was entrusted with the care of his younger brother Michelagnolo. In 1592, he moved to the University of Padua where he taught geometry, mechanics, and astronomy until 1610.[39] During this period, Galileo made significant discoveries in both pure fundamental science (for example, kinematics of motion and astronomy) as well as practical applied science (for example, strength of materials and pioneering the telescope). His multiple interests included the study of astrology, which at the time was a discipline tied to the studies of mathematics and astronomy.[40][41]

 Astronomy

 Kepler's supernova

 Tycho Brahe and others had observed the supernova of 1572. Ottavio Brenzoni's letter of 15 January 1605 to Galileo brought the 1572 supernova and the less bright nova of 1601 to Galileo's notice. Galileo observed and discussed Kepler's Supernova in 1604. Since these new stars displayed no detectable diurnal parallax, Galileo concluded that they were distant stars, and, therefore, disproved the Aristotelian belief in the immutability of the heavens.[42]

 Refracting telescope

 Galileo's "cannocchiali" telescopes at the Museo Galileo, Florence

 Based only on uncertain descriptions of the first practical telescope which Hans Lippershey tried to patent in the Netherlands in 1608,[43] Galileo, in the following year, made a telescope with about 3x magnification. He later made improved versions with up to about 30x magnification.[44] With a Galilean telescope, the observer could see magnified, upright images on the Earth—it was what is commonly known as a terrestrial telescope or a spyglass. He could also use it to observe the sky; for a time he was one of those who could construct telescopes good enough for that purpose. On 25 August 1609, he demonstrated one of his early telescopes, with a magnification of about 8 or 9, to Venetian lawmakers. His telescopes were also a profitable sideline for Galileo, who sold them to merchants who found them useful both at sea and as items of trade. He published his initial telescopic astronomical observations in March 1610 in a brief treatise entitled Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger).[45]

 An illustration of the Moon from Sidereus Nuncius, published in Venice, 1610

 Moon

 On 30 November 1609, Galileo aimed his telescope at the Moon.[46] While not being the first person to observe the Moon through a telescope (English mathematician Thomas Harriot had done it four months before but only saw a "strange spottednesse"),[47] Galileo was the first to deduce the cause of the uneven waning as light occlusion from lunar mountains and craters. In his study, he also made topographical charts, estimating the heights of the mountains. The Moon was not what was long thought to have been a translucent and perfect sphere, as Aristotle claimed, and hardly the first "planet", an "eternal pearl to magnificently ascend into the heavenly empyrian", as put forth by Dante. Galileo is sometimes credited with the discovery of the lunar libration in latitude in 1632,[48] although Thomas Harriot or William Gilbert might have done it before.[49]

 A friend of Galileo's, the painter Cigoli, included a realistic depiction of the Moon in one of his paintings, though probably used his own telescope to make the observation.[37]

 Jupiter's moons

 On 7 January 1610, Galileo observed with his telescope what he described at the time as "three fixed stars, totally invisible[a] by their smallness", all close to Jupiter, and lying on a straight line through it.[50] Observations on subsequent nights showed that the positions of these "stars" relative to Jupiter were changing in a way that would have been inexplicable if they had really been fixed stars. On 10 January, Galileo noted that one of them had disappeared, an observation which he attributed to its being hidden behind Jupiter. Within a few days, he concluded that they were orbiting Jupiter: he had discovered three of Jupiter's four largest moons.[51] He discovered the fourth on 13 January. Galileo named the group of four the Medicean stars, in honour of his future patron, Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and Cosimo's three brothers.[52] Later astronomers, however, renamed them Galilean satellites in honour of their discoverer. These satellites were independently discovered by Simon Marius on 8 January 1610 and are now called Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto, the names given by Marius in his Mundus Iovialis published in 1614.[53]

 Map of France presented in 1684, showing the outline of an earlier map (light outline) compared to a new survey conducted using the moons of Jupiter as an accurate timing reference (heavier outline).

 Galileo's observations of the satellites of Jupiter caused a revolution in astronomy: a planet with smaller planets orbiting it did not conform to the principles of Aristotelian cosmology, which held that all heavenly bodies should circle the Earth,[54][55] and many astronomers and philosophers initially refused to believe that Galileo could have discovered such a thing.[56][57] His observations were confirmed by the observatory of Christopher Clavius and he received a hero's welcome when he visited Rome in 1611.[58] Galileo continued to observe the satellites over the next eighteen months, and by mid-1611, he had obtained remarkably accurate estimates for their periods—a feat which Johannes Kepler had believed impossible.[59][60]

 Galileo saw a practical use for his discovery. Determining the east-west position of ships at sea required their clocks be synchronized with clocks at the prime meridian. Solving this longitude problem had great importance to safe navigation and large prizes were established by Spain and later Holland for its solution. Since eclipses of the moons he discovered were relatively frequent and their times could be predicted with great accuracy, they could be used to set shipboard clocks and Galileo applied for the prizes. Observing the moons from a ship proved too difficult, but the method was used for land surveys, including the remapping of France.[61] : 15–16 [62]

 Phases of Venus

 In 1610 Galileo Galilei observed with his telescope that Venus showed phases, despite remaining near the Sun in Earth's sky (first image). This proved that it orbits the Sun and not Earth, as predicted by Copernicus's heliocentric model and disproved the then conventional geocentric model (second image).

 From September 1610, Galileo observed that Venus exhibits a full set of phases similar to that of the Moon. The heliocentric model of the Solar System developed by Nicolaus Copernicus predicted that all phases would be visible since the orbit of Venus around the Sun would cause its illuminated hemisphere to face the Earth when it was on the opposite side of the Sun and to face away from the Earth when it was on the Earth-side of the Sun. In Ptolemy's geocentric model, it was impossible for any of the planets' orbits to intersect the spherical shell carrying the Sun. Traditionally, the orbit of Venus was placed entirely on the near side of the Sun, where it could exhibit only crescent and new phases. It was also possible to place it entirely on the far side of the Sun, where it could exhibit only gibbous and full phases. After Galileo's telescopic observations of the crescent, gibbous and full phases of Venus, the Ptolemaic model became untenable. In the early 17th century, as a result of his discovery, the great majority of astronomers converted to one of the various geo-heliocentric planetary models,[63][64] such as the Tychonic, Capellan and Extended Capellan models,[b] each either with or without a daily rotating Earth. These all explained the phases of Venus without the 'refutation' of full heliocentrism's prediction of stellar parallax. Galileo's discovery of the phases of Venus was thus his most empirically practically influential contribution to the two-stage transition from full geocentrism to full heliocentrism via geo-heliocentrism.[ citation needed ]

 Saturn and Neptune

 In 1610, Galileo also observed the planet Saturn, and at first mistook its rings for planets,[65] thinking it was a three-bodied system. When he observed the planet later, Saturn's rings were directly oriented at Earth, causing him to think that two of the bodies had disappeared. The rings reappeared when he observed the planet in 1616, further confusing him.[66]

 Galileo observed the planet Neptune in 1612. It appears in his notebooks as one of many unremarkable dim stars. He did not realise that it was a planet, but he did note its motion relative to the stars before losing track of it.[67]

 Sunspots

 Galileo made naked-eye and telescopic studies of sunspots.[68] Their existence raised another difficulty with the unchanging perfection of the heavens as posited in orthodox Aristotelian celestial physics. An apparent annual variation in their trajectories, observed by Francesco Sizzi and others in 1612–1613,[69] also provided a powerful argument against both the Ptolemaic system and the geoheliocentric system of Tycho Brahe.[c] A dispute over claimed priority in the discovery of sunspots, and in their interpretation, led Galileo to a long and bitter feud with the Jesuit Christoph Scheiner. In the middle was Mark Welser, to whom Scheiner had announced his discovery, and who asked Galileo for his opinion. Both of them were unaware of Johannes Fabricius' earlier observation and publication of sunspots.[73]

 Milky Way and stars

 Galileo observed the Milky Way, previously believed to be nebulous, and found it to be a multitude of stars packed so densely that they appeared from Earth to be clouds. He located many other stars too distant to be visible with the naked eye. He observed the double star Mizar in Ursa Major in 1617.[74]

 In the Starry Messenger, Galileo reported that stars appeared as mere blazes of light, essentially unaltered in appearance by the telescope, and contrasted them to planets, which the telescope revealed to be discs. But shortly thereafter, in his Letters on Sunspots, he reported that the telescope revealed the shapes of both stars and planets to be "quite round". From that point forward, he continued to report that telescopes showed the roundness of stars, and that stars seen through the telescope measured a few seconds of arc in diameter.[75][76] He also devised a method for measuring the apparent size of a star without a telescope. As described in his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, his method was to hang a thin rope in his line of sight to the star and measure the maximum distance from which it would wholly obscure the star. From his measurements of this distance and of the width of the rope, he could calculate the angle subtended by the star at his viewing point.[77][78][79]

 In his Dialogue, he reported that he had found the apparent diameter of a star of first magnitude to be no more than 5 arcseconds, and that of one of sixth magnitude to be about 5/6 arcseconds. Like most astronomers of his day, Galileo did not recognise that the apparent sizes of stars that he measured were spurious, caused by diffraction and atmospheric distortion, and did not represent the true sizes of stars. However, Galileo's values were much smaller than previous estimates of the apparent sizes of the brightest stars, such as those made by Brahe, and enabled Galileo to counter anti-Copernican arguments such as those made by Tycho that these stars would have to be absurdly large for their annual parallaxes to be undetectable.[80][81][82] Other astronomers such as Simon Marius, Giovanni Battista Riccioli, and Martinus Hortensius made similar measurements of stars, and Marius and Riccioli concluded the smaller sizes were not small enough to answer Tycho's argument.[83][84]

 Theory of tides

 Galileo Galilei, portrait by Domenico Tintoretto

 Cardinal Bellarmine had written in 1615 that the Copernican system could not be defended without "a true physical demonstration that the sun does not circle the earth but the earth circles the sun".[85] Galileo considered his theory of the tides to provide such evidence.[86] This theory was so important to him that he originally intended to call his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems the Dialogue on the Ebb and Flow of the Sea.[87] The reference to tides was removed from the title by order of the Inquisition.[ citation needed ]

 For Galileo, the tides were caused by the sloshing back and forth of water in the seas as a point on the Earth's surface sped up and slowed down because of the Earth's rotation on its axis and revolution around the Sun. He circulated his first account of the tides in 1616, addressed to Cardinal Orsini.[88] His theory gave the first insight into the importance of the shapes of ocean basins in the size and timing of tides; he correctly accounted, for instance, for the negligible tides halfway along the Adriatic Sea compared to those at the ends. As a general account of the cause of tides, however, his theory was a failure.[ citation needed ]

 If this theory were correct, there would be only one high tide per day. Galileo and his contemporaries were aware of this inadequacy because there are two daily high tides at Venice instead of one, about 12 hours apart. Galileo dismissed this anomaly as the result of several secondary causes including the shape of the sea, its depth, and other factors.[89][90] Albert Einstein later expressed the opinion that Galileo developed his "fascinating arguments" and accepted them uncritically out of a desire for physical proof of the motion of the Earth.[91] Galileo also dismissed the idea, known from antiquity and by his contemporary Johannes Kepler, that the Moon[92] caused the tides—Galileo also took no interest in Kepler's elliptical orbits of the planets.[93][94] Galileo continued to argue in favour of his theory of tides, considering it the ultimate proof of Earth's motion.[95]

 Controversy over comets and The Assayer

 In 1619, Galileo became embroiled in a controversy with Father Orazio Grassi, professor of mathematics at the Jesuit Collegio Romano. It began as a dispute over the nature of comets, but by the time Galileo had published The Assayer (Il Saggiatore) in 1623, his last salvo in the dispute, it had become a much wider controversy over the very nature of science itself. The title page of the book describes Galileo as philosopher and "Matematico Primario" of the Grand Duke of Tuscany.[ citation needed ]

 Because The Assayer contains such a wealth of Galileo's ideas on how science should be practised, it has been referred to as his scientific manifesto.[96][97] Early in 1619, Father Grassi had anonymously published a pamphlet, An Astronomical Disputation on the Three Comets of the Year 1618,[98] which discussed the nature of a comet that had appeared late in November of the previous year. Grassi concluded that the comet was a fiery body that had moved along a segment of a great circle at a constant distance from the earth,[99][100] and since it moved in the sky more slowly than the Moon, it must be farther away than the Moon.[ citation needed ]

 Grassi's arguments and conclusions were criticised in a subsequent article, Discourse on Comets,[101] published under the name of one of Galileo's disciples, a Florentine lawyer named Mario Guiducci, although it had been largely written by Galileo himself.[102] Galileo and Guiducci offered no definitive theory of their own on the nature of comets,[103][104] although they did present some tentative conjectures that are now known to be mistaken. (The correct approach to the study of comets had been proposed at the time by Tycho Brahe.) In its opening passage, Galileo and Guiducci's Discourse gratuitously insulted the Jesuit Christoph Scheiner,[105][106][107] and various uncomplimentary remarks about the professors of the Collegio Romano were scattered throughout the work.[105] The Jesuits were offended,[105][104] and Grassi soon replied with a polemical tract of his own, The Astronomical and Philosophical Balance,[108] under the pseudonym Lothario Sarsio Sigensano,[109] purporting to be one of his own pupils.[ citation needed ]

 The Assayer was Galileo's devastating reply to the Astronomical Balance.[101] It has been widely recognized as a masterpiece of polemical literature,[110][111] in which "Sarsi's" arguments are subjected to withering scorn.[112] It was greeted with wide acclaim, and particularly pleased the new pope, Urban VIII, to whom it had been dedicated.[113] In Rome, in the previous decade, Barberini, the future Urban VIII, had come down on the side of Galileo and the Lincean Academy.[114]

 Galileo's dispute with Grassi permanently alienated many Jesuits,[115] and Galileo and his friends were convinced that they were responsible for bringing about his later condemnation,[116] although supporting evidence for this is not conclusive.[117][118]

 Controversy over heliocentrism

 Main article: Galileo affair
 Cristiano Banti's 1857 painting Galileo facing the Roman Inquisition

 At the time of Galileo's conflict with the Church, the majority of educated people subscribed to the Aristotelian geocentric view that the Earth is the center of the Universe and the orbit of all heavenly bodies, or Tycho Brahe's new system blending geocentrism with heliocentrism.[119][120] Opposition to heliocentrism and Galileo's writings on it combined religious and scientific objections. Religious opposition to heliocentrism arose from biblical passages implying the fixed nature of the Earth.[d] Scientific opposition came from Brahe, who argued that if heliocentrism were true, an annual stellar parallax should be observed, though none was at the time.[e] Aristarchus and Copernicus had correctly postulated that parallax was negligible because the stars were so distant. However, Tycho countered that since stars appear to have measurable angular size, if the stars were that distant and their apparent size is due to their physical size, they would be far larger than the Sun. In fact, it is not possible to observe the physical size of distant stars without modern telescopes.[123][f]

 Galileo defended heliocentrism based on his astronomical observations of 1609. In December 1613, the Grand Duchess Christina of Florence confronted one of Galileo's friends and followers, Benedetto Castelli, with biblical objections to the motion of the Earth.[g] Prompted by this incident, Galileo wrote a letter to Castelli in which he argued that heliocentrism was actually not contrary to biblical texts, and that the Bible was an authority on faith and morals, not science. This letter was not published, but circulated widely.[124] Two years later, Galileo wrote a letter to Christina that expanded his arguments previously made in eight pages to forty pages.[125]

 By 1615, Galileo's writings on heliocentrism had been submitted to the Roman Inquisition by Father Niccolò Lorini, who claimed that Galileo and his followers were attempting to reinterpret the Bible,[d] which was seen as a violation of the Council of Trent and looked dangerously like Protestantism.[126] Lorini specifically cited Galileo's letter to Castelli.[127] Galileo went to Rome to defend himself and his ideas. At the start of 1616, Monsignor Francesco Ingoli initiated a debate with Galileo, sending him an essay disputing the Copernican system. Galileo later stated that he believed this essay to have been instrumental in the action against Copernicanism that followed.[128] Ingoli may have been commissioned by the Inquisition to write an expert opinion on the controversy, with the essay providing the basis for the Inquisition's actions.[129] The essay focused on eighteen physical and mathematical arguments against heliocentrism. It borrowed primarily from Tycho Brahe's arguments, notably that heliocentrism would require the stars as they appeared to be much larger than the Sun.[h] The essay also included four theological arguments, but Ingoli suggested Galileo focus on the physical and mathematical arguments, and he did not mention Galileo's biblical ideas.[131]

 In February 1616, an Inquisitorial commission declared heliocentrism to be "foolish and absurd in philosophy, and formally heretical since it explicitly contradicts in many places the sense of Holy Scripture". The Inquisition found that the idea of the Earth's movement "receives the same judgement in philosophy and ... in regard to theological truth it is at least erroneous in faith".[132] Pope Paul V instructed Cardinal Bellarmine to deliver this finding to Galileo, and to order him to abandon heliocentrism. On 26 February, Galileo was called to Bellarmine's residence and ordered "to abandon completely ... the opinion that the sun stands still at the center of the world and the Earth moves, and henceforth not to hold, teach, or defend it in any way whatever, either orally or in writing."[133] The decree of the Congregation of the Index banned Copernicus's De Revolutionibus and other heliocentric works until correction.[133]

 For the next decade, Galileo stayed well away from the controversy. He revived his project of writing a book on the subject, encouraged by the election of Cardinal Maffeo Barberini as Pope Urban VIII in 1623. Barberini was a friend and admirer of Galileo, and had opposed the admonition of Galileo in 1616. Galileo's resulting book, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was published in 1632, with formal authorization from the Inquisition and papal permission.[134]

 Portrait of Galileo Galilei by Justus Sustermans, 1636. Uffizi Museum, Florence.

 Earlier, Pope Urban VIII had personally asked Galileo to give arguments for and against heliocentrism in the book, and to be careful not to advocate heliocentrism. Whether unknowingly or deliberately, Simplicio, the defender of the Aristotelian geocentric view in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was often caught in his own errors and sometimes came across as a fool. Indeed, although Galileo states in the preface of his book that the character is named after a famous Aristotelian philosopher (Simplicius in Latin, "Simplicio" in Italian), the name "Simplicio" in Italian also has the connotation of "simpleton".[135][136] This portrayal of Simplicio made Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems appear as an advocacy book: an attack on Aristotelian geocentrism and defence of the Copernican theory.[ citation needed ]

 Most historians agree Galileo did not act out of malice and felt blindsided by the reaction to his book.[i] However, the Pope did not take the suspected public ridicule lightly, nor the Copernican advocacy.[ citation needed ]

 Galileo had alienated one of his biggest and most powerful supporters, the Pope, and was called to Rome to defend his writings[140] in September 1632. He finally arrived in February 1633 and was brought before inquisitor Vincenzo Maculani to be charged. Throughout his trial, Galileo steadfastly maintained that since 1616 he had faithfully kept his promise not to hold any of the condemned opinions, and initially he denied even defending them. However, he was eventually persuaded to admit that, contrary to his true intention, a reader of his Dialogue could well have obtained the impression that it was intended to be a defence of Copernicanism. In view of Galileo's rather implausible denial that he had ever held Copernican ideas after 1616 or ever intended to defend them in the Dialogue, his final interrogation, in July 1633, concluded with his being threatened with torture if he did not tell the truth, but he maintained his denial despite the threat.[141][142][143]

 The sentence of the Inquisition was delivered on 22 June. It was in three essential parts:

 * Galileo was found "vehemently suspect of heresy" (though he was never formally charged with heresy, relieving him of facing corporal punishment),[144] namely of having held the opinions that the Sun lies motionless at the centre of the universe, that the Earth is not at its centre and moves, and that one may hold and defend an opinion as probable after it has been declared contrary to Holy Scripture. He was required to "abjure, curse and detest" those opinions.[145][146][147][148]
 * He was sentenced to formal imprisonment at the pleasure of the Inquisition.[149] On the following day, this was commuted to house arrest, under which he remained for the rest of his life.[150]
 * His offending Dialogue was banned; and in an action not announced at the trial, publication of any of his works was forbidden, including any he might write in the future.[151][152]
 Portrait, originally attributed to Murillo, of Galileo gazing at the words "E pur si muove" (And yet it moves) (not legible in this image) scratched on the wall of his prison cell. The attribution and narrative surrounding the painting have since been contested.

 According to popular legend, after recanting his theory that the Earth moved around the Sun, Galileo allegedly muttered the rebellious phrase "And yet it moves". There was a claim that a 1640s painting by the Spanish painter Bartolomé Esteban Murillo or an artist of his school, in which the words were hidden until restoration work in 1911, depicts an imprisoned Galileo apparently gazing at the words "E pur si muove" written on the wall of his dungeon. The earliest known written account of the legend dates to a century after his death. Based on the painting, Stillman Drake wrote "there is no doubt now that the famous words were already attributed to Galileo before his death".[153] However, an intensive investigation by astrophysicist Mario Livio has revealed that said painting is most probably a copy of a 1837 painting by the Flemish painter Roman-Eugene Van Maldeghem.[154]

 After a period with the friendly Ascanio Piccolomini (the Archbishop of Siena), Galileo was allowed to return to his villa at Arcetri near Florence in 1634, where he spent part of his life under house arrest. Galileo was ordered to read the Seven Penitential Psalms once a week for the next three years. However, his daughter Maria Celeste relieved him of the burden after securing ecclesiastical permission to take it upon herself.[155]

 It was while Galileo was under house arrest that he dedicated his time to one of his finest works, Two New Sciences. Here he summarised work he had done some forty years earlier, on the two sciences now called kinematics and strength of materials, published in Holland to avoid the censor. This book was highly praised by Albert Einstein.[156] As a result of this work, Galileo is often called the "father of modern physics". He went completely blind in 1638 and had developed a painful hernia and insomnia, so he was permitted to travel to Florence for medical advice.[14]

 Dava Sobel argues that prior to Galileo's 1633 trial and judgement for heresy, Pope Urban VIII had become preoccupied with court intrigue and problems of state and began to fear persecution or threats to his own life. In this context, Sobel argues that the problem of Galileo was presented to the pope by court insiders and enemies of Galileo. Having been accused of weakness in defending the church, Urban reacted against Galileo out of anger and fear.[157] Mario Livio places Galileo and his discoveries in modern scientific and social contexts. In particular, he argues that the Galileo affair has its counterpart in science denial.[158]

 Death

 Tomb of Galileo, Santa Croce, Florence

 Galileo continued to receive visitors until 1642, when, after suffering fever and heart palpitations, he died on 8 January 1642, aged 77.[14][159] The Grand Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinando II, wished to bury him in the main body of the Basilica of Santa Croce, next to the tombs of his father and other ancestors, and to erect a marble mausoleum in his honour.[160][161]

 Middle finger of Galileo's right hand

 These plans were dropped, however, after Pope Urban VIII and his nephew, Cardinal Francesco Barberini, protested,[160][161][162] because Galileo had been condemned by the Catholic Church for "vehement suspicion of heresy".[163] He was instead buried in a small room next to the novices' chapel at the end of a corridor from the southern transept of the basilica to the sacristy.[160][164] He was reburied in the main body of the basilica in 1737 after a monument had been erected there in his honour;[165][166] during this move, three fingers and a tooth were removed from his remains.[167] These fingers are currently on exhibition at the Museo Galileo in Florence, Italy.[168]

 Scientific contributions

 Scientific methods

 Galileo made original contributions to the science of motion through an innovative combination of experiment and mathematics.[169] More typical of science at the time were the qualitative studies of William Gilbert, on magnetism and electricity. Galileo's father, Vincenzo Galilei, a lutenist and music theorist, had performed experiments establishing perhaps the oldest known non-linear relation in physics: for a stretched string, the pitch varies as the square root of the tension.[170] These observations lay within the framework of the Pythagorean tradition of music, well known to instrument makers, which included the fact that subdividing a string by a whole number produces a harmonious scale. Thus, a limited amount of mathematics had long related music and physical science, and young Galileo could see his own father's observations expand on that tradition.[171]

 Galileo was one of the first modern thinkers to clearly state that the laws of nature are mathematical. In The Assayer, he wrote "Philosophy is written in this grand book, the universe ... It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometric figures;...."[172] His mathematical analyses are a further development of a tradition employed by late scholastic natural philosophers, which Galileo learned when he studied philosophy.[173] His work marked another step towards the eventual separation of science from both philosophy and religion; a major development in human thought. He was often willing to change his views in accordance with observation. In order to perform his experiments, Galileo had to set up standards of length and time, so that measurements made on different days and in different laboratories could be compared in a reproducible fashion. This provided a reliable foundation on which to confirm mathematical laws using inductive reasoning.[ citation needed ]

 Galileo showed a modern appreciation for the proper relationship between mathematics, theoretical physics, and experimental physics. He understood the parabola, both in terms of conic sections and in terms of the ordinate (y) varying as the square of the abscissa (x). Galileo further asserted that the parabola was the theoretically ideal trajectory of a uniformly accelerated projectile in the absence of air resistance or other disturbances. He conceded that there are limits to the validity of this theory, noting on theoretical grounds that a projectile trajectory of a size comparable to that of the Earth could not possibly be a parabola,[174][175][176] but he nevertheless maintained that for distances up to the range of the artillery of his day, the deviation of a projectile's trajectory from a parabola would be only very slight.[174][177][178]

 Astronomy

 A replica of the earliest surviving telescope attributed to Galileo Galilei, on display at the Griffith Observatory

 Using his refracting telescope, Galileo observed in late 1609 that the surface of the Moon is not smooth.[37] Early the next year, he observed the four largest moons of Jupiter.[52] Later in 1610, he observed the phases of Venus—a proof of heliocentrism—as well as Saturn, though he thought the planet's rings were two other planets.[65] In 1612, he observed Neptune and noted its motion, but did not identify it as a planet.[67]

 Galileo made studies of sunspots,[68] the Milky Way, and made various observations about stars, including how to measure their apparent size without a telescope.[77][78][79]

 Engineering

 Galileo's geometrical and military compass, thought to have been made c. 1604 by his personal instrument-maker Marc'Antonio Mazzoleni

 Galileo made a number of contributions to what is now known as engineering, as distinct from pure physics. Between 1595 and 1598, Galileo devised and improved a geometric and military compass suitable for use by gunners and surveyors. This expanded on earlier instruments designed by Niccolò Tartaglia and Guidobaldo del Monte. For gunners, it offered, in addition to a new and safer way of elevating cannons accurately, a way of quickly computing the charge of gunpowder for cannonballs of different sizes and materials. As a geometric instrument, it enabled the construction of any regular polygon, computation of the area of any polygon or circular sector, and a variety of other calculations. Under Galileo's direction, instrument maker Marc'Antonio Mazzoleni produced more than 100 of these compasses, which Galileo sold (along with an instruction manual he wrote) for 50 lire and offered a course of instruction in the use of the compasses for 120 lire.[179]

 In 1593, Galileo constructed a thermometer, using the expansion and contraction of air in a bulb to move water in an attached tube.[ citation needed ]

 In 1609, Galileo was, along with Englishman Thomas Harriot and others, among the first to use a refracting telescope as an instrument to observe stars, planets or moons. The name "telescope" was coined for Galileo's instrument by a Greek mathematician, Giovanni Demisiani,[180][181] at a banquet held in 1611 by Prince Federico Cesi to make Galileo a member of his Accademia dei Lincei.[182] In 1610, he used a telescope at close range to magnify the parts of insects.[183][184] By 1624, Galileo had used a compound microscope. He gave one of these instruments to Cardinal Zollern in May of that year for presentation to the Duke of Bavaria,[185] and in September, he sent another to Prince Cesi.[186] The Linceans played a role again in naming the "microscope" a year later when fellow academy member Giovanni Faber coined the word for Galileo's invention from the Greek words μικρόν (micron) meaning "small", and σκοπεῖν (skopein) meaning "to look at". The word was meant to be analogous with "telescope".[187][188] Illustrations of insects made using one of Galileo's microscopes and published in 1625, appear to have been the first clear documentation of the use of a compound microscope.[186]

 The earliest known pendulum clock design. Conceived by Galileo Galilei

 In 1612, having determined the orbital periods of Jupiter's satellites, Galileo proposed that with sufficiently accurate knowledge of their orbits, one could use their positions as a universal clock, and this would make possible the determination of longitude. He worked on this problem from time to time during the remainder of his life, but the practical problems were severe. The method was first successfully applied by Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1681 and was later used extensively for large land surveys; this method, for example, was used to survey France, and later by Zebulon Pike of the midwestern United States in 1806. For sea navigation, where delicate telescopic observations were more difficult, the longitude problem eventually required the development of a practical portable marine chronometer, such as that of John Harrison.[189] Late in his life, when totally blind, Galileo designed an escapement mechanism for a pendulum clock (called Galileo's escapement), although no clock using this was built until after the first fully operational pendulum clock was made by Christiaan Huygens in the 1650s.[ citation needed ]

 Galileo was invited on several occasions to advise on engineering schemes to alleviate river flooding. In 1630 Mario Guiducci was probably instrumental in ensuring that he was consulted on a scheme by Bartolotti to cut a new channel for the Bisenzio River near Florence.[190]

 Physics

 Galileo e Viviani, 1892, Tito Lessi
 Dome of the Cathedral of Pisa with the "lamp of Galileo"

 Galileo's theoretical and experimental work on the motions of bodies, along with the largely independent work of Kepler and René Descartes, was a precursor of the classical mechanics developed by Sir Isaac Newton. Galileo conducted several experiments with pendulums. It is popularly believed (thanks to the biography by Vincenzo Viviani) that these began by watching the swings of the bronze chandelier in the cathedral of Pisa, using his pulse as a timer. Later experiments are described in his Two New Sciences. Galileo claimed that a simple pendulum is isochronous, i.e. that its swings always take the same amount of time, independently of the amplitude. In fact, this is only approximately true,[191] as was discovered by Christiaan Huygens. Galileo also found that the square of the period varies directly with the length of the pendulum. Galileo's son, Vincenzo, sketched a clock based on his father's theories in 1642. The clock was never built and, because of the large swings required by its verge escapement, would have been a poor timekeeper.[ citation needed ]

 Galileo is lesser known for, yet still credited with, being one of the first to understand sound frequency. By scraping a chisel at different speeds, he linked the pitch of the sound produced to the spacing of the chisel's skips, a measure of frequency. In 1638, Galileo described an experimental method to measure the speed of light by arranging that two observers, each having lanterns equipped with shutters, observe each other's lanterns at some distance. The first observer opens the shutter of his lamp, and, the second, upon seeing the light, immediately opens the shutter of his own lantern. The time between the first observer's opening his shutter and seeing the light from the second observer's lamp indicates the time it takes light to travel back and forth between the two observers. Galileo reported that when he tried this at a distance of less than a mile, he was unable to determine whether or not the light appeared instantaneously.[192] Sometime between Galileo's death and 1667, the members of the Florentine Accademia del Cimento repeated the experiment over a distance of about a mile and obtained a similarly inconclusive result.[193] The speed of light has since been determined to be far too fast to be measured by such methods.

 Galileo put forward the basic principle of relativity, that the laws of physics are the same in any system that is moving at a constant speed in a straight line, regardless of its particular speed or direction. Hence, there is no absolute motion or absolute rest. This principle provided the basic framework for Newton's laws of motion and is central to Einstein's special theory of relativity.

 Falling bodies

 A biography by Galileo's pupil Vincenzo Viviani stated that Galileo had dropped balls of the same material, but different masses, from the Leaning Tower of Pisa to demonstrate that their time of descent was independent of their mass.[194] This was contrary to what Aristotle had taught: that heavy objects fall faster than lighter ones, in direct proportion to weight.[195][196] While this story has been retold in popular accounts, there is no account by Galileo himself of such an experiment, and it is generally accepted by historians that it was at most a thought experiment which did not actually take place.[197] An exception is Stillman Drake,[198] who argues that the experiment did take place, more or less as Viviani described it. The experiment described was actually performed by Simon Stevin (commonly known as Stevinus) and Jan Cornets de Groot,[35] although the building used was actually the church tower in Delft in 1586. However, most of his experiments with falling bodies were carried out using inclined planes where both the issues of timing and air resistance were much reduced.[199] In any case, observations that similarly sized objects of different weights fell at the same speed is documented in works as early as those of John Philoponus in the sixth century and which Galileo was aware of.[200][201]

 During the Apollo 15 mission in 1971, astronaut David Scott showed that Galileo was right: acceleration is the same for all bodies subject to gravity on the Moon, even for a hammer and a feather.

 In his 1638 Discorsi, Galileo's character Salviati, widely regarded as Galileo's spokesman, held that all unequal weights would fall with the same finite speed in a vacuum. But this had previously been proposed by Lucretius[202] and Simon Stevin.[203] Cristiano Banti's Salviati also held it could be experimentally demonstrated by the comparison of pendulum motions in air with bobs of lead and of cork which had different weight but which were otherwise similar.[ citation needed ]

 Galileo proposed that a falling body would fall with a uniform acceleration, as long as the resistance of the medium through which it was falling remained negligible, or in the limiting case of its falling through a vacuum.[204][205] He also derived the correct kinematical law for the distance traveled during a uniform acceleration starting from rest—namely, that it is proportional to the square of the elapsed time (d∝t2).[206][207] Prior to Galileo, Nicole Oresme, in the 14th century, had derived the times-squared law for uniformly accelerated change,[208][209] and Domingo de Soto had suggested in the 16th century that bodies falling through a homogeneous medium would be uniformly accelerated.[206] Soto, however, did not anticipate many of the qualifications and refinements contained in Galileo's theory of falling bodies. He did not, for instance, recognise, as Galileo did, that a body would fall with a strictly uniform acceleration only in a vacuum, and that it would otherwise eventually reach a uniform terminal velocity. Galileo expressed the time-squared law using geometrical constructions and mathematically precise words, adhering to the standards of the day. (It remained for others to re-express the law in algebraic terms.)[ citation needed ]

 He also concluded that objects retain their velocity in the absence of any impediments to their motion,[210] thereby contradicting the generally accepted Aristotelian hypothesis that a body could only remain in so-called "violent", "unnatural", or "forced" motion so long as an agent of change (the "mover") continued to act on it.[211] Philosophical ideas relating to inertia had been proposed by John Philoponus and Jean Buridan. Galileo stated: "Imagine any particle projected along a horizontal plane without friction; then we know, from what has been more fully explained in the preceding pages, that this particle will move along this same plane with a motion which is uniform and perpetual, provided the plane has no limits".[212] But the surface of the earth would be an instance of such a plane if all its unevenness could be removed.[213] This was incorporated into Newton's laws of motion (first law), except for the direction of the motion: Newton's is straight, Galileo's is circular (for example, the planets' motion around the Sun, which according to him, and unlike Newton, takes place in absence of gravity). According to Dijksterhuis Galileo's conception of inertia as a tendency to persevere in circular motion is closely related to his Copernican conviction.[214]

 Mathematics

 While Galileo's application of mathematics to experimental physics was innovative, his mathematical methods were the standard ones of the day, including dozens of examples of an inverse proportion square root method passed down from Fibonacci and Archimedes. The analysis and proofs relied heavily on the Eudoxian theory of proportion, as set forth in the fifth book of Euclid's Elements. This theory had become available only a century before, thanks to accurate translations by Tartaglia and others; but by the end of Galileo's life, it was being superseded by the algebraic methods of Descartes. The concept now named Galileo's paradox was not original with him. His proposed solution, that infinite numbers cannot be compared, is no longer considered useful.[215]

 Legacy

 Later Church reassessments

 The Galileo affair was largely forgotten after Galileo's death, and the controversy subsided. The Inquisition's ban on reprinting Galileo's works was lifted in 1718 when permission was granted to publish an edition of his works (excluding the condemned Dialogue) in Florence.[216] In 1741, Pope Benedict XIV authorised the publication of an edition of Galileo's complete scientific works[217] which included a mildly censored version of the Dialogue.[218][217] In 1758, the general prohibition against works advocating heliocentrism was removed from the Index of prohibited books, although the specific ban on uncensored versions of the Dialogue and Copernicus's De Revolutionibus remained.[219][217] All traces of official opposition to heliocentrism by the church disappeared in 1835 when these works were finally dropped from the Index.[220][221]

 Interest in the Galileo affair was revived in the early 19th century, when Protestant polemicists used it (and other events such as the Spanish Inquisition and the myth of the flat Earth) to attack Roman Catholicism.[9] Interest in it has waxed and waned ever since. In 1939, Pope Pius XII, in his first speech to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, within a few months of his election to the papacy, described Galileo as being among the "most audacious heroes of research... not afraid of the stumbling blocks and the risks on the way, nor fearful of the funereal monuments".[222] His close advisor of 40 years, Professor Robert Leiber, wrote: "Pius XII was very careful not to close any doors (to science) prematurely. He was energetic on this point and regretted that in the case of Galileo."[223]

 On 15 February 1990, in a speech delivered at the Sapienza University of Rome,[224][225] Cardinal Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI) cited some current views on the Galileo affair as forming what he called "a symptomatic case that permits us to see how deep the self-doubt of the modern age, of science and technology goes today".[226] Some of the views he cited were those of the philosopher Paul Feyerabend, whom he quoted as saying: "The Church at the time of Galileo kept much more closely to reason than did Galileo himself, and she took into consideration the ethical and social consequences of Galileo's teaching too. Her verdict against Galileo was rational and just and the revision of this verdict can be justified only on the grounds of what is politically opportune."[226] The Cardinal did not clearly indicate whether he agreed or disagreed with Feyerabend's assertions. He did, however, say: "It would be foolish to construct an impulsive apologetic on the basis of such views."[226]

 On 31 October 1992, Pope John Paul II acknowledged that the Church had erred in condemning Galileo for asserting that the Earth revolves around the Sun. "John Paul said the theologians who condemned Galileo did not recognize the formal distinction between the Bible and its interpretation."[227]

 In March 2008, the head of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, Nicola Cabibbo, announced a plan to honour Galileo by erecting a statue of him inside the Vatican walls.[228] In December of the same year, during events to mark the 400th anniversary of Galileo's earliest telescopic observations, Pope Benedict XVI praised his contributions to astronomy.[229] A month later, however, the head of the Pontifical Council for Culture, Gianfranco Ravasi, revealed that the plan to erect a statue of Galileo on the grounds of the Vatican had been suspended.[230]

 Impact on modern science

 Galileo showing the Doge of Venice how to use the telescope (fresco by Giuseppe Bertini)

 According to Stephen Hawking, Galileo probably bears more of the responsibility for the birth of modern science than anybody else,[231] and Albert Einstein called him the father of modern science.[232][233]

 Galileo's astronomical discoveries and investigations into the Copernican theory have led to a lasting legacy which includes the categorisation of the four large moons of Jupiter discovered by Galileo (Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto) as the Galilean moons. Other scientific endeavours and principles are named after Galileo including the Galileo spacecraft,[234] the first spacecraft to enter orbit around Jupiter, the proposed Galileo global satellite navigation system, the transformation between inertial systems in classical mechanics denoted Galilean transformation and the Gal (unit), sometimes known as the Galileo, which is a non-SI unit of acceleration.[ citation needed ]

 Partly because the year 2009 was the fourth centenary of Galileo's first recorded astronomical observations with the telescope, the United Nations scheduled it to be the International Year of Astronomy.[235] A global scheme was laid out by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), also endorsed by UNESCO—the UN body responsible for educational, scientific and cultural matters. The International Year of Astronomy 2009 was intended to be a global celebration of astronomy and its contributions to society and culture, stimulating worldwide interest not only in astronomy but science in general, with a particular slant towards young people.[ citation needed ]

 Planet Galileo and asteroid 697 Galilea are named in his honour.[ citation needed ]

 In artistic and popular media

 Galileo is mentioned several times in the "opera" section of the Queen song, "Bohemian Rhapsody".[236] He features prominently in the song "Galileo" performed by the Indigo Girls and Amy Grant's "Galileo" on her Heart in Motion album.[237]

 Twentieth-century plays have been written on Galileo's life, including Life of Galileo (1943) by the German playwright Bertolt Brecht, with a film adaptation (1975) of it, and Lamp at Midnight (1947) by Barrie Stavis,[238] as well as the 2008 play "Galileo Galilei".[239]

 Kim Stanley Robinson wrote a science fiction novel entitled Galileo's Dream (2009), in which Galileo is brought into the future to help resolve a crisis of scientific philosophy; the story moves back and forth between Galileo's own time and a hypothetical distant future and contains a great deal of biographical information.[240]

 Galileo Galilei was recently selected as a main motif for a high-value collectors' coin: the €25 International Year of Astronomy commemorative coin, minted in 2009. This coin also commemorates the 400th anniversary of the invention of Galileo's telescope. The obverse shows a portion of his portrait and his telescope. The background shows one of his first drawings of the surface of the moon. In the silver ring, other telescopes are depicted: the Isaac Newton Telescope, the observatory in Kremsmünster Abbey, a modern telescope, a radio telescope and a space telescope. In 2009, the Galileoscope was also released. This is a mass-produced, low-cost educational 2-inch (51 mm) telescope with relatively high quality.[ citation needed ]

 Writings

 Statue outside the Uffizi, Florence
 Statue of Galileo by Pio Fedi (1815–1892) inside the Lanyon Building of the Queen's University of Belfast. Sir William Whitla (Professor of Materia Medica 1890–1919) brought the statue back from Italy and donated it to the university.

 Galileo's early works describing scientific instruments include the 1586 tract entitled The Little Balance (La Billancetta) describing an accurate balance to weigh objects in air or water[241] and the 1606 printed manual Le Operazioni del Compasso Geometrico et Militare on the operation of a geometrical and military compass.[242]

 His early works on dynamics, the science of motion and mechanics were his circa 1590 Pisan De Motu (On Motion) and his circa 1600 Paduan Le Meccaniche (Mechanics). The former was based on Aristotelian–Archimedean fluid dynamics and held that the speed of gravitational fall in a fluid medium was proportional to the excess of a body's specific weight over that of the medium, whereby in a vacuum, bodies would fall with speeds in proportion to their specific weights. It also subscribed to the Philoponan impetus dynamics in which impetus is self-dissipating and free-fall in a vacuum would have an essential terminal speed according to specific weight after an initial period of acceleration.[ citation needed ]

 Galileo's 1610 The Starry Messenger (Sidereus Nuncius) was the first scientific treatise to be published based on observations made through a telescope. It reported his discoveries of:

 * the Galilean moons
 * the roughness of the Moon's surface
 * the existence of a large number of stars invisible to the naked eye, particularly those responsible for the appearance of the Milky Way
 * differences between the appearances of the planets and those of the fixed stars—the former appearing as small discs, while the latter appeared as unmagnified points of light

 Galileo published a description of sunspots in 1613 entitled Letters on Sunspots suggesting the Sun and heavens are corruptible.[243] The Letters on Sunspots also reported his 1610 telescopic observations of the full set of phases of Venus, and his discovery of the puzzling "appendages" of Saturn and their even more puzzling subsequent disappearance. In 1615, Galileo prepared a manuscript known as the "Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina" which was not published in printed form until 1636. This letter was a revised version of the Letter to Castelli, which was denounced by the Inquisition as an incursion upon theology by advocating Copernicanism both as physically true and as consistent with Scripture.[244] In 1616, after the order by the Inquisition for Galileo not to hold or defend the Copernican position, Galileo wrote the "Discourse on the Tides" (Discorso sul flusso e il reflusso del mare) based on the Copernican earth, in the form of a private letter to Cardinal Orsini.[245] In 1619, Mario Guiducci, a pupil of Galileo's, published a lecture written largely by Galileo under the title Discourse on the Comets (Discorso Delle Comete), arguing against the Jesuit interpretation of comets.[246]

 In 1623, Galileo published The Assayer—Il Saggiatore, which attacked theories based on Aristotle's authority and promoted experimentation and the mathematical formulation of scientific ideas. The book was highly successful and even found support among the higher echelons of the Christian church.[247] Following the success of The Assayer, Galileo published the Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo) in 1632. Despite taking care to adhere to the Inquisition's 1616 instructions, the claims in the book favouring Copernican theory and a non-geocentric model of the solar system led to Galileo being tried and banned on publication. Despite the publication ban, Galileo published his Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences (Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno a due nuove scienze) in 1638 in Holland, outside the jurisdiction of the Inquisition.[ citation needed ]

 Published written works

 Galileo's main written works are as follows:[248]

 * The Little Balance (1586; in Italian: La Bilancetta)
 * On Motion (c. 1590 ; in Latin: De Motu Antiquiora)[249]
 * Mechanics (c. 1600 ; in Italian: Le Meccaniche)
 * The Operations of Geometrical and Military Compass (1606; in Italian: Le operazioni del compasso geometrico et militare)
 * The Starry Messenger (1610; in Latin: Sidereus Nuncius)
 * Discourse on Floating Bodies (1612; in Italian: Discorso intorno alle cose che stanno in su l'acqua, o che in quella si muovono, "Discourse on Bodies that Stay Atop Water, or Move in It")
 * History and Demonstration Concerning Sunspots (1613; in Italian: Istoria e dimostrazioni intorno alle macchie solari; work based on the Three Letters on Sunspots, Tre lettere sulle macchie solari, 1612)
 * "Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina" (1615; published in 1636)
 * "Discourse on the Tides" (1616; in Italian: Discorso del flusso e reflusso del mare)
 * Discourse on the Comets (1619; in Italian: Discorso delle Comete)
 * The Assayer (1623; in Italian: Il Saggiatore)
 * Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632; in Italian: Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo)
 * Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences (1638; in Italian: Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno a due nuove scienze)

 Personal library

 In the last years of his life, Galileo Galilei kept a library of at least 598 volumes (560 of which have been identified) at Villa Il Gioiello, on the outskirts of Florence.[250] Under the restrictions of house arrest, he was forbidden to write or publish his ideas. However, he continued to receive visitors right up to his death and it was through them that he remained supplied with the latest scientific texts from Northern Europe.[251]

 With his past experience, Galileo may have feared that his collection of books and manuscripts would be seized by the authorities and burned, as no reference to such items was made in his last will and testament. An itemized inventory was only later produced after Galileo's death, when the majority of his possessions including his library passed to his son, Vincenzo Galilei, Jr. On his death in 1649, the collection was inherited by his wife Sestilia Bocchineri.[251]

 Galileo's books, personal papers and unedited manuscripts were then collected by Vincenzo Viviani, his former assistant and student, with the intent of preserving his old teacher's works in published form. Unfortunately, it was a project that never materialised and in his final will, Viviani bequeathed a significant portion of the collection to the Hospital of Santa Maria Nuova in Florence, where there already existed an extensive library. The value of Galileo's possessions were not realised, and duplicate copies were dispersed to other libraries, such as the Biblioteca Comunale degli Intronati, the public library in Sienna. In a later attempt to specialise the library's holdings, volumes unrelated to medicine were transferred to the Biblioteca Magliabechiana, an early foundation for what was to become the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale di Firenze, the National Central Library in Florence.[251]

 A small portion of Viviani's collection, including the manuscripts of Galileo and those of his peers Evangelista Torricelli and Benedetto Castelli, were left to his nephew, Abbot Jacopo Panzanini. This minor collection was preserved until Panzanini's death when it passed to his great-nephews, Carlo and Angelo Panzanini. The books from both Galileo and Viviani's collection began to disperse as the heirs failed to protect their inheritance. Their servants sold several of the volumes for waste paper. Around 1750 the Florentine senator Giovanni Battista Clemente de'Nelli heard of this and purchased the books and manuscripts from the shopkeepers, and the remainder of Viviani's collection from the Panzanini brothers. As recounted in Nelli's memoirs: "My great fortune in obtaining such a wonderful treasure so cheaply came about through the ignorance of the people selling it, who were not aware of the value of those manuscripts..."

 The library remained in Nelli's care until his death in 1793. Knowing the value of their father's collected manuscripts, Nelli's sons attempted to sell what was left to them to the French government. Grand Duke Ferdinand III of Tuscany intervened in the sale and purchased the entire collection. The archive of manuscripts, printed books and personal papers were deposited with the Biblioteca Palatina in Florence, merging the collection with the Biblioteca Magliabechiana in 1861.[252]

 See also

 * Catholic Church and science
 * Seconds pendulum
 * Tribune of Galileo
 * Villa Il Gioiello

 Notes

 1. ^ i.e. , invisible to the naked eye.
 2. ^ In the Capellan model only Mercury and Venus orbit the Sun, whilst in its extended version such as expounded by Riccioli, Mars also orbits the Sun, but the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn are centred on the Earth
 3. ^ In geostatic systems the apparent annual variation in the motion of sunspots could only be explained as the result of an implausibly complicated precession of the Sun's axis of rotation [70][71][72] This did not apply, however, to the modified version of Tycho's system introduced by his protégé, Longomontanus , in which the Earth was assumed to rotate. Longomontanus's system could account for the apparent motions of sunspots just as well as the Copernican.
 4. ^ a b Such passages include Psalm 93:1 , 96:10 , and 1 Chronicles 16:30 which include text stating, "The world also is established. It can not be moved." In the same manner, Psalm 104:5 says, "He (the Lord) laid the foundations of the earth, that it should not be moved forever." Further, Ecclesiastes 1:5 states, "The sun also rises, and the sun goes down, and hurries to its place where it rises", and Joshua 10:14 states, "Sun, stand still on Gibeon...". [121]
 5. ^ The discovery of the aberration of light by James Bradley in January 1729 was the first conclusive evidence for the movement of the Earth, and hence for Aristarchus , Copernicus and Kepler's theories; it was announced in January 1729. [122] The second evidence was produced by Friedrich Bessel in 1838.
 6. ^ In Tycho's system, the stars were a little more distant than Saturn, and the Sun and stars were comparable in size. [123]
 7. ^ According to Maurice Finocchiaro, this was done in a friendly and gracious manner, out of curiosity. [124]
 8. ^ Ingoli wrote that the great distance to the stars in the heliocentric theory "clearly proves ... the fixed stars to be of such size, as they may surpass or equal the size of the orbit circle of the Earth itself". [130]
 9. ^ Drake asserts that Simplicio's character is modelled on the Aristotelian philosophers Lodovico delle Colombe and Cesare Cremonini , rather than Urban. [137] He also considers that the demand for Galileo to include the Pope's argument in the Dialogue left him with no option but to put it in the mouth of Simplicio. [138] Even Arthur Koestler , who is generally quite harsh on Galileo in The Sleepwalkers , after noting that Urban suspected Galileo of having intended Simplicio to be a caricature of him, says "this of course is untrue". [139]

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 * Galilei, G. (1953) [1632]. Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World System. Translated by Drake, S. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-00449-8.
 * Galilei, G. (1954) [1638, 1914]. Crew, H.; de Salvio, A. (eds.). Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences. New York: Dover Publications Inc. ISBN 978-0-486-60099-4.
 * Galilei, G. & Guiducci, M. (1960) [1619]. "Discourse on the Comets". The Controversy on the Comets of 1618. Translated by Drake, Stillman & O'Malley, C. D. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 21–65.
 * Gingerich, O. (1992). The Great Copernican Chase and other adventures in astronomical history. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-32688-9.
 * Graney, C. (2015). Setting Aside All Authority: Giovanni Battista Riccioli and the Science against Copernicus in the Age of Galileo. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press. ISBN 978-0-268-02988-3.
 * Graney, C. M. (2010). "The Telescope Against Copernicus: Star Observations by Riccioli Supporting a Geocentric Universe". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 41 (4): 453–467. Bibcode:2010JHA....41..453G. doi:10.1177/002182861004100402. S2CID 117782745.
 * Graney, C. M.; Danielson, D. (2014). "The Case Against Copernicus". Scientific American. Vol. 310, no. 1. pp. 72–77. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0114-72. PMID 24616974.
 * Graney, C. M.; Grayson, T. P. (2011). "On the Telescopic Disks of Stars: A Review and Analysis of Stellar Observations from the Early Seventeenth through the Middle Nineteenth Centuries". Annals of Science. 68 (3): 351–373. arXiv:1003.4918. doi:10.1080/00033790.2010.507472. S2CID 118007707.
 * Grant, E. (1996). The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56762-6.
 * Grassi, H. (1960a) [1619]. "On the Three Comets of the Year MDCXIII". Introduction to the Controversy on the Comets of 1618. Translated by O'Malley, C. D. pp. 3–19.
 * Grassi, H. (1960b) [1619]. "The Astronomical and Philosophical Balance". Introduction to the Controversy on the Comets of 1618. Translated by O'Malley, C. D. pp. 67–132.
 * Gribbin, J. (2008). The Fellowship: Gilbert, Bacon, Harvey, Wren, Newton and the Story of the Scientific Revolution. Woodstock: Overlook Press. ISBN 978-1-59020-026-1.
 * Hannam, J. (2009). God's philosophers: how the medieval world laid the foundations of modern science. Icon Books Ltd. ISBN 978-1-84831-158-9.
 * Hilliam, R. (2005). Galileo Galilei: Father of modern science. The Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-4042-0314-3.
 * Hoskin, M., ed. (1999). The Cambridge concise history of astronomy Cambridge University Press.
 * Hawking, S. (1988). A Brief History of Time. New York: Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0-553-34614-5.
 * Heilbron, J. L. (2005). Censorship of Astronomy in Italy after Galileo. pp. 279–322.
 * Hellman, H. (1988). Great Feuds in Science. Ten of the Liveliest Disputes Ever. New York: Wiley.
 * Heilbron, J. L. (2010). Galileo. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-958352-2.
 * Jarrel, R. A. (1989). "The contemporaries of Tycho Brahe". Planetary Astronomy from the Renaissance to the Rise of Astrophysics. Part A: Tycho Brahe to Newton: 22–32. Bibcode:1989parr.conf...22J.
 * Jung, E. (2011). "Impetus". In Lagerlund, H. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Medieval Philosophy: Philosophy Between 500 and 1500. Vol. 1. pp. 540–542. ISBN 978-1-4020-9728-7.
 * Kelter, I. A. (2005) [1955]. The Refusal to Accommodate. Jesuit Exegetes and the Copernican System. pp. 38–53.
 * King, C. C. (2003). The History of the Telescope. Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-43265-6.
 * Koestler, A. (1990) [1959]. The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-019246-9. Original edition published by Hutchinson (1959, London).
 * Koyré, A. (1955). "A Documentary History of the Problem of Fall from Kepler to Newton". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 45 (4): 329–395. doi:10.2307/1005755. JSTOR 1005755.
 * Koyré, A. (1978). Galilean Studies. Harvester Press.
 * Kuhn, T. (1957). The Copernican Revolution. Harvard University Press.
 * Kuhn, T. (1962). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. University of Chicago Press.
 * Lattis, J. M. (1994). Between Copernicus and Galileo: Christopher Clavius and the Collapse of Ptolemaic Cosmology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
 * Langford, J. K. (1998) [1966]. Galileo, Science and the Church (third ed.). St. Augustine's Press. ISBN 978-1-890318-25-3.
 * Lessl, T. (June 2000). "The Galileo Legend". New Oxford Review: 27–33.
 * Lindberg, D. (2008). "Galileo, the Church, and the Cosmos". In Lindberg, D.; Numbers, R. (eds.). When Christianity and Science Meet. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-48215-6.
 * Linton, C. M. (2004). From Eudoxus to Einstein – A History of Mathematical Astronomy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82750-8.
 * Losee, J. (1966). "Drake, Galileo, and the Law of Inertia". American Journal of Physics. 34 (5): 430–432. Bibcode:1966AmJPh..34..430L. doi:10.1119/1.1973014.
 * McMullin, E., ed. (2005). The Church and Galileo. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press. ISBN 978-0-268-03483-2.
 * McMullin, E. (2005a). The Church's Ban on Copernicanism, 1616. pp. 150–190.
 * Mach, E. (1893). The Science of Mechanics.
 * Machamer, P., ed. (1998). The Cambridge Companion to Galileo. Cambridge University Press.
 * Moss, J. D.; Wallace, W. (2003). Rhetoric & dialectic in the time of Galileo. Washington: CUA Press. ISBN 978-0-8132-1331-6.
 * Naylor, R. H. (1990). "Galileo's Method of Analysis and Synthesis". Isis. 81 (4): 695–707. doi:10.1086/355546. S2CID 121505770.
 * Newall, P. (2004). "The Galileo Affair". Archived from the original on 9 May 2009 . Retrieved 25 December 2004 .
 * Ondra, L. (July 2004). "A New View of Mizar". Sky & Telescope. 108 (1): 72–75. Bibcode:2004S&T...108a..72O.
 * Owen, R. (29 January 2009). "Catholic Church abandons plan to erect statue of Galileo". London: TimesOnline News . Retrieved 22 April 2011 .
 * Owen, R.; Delaney, S. (4 March 2008). "Vatican recants with a statue of Galileo". TimesOnline News. London . Retrieved 2 March 2009 .
 * Remmert, V. R. (2005). "Galileo, God, and Mathematics". In Koetsier, T.; Bergmans, L. (eds.). Mathematics and the Divine. A Historical Study. Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 347–360.
 * Ratzinger, J. C. (1994). Turning point for Europe? The Church in the Modern World – Assessment and Forecast. Translated by McNeil, B. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. ISBN 978-0-89870-461-7. OCLC 60292876.
 * Reston, J. (2000). Galileo: A Life. Beard Books. ISBN 978-1-893122-62-8.
 * Seeger, R. J. (1966). Galileo Galilei, his life and his works. Oxford: Pergamon Press. ISBN 978-0-08-012025-6.
 * Settle, T. B. (1961). "An Experiment in the History of Science". Science. 133 (3445): 19–23. Bibcode:1961Sci...133...19S. doi:10.1126/science.133.3445.19. PMID 17759858.
 * Sharratt, M. (1994). Galileo: Decisive Innovator. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56671-1.
 * Shapere, D. (1974). Galileo, a Philosophical Study. University of Chicago Press.
 * Shea, W. R. & Artigas, M. (2003). Galileo in Rome: The Rise and Fall of a Troublesome Genius. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-516598-2.
 * Sobel, D. (2000) [1999]. Galileo's Daughter. London: Fourth Estate. ISBN 978-1-85702-712-9.
 * Taton, R., ed. (1964) [1958]. The Beginnings of Modern Science from 1450 to 1800. London: Thames and Hudson.
 * Taton, R.; Wilson, C., eds. (1989). Planetary astronomy from the Renaissance to the rise of astrophysics Part A: Tycho Brahe to Newton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24254-7.
 * Thoren, V. E. (1989). "Tycho Brahe". In Taton, R.; Wilson, C. (eds.). Planetary astronomy from the Renaissance to the rise of astrophysics Part A: Tycho Brahe to Newton. pp. 3–21. ISBN 978-0-521-35158-4.
 * Van Helden, A. (1989). "Galileo, telescopic astronomy, and the Copernican system". In Taton, R.; Wilson, C. (eds.). Planetary astronomy from the Renaissance to the rise of astrophysics Part A: Tycho Brahe to Newton. pp. 81–105.
 * Van Helden, A. (1985). Measuring the Universe: Cosmic Dimensions from Aristarchus to Halley. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-84881-5.
 * Wallace, W. A. (1984). Galileo and His Sources: The Heritage of the Collegio Romano in Galileo's Science. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Bibcode:1984gshc.book.....W. ISBN 978-0-691-08355-1.
 * Wallace, W. A. (2004). Domingo de Soto and the Early Galileo. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-86078-964-2.
 * Walusinsky, G. (1964) [1958]. "The Golden age of Observational Astronomy". In Taton, R. (ed.). The Beginnings of Modern Science from 1450 to 1800. pp. 268–286.
 * White, A. D. (1898). A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom. New York: D. Appleton and Company. ISBN 978-0-7905-8168-2.
 * White, M. (2007). Galileo: Antichrist: A Biography. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-84868-4.
 * Wisan, W. L. (1984). "Galileo and the Process of Scientific Creation". Isis. 75 (2): 269–286. doi:10.1086/353480. S2CID 145410913.
 * Zik, Y. (2001). "Science and Instruments: The telescope as a scientific instrument at the beginning of the seventeenth century". Perspectives on Science. 9 (3): 259–284. doi:10.1162/10636140160176143. S2CID 57571555.

 Further reading

 * Biagioli, M. (1993). Galileo, Courtier: The Practice of Science in the Culture of Absolutism. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-04559-7.
 * Clavelin, M. (1974). The Natural Philosophy of Galileo. MIT Press.
 * Clerke, Agnes Mary (1911). "Galileo Galilei" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). pp. 406–410.
 * Coffa, J. (1968). "Galileo's Concept of Inertia". Physis Riv. Internaz. Storia Sci. 10: 261–281.
 * Consolmagno, G.; Schaefer, M. (1994). Worlds Apart, A Textbook in Planetary Science. Englewood: Prentice-Hall. Bibcode:1994watp.book.....C. ISBN 978-0-13-964131-2.
 * Drabkin, I.; Drake, S., eds. (1960). On Motion and On Mechanics. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-02030-9.
 * Drake, Stillman. Galileo (University of Toronto Press, 2017).
 * Drake, Stillman. Essays on Galileo and the History and Philosophy of Science (U of Toronto Press, 2019).
 * Drake, Stillman. Galileo and the First Mechanical Computing Device (U of Toronto Press, 2019).
 * Dugas, R. (1988) [1955]. A History of Mechanics. Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-65632-8.
 * Duhem, P. (1911). "History of Physics". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
 * Fantoli, A. (2003). Galileo: For Copernicanism and the Church (third English ed.). Vatican Observatory Publications. ISBN 978-88-209-7427-5.
 * Feyerabend, P. (1975). Against Method. Verso.
 * Galilei, G. (1960) [1623]. "The Assayer". The Controversy on the Comets of 1618. Translated by Drake, S. pp. 151–336. ISBN 978-1-158-34578-6.
 * Galilei, G. (1974). "Galileo's 1638 Discourses and mathematical demonstrations concerning two new sciences". Galileo: Two New Sciences. Translated by Drake, S. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-06400-6.
 * Galilei, G.; Scheiner, C. (2010). On Sunspots. Translated by Reeves, E.; Van Helden, A. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-70715-0.
 * Geymonat, L. (1965). Galileo Galilei, A biography and inquiry into his philosophy and science. Translated by Drake, S. McGraw-Hill. Bibcode:1965ggbi.book.....G.
 * Gilbert, Neal Ward. "Galileo and the School of Padua." Journal of the History of Philosophy 1.2 (1963): 223–231. online
 * Grant, E. (1965–1967). "Aristotle, Philoponus, Avempace, and Galileo's Pisan Dynamics". Centaurus. 11 (2): 79–95. Bibcode:1966Cent...11...79G. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1966.tb00051.x.
 * Hall, A. R. (1963). From Galileo to Newton, 1630–1720. Collins.
 * Hall, A. R. (1964–1965). "Galileo and the Science of Motion". British Journal for the History of Science. 2 (3): 185. doi:10.1017/s0007087400002193. S2CID 145683472.
 * Humphreys, W. C. (1967). "Galileo, Falling Bodies and Inclined Planes. An Attempt at Reconstructing Galileo's Discovery of the Law of Squares". British Journal for the History of Science. 3 (3): 225–244. doi:10.1017/S0007087400002673. S2CID 145468106.
 * Koyré, Alexandre. "Galileo and Plato." Journal of the History of Ideas 4.4 (1943): 400–428. online (PDF)
 * Koyré, Alexandre. "Galileo and the scientific revolution of the seventeenth century." Philosophical Review 52.4 (1943): 333–348. online (PDF)

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Galileo Galilei        Portrait by Justus Sustermans, 1636     Born  Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de' Galilei [1]   15 February 1564 [2]   Pisa, Duchy of Florence    Died 8 January 1642 (aged 77) Arcetri, Grand Duchy of Tuscany    Education  University of Pisa    Known for     Analytical dynamics   heliocentrism   kinematics   observational astronomy        Scientific career    Fields     Astronomy   physics  engineering  natural philosophy  mathematics      Institutions     University of Pisa   University of Padua       Patrons  
  Cosimo II de Medici 
 Federico Cesi 
 Ferdinando II de Medici 
 Fra Paolo Sarpi 
 Francesco Maria del Monte  
    Academic advisors  Ostilio Ricci da Fermo    Notable students     Benedetto Castelli   Mario Guiducci   Vincenzo Viviani       Influences    
  John Philoponus  [3]  
 Nicolaus Copernicus  
      Signature         
 Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de' Galilei (15 February 1564 – 8 January 1642) was an Italian astronomer, physicist and engineer, sometimes described as a polymath. Commonly referred to as Galileo, his name was pronounced ( GAL-ih-LAY-oh GAL-ih-LAY-ee , Italian:  [ɡaliˈlɛːo ɡaliˈlɛi]). He was born in the city of Pisa, then part of the Duchy of Florence. [4]  Galileo has been called the "father" of observational astronomy, [5]  modern physics, [6]  the scientific method, [7]  and modern science. [8] 
 Galileo studied speed and velocity, gravity and free fall, the principle of relativity, inertia, projectile motion and also worked in applied science and technology, describing the properties of pendulums and "hydrostatic balances". He invented the thermoscope and various military compasses, and used the telescope for scientific observations of celestial objects. His contributions to observational astronomy include telescopic confirmation of the phases of Venus, observation of the four largest satellites of Jupiter, observation of Saturn's rings, and analysis of lunar craters and sunspots.
 Galileo's championing of Copernican heliocentrism (Earth rotating daily and revolving around the Sun) was met with opposition from within the Catholic Church and from some astronomers. The matter was investigated by the Roman Inquisition in 1615, which concluded that heliocentrism was foolish, absurd, and heretical since it contradicted Holy Scripture. [9]   [10]   [11] 
 Galileo later defended his views in  Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems  (1632), which appeared to attack Pope Urban VIII and thus alienated both the Pope and the Jesuits, who had both supported Galileo up until this point. [9]  He was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently suspect of heresy", and forced to recant. He spent the rest of his life under house arrest. [12]   [13]  During this time, he wrote  Two New Sciences  (1638), primarily concerning kinematics and the strength of materials, summarizing work he had done around forty years earlier. [14] 
Early life and family
Galileo was born in Pisa (then part of the Duchy of Florence), Italy, on 15 February 1564, [15]  the first of six children of Vincenzo Galilei, a lutenist, composer, and music theorist, and Giulia Ammannati, who had married in 1562. Galileo became an accomplished lutenist himself and would have learned early from his father a scepticism for established authority. [16] 
 Three of Galileo's five siblings survived infancy. The youngest, Michelangelo (or Michelagnolo), also became a lutenist and composer who added to Galileo's financial burdens for the rest of his life. [17]  Michelangelo was unable to contribute his fair share of their father's promised dowries to their brothers-in-law, who would later attempt to seek legal remedies for payments due. Michelangelo would also occasionally have to borrow funds from Galileo to support his musical endeavours and excursions. These financial burdens may have contributed to Galileo's early desire to develop inventions that would bring him additional income. [18] 
 When Galileo Galilei was eight, his family moved to Florence, but he was left under the care of Muzio Tedaldi for two years. When Galileo was ten, he left Pisa to join his family in Florence and there he was under the tutelage of Jacopo Borghini. [15]  He was educated, particularly in logic, from 1575 to 1578 in the Vallombrosa Abbey, about 30 km southeast of Florence. [19]   [20] 
Name
Galileo tended to refer to himself only by his given name. At the time, surnames were optional in Italy, and his given name had the same origin as his sometimes-family name, Galilei. Both his given and family name ultimately derive from an ancestor, Galileo Bonaiuti, an important physician, professor, and politician in Florence in the 15th century. [21]   [22]  Galileo Bonaiuti was buried in the same church, the Basilica of Santa Croce in Florence, where about 200 years later, Galileo Galilei was also buried. [23] 
 When he did refer to himself with more than one name, it was sometimes as Galileo Galilei Linceo, a reference to his being a member of the Accademia dei Lincei, an elite pro-science organization in Italy. It was common for mid-sixteenth-century Tuscan families to name the eldest son after the parents' surname. [24]  Hence, Galileo Galilei was not necessarily named after his ancestor Galileo Bonaiuti. The Italian male given name "Galileo" (and thence the surname "Galilei") derives from the Latin "Galilaeus", meaning "of Galilee", a biblically significant region in Northern Israel. [25]   [21]  Because of that region, the adjective galilaios (Greek Γαλιλαῖος, Latin Galilaeus, Italian Galileo), which means "Galilean", was used in antiquity (particularly by emperor Julian) to refer to Christ and his followers. [26] 
 The biblical roots of Galileo's name and surname were to become the subject of a famous pun. [27]  In 1614, during the Galileo affair, one of Galileo's opponents, the Dominican priest Tommaso Caccini, delivered against Galileo a controversial and influential sermon. In it he made a point of quoting Acts 1:11, "Ye men of Galilee, why stand ye gazing up into heaven?" (in the Latin version found in the Vulgate: Viri Galilaei, quid statis aspicientes in caelum?). [28] 
      Portrait believed to be of Galileo's elder daughter Virginia, who was particularly devoted to her father  
Children
Despite being a genuinely pious Roman Catholic, [29]  Galileo fathered three children out of wedlock with Marina Gamba. They had two daughters, Virginia (born 1600) and Livia (born 1601), and a son, Vincenzo (born 1606). [30] 
 Due to their illegitimate birth, Galileo considered the girls unmarriageable, if not posing problems of prohibitively expensive support or dowries, which would have been similar to Galileo's previous extensive financial problems with two of his sisters. [31]  Their only worthy alternative was the religious life. Both girls were accepted by the convent of San Matteo in Arcetri and remained there for the rest of their lives. [32] 
 Virginia took the name Maria Celeste upon entering the convent. She died on 2 April 1634, and is buried with Galileo at the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence. Livia took the name Sister Arcangela and was ill for most of her life. Vincenzo was later legitimised as the legal heir of Galileo and married Sestilia Bocchineri. [33] 
Career as a scientist
Although Galileo seriously considered the priesthood as a young man, at his father's urging he instead enrolled in 1580 at the University of Pisa for a medical degree. [34]  He was influenced by the lectures of Girolamo Borro and Francesco Buonamici of Florence. [20]  In 1581, when he was studying medicine, he noticed a swinging chandelier, which air currents shifted about to swing in larger and smaller arcs. To him, it seemed, by comparison with his heartbeat, that the chandelier took the same amount of time to swing back and forth, no matter how far it was swinging. When he returned home, he set up two pendulums of equal length and swung one with a large sweep and the other with a small sweep and found that they kept time together. It was not until the work of Christiaan Huygens, almost one hundred years later, that the tautochrone nature of a swinging pendulum was used to create an accurate timepiece. [35]  Up to this point, Galileo had deliberately been kept away from mathematics, since a physician earned a higher income than a mathematician. However, after accidentally attending a lecture on geometry, he talked his reluctant father into letting him study mathematics and natural philosophy instead of medicine. [35]  He created a thermoscope, a forerunner of the thermometer, and, in 1586, published a small book on the design of a hydrostatic balance he had invented (which first brought him to the attention of the scholarly world). Galileo also studied disegno, a term encompassing fine art, and, in 1588, obtained the position of instructor in the Accademia delle Arti del Disegno in Florence, teaching perspective and chiaroscuro. In the same year, upon invitation by the Florentine Academy, he presented two lectures,  On the Shape, Location, and Size of Dante's Inferno , in an attempt to propose a rigorous cosmological model of Dante's hell. [36]  Being inspired by the artistic tradition of the city and the works of the Renaissance artists, Galileo acquired an aesthetic mentality. While a young teacher at the Accademia, he began a lifelong friendship with the Florentine painter Cigoli. [37]   [38] 
 In 1589, he was appointed to the chair of mathematics in Pisa. In 1591, his father died, and he was entrusted with the care of his younger brother Michelagnolo. In 1592, he moved to the University of Padua where he taught geometry, mechanics, and astronomy until 1610. [39]  During this period, Galileo made significant discoveries in both pure fundamental science (for example, kinematics of motion and astronomy) as well as practical applied science (for example, strength of materials and pioneering the telescope). His multiple interests included the study of astrology, which at the time was a discipline tied to the studies of mathematics and astronomy. [40]   [41] 
Astronomy
Kepler's supernova
 Tycho Brahe and others had observed the supernova of 1572. Ottavio Brenzoni's letter of 15 January 1605 to Galileo brought the 1572 supernova and the less bright nova of 1601 to Galileo's notice. Galileo observed and discussed Kepler's Supernova in 1604. Since these new stars displayed no detectable diurnal parallax, Galileo concluded that they were distant stars, and, therefore, disproved the Aristotelian belief in the immutability of the heavens. [42] 
Refracting telescope
     
Based only on uncertain descriptions of the first practical telescope which Hans Lippershey tried to patent in the Netherlands in 1608, [43]  Galileo, in the following year, made a telescope with about 3x magnification. He later made improved versions with up to about 30x magnification. [44]  With a Galilean telescope, the observer could see magnified, upright images on the Earth—it was what is commonly known as a terrestrial telescope or a spyglass. He could also use it to observe the sky; for a time he was one of those who could construct telescopes good enough for that purpose. On 25 August 1609, he demonstrated one of his early telescopes, with a magnification of about 8 or 9, to Venetian lawmakers. His telescopes were also a profitable sideline for Galileo, who sold them to merchants who found them useful both at sea and as items of trade. He published his initial telescopic astronomical observations in March 1610 in a brief treatise entitled  Sidereus Nuncius  (Starry Messenger). [45] 
      An illustration of the Moon from Sidereus Nuncius, published in Venice, 1610  
Moon
On 30 November 1609, Galileo aimed his telescope at the Moon. [46]  While not being the first person to observe the Moon through a telescope (English mathematician Thomas Harriot had done it four months before but only saw a "strange spottednesse"), [47]  Galileo was the first to deduce the cause of the uneven waning as light occlusion from lunar mountains and craters. In his study, he also made topographical charts, estimating the heights of the mountains. The Moon was not what was long thought to have been a translucent and perfect sphere, as Aristotle claimed, and hardly the first "planet", an "eternal pearl to magnificently ascend into the heavenly empyrian", as put forth by Dante. Galileo is sometimes credited with the discovery of the lunar libration in latitude in 1632, [48]  although Thomas Harriot or William Gilbert might have done it before. [49] 
 A friend of Galileo's, the painter Cigoli, included a realistic depiction of the Moon in one of his paintings, though probably used his own telescope to make the observation. [37] 
Jupiter's moons
On 7 January 1610, Galileo observed with his telescope what he described at the time as "three fixed stars, totally invisible [a]  by their smallness", all close to Jupiter, and lying on a straight line through it. [50]  Observations on subsequent nights showed that the positions of these "stars" relative to Jupiter were changing in a way that would have been inexplicable if they had really been fixed stars. On 10 January, Galileo noted that one of them had disappeared, an observation which he attributed to its being hidden behind Jupiter. Within a few days, he concluded that they were orbiting Jupiter: he had discovered three of Jupiter's four largest moons. [51]  He discovered the fourth on 13 January. Galileo named the group of four the Medicean stars, in honour of his future patron, Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and Cosimo's three brothers. [52]  Later astronomers, however, renamed them  Galilean satellites  in honour of their discoverer. These satellites were independently discovered by Simon Marius on 8 January 1610 and are now called Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto, the names given by Marius in his Mundus Iovialis published in 1614. [53] 
      Map of France presented in 1684, showing the outline of an earlier map (light outline) compared to a new survey conducted using the moons of Jupiter as an accurate timing reference (heavier outline).  
Galileo's observations of the satellites of Jupiter caused a revolution in astronomy: a planet with smaller planets orbiting it did not conform to the principles of Aristotelian cosmology, which held that all heavenly bodies should circle the Earth, [54]   [55]  and many astronomers and philosophers initially refused to believe that Galileo could have discovered such a thing. [56]   [57]  His observations were confirmed by the observatory of Christopher Clavius and he received a hero's welcome when he visited Rome in 1611. [58]  Galileo continued to observe the satellites over the next eighteen months, and by mid-1611, he had obtained remarkably accurate estimates for their periods—a feat which Johannes Kepler had believed impossible. [59]   [60] 
 Galileo saw a practical use for his discovery. Determining the east-west position of ships at sea required their clocks be synchronized with clocks at the prime meridian. Solving this longitude problem had great importance to safe navigation and large prizes were established by Spain and later Holland for its solution. Since eclipses of the moons he discovered were relatively frequent and their times could be predicted with great accuracy, they could be used to set shipboard clocks and Galileo applied for the prizes. Observing the moons from a ship proved too difficult, but the method was used for land surveys, including the remapping of France. [61]  : 15–16   [62] 
Phases of Venus
             
From September 1610, Galileo observed that Venus exhibits a full set of phases similar to that of the Moon. The heliocentric model of the Solar System developed by Nicolaus Copernicus predicted that all phases would be visible since the orbit of Venus around the Sun would cause its illuminated hemisphere to face the Earth when it was on the opposite side of the Sun and to face away from the Earth when it was on the Earth-side of the Sun. In Ptolemy's geocentric model, it was impossible for any of the planets' orbits to intersect the spherical shell carrying the Sun. Traditionally, the orbit of Venus was placed entirely on the near side of the Sun, where it could exhibit only crescent and new phases. It was also possible to place it entirely on the far side of the Sun, where it could exhibit only gibbous and full phases. After Galileo's telescopic observations of the crescent, gibbous and full phases of Venus, the Ptolemaic model became untenable. In the early 17th century, as a result of his discovery, the great majority of astronomers converted to one of the various geo-heliocentric planetary models, [63]   [64]  such as the Tychonic, Capellan and Extended Capellan models, [b]  each either with or without a daily rotating Earth. These all explained the phases of Venus without the 'refutation' of full heliocentrism's prediction of stellar parallax. Galileo's discovery of the phases of Venus was thus his most empirically practically influential contribution to the two-stage transition from full geocentrism to full heliocentrism via geo-heliocentrism.[ citation needed ]
Saturn and Neptune
In 1610, Galileo also observed the planet Saturn, and at first mistook its rings for planets, [65]  thinking it was a three-bodied system. When he observed the planet later, Saturn's rings were directly oriented at Earth, causing him to think that two of the bodies had disappeared. The rings reappeared when he observed the planet in 1616, further confusing him. [66] 
 Galileo observed the planet Neptune in 1612. It appears in his notebooks as one of many unremarkable dim stars. He did not realise that it was a planet, but he did note its motion relative to the stars before losing track of it. [67] 
Sunspots
Galileo made naked-eye and telescopic studies of sunspots. [68]  Their existence raised another difficulty with the unchanging perfection of the heavens as posited in orthodox Aristotelian celestial physics. An apparent annual variation in their trajectories, observed by Francesco Sizzi and others in 1612–1613, [69]  also provided a powerful argument against both the Ptolemaic system and the geoheliocentric system of Tycho Brahe. [c]  A dispute over claimed priority in the discovery of sunspots, and in their interpretation, led Galileo to a long and bitter feud with the Jesuit Christoph Scheiner. In the middle was Mark Welser, to whom Scheiner had announced his discovery, and who asked Galileo for his opinion. Both of them were unaware of Johannes Fabricius' earlier observation and publication of sunspots. [73] 
Milky Way and stars
Galileo observed the Milky Way, previously believed to be nebulous, and found it to be a multitude of stars packed so densely that they appeared from Earth to be clouds. He located many other stars too distant to be visible with the naked eye. He observed the double star Mizar in Ursa Major in 1617. [74] 
 In the Starry Messenger, Galileo reported that stars appeared as mere blazes of light, essentially unaltered in appearance by the telescope, and contrasted them to planets, which the telescope revealed to be discs. But shortly thereafter, in his  Letters on Sunspots , he reported that the telescope revealed the shapes of both stars and planets to be "quite round". From that point forward, he continued to report that telescopes showed the roundness of stars, and that stars seen through the telescope measured a few seconds of arc in diameter. [75]   [76]  He also devised a method for measuring the apparent size of a star without a telescope. As described in his  Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems , his method was to hang a thin rope in his line of sight to the star and measure the maximum distance from which it would wholly obscure the star. From his measurements of this distance and of the width of the rope, he could calculate the angle subtended by the star at his viewing point. [77]   [78]   [79] 
 In his Dialogue, he reported that he had found the apparent diameter of a star of first magnitude to be no more than 5 arcseconds, and that of one of sixth magnitude to be about 5/6 arcseconds. Like most astronomers of his day, Galileo did not recognise that the apparent sizes of stars that he measured were spurious, caused by diffraction and atmospheric distortion, and did not represent the true sizes of stars. However, Galileo's values were much smaller than previous estimates of the apparent sizes of the brightest stars, such as those made by Brahe, and enabled Galileo to counter anti-Copernican arguments such as those made by Tycho that these stars would have to be absurdly large for their annual parallaxes to be undetectable. [80]   [81]   [82]  Other astronomers such as Simon Marius, Giovanni Battista Riccioli, and Martinus Hortensius made similar measurements of stars, and Marius and Riccioli concluded the smaller sizes were not small enough to answer Tycho's argument. [83]   [84] 
Theory of tides
     
 Cardinal Bellarmine had written in 1615 that the Copernican system could not be defended without "a true physical demonstration that the sun does not circle the earth but the earth circles the sun". [85]  Galileo considered his theory of the tides to provide such evidence. [86]  This theory was so important to him that he originally intended to call his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems the Dialogue on the Ebb and Flow of the Sea. [87]  The reference to tides was removed from the title by order of the Inquisition.[ citation needed ]
 For Galileo, the tides were caused by the sloshing back and forth of water in the seas as a point on the Earth's surface sped up and slowed down because of the Earth's rotation on its axis and revolution around the Sun. He circulated his first account of the tides in 1616, addressed to Cardinal Orsini. [88]  His theory gave the first insight into the importance of the shapes of ocean basins in the size and timing of tides; he correctly accounted, for instance, for the negligible tides halfway along the Adriatic Sea compared to those at the ends. As a general account of the cause of tides, however, his theory was a failure.[ citation needed ]
 If this theory were correct, there would be only one high tide per day. Galileo and his contemporaries were aware of this inadequacy because there are two daily high tides at Venice instead of one, about 12 hours apart. Galileo dismissed this anomaly as the result of several secondary causes including the shape of the sea, its depth, and other factors. [89]   [90]  Albert Einstein later expressed the opinion that Galileo developed his "fascinating arguments" and accepted them uncritically out of a desire for physical proof of the motion of the Earth. [91]  Galileo also dismissed the idea, known from antiquity and by his contemporary Johannes Kepler, that the Moon  [92]  caused the tides—Galileo also took no interest in Kepler's elliptical orbits of the planets. [93]   [94]  Galileo continued to argue in favour of his theory of tides, considering it the ultimate proof of Earth's motion. [95] 
Controversy over comets and The Assayer 
In 1619, Galileo became embroiled in a controversy with Father Orazio Grassi, professor of mathematics at the Jesuit Collegio Romano. It began as a dispute over the nature of comets, but by the time Galileo had published  The Assayer  (Il Saggiatore) in 1623, his last salvo in the dispute, it had become a much wider controversy over the very nature of science itself. The title page of the book describes Galileo as philosopher and "Matematico Primario" of the Grand Duke of Tuscany.[ citation needed ]
 Because The Assayer contains such a wealth of Galileo's ideas on how science should be practised, it has been referred to as his scientific manifesto. [96]   [97]  Early in 1619, Father Grassi had anonymously published a pamphlet, An Astronomical Disputation on the Three Comets of the Year 1618, [98]  which discussed the nature of a comet that had appeared late in November of the previous year. Grassi concluded that the comet was a fiery body that had moved along a segment of a great circle at a constant distance from the earth, [99]   [100]  and since it moved in the sky more slowly than the Moon, it must be farther away than the Moon.[ citation needed ]
 Grassi's arguments and conclusions were criticised in a subsequent article,  Discourse on Comets , [101]  published under the name of one of Galileo's disciples, a Florentine lawyer named Mario Guiducci, although it had been largely written by Galileo himself. [102]  Galileo and Guiducci offered no definitive theory of their own on the nature of comets, [103]   [104]  although they did present some tentative conjectures that are now known to be mistaken. (The correct approach to the study of comets had been proposed at the time by Tycho Brahe.) In its opening passage, Galileo and Guiducci's Discourse gratuitously insulted the Jesuit Christoph Scheiner, [105]   [106]   [107]  and various uncomplimentary remarks about the professors of the Collegio Romano were scattered throughout the work. [105]  The Jesuits were offended, [105]   [104]  and Grassi soon replied with a polemical tract of his own, The Astronomical and Philosophical Balance, [108]  under the pseudonym Lothario Sarsio Sigensano, [109]  purporting to be one of his own pupils.[ citation needed ]
  The Assayer was Galileo's devastating reply to the Astronomical Balance. [101]  It has been widely recognized as a masterpiece of polemical literature, [110]   [111]  in which "Sarsi's" arguments are subjected to withering scorn. [112]  It was greeted with wide acclaim, and particularly pleased the new pope, Urban VIII, to whom it had been dedicated. [113]  In Rome, in the previous decade, Barberini, the future Urban VIII, had come down on the side of Galileo and the Lincean Academy. [114] 
 Galileo's dispute with Grassi permanently alienated many Jesuits, [115]  and Galileo and his friends were convinced that they were responsible for bringing about his later condemnation, [116]  although supporting evidence for this is not conclusive. [117]   [118] 
Controversy over heliocentrism
     
At the time of Galileo's conflict with the Church, the majority of educated people subscribed to the Aristotelian geocentric view that the Earth is the center of the Universe and the orbit of all heavenly bodies, or Tycho Brahe's new system blending geocentrism with heliocentrism. [119]   [120]  Opposition to heliocentrism and Galileo's writings on it combined religious and scientific objections. Religious opposition to heliocentrism arose from biblical passages implying the fixed nature of the Earth. [d]  Scientific opposition came from Brahe, who argued that if heliocentrism were true, an annual stellar parallax should be observed, though none was at the time. [e]  Aristarchus and Copernicus had correctly postulated that parallax was negligible because the stars were so distant. However, Tycho countered that since stars appear to have measurable angular size, if the stars were that distant and their apparent size is due to their physical size, they would be far larger than the Sun. In fact, it is not possible to observe the physical size of distant stars without modern telescopes. [123]   [f] 
 Galileo defended heliocentrism based on his astronomical observations of 1609. In December 1613, the Grand Duchess Christina of Florence confronted one of Galileo's friends and followers, Benedetto Castelli, with biblical objections to the motion of the Earth. [g]  Prompted by this incident, Galileo wrote a letter to Castelli in which he argued that heliocentrism was actually not contrary to biblical texts, and that the Bible was an authority on faith and morals, not science. This letter was not published, but circulated widely. [124]  Two years later, Galileo wrote a letter to Christina that expanded his arguments previously made in eight pages to forty pages. [125] 
 By 1615, Galileo's writings on heliocentrism had been submitted to the Roman Inquisition by Father Niccolò Lorini, who claimed that Galileo and his followers were attempting to reinterpret the Bible, [d]  which was seen as a violation of the Council of Trent and looked dangerously like Protestantism. [126]  Lorini specifically cited Galileo's letter to Castelli. [127]  Galileo went to Rome to defend himself and his ideas. At the start of 1616, Monsignor Francesco Ingoli initiated a debate with Galileo, sending him an essay disputing the Copernican system. Galileo later stated that he believed this essay to have been instrumental in the action against Copernicanism that followed. [128]  Ingoli may have been commissioned by the Inquisition to write an expert opinion on the controversy, with the essay providing the basis for the Inquisition's actions. [129]  The essay focused on eighteen physical and mathematical arguments against heliocentrism. It borrowed primarily from Tycho Brahe's arguments, notably that heliocentrism would require the stars as they appeared to be much larger than the Sun. [h]  The essay also included four theological arguments, but Ingoli suggested Galileo focus on the physical and mathematical arguments, and he did not mention Galileo's biblical ideas. [131] 
 In February 1616, an Inquisitorial commission declared heliocentrism to be "foolish and absurd in philosophy, and formally heretical since it explicitly contradicts in many places the sense of Holy Scripture". The Inquisition found that the idea of the Earth's movement "receives the same judgement in philosophy and ... in regard to theological truth it is at least erroneous in faith". [132]  Pope Paul V instructed Cardinal Bellarmine to deliver this finding to Galileo, and to order him to abandon heliocentrism. On 26 February, Galileo was called to Bellarmine's residence and ordered "to abandon completely ... the opinion that the sun stands still at the center of the world and the Earth moves, and henceforth not to hold, teach, or defend it in any way whatever, either orally or in writing." [133]  The decree of the Congregation of the Index banned Copernicus's De Revolutionibus and other heliocentric works until correction. [133] 
 For the next decade, Galileo stayed well away from the controversy. He revived his project of writing a book on the subject, encouraged by the election of Cardinal Maffeo Barberini as Pope Urban VIII in 1623. Barberini was a friend and admirer of Galileo, and had opposed the admonition of Galileo in 1616. Galileo's resulting book, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was published in 1632, with formal authorization from the Inquisition and papal permission. [134] 
     
Earlier, Pope Urban VIII had personally asked Galileo to give arguments for and against heliocentrism in the book, and to be careful not to advocate heliocentrism. Whether unknowingly or deliberately, Simplicio, the defender of the Aristotelian geocentric view in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was often caught in his own errors and sometimes came across as a fool. Indeed, although Galileo states in the preface of his book that the character is named after a famous Aristotelian philosopher (Simplicius in Latin, "Simplicio" in Italian), the name "Simplicio" in Italian also has the connotation of "simpleton". [135]   [136]  This portrayal of Simplicio made Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems appear as an advocacy book: an attack on Aristotelian geocentrism and defence of the Copernican theory.[ citation needed ]
 Most historians agree Galileo did not act out of malice and felt blindsided by the reaction to his book. [i]  However, the Pope did not take the suspected public ridicule lightly, nor the Copernican advocacy.[ citation needed ]
 Galileo had alienated one of his biggest and most powerful supporters, the Pope, and was called to Rome to defend his writings [140]  in September 1632. He finally arrived in February 1633 and was brought before inquisitor Vincenzo Maculani to be charged. Throughout his trial, Galileo steadfastly maintained that since 1616 he had faithfully kept his promise not to hold any of the condemned opinions, and initially he denied even defending them. However, he was eventually persuaded to admit that, contrary to his true intention, a reader of his Dialogue could well have obtained the impression that it was intended to be a defence of Copernicanism. In view of Galileo's rather implausible denial that he had ever held Copernican ideas after 1616 or ever intended to defend them in the Dialogue, his final interrogation, in July 1633, concluded with his being threatened with torture if he did not tell the truth, but he maintained his denial despite the threat. [141]   [142]   [143] 
 The sentence of the Inquisition was delivered on 22 June. It was in three essential parts:
 Galileo was found "vehemently suspect of heresy" (though he was never formally charged with heresy, relieving him of facing corporal punishment), [144]  namely of having held the opinions that the Sun lies motionless at the centre of the universe, that the Earth is not at its centre and moves, and that one may hold and defend an opinion as probable after it has been declared contrary to Holy Scripture. He was required to "abjure, curse and detest" those opinions. [145]   [146]   [147]   [148]  
He was sentenced to formal imprisonment at the pleasure of the Inquisition. [149]  On the following day, this was commuted to house arrest, under which he remained for the rest of his life. [150]  
His offending Dialogue was banned; and in an action not announced at the trial, publication of any of his works was forbidden, including any he might write in the future. [151]   [152]   
      Portrait, originally attributed to Murillo, of Galileo gazing at the words "E pur si muove" ( And yet it moves ) (not legible in this image) scratched on the wall of his prison cell. The attribution and narrative surrounding the painting have since been contested.  
According to popular legend, after recanting his theory that the Earth moved around the Sun, Galileo allegedly muttered the rebellious phrase "And yet it moves". There was a claim that a 1640s painting by the Spanish painter Bartolomé Esteban Murillo or an artist of his school, in which the words were hidden until restoration work in 1911, depicts an imprisoned Galileo apparently gazing at the words "E pur si muove" written on the wall of his dungeon. The earliest known written account of the legend dates to a century after his death. Based on the painting, Stillman Drake wrote "there is no doubt now that the famous words were already attributed to Galileo before his death". [153]  However, an intensive investigation by astrophysicist Mario Livio has revealed that said painting is most probably a copy of a 1837 painting by the Flemish painter Roman-Eugene Van Maldeghem. [154] 
 After a period with the friendly Ascanio Piccolomini (the Archbishop of Siena), Galileo was allowed to return to his villa at Arcetri near Florence in 1634, where he spent part of his life under house arrest. Galileo was ordered to read the Seven Penitential Psalms once a week for the next three years. However, his daughter Maria Celeste relieved him of the burden after securing ecclesiastical permission to take it upon herself. [155] 
 It was while Galileo was under house arrest that he dedicated his time to one of his finest works,  Two New Sciences . Here he summarised work he had done some forty years earlier, on the two sciences now called kinematics and strength of materials, published in Holland to avoid the censor. This book was highly praised by Albert Einstein. [156]  As a result of this work, Galileo is often called the "father of modern physics". He went completely blind in 1638 and had developed a painful hernia and insomnia, so he was permitted to travel to Florence for medical advice. [14] 
  Dava Sobel argues that prior to Galileo's 1633 trial and judgement for heresy, Pope Urban VIII had become preoccupied with court intrigue and problems of state and began to fear persecution or threats to his own life. In this context, Sobel argues that the problem of Galileo was presented to the pope by court insiders and enemies of Galileo. Having been accused of weakness in defending the church, Urban reacted against Galileo out of anger and fear. [157]  Mario Livio places Galileo and his discoveries in modern scientific and social contexts. In particular, he argues that the Galileo affair has its counterpart in science denial. [158] 
Death
     
Galileo continued to receive visitors until 1642, when, after suffering fever and heart palpitations, he died on 8 January 1642, aged 77. [14]   [159]  The Grand Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinando II, wished to bury him in the main body of the Basilica of Santa Croce, next to the tombs of his father and other ancestors, and to erect a marble mausoleum in his honour. [160]   [161] 
      Middle finger of Galileo's right hand  
These plans were dropped, however, after Pope Urban VIII and his nephew, Cardinal Francesco Barberini, protested, [160]   [161]   [162]  because Galileo had been condemned by the Catholic Church for "vehement suspicion of heresy". [163]  He was instead buried in a small room next to the novices' chapel at the end of a corridor from the southern transept of the basilica to the sacristy. [160]   [164]  He was reburied in the main body of the basilica in 1737 after a monument had been erected there in his honour; [165]   [166]  during this move, three fingers and a tooth were removed from his remains. [167]  These fingers are currently on exhibition at the Museo Galileo in Florence, Italy. [168] 
Scientific contributions
Scientific methods
Galileo made original contributions to the science of motion through an innovative combination of experiment and mathematics. [169]  More typical of science at the time were the qualitative studies of William Gilbert, on magnetism and electricity. Galileo's father, Vincenzo Galilei, a lutenist and music theorist, had performed experiments establishing perhaps the oldest known non-linear relation in physics: for a stretched string, the pitch varies as the square root of the tension. [170]  These observations lay within the framework of the Pythagorean tradition of music, well known to instrument makers, which included the fact that subdividing a string by a whole number produces a harmonious scale. Thus, a limited amount of mathematics had long related music and physical science, and young Galileo could see his own father's observations expand on that tradition. [171] 
 Galileo was one of the first modern thinkers to clearly state that the laws of nature are mathematical. In The Assayer, he wrote "Philosophy is written in this grand book, the universe ... It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometric figures;...." [172]  His mathematical analyses are a further development of a tradition employed by late scholastic natural philosophers, which Galileo learned when he studied philosophy. [173]  His work marked another step towards the eventual separation of science from both philosophy and religion; a major development in human thought. He was often willing to change his views in accordance with observation. In order to perform his experiments, Galileo had to set up standards of length and time, so that measurements made on different days and in different laboratories could be compared in a reproducible fashion. This provided a reliable foundation on which to confirm mathematical laws using inductive reasoning.[ citation needed ]
 Galileo showed a modern appreciation for the proper relationship between mathematics, theoretical physics, and experimental physics. He understood the parabola, both in terms of conic sections and in terms of the ordinate (y) varying as the square of the abscissa (x). Galileo further asserted that the parabola was the theoretically ideal trajectory of a uniformly accelerated projectile in the absence of air resistance or other disturbances. He conceded that there are limits to the validity of this theory, noting on theoretical grounds that a projectile trajectory of a size comparable to that of the Earth could not possibly be a parabola, [174]   [175]   [176]  but he nevertheless maintained that for distances up to the range of the artillery of his day, the deviation of a projectile's trajectory from a parabola would be only very slight. [174]   [177]   [178] 
Astronomy
      A replica of the earliest surviving telescope attributed to Galileo Galilei, on display at the Griffith Observatory   
Using his refracting telescope, Galileo observed in late 1609 that the surface of the Moon is not smooth. [37]  Early the next year, he observed the four largest moons of Jupiter. [52]  Later in 1610, he observed the phases of Venus—a proof of heliocentrism—as well as Saturn, though he thought the planet's rings were two other planets. [65]  In 1612, he observed Neptune and noted its motion, but did not identify it as a planet. [67] 
 Galileo made studies of sunspots, [68]  the Milky Way, and made various observations about stars, including how to measure their apparent size without a telescope. [77]   [78]   [79] 
Engineering
     
Galileo made a number of contributions to what is now known as engineering, as distinct from pure physics. Between 1595 and 1598, Galileo devised and improved a geometric and military compass suitable for use by gunners and surveyors. This expanded on earlier instruments designed by Niccolò Tartaglia and Guidobaldo del Monte. For gunners, it offered, in addition to a new and safer way of elevating cannons accurately, a way of quickly computing the charge of gunpowder for cannonballs of different sizes and materials. As a geometric instrument, it enabled the construction of any regular polygon, computation of the area of any polygon or circular sector, and a variety of other calculations. Under Galileo's direction, instrument maker Marc'Antonio Mazzoleni produced more than 100 of these compasses, which Galileo sold (along with an instruction manual he wrote) for 50 lire and offered a course of instruction in the use of the compasses for 120 lire. [179] 
 In 1593, Galileo constructed a thermometer, using the expansion and contraction of air in a bulb to move water in an attached tube.[ citation needed ]
 In 1609, Galileo was, along with Englishman Thomas Harriot and others, among the first to use a refracting telescope as an instrument to observe stars, planets or moons. The name "telescope" was coined for Galileo's instrument by a Greek mathematician, Giovanni Demisiani, [180]   [181]  at a banquet held in 1611 by Prince Federico Cesi to make Galileo a member of his Accademia dei Lincei. [182]  In 1610, he used a telescope at close range to magnify the parts of insects. [183]   [184]  By 1624, Galileo had used a compound microscope. He gave one of these instruments to Cardinal Zollern in May of that year for presentation to the Duke of Bavaria, [185]  and in September, he sent another to Prince Cesi. [186]  The Linceans played a role again in naming the "microscope" a year later when fellow academy member Giovanni Faber coined the word for Galileo's invention from the Greek words μικρόν (micron) meaning "small", and σκοπεῖν (skopein) meaning "to look at". The word was meant to be analogous with "telescope". [187]   [188]  Illustrations of insects made using one of Galileo's microscopes and published in 1625, appear to have been the first clear documentation of the use of a compound microscope. [186] 
      The earliest known pendulum clock design. Conceived by Galileo Galilei  
In 1612, having determined the orbital periods of Jupiter's satellites, Galileo proposed that with sufficiently accurate knowledge of their orbits, one could use their positions as a universal clock, and this would make possible the determination of longitude. He worked on this problem from time to time during the remainder of his life, but the practical problems were severe. The method was first successfully applied by Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1681 and was later used extensively for large land surveys; this method, for example, was used to survey France, and later by Zebulon Pike of the midwestern United States in 1806. For sea navigation, where delicate telescopic observations were more difficult, the longitude problem eventually required the development of a practical portable marine chronometer, such as that of John Harrison. [189]  Late in his life, when totally blind, Galileo designed an escapement mechanism for a pendulum clock (called Galileo's escapement), although no clock using this was built until after the first fully operational pendulum clock was made by Christiaan Huygens in the 1650s.[ citation needed ]
 Galileo was invited on several occasions to advise on engineering schemes to alleviate river flooding. In 1630 Mario Guiducci was probably instrumental in ensuring that he was consulted on a scheme by Bartolotti to cut a new channel for the Bisenzio River near Florence. [190] 
Physics
     
     
Galileo's theoretical and experimental work on the motions of bodies, along with the largely independent work of Kepler and René Descartes, was a precursor of the classical mechanics developed by Sir Isaac Newton. Galileo conducted several experiments with pendulums. It is popularly believed (thanks to the biography by Vincenzo Viviani) that these began by watching the swings of the bronze chandelier in the cathedral of Pisa, using his pulse as a timer. Later experiments are described in his Two New Sciences. Galileo claimed that a simple pendulum is isochronous, i.e. that its swings always take the same amount of time, independently of the amplitude. In fact, this is only approximately true, [191]  as was discovered by Christiaan Huygens. Galileo also found that the square of the period varies directly with the length of the pendulum. Galileo's son, Vincenzo, sketched a clock based on his father's theories in 1642. The clock was never built and, because of the large swings required by its verge escapement, would have been a poor timekeeper.[ citation needed ]
 Galileo is lesser known for, yet still credited with, being one of the first to understand sound frequency. By scraping a chisel at different speeds, he linked the pitch of the sound produced to the spacing of the chisel's skips, a measure of frequency. In 1638, Galileo described an experimental method to measure the speed of light by arranging that two observers, each having lanterns equipped with shutters, observe each other's lanterns at some distance. The first observer opens the shutter of his lamp, and, the second, upon seeing the light, immediately opens the shutter of his own lantern. The time between the first observer's opening his shutter and seeing the light from the second observer's lamp indicates the time it takes light to travel back and forth between the two observers. Galileo reported that when he tried this at a distance of less than a mile, he was unable to determine whether or not the light appeared instantaneously. [192]  Sometime between Galileo's death and 1667, the members of the Florentine  Accademia del Cimento  repeated the experiment over a distance of about a mile and obtained a similarly inconclusive result. [193]  The speed of light has since been determined to be far too fast to be measured by such methods.
 Galileo put forward the basic principle of relativity, that the laws of physics are the same in any system that is moving at a constant speed in a straight line, regardless of its particular speed or direction. Hence, there is no absolute motion or absolute rest. This principle provided the basic framework for Newton's laws of motion and is central to Einstein's special theory of relativity.
Falling bodies
A biography by Galileo's pupil Vincenzo Viviani stated that Galileo had dropped balls of the same material, but different masses, from the Leaning Tower of Pisa to demonstrate that their time of descent was independent of their mass. [194]  This was contrary to what Aristotle had taught: that heavy objects fall faster than lighter ones, in direct proportion to weight. [195]   [196]  While this story has been retold in popular accounts, there is no account by Galileo himself of such an experiment, and it is generally accepted by historians that it was at most a thought experiment which did not actually take place. [197]  An exception is Stillman Drake, [198]  who argues that the experiment did take place, more or less as Viviani described it. The experiment described was actually performed by Simon Stevin (commonly known as Stevinus) and Jan Cornets de Groot, [35]  although the building used was actually the church tower in Delft in 1586. However, most of his experiments with falling bodies were carried out using inclined planes where both the issues of timing and air resistance were much reduced. [199]  In any case, observations that similarly sized objects of different weights fell at the same speed is documented in works as early as those of John Philoponus in the sixth century and which Galileo was aware of. [200]   [201] 
  During the Apollo 15 mission in 1971, astronaut David Scott showed that Galileo was right: acceleration is the same for all bodies subject to gravity on the Moon, even for a hammer and a feather.  
In his 1638 Discorsi, Galileo's character Salviati, widely regarded as Galileo's spokesman, held that all unequal weights would fall with the same finite speed in a vacuum. But this had previously been proposed by Lucretius  [202]  and Simon Stevin. [203]  Cristiano Banti's Salviati also held it could be experimentally demonstrated by the comparison of pendulum motions in air with bobs of lead and of cork which had different weight but which were otherwise similar.[ citation needed ]
 Galileo proposed that a falling body would fall with a uniform acceleration, as long as the resistance of the medium through which it was falling remained negligible, or in the limiting case of its falling through a vacuum. [204]   [205]  He also derived the correct kinematical law for the distance traveled during a uniform acceleration starting from rest—namely, that it is proportional to the square of the elapsed time (d∝t 2). [206]   [207]  Prior to Galileo, Nicole Oresme, in the 14th century, had derived the times-squared law for uniformly accelerated change, [208]   [209]  and Domingo de Soto had suggested in the 16th century that bodies falling through a homogeneous medium would be uniformly accelerated. [206]  Soto, however, did not anticipate many of the qualifications and refinements contained in Galileo's theory of falling bodies. He did not, for instance, recognise, as Galileo did, that a body would fall with a strictly uniform acceleration only in a vacuum, and that it would otherwise eventually reach a uniform terminal velocity. Galileo expressed the time-squared law using geometrical constructions and mathematically precise words, adhering to the standards of the day. (It remained for others to re-express the law in algebraic terms.)[ citation needed ]
 He also concluded that objects retain their velocity in the absence of any impediments to their motion, [210]  thereby contradicting the generally accepted Aristotelian hypothesis that a body could only remain in so-called "violent", "unnatural", or "forced" motion so long as an agent of change (the "mover") continued to act on it. [211]  Philosophical ideas relating to inertia had been proposed by John Philoponus and Jean Buridan. Galileo stated: "Imagine any particle projected along a horizontal plane without friction; then we know, from what has been more fully explained in the preceding pages, that this particle will move along this same plane with a motion which is uniform and perpetual, provided the plane has no limits". [212]  But the surface of the earth would be an instance of such a plane if all its unevenness could be removed. [213]  This was incorporated into Newton's laws of motion (first law), except for the direction of the motion: Newton's is straight, Galileo's is circular (for example, the planets' motion around the Sun, which according to him, and unlike Newton, takes place in absence of gravity). According to Dijksterhuis Galileo's conception of inertia as a tendency to persevere in circular motion is closely related to his Copernican conviction. [214] 
Mathematics
While Galileo's application of mathematics to experimental physics was innovative, his mathematical methods were the standard ones of the day, including dozens of examples of an inverse proportion square root method passed down from Fibonacci and Archimedes. The analysis and proofs relied heavily on the Eudoxian theory of proportion, as set forth in the fifth book of Euclid's Elements. This theory had become available only a century before, thanks to accurate translations by Tartaglia and others; but by the end of Galileo's life, it was being superseded by the algebraic methods of Descartes. The concept now named Galileo's paradox was not original with him. His proposed solution, that infinite numbers cannot be compared, is no longer considered useful. [215] 
Legacy
Later Church reassessments
The Galileo affair was largely forgotten after Galileo's death, and the controversy subsided. The Inquisition's ban on reprinting Galileo's works was lifted in 1718 when permission was granted to publish an edition of his works (excluding the condemned Dialogue) in Florence. [216]  In 1741, Pope Benedict XIV authorised the publication of an edition of Galileo's complete scientific works [217]  which included a mildly censored version of the Dialogue. [218]   [217]  In 1758, the general prohibition against works advocating heliocentrism was removed from the Index of prohibited books, although the specific ban on uncensored versions of the Dialogue and Copernicus's De Revolutionibus remained. [219]   [217]  All traces of official opposition to heliocentrism by the church disappeared in 1835 when these works were finally dropped from the Index. [220]   [221] 
 Interest in the Galileo affair was revived in the early 19th century, when Protestant polemicists used it (and other events such as the Spanish Inquisition and the myth of the flat Earth) to attack Roman Catholicism. [9]  Interest in it has waxed and waned ever since. In 1939, Pope Pius XII, in his first speech to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, within a few months of his election to the papacy, described Galileo as being among the "most audacious heroes of research... not afraid of the stumbling blocks and the risks on the way, nor fearful of the funereal monuments". [222]  His close advisor of 40 years, Professor Robert Leiber, wrote: "Pius XII was very careful not to close any doors (to science) prematurely. He was energetic on this point and regretted that in the case of Galileo." [223] 
 On 15 February 1990, in a speech delivered at the Sapienza University of Rome, [224]   [225]  Cardinal Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI) cited some current views on the Galileo affair as forming what he called "a symptomatic case that permits us to see how deep the self-doubt of the modern age, of science and technology goes today". [226]  Some of the views he cited were those of the philosopher Paul Feyerabend, whom he quoted as saying: "The Church at the time of Galileo kept much more closely to reason than did Galileo himself, and she took into consideration the ethical and social consequences of Galileo's teaching too. Her verdict against Galileo was rational and just and the revision of this verdict can be justified only on the grounds of what is politically opportune." [226]  The Cardinal did not clearly indicate whether he agreed or disagreed with Feyerabend's assertions. He did, however, say: "It would be foolish to construct an impulsive apologetic on the basis of such views." [226] 
 On 31 October 1992, Pope John Paul II acknowledged that the Church had erred in condemning Galileo for asserting that the Earth revolves around the Sun. "John Paul said the theologians who condemned Galileo did not recognize the formal distinction between the Bible and its interpretation." [227] 
 In March 2008, the head of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, Nicola Cabibbo, announced a plan to honour Galileo by erecting a statue of him inside the Vatican walls. [228]  In December of the same year, during events to mark the 400th anniversary of Galileo's earliest telescopic observations, Pope Benedict XVI praised his contributions to astronomy. [229]  A month later, however, the head of the Pontifical Council for Culture, Gianfranco Ravasi, revealed that the plan to erect a statue of Galileo on the grounds of the Vatican had been suspended. [230] 
Impact on modern science
     
According to Stephen Hawking, Galileo probably bears more of the responsibility for the birth of modern science than anybody else, [231]  and Albert Einstein called him the father of modern science. [232]   [233] 
 Galileo's astronomical discoveries and investigations into the Copernican theory have led to a lasting legacy which includes the categorisation of the four large moons of Jupiter discovered by Galileo (Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto) as the Galilean moons. Other scientific endeavours and principles are named after Galileo including the Galileo spacecraft, [234]  the first spacecraft to enter orbit around Jupiter, the proposed Galileo global satellite navigation system, the transformation between inertial systems in classical mechanics denoted Galilean transformation and the Gal (unit), sometimes known as the Galileo, which is a non-SI unit of acceleration.[ citation needed ]
 Partly because the year 2009 was the fourth centenary of Galileo's first recorded astronomical observations with the telescope, the United Nations scheduled it to be the International Year of Astronomy. [235]  A global scheme was laid out by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), also endorsed by UNESCO—the UN body responsible for educational, scientific and cultural matters. The International Year of Astronomy 2009 was intended to be a global celebration of astronomy and its contributions to society and culture, stimulating worldwide interest not only in astronomy but science in general, with a particular slant towards young people.[ citation needed ]
 Planet Galileo and asteroid 697 Galilea are named in his honour.[ citation needed ]
In artistic and popular media
Galileo is mentioned several times in the "opera" section of the Queen song, "Bohemian Rhapsody". [236]  He features prominently in the song "Galileo" performed by the Indigo Girls and Amy Grant's "Galileo" on her  Heart in Motion  album. [237] 
 Twentieth-century plays have been written on Galileo's life, including  Life of Galileo  (1943) by the German playwright Bertolt Brecht, with a film adaptation (1975) of it, and  Lamp at Midnight  (1947) by Barrie Stavis, [238]  as well as the 2008 play "Galileo Galilei". [239] 
  Kim Stanley Robinson wrote a science fiction novel entitled  Galileo's Dream  (2009), in which Galileo is brought into the future to help resolve a crisis of scientific philosophy; the story moves back and forth between Galileo's own time and a hypothetical distant future and contains a great deal of biographical information. [240] 
 Galileo Galilei was recently selected as a main motif for a high-value collectors' coin: the €25 International Year of Astronomy commemorative coin, minted in 2009. This coin also commemorates the 400th anniversary of the invention of Galileo's telescope. The obverse shows a portion of his portrait and his telescope. The background shows one of his first drawings of the surface of the moon. In the silver ring, other telescopes are depicted: the Isaac Newton Telescope, the observatory in Kremsmünster Abbey, a modern telescope, a radio telescope and a space telescope. In 2009, the Galileoscope was also released. This is a mass-produced, low-cost educational 2-inch (51 mm) telescope with relatively high quality.[ citation needed ]
Writings
     
     
Galileo's early works describing scientific instruments include the 1586 tract entitled The Little Balance (La Billancetta) describing an accurate balance to weigh objects in air or water [241]  and the 1606 printed manual Le Operazioni del Compasso Geometrico et Militare on the operation of a geometrical and military compass. [242] 
 His early works on dynamics, the science of motion and mechanics were his circa 1590 Pisan  De Motu  (On Motion) and his circa 1600 Paduan Le Meccaniche (Mechanics). The former was based on Aristotelian–Archimedean fluid dynamics and held that the speed of gravitational fall in a fluid medium was proportional to the excess of a body's specific weight over that of the medium, whereby in a vacuum, bodies would fall with speeds in proportion to their specific weights. It also subscribed to the Philoponan impetus dynamics in which impetus is self-dissipating and free-fall in a vacuum would have an essential terminal speed according to specific weight after an initial period of acceleration.[ citation needed ]
 Galileo's 1610  The Starry Messenger  (Sidereus Nuncius) was the first scientific treatise to be published based on observations made through a telescope. It reported his discoveries of:
 the Galilean moons 
the roughness of the Moon's surface
the existence of a large number of stars invisible to the naked eye, particularly those responsible for the appearance of the Milky Way 
differences between the appearances of the planets and those of the fixed stars—the former appearing as small discs, while the latter appeared as unmagnified points of light 
Galileo published a description of sunspots in 1613 entitled  Letters on Sunspots  suggesting the Sun and heavens are corruptible. [243]  The Letters on Sunspots also reported his 1610 telescopic observations of the full set of phases of Venus, and his discovery of the puzzling "appendages" of Saturn and their even more puzzling subsequent disappearance. In 1615, Galileo prepared a manuscript known as the "Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina" which was not published in printed form until 1636. This letter was a revised version of the Letter to Castelli, which was denounced by the Inquisition as an incursion upon theology by advocating Copernicanism both as physically true and as consistent with Scripture. [244]  In 1616, after the order by the Inquisition for Galileo not to hold or defend the Copernican position, Galileo wrote the "Discourse on the Tides" (Discorso sul flusso e il reflusso del mare) based on the Copernican earth, in the form of a private letter to Cardinal Orsini. [245]  In 1619, Mario Guiducci, a pupil of Galileo's, published a lecture written largely by Galileo under the title Discourse on the Comets (Discorso Delle Comete), arguing against the Jesuit interpretation of comets. [246] 
 In 1623, Galileo published  The Assayer—Il Saggiatore, which attacked theories based on Aristotle's authority and promoted experimentation and the mathematical formulation of scientific ideas. The book was highly successful and even found support among the higher echelons of the Christian church. [247]  Following the success of The Assayer, Galileo published the Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo) in 1632. Despite taking care to adhere to the Inquisition's 1616 instructions, the claims in the book favouring Copernican theory and a non-geocentric model of the solar system led to Galileo being tried and banned on publication. Despite the publication ban, Galileo published his  Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences  (Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno a due nuove scienze) in 1638 in Holland, outside the jurisdiction of the Inquisition.[ citation needed ]
Published written works
Galileo's main written works are as follows: [248] 
  The Little Balance (1586; in Italian: La Bilancetta)
 On Motion (c. 1590; in Latin:  De Motu Antiquiora ) [249]  
 Mechanics (c. 1600; in Italian: Le Meccaniche)
 The Operations of Geometrical and Military Compass (1606; in Italian: Le operazioni del compasso geometrico et militare)
  The Starry Messenger  (1610; in Latin: Sidereus Nuncius)
 Discourse on Floating Bodies (1612; in Italian: Discorso intorno alle cose che stanno in su l'acqua, o che in quella si muovono, "Discourse on Bodies that Stay Atop Water, or Move in It")
 History and Demonstration Concerning Sunspots (1613; in Italian: Istoria e dimostrazioni intorno alle macchie solari; work based on the Three Letters on Sunspots, Tre lettere sulle macchie solari, 1612)
"Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina" (1615; published in 1636)
"Discourse on the Tides" (1616; in Italian: Discorso del flusso e reflusso del mare)
 Discourse on the Comets (1619; in Italian: Discorso delle Comete)
  The Assayer  (1623; in Italian: Il Saggiatore)
  Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems  (1632; in Italian: Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo)
  Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences  (1638; in Italian: Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno a due nuove scienze) 
Personal library
In the last years of his life, Galileo Galilei kept a library of at least 598 volumes (560 of which have been identified) at Villa Il Gioiello, on the outskirts of Florence. [250]  Under the restrictions of house arrest, he was forbidden to write or publish his ideas. However, he continued to receive visitors right up to his death and it was through them that he remained supplied with the latest scientific texts from Northern Europe. [251] 
 With his past experience, Galileo may have feared that his collection of books and manuscripts would be seized by the authorities and burned, as no reference to such items was made in his last will and testament. An itemized inventory was only later produced after Galileo's death, when the majority of his possessions including his library passed to his son, Vincenzo Galilei, Jr. On his death in 1649, the collection was inherited by his wife Sestilia Bocchineri. [251] 
 Galileo's books, personal papers and unedited manuscripts were then collected by Vincenzo Viviani, his former assistant and student, with the intent of preserving his old teacher's works in published form. Unfortunately, it was a project that never materialised and in his final will, Viviani bequeathed a significant portion of the collection to the Hospital of Santa Maria Nuova in Florence, where there already existed an extensive library. The value of Galileo's possessions were not realised, and duplicate copies were dispersed to other libraries, such as the Biblioteca Comunale degli Intronati, the public library in Sienna. In a later attempt to specialise the library's holdings, volumes unrelated to medicine were transferred to the Biblioteca Magliabechiana, an early foundation for what was to become the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale di Firenze, the National Central Library in Florence. [251] 
 A small portion of Viviani's collection, including the manuscripts of Galileo and those of his peers Evangelista Torricelli and Benedetto Castelli, were left to his nephew, Abbot Jacopo Panzanini. This minor collection was preserved until Panzanini's death when it passed to his great-nephews, Carlo and Angelo Panzanini. The books from both Galileo and Viviani's collection began to disperse as the heirs failed to protect their inheritance. Their servants sold several of the volumes for waste paper. Around 1750 the Florentine senator Giovanni Battista Clemente de'Nelli heard of this and purchased the books and manuscripts from the shopkeepers, and the remainder of Viviani's collection from the Panzanini brothers. As recounted in Nelli's memoirs: "My great fortune in obtaining such a wonderful treasure so cheaply came about through the ignorance of the people selling it, who were not aware of the value of those manuscripts..."
 The library remained in Nelli's care until his death in 1793. Knowing the value of their father's collected manuscripts, Nelli's sons attempted to sell what was left to them to the French government. Grand Duke Ferdinand III of Tuscany intervened in the sale and purchased the entire collection. The archive of manuscripts, printed books and personal papers were deposited with the Biblioteca Palatina in Florence, merging the collection with the Biblioteca Magliabechiana in 1861. [252] 
See also
  Catholic Church and science 
 Seconds pendulum 
 Tribune of Galileo 
 Villa Il Gioiello  
Notes
 
  ^  i.e., invisible to the naked eye.
  ^  In the Capellan model only Mercury and Venus orbit the Sun, whilst in its extended version such as expounded by Riccioli, Mars also orbits the Sun, but the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn are centred on the Earth
  ^  In geostatic systems the apparent annual variation in the motion of sunspots could only be explained as the result of an implausibly complicated precession of the Sun's axis of rotation [70]   [71]   [72]  This did not apply, however, to the modified version of Tycho's system introduced by his protégé, Longomontanus, in which the Earth was assumed to rotate. Longomontanus's system could account for the apparent motions of sunspots just as well as the Copernican.
^    a       b    Such passages include Psalm 93:1, 96:10, and 1 Chronicles 16:30 which include text stating, "The world also is established. It can not be moved." In the same manner, Psalm 104:5 says, "He (the Lord) laid the foundations of the earth, that it should not be moved forever." Further, Ecclesiastes 1:5 states, "The sun also rises, and the sun goes down, and hurries to its place where it rises", and Joshua 10:14 states, "Sun, stand still on Gibeon...". [121] 
  ^  The discovery of the aberration of light by James Bradley in January 1729 was the first conclusive evidence for the movement of the Earth, and hence for Aristarchus, Copernicus and Kepler's theories; it was announced in January 1729. [122]  The second evidence was produced by Friedrich Bessel in 1838.
  ^  In Tycho's system, the stars were a little more distant than Saturn, and the Sun and stars were comparable in size. [123] 
  ^  According to Maurice Finocchiaro, this was done in a friendly and gracious manner, out of curiosity. [124] 
  ^  Ingoli wrote that the great distance to the stars in the heliocentric theory "clearly proves ... the fixed stars to be of such size, as they may surpass or equal the size of the orbit circle of the Earth itself". [130] 
  ^  Drake asserts that Simplicio's character is modelled on the Aristotelian philosophers Lodovico delle Colombe and Cesare Cremonini, rather than Urban. [137]  He also considers that the demand for Galileo to include the Pope's argument in the Dialogue left him with no option but to put it in the mouth of Simplicio. [138]  Even Arthur Koestler, who is generally quite harsh on Galileo in  The Sleepwalkers , after noting that Urban suspected Galileo of having intended Simplicio to be a caricature of him, says "this of course is untrue". [139] 
 
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 Drake, S. (1990).  Galileo: Pioneer Scientist . Toronto: The University of Toronto Press. ISBN  978-0-8020-2725-2 . 
 Drake, S.; Kowal, C. T. (1980). "Galileo's Sighting of Neptune". Scientific American. 243 (6): 74–81. Bibcode:1980SciAm.243f..74D. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1280-74. 
 Edgerton, Samuel Y. (2009). The Mirror, the Window, and the Telescope: How Renaissance Linear Perspective Changed Our Vision of the Universe. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN  978-0-8014-7480-4 . 
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 Einstein, A. (1954). Ideas and Opinions. Translated by Bargmann, S. London: Crown Publishers. ISBN  978-0-285-64724-4 . 
 Fantoli, A. (2005). The Disputed Injunction and its Role in Galileo's Trial. pp. 117–149. 
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  Feyerabend, P. (1995).  Killing Time: The Autobiography of Paul Feyerabend . Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN  978-0-226-24531-7 . 
 Finocchiaro, M. A. (2010). Defending Copernicus and Galileo: Critical Reasoning in the two Affairs. Springer. ISBN  978-90-481-3200-3 . 
 Finocchiaro, M. A. (1997). Galileo on the world systems: a new abridged translation and guide. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN  978-0-520-20548-2 . 
 Finocchiaro, M. A. (1989). The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN  978-0-520-06662-5 . 
 Finocchiaro, M. A. (Fall 2007). "Book Review – The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History". The Historian. 69 (3): 601–602. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6563.2007.00189_68.x. S2CID 144988723. 
 Galilei, G. (1953) [1632]. Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World System. Translated by Drake, S. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN  978-0-520-00449-8 . 
 Galilei, G. (1954) [1638, 1914]. Crew, H.; de Salvio, A. (eds.). Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences. New York: Dover Publications Inc. ISBN  978-0-486-60099-4 . 
 Galilei, G. &amp; Guiducci, M. (1960) [1619]. "Discourse on the Comets". The Controversy on the Comets of 1618. Translated by Drake, Stillman &amp; O'Malley, C. D. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 21–65. 
  Gingerich, O. (1992).  The Great Copernican Chase and other adventures in astronomical history . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN  978-0-521-32688-9 . 
 Graney, C. (2015). Setting Aside All Authority: Giovanni Battista Riccioli and the Science against Copernicus in the Age of Galileo. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press. ISBN  978-0-268-02988-3 . 
 Graney, C. M. (2010). "The Telescope Against Copernicus: Star Observations by Riccioli Supporting a Geocentric Universe".  Journal for the History of Astronomy . 41 (4): 453–467. Bibcode:2010JHA....41..453G. doi:10.1177/002182861004100402. S2CID 117782745. 
 Graney, C. M.; Danielson, D. (2014). "The Case Against Copernicus".  Scientific American . Vol. 310, no. 1. pp. 72–77. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0114-72. PMID 24616974. 
 Graney, C. M.; Grayson, T. P. (2011). "On the Telescopic Disks of Stars: A Review and Analysis of Stellar Observations from the Early Seventeenth through the Middle Nineteenth Centuries".  Annals of Science . 68 (3): 351–373. arXiv:1003.4918. doi:10.1080/00033790.2010.507472. S2CID 118007707. 
  Grant, E. (1996). The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN  978-0-521-56762-6 . 
 Grassi, H. (1960a) [1619]. "On the Three Comets of the Year MDCXIII". Introduction to the Controversy on the Comets of 1618. Translated by O'Malley, C. D. pp. 3–19. 
 Grassi, H. (1960b) [1619]. "The Astronomical and Philosophical Balance". Introduction to the Controversy on the Comets of 1618. Translated by O'Malley, C. D. pp. 67–132. 
 Gribbin, J. (2008).  The Fellowship: Gilbert, Bacon, Harvey, Wren, Newton and the Story of the Scientific Revolution . Woodstock: Overlook Press. ISBN  978-1-59020-026-1 . 
 Hannam, J. (2009). God's philosophers: how the medieval world laid the foundations of modern science. Icon Books Ltd. ISBN  978-1-84831-158-9 . 
 Hilliam, R. (2005). Galileo Galilei: Father of modern science. The Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN  978-1-4042-0314-3 . 
 Hoskin, M., ed. (1999). The Cambridge concise history of astronomy Cambridge University Press. 
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 Hellman, H. (1988). Great Feuds in Science. Ten of the Liveliest Disputes Ever. New York: Wiley. 
 Heilbron, J. L. (2010). Galileo. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN  978-0-19-958352-2 . 
 Jarrel, R. A. (1989). "The contemporaries of Tycho Brahe". Planetary Astronomy from the Renaissance to the Rise of Astrophysics. Part A: Tycho Brahe to Newton: 22–32. Bibcode:1989parr.conf...22J. 
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 King, C. C. (2003). The History of the Telescope. Dover Publications. ISBN  978-0-486-43265-6 . 
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  Koyré, A. (1955). "A Documentary History of the Problem of Fall from Kepler to Newton".  Transactions of the American Philosophical Society . 45 (4): 329–395. doi:10.2307/1005755. JSTOR 1005755. 
 Koyré, A. (1978). Galilean Studies. Harvester Press. 
  Kuhn, T. (1957).  The Copernican Revolution . Harvard University Press. 
 Kuhn, T. (1962).  The Structure of Scientific Revolutions . University of Chicago Press. 
 Lattis, J. M. (1994). Between Copernicus and Galileo: Christopher Clavius and the Collapse of Ptolemaic Cosmology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 
 Langford, J. K. (1998) [1966]. Galileo, Science and the Church (third ed.). St. Augustine's Press. ISBN  978-1-890318-25-3 . 
 Lessl, T. (June 2000). "The Galileo Legend". New Oxford Review: 27–33. 
 Lindberg, D. (2008). "Galileo, the Church, and the Cosmos". In Lindberg, D.; Numbers, R. (eds.). When Christianity and Science Meet. University of Chicago Press. ISBN  978-0-226-48215-6 . 
 Linton, C. M. (2004). From Eudoxus to Einstein – A History of Mathematical Astronomy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN  978-0-521-82750-8 . 
 Losee, J. (1966). "Drake, Galileo, and the Law of Inertia".  American Journal of Physics . 34 (5): 430–432. Bibcode:1966AmJPh..34..430L. doi:10.1119/1.1973014. 
  McMullin, E., ed. (2005). The Church and Galileo. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press. ISBN  978-0-268-03483-2 . 
 McMullin, E. (2005a). The Church's Ban on Copernicanism, 1616. pp. 150–190. 
  Mach, E. (1893).  The Science of Mechanics . 
 Machamer, P., ed. (1998). The Cambridge Companion to Galileo. Cambridge University Press. 
 Moss, J. D.; Wallace, W. (2003). Rhetoric &amp; dialectic in the time of Galileo. Washington: CUA Press. ISBN  978-0-8132-1331-6 . 
 Naylor, R. H. (1990). "Galileo's Method of Analysis and Synthesis". Isis. 81 (4): 695–707. doi:10.1086/355546. S2CID 121505770. 
 Newall, P. (2004). "The Galileo Affair". Archived from the original on 9 May 2009. Retrieved 25 December 2004. 
 Ondra, L. (July 2004). "A New View of Mizar". Sky &amp; Telescope. 108 (1): 72–75. Bibcode:2004S&amp;T...108a..72O. 
 Owen, R. (29 January 2009). "Catholic Church abandons plan to erect statue of Galileo". London: TimesOnline News. Retrieved 22 April 2011. 
 Owen, R.; Delaney, S. (4 March 2008). "Vatican recants with a statue of Galileo". TimesOnline News. London. Retrieved 2 March 2009. 
 Remmert, V. R. (2005). "Galileo, God, and Mathematics". In Koetsier, T.; Bergmans, L. (eds.). Mathematics and the Divine. A Historical Study. Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 347–360. 
  Ratzinger, J. C. (1994). Turning point for Europe? The Church in the Modern World – Assessment and Forecast. Translated by McNeil, B. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. ISBN  978-0-89870-461-7 . OCLC 60292876. 
  Reston, J. (2000). Galileo: A Life. Beard Books. ISBN  978-1-893122-62-8 . 
 Seeger, R. J. (1966). Galileo Galilei, his life and his works. Oxford: Pergamon Press. ISBN  978-0-08-012025-6 . 
 Settle, T. B. (1961). "An Experiment in the History of Science". Science. 133 (3445): 19–23. Bibcode:1961Sci...133...19S. doi:10.1126/science.133.3445.19. PMID 17759858. 
 Sharratt, M. (1994). Galileo: Decisive Innovator. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN  978-0-521-56671-1 . 
 Shapere, D. (1974). Galileo, a Philosophical Study. University of Chicago Press. 
 Shea, W. R. &amp; Artigas, M. (2003).  Galileo in Rome: The Rise and Fall of a Troublesome Genius . Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN  978-0-19-516598-2 . 
  Sobel, D. (2000) [1999].  Galileo's Daughter . London: Fourth Estate. ISBN  978-1-85702-712-9 . 
 Taton, R., ed. (1964) [1958]. The Beginnings of Modern Science from 1450 to 1800. London: Thames and Hudson. 
 Taton, R.; Wilson, C., eds. (1989). Planetary astronomy from the Renaissance to the rise of astrophysics Part A: Tycho Brahe to Newton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN  978-0-521-24254-7 . 
 Thoren, V. E. (1989). "Tycho Brahe". In Taton, R.; Wilson, C. (eds.). Planetary astronomy from the Renaissance to the rise of astrophysics Part A: Tycho Brahe to Newton. pp. 3–21. ISBN  978-0-521-35158-4 . 
 Van Helden, A. (1989). "Galileo, telescopic astronomy, and the Copernican system". In Taton, R.; Wilson, C. (eds.). Planetary astronomy from the Renaissance to the rise of astrophysics Part A: Tycho Brahe to Newton. pp. 81–105. 
 Van Helden, A. (1985). Measuring the Universe: Cosmic Dimensions from Aristarchus to Halley. University of Chicago Press. ISBN  978-0-226-84881-5 . 
 Wallace, W. A. (1984).  Galileo and His Sources: The Heritage of the Collegio Romano in Galileo's Science . Princeton: Princeton Univ. Bibcode:1984gshc.book.....W. ISBN  978-0-691-08355-1 . 
 Wallace, W. A. (2004). Domingo de Soto and the Early Galileo. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN  978-0-86078-964-2 . 
 Walusinsky, G. (1964) [1958]. "The Golden age of Observational Astronomy". In Taton, R. (ed.). The Beginnings of Modern Science from 1450 to 1800. pp. 268–286. 
 White, A. D. (1898).  A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom . New York: D. Appleton and Company. ISBN  978-0-7905-8168-2 . 
 White, M. (2007). Galileo: Antichrist: A Biography. London: Weidenfeld &amp; Nicolson. ISBN  978-0-297-84868-4 . 
 Wisan, W. L. (1984). "Galileo and the Process of Scientific Creation". Isis. 75 (2): 269–286. doi:10.1086/353480. S2CID 145410913. 
 Zik, Y. (2001). "Science and Instruments: The telescope as a scientific instrument at the beginning of the seventeenth century". Perspectives on Science. 9 (3): 259–284. doi:10.1162/10636140160176143. S2CID 57571555.  
Further reading
  Biagioli, M. (1993).  Galileo, Courtier: The Practice of Science in the Culture of Absolutism . University of Chicago Press. ISBN  978-0-226-04559-7 . 
 Clavelin, M. (1974). The Natural Philosophy of Galileo. MIT Press. 
  Clerke, Agnes Mary (1911). "Galileo Galilei" .  Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 12 (11th ed.). pp. 406–410. 
 Coffa, J. (1968). "Galileo's Concept of Inertia". Physis Riv. Internaz. Storia Sci. 10: 261–281. 
 Consolmagno, G.; Schaefer, M. (1994). Worlds Apart, A Textbook in Planetary Science. Englewood: Prentice-Hall. Bibcode:1994watp.book.....C. ISBN  978-0-13-964131-2 . 
 Drabkin, I.; Drake, S., eds. (1960). On Motion and On Mechanics. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN  978-0-299-02030-9 . 
Drake, Stillman. Galileo (University of Toronto Press, 2017).
Drake, Stillman. Essays on Galileo and the History and Philosophy of Science (U of Toronto Press, 2019).
Drake, Stillman. Galileo and the First Mechanical Computing Device (U of Toronto Press, 2019).
 Dugas, R. (1988) [1955]. A History of Mechanics. Dover Publications. ISBN  978-0-486-65632-8 . 
 Duhem, P. (1911). "History of Physics". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).  Catholic Encyclopedia . New York: Robert Appleton Company. 
 Fantoli, A. (2003). Galileo: For Copernicanism and the Church (third English ed.). Vatican Observatory Publications. ISBN  978-88-209-7427-5 . 
 Feyerabend, P. (1975). Against Method. Verso. 
 Galilei, G. (1960) [1623]. "The Assayer". The Controversy on the Comets of 1618. Translated by Drake, S. pp. 151–336. ISBN  978-1-158-34578-6 . 
 Galilei, G. (1974). "Galileo's 1638 Discourses and mathematical demonstrations concerning two new sciences".  Galileo: Two New Sciences . Translated by Drake, S. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN  978-0-299-06400-6 . 
 Galilei, G.; Scheiner, C. (2010). On Sunspots. Translated by Reeves, E.; Van Helden, A. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN  978-0-226-70715-0 . 
  Geymonat, L. (1965). Galileo Galilei, A biography and inquiry into his philosophy and science. Translated by Drake, S. McGraw-Hill. Bibcode:1965ggbi.book.....G. 
Gilbert, Neal Ward. "Galileo and the School of Padua." Journal of the History of Philosophy  1.2 (1963): 223–231. online 
 Grant, E. (1965–1967). "Aristotle, Philoponus, Avempace, and Galileo's Pisan Dynamics".  Centaurus . 11 (2): 79–95. Bibcode:1966Cent...11...79G. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1966.tb00051.x. 
 Hall, A. R. (1963). From Galileo to Newton, 1630–1720. Collins. 
 Hall, A. R. (1964–1965). "Galileo and the Science of Motion". British Journal for the History of Science. 2 (3): 185. doi:10.1017/s0007087400002193. S2CID 145683472. 
 Humphreys, W. C. (1967). "Galileo, Falling Bodies and Inclined Planes. An Attempt at Reconstructing Galileo's Discovery of the Law of Squares".  British Journal for the History of Science . 3 (3): 225–244. doi:10.1017/S0007087400002673. S2CID 145468106. 
Koyré, Alexandre. "Galileo and Plato." Journal of the History of Ideas 4.4 (1943): 400–428. online (PDF)
Koyré, Alexandre. "Galileo and the scientific revolution of the seventeenth century." Philosophical Review 52.4 (1943): 333–348. online (PDF) 
External links
  Works by Galileo Galilei at Open Library 
 Works by Galileo Galilei at Project Gutenberg 
 Works by Galileo Galilei at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) 
 Works by or about Galileo Galilei at Internet Archive 
 Works in Galileo's Personal Library at LibraryThing
Galileo Galilei - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rembrandt
Rembrandt - Wikipedia
2001-11-12
Authority control
<div><div>
<table><tbody><tr><th><p>Rembrandt</p></th></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_van_Rijn_-_Self-Portrait_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"></a><div><p><i><a href="/wiki/Self-Portrait_with_Beret_and_Turned-Up_Collar">Self-Portrait with Beret and Turned-Up Collar</a></i> (1659), <a href="/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Art">National Gallery of Art</a>, Washington, D.C.</p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Born</th><td><p>Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn</p><br />15 July 1606<sup><a href="#cite_note-BY-1">[1]</a></sup><br /><div><p><a href="/wiki/Leiden">Leiden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic">Dutch Republic</a></p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Died</th><td>4 October 1669 (aged 63)<br /><div><p><a href="/wiki/Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a>, Dutch Republic</p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Education</th><td><a href="/wiki/Jacob_van_Swanenburg">Jacob van Swanenburg</a> <br /> <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Lastman">Pieter Lastman</a></td></tr><tr><th>Known for</th><td><a href="/wiki/Painting">Painting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Printmaking">printmaking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drawing">drawing</a></td></tr><tr><th>Notable work</th><td><a href="/wiki/Self-portraits_by_Rembrandt">Self-portraits</a><br /><i><a href="/wiki/The_Anatomy_Lesson_of_Dr._Nicolaes_Tulp">The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp</a></i> (1632)<br /><i><a href="/wiki/Belshazzar%27s_Feast_(Rembrandt)">Belshazzar's Feast</a></i> (1635)<br /><i><a href="/wiki/The_Night_Watch">The Night Watch</a></i> (1642)<br /><i><a href="/wiki/Bathsheba_at_Her_Bath_(Rembrandt)">Bathsheba at Her Bath</a></i> (1654)<br /><i><a href="/wiki/Syndics_of_the_Drapers%27_Guild">Syndics of the Drapers' Guild</a></i> (1662)<br /><i><a href="/wiki/The_Hundred_Guilder_Print">The Hundred Guilder Print</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Etching">etching</a>, c. 1647–1649)</td></tr><tr><th>Movement</th><td><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age_painting">Dutch Golden Age</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Baroque">Baroque</a></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn</b> (,<sup><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> <small>Dutch: </small><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Dutch">[ˈrɛmbrɑnt ˈɦɑrmə(n)ˌsoːɱ vɑn ˈrɛin]</a> (<a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandtvanrijn.ogg"></a><a href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Rembrandtvanrijn.ogg">listen</a>); 15 July 1606<sup><a href="#cite_note-BY-1">[1]</a></sup> – 4 October 1669), usually simply known as <b>Rembrandt</b>, was a <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age_painter">Dutch Golden Age painter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Printmaker">printmaker</a> and <a href="/wiki/Drawing">draughtsman</a>. An innovative and prolific <a href="/wiki/Old_Masters">master</a> in three <a href="/wiki/Art_medium">media</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> he is generally considered one of the greatest <a href="/wiki/Visual_artists">visual artists</a> in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_art">history of art</a> and the most important in Dutch art history.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Gombrich,_p._420-4">[4]</a></sup> 
</p><p>Unlike most <a href="/wiki/Dutch_masters">Dutch masters</a> of the 17th century, <a href="/wiki/Category:Works_by_Rembrandt">Rembrandt's works</a> depict a wide range of style and subject matter, from <a href="/wiki/Portrait_painting">portraits</a> and self-portraits to landscapes, <a href="/wiki/Genre_scenes">genre scenes</a>, allegorical and historical scenes, biblical and mythological themes and animal studies. His contributions to art came in a period of great wealth and cultural achievement that historians call the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age">Dutch Golden Age</a>, when Dutch art (especially <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age_painting">Dutch painting</a>), whilst antithetical to the <a href="/wiki/Baroque">Baroque style</a> that dominated Europe, was prolific and innovative. This era gave rise to important new genres. Like many artists of the Dutch Golden Age, such as <a href="/wiki/Jan_Vermeer">Jan Vermeer</a>, Rembrandt was an avid <a href="/wiki/Art_collector">art collector</a> and <a href="/wiki/Art_dealer">dealer</a>.
</p><p>Rembrandt never went abroad, but was considerably influenced by the work of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_masters">Italian masters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Netherlandish_art">Netherlandish artists</a> who had studied in Italy, like <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Lastman">Pieter Lastman</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Utrecht_Caravaggists">Utrecht Caravaggists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flemish_Baroque_painting">Flemish Baroque</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Paul_Rubens">Peter Paul Rubens</a>. After he achieved youthful success as a portrait painter, Rembrandt's later years were marked by personal tragedy and financial hardships. Yet his etchings and paintings were popular throughout his lifetime, his reputation as an artist remained high,<sup><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> and for twenty years he taught many important Dutch painters.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Clark_203-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p><p>Rembrandt's portraits of his contemporaries, self-portraits and illustrations of scenes from the Bible are regarded as his greatest creative triumphs. <a href="/wiki/Self-portraits_by_Rembrandt">His self-portraits</a> form an intimate autobiography.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Gombrich,_p._420-4">[4]</a></sup> Rembrandt's foremost contribution in the history of printmaking was his transformation of the etching process from a relatively new reproductive technique into an <a href="/wiki/Art_form">art form</a>. His reputation as the greatest <a href="/wiki/Etcher">etcher</a> in the history of the medium was established in his lifetime. Few of <a href="/wiki/List_of_paintings_by_Rembrandt">his paintings</a> left the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic">Dutch Republic</a> while he lived, but his <a href="/wiki/Old_master_prints">prints</a> were circulated throughout Europe, and his wider reputation was initially based on them alone.
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_-_Rembrandt_and_Saskia_in_the_Scene_of_the_Prodigal_Son_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>In his works, he exhibited knowledge of classical <a href="/wiki/Iconography">iconography</a>. A depiction of a biblical scene was informed by Rembrandt's knowledge of the specific text, his assimilation of classical composition, and his observations of <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Amsterdam">Jewish population</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Clark_203_204-7">[7]</a></sup> Because of his empathy for the human condition, he has been called "one of the great prophets of civilization".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Clark_205-8">[8]</a></sup> The French sculptor <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Rodin">Auguste Rodin</a> said, "Compare me with Rembrandt! What sacrilege! With Rembrandt, the colossus of Art! We should prostrate ourselves before Rembrandt and never compare anyone with him!"<sup><a href="#cite_note-Rodin-9">[9]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Life[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rembrandt&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Rembrandt<sup><a href="#cite_note-11">[a]</a></sup> Harmenszoon van Rijn was born on 15 July, 1606 in <a href="/wiki/Leiden">Leiden</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-BY-1">[1]</a></sup> in the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic">Dutch Republic</a>, now the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands">Netherlands</a>. He was the ninth child born to Harmen Gerritszoon van Rijn and Neeltgen Willemsdochter van Zuijtbrouck.<sup><a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a></sup> His family was quite well-to-do; his father was a <a href="/wiki/Miller">miller</a> and his mother was a baker's daughter. Religion is a central theme in Rembrandt's works and the religiously fraught period in which he lived makes his faith a matter of interest. His mother was <a href="/wiki/Catholic">Catholic</a>, and his father belonged to the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Reformed_Church">Dutch Reformed Church</a>. While his work reveals deep Christian faith, there is no evidence that Rembrandt formally belonged to any church. Five of his children were christened in Dutch Reformed churches in Amsterdam: four in the Oude Kerk (Old Church) and one, Titus, in the Zuiderkerk (Southern Church).<sup><a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a></sup>
</p><p>As a boy, he attended <a href="/wiki/Latin">Latin</a> school. At the age of 13, he was enrolled at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Leiden">University of Leiden</a>, although according to a contemporary he had a greater inclination towards painting; he was soon apprenticed to a Leiden <a href="/wiki/History_painter">history painter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacob_van_Swanenburg">Jacob van Swanenburg</a>, with whom he spent three years.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Houbraken-14">[13]</a></sup> After a brief but important apprenticeship of six months with the painter <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Lastman">Pieter Lastman</a> in Amsterdam, Rembrandt stayed a few months with <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Pynas">Jacob Pynas</a> and then started his own workshop, though Simon van Leeuwen claimed that <a href="/wiki/Joris_van_Schooten">Joris van Schooten</a> taught Rembrandt in Leiden.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Houbraken-14">[13]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a></sup> Unlike many of his contemporaries who traveled to Italy as part of their artistic training, Rembrandt never left the Dutch Republic during his lifetime.<sup><a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-17">[16]</a></sup>
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<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_van_Rijn_-_Saskia_van_Uylenburgh,_the_Wife_of_the_Artist_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>He opened a studio in Leiden in 1624 or 1625, which he shared with friend and colleague <a href="/wiki/Jan_Lievens">Jan Lievens</a>. In 1627, Rembrandt began to accept students, which included <a href="/wiki/Gerrit_Dou">Gerrit Dou</a> in 1628.<sup><a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1629, Rembrandt was discovered by the statesman <a href="/wiki/Constantijn_Huygens">Constantijn Huygens</a> (father of the Dutch mathematician and physicist <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a>), who procured for Rembrandt important commissions from the court of The Hague. As a result of this connection, Prince <a href="/wiki/Frederik_Hendrik">Frederik Hendrik</a> continued to purchase paintings from Rembrandt until 1646.<sup><a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a></sup>
</p><p>At the end of 1631, Rembrandt moved to Amsterdam, a city rapidly expanding as the new business capital of the Netherlands. He began to practice as a professional portraitist for the first time, with great success. He initially stayed with an art dealer, <a href="/wiki/Hendrick_van_Uylenburgh">Hendrick van Uylenburgh</a>, and in 1634, married Hendrick's cousin, <a href="/wiki/Saskia_van_Uylenburgh">Saskia van Uylenburgh</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a></sup> Saskia came from a good family: her father had been a lawyer and the <i>burgemeester</i> (mayor) of <a href="/wiki/Leeuwarden">Leeuwarden</a>. When Saskia, as the youngest daughter, became an orphan, she lived with an older sister in <a href="/wiki/Het_Bildt">Het Bildt</a>. Rembrandt and Saskia were married in the local church of <a href="/wiki/St._Annaparochie">St. Annaparochie</a> without the presence of Rembrandt's relatives.<sup><a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a></sup> In the same year, Rembrandt became a <a href="/wiki/Burgess_(title)">burgess</a> of Amsterdam and a member of the local guild of painters. He also acquired a number of students, among them <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Bol">Ferdinand Bol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Govert_Flinck">Govert Flinck</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Bull-28-23">[22]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1635, Rembrandt and Saskia moved into their own house, renting in fashionable Nieuwe Doelenstraat with a view on the Amstel river. In 1639 they moved to a prominent newly built house (now the <a href="/wiki/Rembrandt_House_Museum">Rembrandt House Museum</a>) in the upscale 'Breestraat' (eng.: 'Broadway'), today known as <a href="/wiki/Jodenbreestraat">Jodenbreestraat</a> in what was becoming the Jewish quarter; then a young up-and-coming neighborhood. The <a href="/wiki/Mortgage_loan">mortgage</a> to finance the 13,000 <a href="/wiki/Guilder">guilder</a> purchase would be a primary cause for later financial difficulties.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Bull-28-23">[22]</a></sup> Rembrandt should easily have been able to pay the house off with his large income, but it appears his spending always kept pace with his income, and he may have made some unsuccessful investments.<sup><a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a></sup> It was there that Rembrandt frequently sought his Jewish neighbors to model for his <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament">Old Testament</a> scenes.<sup><a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a></sup> Although they were by now affluent, the couple suffered several personal setbacks; their son Rumbartus died two months after his birth in 1635 and their daughter Cornelia died at just three weeks of age in 1638. In 1640, they had a second daughter, also named Cornelia, who died after living barely over a month. Only their fourth child, <a href="/wiki/Titus_van_Rijn">Titus</a>, who was born in 1641, survived into adulthood. Saskia died in 1642 soon after Titus's birth, probably from <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>. Rembrandt's drawings of her on her sick and death bed are among his most moving works.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Slive-71-26">[25]</a></sup>
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<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_van_Rijn_-_Rembrandts_zoon_Titus_in_monniksdracht_(Rijksmuseum_Amsterdam).jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>During Saskia's illness, <a href="/wiki/Geertje_Dircx">Geertje Dircx</a> was hired as Titus' caretaker and nurse and also became Rembrandt's lover. She would later charge Rembrandt with <a href="/wiki/Breach_of_promise">breach of promise</a> (a euphemism for seduction under [breached] promise to marry) and was awarded alimony of 200 guilders a year.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Bull-28-23">[22]</a></sup> Rembrandt worked to have her committed to an asylum or poorhouse (called a "bridewell") at <a href="/wiki/Gouda,_South_Holland">Gouda</a>, after learning she had pawned jewelry he had given her that once belonged to Saskia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the late 1640s Rembrandt began a relationship with the much younger <a href="/wiki/Hendrickje_Stoffels">Hendrickje Stoffels</a>, who had initially been his maid. In 1654 they had a daughter, Cornelia, bringing Hendrickje a summons from the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Reformed_Church">Reformed Church</a> to answer the charge "that she had committed the acts of a whore with Rembrandt the painter". She admitted this and was banned from receiving communion. Rembrandt was not summoned to appear for the Church council because he was not a member of the Reformed Church.<sup><a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a></sup> The two were considered legally wed under common law, but Rembrandt had not married Hendrickje. Had he remarried he would have lost access to a trust set up for Titus in Saskia's will.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Slive-71-26">[25]</a></sup>
</p><p>Rembrandt lived beyond his means, buying art (including bidding up his own work), prints (often used in his paintings) and rarities, which probably caused a court arrangement (<a href="/wiki/Cessio_bonorum">cessio bonorum</a>) to avoid his bankruptcy in 1656, by selling most of his paintings and large collection of antiquities, but was allowed to keep his tools. The sale list survives and gives a good insight into Rembrandt's collections, which, apart from <a href="/wiki/Old_Master">Old Master</a> paintings and drawings, included busts of the Roman emperors, suits of Japanese armor among many objects from Asia, and collections of natural history and minerals. But the prices realized in the sales in 1657 and 1658 were disappointing.<sup><a href="#cite_note-29">[28]</a></sup> Rembrandt was forced to sell his house and his printing-press and move to more modest accommodation on the <a href="/wiki/Rozengracht">Rozengracht</a> in 1660.<sup><a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a></sup> The authorities and his creditors were generally accommodating to him, except for the Amsterdam <a href="/wiki/Painters%27_guild">painters' guild</a>, which introduced a new rule that no one in Rembrandt's circumstances could trade as a painter. To get around this, Hendrickje and Titus set up a <a href="/wiki/Dummy_corporation">dummy corporation</a> as art dealers in 1660, with Rembrandt as an employee.<sup><a href="#cite_note-31">[30]</a></sup>
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<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_Memorial_Marker_Westerkerk_Amsterdam.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Rembrandt Memorial Marker Westerkerk Amsterdam</p></div></div>
<p>In 1661 Rembrandt (or rather the new business) was contracted to complete work for the newly built city hall, but only after Govert Flinck, the artist previously commissioned, died without beginning to paint. The resulting work, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Conspiracy_of_Claudius_Civilis">The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis</a></i>, was rejected and returned to the painter; the surviving fragment is only a fraction of the whole work.<sup><a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a></sup> It was around this time that Rembrandt took on his last apprentice, <a href="/wiki/Aert_de_Gelder">Aert de Gelder</a>. In 1662 he was still fulfilling major commissions for portraits and other works.<sup><a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a></sup> In 1662 one of Rembrandt's creditors went to the High Court (<a href="/wiki/Hof_van_Holland">Hof van Holland</a>) to contest that Titus had to be paid first.<sup><a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a></sup> Isaac van Hertsbeeck lost twice and had to pay the money he had already received to Titus, which he did in 1668.<sup><a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a></sup> When <a href="/wiki/Cosimo_III_de%27_Medici,_Grand_Duke_of_Tuscany">Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany</a> came to Amsterdam in 1667, he visited Rembrandt at his house.<sup><a href="#cite_note-36">[35]</a></sup>
</p><p>Rembrandt outlived both Hendrickje, who died in 1663, and Titus, who died in 1668, leaving a baby daughter. He died within a year of his son's death, on 4 October 1669 in Amsterdam, and was buried as a supposedly rich man as the heirs paid in burial taxes a substantial amount of money, <i>f</i> 15.<sup><a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a></sup> but in a paupers grave in the <a href="/wiki/Westerkerk#Rembrandt">Westerkerk</a>. It was in a numbered 'kerkgraf' (grave owned by the church) somewhere under a tombstone in the church. After twenty years, his remains were taken away and destroyed, as was customary.
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<h2>Works[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rembrandt&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>In a letter to Huygens, Rembrandt offered the only surviving explanation of what he sought to achieve through his art: <i>the greatest and most natural movement</i>, translated from <i>de meeste en de natuurlijkste beweegelijkheid</i>. The word "beweegelijkheid" is also argued to mean "emotion" or "motive". Whether this refers to objectives, material or otherwise, is open to interpretation; either way, critics have drawn particular attention to the way Rembrandt seamlessly melded the earthly and spiritual.<sup><a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a></sup>
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<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_Christ_in_the_Storm_on_the_Lake_of_Galilee.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Earlier-20th-century connoisseurs claimed Rembrandt had produced well over 600 paintings,<sup><a href="#cite_note-39">[38]</a></sup> nearly 400 <a href="/wiki/Etching">etchings</a> and 2,000 drawings.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Rembrandtart-40">[39]</a></sup> More recent scholarship, from the 1960s to the present day (led by the <a href="/wiki/Rembrandt_Research_Project">Rembrandt Research Project</a>), often controversially, has winnowed his oeuvre to nearer 300 paintings.<sup><a href="#cite_note-42">[b]</a></sup> His <a href="/wiki/Old_master_print">prints</a>, traditionally all called <a href="/wiki/Etching">etchings</a>, although many are produced in whole or part by <a href="/wiki/Engraving">engraving</a> and sometimes <a href="/wiki/Drypoint">drypoint</a>, have a much more stable total of slightly under 300.<sup><a href="#cite_note-43">[c]</a></sup> It is likely Rembrandt made many more drawings in his lifetime than 2,000, but those extant are more rare than presumed.<sup><a href="#cite_note-45">[d]</a></sup> Two experts claim that the number of drawings whose autograph status can be regarded as effectively "certain" is no higher than about 75, although this is disputed. The list was to be unveiled at a scholarly meeting in February 2010.<sup><a href="#cite_note-46">[42]</a></sup>
</p><p>At one time about ninety paintings were counted as <a href="/wiki/Self-portraits_by_Rembrandt">Rembrandt self-portraits</a>, but it is now known that he had his students copy his own self-portraits as part of their training. Modern scholarship has reduced the autograph count to over forty paintings, as well as a few drawings and thirty-one etchings, which include many of the most remarkable images of the group.<sup><a href="#cite_note-47">[43]</a></sup> Some show him posing in quasi-historical fancy dress, or pulling faces at himself. His oil paintings trace the progress from an uncertain young man, through the dapper and very successful portrait-painter of the 1630s, to the troubled but massively powerful portraits of his old age. Together they give a remarkably clear picture of the man, his appearance and his psychological make-up, as revealed by his richly weathered face.<sup><a href="#cite_note-48">[e]</a></sup>
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<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_van_Rijn_-_A_Polish_nobleman.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>In his portraits and self-portraits, he angles the sitter's face in such a way that the ridge of the nose nearly always forms the line of demarcation between brightly illuminated and shadowy areas. A Rembrandt face is a face partially eclipsed; and the nose, bright and obvious, thrusting into the riddle of halftones, serves to focus the viewer's attention upon, and to dramatize, the division between a flood of light—an overwhelming clarity—and a brooding duskiness.<sup><a href="#cite_note-49">[44]</a></sup>
</p><p>In a number of biblical works, including <i>The Raising of the Cross</i>, <i>Joseph Telling His Dreams</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Stoning_of_Saint_Stephen">The Stoning of Saint Stephen</a></i>, Rembrandt painted himself as a character in the crowd. Durham suggests that this was because the Bible was for Rembrandt "a kind of diary, an account of moments in his own life".<sup><a href="#cite_note-50">[45]</a></sup>
</p><p>Among the more prominent characteristics of Rembrandt's work are his use of <a href="/wiki/Chiaroscuro">chiaroscuro</a>, the theatrical employment of light and shadow derived from <a href="/wiki/Caravaggio">Caravaggio</a>, or, more likely, from the Dutch <a href="/wiki/Utrecht_Caravaggism">Caravaggisti</a>, but adapted for very personal means.<sup><a href="#cite_note-51">[46]</a></sup> Also notable are his dramatic and lively presentation of subjects, devoid of the rigid formality that his contemporaries often displayed, and a deeply felt compassion for mankind, irrespective of wealth and age. His immediate family—his wife Saskia, his son Titus and his common-law wife Hendrickje—often figured prominently in his paintings, many of which had <a href="/wiki/Mythology">mythical</a>, biblical or historical themes.
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<h3>Periods, themes and styles[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rembrandt&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Throughout his career Rembrandt took as his primary subjects the themes of portraiture, landscape and narrative painting. For the last, he was especially praised by his contemporaries, who extolled him as a masterly interpreter of biblical stories for his skill in representing emotions and attention to detail.<sup><a href="#cite_note-52">[47]</a></sup> Stylistically, his paintings progressed from the early "smooth" manner, characterized by fine technique in the portrayal of illusionistic form, to the late "rough" treatment of richly variegated paint surfaces, which allowed for an illusionism of form suggested by the tactile quality of the paint itself.<sup><a href="#cite_note-53">[48]</a></sup>
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<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_Harmensz._van_Rijn_-_The_Abduction_of_Europa_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>A parallel development may be seen in Rembrandt's skill as a printmaker. In the etchings of his maturity, particularly from the late 1640s onward, the freedom and breadth of his drawings and paintings found expression in the print medium as well. The works encompass a wide range of subject matter and technique, sometimes leaving large areas of white paper to suggest space, at other times employing complex webs of line to produce rich dark tones.<sup><a href="#cite_note-55">[50]</a></sup>
</p><p>It was during Rembrandt's Leiden period (1625–1631) that Lastman's influence was most prominent. It is also likely that at this time Lievens had a strong impact on his work as well.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Wetering-284-56">[51]</a></sup> Paintings were rather small, but rich in details (for example, in costumes and jewelry). Religious and <a href="/wiki/Allegory">allegorical</a> themes were favored, as were <a href="/wiki/Tronie">tronies</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Wetering-284-56">[51]</a></sup> In 1626 Rembrandt produced his first etchings, the wide dissemination of which would largely account for his international fame.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Wetering-284-56">[51]</a></sup> In 1629 he completed <i><a href="/wiki/Judas_Repentant,_Returning_the_Pieces_of_Silver">Judas Repentant, Returning the Pieces of Silver</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Artist_in_his_studio">The Artist in His Studio</a></i>, works that evidence his interest in the handling of light and variety of paint application, and constitute the first major progress in his development as a painter.<sup><a href="#cite_note-57">[52]</a></sup>
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<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt,_Portret_van_Haesje_v.Cleyburg_1634.jpg"></a></p><div><p>A typical portrait from 1634, when Rembrandt was enjoying great commercial success</p></div></div>
<p>During his early years in Amsterdam (1632–1636), Rembrandt began to paint dramatic biblical and mythological scenes in high contrast and of large format (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Blinding_of_Samson">The Blinding of Samson</a></i>, 1636, <i><a href="/wiki/Belshazzar%27s_Feast_(Rembrandt)">Belshazzar's Feast</a></i>, c. 1635 <i><a href="/wiki/Dana%C3%AB_(Rembrandt)">Danaë</a></i>, 1636 but reworked later), seeking to emulate the baroque style of <a href="/wiki/Rubens">Rubens</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-58">[53]</a></sup> With the occasional help of assistants in Uylenburgh's workshop, he painted numerous portrait commissions both small (<a href="/wiki/Jacob_de_Gheyn_III_(painting)"><i>Jacob de Gheyn III</i></a>) and large (<i>Portrait of the Shipbuilder Jan Rijcksen and his Wife</i>, 1633, <i><a href="/wiki/Anatomy_Lesson_of_Dr._Nicolaes_Tulp">Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp</a></i>, 1632).<sup><a href="#cite_note-59">[54]</a></sup>
</p><p>By the late 1630s Rembrandt had produced a few paintings and many etchings of <a href="/wiki/Landscape_painting">landscapes</a>. Often these landscapes highlighted natural drama, featuring uprooted trees and ominous skies (<i>Cottages before a Stormy Sky</i>, c. 1641; <i>The Three Trees</i>, 1643). From 1640 his work became less exuberant and more sober in tone, possibly reflecting personal tragedy. Biblical scenes were now derived more often from the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament">New Testament</a> than the <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament">Old Testament</a>, as had been the case before. In 1642 he painted <i><a href="/wiki/The_Night_Watch">The Night Watch</a></i>, the most substantial of the important group portrait commissions which he received in this period, and through which he sought to find solutions to compositional and narrative problems that had been attempted in previous works.<sup><a href="#cite_note-60">[55]</a></sup>
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<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_-_Zelfportret_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"></a></p><div><p><i>Self Portrait</i>, 1658, <a href="/wiki/Frick_Collection">Frick Collection</a>, a masterpiece of the final style, "the calmest and grandest of all his portraits"<sup><a href="#cite_note-61">[56]</a></sup></p></div></div>
<p>In the decade following the <i>Night Watch</i>, Rembrandt's paintings varied greatly in size, subject, and style. The previous tendency to create dramatic effects primarily by strong contrasts of light and shadow gave way to the use of frontal lighting and larger and more saturated areas of color. Simultaneously, figures came to be placed parallel to the picture plane. These changes can be seen as a move toward a classical mode of composition and, considering the more expressive use of brushwork as well, may indicate a familiarity with Venetian art (<i>Susanna and the Elders</i>, 1637–47).<sup><a href="#cite_note-62">[57]</a></sup>
At the same time, there was a marked decrease in painted works in favor of etchings and drawings of landscapes.<sup><a href="#cite_note-63">[58]</a></sup> In these graphic works natural drama eventually made way for quiet Dutch rural scenes.
</p><p>In the 1650s, Rembrandt's style changed again. Colors became richer and brush strokes more pronounced. With these changes, Rembrandt distanced himself from earlier work and current fashion, which increasingly inclined toward fine, detailed works. His use of light becomes more jagged and harsh, and shine becomes almost nonexistent. His singular approach to paint application may have been suggested in part by familiarity with the work of <a href="/wiki/Titian">Titian</a>, and could be seen in the context of the then current discussion of 'finish' and surface quality of paintings. Contemporary accounts sometimes remark disapprovingly of the coarseness of Rembrandt's brushwork, and the artist himself was said to have dissuaded visitors from looking too closely at his paintings.<sup><a href="#cite_note-64">[59]</a></sup> The tactile manipulation of paint may hearken to medieval procedures, when mimetic effects of rendering informed a painting's surface. The result is a richly varied handling of paint, deeply layered and often apparently haphazard, which suggests form and space in both an illusory and highly individual manner.<sup><a href="#cite_note-65">[60]</a></sup>
</p><p>In later years biblical themes were still depicted often, but emphasis shifted from dramatic group scenes to intimate portrait-like figures (<i>James the Apostle</i>, 1661). In his last years, Rembrandt painted his most deeply reflective self-portraits (from 1652 to 1669 he painted fifteen), and several moving images of both men and women (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Bride">The Jewish Bride</a></i>, c. 1666)—in love, in life, and before God.<sup><a href="#cite_note-66">[61]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-67">[62]</a></sup>
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<h3>Graphic works[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rembrandt&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4">edit</a>]</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_Harmensz._van_Rijn_-_Christ_with_the_Sick_around_Him,_Receiving_Little_Children_(The_%27Hundred_Guilder_Print%27)_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Rembrandt produced <a href="/wiki/Etching">etchings</a> for most of his career, from 1626 to 1660, when he was forced to sell his printing-press and practically abandoned etching. Only the troubled year of 1649 produced no dated work.<sup><a href="#cite_note-68">[63]</a></sup> He took easily to etching and, though he also learned to use a <a href="/wiki/Burin_(engraving)">burin</a> and partly <a href="/wiki/Engraving">engraved</a> many plates, the freedom of etching technique was fundamental to his work. He was very closely involved in the whole process of printmaking, and must have printed at least early examples of his etchings himself. At first he used a style based on drawing, but soon moved to one based on painting, using a mass of lines and numerous bitings with the acid to achieve different strengths of line. Towards the end of the 1630s, he reacted against this manner and moved to a simpler style, with fewer bitings.<sup><a href="#cite_note-69">[64]</a></sup> He worked on the so-called <i><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Guilder_Print">Hundred Guilder Print</a></i> in stages throughout the 1640s, and it was the "critical work in the middle of his career", from which his final etching style began to emerge.<sup><a href="#cite_note-70">[65]</a></sup>
Although the print only survives in two <a href="/wiki/State_(printmaking)">states</a>, the first very rare, evidence of much reworking can be seen underneath the final print and many drawings survive for elements of it.<sup><a href="#cite_note-71">[66]</a></sup>
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<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Die_landschaft_mit_den_drei_baeumen.jpg"></a></p><div><p><i>The Three Trees</i>, 1643, etching</p></div></div>
<p>In the mature works of the 1650s, Rembrandt was more ready to improvise on the plate and large prints typically survive in several states, up to eleven, often radically changed. He now used <a href="/wiki/Hatching">hatching</a> to create his dark areas, which often take up much of the plate. He also experimented with the effects of printing on different kinds of paper, including <a href="/wiki/Japanese_paper">Japanese paper</a>, which he used frequently, and on <a href="/wiki/Vellum">vellum</a>. He began to use "<a href="/wiki/Surface_tone">surface tone</a>," leaving a thin film of ink on parts of the plate instead of wiping it completely clean to print each impression. He made more use of <a href="/wiki/Drypoint">drypoint</a>, exploiting, especially in landscapes, the rich fuzzy burr that this technique gives to the first few impressions.<sup><a href="#cite_note-72">[67]</a></sup>
</p><p>His prints have similar subjects to his paintings, although the twenty-seven self-portraits are relatively more common, and portraits of other people less so. There are forty-six landscapes, mostly small, which largely set the course for the graphic treatment of landscape until the end of the 19th century. One third of his etchings are of religious subjects, many treated with a homely simplicity, whilst others are his most monumental prints. A few erotic, or just obscene, compositions have no equivalent in his paintings.<sup><a href="#cite_note-73">[68]</a></sup> He owned, until forced to sell it, a magnificent collection of prints by other artists, and many borrowings and influences in his work can be traced to artists as diverse as <a href="/wiki/Andrea_Mantegna">Mantegna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raphael">Raphael</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hercules_Seghers">Hercules Seghers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Benedetto_Castiglione">Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione</a>.
</p><p>Drawings by Rembrandt and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Rembrandt_pupils">his pupils/followers</a> have been extensively studied by many artists and scholars<sup><a href="#cite_note-80">[f]</a></sup> through the centuries. His original draughtsmanship has been described as an individualistic art style that was very similar to East Asian old masters, most notably Chinese masters:<sup><a href="#cite_note-Mendelowitz-81">[75]</a></sup> a "combination of formal clarity and <a href="/wiki/Calligraphy">calligraphic</a> vitality in the movement of pen or brush that is closer to <a href="/wiki/Chinese_painting">Chinese painting</a> in technique and feeling than to anything in European art before the twentieth century".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Sullivan-82">[76]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Asian inspiration[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rembrandt&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5">edit</a>]</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_208.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Rembrandt drawing of an Indian Mughal painting</p></div></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandtselfportraitweb.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Role-playing in self-portrait as an oriental potentate with a <a href="/wiki/Kris">kris</a>/keris, a Javanese blade weapon from the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company_in_Indonesia">VOC era</a> (etching, c. 1634)</p></div></div>
<p>Rembrandt was interested in <a href="/wiki/Mughal_painting">Mughal miniatures</a>, especially around the 1650s. He drew versions of some 23 Mughal paintings, and may have owned an album of them. These miniatures include paintings of <a href="/wiki/Shah_Jahan">Shah Jahan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Akbar">Akbar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jahangir">Jahangir</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dara_Shikoh">Dara Shikoh</a>. They may also have influenced the costumes and other aspects of his works.<sup><a href="#cite_note-83">[77]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-84">[78]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-85">[79]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-86">[80]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><i>The Night Watch</i>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rembrandt&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6">edit</a>]</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:La_ronda_de_noche,_por_Rembrandt_van_Rijn.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Rembrandt painted the <i>The Militia Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq</i> between 1640 and 1642 which became his most famous work.<sup><a href="#cite_note-87">[81]</a></sup> This picture was called <i>De Nachtwacht</i> by the Dutch and <i>The Night Watch</i> by Sir <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Reynolds">Joshua Reynolds</a> because by 1781 the picture was so dimmed and defaced that it was almost indistinguishable, and it looked quite like a night scene. After it was cleaned, it was discovered to represent broad day—a party of 18 <a href="/wiki/Musketeer">musketeers</a> stepping from a gloomy courtyard into the blinding sunlight. For <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9ophile_Thor%C3%A9">Théophile Thoré</a> it was the prettiest painting in the world. 
</p><p>The piece was commissioned for the new hall of the <i><a href="/wiki/Kloveniersdoelen,_Amsterdam">Kloveniersdoelen</a></i>, the musketeer branch of the <a href="/wiki/Schutterij">civic militia</a>. Rembrandt departed from convention, which ordered that such genre pieces should be stately and formal, rather a line-up than an action scene. Instead he showed the militia readying themselves to embark on a mission (what kind of mission, an ordinary patrol or some special event, is a matter of debate).
</p><p>Contrary to what is often said, the work was hailed as a success from the beginning. Parts of the canvas were cut off (approximately 20% from the left hand side was removed) to make the painting fit its new position when it was moved to <a href="/wiki/Royal_Palace_of_Amsterdam">Amsterdam town hall</a> in 1715. In 1817 this large painting was moved to the <a href="/wiki/Trippenhuis">Trippenhuis</a>. Since 1885 the painting is on display at the <a href="/wiki/Rijksmuseum_Amsterdam">Rijksmuseum</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-88">[g]</a></sup> In 1940 the painting was moved to <a href="/wiki/Kasteel_Radboud">Kasteel Radboud</a>; in 1941 to a bunker near <a href="/wiki/Heemskerk">Heemskerk</a>; in 1942 to <a href="/wiki/St_Pietersberg">St Pietersberg</a>; in June 1945 it was shipped back to Amsterdam.
</p>
<h2>Expert assessments[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rembrandt&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_-_De_Poolse_ruiter,_c.1655_(Frick_Collection).jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>In 1968 the Rembrandt Research Project began under the sponsorship of the Netherlands Organization for the Advancement of Scientific Research; it was initially expected to last a highly optimistic ten years. Art historians teamed up with experts from other fields to reassess the authenticity of works attributed to Rembrandt, using all methods available, including state-of-the-art technical diagnostics, and to compile a complete new <a href="/wiki/Catalogue_raisonn%C3%A9">catalogue raisonné</a> of his paintings. As a result of their findings, many paintings that were previously attributed to Rembrandt have been removed from their list, although others have been added back.<sup><a href="#cite_note-89">[82]</a></sup> Many of those removed are now thought to be the work of his students.
</p><p>One example of activity is <i><a href="/wiki/The_Polish_Rider">The Polish Rider</a></i>, in New York's <a href="/wiki/Frick_Collection">Frick Collection</a>. Rembrandt's authorship had been questioned by at least one scholar, Alfred von Wurzbach, at the beginning of the twentieth century, but for many decades later most scholars, including the foremost authority writing in English, <a href="/wiki/Julius_S._Held">Julius S. Held</a>, agreed that it was indeed by the master. In the 1980s, however, Dr. Josua Bruyn of the Foundation Rembrandt Research Project cautiously and tentatively attributed the painting to one of Rembrandt's closest and most talented pupils, <a href="/wiki/Willem_Drost">Willem Drost</a>, about whom little is known. But Bruyn's remained a minority opinion, the suggestion of Drost's authorship is now generally rejected, and the Frick itself never changed its own attribution, the label still reading "Rembrandt" and not "attributed to" or "school of". More recent opinion has shifted even more decisively in favor of the Frick, with <a href="/wiki/Simon_Schama">Simon Schama</a> (in his 1999 book <i>Rembrandt's Eyes</i>) and the Rembrandt Project scholar Ernst van de Wetering (Melbourne Symposium, 1997) both arguing for attribution to the master. Those few scholars who still question Rembrandt's authorship feel that the execution is uneven, and favour different attributions for different parts of the work.<sup><a href="#cite_note-90">[83]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Mann_mit_dem_Goldhelm.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>A similar issue was raised by Simon Schama in his book <i>Rembrandt's Eyes</i> concerning the verification of titles associated with the subject matter depicted in Rembrandt's works. For example, the exact subject being portrayed in <i><a href="/wiki/Aristotle_with_a_Bust_of_Homer">Aristotle with a Bust of Homer</a></i> (recently retitled by curators at the Metropolitan Museum) has been directly challenged by Schama applying the scholarship of Paul Crenshaw.<sup><a href="#cite_note-92">[85]</a></sup> Schama presents a substantial argument that it was the famous ancient Greek painter <a href="/wiki/Apelles">Apelles</a> who is depicted in contemplation by Rembrandt and not Aristotle.<sup><a href="#cite_note-93">[86]</a></sup>
</p><p>Another painting, <i>Pilate Washing His Hands</i>, is also of questionable attribution. Critical opinion of this picture has varied since 1905, when Wilhelm von Bode described it as "a somewhat abnormal work" by Rembrandt. Scholars have since dated the painting to the 1660s and assigned it to an anonymous pupil, possibly Aert de Gelder. The composition bears superficial resemblance to mature works by Rembrandt but lacks the master's command of illumination and modeling.<sup><a href="#cite_note-94">[87]</a></sup>
</p><p>The attribution and re-attribution work is ongoing. In 2005 four oil paintings previously attributed to Rembrandt's students were reclassified as the work of Rembrandt himself: <i>Study of an Old Man in Profile</i> and <i>Study of an Old Man with a Beard</i> from a US private collection, <i><a href="/wiki/Study_of_a_Weeping_Woman">Study of a Weeping Woman</a></i>, owned by the <a href="/wiki/Detroit_Institute_of_Arts">Detroit Institute of Arts</a>, and <i>Portrait of an Elderly Woman in a White Bonnet</i>, painted in 1640.<sup><a href="#cite_note-95">[88]</a></sup> The <i>Old Man Sitting in a Chair</i> is a further example: in 2014, Professor <a href="/wiki/Ernst_van_de_Wetering">Ernst van de Wetering</a> offered his view to <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian">The Guardian</a></i> that the demotion of the 1652 painting <i>Old Man Sitting in a Chair</i> "was a vast mistake...it is a most important painting. The painting needs to be seen in terms of Rembrandt's experimentation". This was highlighted much earlier by <a href="/wiki/Nigel_Konstam">Nigel Konstam</a> who studied Rembrandt throughout his career.<sup><a href="#cite_note-96">[89]</a></sup>
</p><p>Rembrandt's own studio practice is a major factor in the difficulty of attribution, since, like many masters before him, he encouraged his students to copy his paintings, sometimes finishing or retouching them to be sold as originals, and sometimes selling them as authorized copies. Additionally, his style proved easy enough for his most talented students to emulate. Further complicating matters is the uneven quality of some of Rembrandt's own work, and his frequent stylistic evolutions and experiments.<sup><a href="#cite_note-97">[90]</a></sup> As well, there were later imitations of his work, and restorations which so seriously damaged the original works that they are no longer recognizable.<sup><a href="#cite_note-98">[91]</a></sup> It is highly likely that there will never be universal agreement as to what does and what does not constitute a genuine Rembrandt.
</p>
<h2>Painting materials[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rembrandt&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_-_Saskia_van_Uylenburgh_in_Arcadian_Costume_-_WGA19164.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Technical investigation of Rembrandt's paintings in the possession of the <a href="/wiki/Gem%C3%A4ldegalerie_Alte_Meister">Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-99">[92]</a></sup> and in the <a href="/wiki/Gem%C3%A4ldegalerie_Alte_Meister_(Kassel)">Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister (Kassel)</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-100">[93]</a></sup> was conducted by Hermann Kühn in 1977. The pigment analyses of some thirty paintings have shown that Rembrandt's palette consisted of the following pigments: <a href="/wiki/Lead_white">lead white</a>, various <a href="/wiki/Ochres">ochres</a>, Vandyke brown, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone_Black_(pigment)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1">bone black</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charcoal_black">charcoal black</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lamp_black">lamp black</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vermilion">vermilion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madder_lake">madder lake</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azurite">azurite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ultramarine">ultramarine</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yellow_lake&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1">yellow lake</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lead-tin-yellow">lead-tin-yellow</a>. One painting (Saskia van Uylenburgh as Flora)<sup><a href="#cite_note-101">[94]</a></sup> reportedly contains <a href="/wiki/Gamboge">gamboge</a>. Rembrandt very rarely used pure blue or green colors, the most pronounced exception being <a href="/wiki/Belshazzar%27s_Feast_(Rembrandt)"><i>Belshazzar's Feast</i></a><sup><a href="#cite_note-bomford-102">[95]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-103">[96]</a></sup> in the <a href="/wiki/National_Gallery_in_London">National Gallery in London</a>. The book by Bomford<sup><a href="#cite_note-bomford-102">[95]</a></sup> describes more recent technical investigations and pigment analyses of Rembrandt's paintings predominantly in the National Gallery in London. The entire array of pigments employed by Rembrandt can be found at ColourLex.<sup><a href="#cite_note-104">[97]</a></sup> The best source for technical information on Rembrandt's paintings on the web is the Rembrandt Database containing all works of Rembrandt with detailed investigative reports, infrared and radiography images and other scientific details.<sup><a href="#cite_note-105">[98]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Name and signature[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rembrandt&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt,_bue_squartato,_1655,_02.JPG"></a></p></div>
<p>"Rembrandt" is a modification of the spelling of the artist's first name that he introduced in 1633. "Harmenszoon" indicates that his father's name is Harmen. "van Rijn" indicates that his family lived near the <a href="/wiki/Rhine">Rhine</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-106">[99]</a></sup>
</p><p>Roughly speaking, his earliest signatures (c. 1625) consisted of an initial "R", or the monogram "RH" (for Rembrant Harmenszoon), and starting in 1629, "RHL" (the "L" stood, presumably, for Leiden). In 1632, he used this monogram early in the year, then added his family name to it, "RHL-van Rijn", but replaced this form in that same year and began using his first name alone with its original spelling, "Rembrant". In 1633 he added a "d", and maintained this form consistently from then on, proving that this minor change had a meaning for him (whatever it might have been). This change is purely visual; it does not change the way his name is pronounced. Curiously enough, despite the large number of paintings and etchings signed with this modified first name, most of the documents that mentioned him during his lifetime retained the original "Rembrant" spelling. (Note: the rough chronology of signature forms above applies to the paintings, and to a lesser degree to the etchings; from 1632, presumably, there is only one etching signed "RHL-v. Rijn," the large-format "Raising of Lazarus," B 73).<sup><a href="#cite_note-107">[100]</a></sup> His practice of signing his work with his first name, later followed by <a href="/wiki/Vincent_van_Gogh">Vincent van Gogh</a>, was probably inspired by <a href="/wiki/Raphael">Raphael</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a> who, then as now, were referred to by their first names alone.<sup><a href="#cite_note-108">[101]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Workshop[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rembrandt&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Rembrandt ran a large workshop and had many pupils. The <a href="/wiki/List_of_Rembrandt_pupils">list of Rembrandt pupils</a> from his period in Leiden as well as his time in Amsterdam is quite long, mostly because his influence on painters around him was so great that it is difficult to tell whether someone worked for him in his studio or just copied his style for patrons eager to acquire a Rembrandt. A partial list should include<sup><a href="#cite_note-109">[102]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Bol">Ferdinand Bol</a>,
<a href="/wiki/Adriaen_Brouwer">Adriaen Brouwer</a>,
<a href="/wiki/Gerrit_Dou">Gerrit Dou</a>,
<a href="/wiki/Willem_Drost">Willem Drost</a>,
<a href="/wiki/Heiman_Dullaart">Heiman Dullaart</a>,
<a href="/wiki/Gerbrand_van_den_Eeckhout">Gerbrand van den Eeckhout</a>,
<a href="/wiki/Carel_Fabritius">Carel Fabritius</a>,
<a href="/wiki/Govert_Flinck">Govert Flinck</a>,
<a href="/wiki/Hendrick_Fromantiou">Hendrick Fromantiou</a>,
<a href="/wiki/Aert_de_Gelder">Aert de Gelder</a>,
<a href="/wiki/Samuel_Dirksz_van_Hoogstraten">Samuel Dirksz van Hoogstraten</a>,
<a href="/wiki/Abraham_Janssens">Abraham Janssens</a>,
<a href="/wiki/Godfrey_Kneller">Godfrey Kneller</a>,
<a href="/wiki/Philip_de_Koninck">Philip de Koninck</a>,
<a href="/wiki/Jacob_Levecq">Jacob Levecq</a>,
<a href="/wiki/Nicolaes_Maes">Nicolaes Maes</a>,
<a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Ovens">Jürgen Ovens</a>,
<a href="/wiki/Christopher_Paudi%C3%9F">Christopher Paudiß</a>,
<a href="/wiki/Willem_de_Poorter">Willem de Poorter</a>,
<a href="/wiki/Jan_Victors">Jan Victors</a>, and
<a href="/wiki/Willem_van_der_Vliet">Willem van der Vliet</a>.
</p>
<h2>Museum collections[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rembrandt&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandts_house,_Amsterdam.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>The most notable collections of Rembrandt's work are at Amsterdam's <a href="/wiki/Rijksmuseum_Amsterdam">Rijksmuseum</a>, including <i><a href="/wiki/The_Night_Watch">The Night Watch</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Bride">The Jewish Bride</a></i>, the <a href="/wiki/Mauritshuis">Mauritshuis</a> in <a href="/wiki/The_Hague">The Hague</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hermitage_Museum">Hermitage Museum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg">St. Petersburg</a>, the <a href="/wiki/National_Gallery">National Gallery</a> in London, <a href="/wiki/Gem%C3%A4ldegalerie,_Berlin">Gemäldegalerie</a> in Berlin, <a href="/wiki/Gem%C3%A4ldegalerie_Alte_Meister">Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister</a> in Dresden, <a href="/wiki/The_Louvre">The Louvre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nationalmuseum,_Stockholm">Nationalmuseum, Stockholm</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Schloss_Wilhelmsh%C3%B6he">Schloss Wilhelmshöhe</a> in Kassel. The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Castle,_Warsaw">Royal Castle</a> in <a href="/wiki/Warsaw">Warsaw</a> displays two paintings by Rembrandt.<sup><a href="#cite_note-zamek-110">[103]</a></sup>
</p><p>Notable collections of Rembrandt's paintings in the United States are housed in the <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frick_Collection">Frick Collection</a> in New York City, the <a href="/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Art">National Gallery of Art</a> in Washington, D.C., <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Fine_Arts,_Boston">Museum of Fine Arts</a> in Boston, and <a href="/wiki/J._Paul_Getty_Museum">J. Paul Getty Museum</a> in Los Angeles.<sup><a href="#cite_note-111">[104]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Rembrandt_House_Museum">Rembrandt House Museum</a> in central Amsterdam in the house he bought at the height of his success, has furnishings that are mostly not original, but period pieces comparable to those Rembrandt might have had, and paintings reflecting Rembrandt's use of the house for art dealing. His printmaking studio has been set up with a printing press, where replica prints are printed. The museum has a few Rembrandt paintings, many loaned, but an important collection of his prints, a good selection of which are on rotating display. All major <a href="/wiki/Print_room">print rooms</a> have large collections of Rembrandt prints, although as some exist in only a single impression, no collection is complete. The degree to which these collections are displayed to the public, or can easily be viewed by them in the print room, varies greatly.
</p>
<h2>Influence and recognition[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rembrandt&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Nachtwacht-in-3D.jpg"></a></p></div>
<blockquote><p>[...] I maintain that it did not occur to <a href="/wiki/Protogenes">Protogenes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apelles">Apelles</a> or <a href="/wiki/Parrhasius_(painter)">Parrhasius</a>, nor could it occur to them were they return to earth that (I am amazed simply to report this) a youth, a Dutchman, a beardless miller, could bring together so much in one human figure and express what is universal. All honor to thee, my Rembrandt! To have carried Illium, indeed all Asia, to Italy is a lesser achievement than to have brought the laurels of Greece and Italy to Holland, the achievement of a Dutchman who has seldom ventured outside the walls of his native city...</p><p>— <cite><a href="/wiki/Constantijn_Huygens">Constantijn Huygens</a>, Lord of Zuilichem, possibly the earliest known notable <a href="/wiki/List_of_Rembrandt_connoisseurs_and_scholars">Rembrandt connoisseur and critic</a>, 1629. Excerpt from the manuscript <i>Autobiography of Constantijn Huygens</i> (Koninklijke Bibliotheek, Den Haag), originally published in <i>Oud Holland</i> (1891), translated from the Dutch.<sup><a href="#cite_note-112">[105]</a></sup></cite></p></blockquote>
<p>Rembrandt is <a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Rembrandt_van_Rijn">one of the most famous</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-113">[106]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Dickey2006-114">[107]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_works_about_Rembrandt">the best expertly researched</a> visual artists in history.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Slive-115">[108]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FranitsAshgate2016-116">[109]</a></sup> His life and art have long attracted the attention of interdisciplinary scholarship such as art history, socio-political history,<sup><a href="#cite_note-117">[110]</a></sup> cultural history,<sup><a href="#cite_note-118">[111]</a></sup> education, humanities, philosophy and aesthetics,<sup><a href="#cite_note-119">[112]</a></sup> psychology, sociology, literary studies,<sup><a href="#cite_note-120">[113]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Anatomy">anatomy</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-121">[114]</a></sup> medicine,<sup><a href="#cite_note-122">[115]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Religious_studies">religious studies</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-123">[h]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-124">[116]</a></sup> theology,<sup><a href="#cite_note-125">[117]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_studies">Jewish studies</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-126">[118]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Oriental_studies">Oriental studies</a> (<a href="/wiki/Asian_studies">Asian studies</a>),<sup><a href="#cite_note-127">[119]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Global_studies">global studies</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-128">[120]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Art_market">art market research</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-129">[121]</a></sup> He has been the subject of a vast amount of literature <a href="/wiki/List_of_works_about_Rembrandt">in genres of both fiction and nonfiction</a>. Research and scholarship related to Rembrandt is an academic field in its own right with many notable <a href="/wiki/List_of_Rembrandt_connoisseurs_and_scholars">connoisseurs and scholars</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-130">[122]</a></sup> and has been very dynamic since the Dutch Golden Age.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Slive-115">[108]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-131">[123]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FranitsAshgate2016-116">[109]</a></sup>
</p><p>
According to art historian and Rembrandt scholar Stephanie Dickey: </p><blockquote><p>[Rembrandt] earned international renown as a painter, printmaker, teacher, and art collector while never leaving the Dutch Republic. In his home city of Leiden and in Amsterdam, where he worked for nearly forty years, he mentored generations of other painters and produced a body of work that has never ceased to attract admiration, critique, and interpretation. (...) Rembrandt's art is a key component in any study of the Dutch Golden Age, and his membership in the canon of artistic genius is well established, but he is also a figure whose significance transcends specialist interest. Literary critics have pondered "Rembrandt" as a "cultural text"; novelists, playwrights, and filmmakers have romanticized his life, and in popular culture, his name has become synonymous with excellence for products and services, ranging from <a href="/wiki/Rembrandt_toothpaste">toothpaste</a> to self-help advice.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FranitsAshgate2016-116">[109]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Goethe_(Stieler_1828).jpg"></a></p><div><p>In 1775, a 25-year-old <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe">Johann Wolfgang von Goethe</a> wrote in a letter that "I live wholly with Rembrandt" ("...ich zeichne, künstle p. Und lebe ganz mit Rembrandt."). At the age of 81 (1831), Goethe wrote the essay "Rembrandt der Denker" ("Rembrandt the Thinker"), published in the posthumous collection of his works.<sup><a href="#cite_note-132">[124]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-133">[125]</a></sup></p></div></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Goya">Francisco Goya</a>, often considered to be among the last of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Masters">Old Masters</a>, said, "I have had three masters: Nature, <a href="/wiki/Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez">Velázquez</a>, and Rembrandt." ("Yo no he tenido otros maestros que la Naturaleza, Velázquez y Rembrandt.")<sup><a href="#cite_note-134">[126]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-135">[127]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-136">[128]</a></sup> In the history of the reception and interpretation of Rembrandt's art, it was the significant Rembrandt-inspired 'revivals' or 'rediscoveries' in 18th–19th century France,<sup><a href="#cite_note-137">[129]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-138">[130]</a></sup> Germany,<sup><a href="#cite_note-139">[131]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-140">[132]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-141">[133]</a></sup> and Britain<sup><a href="#cite_note-142">[134]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-143">[135]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-144">[136]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-145">[137]</a></sup> that decisively helped in establishing his lasting fame in subsequent centuries.<sup><a href="#cite_note-146">[138]</a></sup> When a critic referred to <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Rodin">Auguste Rodin</a>'s busts in the same vein as Rembrandt's portraits, the French sculptor responded: "Compare me with Rembrandt? What sacrilege! With Rembrandt, the colossus of Art! What are you thinking of, my friend! We should prostrate ourselves before Rembrandt and never compare anyone with him!”<sup><a href="#cite_note-Rodin-9">[9]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Vincent_van_Gogh">Vincent van Gogh</a> wrote to <a href="/wiki/Theo_van_Gogh_(art_dealer)">his brother Theo</a> (1885), "Rembrandt goes so deep into the mysterious that he says things for which there are no words in any language. It is with justice that they call Rembrandt—magician—that's no easy occupation."<sup><a href="#cite_note-147">[139]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Rembrandt and the Jewish world[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rembrandt&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Although Rembrandt was not Jewish, he has had a considerable influence on many modern Jewish artists, writers and scholars (<a href="/wiki/Art_critic">art critics</a> and art historians in particular).<sup><a href="#cite_note-148">[140]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-149">[141]</a></sup> The German-Jewish painter <a href="/wiki/Max_Liebermann">Max Liebermann</a> said, "Whenever I see a <a href="/wiki/Frans_Hals">Frans Hals</a>, I feel like painting; whenever I see a Rembrandt, I feel like giving up."<sup><a href="#cite_note-150">[142]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Marc_Chagall">Marc Chagall</a> wrote in 1922, "Neither <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russia">Imperial Russia</a>, nor the Russia of the <a href="/wiki/Soviets">Soviets</a> needs me. They don't understand me. I am a stranger to them," and he added, "I'm certain Rembrandt loves me."<sup><a href="#cite_note-151">[143]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_Harmensz._van_Rijn_-_Portret_van_een_paar_als_oudtestamentische_figuren,_genaamd_%27Het_Joodse_bruidje%27_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"></a></p><div><p><i><a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Bride">The Jewish Bride</a></i>, c. 1665–9, Rijksmuseum Amsterdam. In <a href="/wiki/Vincent_van_Gogh">Vincent van Gogh</a>'s own words (1885), "I should be happy to give 10 years of my life if I could go on sitting here in front of this picture [<i>The Jewish Bride</i>] fortnight, with only a crust of dry bread for food." In a letter to <a href="/wiki/Theo_van_Gogh_(art_dealer)">his brother Theo</a>, Vincent wrote, "What an intimate, what an infinitely sympathetic picture it is,"<sup><a href="#cite_note-152">[144]</a></sup></p></div></div>
<blockquote><p> Rembrandt regarded the Bible as the greatest Book in the world and held it in reverent affection all his life, in affluence and poverty, in success and failure. He never wearied in his devotion to biblical themes as subjects for his paintings and other graphic presentations, and in these portrayals he was the first to have the courage to use the Jews of his environment as models for the heroes of the sacred narratives.</p><p>— <cite>Franz Landsberger, a German Jewish émigré to America, the author of <i>Rembrandt, the Jews, and the Bible</i> (1946)<sup><a href="#cite_note-153">[145]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-154">[146]</a></sup></cite></p></blockquote>
<h3>Criticism of Rembrandt[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rembrandt&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Rembrandt has also been one of the most controversial (visual) artists in history.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Slive-115">[108]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Białostocki-155">[147]</a></sup> Several of Rembrandt's notable critics include <a href="/wiki/Constantijn_Huygens">Constantijn Huygens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joachim_von_Sandrart">Joachim von Sandrart</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-LivesRembrandt-156">[148]</a></sup> <a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andries_Pels_(1631-1681)">Andries Pels</a> (who called Rembrandt "the first heretic in the art of painting"),<sup><a href="#cite_note-157">[149]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Samuel_van_Hoogstraten">Samuel van Hoogstraten</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Houbraken">Arnold Houbraken</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-LivesRembrandt-156">[148]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Filippo_Baldinucci">Filippo Baldinucci</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-LivesRembrandt-156">[148]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gerard_de_Lairesse">Gerard de Lairesse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roger_de_Piles">Roger de Piles</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin">John Ruskin</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Ruskin-158">[150]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Fromentin">Eugène Fromentin</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Białostocki-155">[147]</a></sup>
</p>
<blockquote><p>By 1875 Rembrandt was already a powerful figure, projecting from historical past into the present with such a strength that he could not be simply overlooked or passed by. The great shadow of the old master required a decided attitude. A late <a href="/wiki/Romantic_painting">Romantic painter</a> and critic, like <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Fromentin">Fromentin</a> was, if he happened not to like some of Rembrandt's pictures, he felt obliged to justify his feeling. The greatness of the dramatic old master was for artists of about 1875 not a matter for doubt. 'Either I am wrong', Fromentin wrote from Holland 'or everybody else is wrong'. When Fromentin realized his inability to like some of the works by Rembrandt he formulated the following comments: 'I even do not dare to write down such a blasphemy; I would get ridiculed if this is disclosed'. Only about twenty-five years earlier another French Romantic master <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix">Eugène Delacroix</a>, when expressing his admiration for Rembrandt, has written in his <i>Journal</i> a very different statement: '... perhaps one day we will discover that Rembrandt is a much greater painter than <a href="/wiki/Raphael">Raphael</a>. It is a blasphemy which would make hair raise on the heads of all the academic painters'. In 1851 the blasphemy was to put Rembrandt above Raphael. In 1875 the blasphemy was not to admire everything Rembrandt had ever produced. Between these two dates, the appreciation of Rembrandt reached its turning point and since that time he was never deprived of the high rank in the art world.</p></blockquote>
<h3>In popular culture[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rembrandt&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15">edit</a>]</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Leiden_Rembrandt_Statue.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Rembrandt statue in Leiden</p></div></div>
<blockquote><p>[...] One thing that really surprises me is the extent to which Rembrandt exists as a phenomenon in <a href="/wiki/Pop_culture">pop culture</a>. You have this <a href="/wiki/The_Rembrandts">musical group call [<i>sic</i>] the Rembrandts</a>, who wrote the theme song to <i>Friends</i>—"I'll Be There For You". There are Rembrandt restaurants, Rembrandt hotels, art supplies and other things that are more obvious. But then there's <a href="/wiki/Rembrandt_toothpaste">Rembrandt toothpaste</a>. Why on Earth would somebody name a toothpaste after this artist who's known for his really dark tonalities? It doesn't make a lot of sense. But I think it's because his name has become synonymous with quality. It's even a verb—there's a term in underworld slang, 'to be Rembrandted,' which means to be framed for a crime. And people in the cinema world use it to mean pictorial effects that are overdone. He's just everywhere, and people who don't know anything, who wouldn't recognize a Rembrandt painting if they tripped over it, you say the name Rembrandt and they already know that this is a great artist. He's become a synonym for greatness.</p><p>— <cite>Rembrandt scholar, Stephanie Dickey, in an interview with <i><a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Magazine">Smithsonian Magazine</a></i>, December 2006<sup><a href="#cite_note-Dickey2006-114">[107]</a></sup></cite></p></blockquote>
<p>While shooting <i>The Warrens of Virginia</i> (1915), <a href="/wiki/Cecil_B._DeMille">Cecil B. DeMille</a> had experimented with lighting instruments borrowed from a Los Angeles opera house. When business partner <a href="/wiki/Sam_Goldwyn">Sam Goldwyn</a> saw a scene in which only half an actor's face was illuminated, he feared the exhibitors would pay only half the price for the picture. DeMille remonstrated that it was <a href="/wiki/Rembrandt_lighting">Rembrandt lighting</a>. "Sam's reply was jubilant with relief," recalled DeMille. "For Rembrandt lighting the exhibitors would pay double!"<sup><a href="#cite_note-159">[151]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Works about Rembrandt[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rembrandt&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16">edit</a>]</h3>
<h4>Literary works (e.g. poetry and fiction)[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rembrandt&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17">edit</a>]</h4>
<ul><li><i>To the Picture of Rembrandt</i> (Russian-language poem by <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lermontov">Mikhail Lermontov</a>, 1830)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Gaspard_de_la_Nuit_(poetry_collection)">Gaspard de la nuit: Fantaisies à la manière de Rembrandt et de Callot</a></i> (French-language prose poems by <a href="/wiki/Aloysius_Bertrand">Aloysius Bertrand</a>, 1842)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Picture_This_(novel)">Picture This</a></i> (1988 novel by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Heller">Joseph Heller</a>)</li>
<li><i>Moi, la Putain de Rembrandt</i> (French-language novel by Sylvie Matton, 1998)</li>
<li><i>Van Rijn</i> (2006 novel by Sarah Emily Miano)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/I_Am_Rembrandt%27s_Daughter">I Am Rembrandt's Daughter</a></i> (2007 novel by Lynn Cullen)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Rembrandt_Affair">The Rembrandt Affair</a></i> (2011 novel by <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Silva_(novelist)">Daniel Silva</a>)</li>
<li><i>The Anatomy Lesson</i> (2014 novel by Nina Siegal)</li>
<li><i>Rembrandt's Mirror</i> (2015 novel by Kim Devereux)</li></ul>
<h4>Films[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rembrandt&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18">edit</a>]</h4>
<ul><li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Stolen_Rembrandt&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1">The Stolen Rembrandt</a></i> (1914 film directed by Leo D. Maloney and J.P. McGowan)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Tragedy_of_a_Great">The Tragedy of a Great</a></i> / <i>Die Tragödie eines Großen</i> (1920 film directed by Arthur Günsburg)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Missing_Rembrandt">The Missing Rembrandt</a></i> (1932 film directed by <a href="/wiki/Leslie_S._Hiscott">Leslie S. Hiscott</a>)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Rembrandt_(1936_film)">Rembrandt</a></i> (1936 film directed by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Korda">Alexander Korda</a>)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Rembrandt_(1940_film)">Rembrandt</a></i> (1940 film)</li>
<li><i>Rembrandt in de schuilkelder</i> / <i>Rembrandt in the Bunker</i> (1941 film directed by Gerard Rutten)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Rembrandt_(1942_film)">Rembrandt</a></i> (1942 film directed by <a href="/wiki/Hans_Steinhoff">Hans Steinhoff</a>)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Rembrandt:_A_Self-Portrait">Rembrandt: A Self-Portrait</a></i> (1954 documentary film by Morrie Roizman)</li>
<li><i>Rembrandt, schilder van de mens</i> / <i>Rembrandt, Painter of Man</i> (1957 film directed by Bert Haanstra)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Rembrandt_fecit_1669">Rembrandt fecit 1669</a></i> (1977 film directed by <a href="/wiki/Jos_Stelling">Jos Stelling</a>)</li>
<li><i>Rembrandt: The Public Eye and the Private Gaze</i> (1992 documentary film by <a href="/wiki/Simon_Schama">Simon Schama</a>)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Rembrandt_(1999_film)">Rembrandt</a></i> (1999 film directed by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Matton">Charles Matton</a>)</li>
<li><i><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rembrandt:_Fathers_%26_Sons">Rembrandt: Fathers &amp; Sons</a></i> (1999 film directed by David Devine)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Stealing_Rembrandt">Stealing Rembrandt</a></i> (2003 film directed by <a href="/wiki/Jannik_Johansen">Jannik Johansen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anders_Thomas_Jensen">Anders Thomas Jensen</a>)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Simon_Schama%27s_Power_of_Art">Simon Schama's Power of Art</a>: Rembrandt</i> (2006 BBC documentary film series by Simon Schama)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Nightwatching">Nightwatching</a></i> (2007 film directed by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Greenaway">Peter Greenaway</a>)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Rembrandt%27s_J%27Accuse">Rembrandt's J'Accuse</a></i> (2008 documentary film by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Greenaway">Peter Greenaway</a>)</li>
<li><i><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rembrandt_en_ik">Rembrandt en ik</a></i> (2011 film directed by Marleen Gorris)</li>
<li><i>Schama on Rembrandt: Masterpieces of the Late Years</i> (2014 documentary film by Simon Schama)</li>
<li><i>Rembrandt: From the National Gallery, London and Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam</i> (2014 documentary film by Exhibition on Screen)</li></ul>
<h2>Selected works[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rembrandt&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_laughing.jpg"></a></p></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_Girl_in_a_Picture_Frame.jpg"></a></p></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_Harmensz._van_Rijn_049.jpg"></a></p><div><p><i>The evangelist Matthew and the Angel</i>, 1661</p></div></div>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Stoning_of_Saint_Stephen">The Stoning of Saint Stephen</a></i> (1625) – <small><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Fine_Arts_of_Lyon">Musée des Beaux-Arts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lyon">Lyon</a></small></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Andromeda_Chained_to_the_Rocks">Andromeda Chained to the Rocks</a></i> (1630) – <small><a href="/wiki/Mauritshuis">Mauritshuis</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Hague">The Hague</a></small></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Jacob_de_Gheyn_III">Jacob de Gheyn III</a></i> (1632) – <small><a href="/wiki/Dulwich_Picture_Gallery">Dulwich Picture Gallery</a>, London</small></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Philosopher_in_Meditation">Philosopher in Meditation</a></i> (1632) – <small><a href="/wiki/The_Louvre">The Louvre</a>, Paris</small></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Anatomy_Lesson_of_Dr._Nicolaes_Tulp">The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp</a></i> (1632) – <small><a href="/wiki/Mauritshuis">Mauritshuis</a>, The Hague</small></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Artemisia_(Rembrandt)">Artemisia</a></i> (1634) – <small>oil on canvas, 142 × 152 cm, <a href="/wiki/Museo_del_Prado">Museo del Prado</a>, Madrid</small></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Descent_from_the_Cross_(Rembrandt,_1634)">Descent from the Cross</a></i> (1634) – <small>oil on canvas, 158 × 117 cm, looted from the <a href="/wiki/Landgrave">Landgrave</a> of <a href="/wiki/Landgraviate_of_Hesse-Kassel">Hesse-Kassel</a> (or Hesse-Cassel), Germany in 1806, currently <a href="/wiki/Hermitage_Museum">Hermitage Museum</a>, St. Petersburg</small></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Belshazzar%27s_Feast_(Rembrandt)">Belshazzar's Feast</a></i> (1635) – <small><a href="/wiki/National_Gallery">National Gallery</a>, London</small></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Prodigal_Son_in_the_Tavern">The Prodigal Son in the Tavern</a></i> (c. 1635) – <small>oil on canvas, 161 × 131 cm <a href="/wiki/Gem%C3%A4ldegalerie_Alte_Meister">Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dresden">Dresden</a></small></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Dana%C3%AB_(Rembrandt_painting)">Danaë</a></i> (1636 – c. 1643) – <small><a href="/wiki/Hermitage_Museum">Hermitage Museum</a>, St. Petersburg</small></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Scholar_at_the_Lectern">The Scholar at the Lectern</a></i> (1641) – <small><a href="/wiki/Royal_Castle_in_Warsaw">Royal Castle in Warsaw</a>, <a href="/wiki/Warsaw">Warsaw</a></small></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Girl_in_a_Picture_Frame">The Girl in a Picture Frame</a></i> (1641) – <small><a href="/wiki/Royal_Castle,_Warsaw">Royal Castle, Warsaw</a></small></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Night_Watch">The Night Watch</a></i>, formally <i>The Militia Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq</i> (1642) – <small><a href="/wiki/Rijksmuseum">Rijksmuseum</a>, Amsterdam</small></li>
<li><i>Christ Healing the Sick</i> (<a href="/wiki/Etching">etching</a> c. 1643, also known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Guilder_Print">Hundred Guilder Print</a></i>)<small>, nicknamed for the huge sum paid for it</small></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Boaz_and_Ruth_(paintings)">Boaz and Ruth</a></i> (1643) aka <i>The Old Rabbi</i> or <i>Old Man</i> – <small><a href="/wiki/Woburn_Abbey">Woburn Abbey</a>/<a href="/wiki/Gemaldegalerie,_Berlin">Gemaldegalerie, Berlin</a></small></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Mill_(Rembrandt)">The Mill</a></i> (1645/48) – <small><a href="/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Art">National Gallery of Art</a>, Washington, D.C.</small></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Man_with_a_Gold_Chain">Old Man with a Gold Chain</a></i> ("<i>Old Man with a Black Hat and Gorget</i>") (c. 1631) <small><a href="/wiki/Art_Institute_of_Chicago">Art Institute of Chicago</a></small></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Susanna_and_the_Elders_(Rembrandt)">Susanna and the Elders</a></i> (1647) – <small>oil on panel, 76 × 91 cm, <a href="/wiki/Gem%C3%A4ldegalerie,_Berlin">Gemäldegalerie, Berlin</a></small></li>
<li><i>Head of Christ</i> (c. 1648–56) – <small>The Philadelphia Museum of Art</small><sup><a href="#cite_note-160">[152]</a></sup></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Aristotle_Contemplating_a_Bust_of_Homer">Aristotle Contemplating a Bust of Homer</a></i> (1653) – <small><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>, New York</small></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Bathsheba_at_Her_Bath_(Rembrandt)">Bathsheba at Her Bath</a></i> (1654) – <small>The Louvre, Paris</small></li>
<li><i>Christ Presented to the People (Ecce Homo)</i> (1655) – <small>Drypoint, <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Museum_of_Art">Birmingham Museum of Art</a></small></li>
<li><i>Selfportrait</i> (1658) – <small><a href="/wiki/Frick_Collection">Frick Collection</a>, New York</small></li>
<li><i>The Three Crosses</i> (1660) Etching, fourth state</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Ahasuerus_and_Haman_at_the_Feast_of_Esther">Ahasuerus and Haman at the Feast of Esther</a></i> (1660) – <small><a href="/wiki/Pushkin_Museum">Pushkin Museum</a>, Moscow</small></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Conspiracy_of_Claudius_Civilis">The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis</a></i> (1661) – <small><a href="/wiki/Nationalmuseum">Nationalmuseum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stockholm">Stockholm</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Civilis">Claudius Civilis</a> led a Dutch revolt against the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome">Romans</a>) (most of the cut up painting is lost, only the central part still exists)</small></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Portrait_of_Dirck_van_Os">Portrait of Dirck van Os</a></i> (1662) – <small><a href="/wiki/Joslyn_Art_Museum">Joslyn Art Museum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Omaha,_Nebraska">Omaha, Nebraska</a></small></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Syndics_of_the_Drapers%27_Guild">Syndics of the Drapers' Guild</a></i> (Dutch <i>De Staalmeesters</i>, 1662) – <small>Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam</small></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Bride">The Jewish Bride</a></i> (1665) – <small>Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam</small></li>
<li><i>Haman before Esther</i> (1665) – <small><a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Art_of_Romania">National Museum of Art of Romania</a>, Bucharest</small> <sup><a href="#cite_note-161">[153]</a></sup></li>
<li><i>The Entombment Sketch</i> (c. 1639, reworked c. 1654) – <small>oil on oak panel, <a href="/wiki/Hunterian_Museum_and_Art_Gallery">Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery</a>, Glasgow</small></li>
<li><i>Saul and David</i> (c. 1660–1665) – <small><a href="/wiki/Mauritshuis">Mauritshuis</a>, The Hague</small></li>
<li><i>Portrait of an Old Man</i> (1645) – <a href="/wiki/Calouste_Gulbenkian_Museum">Calouste Gulbenkian Museum</a>, Lisbon</li>
<li><i>Pallas Athena</i> (c.1657) – <a href="/wiki/Calouste_Gulbenkian_Museum">Calouste Gulbenkian Museum</a>, Lisbon</li></ul>
<h2>Exhibitions[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rembrandt&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Moving_Rembrandt%27s_%27Nightwatch%27.jpg"></a></p></div>
<ul><li>Sept–Oct 1898: <i>Rembrandt Tentoonstelling</i> (<i>Rembrandt Exhibition</i>), Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Rembrandt_tentoonstilling-162">[154]</a></sup></li>
<li>Jan–Feb 1899: <i>Rembrandt Tentoonstelling</i> (<i>Rembrandt Exhibition</i>), Royal Academy, London, England.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Rembrandt_tentoonstilling-162">[154]</a></sup></li>
<li>21 April 2011 – 18 July 2011: <i>Rembrandt and the Face of Jesus</i>, Musée du Louvre.<sup><a href="#cite_note-163">[155]</a></sup></li>
<li>16 September 2013 – 14 November 2013: <i>Rembrandt: The Consummate Etcher</i>, Syracuse University Art Galleries.<sup><a href="#cite_note-164">[156]</a></sup></li>
<li>19 May 2014 – 27 June 2014: <i>From Rembrandt to Rosenquist: Works on Paper from the NAC's Permanent Collection</i>, National Arts Club.<sup><a href="#cite_note-165">[157]</a></sup></li>
<li>19 October 2014 – 4 January 2015: <i>Rembrandt, Rubens, Gainsborough and the Golden Age of Painting in Europe</i>, Jule Collins Smith Museum of Art.<sup><a href="#cite_note-166">[158]</a></sup></li>
<li>15 October 2014 – 18 January 2015: <i>Rembrandt: The Late Works</i>, The National Gallery, London.<sup><a href="#cite_note-167">[159]</a></sup></li>
<li>12 February 2015 – 17 May 2015: <i>Late Rembrandt</i>, The Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.<sup><a href="#cite_note-168">[160]</a></sup></li>
<li>16 September 2018 – 6 January 2019: <i>Rembrandt – Painter as Printmaker</i>, Denver Art Museum, Denver.<sup><a href="#cite_note-169">[161]</a></sup></li>
<li>24 Aug 2019 – 1 December 2019: <i>Leiden circa 1630: Rembrandt Emerges</i>, Agnes Etherington Art Centre, Kingston, Ontario.<sup><a href="#cite_note-170">[162]</a></sup></li>
<li>4 October 2019 – 2 February 2020: <i>Rembrandt's Light</i>, Dulwich Picture Gallery, London.<sup><a href="#cite_note-171">[163]</a></sup></li>
<li>18 February 2020 – 30 August 2020: <i>Rembrandt and Amsterdam portraiture, 1590–1670 </i>, Museo Nacional Thyssen-Bornemisza, Madrid.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Thyssen-172">[164]</a></sup></li>
<li>10 August 2020 – 1 November 2020: <i>Young Rembrandt</i>, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.<sup><a href="#cite_note-173">[165]</a></sup></li></ul>
<h2>Paintings[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rembrandt&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21">edit</a>]</h2>
<h3>Self-portraits[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rembrandt&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22">edit</a>]</h3>
<ul>
	<li></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_van_Rijn_184.jpg"></a></p></div></li>
	<li></li>
	<li><div>
	<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_-_Self-Portrait_with_Velvet_Beret_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"></a></p></div>
	<p><i>Self-Portrait with Velvet Beret and Furred Mantle</i> 1634
</p>
	</div></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt1640.png"></a></p></div></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_Harmenszoon_van_Rijn_-_Large_Self-Portrait_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"></a></p></div></li>
	<li><div>
	<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_Harmensz._van_Rijn_132.jpg"></a></p></div>
	<p><i>Self-portrait</i>, Vienna c. 1655, oil on walnut, cut down in size. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna
</p>
	</div></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrant_Self-Portrait,_1660.jpg"></a></p></div></li>
	<li></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_Self-portrait_(Kenwood).jpg"></a></p></div></li>
	<li><div>
	<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_Harmensz._van_Rijn_134.jpg"></a></p></div>
	<p><i>Self-portrait</i>, 1669.
</p>
	</div></li>
	<li></li>
</ul>
<h3>Other paintings[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rembrandt&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23">edit</a>]</h3>
<ul>
	<li></li>
	<li></li>
	<li><div>
	<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_Buste_van_oude_man_met_bontmuts._1630.jpg"></a></p></div>
	<p><i>Bust of an old man with a fur hat</i>, the artist's father, 1630
</p>
	</div></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_Harmensz._van_Rijn_-_Jeremia_treurend_over_de_verwoesting_van_Jeruzalem_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"></a></p></div></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_Harmensz._van_Rijn_011.jpg"></a></p></div></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_-_The_Philosopher_in_Meditation.jpg"></a></p></div></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_-_The_Anatomy_Lesson_of_Dr_Nicolaes_Tulp.jpg"></a></p></div></li>
	<li></li>
	<li><div>
	<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt,_Portrait_of_Saskia_van_Uylenburgh_(1612%E2%80%931642),_circa_1633%E2%80%931634,_Gem%C3%A4ldegalerie_Alte_Meister,_Kassel.jpg"></a></p></div>
	<p><i>Portrait of Saskia van Uylenburgh</i>, c. 1633–1634
</p>
	</div></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_Abraham_en_Isaac,_1634.jpg"></a></p></div></li>
	<li></li>
	<li><div>
	<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_Harmensz._van_Rijn_151.jpg"></a></p></div>
	<p><i>Susanna</i>, 1636
</p>
	</div></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_-_Belshazzar%27s_Feast_-_WGA19123.jpg"></a></p></div></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_Harmensz._van_Rijn_026.jpg"></a></p></div></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_De_aartsengel_verlaat_Tobias_en_zijn_gezin._1637.jpg"></a></p></div></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Landscape_with_the_Good_Samaritan_-_Rembrandt.jpg"></a></p></div></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_Scholar_at_the_Lectern.jpg"></a></p></div></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_van_Rijn_195.jpg"></a></p></div></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_-_Susanna_and_the_Elders_-_WGA19104.jpg"></a></p></div></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_van_Rijn_-_The_Mill_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"></a></p></div></li>
	<li><div>
	<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_Harmenszoon_van_Rijn_-_An_Old_Man_in_Red.JPG"></a></p></div>
	<p><i>An Old Man in Red</i>, 1652–1654
</p>
	</div></li>
	<li></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:The_Kitchen_Maid_(Rembrandt_Harmensz._van_Rijn)_-_Nationalmuseum_-_17587.tif"></a></p></div></li>
	<li></li>
	<li></li>
	<li></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Pallas_Athena_by_Rembrandt_Museu_Calouste_Gulbenkian_1488.jpg"></a></p></div></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Dr_Deijman%E2%80%99s_Anatomy_Lesson_(fragment),_by_Rembrandt.jpg"></a></p></div></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_Harmensz._van_Rijn_-_Jacob_Blessing_Ephraim_and_Manasseh_-_Schloss_Wilhelmsh%C3%B6he_Kassel.jpg"></a></p></div></li>
	<li><div>
	<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_-_Portrait_of_Hendrickje_Stoffels_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"></a></p></div>
	<p><i>Woman in a Doorway</i>, 1657–1658
</p>
	</div></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_Harmensz_van_Rijn_-_Ahasuerus,_Haman_and_Esther_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"></a></p></div></li>
	<li></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Netherlands-4183_-_The_Syndics,_Rembrandt.jpg"></a></p></div></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:The_Conspiracy_of_the_Batavians_under_Claudius_Civilis_(Rembrandt_Harmensz._van_Rijn)_-_Nationalmuseum_-_17581.tif"></a></p></div></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_Harmensz._van_Rijn_-_Lucretia_-_34.19_-_Minneapolis_Institute_of_Arts.jpg"></a></p></div></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_Harmensz_van_Rijn_-_Return_of_the_Prodigal_Son_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"></a></p></div></li>
	<li><div>
	<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Koerperstrafe-_MA_Birkenrute.png"></a></p></div>
	<p>Medieval schoolboy birched on the bare buttocks
</p>
	</div></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_-_The_Abduction_of_Ganymede_-_Google_Art_Project_-_cropped.jpg"></a></p></div></li>
</ul>
<h2>Drawings and etchings[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rembrandt&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul>
	<li><div>
	<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_van_Rijn_-_Zelfportret.jpg"></a></p></div>
	<p><i>Self-portrait</i>, c. 1628–29, pen and brush and ink on paper
</p>
	</div></li>
	<li><div>
	<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:B320_Rembrandt.jpg"></a></p></div>
	<p><i>Self-portrait in a cap, with eyes wide open</i>, 1630, <a href="/wiki/Etching">etching</a> and <a href="/wiki/Burin_(engraving)">burin</a>
</p>
	</div></li>
	<li></li>
	<li></li>
	<li></li>
	<li><div>
	<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_Harmenszoon_van_Rijn_-_An_Elephant,_1637_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"></a></p></div>
	<p><i>An elephant</i>, 1637, drawing in black chalk on paper, <a href="/wiki/Albertina">Albertina</a>, Austria
</p>
	</div></li>
	<li></li>
	<li><div>
	<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Jesus_und_Ehebrecherin.jpg"></a></p></div>
	<p><i>Christ and the woman taken in adultery</i>, c. 1639–41, drawing in ink, <a href="/wiki/Louvre">Louvre</a>
</p>
	</div></li>
	<li></li>
	<li><div>
	<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_-_The_windmill_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"></a></p></div>
	<p><i>The Windmill</i>, 1641, etching
</p>
	</div></li>
	<li></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_Harmensz._van_Rijn_-_Christ_Crucified_Between_the_Two_Thieves_(%22The_Three_Crosses%22)_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"></a></p></div></li>
	<li></li>
	<li></li>
	<li><div>
	<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_Two_Jews_in_Discussion,_Walking.jpg"></a></p></div>
	<p><i>Two Old Men in Conversation /Two Jews in Discussion, Walking</i>, year unknown, black chalk and brown ink on paper, <a href="/wiki/Teylers_Museum">Teylers Museum</a>
</p>
	</div></li>
	<li><div>
	<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_A_Child_Being_Taught_to_Walk.jpg"></a></p></div>
	<p>A child being taught to walk (c. 1635). <a href="/wiki/David_Hockney">David Hockney</a> said: "I think it's the greatest drawing ever done... It's a magnificent drawing, magnificent."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Hockney2014-77">[72]</a></sup>
</p>
	</div></li>
	<li><div>
	<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Amsterdam_-_Late_Rembrandt_Exposition_2015_-_Young_Woman_Sleeping_1654_B_(cropped).jpg"></a></p></div>
	<p><i>A young woman sleeping</i> (c. 1654). Shows Rembrandt's calligraphic-style draughtsmanship.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Mendelowitz-81">[75]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Sullivan-82">[76]</a></sup>
</p>
	</div></li>
</ul>
<h2>Notes[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rembrandt&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25">edit</a>]</h2>
<div>
<ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b> This version of his first name, "Rembrandt" with a "d," first appeared in his signatures in 1633. Until then, he had signed with a combination of initials or monograms. In late 1632, he began signing solely with his first name, "Rembrant". He added the "d" in the following year and stuck to this spelling for the rest of his life. Although scholars can only speculate, this change must have had a meaning for Rembrandt, which is generally interpreted as his wanting to be known by his first name like the great figures of the Italian Renaissance: Leonardo, Raphael etc., who did not sign with their last names, if at all.<sup><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b> Useful totals of the figures from various different oeuvre catalogues, often divided into classes along the lines of: "very likely authentic", "possibly authentic" and "unlikely to be authentic" are given at <a href="http://staff.science.uva.nl/~fjseins/RembrandtCatalogue/">the Online Rembrandt catalogue</a> <sup><a href="#cite_note-41">[40]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b> Two hundred years ago Bartsch listed 375. More recent catalogues have added three (two in unique impressions) and excluded enough to reach totals as follows: Schwartz, p. 6, 289; Münz 1952, 279; Boon 1963, 287 <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20000831232904/http://www.printcouncil.org/search.html">Print Council of America</a> – but Schwartz's total quoted does not tally with the book.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b> It is not possible to give a total, as a new wave of scholarship on Rembrandt drawings is still in progress – analysis of the Berlin collection for an exhibition in 2006/7 has produced a probable drop from 130 sheets there to about 60. <a href="http://www.codart.nl/exhibitions/details/911/">Codart.nl</a> <sup><a href="#cite_note-44">[41]</a></sup> The British Museum is due to publish a new catalogue after a similar exercise.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b> While the popular interpretation is that these paintings represent a personal and introspective journey, it is possible that they were painted to satisfy a market for self-portraits by prominent artists. Van de Wetering, p. 290.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b> Such as <a href="/wiki/Otto_Benesch">Otto Benesch</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-74">[69]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-75">[70]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-76">[71]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/David_Hockney">David Hockney</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Hockney2014-77">[72]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Nigel_Konstam">Nigel Konstam</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jakob_Rosenberg_(art_historian)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1">Jakob Rosenberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gary_Schwartz_(art_historian)">Gary Schwartz</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Seymour_Slive">Seymour Slive</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-78">[73]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-79">[74]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b> The Rijksmuseum has a smaller copy of what is thought to be the full original composition.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b> It is important to note that Rembrandt's religious affiliation was uncertain. There is little evidence that Rembrandt formally belonged to any <a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination">Christian denomination</a>.
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2>References[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rembrandt&amp;action=edit&amp;section=26">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><ol>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-BY_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BY_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BY_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> Or possibly 1607 as on 10 June 1634 he himself claimed to be 26 years old. See <a href="http://www.codart.nl/news/82/">Is the Rembrandt Year being celebrated one year too soon? One year too late?</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101121211856/http://codart.nl/news/82/">Archived</a> 21 November 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and (in Dutch) J. de Jong, <a href="http://www.nd.nl/artikelen/2006/februari/03/rembrandts-geboortejaar-een-jaar-te-vroeg-gevierd">Rembrandts geboortejaar een jaar te vroeg gevierd</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100718111837/http://www.nd.nl/artikelen/2006/februari/03/rembrandts-geboortejaar-een-jaar-te-vroeg-gevierd">Archived</a> 18 July 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> for sources concerning Rembrandt's birth year, especially supporting 1607. However, most sources continue to use 1606.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b> <a href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/rembrandt">"Rembrandt"</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304200247/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/rembrandt">Archived</a> 4 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Random_House_Webster%27s_Unabridged_Dictionary">Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary</a></i>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b> See: <a href="/wiki/List_of_drawings_by_Rembrandt">list of drawings</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_etchings_by_Rembrandt">prints (etchings)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_paintings_by_Rembrandt">paintings</a> by Rembrandt.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gombrich,_p._420_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gombrich,_p._420_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Gombrich, p. 420.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b> Gombrich, p. 427.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Clark_203_6-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFClark1969">Clark 1969</a>, pp. 203
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Clark_203_204_7-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFClark1969">Clark 1969</a>, pp. 203–204
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Clark_205_8-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFClark1969">Clark 1969</a>, pp. 205
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rodin_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rodin_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Rodin">Rodin, Auguste</a>: <i>Art: Conversations with Paul Gsell</i>. Translated from the French by Jacques de Caso and Patricia B. Sanders. (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984) <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-03819-3">0-520-03819-3</a>, p. 85. Originally published as <i>Auguste Rodin, L'Art: Entretiens réunis par Paul Gsell</i> (Paris: Bernard Grasset, 1911). Auguste Rodin: "Me comparer à Rembrandt, quel sacrilège! À Rembrandt, le colosse de l'Art! Y pensez-vous, mon ami! Rembrandt, prosternons-nous et ne mettons jamais personne à côté de lui!” (original in French)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160409172243/http://www.rembrandt-signature-file.com/">"Rembrandt Signature Files"</a>. <i>www.rembrandt-signature-file.com</i>. Archived from <a href="http://www.rembrandt-signature-file.com/">the original</a> on 9 April 2016.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b> Bull, et al., p. 28.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://stadsarchief.amsterdam.nl/archieven/archiefbank/indexen/doopregisters/zoek/query.nl.pl?i1=1&amp;v1=rembr*&amp;a1=r*ijn&amp;i2=1&amp;x=19&amp;z=b">"Doopregisters, Zoek"</a> (in Dutch). Stadsarchief.amsterdam.nl. 3 April 2014. Retrieved 7 April 2014.</cite><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot">permanent dead link</a></i>]</sup>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Houbraken_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Houbraken_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> (in Dutch) <a href="https://archive.today/20120527043045/http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/houb005groo01_01/houb005groo01_01_0129.htm">Rembrandt biography</a> in <i>De groote schouburgh der Nederlantsche konstschilders en schilderessen</i> (1718) by <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Houbraken">Arnold Houbraken</a>, courtesy of the <a href="/wiki/Digital_library_for_Dutch_literature">Digital library for Dutch literature</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b> <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=le9GAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PA189">Joris van Schooten as teacher of Rembrandt and Lievens</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161226043135/https://books.google.com/books?id=le9GAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PA189">Archived</a> 26 December 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> in Simon van Leeuwen's <i>Korte besgryving van het Lugdunum Batavorum nu Leyden</i>, Leiden, 1672
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b> <a href="https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/artists/rembrandt">Rembrandt biography</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161220010238/https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/artists/rembrandt">Archived</a> 20 December 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, nationalgallery.org.uk
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b> Erhardt, Michelle A., and Amy M. Morris. 2012. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MQAzAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA252&amp;dq="><i>Mary Magdalene, Iconographic Studies from the Middle Ages to the Baroque</i></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200308073203/https://books.google.com/books?id=MQAzAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA252&amp;dq=">Archived</a> 8 March 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Boston : Brill. p. 252. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-23195-5">978-90-04-23195-5</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b> Slive has a comprehensive biography, pp. 55ff.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b> Slive, pp. 60, 65
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b> Slive, pp. 60–61
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://familysearch.org/pal:/MM9.3.1/TH-1971-31164-16374-68?cc=2037985&amp;wc=M994-WQZ:3938509">"Netherlands, Noord-Holland Province, Church Records, 1553–1909 Image Netherlands, Noord-Holland Province, Church Records, 1553–1909; pal:/MM9.3.1/TH-1971-31164-16374-68"</a>. Familysearch.org. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160605150618/https://familysearch.org/pal:/MM9.3.1/TH-1971-31164-16374-68?cc=2037985&amp;wc=M994-WQZ:3938509">Archived</a> from the original on 5 June 2016. Retrieved 7 April 2014.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b> <a href="https://archive.today/20120526210656/http://stadsarchief.amsterdam.nl/english/amsterdam_treasures/famous/rembrandt_and_saskia/index.en.html">Registration of the banns of Rembrandt and Saskia</a>, kept at the Amsterdam City Archives
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bull-28_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bull-28_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bull-28_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> Bull, et al., p. 28
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b> Clark, 1978, pp. 26–27, 76, 102
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b> Adams, p. 660
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Slive-71_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Slive-71_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Slive, p. 71
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b> Driessen, pp. 151–57
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b> Slive, p. 82
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b> Slive, p. 84
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b> Schwartz, p. 12. The house sale was in 1658, but was agreed with two years for Rembrandt to vacate.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b> Clark, 1974 p. 105
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b> Clark 1974, pp. 60–61
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b> Bull, et al., p. 29.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b> Ruysscher, D. D., &amp; 'T Veld, C. I. (2021). Rembrandt's insolvency: The artist as legal actor, Oud Holland–Journal for Art of the Low Countries, 134(1), 9–24. doi: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1163/18750176-13401002">https://doi.org/10.1163/18750176-13401002</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211107223624/https://brill.com/view/journals/oh/134/1/article-p9_2.xml">Archived</a> 7 November 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b> Wexuan, Li. <a href="https://oudholland.rkd.nl/index.php/reviews/32-review-of-machiel-bosman-rembrandts-plan-de-ware-geschiedenis-van-zijn-faillissement">"Review of: 'Rembrandts plan: De ware geschiedenis van zijn faillissement"</a>, <i>Oud Holland Reviews</i>, April 2020.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b> Clark 1978, p. 34
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b> <a href="https://archive.today/20120526210656/http://stadsarchief.amsterdam.nl/english/amsterdam_treasures/death/rembrandt/index.en.html">Burial register of the Westerkerk with record of Rembrandt's burial</a>, kept at the Amsterdam City Archives
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b> Hughes, p. 6
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120728230138/http://staff.science.uva.nl/~fjseins/RembrandtCatalogue/r_stats.html">"A Web Catalogue of Rembrandt Paintings"</a>. 28 July 2012. Archived from <a href="http://staff.science.uva.nl/~fjseins/RembrandtCatalogue/r_stats.html">the original</a> on 28 July 2012.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rembrandtart_40-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070929010501/http://www.westernciv.com/courses/2004/noeuart.shtml">"Institute Member Login – Institute for the Study of Western Civilization"</a>. Archived from <a href="https://westernciv.com/profile/login/">the original</a> on 29 September 2007.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120513080039/http://staff.science.uva.nl/~fjseins/RembrandtCatalogue/">"A Web Catalogue of Rembrandt Paintings"</a>. Archived from <a href="http://staff.science.uva.nl/~fjseins/RembrandtCatalogue/">the original</a> on 13 May 2012. Retrieved 10 July 2007.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.codart.nl/exhibitions/details/911/">"Rembrandt, der Zeichner"</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160527001029/http://www.codart.nl/exhibitions/details/911/">Archived</a> from the original on 27 May 2016. Retrieved 3 October 2007.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.garyschwartzarthistorian.nl/schwartzlist/?id=148">"Schwartzlist 301 – Blog entry by the Rembrandt scholar Gary Schwartz"</a>. Garyschwartzarthistorian.nl. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120222115235/http://www.garyschwartzarthistorian.nl/schwartzlist/?id=148">Archived</a> from the original on 22 February 2012. Retrieved 17 February 2012.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b> White and Buvelot 1999, p. 10.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b> Taylor, Michael (2007).<a href="http://www.artbook.com/1933045442.html">Rembrandt's Nose: Of Flesh &amp; Spirit in the Master's Portraits</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160505200753/http://www.artbook.com/1933045442.html">Archived</a> 5 May 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> p. 21, D.A.P./Distributed Art Publishers, Inc., New York <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-933045-44-3">978-1-933045-44-3</a>'
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b> Durham, p. 60.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b> Bull, et al., pp. 11–13.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b> van der Wetering, p. 268.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b> van de Wetering, pp. 160, 190.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b> Clough, p. 23
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b> Ackley, p. 14.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wetering-284_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wetering-284_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wetering-284_56-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> van de Wetering, p. 284.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b> van de Wetering, p. 285.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b> van de Wetering, p. 287.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b> van de Wetering, p. 286.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b> van de Wetering, p. 288.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b> Clark 1978, p. 28
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b> van de Wetering, pp. 163–65.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b> van de Wetering, p. 289.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b> van de Wetering, pp. 155–65.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b> van de Wetering, pp. 157–58, 190.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b> "In Rembrandt's (late) great portraits we feel face to face with real people, we sense their warmth, their need for sympathy and also their loneliness and suffering. Those keen and steady eyes that we know so well from Rembrandt's self-portraits must have been able to look straight into the human heart." Gombrich, p. 423.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b> "It (<i>The Jewish Bride</i>) is a picture of grown-up love, a marvelous amalgam of richness, tenderness, and trust... the heads which, in their truth, have a spiritual glow that painters influenced by the classical tradition could never achieve." Clark, p. 206.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b> Schwartz, 1994, pp. 8–12
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b> White 1969, pp. 5–6
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b> White 1969, p. 6
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b> White 1969, pp. 6, 9–10
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b> White, 1969 pp. 6–7
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b> See Schwartz, 1994, where the works are divided by subject, following <a href="/wiki/Adam_Bartsch">Bartsch</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b> Benesch, Otto: <i>The Drawings of Rembrandt: First Complete Edition in Six Volumes</i>. (London: Phaidon, 1954–57)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b> Benesch, Otto: <i>Rembrandt as a <a href="/wiki/Drawing">Draughtsman</a>: An Essay with 115 Illustrations</i>. (London: Phaidon Press, 1960)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b> Benesch, Otto: <i>The <a href="/wiki/List_of_drawings_by_Rembrandt">Drawings of Rembrandt</a>. A Critical and Chronological Catalogue</i> [2nd ed., 6 vols.]. (London: Phaidon, 1973)
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hockney2014_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hockney2014_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Lewis, Tim (16 November 2014). <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2014/nov/16/david-hockney-interview-i-feel-like-picasso">"David Hockney: 'When I'm working, I feel like Picasso, I feel I'm 30'"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200516011950/https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2014/nov/16/david-hockney-interview-i-feel-like-picasso">Archived</a> from the original on 16 May 2020. Retrieved 16 June 2020. <q><a href="/wiki/David_Hockney">David Hockney</a> (2014): "There's a drawing by Rembrandt, I think it's the greatest drawing ever done. It's in the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum">British Museum</a> and it's of a family teaching a child to walk, so it's a universal thing, everybody has experienced this or seen it happen. Everybody. I used to print out Rembrandt drawings big and give them to people and say: 'If you find a better drawing send it to me. But if you find a better one it will be by <a href="/wiki/Goya">Goya</a> or <a href="/wiki/Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a> perhaps.' But I don't think there is one actually. It's a magnificent drawing, magnificent."</q></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b> Slive, Seymour: <i>The Drawings of Rembrandt: A New Study</i>. (London: Thames &amp; Hudson, 2009)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b> Silve, Seymour: <i>The Drawings of Rembrandt</i>. (London: Thames &amp; Hudson, 2019)
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mendelowitz_81-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mendelowitz_81-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Mendelowitz, Daniel Marcus: <i>Drawing</i>. (New York: Holt, Rinehart &amp; Winston, Inc., 1967), p. 305. As Mendelowitz (1967) noted: "Probably no one has combined to as great a degree as Rembrandt a disciplined exposition of what his eye saw and a love of line as a beautiful thing in itself. His "Winter Landscape" displays the virtuosity of performance of an Oriental master, yet unlike the Oriental calligraphy, it is not based on an established convention of brush performance. It is as personal as handwriting."
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sullivan_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sullivan_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Sullivan, Michael: <i>The Meeting of Eastern and Western Art</i>. (Berkeley/Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1989), p. 91
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b> Schrader, Stephanie; et al. (eds.): <i><a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V45FDwAAQBAJ">Rembrandt and the Inspiration of India</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200801033700/https://books.google.com/books?id=V45FDwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> 1 August 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>. (Los Angeles, CA: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2018) <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60606-552-5">978-1-60606-552-5</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.getty.edu/art/exhibitions/rembrandt_india/downloads/rembrandt_india_checklist.pdf">"Rembrandt and the Inspiration of India (catalogue)"</a> (PDF). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191018133124/http://www.getty.edu/art/exhibitions/rembrandt_india/downloads/rembrandt_india_checklist.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 18 October 2019. Retrieved 18 October 2019.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.theheritagelab.in/rembrandt-mughal-india">"In Paintings: Rembrandt &amp; his Mughal India Inspiration"</a>. 3 September 2017. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180523124056/http://www.theheritagelab.in/rembrandt-mughal-india/">Archived</a> from the original on 23 May 2018. Retrieved 12 May 2018.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b> <cite>Ganz, James (2013). <i>Rembrandt's Century</i>. San Francisco, CA: Fine Arts Museum of San Francisco. p. 45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7913-5224-4"><bdi>978-3-7913-5224-4</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b> Beliën, H &amp; P. Knevel (2006) Langs Rembrandts roem, p. 92-121
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.paintyourlife.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/Preface.pdf">"The Rembrandt Research Project: Past, Present, Future"</a> (PDF). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140822083100/http://www.paintyourlife.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/Preface.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 22 August 2014. Retrieved 11 August 2014.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b> See "Further Battles for the 'Lisowczyk' (Polish Rider) by Rembrandt" Zdzislaw Zygulski, Jr., <i>Artibus et Historiae</i>, Vol. 21, No. 41 (2000), pp. 197–205. Also <i>New York Times</i> <a href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D06EEDE103EF937A15753C1A961958260">story</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080108022401/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D06EEDE103EF937A15753C1A961958260">Archived</a> 8 January 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. There is a book on the subject:<i>Responses to Rembrandt; Who painted the Polish Rider?</i> by Anthony Bailey (New York, 1993)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b> <cite>John Russell (1 December 1985). <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1985/12/01/arts/art-view-in-search-of-the-real-thing.html">"Art View; In Search of the Real Thing"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170701071518/http://www.nytimes.com/1985/12/01/arts/art-view-in-search-of-the-real-thing.html">Archived</a> from the original on 1 July 2017. Retrieved 12 February 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b> Schama, Simon (1999). <i>Rembrandt's Eyes</i>. Knopf, p. 720.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b> Schama, pp 582–591.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.outpost-art.org/pilate-washing-his-hands-p-37320.html">"Rembrandt Pilate Washing His Hands Oil Painting Reproduction"</a>. Outpost Art. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150112111138/http://www.outpost-art.org/pilate-washing-his-hands-p-37320.html">Archived</a> from the original on 12 January 2015. Retrieved 1 January 2015.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/arts/4276034.stm">"Entertainment | Lost Rembrandt works discovered"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 23 September 2005. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061222210306/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/arts/4276034.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 22 December 2006. Retrieved 7 October 2009.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b> <cite>Brown, Mark (23 May 2014), <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2014/may/23/rembrandt-expert-national-gallery-painting-old-man-armchair">"Rembrandt expert urges National Gallery to rethink demoted painting"</a>, <i>The Guardian</i>, <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160921205546/https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2014/may/23/rembrandt-expert-national-gallery-painting-old-man-armchair">archived</a> from the original on 21 September 2016, retrieved 21 December 2015</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b> "...Rembrandt was not always the perfectly consistent, logical Dutchman he was originally anticipated to be." Ackley, p. 13.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b> van de Wetering, p. x.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b> Kühn, Hermann. 'Untersuchungen zu den Pigmenten und Malgründen Rembrandts, durchgeführt an den Gemälden der Staatlichen Kunstsammlungen Dresden'(Examination of pigments and grounds used by Rembrandt, analysis carried out on paintings in the Staatlichen Kunstsammlungen Dresden), Maltechnik/Restauro, issue 4 (1977): 223–233
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b> Kühn, Hermann. 'Untersuchungen zu den Pigmenten und Malgründen Rembrandts, durchgeführt an den Gemälden der Staatlichen Kunstsammlungen Kassel' (Examination of pigments and grounds used by Rembrandt, analysis carried out on paintings in the Staatlichen Kunstsammlungen Kassel), Maltechnik/Restauro, volume 82 (1976): 25–33
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b> <a href="http://colourlex.com/project/rembrandt-saskia-van-uylenburgh-as-flora/">Rembrandt, Saskia as Flora</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160315130325/http://colourlex.com/project/rembrandt-saskia-van-uylenburgh-as-flora/">Archived</a> 15 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, ColourLex
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-bomford_102-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bomford_102-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Bomford, D. et al., Art in the making: Rembrandt, New edition, Yale University Press, 2006
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b> <a href="http://colourlex.com/belshazzars-feast-pigment-analysis/">Rembrandt, Belshazzar's Feast, Pigment analysis</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160407160341/http://colourlex.com/belshazzars-feast-pigment-analysis/">Archived</a> 7 April 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at ColourLex
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://colourlex.com/project/resources-rembrandt/">"Resources Rembrandt"</a>. <i>ColourLex</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210224022601/https://colourlex.com/project/resources-rembrandt/">Archived</a> from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 23 February 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150823032221/http://www.rembrandtdatabase.org/Rembrandt">"The Rembrandt Database"</a>. Archived from <a href="http://www.rembrandtdatabase.org/Rembrandt/">the original</a> on 23 August 2015. Retrieved 6 July 2015.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b> Roberts, Russell. <i>Rembrandt</i>. Mitchell Lane Publishers, 2009. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61228-760-7">978-1-61228-760-7</a>. p. 13.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.rembrandt-signature-file.com/remp_texte/remp050.pdf">Chronology of his signatures (pdf)</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303171107/http://www.rembrandt-signature-file.com/remp_texte/remp050.pdf">Archived</a> 3 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> with examples. Source: www.rembrandt-signature-file.com
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b> Slive, p. 60
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b> <a href="https://archive.today/20120908193020/http://www.rkd.nl/rkddb/dispatcher.aspx?action=search&amp;database=ChoiceArtists&amp;search=priref=66219">Rembrandt pupils (under <i>Leraar van</i>)</a> in the <a href="/wiki/RKD">RKD</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-zamek_110-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140520215927/http://www.zamek-krolewski.pl/en/your-visit/permanent-exhibitions/the-lanckoronski-collection-rembrandts-paintings.-gallery-of-paintings%2C-sculpture-and-the-decorative-arts">"The Lanckoroński Collection – Rembrandt's Paintings"</a>. <i>zamek-krolewski.pl</i>. Archived from <a href="http://www.zamek-krolewski.pl/en/your-visit/permanent-exhibitions/the-lanckoronski-collection-rembrandts-paintings.-gallery-of-paintings,-sculpture-and-the-decorative-arts">the original</a> on 20 May 2014. Retrieved 20 May 2014. <q>The works of art which Karolina Lanckorońska gave to the Royal Castle in 1994 was one of the most invaluable gift's made in the museum's history.</q></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b> Clark 1974, pp. 147–50. See the catalogue in Further reading for the location of all accepted Rembrandts
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b> Binstock, Benjamin: <i><a href="/wiki/Jan_Vermeer">Vermeer</a>'s Family Secrets: Genius, Discovery, and the Unknown Apprentice</i>. (New York, NY: <a href="/wiki/Routledge">Routledge</a>, 2009), p. 330
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b> *Golahny, Amy (2001), '<a href="https://www.academia.edu/11872097/Use_and_Misuse_of_Rembrandt_Dutch_Crossing_2001">The Use and Misuse of Rembrandt: An Overview of Popular Reception</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210308192127/https://www.academia.edu/11872097/Use_and_Misuse_of_Rembrandt_Dutch_Crossing_2001">Archived</a> 8 March 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>,'. <i><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Crossing:_Journal_of_Low_Countries_Studies">Dutch Crossing: Journal of Low Countries Studies</a></i> 25(2): 305–322
<ul><li><cite><a href="/wiki/Paul_Solman">Solman, Paul</a> (21 June 2004). <a href="http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/entertainment-jan-june04-rembrandt_6-21/">"Rembrandt's Journey"</a>. <a href="/wiki/PBS.org">PBS.org</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211107223639/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/rembrandts-journey">Archived</a> from the original on 7 November 2021. Retrieved 10 October 2018. <q>Paul Solman (2004): "[Rembrandt] The most famous brand name in western art. In America alone <a href="/wiki/Rembrandt_toothpaste">it graces toothpaste</a>, bracelet charms, restaurant and bars, counter-tops and of course the town of <a href="/wiki/Rembrandt,_Iowa">Rembrandt, Iowa</a> just halfway around the world from the Rembrandt Hotel in Bangkok, Thailand."</q></cite></li>
<li><cite>Valiunas, Algis (25 December 2006). <a href="https://www.weeklystandard.com/algis-valiunas/looking-at-rembrandt">"Looking at Rembrandt"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Weekly_Standard">The Weekly Standard</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181216195352/https://www.weeklystandard.com/algis-valiunas/looking-at-rembrandt">Archived</a> from the original on 16 December 2018. Retrieved 25 April 2020. <q>Algis Valiunas (2006): "Alongside <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci">Leonardo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a>, Rembrandt is one of the three most famous artists ever, with whom the public is on a first-name basis; and the name Rembrandt has lent the cachet of greatness and the grace of familiarity to sell everything from kitchen countertops to whitening toothpaste to fancy hotels in Bangkok and <a href="/wiki/Knightsbridge">Knightsbridge</a>."</q></cite></li></ul>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dickey2006_114-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dickey2006_114-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Crawford, Amy (12 December 2006). <a href="http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/an-interview-with-stephanie-dickey-author-of-rembrandt-at-400-140522969/#WdpMp33EXQJKOY3r.99">"An Interview with Stephanie Dickey, author of "Rembrandt at 400""</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Magazine">Smithsonian Magazine</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180921225848/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/an-interview-with-stephanie-dickey-author-of-rembrandt-at-400-140522969/#WdpMp33EXQJKOY3r.99">Archived</a> from the original on 21 September 2018. Retrieved 10 October 2018.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Slive_115-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Slive_115-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Slive_115-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="/wiki/Seymour_Slive">Slive, Seymour</a>: <i>Rembrandt and his Critics, 1630–1730</i>. (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1953)
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FranitsAshgate2016_116-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FranitsAshgate2016_116-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FranitsAshgate2016_116-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> Franits, Wayne (ed.): <i>The Ashgate Research Companion to Dutch Art of the Seventeenth Century</i>. (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2016)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b> *<a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri">Negri, Antonio</a>: <i>The Savage Anomaly: The Power of Spinoza's Metaphysics and Politics</i>. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991). 
<ul><li>Ahmad, Iftikhar (2008), 'Art in Social Studies: Exploring the World and Ourselves with Rembrandt,'. <i>The Journal of Aesthetic Education</i> 42(2): 19–37</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/John_Molyneux_(academic)">Molyneux, John</a> (5 July 2019). <a href="http://www.rebelnews.ie/2019/07/05/the-dialectics-of-art/">"The Dialectics of Art"</a>. Rebelnews.ie (2019). Retrieved 25 June 2020.</cite></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Bab">Bab, Julius</a>: <i>Rembrandt und <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza">Spinoza</a>. Ein Doppelbildnis im deutsch-jüdischen Raum</i>. (Berlin: Philo-Verlag, 1934)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Valentiner">Valentiner, Wilhelm R.</a>: <i>Rembrandt and Spinoza: A Study of the Spiritual Conflicts in <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age">Seventeenth-Century Holland</a></i>. (London: Phaidon Press, 1957)</li>
<li>Streiff, Bruno: <i>Le Peintre et le Philosophe ou Rembrandt et Spinoza à Amsterdam</i>. (Paris: Éditions Complicités, 2002) <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-910721-34-3">978-2-910721-34-3</a></li></ul>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b> *<a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel">Simmel, Georg</a>: <i>Rembrandt: Ein kunstphilodophischer Versuch</i>. (Leipzig: K. Wolff Verlag, 1916)
<ul><li>Simmel, Georg: <i>Rembrandt: An Essay in the Philosophy of Art</i>. Translated and edited by Alan Scott and Helmut Staubmann. (New York: Routledge, 2005)</li>
<li>Budick, Sanford (1997), '<a href="/wiki/Descartes">Descartes</a>'s Cogito, <a href="/wiki/Kant">Kant</a>'s Sublime, and Rembrandt's Philosophers: Cultural Transmission as Occasion for Freedom,'. <i>Modern Language Quarterly</i> 58(1): 27–61. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F00267929-58-1-27">10.1215/00267929-58-1-27</a></li>
<li>Wright, J. Lenore (2007), 'Reading Rembrandt: The influence of <a href="/wiki/Cartesian_dualism">Cartesian dualism</a> on <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age_painting">Dutch art</a>,'. <i>History of European Ideas</i> 33(3): 275–291. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.histeuroideas.2006.11.012">10.1016/j.histeuroideas.2006.11.012</a></li></ul>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b> *<a href="/wiki/Jean_Genet">Genet, Jean</a>: <i>Le Secret de Rembrandt</i> [Œuvres complètes]. (Paris: Gallimard, 1968) <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-07-010215-7">2-07-010215-7</a>
<ul><li>Genet, Jean: <i>Rembrandt</i>. (Paris: Gallimard, 2016)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Proust">Proust, Marcel</a>: <i><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste-Sim%C3%A9on_Chardin">Chardin</a> et Rembrandt</i>. (Paris: Le Bruit du Temps, 2009)</li>
<li>Pavans, Jean: <i><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Proust">Proust</a>, Vermeer, Rembrandt</i>. (Paris: Éditions Arléa, 2018)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tzvetan_Todorov">Todorov, Tzvetan</a>: <i>L'art ou la vie! Le cas Rembrandt. Suivi d'Art et morale</i>. (Paris: Biro Éditeur, 2008)</li>
<li>Hassine, Juliette (2006), 'Correspondance des arts: Rembrandt-<a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoyevsky">Dostoïevski</a> dans l'Europe du vingtième siècle (In memoriam Jo Yoshida)'. (Department Bulletin Paper, <a href="/wiki/Kyoto_University">Kyoto University</a>, 2006/06/20). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.14989%2F138068">10.14989/138068</a></li></ul>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b> *IJpma, Frank F.A.; van de Graaf, Robert C.; Nicolai, J.-P. A.; Meek, M. F. (2006), '<a href="/wiki/The_Anatomy_Lesson_of_Dr._Nicolaes_Tulp">The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp</a> by Rembrandt (1632): A Comparison of the Painting With a Dissected Left Forearm of a Dutch Male Cadaver,'. <i>The Journal of Hand Surgery</i> 31(6): 882–91. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jhsa.2006.02.014">10.1016/j.jhsa.2006.02.014</a>
<ul><li>Ijpma, Frank F.A.; van Gulik, T. M. (2018), 'Anatomy lesson of the brain and cerebral membranes <a href="/wiki/The_Anatomy_Lesson_of_Dr._Deijman">captured on canvas by Rembrandt in 1656</a>,'. <i>British Journal of Surgery</i> 105(5): 1–7. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fbjs.10610">10.1002/bjs.10610</a></li>
<li>Fernández, F. J. de Paz (2018), 'Rembrandt's Anatomy lessons,'. <i>Neurosciences and History</i> 6(1): 1–9</li></ul>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b> *Harris, P. (1995), 'Rembrandt and medicine,'. <i>J R Coll Surg Edinb.</i> 40(2): 81–3
<ul><li>Marcus, Esther-Lee; Clarfield, A. Mark (2002), 'Rembrandt's Late Self-Portraits: Psychological and Medical Aspects,'. <i>The International Journal of Aging and Human Development</i> 55(1): 25–49. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2190%2F8LQ5-CC7W-UJDF-TNM0">10.2190/8LQ5-CC7W-UJDF-TNM0</a></li>
<li>Livingstone, M. S.; Conway, B. R. (2004), 'Was Rembrandt <a href="/wiki/Stereoblind">stereoblind</a>?,'. <i>New England Journal of Medicine</i> 351(12): 1264–1265. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJM200409163511224">10.1056/NEJM200409163511224</a></li>
<li>Friedman, Tal; Lurie, Doron; Westreich, Melvyn; Golik, A. (2007), 'Rembrandt – Aging and Sickness: A Combined Look by Plastic Surgeons, an Art Researcher and an Internal Medicine Specialist,'. <i>Israel Medical Association Journal</i> 9(2): 67–71</li>
<li>Friedman, Tal; Lurie, Doron; Shalom, A. (2012), 'Authentication of Rembrandt's self-portraits through the use of facial aging analysis,'. <i>Isr Med Assoc J.</i> 14(10): 591–4</li>
<li>Hage, J. Joris; Lange, Jan; Karim, Refaat B. (2019), 'Rembrandt's Aging Face in Plastic Surgical Perspective,'. <i>Annals of Plastic Surgery</i> 83(2): 123–131. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2FSAP.0000000000001917">10.1097/SAP.0000000000001917</a></li></ul>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b> *Zell, Michael: <i>Reframing Rembrandt: Jews and the Christian Image in Seventeenth-Century Amsterdam</i>. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002)
<ul><li>Durham, John: <i>The Biblical Rembrandt: Human Painter in a Landscape of Faith</i>. (Macon, GA.: Mercer University Press, 2004) <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86554-886-2">978-0-86554-886-2</a></li>
<li>Perlove, Shelley; Silver, Larry: <i>Rembrandt's Faith: Church and Temple in the Dutch Golden Age</i>. (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2009) <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-271-03406-5">978-0-271-03406-5</a></li>
<li>Perlove, Shelley; Silver, Larry (2007), 'Rembrandt and the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_the_Netherlands">Dutch Catholics</a>,'. <i><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Journal_of_Netherlandic_Studies">Canadian Journal of Netherlandic Studies</a> / Revue canadienne d'études néerlandaises</i> 28: 53–75</li>
<li>Squarzina, Silvia Danesi: <i>Giovinezza di Rembrandt. La committenza <a href="/wiki/Mennonites">mennonita</a></i>. (Roma: De Luca Editori d'Arte, 2013) <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/88-6557-137-3">88-6557-137-3</a></li></ul>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b> *Joby, Christopher (2004), 'How Does the Work of Rembrandt van Rijn Represent a <a href="/wiki/Calvinist">Calvinist</a> Aesthetic?,'. <i>Theology</i> 107(835): 22–29
<ul><li>Marsh, Clive (1997), 'Rembrandt Reads the Gospels: Form, Context and Theological Responsibility in New Testament Interpretation,'. <i>Scottish Journal of Theology</i> 50(4): 399–413</li></ul>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b> *<a href="/wiki/Anna_Seghers">Seghers, Anna</a> (Reiling Radványi, Netty): <i>Jude und Judentum im Werke Rembrandts</i>. (PhD diss., Universität Heidelberg, 1924; Leipzig: Reclam, 1981)
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Nadler">Nadler, Steven</a>: <i><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Amsterdam">Rembrandt's Jews</a></i>. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003)</li></ul>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b> *Van Breda, Jacobus (1997), 'Rembrandt Etchings on Oriental Papers: Papers in the Collection of the National Gallery of Victoria,'. <i>Art Bulletin of Victoria</i> 38 (1997): 25–38
<ul><li>Kalmar, Ivan (2012), 'Rembrandt's Orient: where Earth met Heaven,'. Chapter 6, in: Ivan Kalmar, <i>Early Orientalism: Imagined Islam and the Notion of Sublime Power</i>. (New York: Routledge, 2012), pp. 56–66</li>
<li><cite><a href="https://www.washiarts.com/blog/2015/6/2/cwq3r9mi213gng6yi2j6ykq7ik69ux">"Rembrandt's Etchings and Japanese Washi Paper from Echizen"</a>. Washi Arts (www.washiarts.com). 2 June 2015. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200617092819/https://www.washiarts.com/blog/2015/6/2/cwq3r9mi213gng6yi2j6ykq7ik69ux">Archived</a> from the original on 17 June 2020. Retrieved 12 June 2020.</cite></li>
<li>Schrader, Stephanie; et al. (eds.): <i>Rembrandt and the Inspiration of India</i>. (Los Angeles, CA: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2018)</li>
<li>Westheider, Ortrud; Helfenstein, Joseph; Brinkmann, Bodo; Philipp, Michael (eds.): <i>Rembrandt's Orient: West Meets East in Dutch Art of the 17th Century</i>. (Munich: Prestel, 2020)</li></ul>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b> *Scallen, Catherine B. (2009), 'The Global Rembrandt,'. In: <i>Crossing Cultures: Conflict, Migration and Convergence: The Proceedings of the 32nd International Congress in the History of Art</i>, edited by Jaynie Anderson. (Carlton: Miegunyah Press, 2009), pp. 263–267
<ul><li>Behpoor, Bavand (2010), 'How Moghul Was Rembrandt? A Critique on a Global Laboratory of Infinite Multiplicities,'. <i>Third Text</i> 24(4): 501–504. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09528822.2010.491389">10.1080/09528822.2010.491389</a></li>
<li>Chung, Jina: <i>Rembrandt Redefined: Making the "Global Artist" in Seventeenth-Century Amsterdam</i>. (MA thesis, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Austin">University of Texas at Austin</a>, 2011)</li></ul>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b> *<a href="/wiki/Svetlana_Alpers">Alpers, Svetlana</a>: <i>Rembrandt's Enterprise: The Studio and the Market</i>. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988) <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-01518-7">978-0-226-01518-7</a>
<ul><li>Bok, Marten Jan (2004), 'Rembrandt's Fame and Rembrandt's Failure: The Market for History Paintings in the Dutch Republic,'. In: A. Kofuku (ed.), <i>Rembrandt and Dutch History Painting in the 17th Century</i>. (Tokyo, 2004), pp. 159–180</li>
<li>Bok, Marten Jan; van der Molen, Tom (2009), 'Productivity Levels of Rembrandt and His Main Competitors in the Amsterdam Art Market,'. <i>Jahrbuch der Berliner Museen</i> 51. Bd., Beiheft. Rembrandt — Wissenschaft auf der Suche. Beiträge des Internationalen Symposiums Berlin — 4. und 5. November 2006: 61–68</li>
<li>Crenshaw, Paul: <i>Rembrandt's Bankruptcy: The Artist, his Patrons, and the Art market in Seventeenth-Century Netherlands</i>. (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006) <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85825-0">978-0-521-85825-0</a></li>
<li>Tummers, Annaand; Jonckheere, Koenraad (eds.): <i><a href="/wiki/Art_market">Art market</a> and <a href="/wiki/Connoisseurship">Connoisseurship</a>: A Closer Look at Paintings by Rembrandt, Rubens and Their Contemporaries</i>. (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2008)</li></ul>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Gary_Schwartz_(art_historian)">Schwartz, Gary</a> (11 July 2017). <a href="http://www.garyschwartzarthistorian.nl/354-how-i-became-a-rembrandt-scholar/">"How I became a Rembrandt scholar"</a>. <i>garyschwartzarthistorian.nl</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200716143455/http://www.garyschwartzarthistorian.nl/354-how-i-became-a-rembrandt-scholar/">Archived</a> from the original on 16 July 2020. Retrieved 11 July 2020.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b> Chalard-Fillaudeau, Anne: <i>Rembrandt, l'artiste au fil des textes: Rembrandt dans la littérature et la philosophie européennes depuis 1669</i>. (Paris: L'Harmattan, 2004)
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b> Münz, Ludwig: <i>Die Kunst Rembrandts und Goethes Sehen</i>. (Leipzig: Verlag Heinrich Keller, 1934)
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b> Van den Boogert, B.; et al.: <i>Goethe en Rembrandt. Tekeningen uit Weimar. Uit de grafische bestanden van de Kunstsammlungen zu Weimar, aangevuld met werken uit het Goethe-Nationalmuseum</i>. (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1999)
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b> Protter, Eric (ed.): <i>Painters on Painting</i>. (Mineola, N.Y.: Dover Publications, 1997, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-29941-4">0-486-29941-4</a>), p. 98
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.realgoya.com/light-in-shadow-from-rembrandt-to-goya/">"La luz en la sombra (de Rembrandt a Goya)"</a>. <i>RealGoya.com</i>. 7 January 2017. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200514191918/http://www.realgoya.com/light-in-shadow-from-rembrandt-to-goya/">Archived</a> from the original on 14 May 2020. Retrieved 17 May 2020.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b> <cite>Rodriguez, Angel (16 April 2020). <a href="https://arsmagazine.com/rembrandt-en-espana/">"Rembrandt en España"</a>. <i>Arsmagazine.com</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200429094439/https://arsmagazine.com/rembrandt-en-espana/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 April 2020. Retrieved 16 May 2020.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b> McQueen, Alison: <i>The Rise of the Cult of Rembrandt: Reinventing an Old Master in Nineteenth-Century France</i>. (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2003)
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b> Prigot, Aude: <i>La réception de Rembrandt à travers les estampes en France au XVIIIe siècle</i>. (Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2018) <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7535-7552-3">978-2-7535-7552-3</a>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b> <a href="/wiki/Julius_Langbehn">Langbehn, Julius</a>: <i>Rembrandt als Erzieher</i> [<i>Rembrandt as Teacher</i>/<i>Rembrandt as Educator</i>]. (Leipzig: C.L. Hirschfeld, 1890)
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b> <a href="/wiki/Liesbeth_Heenk">Heenk, Liesbeth</a>: <i>Rembrandt and his Influence on Eighteenth-century German and Austrian <a href="/wiki/Printmaker">Printmakers</a></i>. (Amsterdam: Museum het Rembrandthuis – Rembrandt Information Centre, 1998)
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b> Chalard-Fillaudeau, Anne: <i>Rembrandt ou le génie du dépassement. Essai sur l'artiste hollandais dans l'histoire de l'art allemande</i>. (<a href="/wiki/Saarbr%C3%BCcken">Saarbrücken</a>: Editions Universitaires Européennes, 2010)
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b> Hoff, Ursula: <i>Rembrandt und England</i>. (Hamburg: Kleinert, 1935)
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b> White, Christopher; Alexander, David; D'Oench, Ellen: <i>Rembrandt in Eighteenth-Century England</i>. (New Haven: Yale Center for British Art, 1983)
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b> Seifert, Christian Tico; Dickey, Stephanie S.; et al.: <i>Rembrandt: Britain's Discovery of the Master</i>. (Edinburgh: National Galleries of Scotland, 2018) <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-911054-19-1">978-1-911054-19-1</a>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b> Seifert, Christian Tico: <i>Rembrandt &amp; Britain</i>. (Edinburgh: Trustees of the National Galleries of Scotland, 2018)
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b> Scallen, Catherine B.: <i>Rembrandt, Reputation, and the Practice of Connoisseurship</i>. (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2004)
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b> Wessels, Anton: <i>Van Gogh and the Art of Living: The Gospel According to Vincent van Gogh</i>. (Wipf &amp; Stock, 2013, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62564-109-0">978-1-62564-109-0</a>)
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b> <cite>Golahny, Amy (April 2004). <a href="https://hnanews.org/hnar/reviews/rembrandts-jews/">"Book Review: <i>Rembrandt's Jews</i> by Steven Nadler"</a>. <i>Historians of Netherlandish Art Reviews (hnanews.org/hnar/reviews)</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200717104818/https://hnanews.org/hnar/reviews/rembrandts-jews/">Archived</a> from the original on 17 July 2020. Retrieved 14 July 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b> <cite>Derman, Ushi (13 July 2020). <a href="https://www.bh.org.il/blog-items/rembrandt-one-dutch-genius-became-jew-honor/">"Was Rembrandt "One of ours"? How The Dutch Genius Became a Jew of Honor"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Beit_Hatfutsot">Beit Hatfutsot</a> (bh.org.il)</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200718083133/https://www.bh.org.il/blog-items/rembrandt-one-dutch-genius-became-jew-honor/">Archived</a> from the original on 18 July 2020. Retrieved 20 July 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b> <cite>Molina Cortón, Juan (2014). "Chap. IX". <i>Dánae – Mito, poder y erotismo en la pintura occidental</i> (in Spanish). Madrid, Spain: Cultiva Libros.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b> Wullschlager, Jackie: <i>Chagall: A Biography</i>. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008), p. 274
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b> <cite>Masters, Tim (14 October 2014). <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-29484448">"Exhibition paints Rembrandt as 'modern' artist"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC.com">BBC.com</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210308130505/https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-29484448">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 14 May 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b> Landsberger, Franz: <i>Rembrandt, the Jews, and the Bible</i>. Translated from the German by Felix N. Gerson. (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1946)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b> Zell, Michael: <i>Reframing Rembrandt: Jews and the Christian Image in Seventeenth-Century Amsterdam</i>. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), pp. 45–46
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Białostocki_155-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Białostocki_155-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Białostocki_155-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="/wiki/Jan_Bia%C5%82ostocki">Białostocki, Jan</a> (1972), 'Rembrandt and Posterity,'. Nederlands Kunsthistorisch Jaarboek 23 (1972): 131–157. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24705655">24705655</a>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-LivesRembrandt_156-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LivesRembrandt_156-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LivesRembrandt_156-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="/wiki/Joachim_von_Sandrart">Von Sandrart, Joachim</a>; <a href="/wiki/Filippo_Baldinucci">Baldinucci, Filippo</a>; <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Houbraken">Houbraken, Arnold</a>: <i>Lives of Rembrandt</i> [Lives of the Artists]. Introduced by Charles Ford. (Los Angeles, CA: <a href="/wiki/J._Paul_Getty_Museum">J. Paul Getty Museum</a>, 2018) <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60606-562-4">978-1-60606-562-4</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b> Muller, Sheila D. (ed.): <i>Dutch Art: An Encyclopedia</i>. (New York: Garland Pub., 1997), p. 178
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ruskin_158-0">^</a></b> Nichols, Aidan: <i>All Great Art is Praise: Art and Religion in John Ruskin</i>. (Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 2016), p. 454. In <a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin">Ruskin</a>' words, "It is the aim of the best painters to paint the noblest things they can see by sunlight. It was the aim of Rembrandt to paint the foulest things he could see – by rushlight."
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Cecil_B._De_Mille">Cecil B. De Mille Foundation</a>. <a href="https://www.cecilbdemille.com/legacy/">"The Legacy of Cecil B. DeMille"</a>. <i>Cecil B. De Mille Foundation (cecilbdemille.com)</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200810080817/https://www.cecilbdemille.com/legacy/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 August 2020. Retrieved 20 May 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b> <cite>Stinebring, Anna-Claire. <a href="https://publications.philamuseum.org/entries/102264">"Head of Christ by Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn (cat. 480)"</a>. <i>The John G. Johnson Collection: A History and Selected Works</i>. A Philadelphia Museum of Art free digital publication.</cite><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot">permanent dead link</a></i>]</sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.mnar.arts.ro/en/discover/permanent-galleries/113-the-european-art-gallery/discover-the-works-in-the-european-art-gallery/265-rembrandt-haman-before-esther">"The National Museum of Art of Romania – Rembrandt – Haman before Esther"</a>. <i>www.mnar.arts.ro</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211107223619/https://www.mnar.arts.ro/en/discover/permanent-galleries/113-the-european-art-gallery/discover-the-works-in-the-european-art-gallery/265-rembrandt-haman-before-esther">Archived</a> from the original on 7 November 2021. Retrieved 15 July 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rembrandt_tentoonstilling_162-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rembrandt_tentoonstilling_162-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="https://www.nga.gov/research/library/imagecollections/features/rembrandt-tentoonstilling.html">"Rembrandt tentoonstilling"</a>. <i>www.nga.gov</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190814194405/https://www.nga.gov/research/library/imagecollections/features/rembrandt-tentoonstilling.html">Archived</a> from the original on 14 August 2019. Retrieved 14 August 2019.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.mutualart.com/Exhibitions/Rembrandt-and-the-Face-of-Jesus-/34EBCEDD3805A5E5">"Rembrandt and the Face of Jesus"</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150131131831/http://www.mutualart.com/Exhibitions/Rembrandt-and-the-Face-of-Jesus-/34EBCEDD3805A5E5">Archived</a> from the original on 31 January 2015. Retrieved 13 January 2015.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.mutualart.com/Exhibitions/Rembrandt--The-Consummate-Etcher/80423471A2CC62FC">"Rembrandt: The Consummate Etcher"</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150113164353/http://www.mutualart.com/Exhibitions/Rembrandt--The-Consummate-Etcher/80423471A2CC62FC">Archived</a> from the original on 13 January 2015. Retrieved 13 January 2015.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.mutualart.com/Exhibitions/From-Rembrandt-to-Rosenquist--Works-on-P/C68FD89DD0131A49">"From Rembrandt to Rosenquist: Works on Paper from the NAC's Permanent Collection"</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150131131827/http://www.mutualart.com/Exhibitions/From-Rembrandt-to-Rosenquist--Works-on-P/C68FD89DD0131A49">Archived</a> from the original on 31 January 2015. Retrieved 11 January 2015.</cite> Retrieved 11 January 2015. <cite><a href="http://www.mutualart.com/">"MutualArt.com"</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150110051445/http://www.mutualart.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 January 2015. Retrieved 11 January 2015.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.mutualart.com/Exhibitions/Rembrandt--Rubens--Gainsborough-and-the-/088DD8543A6DF305">"Rembrandt, Rubens, Gainsborough and the Golden Age of Painting in Europe"</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150131131800/http://www.mutualart.com/Exhibitions/Rembrandt--Rubens--Gainsborough-and-the-/088DD8543A6DF305">Archived</a> from the original on 31 January 2015. Retrieved 11 January 2015.</cite> Retrieved 11 January 2015. <cite><a href="http://www.mutualart.com/">"MutualArt.com"</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150110051445/http://www.mutualart.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 January 2015. Retrieved 11 January 2015.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.mutualart.com/Exhibitions/Rembrandt--The-Late-Works/E7F46145AD9CC881">"Rembrandt: The Late Works"</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150131151514/http://www.mutualart.com/Exhibitions/Rembrandt--The-Late-Works/E7F46145AD9CC881">Archived</a> from the original on 31 January 2015. Retrieved 11 January 2015.</cite> <cite><a href="http://www.mutualart.com/">"MutualArt.com"</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150110051445/http://www.mutualart.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 January 2015. Retrieved 11 January 2015.</cite> Promoted in <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt4462596/"><i>Rembrandt: From the National Gallery, London and Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam</i> 2014</a> at <a href="/wiki/IMDb">IMDb</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.mutualart.com/">"MutualArt – Auctions, Exhibitions and Analysis for over 400,000 artists"</a>. <i>www.mutualart.com</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181010130902/https://www.mutualart.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 October 2018. Retrieved 10 October 2018.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.mutualart.com/Exhibition/Rembrandt--Painter-as-Printmaker/ED7B08298C74B1EA">"MutualArt.com – The Web's Largest Art Information Service"</a>. <i>www.mutualart.com</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181010213547/https://www.mutualart.com/Exhibition/Rembrandt--Painter-as-Printmaker/ED7B08298C74B1EA">Archived</a> from the original on 10 October 2018. Retrieved 10 October 2018.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://agnes.queensu.ca/exhibition/leiden-circa-1630-rembrandt-emerges/">"Leiden circa 1630: Rembrandt Emerges | Agnes Etherington Art Centre"</a>. <i>agnes.queensu.ca</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190115234532/https://agnes.queensu.ca/exhibition/leiden-circa-1630-rembrandt-emerges/">Archived</a> from the original on 15 January 2019. Retrieved 15 January 2019.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.dulwichpicturegallery.org.uk/about/press-media/press-releases/rembrandts-light/">"Rembrandt's Light | Dulwich Picture Gallery"</a>. <i>www.dulwichpicturegallery.org.uk</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200806180308/https://www.dulwichpicturegallery.org.uk/about/press-media/press-releases/rembrandts-light/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 12 February 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Thyssen_172-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.museothyssen.org/en/exhibitions/rembrandt-and-amsterdam-portraiture-1590-1670">"Exhibitions Rembrandt and Amsterdam portraiture, 1590–1670"</a>. Madrid: Museo Nacional Thyssen Bornemisza. 2020. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201009120745/https://www.museothyssen.org/en/exhibitions/rembrandt-and-amsterdam-portraiture-1590-1670">Archived</a> from the original on 9 October 2020. Retrieved 19 September 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.ashmolean.org//">"Welcome | Ashmolean Museum"</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200924010145/https://www.ashmolean.org/">Archived</a> from the original on 24 September 2020. Retrieved 23 September 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-W1_174-0">^</a></b> White, 200
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b> <cite>Starcky, Emmanuel (1990). <i>Rembrandt</i>. Hazan. p. 45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-85025-212-9"><bdi>978-2-85025-212-9</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h3>Works cited[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rembrandt&amp;action=edit&amp;section=27">edit</a>]</h3>
<div>
<ul><li>Ackley, Clifford, et al., <i>Rembrandt's Journey</i>, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 2004. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87846-677-0">0-87846-677-0</a></li>
<li><cite>Adams, Laurie Schneider (1999). <i>Art Across Time. Volume II</i>. New York: McGraw-Hill College.</cite></li>
<li>Bomford, D. et al., Art in the making: Rembrandt, New edition, Yale University Press, 2006</li>
<li>Bull, Duncan, et al., <i>Rembrandt-Caravaggio</i>, Rijksmuseum, 2006.</li>
<li>Buvelot, Quentin, White, Christopher (eds), <i>Rembrandt by himself</i>, 1999, National Gallery</li>
<li><cite>Clark, Kenneth (1969). <a href="https://archive.org/details/civilisationpers00kenn"><i>Civilisation: a personal view</i></a>. New York: Harper &amp; Row. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-010801-4"><bdi>978-0-06-010801-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Clark">Clark, Kenneth</a>, <i>An Introduction to Rembrandt</i>, 1978, London, John Murray/Readers Union, 1978</li>
<li><cite>Clough, Shepard B. (1975). <a href="https://archive.org/details/europeanhistoryi0000clou"><i>European History in a World Perspective</i></a>. D.C. Heath and Company, Los Lexington, MA. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-669-85555-5"><bdi>978-0-669-85555-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li>Driessen, Christoph, <i>Rembrandts vrouwen</i>, Bert Bakker, Amsterdam, 2012. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-351-3690-8">978-90-351-3690-8</a></li>
<li><cite>Durham, John I. (2004). <a href="https://archive.org/details/biblicalrembrand00durh"><i>Biblical Rembrandt: Human Painter in a Landscape of Faith</i></a>. Mercer University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86554-886-2"><bdi>978-0-86554-886-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Gombrich">Gombrich, E.H.</a>, <i>The Story of Art</i>, Phaidon, 1995. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7148-3355-X">0-7148-3355-X</a></li>
<li><cite>Hughes, Robert (2006), "The God of Realism", <i>The New York Review of Books</i>, vol. 53, no. 6</cite></li>
<li><i>The Complete Etchings of Rembrandt Reproduced in Original Size</i>, Gary Schwartz (editor). New York: Dover, 1988. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-28181-7">0-486-28181-7</a></li>
<li>Slive, Seymour, Dutch Painting, 1600–1800, Yale UP, 1995, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-07451-4">0-300-07451-4</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_van_de_Wetering">van de Wetering, Ernst</a> in <i>Rembrandt by himself</i>, 1999 National Gallery, London/Mauritshuis, The Hague, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85709-270-8">1-85709-270-8</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_van_de_Wetering">van de Wetering, Ernst</a>, <i>Rembrandt: The Painter at Work</i>, Amsterdam University Press, 2000. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-22668-2">0-520-22668-2</a></li>
<li>White, Christopher, <i>The Late Etchings of Rembrandt</i>, 1999, British Museum/Lund Humphries, London <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-400-9315-9">978-90-400-9315-9</a></li></ul>
</div>
<h2>Further reading[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rembrandt&amp;action=edit&amp;section=28">edit</a>]</h2>
<div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalogue_raisonn%C3%A9">Catalogue raisonné</a>: Stichting Foundation Rembrandt Research Project:
<ul><li><i>A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume I</i>, which deals with works from Rembrandt's early years in Leiden (1629–1631), 1982</li>
<li><i>A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume II: 1631–1634</i>. Bruyn, J., Haak, B. (et al.), Band 2, 1986, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-247-3339-2">978-90-247-3339-2</a></li>
<li><i>A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume III, 1635–1642</i>. Bruyn, J., Haak, B., Levie, S.H., <a href="/wiki/Pieter_J.J._van_Thiel">van Thiel, P.J.J.</a>, van de Wetering, E. (Ed. Hrsg.), Band 3, 1990, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-247-3781-9">978-90-247-3781-9</a></li>
<li><i>A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume IV</i>. <a href="/wiki/Ernst_van_de_Wetering">Ernst van de Wetering</a>, Karin Groen et al. Springer, Dordrecht, the Netherlands. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4020-3280-3">1-4020-3280-3</a>. p. 692. (Self-Portraits)</li></ul></li>
<li><i>Rembrandt. Images and metaphors</i>, <a href="/wiki/Christian_T%C3%BCmpel">Christian and Astrid Tümpel</a> (editors), Haus Books London 2006 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-904950-92-9">978-1-904950-92-9</a></li>
<li><cite>Anthony M. Amore; Tom Mashberg (2012). <i>Stealing Rembrandts: The Untold Stories of Notorious Art Heists</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-33990-3"><bdi>978-0-230-33990-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li></ul>
</div>
<h2>External links[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rembrandt&amp;action=edit&amp;section=29">edit</a>]</h2>
<div>
<p></p>
<p>Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Rembrandt">Rembrandt</a>.</p></div>
<div>
<p></p>
<p>Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Rembrandt">Rembrandt</a></b></i>.</p></div>
<ul><li><a href="http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/artists/rembrandt">A biography of the artist Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn from the National Gallery, London</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.pubhist.com/person/1/rembrandt">Works and literature on Rembrandt from Pubhist.com</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.rembrandtcatalogue.net/">The Drawings of Rembrandt: a revision of Otto Benesch's catalogue raisonné by Martin Royalton-Kisch (in progress)</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.rembrandthuis.nl/">Rembrandt's house in Amsterdam</a> Site of the Rembrandt House Museum in Amsterdam, with images of many of his etchings</li>
<li><a href="https://artuk.org/discover/artworks/search/actor:rembrandt-van-rijn-16061669">114 artworks by or after Rembrandt</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Art_UK">Art UK</a> site</li>
<li><a href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Rembrandt%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Rembrandt%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Rembrandt%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Rembrandt%22%29%20OR%20%28%221606-1669%22%20AND%20Rembrandt%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Rembrandt</a> at <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive">Internet Archive</a></li>
<li><a href="http://colourlex.com/project/resources-rembrandt/">Rembrandt van Rijn, General Resources</a></li>
<li><a href="https://garyschwartzarthistorian.wordpress.com%7C2015/09/19/341-the-transparent-connoisseur-3-the-30-million-pound-question/"></a><a href="/wiki/Gary_Schwartz_(art_historian)">Gary Schwartz</a> The transparent connoisseur 3: the 30 million pound question</li>
<li><a href="http://www.moreeuw.com/histoire-art/rembrandt-biographie.htm">Rembrandt</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.rembrandtdatabase.org/">The Rembrandt Database</a> research data on the paintings, including the full contents of the first volumes of <i>A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings</i> by the Rembrandt Research Project</li></ul>
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 Contents

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 * (Top)
 * 1 Life
 * 2 Works
 + 2.1 Periods, themes and styles
 + 2.2 Graphic works
 + 2.3 Asian inspiration
 + 2.4 The Night Watch
 * 3 Expert assessments
 * 4 Painting materials
 * 5 Name and signature
 * 6 Workshop
 * 7 Museum collections
 * 8 Influence and recognition
 + 8.1 Rembrandt and the Jewish world
 + 8.2 Criticism of Rembrandt
 + 8.3 In popular culture
 + 8.4 Works about Rembrandt
 o 8.4.1 Literary works (e.g. poetry and fiction)
 o 8.4.2 Films
 * 9 Selected works
 * 10 Exhibitions
 * 11 Paintings
 + 11.1 Self-portraits
 + 11.2 Other paintings
 * 12 Drawings and etchings
 * 13 Notes
 * 14 References
 + 14.1 Works cited
 * 15 Further reading
 * 16 External links
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 Rembrandt

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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 This article is about the Dutch artist. For other uses, see Rembrandt (disambiguation).

 Rembrandt  
 Self-Portrait with Beret and Turned-Up Collar (1659), National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
  Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn 
 Born  15 July 1606[1] 
  Leiden, Dutch Republic 
 Died  4 October 1669 (aged 63) 
  Amsterdam, Dutch Republic 
 Education  Jacob van Swanenburg 
  Pieter Lastman 
 Known for  Painting, printmaking, drawing 
  Self-portraits 
  The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp (1632) 
  Belshazzar's Feast (1635) 
 Notable work  The Night Watch (1642) 
  Bathsheba at Her Bath (1654) 
  Syndics of the Drapers' Guild (1662) 
  The Hundred Guilder Print (etching, c. 1647–1649)
 Movement  Dutch Golden Age 
  Baroque 
 

 Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (/ ˈ r ɛ m b r æ n t , ˈ r ɛ m b r ɑː n t /,[2] Dutch: [ˈrɛmbrɑnt ˈɦɑrmə(n)ˌsoːɱ vɑn ˈrɛin] ( listen ) ; 15 July 1606[1] – 4 October 1669), usually simply known as Rembrandt, was a Dutch Golden Age painter, printmaker and draughtsman. An innovative and prolific master in three media,[3] he is generally considered one of the greatest visual artists in the history of art and the most important in Dutch art history.[4]

 Unlike most Dutch masters of the 17th century, Rembrandt's works depict a wide range of style and subject matter, from portraits and self-portraits to landscapes, genre scenes, allegorical and historical scenes, biblical and mythological themes and animal studies. His contributions to art came in a period of great wealth and cultural achievement that historians call the Dutch Golden Age, when Dutch art (especially Dutch painting), whilst antithetical to the Baroque style that dominated Europe, was prolific and innovative. This era gave rise to important new genres. Like many artists of the Dutch Golden Age, such as Jan Vermeer, Rembrandt was an avid art collector and dealer.

 Rembrandt never went abroad, but was considerably influenced by the work of the Italian masters and Netherlandish artists who had studied in Italy, like Pieter Lastman, the Utrecht Caravaggists, Flemish Baroque, and Peter Paul Rubens. After he achieved youthful success as a portrait painter, Rembrandt's later years were marked by personal tragedy and financial hardships. Yet his etchings and paintings were popular throughout his lifetime, his reputation as an artist remained high,[5] and for twenty years he taught many important Dutch painters.[6]

 Rembrandt's portraits of his contemporaries, self-portraits and illustrations of scenes from the Bible are regarded as his greatest creative triumphs. His self-portraits form an intimate autobiography.[4] Rembrandt's foremost contribution in the history of printmaking was his transformation of the etching process from a relatively new reproductive technique into an art form. His reputation as the greatest etcher in the history of the medium was established in his lifetime. Few of his paintings left the Dutch Republic while he lived, but his prints were circulated throughout Europe, and his wider reputation was initially based on them alone.

 The Prodigal Son in the Brothel, a self-portrait with Saskia, c. 1635

 In his works, he exhibited knowledge of classical iconography. A depiction of a biblical scene was informed by Rembrandt's knowledge of the specific text, his assimilation of classical composition, and his observations of Amsterdam's Jewish population.[7] Because of his empathy for the human condition, he has been called "one of the great prophets of civilization".[8] The French sculptor Auguste Rodin said, "Compare me with Rembrandt! What sacrilege! With Rembrandt, the colossus of Art! We should prostrate ourselves before Rembrandt and never compare anyone with him!"[9]

 Life [ edit ]

 Rembrandt[a] Harmenszoon van Rijn was born on 15 July, 1606 in Leiden,[1] in the Dutch Republic, now the Netherlands. He was the ninth child born to Harmen Gerritszoon van Rijn and Neeltgen Willemsdochter van Zuijtbrouck.[11] His family was quite well-to-do; his father was a miller and his mother was a baker's daughter. Religion is a central theme in Rembrandt's works and the religiously fraught period in which he lived makes his faith a matter of interest. His mother was Catholic, and his father belonged to the Dutch Reformed Church. While his work reveals deep Christian faith, there is no evidence that Rembrandt formally belonged to any church. Five of his children were christened in Dutch Reformed churches in Amsterdam: four in the Oude Kerk (Old Church) and one, Titus, in the Zuiderkerk (Southern Church).[12]

 As a boy, he attended Latin school. At the age of 13, he was enrolled at the University of Leiden, although according to a contemporary he had a greater inclination towards painting; he was soon apprenticed to a Leiden history painter, Jacob van Swanenburg, with whom he spent three years.[13] After a brief but important apprenticeship of six months with the painter Pieter Lastman in Amsterdam, Rembrandt stayed a few months with Jacob Pynas and then started his own workshop, though Simon van Leeuwen claimed that Joris van Schooten taught Rembrandt in Leiden.[13][14] Unlike many of his contemporaries who traveled to Italy as part of their artistic training, Rembrandt never left the Dutch Republic during his lifetime.[15][16]

 Portrait of Saskia van Uylenburgh, c. 1635

 He opened a studio in Leiden in 1624 or 1625, which he shared with friend and colleague Jan Lievens. In 1627, Rembrandt began to accept students, which included Gerrit Dou in 1628.[17]

 In 1629, Rembrandt was discovered by the statesman Constantijn Huygens (father of the Dutch mathematician and physicist Christiaan Huygens), who procured for Rembrandt important commissions from the court of The Hague. As a result of this connection, Prince Frederik Hendrik continued to purchase paintings from Rembrandt until 1646.[18]

 At the end of 1631, Rembrandt moved to Amsterdam, a city rapidly expanding as the new business capital of the Netherlands. He began to practice as a professional portraitist for the first time, with great success. He initially stayed with an art dealer, Hendrick van Uylenburgh, and in 1634, married Hendrick's cousin, Saskia van Uylenburgh.[19][20] Saskia came from a good family: her father had been a lawyer and the burgemeester (mayor) of Leeuwarden. When Saskia, as the youngest daughter, became an orphan, she lived with an older sister in Het Bildt. Rembrandt and Saskia were married in the local church of St. Annaparochie without the presence of Rembrandt's relatives.[21] In the same year, Rembrandt became a burgess of Amsterdam and a member of the local guild of painters. He also acquired a number of students, among them Ferdinand Bol and Govert Flinck.[22]

 In 1635, Rembrandt and Saskia moved into their own house, renting in fashionable Nieuwe Doelenstraat with a view on the Amstel river. In 1639 they moved to a prominent newly built house (now the Rembrandt House Museum) in the upscale 'Breestraat' (eng.: 'Broadway'), today known as Jodenbreestraat in what was becoming the Jewish quarter; then a young up-and-coming neighborhood. The mortgage to finance the 13,000 guilder purchase would be a primary cause for later financial difficulties.[22] Rembrandt should easily have been able to pay the house off with his large income, but it appears his spending always kept pace with his income, and he may have made some unsuccessful investments.[23] It was there that Rembrandt frequently sought his Jewish neighbors to model for his Old Testament scenes.[24] Although they were by now affluent, the couple suffered several personal setbacks; their son Rumbartus died two months after his birth in 1635 and their daughter Cornelia died at just three weeks of age in 1638. In 1640, they had a second daughter, also named Cornelia, who died after living barely over a month. Only their fourth child, Titus, who was born in 1641, survived into adulthood. Saskia died in 1642 soon after Titus's birth, probably from tuberculosis. Rembrandt's drawings of her on her sick and death bed are among his most moving works.[25]

 Rembrandt's son Titus, as a monk, 1660

 During Saskia's illness, Geertje Dircx was hired as Titus' caretaker and nurse and also became Rembrandt's lover. She would later charge Rembrandt with breach of promise (a euphemism for seduction under [breached] promise to marry) and was awarded alimony of 200 guilders a year.[22] Rembrandt worked to have her committed to an asylum or poorhouse (called a "bridewell") at Gouda, after learning she had pawned jewelry he had given her that once belonged to Saskia.[26]

 In the late 1640s Rembrandt began a relationship with the much younger Hendrickje Stoffels, who had initially been his maid. In 1654 they had a daughter, Cornelia, bringing Hendrickje a summons from the Reformed Church to answer the charge "that she had committed the acts of a whore with Rembrandt the painter". She admitted this and was banned from receiving communion. Rembrandt was not summoned to appear for the Church council because he was not a member of the Reformed Church.[27] The two were considered legally wed under common law, but Rembrandt had not married Hendrickje. Had he remarried he would have lost access to a trust set up for Titus in Saskia's will.[25]

 Rembrandt lived beyond his means, buying art (including bidding up his own work), prints (often used in his paintings) and rarities, which probably caused a court arrangement (cessio bonorum) to avoid his bankruptcy in 1656, by selling most of his paintings and large collection of antiquities, but was allowed to keep his tools. The sale list survives and gives a good insight into Rembrandt's collections, which, apart from Old Master paintings and drawings, included busts of the Roman emperors, suits of Japanese armor among many objects from Asia, and collections of natural history and minerals. But the prices realized in the sales in 1657 and 1658 were disappointing.[28] Rembrandt was forced to sell his house and his printing-press and move to more modest accommodation on the Rozengracht in 1660.[29] The authorities and his creditors were generally accommodating to him, except for the Amsterdam painters' guild, which introduced a new rule that no one in Rembrandt's circumstances could trade as a painter. To get around this, Hendrickje and Titus set up a dummy corporation as art dealers in 1660, with Rembrandt as an employee.[30]

 Rembrandt Memorial Marker Westerkerk Amsterdam

 In 1661 Rembrandt (or rather the new business) was contracted to complete work for the newly built city hall, but only after Govert Flinck, the artist previously commissioned, died without beginning to paint. The resulting work, The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis, was rejected and returned to the painter; the surviving fragment is only a fraction of the whole work.[31] It was around this time that Rembrandt took on his last apprentice, Aert de Gelder. In 1662 he was still fulfilling major commissions for portraits and other works.[32] In 1662 one of Rembrandt's creditors went to the High Court (Hof van Holland) to contest that Titus had to be paid first.[33] Isaac van Hertsbeeck lost twice and had to pay the money he had already received to Titus, which he did in 1668.[34] When Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany came to Amsterdam in 1667, he visited Rembrandt at his house.[35]

 Rembrandt outlived both Hendrickje, who died in 1663, and Titus, who died in 1668, leaving a baby daughter. He died within a year of his son's death, on 4 October 1669 in Amsterdam, and was buried as a supposedly rich man as the heirs paid in burial taxes a substantial amount of money, f 15.[36] but in a paupers grave in the Westerkerk. It was in a numbered 'kerkgraf' (grave owned by the church) somewhere under a tombstone in the church. After twenty years, his remains were taken away and destroyed, as was customary.

 Works [ edit ]

 See also: List of paintings by Rembrandt, List of etchings by Rembrandt, and List of drawings by Rembrandt

 In a letter to Huygens, Rembrandt offered the only surviving explanation of what he sought to achieve through his art: the greatest and most natural movement, translated from de meeste en de natuurlijkste beweegelijkheid. The word "beweegelijkheid" is also argued to mean "emotion" or "motive". Whether this refers to objectives, material or otherwise, is open to interpretation; either way, critics have drawn particular attention to the way Rembrandt seamlessly melded the earthly and spiritual.[37]

 Rembrandt's only known seascape, The Storm on the Sea of Galilee, 1633. The painting is still missing after the robbery from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in 1990.

 Earlier-20th-century connoisseurs claimed Rembrandt had produced well over 600 paintings,[38] nearly 400 etchings and 2,000 drawings.[39] More recent scholarship, from the 1960s to the present day (led by the Rembrandt Research Project), often controversially, has winnowed his oeuvre to nearer 300 paintings.[b] His prints, traditionally all called etchings, although many are produced in whole or part by engraving and sometimes drypoint, have a much more stable total of slightly under 300.[c] It is likely Rembrandt made many more drawings in his lifetime than 2,000, but those extant are more rare than presumed.[d] Two experts claim that the number of drawings whose autograph status can be regarded as effectively "certain" is no higher than about 75, although this is disputed. The list was to be unveiled at a scholarly meeting in February 2010.[42]

 At one time about ninety paintings were counted as Rembrandt self-portraits, but it is now known that he had his students copy his own self-portraits as part of their training. Modern scholarship has reduced the autograph count to over forty paintings, as well as a few drawings and thirty-one etchings, which include many of the most remarkable images of the group.[43] Some show him posing in quasi-historical fancy dress, or pulling faces at himself. His oil paintings trace the progress from an uncertain young man, through the dapper and very successful portrait-painter of the 1630s, to the troubled but massively powerful portraits of his old age. Together they give a remarkably clear picture of the man, his appearance and his psychological make-up, as revealed by his richly weathered face.[e]

 A Polish Nobleman, 1637

 In his portraits and self-portraits, he angles the sitter's face in such a way that the ridge of the nose nearly always forms the line of demarcation between brightly illuminated and shadowy areas. A Rembrandt face is a face partially eclipsed; and the nose, bright and obvious, thrusting into the riddle of halftones, serves to focus the viewer's attention upon, and to dramatize, the division between a flood of light—an overwhelming clarity—and a brooding duskiness.[44]

 In a number of biblical works, including The Raising of the Cross, Joseph Telling His Dreams and The Stoning of Saint Stephen, Rembrandt painted himself as a character in the crowd. Durham suggests that this was because the Bible was for Rembrandt "a kind of diary, an account of moments in his own life".[45]

 Among the more prominent characteristics of Rembrandt's work are his use of chiaroscuro, the theatrical employment of light and shadow derived from Caravaggio, or, more likely, from the Dutch Caravaggisti, but adapted for very personal means.[46] Also notable are his dramatic and lively presentation of subjects, devoid of the rigid formality that his contemporaries often displayed, and a deeply felt compassion for mankind, irrespective of wealth and age. His immediate family—his wife Saskia, his son Titus and his common-law wife Hendrickje—often figured prominently in his paintings, many of which had mythical, biblical or historical themes.

 Periods, themes and styles [ edit ]

 Throughout his career Rembrandt took as his primary subjects the themes of portraiture, landscape and narrative painting. For the last, he was especially praised by his contemporaries, who extolled him as a masterly interpreter of biblical stories for his skill in representing emotions and attention to detail.[47] Stylistically, his paintings progressed from the early "smooth" manner, characterized by fine technique in the portrayal of illusionistic form, to the late "rough" treatment of richly variegated paint surfaces, which allowed for an illusionism of form suggested by the tactile quality of the paint itself.[48]

 The Abduction of Europa, 1632. Oil on panel. The work has been described as "...a shining example of the 'golden age' of Baroque painting".[49]

 A parallel development may be seen in Rembrandt's skill as a printmaker. In the etchings of his maturity, particularly from the late 1640s onward, the freedom and breadth of his drawings and paintings found expression in the print medium as well. The works encompass a wide range of subject matter and technique, sometimes leaving large areas of white paper to suggest space, at other times employing complex webs of line to produce rich dark tones.[50]

 It was during Rembrandt's Leiden period (1625–1631) that Lastman's influence was most prominent. It is also likely that at this time Lievens had a strong impact on his work as well.[51] Paintings were rather small, but rich in details (for example, in costumes and jewelry). Religious and allegorical themes were favored, as were tronies.[51] In 1626 Rembrandt produced his first etchings, the wide dissemination of which would largely account for his international fame.[51] In 1629 he completed Judas Repentant, Returning the Pieces of Silver and The Artist in His Studio, works that evidence his interest in the handling of light and variety of paint application, and constitute the first major progress in his development as a painter.[52]

 A typical portrait from 1634, when Rembrandt was enjoying great commercial success

 During his early years in Amsterdam (1632–1636), Rembrandt began to paint dramatic biblical and mythological scenes in high contrast and of large format (The Blinding of Samson, 1636, Belshazzar's Feast, c. 1635 Danaë, 1636 but reworked later), seeking to emulate the baroque style of Rubens.[53] With the occasional help of assistants in Uylenburgh's workshop, he painted numerous portrait commissions both small (Jacob de Gheyn III) and large (Portrait of the Shipbuilder Jan Rijcksen and his Wife, 1633, Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp, 1632).[54]

 By the late 1630s Rembrandt had produced a few paintings and many etchings of landscapes. Often these landscapes highlighted natural drama, featuring uprooted trees and ominous skies (Cottages before a Stormy Sky, c. 1641; The Three Trees, 1643). From 1640 his work became less exuberant and more sober in tone, possibly reflecting personal tragedy. Biblical scenes were now derived more often from the New Testament than the Old Testament, as had been the case before. In 1642 he painted The Night Watch, the most substantial of the important group portrait commissions which he received in this period, and through which he sought to find solutions to compositional and narrative problems that had been attempted in previous works.[55]

 Self Portrait, 1658, Frick Collection, a masterpiece of the final style, "the calmest and grandest of all his portraits"[56]

 In the decade following the Night Watch, Rembrandt's paintings varied greatly in size, subject, and style. The previous tendency to create dramatic effects primarily by strong contrasts of light and shadow gave way to the use of frontal lighting and larger and more saturated areas of color. Simultaneously, figures came to be placed parallel to the picture plane. These changes can be seen as a move toward a classical mode of composition and, considering the more expressive use of brushwork as well, may indicate a familiarity with Venetian art (Susanna and the Elders, 1637–47).[57] At the same time, there was a marked decrease in painted works in favor of etchings and drawings of landscapes.[58] In these graphic works natural drama eventually made way for quiet Dutch rural scenes.

 In the 1650s, Rembrandt's style changed again. Colors became richer and brush strokes more pronounced. With these changes, Rembrandt distanced himself from earlier work and current fashion, which increasingly inclined toward fine, detailed works. His use of light becomes more jagged and harsh, and shine becomes almost nonexistent. His singular approach to paint application may have been suggested in part by familiarity with the work of Titian, and could be seen in the context of the then current discussion of 'finish' and surface quality of paintings. Contemporary accounts sometimes remark disapprovingly of the coarseness of Rembrandt's brushwork, and the artist himself was said to have dissuaded visitors from looking too closely at his paintings.[59] The tactile manipulation of paint may hearken to medieval procedures, when mimetic effects of rendering informed a painting's surface. The result is a richly varied handling of paint, deeply layered and often apparently haphazard, which suggests form and space in both an illusory and highly individual manner.[60]

 In later years biblical themes were still depicted often, but emphasis shifted from dramatic group scenes to intimate portrait-like figures (James the Apostle, 1661). In his last years, Rembrandt painted his most deeply reflective self-portraits (from 1652 to 1669 he painted fifteen), and several moving images of both men and women (The Jewish Bride, c. 1666)—in love, in life, and before God.[61][62]

 Graphic works [ edit ]

 The Hundred Guilder Print, c. 1647–49, etching, drypoint and burin on Japan paper, National Museum of Western Art.

 Rembrandt produced etchings for most of his career, from 1626 to 1660, when he was forced to sell his printing-press and practically abandoned etching. Only the troubled year of 1649 produced no dated work.[63] He took easily to etching and, though he also learned to use a burin and partly engraved many plates, the freedom of etching technique was fundamental to his work. He was very closely involved in the whole process of printmaking, and must have printed at least early examples of his etchings himself. At first he used a style based on drawing, but soon moved to one based on painting, using a mass of lines and numerous bitings with the acid to achieve different strengths of line. Towards the end of the 1630s, he reacted against this manner and moved to a simpler style, with fewer bitings.[64] He worked on the so-called Hundred Guilder Print in stages throughout the 1640s, and it was the "critical work in the middle of his career", from which his final etching style began to emerge.[65] Although the print only survives in two states, the first very rare, evidence of much reworking can be seen underneath the final print and many drawings survive for elements of it.[66]

 The Three Trees, 1643, etching

 In the mature works of the 1650s, Rembrandt was more ready to improvise on the plate and large prints typically survive in several states, up to eleven, often radically changed. He now used hatching to create his dark areas, which often take up much of the plate. He also experimented with the effects of printing on different kinds of paper, including Japanese paper, which he used frequently, and on vellum. He began to use "surface tone," leaving a thin film of ink on parts of the plate instead of wiping it completely clean to print each impression. He made more use of drypoint, exploiting, especially in landscapes, the rich fuzzy burr that this technique gives to the first few impressions.[67]

 His prints have similar subjects to his paintings, although the twenty-seven self-portraits are relatively more common, and portraits of other people less so. There are forty-six landscapes, mostly small, which largely set the course for the graphic treatment of landscape until the end of the 19th century. One third of his etchings are of religious subjects, many treated with a homely simplicity, whilst others are his most monumental prints. A few erotic, or just obscene, compositions have no equivalent in his paintings.[68] He owned, until forced to sell it, a magnificent collection of prints by other artists, and many borrowings and influences in his work can be traced to artists as diverse as Mantegna, Raphael, Hercules Seghers, and Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione.

 Drawings by Rembrandt and his pupils/followers have been extensively studied by many artists and scholars[f] through the centuries. His original draughtsmanship has been described as an individualistic art style that was very similar to East Asian old masters, most notably Chinese masters:[75] a "combination of formal clarity and calligraphic vitality in the movement of pen or brush that is closer to Chinese painting in technique and feeling than to anything in European art before the twentieth century".[76]

 Asian inspiration [ edit ]

 Rembrandt drawing of an Indian Mughal painting
 Role-playing in self-portrait as an oriental potentate with a kris/keris, a Javanese blade weapon from the VOC era (etching, c. 1634)
 Main article: Rembrandt's Mughal drawings

 Rembrandt was interested in Mughal miniatures, especially around the 1650s. He drew versions of some 23 Mughal paintings, and may have owned an album of them. These miniatures include paintings of Shah Jahan, Akbar, Jahangir and Dara Shikoh. They may also have influenced the costumes and other aspects of his works.[77][78][79][80]

 The Night Watch [ edit ]

 The Night Watch or The Militia Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq, 1642. Oil on canvas; Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

 Rembrandt painted the The Militia Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq between 1640 and 1642 which became his most famous work.[81] This picture was called De Nachtwacht by the Dutch and The Night Watch by Sir Joshua Reynolds because by 1781 the picture was so dimmed and defaced that it was almost indistinguishable, and it looked quite like a night scene. After it was cleaned, it was discovered to represent broad day—a party of 18 musketeers stepping from a gloomy courtyard into the blinding sunlight. For Théophile Thoré it was the prettiest painting in the world.

 The piece was commissioned for the new hall of the Kloveniersdoelen, the musketeer branch of the civic militia. Rembrandt departed from convention, which ordered that such genre pieces should be stately and formal, rather a line-up than an action scene. Instead he showed the militia readying themselves to embark on a mission (what kind of mission, an ordinary patrol or some special event, is a matter of debate).

 Contrary to what is often said, the work was hailed as a success from the beginning. Parts of the canvas were cut off (approximately 20% from the left hand side was removed) to make the painting fit its new position when it was moved to Amsterdam town hall in 1715. In 1817 this large painting was moved to the Trippenhuis. Since 1885 the painting is on display at the Rijksmuseum.[g] In 1940 the painting was moved to Kasteel Radboud; in 1941 to a bunker near Heemskerk; in 1942 to St Pietersberg; in June 1945 it was shipped back to Amsterdam.

 Expert assessments [ edit ]

 See also: Rembrandt catalog raisonné, 1968
 The Polish Rider – Possibly a Lisowczyk on horseback

 In 1968 the Rembrandt Research Project began under the sponsorship of the Netherlands Organization for the Advancement of Scientific Research; it was initially expected to last a highly optimistic ten years. Art historians teamed up with experts from other fields to reassess the authenticity of works attributed to Rembrandt, using all methods available, including state-of-the-art technical diagnostics, and to compile a complete new catalogue raisonné of his paintings. As a result of their findings, many paintings that were previously attributed to Rembrandt have been removed from their list, although others have been added back.[82] Many of those removed are now thought to be the work of his students.

 One example of activity is The Polish Rider, in New York's Frick Collection. Rembrandt's authorship had been questioned by at least one scholar, Alfred von Wurzbach, at the beginning of the twentieth century, but for many decades later most scholars, including the foremost authority writing in English, Julius S. Held, agreed that it was indeed by the master. In the 1980s, however, Dr. Josua Bruyn of the Foundation Rembrandt Research Project cautiously and tentatively attributed the painting to one of Rembrandt's closest and most talented pupils, Willem Drost, about whom little is known. But Bruyn's remained a minority opinion, the suggestion of Drost's authorship is now generally rejected, and the Frick itself never changed its own attribution, the label still reading "Rembrandt" and not "attributed to" or "school of". More recent opinion has shifted even more decisively in favor of the Frick, with Simon Schama (in his 1999 book Rembrandt's Eyes) and the Rembrandt Project scholar Ernst van de Wetering (Melbourne Symposium, 1997) both arguing for attribution to the master. Those few scholars who still question Rembrandt's authorship feel that the execution is uneven, and favour different attributions for different parts of the work.[83]

 The Man with the Golden Helmet, Gemäldegalerie, Berlin, once one of the most famous "Rembrandt" portraits, is no longer attributed to the master.[84]

 A similar issue was raised by Simon Schama in his book Rembrandt's Eyes concerning the verification of titles associated with the subject matter depicted in Rembrandt's works. For example, the exact subject being portrayed in Aristotle with a Bust of Homer (recently retitled by curators at the Metropolitan Museum) has been directly challenged by Schama applying the scholarship of Paul Crenshaw.[85] Schama presents a substantial argument that it was the famous ancient Greek painter Apelles who is depicted in contemplation by Rembrandt and not Aristotle.[86]

 Another painting, Pilate Washing His Hands, is also of questionable attribution. Critical opinion of this picture has varied since 1905, when Wilhelm von Bode described it as "a somewhat abnormal work" by Rembrandt. Scholars have since dated the painting to the 1660s and assigned it to an anonymous pupil, possibly Aert de Gelder. The composition bears superficial resemblance to mature works by Rembrandt but lacks the master's command of illumination and modeling.[87]

 The attribution and re-attribution work is ongoing. In 2005 four oil paintings previously attributed to Rembrandt's students were reclassified as the work of Rembrandt himself: Study of an Old Man in Profile and Study of an Old Man with a Beard from a US private collection, Study of a Weeping Woman, owned by the Detroit Institute of Arts, and Portrait of an Elderly Woman in a White Bonnet, painted in 1640.[88] The Old Man Sitting in a Chair is a further example: in 2014, Professor Ernst van de Wetering offered his view to The Guardian that the demotion of the 1652 painting Old Man Sitting in a Chair "was a vast mistake...it is a most important painting. The painting needs to be seen in terms of Rembrandt's experimentation". This was highlighted much earlier by Nigel Konstam who studied Rembrandt throughout his career.[89]

 Rembrandt's own studio practice is a major factor in the difficulty of attribution, since, like many masters before him, he encouraged his students to copy his paintings, sometimes finishing or retouching them to be sold as originals, and sometimes selling them as authorized copies. Additionally, his style proved easy enough for his most talented students to emulate. Further complicating matters is the uneven quality of some of Rembrandt's own work, and his frequent stylistic evolutions and experiments.[90] As well, there were later imitations of his work, and restorations which so seriously damaged the original works that they are no longer recognizable.[91] It is highly likely that there will never be universal agreement as to what does and what does not constitute a genuine Rembrandt.

 Painting materials [ edit ]

 Saskia as Flora, 1635

 Technical investigation of Rembrandt's paintings in the possession of the Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister[92] and in the Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister (Kassel)[93] was conducted by Hermann Kühn in 1977. The pigment analyses of some thirty paintings have shown that Rembrandt's palette consisted of the following pigments: lead white, various ochres, Vandyke brown, bone black, charcoal black, lamp black, vermilion, madder lake, azurite, ultramarine, yellow lake and lead-tin-yellow. One painting (Saskia van Uylenburgh as Flora)[94] reportedly contains gamboge. Rembrandt very rarely used pure blue or green colors, the most pronounced exception being Belshazzar's Feast[95][96] in the National Gallery in London. The book by Bomford[95] describes more recent technical investigations and pigment analyses of Rembrandt's paintings predominantly in the National Gallery in London. The entire array of pigments employed by Rembrandt can be found at ColourLex.[97] The best source for technical information on Rembrandt's paintings on the web is the Rembrandt Database containing all works of Rembrandt with detailed investigative reports, infrared and radiography images and other scientific details.[98]

 Name and signature [ edit ]

 Slaughtered Ox (1655), Musée du Louvre, Paris

 "Rembrandt" is a modification of the spelling of the artist's first name that he introduced in 1633. "Harmenszoon" indicates that his father's name is Harmen. "van Rijn" indicates that his family lived near the Rhine.[99]

 Roughly speaking, his earliest signatures (c. 1625) consisted of an initial "R", or the monogram "RH" (for Rembrant Harmenszoon), and starting in 1629, "RHL" (the "L" stood, presumably, for Leiden). In 1632, he used this monogram early in the year, then added his family name to it, "RHL-van Rijn", but replaced this form in that same year and began using his first name alone with its original spelling, "Rembrant". In 1633 he added a "d", and maintained this form consistently from then on, proving that this minor change had a meaning for him (whatever it might have been). This change is purely visual; it does not change the way his name is pronounced. Curiously enough, despite the large number of paintings and etchings signed with this modified first name, most of the documents that mentioned him during his lifetime retained the original "Rembrant" spelling. (Note: the rough chronology of signature forms above applies to the paintings, and to a lesser degree to the etchings; from 1632, presumably, there is only one etching signed "RHL-v. Rijn," the large-format "Raising of Lazarus," B 73).[100] His practice of signing his work with his first name, later followed by Vincent van Gogh, was probably inspired by Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo who, then as now, were referred to by their first names alone.[101]

 Workshop [ edit ]

 Rembrandt ran a large workshop and had many pupils. The list of Rembrandt pupils from his period in Leiden as well as his time in Amsterdam is quite long, mostly because his influence on painters around him was so great that it is difficult to tell whether someone worked for him in his studio or just copied his style for patrons eager to acquire a Rembrandt. A partial list should include[102] Ferdinand Bol, Adriaen Brouwer, Gerrit Dou, Willem Drost, Heiman Dullaart, Gerbrand van den Eeckhout, Carel Fabritius, Govert Flinck, Hendrick Fromantiou, Aert de Gelder, Samuel Dirksz van Hoogstraten, Abraham Janssens, Godfrey Kneller, Philip de Koninck, Jacob Levecq, Nicolaes Maes, Jürgen Ovens, Christopher Paudiß, Willem de Poorter, Jan Victors, and Willem van der Vliet.

 Museum collections [ edit ]

 Rembrandt House Museum

 The most notable collections of Rembrandt's work are at Amsterdam's Rijksmuseum, including The Night Watch and The Jewish Bride, the Mauritshuis in The Hague, the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg, the National Gallery in London, Gemäldegalerie in Berlin, Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister in Dresden, The Louvre, Nationalmuseum, Stockholm, and Schloss Wilhelmshöhe in Kassel. The Royal Castle in Warsaw displays two paintings by Rembrandt.[103]

 Notable collections of Rembrandt's paintings in the United States are housed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art and Frick Collection in New York City, the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, and J. Paul Getty Museum in Los Angeles.[104]

 The Rembrandt House Museum in central Amsterdam in the house he bought at the height of his success, has furnishings that are mostly not original, but period pieces comparable to those Rembrandt might have had, and paintings reflecting Rembrandt's use of the house for art dealing. His printmaking studio has been set up with a printing press, where replica prints are printed. The museum has a few Rembrandt paintings, many loaned, but an important collection of his prints, a good selection of which are on rotating display. All major print rooms have large collections of Rembrandt prints, although as some exist in only a single impression, no collection is complete. The degree to which these collections are displayed to the public, or can easily be viewed by them in the print room, varies greatly.

 Influence and recognition [ edit ]

 Further information: Old master print, Etching Revival, Rembrandt Research Project, List of things named after Rembrandt van Rijn, List of works about Rembrandt, List of Rembrandt pupils, and List of Rembrandt connoisseurs and scholars
 Rembrandt statue and the sculptures of The Night Watch in 3D at the Rembrandtplein in Amsterdam

 [...] I maintain that it did not occur to Protogenes, Apelles or Parrhasius, nor could it occur to them were they return to earth that (I am amazed simply to report this) a youth, a Dutchman, a beardless miller, could bring together so much in one human figure and express what is universal. All honor to thee, my Rembrandt! To have carried Illium, indeed all Asia, to Italy is a lesser achievement than to have brought the laurels of Greece and Italy to Holland, the achievement of a Dutchman who has seldom ventured outside the walls of his native city...

 — Constantijn Huygens, Lord of Zuilichem, possibly the earliest known notable Rembrandt connoisseur and critic, 1629. Excerpt from the manuscript Autobiography of Constantijn Huygens (Koninklijke Bibliotheek, Den Haag), originally published in Oud Holland (1891), translated from the Dutch.[105]

 Rembrandt is one of the most famous[106][107] and the best expertly researched visual artists in history.[108][109] His life and art have long attracted the attention of interdisciplinary scholarship such as art history, socio-political history,[110] cultural history,[111] education, humanities, philosophy and aesthetics,[112] psychology, sociology, literary studies,[113] anatomy,[114] medicine,[115] religious studies,[h][116] theology,[117] Jewish studies,[118] Oriental studies (Asian studies),[119] global studies,[120] and art market research.[121] He has been the subject of a vast amount of literature in genres of both fiction and nonfiction. Research and scholarship related to Rembrandt is an academic field in its own right with many notable connoisseurs and scholars[122] and has been very dynamic since the Dutch Golden Age.[108][123][109]

 According to art historian and Rembrandt scholar Stephanie Dickey:

 [Rembrandt] earned international renown as a painter, printmaker, teacher, and art collector while never leaving the Dutch Republic. In his home city of Leiden and in Amsterdam, where he worked for nearly forty years, he mentored generations of other painters and produced a body of work that has never ceased to attract admiration, critique, and interpretation. (...) Rembrandt's art is a key component in any study of the Dutch Golden Age, and his membership in the canon of artistic genius is well established, but he is also a figure whose significance transcends specialist interest. Literary critics have pondered "Rembrandt" as a "cultural text"; novelists, playwrights, and filmmakers have romanticized his life, and in popular culture, his name has become synonymous with excellence for products and services, ranging from toothpaste to self-help advice.[109]

 In 1775, a 25-year-old Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote in a letter that "I live wholly with Rembrandt" ("...ich zeichne, künstle p. Und lebe ganz mit Rembrandt."). At the age of 81 (1831), Goethe wrote the essay "Rembrandt der Denker" ("Rembrandt the Thinker"), published in the posthumous collection of his works.[124][125]

 Francisco Goya, often considered to be among the last of the Old Masters, said, "I have had three masters: Nature, Velázquez, and Rembrandt." ("Yo no he tenido otros maestros que la Naturaleza, Velázquez y Rembrandt.")[126][127][128] In the history of the reception and interpretation of Rembrandt's art, it was the significant Rembrandt-inspired 'revivals' or 'rediscoveries' in 18th–19th century France,[129][130] Germany,[131][132][133] and Britain[134][135][136][137] that decisively helped in establishing his lasting fame in subsequent centuries.[138] When a critic referred to Auguste Rodin's busts in the same vein as Rembrandt's portraits, the French sculptor responded: "Compare me with Rembrandt? What sacrilege! With Rembrandt, the colossus of Art! What are you thinking of, my friend! We should prostrate ourselves before Rembrandt and never compare anyone with him!”[9] Vincent van Gogh wrote to his brother Theo (1885), "Rembrandt goes so deep into the mysterious that he says things for which there are no words in any language. It is with justice that they call Rembrandt—magician—that's no easy occupation."[139]

 Rembrandt and the Jewish world [ edit ]

 See also: History of the Jews in Amsterdam

 Although Rembrandt was not Jewish, he has had a considerable influence on many modern Jewish artists, writers and scholars (art critics and art historians in particular).[140][141] The German-Jewish painter Max Liebermann said, "Whenever I see a Frans Hals, I feel like painting; whenever I see a Rembrandt, I feel like giving up."[142] Marc Chagall wrote in 1922, "Neither Imperial Russia, nor the Russia of the Soviets needs me. They don't understand me. I am a stranger to them," and he added, "I'm certain Rembrandt loves me."[143]

 The Jewish Bride, c. 1665–9, Rijksmuseum Amsterdam. In Vincent van Gogh's own words (1885), "I should be happy to give 10 years of my life if I could go on sitting here in front of this picture [The Jewish Bride] fortnight, with only a crust of dry bread for food." In a letter to his brother Theo, Vincent wrote, "What an intimate, what an infinitely sympathetic picture it is,"[144]

 Rembrandt regarded the Bible as the greatest Book in the world and held it in reverent affection all his life, in affluence and poverty, in success and failure. He never wearied in his devotion to biblical themes as subjects for his paintings and other graphic presentations, and in these portrayals he was the first to have the courage to use the Jews of his environment as models for the heroes of the sacred narratives.

 — Franz Landsberger, a German Jewish émigré to America, the author of Rembrandt, the Jews, and the Bible (1946)[145][146]

 Criticism of Rembrandt [ edit ]

 Rembrandt has also been one of the most controversial (visual) artists in history.[108][147] Several of Rembrandt's notable critics include Constantijn Huygens, Joachim von Sandrart,[148] Andries Pels (who called Rembrandt "the first heretic in the art of painting"),[149] Samuel van Hoogstraten, Arnold Houbraken,[148] Filippo Baldinucci,[148] Gerard de Lairesse, Roger de Piles, John Ruskin,[150] and Eugène Fromentin.[147]

 By 1875 Rembrandt was already a powerful figure, projecting from historical past into the present with such a strength that he could not be simply overlooked or passed by. The great shadow of the old master required a decided attitude. A late Romantic painter and critic, like Fromentin was, if he happened not to like some of Rembrandt's pictures, he felt obliged to justify his feeling. The greatness of the dramatic old master was for artists of about 1875 not a matter for doubt. 'Either I am wrong', Fromentin wrote from Holland 'or everybody else is wrong'. When Fromentin realized his inability to like some of the works by Rembrandt he formulated the following comments: 'I even do not dare to write down such a blasphemy; I would get ridiculed if this is disclosed'. Only about twenty-five years earlier another French Romantic master Eugène Delacroix, when expressing his admiration for Rembrandt, has written in his Journal a very different statement: '... perhaps one day we will discover that Rembrandt is a much greater painter than Raphael. It is a blasphemy which would make hair raise on the heads of all the academic painters'. In 1851 the blasphemy was to put Rembrandt above Raphael. In 1875 the blasphemy was not to admire everything Rembrandt had ever produced. Between these two dates, the appreciation of Rembrandt reached its turning point and since that time he was never deprived of the high rank in the art world.

 — Rembrandt scholar Jan Białostocki (1972)[147]

 In popular culture [ edit ]

 See also: Category:Cultural depictions of Rembrandt
 Rembrandt statue in Leiden

 [...] One thing that really surprises me is the extent to which Rembrandt exists as a phenomenon in pop culture. You have this musical group call [sic] the Rembrandts, who wrote the theme song to Friends—"I'll Be There For You". There are Rembrandt restaurants, Rembrandt hotels, art supplies and other things that are more obvious. But then there's Rembrandt toothpaste. Why on Earth would somebody name a toothpaste after this artist who's known for his really dark tonalities? It doesn't make a lot of sense. But I think it's because his name has become synonymous with quality. It's even a verb—there's a term in underworld slang, 'to be Rembrandted,' which means to be framed for a crime. And people in the cinema world use it to mean pictorial effects that are overdone. He's just everywhere, and people who don't know anything, who wouldn't recognize a Rembrandt painting if they tripped over it, you say the name Rembrandt and they already know that this is a great artist. He's become a synonym for greatness.

 — Rembrandt scholar, Stephanie Dickey, in an interview with Smithsonian Magazine, December 2006[107]

 While shooting The Warrens of Virginia (1915), Cecil B. DeMille had experimented with lighting instruments borrowed from a Los Angeles opera house. When business partner Sam Goldwyn saw a scene in which only half an actor's face was illuminated, he feared the exhibitors would pay only half the price for the picture. DeMille remonstrated that it was Rembrandt lighting. "Sam's reply was jubilant with relief," recalled DeMille. "For Rembrandt lighting the exhibitors would pay double!"[151]

 Works about Rembrandt [ edit ]

 See also: Category:Works about Rembrandt

 Literary works (e.g. poetry and fiction) [ edit ]

 * To the Picture of Rembrandt (Russian-language poem by Mikhail Lermontov, 1830)
 * Gaspard de la nuit: Fantaisies à la manière de Rembrandt et de Callot (French-language prose poems by Aloysius Bertrand, 1842)
 * Picture This (1988 novel by Joseph Heller)
 * Moi, la Putain de Rembrandt (French-language novel by Sylvie Matton, 1998)
 * Van Rijn (2006 novel by Sarah Emily Miano)
 * I Am Rembrandt's Daughter (2007 novel by Lynn Cullen)
 * The Rembrandt Affair (2011 novel by Daniel Silva)
 * The Anatomy Lesson (2014 novel by Nina Siegal)
 * Rembrandt's Mirror (2015 novel by Kim Devereux)

 Films [ edit ]

 * The Stolen Rembrandt (1914 film directed by Leo D. Maloney and J.P. McGowan)
 * The Tragedy of a Great / Die Tragödie eines Großen (1920 film directed by Arthur Günsburg)
 * The Missing Rembrandt (1932 film directed by Leslie S. Hiscott)
 * Rembrandt (1936 film directed by Alexander Korda)
 * Rembrandt (1940 film)
 * Rembrandt in de schuilkelder / Rembrandt in the Bunker (1941 film directed by Gerard Rutten)
 * Rembrandt (1942 film directed by Hans Steinhoff)
 * Rembrandt: A Self-Portrait (1954 documentary film by Morrie Roizman)
 * Rembrandt, schilder van de mens / Rembrandt, Painter of Man (1957 film directed by Bert Haanstra)
 * Rembrandt fecit 1669 (1977 film directed by Jos Stelling)
 * Rembrandt: The Public Eye and the Private Gaze (1992 documentary film by Simon Schama)
 * Rembrandt (1999 film directed by Charles Matton)
 * Rembrandt: Fathers & Sons (1999 film directed by David Devine)
 * Stealing Rembrandt (2003 film directed by Jannik Johansen and Anders Thomas Jensen)
 * Simon Schama's Power of Art: Rembrandt (2006 BBC documentary film series by Simon Schama)
 * Nightwatching (2007 film directed by Peter Greenaway)
 * Rembrandt's J'Accuse (2008 documentary film by Peter Greenaway)
 * Rembrandt en ik (2011 film directed by Marleen Gorris)
 * Schama on Rembrandt: Masterpieces of the Late Years (2014 documentary film by Simon Schama)
 * Rembrandt: From the National Gallery, London and Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam (2014 documentary film by Exhibition on Screen)

 Selected works [ edit ]

 Rembrandt Laughing, 1628, J. Paul Getty Museum
 The Girl in a Picture Frame, 1641, Royal Castle, Warsaw
 The evangelist Matthew and the Angel, 1661
 * The Stoning of Saint Stephen (1625) – Musée des Beaux-Arts, Lyon
 * Andromeda Chained to the Rocks (1630) – Mauritshuis, The Hague
 * Jacob de Gheyn III (1632) – Dulwich Picture Gallery, London
 * Philosopher in Meditation (1632) – The Louvre, Paris
 * The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp (1632) – Mauritshuis, The Hague
 * Artemisia (1634) – oil on canvas, 142 × 152 cm, Museo del Prado, Madrid
 * Descent from the Cross (1634) – oil on canvas, 158 × 117 cm, looted from the Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel), Germany in 1806, currently Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg
 * Belshazzar's Feast (1635) – National Gallery, London
 * The Prodigal Son in the Tavern (c. 1635) – oil on canvas, 161 × 131 cm Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, Dresden
 * Danaë (1636 – c. 1643) – Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg
 * The Scholar at the Lectern (1641) – Royal Castle in Warsaw, Warsaw
 * The Girl in a Picture Frame (1641) – Royal Castle, Warsaw
 * The Night Watch, formally The Militia Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq (1642) – Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam
 * Christ Healing the Sick (etching c. 1643, also known as the Hundred Guilder Print), nicknamed for the huge sum paid for it
 * Boaz and Ruth (1643) aka The Old Rabbi or Old Man – Woburn Abbey/Gemaldegalerie, Berlin
 * The Mill (1645/48) – National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
 * Old Man with a Gold Chain ("Old Man with a Black Hat and Gorget") (c. 1631) Art Institute of Chicago
 * Susanna and the Elders (1647) – oil on panel, 76 × 91 cm, Gemäldegalerie, Berlin
 * Head of Christ (c. 1648–56) – The Philadelphia Museum of Art[152]
 * Aristotle Contemplating a Bust of Homer (1653) – Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
 * Bathsheba at Her Bath (1654) – The Louvre, Paris
 * Christ Presented to the People (Ecce Homo) (1655) – Drypoint, Birmingham Museum of Art
 * Selfportrait (1658) – Frick Collection, New York
 * The Three Crosses (1660) Etching, fourth state
 * Ahasuerus and Haman at the Feast of Esther (1660) – Pushkin Museum, Moscow
 * The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis (1661) – Nationalmuseum, Stockholm (Claudius Civilis led a Dutch revolt against the Romans) (most of the cut up painting is lost, only the central part still exists)
 * Portrait of Dirck van Os (1662) – Joslyn Art Museum, Omaha, Nebraska
 * Syndics of the Drapers' Guild (Dutch De Staalmeesters, 1662) – Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam
 * The Jewish Bride (1665) – Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam
 * Haman before Esther (1665) – National Museum of Art of Romania, Bucharest [153]
 * The Entombment Sketch (c. 1639, reworked c. 1654) – oil on oak panel, Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery, Glasgow
 * Saul and David (c. 1660–1665) – Mauritshuis, The Hague
 * Portrait of an Old Man (1645) – Calouste Gulbenkian Museum, Lisbon
 * Pallas Athena (c.1657) – Calouste Gulbenkian Museum, Lisbon

 Exhibitions [ edit ]

 Moving Rembrandt's The Night Watch for the 1898 Rembrandt Exhibition
 * Sept–Oct 1898: Rembrandt Tentoonstelling (Rembrandt Exhibition), Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.[154]
 * Jan–Feb 1899: Rembrandt Tentoonstelling (Rembrandt Exhibition), Royal Academy, London, England.[154]
 * 21 April 2011 – 18 July 2011: Rembrandt and the Face of Jesus, Musée du Louvre.[155]
 * 16 September 2013 – 14 November 2013: Rembrandt: The Consummate Etcher, Syracuse University Art Galleries.[156]
 * 19 May 2014 – 27 June 2014: From Rembrandt to Rosenquist: Works on Paper from the NAC's Permanent Collection, National Arts Club.[157]
 * 19 October 2014 – 4 January 2015: Rembrandt, Rubens, Gainsborough and the Golden Age of Painting in Europe, Jule Collins Smith Museum of Art.[158]
 * 15 October 2014 – 18 January 2015: Rembrandt: The Late Works, The National Gallery, London.[159]
 * 12 February 2015 – 17 May 2015: Late Rembrandt, The Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.[160]
 * 16 September 2018 – 6 January 2019: Rembrandt – Painter as Printmaker, Denver Art Museum, Denver.[161]
 * 24 Aug 2019 – 1 December 2019: Leiden circa 1630: Rembrandt Emerges, Agnes Etherington Art Centre, Kingston, Ontario.[162]
 * 4 October 2019 – 2 February 2020: Rembrandt's Light, Dulwich Picture Gallery, London.[163]
 * 18 February 2020 – 30 August 2020: Rembrandt and Amsterdam portraiture, 1590–1670 , Museo Nacional Thyssen-Bornemisza, Madrid.[164]
 * 10 August 2020 – 1 November 2020: Young Rembrandt, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.[165]

 Paintings [ edit ]

 Self-portraits [ edit ]

 Main article: Self-portraits by Rembrandt

 * A young Rembrandt, c. 1628, when he was 22. Partly an exercise in chiaroscuro. Rijksmuseum

 * Self-Portrait in a Gorget, c. 1629; Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Nuremberg

 * Self-portrait, 1630, Nationalmuseum, Stockholm

 * Self-Portrait with Velvet Beret and Furred Mantle 1634

 * Self-portrait at the age of 34, 1640, National Gallery, London

 * Self-Portrait, oil on canvas, 1652. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

 * Self-portrait, Vienna c. 1655, oil on walnut, cut down in size. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

 * Self-Portrait, 1660

 * Self Portrait as Zeuxis, c. 1662. One of 2 painted self-portraits in which Rembrandt is turned to the left.[166] Wallraf-Richartz Museum, Cologne

 * Self-Portrait with Two Circles, c.1665–1669. Kenwood House, London

 * Self-portrait, 1669.

 * Self-portrait at the age of 63, dated 1669, the year he died. National Gallery, London

 Other paintings [ edit ]

 * The Stoning of Saint Stephen, 1625, The first painting by Rembrandt, painted at the age of 19.[167] It is currently kept in the Musée des Beaux-Arts de Lyon.

 * Artist in His Studio, 1628, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

 * Bust of an old man with a fur hat, the artist's father, 1630

 * Jeremiah Lamenting the Destruction of Jerusalem, c. 1630

 * Andromeda, Circa 1630

 * The Philosopher in Meditation, 1632

 * Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp, 1632

 * Portrait of Aeltje Uylenburgh, 1632, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

 * Portrait of Saskia van Uylenburgh, c. 1633–1634

 * Sacrifice of Isaac, 1635

 * The Blinding of Samson, 1636, which Rembrandt gave to Huyghens

 * Susanna, 1636

 * Belshassar's Feast, 1636-1638

 * Danaë, 1636 – c. 1643, Hermitage Museum

 * The Archangel Raphael Leaving Tobias' Family, 1637, Louvre

 * The Landscape with Good Samaritan, 1638, Czartoryski Museum, Kraków

 * Scholar at his Writing Table, 1641, Royal Castle, Warsaw

 * Joseph's Dream, c. 1645

 * Susanna and the Elders, 1647

 * The Mill, 1648

 * An Old Man in Red, 1652–1654

 * Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, 1653, Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York

 * Young Girl at the Window, 1654, Nationalmuseum, Stockholm

 * Portrait of Jan Six, a wealthy friend of Rembrandt, 1654

 * Bathsheba at Her Bath, modelled by Hendrickje, 1654

 * A Woman Bathing in a Stream, modelled by Hendrickje, 1654

 * Pallas Athene, c.1655

 * The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Deijman, 1656

 * Jacob Blessing the Sons of Joseph, 1656

 * Woman in a Doorway, 1657–1658

 * Ahasuerus and Haman at the Feast of Esther, 1660

 * Saint Bartholomew, 1661, J. Paul Getty Museum

 * The Syndics of the Drapers' Guild, 1662

 * The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis (cut-down), 1661–62

 * Lucretia, 1666 (Minneapolis Institute of Art)

 * The Return of the Prodigal Son, detail, c. 1669 – Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg

 * Medieval schoolboy birched on the bare buttocks

 * The Rape of Ganymede, 1635, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden

 Drawings and etchings [ edit ]

 * Self-portrait, c. 1628–29, pen and brush and ink on paper

 * Self-portrait in a cap, with eyes wide open, 1630, etching and burin

 * Seated Old Man (c.1630), red and black chalk on paper, Nationalmuseum, Stockholm

 * Suzannah and the Elders, 1634, drawing in Sanguine on paper, Kupferstichkabinett Berlin

 * Self-portrait with Saskia, 1636, etching, Rijksmuseum

 * An elephant, 1637, drawing in black chalk on paper, Albertina, Austria

 * Self-portrait leaning on a Sill, 1639, etching, National Gallery of Art

 * Christ and the woman taken in adultery, c. 1639–41, drawing in ink, Louvre

 * Beggars I., c. 1640–42, ink on paper, Warsaw University Library

 * The Windmill, 1641, etching

 * The Diemerdijk at Houtewael (near Amsterdam), 1648–49, pen and brown ink, brown wash, Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen

 * The Three Crosses, 1653, drypoint etching, state III of V, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

 * Virgin and Child with a Cat, 1654, original copper etching plate above (the original copper plate), in Victoria and Albert Museum, example of the print below

 * Christ presented to the People, drypoint etching, 1655, state I of VIII, Rijksmuseum

 * Two Old Men in Conversation /Two Jews in Discussion, Walking, year unknown, black chalk and brown ink on paper, Teylers Museum

 * A child being taught to walk (c. 1635). David Hockney said: "I think it's the greatest drawing ever done... It's a magnificent drawing, magnificent."[72]

 * A young woman sleeping (c. 1654). Shows Rembrandt's calligraphic-style draughtsmanship.[75][76]

 Notes [ edit ]

 1. ^ This version of his first name, "Rembrandt" with a "d," first appeared in his signatures in 1633. Until then, he had signed with a combination of initials or monograms. In late 1632, he began signing solely with his first name, "Rembrant". He added the "d" in the following year and stuck to this spelling for the rest of his life. Although scholars can only speculate, this change must have had a meaning for Rembrandt, which is generally interpreted as his wanting to be known by his first name like the great figures of the Italian Renaissance: Leonardo, Raphael etc., who did not sign with their last names, if at all. [10]
 2. ^ Useful totals of the figures from various different oeuvre catalogues, often divided into classes along the lines of: "very likely authentic", "possibly authentic" and "unlikely to be authentic" are given at the Online Rembrandt catalogue [40]
 3. ^ Two hundred years ago Bartsch listed 375. More recent catalogues have added three (two in unique impressions) and excluded enough to reach totals as follows: Schwartz, p. 6, 289; Münz 1952, 279; Boon 1963, 287 Print Council of America – but Schwartz's total quoted does not tally with the book.
 4. ^ It is not possible to give a total, as a new wave of scholarship on Rembrandt drawings is still in progress – analysis of the Berlin collection for an exhibition in 2006/7 has produced a probable drop from 130 sheets there to about 60. Codart.nl [41] The British Museum is due to publish a new catalogue after a similar exercise.
 5. ^ While the popular interpretation is that these paintings represent a personal and introspective journey, it is possible that they were painted to satisfy a market for self-portraits by prominent artists. Van de Wetering, p. 290.
 6. ^ Such as Otto Benesch , [69][70][71] David Hockney , [72] Nigel Konstam , Jakob Rosenberg , Gary Schwartz , and Seymour Slive . [73][74]
 7. ^ The Rijksmuseum has a smaller copy of what is thought to be the full original composition.
 8. ^ It is important to note that Rembrandt's religious affiliation was uncertain. There is little evidence that Rembrandt formally belonged to any Christian denomination .

 References [ edit ]

 1. ^ a b c Or possibly 1607 as on 10 June 1634 he himself claimed to be 26 years old. See Is the Rembrandt Year being celebrated one year too soon? One year too late? Archived 21 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine and (in Dutch) J. de Jong, Rembrandts geboortejaar een jaar te vroeg gevierd Archived 18 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine for sources concerning Rembrandt's birth year, especially supporting 1607. However, most sources continue to use 1606.
 2. ^ "Rembrandt" Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine . Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary .
 3. ^ See: list of drawings , prints (etchings) , and paintings by Rembrandt.
 4. ^ a b Gombrich, p. 420.
 5. ^ Gombrich, p. 427.
 6. ^ Clark 1969 , pp. 203
 7. ^ Clark 1969 , pp. 203–204
 8. ^ Clark 1969 , pp. 205
 9. ^ a b Rodin, Auguste : Art: Conversations with Paul Gsell . Translated from the French by Jacques de Caso and Patricia B. Sanders. (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984) ISBN 0-520-03819-3 , p. 85. Originally published as Auguste Rodin, L'Art: Entretiens réunis par Paul Gsell (Paris: Bernard Grasset, 1911). Auguste Rodin: "Me comparer à Rembrandt, quel sacrilège! À Rembrandt, le colosse de l'Art! Y pensez-vous, mon ami! Rembrandt, prosternons-nous et ne mettons jamais personne à côté de lui!” (original in French)
 10. ^ "Rembrandt Signature Files". www.rembrandt-signature-file.com. Archived from the original on 9 April 2016.
 11. ^ Bull, et al., p. 28.
 12. ^ "Doopregisters, Zoek" (in Dutch). Stadsarchief.amsterdam.nl. 3 April 2014 . Retrieved 7 April 2014 . [ permanent dead link ]
 13. ^ a b (in Dutch) Rembrandt biography in De groote schouburgh der Nederlantsche konstschilders en schilderessen (1718) by Arnold Houbraken , courtesy of the Digital library for Dutch literature
 14. ^ Joris van Schooten as teacher of Rembrandt and Lievens Archived 26 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine in Simon van Leeuwen's Korte besgryving van het Lugdunum Batavorum nu Leyden , Leiden, 1672
 15. ^ Rembrandt biography Archived 20 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine , nationalgallery.org.uk
 16. ^ Erhardt, Michelle A., and Amy M. Morris. 2012. Mary Magdalene, Iconographic Studies from the Middle Ages to the Baroque Archived 8 March 2020 at the Wayback Machine . Boston : Brill. p. 252. ISBN 978-90-04-23195-5 .
 17. ^ Slive has a comprehensive biography, pp. 55ff.
 18. ^ Slive, pp. 60, 65
 19. ^ Slive, pp. 60–61
 20. ^ "Netherlands, Noord-Holland Province, Church Records, 1553–1909 Image Netherlands, Noord-Holland Province, Church Records, 1553–1909; pal:/MM9.3.1/TH-1971-31164-16374-68". Familysearch.org. Archived from the original on 5 June 2016 . Retrieved 7 April 2014 .
 21. ^ Registration of the banns of Rembrandt and Saskia , kept at the Amsterdam City Archives
 22. ^ a b c Bull, et al., p. 28
 23. ^ Clark, 1978, pp. 26–27, 76, 102
 24. ^ Adams, p. 660
 25. ^ a b Slive, p. 71
 26. ^ Driessen, pp. 151–57
 27. ^ Slive, p. 82
 28. ^ Slive, p. 84
 29. ^ Schwartz, p. 12. The house sale was in 1658, but was agreed with two years for Rembrandt to vacate.
 30. ^ Clark, 1974 p. 105
 31. ^ Clark 1974, pp. 60–61
 32. ^ Bull, et al., p. 29.
 33. ^ Ruysscher, D. D., & 'T Veld, C. I. (2021). Rembrandt's insolvency: The artist as legal actor, Oud Holland–Journal for Art of the Low Countries, 134(1), 9–24. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/18750176-13401002 Archived 7 November 2021 at the Wayback Machine
 34. ^ Wexuan, Li. "Review of: 'Rembrandts plan: De ware geschiedenis van zijn faillissement" , Oud Holland Reviews , April 2020.
 35. ^ Clark 1978, p. 34
 36. ^ Burial register of the Westerkerk with record of Rembrandt's burial , kept at the Amsterdam City Archives
 37. ^ Hughes, p. 6
 38. ^ "A Web Catalogue of Rembrandt Paintings". 28 July 2012. Archived from the original on 28 July 2012.
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 42. ^ "Schwartzlist 301 – Blog entry by the Rembrandt scholar Gary Schwartz". Garyschwartzarthistorian.nl. Archived from the original on 22 February 2012 . Retrieved 17 February 2012 .
 43. ^ White and Buvelot 1999, p. 10.
 44. ^ Taylor, Michael (2007). Rembrandt's Nose: Of Flesh & Spirit in the Master's Portraits Archived 5 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine p. 21, D.A.P./Distributed Art Publishers, Inc., New York ISBN 978-1-933045-44-3 '
 45. ^ Durham, p. 60.
 46. ^ Bull, et al., pp. 11–13.
 47. ^ van der Wetering, p. 268.
 48. ^ van de Wetering, pp. 160, 190.
 49. ^ Clough, p. 23
 50. ^ Ackley, p. 14.
 51. ^ a b c van de Wetering, p. 284.
 52. ^ van de Wetering, p. 285.
 53. ^ van de Wetering, p. 287.
 54. ^ van de Wetering, p. 286.
 55. ^ van de Wetering, p. 288.
 56. ^ Clark 1978, p. 28
 57. ^ van de Wetering, pp. 163–65.
 58. ^ van de Wetering, p. 289.
 59. ^ van de Wetering, pp. 155–65.
 60. ^ van de Wetering, pp. 157–58, 190.
 61. ^ "In Rembrandt's (late) great portraits we feel face to face with real people, we sense their warmth, their need for sympathy and also their loneliness and suffering. Those keen and steady eyes that we know so well from Rembrandt's self-portraits must have been able to look straight into the human heart." Gombrich, p. 423.
 62. ^ "It ( The Jewish Bride ) is a picture of grown-up love, a marvelous amalgam of richness, tenderness, and trust... the heads which, in their truth, have a spiritual glow that painters influenced by the classical tradition could never achieve." Clark, p. 206.
 63. ^ Schwartz, 1994, pp. 8–12
 64. ^ White 1969, pp. 5–6
 65. ^ White 1969, p. 6
 66. ^ White 1969, pp. 6, 9–10
 67. ^ White, 1969 pp. 6–7
 68. ^ See Schwartz, 1994, where the works are divided by subject, following Bartsch .
 69. ^ Benesch, Otto: The Drawings of Rembrandt: First Complete Edition in Six Volumes . (London: Phaidon, 1954–57)
 70. ^ Benesch, Otto: Rembrandt as a Draughtsman: An Essay with 115 Illustrations . (London: Phaidon Press, 1960)
 71. ^ Benesch, Otto: The Drawings of Rembrandt. A Critical and Chronological Catalogue [2nd ed., 6 vols.]. (London: Phaidon, 1973)
 72. ^ a b Lewis, Tim (16 November 2014). "David Hockney: 'When I'm working, I feel like Picasso, I feel I'm 30'". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 16 May 2020 . Retrieved 16 June 2020 . David Hockney" (2014): "There's a drawing by Rembrandt, I think it's the greatest drawing ever done. It's in the "British Museum" and it's of a family teaching a child to walk, so it's a universal thing, everybody has experienced this or seen it happen. Everybody. I used to print out Rembrandt drawings big and give them to people and say: 'If you find a better drawing send it to me. But if you find a better one it will be by "Goya" or "Michelangelo" perhaps.' But I don't think there is one actually. It's a magnificent drawing, magnificent.""
 73. ^ Slive, Seymour: The Drawings of Rembrandt: A New Study . (London: Thames & Hudson, 2009)
 74. ^ Silve, Seymour: The Drawings of Rembrandt . (London: Thames & Hudson, 2019)
 75. ^ a b Mendelowitz, Daniel Marcus: Drawing . (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1967), p. 305. As Mendelowitz (1967) noted: "Probably no one has combined to as great a degree as Rembrandt a disciplined exposition of what his eye saw and a love of line as a beautiful thing in itself. His "Winter Landscape" displays the virtuosity of performance of an Oriental master, yet unlike the Oriental calligraphy, it is not based on an established convention of brush performance. It is as personal as handwriting."
 76. ^ a b Sullivan, Michael: The Meeting of Eastern and Western Art . (Berkeley/Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1989), p. 91
 77. ^ Schrader, Stephanie; et al. (eds.): Rembrandt and the Inspiration of India Archived 1 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine . (Los Angeles, CA: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2018) ISBN 978-1-60606-552-5
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 82. ^ "The Rembrandt Research Project: Past, Present, Future" (PDF) . Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 August 2014 . Retrieved 11 August 2014 .
 83. ^ See "Further Battles for the 'Lisowczyk' (Polish Rider) by Rembrandt" Zdzislaw Zygulski, Jr., Artibus et Historiae , Vol. 21, No. 41 (2000), pp. 197–205. Also New York Times story Archived 8 January 2008 at the Wayback Machine . There is a book on the subject: Responses to Rembrandt; Who painted the Polish Rider? by Anthony Bailey (New York, 1993)
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 86. ^ Schama, pp 582–591.
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 90. ^ "...Rembrandt was not always the perfectly consistent, logical Dutchman he was originally anticipated to be." Ackley, p. 13.
 91. ^ van de Wetering, p. x.
 92. ^ Kühn, Hermann. 'Untersuchungen zu den Pigmenten und Malgründen Rembrandts, durchgeführt an den Gemälden der Staatlichen Kunstsammlungen Dresden'(Examination of pigments and grounds used by Rembrandt, analysis carried out on paintings in the Staatlichen Kunstsammlungen Dresden), Maltechnik/Restauro, issue 4 (1977): 223–233
 93. ^ Kühn, Hermann. 'Untersuchungen zu den Pigmenten und Malgründen Rembrandts, durchgeführt an den Gemälden der Staatlichen Kunstsammlungen Kassel' (Examination of pigments and grounds used by Rembrandt, analysis carried out on paintings in the Staatlichen Kunstsammlungen Kassel), Maltechnik/Restauro, volume 82 (1976): 25–33
 94. ^ Rembrandt, Saskia as Flora Archived 15 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine , ColourLex
 95. ^ a b Bomford, D. et al., Art in the making: Rembrandt, New edition, Yale University Press, 2006
 96. ^ Rembrandt, Belshazzar's Feast, Pigment analysis Archived 7 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine at ColourLex
 97. ^ "Resources Rembrandt". ColourLex. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021 . Retrieved 23 February 2021 .
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 102. ^ Rembrandt pupils (under Leraar van) in the RKD
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 137. ^ Scallen, Catherine B.: Rembrandt, Reputation, and the Practice of Connoisseurship . (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2004)
 138. ^ Wessels, Anton: Van Gogh and the Art of Living: The Gospel According to Vincent van Gogh . (Wipf & Stock, 2013, ISBN 978-1-62564-109-0 )
 139. ^ Golahny, Amy (April 2004). "Book Review: Rembrandt's Jews by Steven Nadler". Historians of Netherlandish Art Reviews (hnanews.org/hnar/reviews). Archived from the original on 17 July 2020 . Retrieved 14 July 2020 .
 140. ^ Derman, Ushi (13 July 2020). "Was Rembrandt "One of ours"? How The Dutch Genius Became a Jew of Honor". Beit Hatfutsot (bh.org.il). Archived from the original on 18 July 2020 . Retrieved 20 July 2020 .
 141. ^ Molina Cortón, Juan (2014). "Chap. IX". Dánae – Mito, poder y erotismo en la pintura occidental (in Spanish). Madrid, Spain: Cultiva Libros.
 142. ^ Wullschlager, Jackie: Chagall: A Biography . (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008), p. 274
 143. ^ Masters, Tim (14 October 2014). "Exhibition paints Rembrandt as 'modern' artist". BBC.com. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021 . Retrieved 14 May 2020 .
 144. ^ Landsberger, Franz: Rembrandt, the Jews, and the Bible . Translated from the German by Felix N. Gerson. (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1946)
 145. ^ Zell, Michael: Reframing Rembrandt: Jews and the Christian Image in Seventeenth-Century Amsterdam . (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), pp. 45–46
 146. ^ a b c Białostocki, Jan (1972), 'Rembrandt and Posterity,'. Nederlands Kunsthistorisch Jaarboek 23 (1972): 131–157. JSTOR 24705655
 147. ^ a b c Von Sandrart, Joachim ; Baldinucci, Filippo ; Houbraken, Arnold : Lives of Rembrandt [Lives of the Artists]. Introduced by Charles Ford. (Los Angeles, CA: J. Paul Getty Museum , 2018) ISBN 978-1-60606-562-4
 148. ^ Muller, Sheila D. (ed.): Dutch Art: An Encyclopedia . (New York: Garland Pub., 1997), p. 178
 149. ^ Nichols, Aidan: All Great Art is Praise: Art and Religion in John Ruskin . (Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 2016), p. 454. In Ruskin ' words, "It is the aim of the best painters to paint the noblest things they can see by sunlight. It was the aim of Rembrandt to paint the foulest things he could see – by rushlight."
 150. ^ Cecil B. De Mille Foundation. "The Legacy of Cecil B. DeMille". Cecil B. De Mille Foundation (cecilbdemille.com). Archived from the original on 10 August 2020 . Retrieved 20 May 2020 .
 151. ^ Stinebring, Anna-Claire. "Head of Christ by Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn (cat. 480)". The John G. Johnson Collection: A History and Selected Works. A Philadelphia Museum of Art free digital publication. [ permanent dead link ]
 152. ^ "The National Museum of Art of Romania – Rembrandt – Haman before Esther". www.mnar.arts.ro. Archived from the original on 7 November 2021 . Retrieved 15 July 2020 .
 153. ^ a b "Rembrandt tentoonstilling". www.nga.gov. Archived from the original on 14 August 2019 . Retrieved 14 August 2019 .
 154. ^ "Rembrandt and the Face of Jesus". Archived from the original on 31 January 2015 . Retrieved 13 January 2015 .
 155. ^ "Rembrandt: The Consummate Etcher". Archived from the original on 13 January 2015 . Retrieved 13 January 2015 .
 156. ^ "From Rembrandt to Rosenquist: Works on Paper from the NAC's Permanent Collection". Archived from the original on 31 January 2015 . Retrieved 11 January 2015 . Retrieved 11 January 2015. "MutualArt.com". Archived from the original on 10 January 2015 . Retrieved 11 January 2015 .
 157. ^ "Rembrandt, Rubens, Gainsborough and the Golden Age of Painting in Europe". Archived from the original on 31 January 2015 . Retrieved 11 January 2015 . Retrieved 11 January 2015. "MutualArt.com". Archived from the original on 10 January 2015 . Retrieved 11 January 2015 .
 158. ^ "Rembrandt: The Late Works". Archived from the original on 31 January 2015 . Retrieved 11 January 2015 . "MutualArt.com". Archived from the original on 10 January 2015 . Retrieved 11 January 2015 . Promoted in Rembrandt: From the National Gallery, London and Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam 2014 at IMDb
 159. ^ "MutualArt – Auctions, Exhibitions and Analysis for over 400,000 artists". www.mutualart.com. Archived from the original on 10 October 2018 . Retrieved 10 October 2018 .
 160. ^ "MutualArt.com – The Web's Largest Art Information Service". www.mutualart.com. Archived from the original on 10 October 2018 . Retrieved 10 October 2018 .
 161. ^ "Leiden circa 1630: Rembrandt Emerges | Agnes Etherington Art Centre". agnes.queensu.ca. Archived from the original on 15 January 2019 . Retrieved 15 January 2019 .
 162. ^ "Rembrandt's Light | Dulwich Picture Gallery". www.dulwichpicturegallery.org.uk. Archived from the original on 6 August 2020 . Retrieved 12 February 2020 .
 163. ^ "Exhibitions Rembrandt and Amsterdam portraiture, 1590–1670". Madrid: Museo Nacional Thyssen Bornemisza. 2020. Archived from the original on 9 October 2020 . Retrieved 19 September 2020 .
 164. ^ "Welcome | Ashmolean Museum". Archived from the original on 24 September 2020 . Retrieved 23 September 2020 .
 165. ^ White, 200
 166. ^ Starcky, Emmanuel (1990). Rembrandt. Hazan. p. 45. ISBN 978-2-85025-212-9.

 Works cited [ edit ]

 * Ackley, Clifford, et al., Rembrandt's Journey, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 2004. ISBN 0-87846-677-0
 * Adams, Laurie Schneider (1999). Art Across Time. Volume II. New York: McGraw-Hill College.
 * Bomford, D. et al., Art in the making: Rembrandt, New edition, Yale University Press, 2006
 * Bull, Duncan, et al., Rembrandt-Caravaggio, Rijksmuseum, 2006.
 * Buvelot, Quentin, White, Christopher (eds), Rembrandt by himself, 1999, National Gallery
 * Clark, Kenneth (1969). Civilisation: a personal view. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-010801-4.
 * Clark, Kenneth, An Introduction to Rembrandt, 1978, London, John Murray/Readers Union, 1978
 * Clough, Shepard B. (1975). European History in a World Perspective. D.C. Heath and Company, Los Lexington, MA. ISBN 978-0-669-85555-5.
 * Driessen, Christoph, Rembrandts vrouwen, Bert Bakker, Amsterdam, 2012. ISBN 978-90-351-3690-8
 * Durham, John I. (2004). Biblical Rembrandt: Human Painter in a Landscape of Faith. Mercer University Press. ISBN 978-0-86554-886-2.
 * Gombrich, E.H., The Story of Art, Phaidon, 1995. ISBN 0-7148-3355-X
 * Hughes, Robert (2006), "The God of Realism", The New York Review of Books, vol. 53, no. 6
 * The Complete Etchings of Rembrandt Reproduced in Original Size, Gary Schwartz (editor). New York: Dover, 1988. ISBN 0-486-28181-7
 * Slive, Seymour, Dutch Painting, 1600–1800, Yale UP, 1995, ISBN 0-300-07451-4
 * van de Wetering, Ernst in Rembrandt by himself, 1999 National Gallery, London/Mauritshuis, The Hague, ISBN 1-85709-270-8
 * van de Wetering, Ernst, Rembrandt: The Painter at Work, Amsterdam University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-520-22668-2
 * White, Christopher, The Late Etchings of Rembrandt, 1999, British Museum/Lund Humphries, London ISBN 978-90-400-9315-9

 Further reading [ edit ]

 Further information: List of works about Rembrandt
 * Catalogue raisonné: Stichting Foundation Rembrandt Research Project:
 + A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume I, which deals with works from Rembrandt's early years in Leiden (1629–1631), 1982
 + A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume II: 1631–1634. Bruyn, J., Haak, B. (et al.), Band 2, 1986, ISBN 978-90-247-3339-2
 + A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume III, 1635–1642. Bruyn, J., Haak, B., Levie, S.H., van Thiel, P.J.J., van de Wetering, E. (Ed. Hrsg.), Band 3, 1990, ISBN 978-90-247-3781-9
 + A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume IV. Ernst van de Wetering, Karin Groen et al. Springer, Dordrecht, the Netherlands. ISBN 1-4020-3280-3. p. 692. (Self-Portraits)
 * Rembrandt. Images and metaphors, Christian and Astrid Tümpel (editors), Haus Books London 2006 ISBN 978-1-904950-92-9
 * Anthony M. Amore; Tom Mashberg (2012). Stealing Rembrandts: The Untold Stories of Notorious Art Heists. ISBN 978-0-230-33990-3.

 External links [ edit ]

 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rembrandt .
 Wikiquote has quotations related to Rembrandt.
 * A biography of the artist Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn from the National Gallery, London
 * Works and literature on Rembrandt from Pubhist.com
 * The Drawings of Rembrandt: a revision of Otto Benesch's catalogue raisonné by Martin Royalton-Kisch (in progress)
 * Rembrandt's house in Amsterdam Site of the Rembrandt House Museum in Amsterdam, with images of many of his etchings
 * 114 artworks by or after Rembrandt at the Art UK site
 * Works by or about Rembrandt at Internet Archive
 * Rembrandt van Rijn, General Resources
 * Gary Schwartz The transparent connoisseur 3: the 30 million pound question
 * Rembrandt
 * The Rembrandt Database research data on the paintings, including the full contents of the first volumes of A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings by the Rembrandt Research Project
 * v 
 * t 
 * e 
 Rembrandt 
 Lists of drawings, etchings, paintings, self-portraits
  * The Senses (1624–25) 
  * The Stoning of Saint Stephen (1625) 
  * Suffer little children to come unto me (1620s) 
  * History Painting (1626) 
  * Balaam and the Ass (1626) 
  * The Baptism of the Eunuch (1626) 
  * Bust of a Man Wearing a Gorget and Plumed Beret (1626) 
  * The Flight into Egypt (1627) 
  * The Parable of the Rich Fool (1627) 
  * The Artist in his Studio (1628) 
  * Samson and Delilah (1629–30) 
  * The Raising of Lazarus (c. 1630–1632) 
  * Andromeda Chained to the Rocks (1631) 
  * The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp (1631) 
  * Christ with a Staff (1631) 
  * Christ on the Cross (1631) 
  * Old Man with a Gold Chain (c. 1631) 
  * Philosopher in Meditation (1632) 
  * The Abduction of Europa (1632) 
  * Adoration of the Magi (1632–1633) 
  * The Shipbuilder and his Wife (1633) 
  * The Storm on the Sea of Galilee (1633) 2 
  * A Lady and Gentleman in Black (1633) 
  * Raising of the Cross (1633) 
  * Descent from the Cross (1633) 
  * Diana Bathing with her Nymphs with Actaeon and Callisto (1634)
  * Flora (1634) 
  * Artemisia (1634) 
  * Pendant portraits of Maerten Soolmans and Oopjen Coppit (1634)
  * Descent from the Cross (1634) 
  * Belshazzar's Feast (1635) 
  * Minerva (1635) 
  * The Prodigal Son in the Brothel (c. 1635) 
  * Raising of the Cross (study) (c. 1635) 
  * The Rape of Ganymede (1635) 
  * The Entombment of Christ (1635) 
  * Samson Threatening His Father-In-Law (1635) 
  * The Standard Bearer (1636) 
  * Danaë (1636) 
  * The Blinding of Samson (1636) 
  * Landscape with Arched Bridge (c. 1636-1637) 
  * The Preacher Eleazar Swalmius (1637) 
  * The Archangel Raphael Leaving Tobias' Family (1637) 
 Paintings * A Polish Nobleman (1637) 
  * The Stone Bridge (1637) 
  * The Wedding Feast of Samson (1638) 
  * Landscape with the Good Samaritan (1638) 
  * Still Life with Peacocks (c. 1639) 
  * The Girl in a Picture Frame (1641) 
  * The Night Watch (1642) 
  * Concord of the State (1642) 
  * David and Jonathan (1642) 
  * Boaz and Ruth (1643) 
  * The Woman Taken in Adultery (1644) 
  * Joseph's Dream (1645) 
  * The Holy Family with Angels (1645) 
  * The Mill (1645–1648) 
  * Abraham Serving the Three Angels (1646) 
  * Susanna and the Elders (1647) 
  * Head of Christ (1648) 
  * The Kitchen Maid (1651) 
  * Descent from the Cross (1650–1652) 
  * Saul and David (c. 1652) 1 
  * Aristotle with a Bust of Homer (1653) 
  * A Woman Bathing in a Stream (1654) 
  * Bathsheba at Her Bath (1654) 
  * The Polish Rider (1655) 1 
  * Slaughtered Ox (1655) 
  * Pallas Athene (c. 1655) 
  * The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Deijman (1656) 
  * Jacob Blessing the Sons of Joseph (1656) 
  * Courtesan at her Mirror (1657) 
  * Saint Bartholomew (1657) 
  * Moses Breaking the Tablets of the Law (1659) 
  * Ahasuerus and Haman at the Feast of Esther (1660) 
  * The Denial of Saint Peter (1660) 
  * Titus as a Monk (1660) 
  * The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis (1661) 
  * St. Matthew and the Angel (1661) 
  * Syndics of the Drapers' Guild (1662) 
  * Homer Dictating his Verses (1663) 
  * The Jewish Bride (1664) 
  * Lucretia (1664) 1 
  * David and Uriah (c. 1665) 
  * Young Woman with a Lapdog (1665) 
  * Lucretia (1666) 
  * The Return of the Prodigal Son (1662–1669) 
  * Landscape with a Castle 
  * Portrait of Nicolaes Ruts (1631) 
  * Portrait of a Man (1632) 
  * Portrait of a Woman (1632) 
  * Portrait of Jacob de Gheyn III (1632) 
  * Aeltje Pietersdr Uylenburgh (1632) 
  * Portrait of a Man Rising from His Chair (1633) 
  * Oval Portrait of a Woman (1633) 
 Portraits * Portrait of Marten Soolmans (1634) 
  * Portrait of Oopjen Coppit (1634) 
  * Portrait of Petronella Buys (1635) 
  * Portrait of Maria Trip (1639) 
  * Portrait of Jan Six (1654) 
  * Portrait of Catharina Hooghsaet (1657) 
  * Portrait of a Man (1657) 
  * Portrait of a Man with Arms Akimbo (1658) 
  * Portrait of Dirck van Os (c. 1662) 
  * Self-Portrait with Dishevelled Hair (1628) 
  * Rembrandt Laughing (1628) 
  * Self-Portrait (1629) 
  * Self-Portrait in a Gorget (c.1629) 
  * Portrait of a Young Man with a Golden Chain (1635) (disputed) 
  * Self-Portrait Wearing a White Feathered Bonnet (1635) 
  * Self-Portrait at the Age of 34 (1640) 
  * Self-Portrait (1652) 
 Self-portraits * Self-Portrait in a Black Beret and Gold Chain (1654) 
  * Self-Portrait (1658) 
  * Self-Portrait with Beret and Turned-Up Collar (1659) 
  * Self-Portrait (1660) 
  * Self-Portrait as the Apostle Paul (1662) 
  * Self-Portrait as Zeuxis Laughing (1662) 
  * Self-Portrait with Two Circles (1665–1669) 
  * Self-Portrait (c. 1669) 
  * Self-Portrait at the Age of 63 (1669) 
  * Joseph and Potiphar's Wife (1634) 
  * The Artist and his Model (1639) 
  * The Death of the Virgin (1639) 
  * The Mill (1641) 
  * The Three Trees (1643) 
  * The State Bed (1646) 
  * Portrait of Jan Six (1647) 
 Drawings and prints * Hundred Guilder Print (1647–1649) 
 (including etchings) * Conus Marmoreus (1650) 
  * Goldweigher's Field (1651) 
  * Doctor Fautrieus (1652) 
  * Descent from the Cross by Torchlight (1652) 
  * The Three Crosses (1653) 
  * The Virgin and Child with a Cat (1654) 
  * Christ Presented to the People (1655) 
  * Mughal drawings 
  * Dutch Golden Age painting 
  * Dutch School (painting) 
  * Netherlandish art 
  * Netherlandish Baroque art 
  + Flemish Baroque art 
  + Art of the Dutch Golden Age 
  * Rembrandt lighting 
 General topics * Tronie 
  * Surface tone 
  * Old master print 
  * Naturalism 
  * Utrecht Caravaggism 
  * Caravaggisti 
  * Chiaroscuro 
  * Etching revival 
  * Connoisseurs and scholars 
  * Rembrandt Research Project 
  * Rembrandt catalogues raisonnés 
 Rembrandt studies + 1908 
  + 1935 
  + 1968 
  + 1986 
  * Pupils and followers 
  * Saskia van Uylenburgh (wife, model) 
  * Titus van Rijn (son, model) 
  * Geertje Dircx (mistress, model) 
  * Hendrickje Stoffels (mistress, model) 
 Related people * Jacob Isaacsz. van Swanenburg (teacher) 
  * Pieter Lastman (teacher) 
  * Jan Lievens (colleague and friend) 
  * Hendrick van Uylenburgh (art dealer, patron) 
  * Jan Six (art collector, patron) 
  * Henry Clay Frick (art collector) 
  * Thomas Kaplan (art collector) 
  * Rembrandt House Museum 
  * Rijksmuseum Amsterdam 
  * Mauritshuis 
 Notable collections * Kupferstichkabinett Berlin 
 and exhibitions * British Museum 
  * Metropolitan Museum of Art 
  * Frick Collection 
  * Rembrandt in Southern California (2008 virtual exhibition) 
  * Bibliography of Rembrandt 
  * Cultural depictions of Rembrandt 
  * Rembrandt (1936 film) 
  * Rembrandt (1940 film) 
  * Rembrandt (1942 film) 
  * Rembrandt: A Self-Portrait (1954 documentary film) 
 Works about * Rembrandt fecit 1669 (1977 film) 
  * The Anatomy Lesson (1995 novel) 
  * Rembrandt (1999 film) 
  * Stealing Rembrandt (2003 film) 
  * Nightwatching (2007 film ) 
  * Rembrandt's J'Accuse (2008 documentary) 
  * I Am Rembrandt's Daughter (2008 novel) 
  * The Rembrandt Affair (2010 novel) 
  * Rembrandt, Iowa 
  * Rembrandtplein 
 Named after * Rembrandtpark 
  * Rembrandt (crater) 
  * Rembrandt (train) 
 * 1 Contested 
 * 2 Stolen in 1990 
 
 Authority control 
 * VIAF 
 General + 1 
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 * France (data) 
 National libraries * Germany 
 * United States 
 * Australia 
 * Auckland 
 Art galleries and museums * South Australia 
 * Victoria 
 * Te Papa (New Zealand) 
 * Scientific illustrators 
 Art research institutes * KulturNav (Norway) 
 * RKD Artists (Netherlands) 
 * Artist Names (Getty) 
 Biographical dictionaries * Netherlands 
 * Germany 
 * Social Networks and Archival Context
 Other * Trove (Australia) 
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 * 
Rembrandt          Self-Portrait with Beret and Turned-Up Collar  (1659), National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.     Born  Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn 15 July 1606 [1]     Leiden, Dutch Republic      Died 4 October 1669 (aged 63)   Amsterdam, Dutch Republic     Education  Jacob van Swanenburg  Pieter Lastman    Known for  Painting, printmaking, drawing    Notable work  Self-portraits   The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp  (1632)  Belshazzar's Feast  (1635)  The Night Watch  (1642)  Bathsheba at Her Bath  (1654)  Syndics of the Drapers' Guild  (1662)  The Hundred Guilder Print  (etching, c. 1647–1649)   Movement  Dutch Golden Age  Baroque    
 Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (, [2]  Dutch:  [ˈrɛmbrɑnt ˈɦɑrmə(n)ˌsoːɱ vɑn ˈrɛin] (  listen); 15 July 1606 [1]  – 4 October 1669), usually simply known as Rembrandt, was a Dutch Golden Age painter, printmaker and draughtsman. An innovative and prolific master in three media, [3]  he is generally considered one of the greatest visual artists in the history of art and the most important in Dutch art history. [4]  
 Unlike most Dutch masters of the 17th century, Rembrandt's works depict a wide range of style and subject matter, from portraits and self-portraits to landscapes, genre scenes, allegorical and historical scenes, biblical and mythological themes and animal studies. His contributions to art came in a period of great wealth and cultural achievement that historians call the Dutch Golden Age, when Dutch art (especially Dutch painting), whilst antithetical to the Baroque style that dominated Europe, was prolific and innovative. This era gave rise to important new genres. Like many artists of the Dutch Golden Age, such as Jan Vermeer, Rembrandt was an avid art collector and dealer.
 Rembrandt never went abroad, but was considerably influenced by the work of the Italian masters and Netherlandish artists who had studied in Italy, like Pieter Lastman, the Utrecht Caravaggists, Flemish Baroque, and Peter Paul Rubens. After he achieved youthful success as a portrait painter, Rembrandt's later years were marked by personal tragedy and financial hardships. Yet his etchings and paintings were popular throughout his lifetime, his reputation as an artist remained high, [5]  and for twenty years he taught many important Dutch painters. [6] 
 Rembrandt's portraits of his contemporaries, self-portraits and illustrations of scenes from the Bible are regarded as his greatest creative triumphs. His self-portraits form an intimate autobiography. [4]  Rembrandt's foremost contribution in the history of printmaking was his transformation of the etching process from a relatively new reproductive technique into an art form. His reputation as the greatest etcher in the history of the medium was established in his lifetime. Few of his paintings left the Dutch Republic while he lived, but his prints were circulated throughout Europe, and his wider reputation was initially based on them alone.
     
In his works, he exhibited knowledge of classical iconography. A depiction of a biblical scene was informed by Rembrandt's knowledge of the specific text, his assimilation of classical composition, and his observations of Amsterdam's Jewish population. [7]  Because of his empathy for the human condition, he has been called "one of the great prophets of civilization". [8]  The French sculptor Auguste Rodin said, "Compare me with Rembrandt! What sacrilege! With Rembrandt, the colossus of Art! We should prostrate ourselves before Rembrandt and never compare anyone with him!" [9] 
Life[edit]
Rembrandt [a]  Harmenszoon van Rijn was born on 15 July, 1606 in Leiden, [1]  in the Dutch Republic, now the Netherlands. He was the ninth child born to Harmen Gerritszoon van Rijn and Neeltgen Willemsdochter van Zuijtbrouck. [11]  His family was quite well-to-do; his father was a miller and his mother was a baker's daughter. Religion is a central theme in Rembrandt's works and the religiously fraught period in which he lived makes his faith a matter of interest. His mother was Catholic, and his father belonged to the Dutch Reformed Church. While his work reveals deep Christian faith, there is no evidence that Rembrandt formally belonged to any church. Five of his children were christened in Dutch Reformed churches in Amsterdam: four in the Oude Kerk (Old Church) and one, Titus, in the Zuiderkerk (Southern Church). [12] 
 As a boy, he attended Latin school. At the age of 13, he was enrolled at the University of Leiden, although according to a contemporary he had a greater inclination towards painting; he was soon apprenticed to a Leiden history painter, Jacob van Swanenburg, with whom he spent three years. [13]  After a brief but important apprenticeship of six months with the painter Pieter Lastman in Amsterdam, Rembrandt stayed a few months with Jacob Pynas and then started his own workshop, though Simon van Leeuwen claimed that Joris van Schooten taught Rembrandt in Leiden. [13]   [14]  Unlike many of his contemporaries who traveled to Italy as part of their artistic training, Rembrandt never left the Dutch Republic during his lifetime. [15]   [16] 
     
He opened a studio in Leiden in 1624 or 1625, which he shared with friend and colleague Jan Lievens. In 1627, Rembrandt began to accept students, which included Gerrit Dou in 1628. [17] 
 In 1629, Rembrandt was discovered by the statesman Constantijn Huygens (father of the Dutch mathematician and physicist Christiaan Huygens), who procured for Rembrandt important commissions from the court of The Hague. As a result of this connection, Prince Frederik Hendrik continued to purchase paintings from Rembrandt until 1646. [18] 
 At the end of 1631, Rembrandt moved to Amsterdam, a city rapidly expanding as the new business capital of the Netherlands. He began to practice as a professional portraitist for the first time, with great success. He initially stayed with an art dealer, Hendrick van Uylenburgh, and in 1634, married Hendrick's cousin, Saskia van Uylenburgh. [19]   [20]  Saskia came from a good family: her father had been a lawyer and the burgemeester (mayor) of Leeuwarden. When Saskia, as the youngest daughter, became an orphan, she lived with an older sister in Het Bildt. Rembrandt and Saskia were married in the local church of St. Annaparochie without the presence of Rembrandt's relatives. [21]  In the same year, Rembrandt became a burgess of Amsterdam and a member of the local guild of painters. He also acquired a number of students, among them Ferdinand Bol and Govert Flinck. [22] 
 In 1635, Rembrandt and Saskia moved into their own house, renting in fashionable Nieuwe Doelenstraat with a view on the Amstel river. In 1639 they moved to a prominent newly built house (now the Rembrandt House Museum) in the upscale 'Breestraat' (eng.: 'Broadway'), today known as Jodenbreestraat in what was becoming the Jewish quarter; then a young up-and-coming neighborhood. The mortgage to finance the 13,000 guilder purchase would be a primary cause for later financial difficulties. [22]  Rembrandt should easily have been able to pay the house off with his large income, but it appears his spending always kept pace with his income, and he may have made some unsuccessful investments. [23]  It was there that Rembrandt frequently sought his Jewish neighbors to model for his Old Testament scenes. [24]  Although they were by now affluent, the couple suffered several personal setbacks; their son Rumbartus died two months after his birth in 1635 and their daughter Cornelia died at just three weeks of age in 1638. In 1640, they had a second daughter, also named Cornelia, who died after living barely over a month. Only their fourth child, Titus, who was born in 1641, survived into adulthood. Saskia died in 1642 soon after Titus's birth, probably from tuberculosis. Rembrandt's drawings of her on her sick and death bed are among his most moving works. [25] 
     
During Saskia's illness, Geertje Dircx was hired as Titus' caretaker and nurse and also became Rembrandt's lover. She would later charge Rembrandt with breach of promise (a euphemism for seduction under [breached] promise to marry) and was awarded alimony of 200 guilders a year. [22]  Rembrandt worked to have her committed to an asylum or poorhouse (called a "bridewell") at Gouda, after learning she had pawned jewelry he had given her that once belonged to Saskia. [26] 
 In the late 1640s Rembrandt began a relationship with the much younger Hendrickje Stoffels, who had initially been his maid. In 1654 they had a daughter, Cornelia, bringing Hendrickje a summons from the Reformed Church to answer the charge "that she had committed the acts of a whore with Rembrandt the painter". She admitted this and was banned from receiving communion. Rembrandt was not summoned to appear for the Church council because he was not a member of the Reformed Church. [27]  The two were considered legally wed under common law, but Rembrandt had not married Hendrickje. Had he remarried he would have lost access to a trust set up for Titus in Saskia's will. [25] 
 Rembrandt lived beyond his means, buying art (including bidding up his own work), prints (often used in his paintings) and rarities, which probably caused a court arrangement (cessio bonorum) to avoid his bankruptcy in 1656, by selling most of his paintings and large collection of antiquities, but was allowed to keep his tools. The sale list survives and gives a good insight into Rembrandt's collections, which, apart from Old Master paintings and drawings, included busts of the Roman emperors, suits of Japanese armor among many objects from Asia, and collections of natural history and minerals. But the prices realized in the sales in 1657 and 1658 were disappointing. [28]  Rembrandt was forced to sell his house and his printing-press and move to more modest accommodation on the Rozengracht in 1660. [29]  The authorities and his creditors were generally accommodating to him, except for the Amsterdam painters' guild, which introduced a new rule that no one in Rembrandt's circumstances could trade as a painter. To get around this, Hendrickje and Titus set up a dummy corporation as art dealers in 1660, with Rembrandt as an employee. [30] 
      Rembrandt Memorial Marker Westerkerk Amsterdam  
In 1661 Rembrandt (or rather the new business) was contracted to complete work for the newly built city hall, but only after Govert Flinck, the artist previously commissioned, died without beginning to paint. The resulting work,  The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis , was rejected and returned to the painter; the surviving fragment is only a fraction of the whole work. [31]  It was around this time that Rembrandt took on his last apprentice, Aert de Gelder. In 1662 he was still fulfilling major commissions for portraits and other works. [32]  In 1662 one of Rembrandt's creditors went to the High Court (Hof van Holland) to contest that Titus had to be paid first. [33]  Isaac van Hertsbeeck lost twice and had to pay the money he had already received to Titus, which he did in 1668. [34]  When Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany came to Amsterdam in 1667, he visited Rembrandt at his house. [35] 
 Rembrandt outlived both Hendrickje, who died in 1663, and Titus, who died in 1668, leaving a baby daughter. He died within a year of his son's death, on 4 October 1669 in Amsterdam, and was buried as a supposedly rich man as the heirs paid in burial taxes a substantial amount of money, f 15. [36]  but in a paupers grave in the Westerkerk. It was in a numbered 'kerkgraf' (grave owned by the church) somewhere under a tombstone in the church. After twenty years, his remains were taken away and destroyed, as was customary.
Works[edit]
In a letter to Huygens, Rembrandt offered the only surviving explanation of what he sought to achieve through his art: the greatest and most natural movement, translated from de meeste en de natuurlijkste beweegelijkheid. The word "beweegelijkheid" is also argued to mean "emotion" or "motive". Whether this refers to objectives, material or otherwise, is open to interpretation; either way, critics have drawn particular attention to the way Rembrandt seamlessly melded the earthly and spiritual. [37] 
     
Earlier-20th-century connoisseurs claimed Rembrandt had produced well over 600 paintings, [38]  nearly 400 etchings and 2,000 drawings. [39]  More recent scholarship, from the 1960s to the present day (led by the Rembrandt Research Project), often controversially, has winnowed his oeuvre to nearer 300 paintings. [b]  His prints, traditionally all called etchings, although many are produced in whole or part by engraving and sometimes drypoint, have a much more stable total of slightly under 300. [c]  It is likely Rembrandt made many more drawings in his lifetime than 2,000, but those extant are more rare than presumed. [d]  Two experts claim that the number of drawings whose autograph status can be regarded as effectively "certain" is no higher than about 75, although this is disputed. The list was to be unveiled at a scholarly meeting in February 2010. [42] 
 At one time about ninety paintings were counted as Rembrandt self-portraits, but it is now known that he had his students copy his own self-portraits as part of their training. Modern scholarship has reduced the autograph count to over forty paintings, as well as a few drawings and thirty-one etchings, which include many of the most remarkable images of the group. [43]  Some show him posing in quasi-historical fancy dress, or pulling faces at himself. His oil paintings trace the progress from an uncertain young man, through the dapper and very successful portrait-painter of the 1630s, to the troubled but massively powerful portraits of his old age. Together they give a remarkably clear picture of the man, his appearance and his psychological make-up, as revealed by his richly weathered face. [e] 
     
In his portraits and self-portraits, he angles the sitter's face in such a way that the ridge of the nose nearly always forms the line of demarcation between brightly illuminated and shadowy areas. A Rembrandt face is a face partially eclipsed; and the nose, bright and obvious, thrusting into the riddle of halftones, serves to focus the viewer's attention upon, and to dramatize, the division between a flood of light—an overwhelming clarity—and a brooding duskiness. [44] 
 In a number of biblical works, including The Raising of the Cross, Joseph Telling His Dreams and  The Stoning of Saint Stephen , Rembrandt painted himself as a character in the crowd. Durham suggests that this was because the Bible was for Rembrandt "a kind of diary, an account of moments in his own life". [45] 
 Among the more prominent characteristics of Rembrandt's work are his use of chiaroscuro, the theatrical employment of light and shadow derived from Caravaggio, or, more likely, from the Dutch Caravaggisti, but adapted for very personal means. [46]  Also notable are his dramatic and lively presentation of subjects, devoid of the rigid formality that his contemporaries often displayed, and a deeply felt compassion for mankind, irrespective of wealth and age. His immediate family—his wife Saskia, his son Titus and his common-law wife Hendrickje—often figured prominently in his paintings, many of which had mythical, biblical or historical themes.
Periods, themes and styles[edit]
Throughout his career Rembrandt took as his primary subjects the themes of portraiture, landscape and narrative painting. For the last, he was especially praised by his contemporaries, who extolled him as a masterly interpreter of biblical stories for his skill in representing emotions and attention to detail. [47]  Stylistically, his paintings progressed from the early "smooth" manner, characterized by fine technique in the portrayal of illusionistic form, to the late "rough" treatment of richly variegated paint surfaces, which allowed for an illusionism of form suggested by the tactile quality of the paint itself. [48] 
     
A parallel development may be seen in Rembrandt's skill as a printmaker. In the etchings of his maturity, particularly from the late 1640s onward, the freedom and breadth of his drawings and paintings found expression in the print medium as well. The works encompass a wide range of subject matter and technique, sometimes leaving large areas of white paper to suggest space, at other times employing complex webs of line to produce rich dark tones. [50] 
 It was during Rembrandt's Leiden period (1625–1631) that Lastman's influence was most prominent. It is also likely that at this time Lievens had a strong impact on his work as well. [51]  Paintings were rather small, but rich in details (for example, in costumes and jewelry). Religious and allegorical themes were favored, as were tronies. [51]  In 1626 Rembrandt produced his first etchings, the wide dissemination of which would largely account for his international fame. [51]  In 1629 he completed  Judas Repentant, Returning the Pieces of Silver  and  The Artist in His Studio , works that evidence his interest in the handling of light and variety of paint application, and constitute the first major progress in his development as a painter. [52] 
      A typical portrait from 1634, when Rembrandt was enjoying great commercial success  
During his early years in Amsterdam (1632–1636), Rembrandt began to paint dramatic biblical and mythological scenes in high contrast and of large format ( The Blinding of Samson , 1636,  Belshazzar's Feast , c. 1635  Danaë , 1636 but reworked later), seeking to emulate the baroque style of Rubens. [53]  With the occasional help of assistants in Uylenburgh's workshop, he painted numerous portrait commissions both small ( Jacob de Gheyn III ) and large (Portrait of the Shipbuilder Jan Rijcksen and his Wife, 1633,  Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp , 1632). [54] 
 By the late 1630s Rembrandt had produced a few paintings and many etchings of landscapes. Often these landscapes highlighted natural drama, featuring uprooted trees and ominous skies (Cottages before a Stormy Sky, c. 1641; The Three Trees, 1643). From 1640 his work became less exuberant and more sober in tone, possibly reflecting personal tragedy. Biblical scenes were now derived more often from the New Testament than the Old Testament, as had been the case before. In 1642 he painted  The Night Watch , the most substantial of the important group portrait commissions which he received in this period, and through which he sought to find solutions to compositional and narrative problems that had been attempted in previous works. [55] 
       Self Portrait, 1658, Frick Collection, a masterpiece of the final style, "the calmest and grandest of all his portraits" [56]    
In the decade following the Night Watch, Rembrandt's paintings varied greatly in size, subject, and style. The previous tendency to create dramatic effects primarily by strong contrasts of light and shadow gave way to the use of frontal lighting and larger and more saturated areas of color. Simultaneously, figures came to be placed parallel to the picture plane. These changes can be seen as a move toward a classical mode of composition and, considering the more expressive use of brushwork as well, may indicate a familiarity with Venetian art (Susanna and the Elders, 1637–47). [57] 
At the same time, there was a marked decrease in painted works in favor of etchings and drawings of landscapes. [58]  In these graphic works natural drama eventually made way for quiet Dutch rural scenes.
 In the 1650s, Rembrandt's style changed again. Colors became richer and brush strokes more pronounced. With these changes, Rembrandt distanced himself from earlier work and current fashion, which increasingly inclined toward fine, detailed works. His use of light becomes more jagged and harsh, and shine becomes almost nonexistent. His singular approach to paint application may have been suggested in part by familiarity with the work of Titian, and could be seen in the context of the then current discussion of 'finish' and surface quality of paintings. Contemporary accounts sometimes remark disapprovingly of the coarseness of Rembrandt's brushwork, and the artist himself was said to have dissuaded visitors from looking too closely at his paintings. [59]  The tactile manipulation of paint may hearken to medieval procedures, when mimetic effects of rendering informed a painting's surface. The result is a richly varied handling of paint, deeply layered and often apparently haphazard, which suggests form and space in both an illusory and highly individual manner. [60] 
 In later years biblical themes were still depicted often, but emphasis shifted from dramatic group scenes to intimate portrait-like figures (James the Apostle, 1661). In his last years, Rembrandt painted his most deeply reflective self-portraits (from 1652 to 1669 he painted fifteen), and several moving images of both men and women ( The Jewish Bride , c. 1666)—in love, in life, and before God. [61]   [62] 
Graphic works[edit]
     
Rembrandt produced etchings for most of his career, from 1626 to 1660, when he was forced to sell his printing-press and practically abandoned etching. Only the troubled year of 1649 produced no dated work. [63]  He took easily to etching and, though he also learned to use a burin and partly engraved many plates, the freedom of etching technique was fundamental to his work. He was very closely involved in the whole process of printmaking, and must have printed at least early examples of his etchings himself. At first he used a style based on drawing, but soon moved to one based on painting, using a mass of lines and numerous bitings with the acid to achieve different strengths of line. Towards the end of the 1630s, he reacted against this manner and moved to a simpler style, with fewer bitings. [64]  He worked on the so-called  Hundred Guilder Print  in stages throughout the 1640s, and it was the "critical work in the middle of his career", from which his final etching style began to emerge. [65] 
Although the print only survives in two states, the first very rare, evidence of much reworking can be seen underneath the final print and many drawings survive for elements of it. [66] 
       The Three Trees, 1643, etching  
In the mature works of the 1650s, Rembrandt was more ready to improvise on the plate and large prints typically survive in several states, up to eleven, often radically changed. He now used hatching to create his dark areas, which often take up much of the plate. He also experimented with the effects of printing on different kinds of paper, including Japanese paper, which he used frequently, and on vellum. He began to use "surface tone," leaving a thin film of ink on parts of the plate instead of wiping it completely clean to print each impression. He made more use of drypoint, exploiting, especially in landscapes, the rich fuzzy burr that this technique gives to the first few impressions. [67] 
 His prints have similar subjects to his paintings, although the twenty-seven self-portraits are relatively more common, and portraits of other people less so. There are forty-six landscapes, mostly small, which largely set the course for the graphic treatment of landscape until the end of the 19th century. One third of his etchings are of religious subjects, many treated with a homely simplicity, whilst others are his most monumental prints. A few erotic, or just obscene, compositions have no equivalent in his paintings. [68]  He owned, until forced to sell it, a magnificent collection of prints by other artists, and many borrowings and influences in his work can be traced to artists as diverse as Mantegna, Raphael, Hercules Seghers, and Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione.
 Drawings by Rembrandt and his pupils/followers have been extensively studied by many artists and scholars [f]  through the centuries. His original draughtsmanship has been described as an individualistic art style that was very similar to East Asian old masters, most notably Chinese masters: [75]  a "combination of formal clarity and calligraphic vitality in the movement of pen or brush that is closer to Chinese painting in technique and feeling than to anything in European art before the twentieth century". [76] 
Asian inspiration[edit]
      Rembrandt drawing of an Indian Mughal painting  
      Role-playing in self-portrait as an oriental potentate with a kris/keris, a Javanese blade weapon from the VOC era (etching, c. 1634)  
Rembrandt was interested in Mughal miniatures, especially around the 1650s. He drew versions of some 23 Mughal paintings, and may have owned an album of them. These miniatures include paintings of Shah Jahan, Akbar, Jahangir and Dara Shikoh. They may also have influenced the costumes and other aspects of his works. [77]   [78]   [79]   [80] 
 The Night Watch[edit]
     
Rembrandt painted the The Militia Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq between 1640 and 1642 which became his most famous work. [81]  This picture was called De Nachtwacht by the Dutch and The Night Watch by Sir Joshua Reynolds because by 1781 the picture was so dimmed and defaced that it was almost indistinguishable, and it looked quite like a night scene. After it was cleaned, it was discovered to represent broad day—a party of 18 musketeers stepping from a gloomy courtyard into the blinding sunlight. For Théophile Thoré it was the prettiest painting in the world. 
 The piece was commissioned for the new hall of the  Kloveniersdoelen , the musketeer branch of the civic militia. Rembrandt departed from convention, which ordered that such genre pieces should be stately and formal, rather a line-up than an action scene. Instead he showed the militia readying themselves to embark on a mission (what kind of mission, an ordinary patrol or some special event, is a matter of debate).
 Contrary to what is often said, the work was hailed as a success from the beginning. Parts of the canvas were cut off (approximately 20% from the left hand side was removed) to make the painting fit its new position when it was moved to Amsterdam town hall in 1715. In 1817 this large painting was moved to the Trippenhuis. Since 1885 the painting is on display at the Rijksmuseum. [g]  In 1940 the painting was moved to Kasteel Radboud; in 1941 to a bunker near Heemskerk; in 1942 to St Pietersberg; in June 1945 it was shipped back to Amsterdam.
Expert assessments[edit]
     
In 1968 the Rembrandt Research Project began under the sponsorship of the Netherlands Organization for the Advancement of Scientific Research; it was initially expected to last a highly optimistic ten years. Art historians teamed up with experts from other fields to reassess the authenticity of works attributed to Rembrandt, using all methods available, including state-of-the-art technical diagnostics, and to compile a complete new catalogue raisonné of his paintings. As a result of their findings, many paintings that were previously attributed to Rembrandt have been removed from their list, although others have been added back. [82]  Many of those removed are now thought to be the work of his students.
 One example of activity is  The Polish Rider , in New York's Frick Collection. Rembrandt's authorship had been questioned by at least one scholar, Alfred von Wurzbach, at the beginning of the twentieth century, but for many decades later most scholars, including the foremost authority writing in English, Julius S. Held, agreed that it was indeed by the master. In the 1980s, however, Dr. Josua Bruyn of the Foundation Rembrandt Research Project cautiously and tentatively attributed the painting to one of Rembrandt's closest and most talented pupils, Willem Drost, about whom little is known. But Bruyn's remained a minority opinion, the suggestion of Drost's authorship is now generally rejected, and the Frick itself never changed its own attribution, the label still reading "Rembrandt" and not "attributed to" or "school of". More recent opinion has shifted even more decisively in favor of the Frick, with Simon Schama (in his 1999 book Rembrandt's Eyes) and the Rembrandt Project scholar Ernst van de Wetering (Melbourne Symposium, 1997) both arguing for attribution to the master. Those few scholars who still question Rembrandt's authorship feel that the execution is uneven, and favour different attributions for different parts of the work. [83] 
     
A similar issue was raised by Simon Schama in his book Rembrandt's Eyes concerning the verification of titles associated with the subject matter depicted in Rembrandt's works. For example, the exact subject being portrayed in  Aristotle with a Bust of Homer  (recently retitled by curators at the Metropolitan Museum) has been directly challenged by Schama applying the scholarship of Paul Crenshaw. [85]  Schama presents a substantial argument that it was the famous ancient Greek painter Apelles who is depicted in contemplation by Rembrandt and not Aristotle. [86] 
 Another painting, Pilate Washing His Hands, is also of questionable attribution. Critical opinion of this picture has varied since 1905, when Wilhelm von Bode described it as "a somewhat abnormal work" by Rembrandt. Scholars have since dated the painting to the 1660s and assigned it to an anonymous pupil, possibly Aert de Gelder. The composition bears superficial resemblance to mature works by Rembrandt but lacks the master's command of illumination and modeling. [87] 
 The attribution and re-attribution work is ongoing. In 2005 four oil paintings previously attributed to Rembrandt's students were reclassified as the work of Rembrandt himself: Study of an Old Man in Profile and Study of an Old Man with a Beard from a US private collection,  Study of a Weeping Woman , owned by the Detroit Institute of Arts, and Portrait of an Elderly Woman in a White Bonnet, painted in 1640. [88]  The Old Man Sitting in a Chair is a further example: in 2014, Professor Ernst van de Wetering offered his view to  The Guardian  that the demotion of the 1652 painting Old Man Sitting in a Chair "was a vast mistake...it is a most important painting. The painting needs to be seen in terms of Rembrandt's experimentation". This was highlighted much earlier by Nigel Konstam who studied Rembrandt throughout his career. [89] 
 Rembrandt's own studio practice is a major factor in the difficulty of attribution, since, like many masters before him, he encouraged his students to copy his paintings, sometimes finishing or retouching them to be sold as originals, and sometimes selling them as authorized copies. Additionally, his style proved easy enough for his most talented students to emulate. Further complicating matters is the uneven quality of some of Rembrandt's own work, and his frequent stylistic evolutions and experiments. [90]  As well, there were later imitations of his work, and restorations which so seriously damaged the original works that they are no longer recognizable. [91]  It is highly likely that there will never be universal agreement as to what does and what does not constitute a genuine Rembrandt.
Painting materials[edit]
     
Technical investigation of Rembrandt's paintings in the possession of the Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister  [92]  and in the Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister (Kassel)  [93]  was conducted by Hermann Kühn in 1977. The pigment analyses of some thirty paintings have shown that Rembrandt's palette consisted of the following pigments: lead white, various ochres, Vandyke brown, bone black, charcoal black, lamp black, vermilion, madder lake, azurite, ultramarine, yellow lake and lead-tin-yellow. One painting (Saskia van Uylenburgh as Flora) [94]  reportedly contains gamboge. Rembrandt very rarely used pure blue or green colors, the most pronounced exception being  Belshazzar's Feast   [95]   [96]  in the National Gallery in London. The book by Bomford [95]  describes more recent technical investigations and pigment analyses of Rembrandt's paintings predominantly in the National Gallery in London. The entire array of pigments employed by Rembrandt can be found at ColourLex. [97]  The best source for technical information on Rembrandt's paintings on the web is the Rembrandt Database containing all works of Rembrandt with detailed investigative reports, infrared and radiography images and other scientific details. [98] 
Name and signature[edit]
     
"Rembrandt" is a modification of the spelling of the artist's first name that he introduced in 1633. "Harmenszoon" indicates that his father's name is Harmen. "van Rijn" indicates that his family lived near the Rhine. [99] 
 Roughly speaking, his earliest signatures (c. 1625) consisted of an initial "R", or the monogram "RH" (for Rembrant Harmenszoon), and starting in 1629, "RHL" (the "L" stood, presumably, for Leiden). In 1632, he used this monogram early in the year, then added his family name to it, "RHL-van Rijn", but replaced this form in that same year and began using his first name alone with its original spelling, "Rembrant". In 1633 he added a "d", and maintained this form consistently from then on, proving that this minor change had a meaning for him (whatever it might have been). This change is purely visual; it does not change the way his name is pronounced. Curiously enough, despite the large number of paintings and etchings signed with this modified first name, most of the documents that mentioned him during his lifetime retained the original "Rembrant" spelling. (Note: the rough chronology of signature forms above applies to the paintings, and to a lesser degree to the etchings; from 1632, presumably, there is only one etching signed "RHL-v. Rijn," the large-format "Raising of Lazarus," B 73). [100]  His practice of signing his work with his first name, later followed by Vincent van Gogh, was probably inspired by Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo who, then as now, were referred to by their first names alone. [101] 
Workshop[edit]
Rembrandt ran a large workshop and had many pupils. The list of Rembrandt pupils from his period in Leiden as well as his time in Amsterdam is quite long, mostly because his influence on painters around him was so great that it is difficult to tell whether someone worked for him in his studio or just copied his style for patrons eager to acquire a Rembrandt. A partial list should include [102]  Ferdinand Bol,
Adriaen Brouwer,
Gerrit Dou,
Willem Drost,
Heiman Dullaart,
Gerbrand van den Eeckhout,
Carel Fabritius,
Govert Flinck,
Hendrick Fromantiou,
Aert de Gelder,
Samuel Dirksz van Hoogstraten,
Abraham Janssens,
Godfrey Kneller,
Philip de Koninck,
Jacob Levecq,
Nicolaes Maes,
Jürgen Ovens,
Christopher Paudiß,
Willem de Poorter,
Jan Victors, and
Willem van der Vliet.
Museum collections[edit]
     
The most notable collections of Rembrandt's work are at Amsterdam's Rijksmuseum, including  The Night Watch  and  The Jewish Bride , the Mauritshuis in The Hague, the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg, the National Gallery in London, Gemäldegalerie in Berlin, Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister in Dresden, The Louvre, Nationalmuseum, Stockholm, and Schloss Wilhelmshöhe in Kassel. The Royal Castle in Warsaw displays two paintings by Rembrandt. [103] 
 Notable collections of Rembrandt's paintings in the United States are housed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art and Frick Collection in New York City, the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, and J. Paul Getty Museum in Los Angeles. [104] 
 The Rembrandt House Museum in central Amsterdam in the house he bought at the height of his success, has furnishings that are mostly not original, but period pieces comparable to those Rembrandt might have had, and paintings reflecting Rembrandt's use of the house for art dealing. His printmaking studio has been set up with a printing press, where replica prints are printed. The museum has a few Rembrandt paintings, many loaned, but an important collection of his prints, a good selection of which are on rotating display. All major print rooms have large collections of Rembrandt prints, although as some exist in only a single impression, no collection is complete. The degree to which these collections are displayed to the public, or can easily be viewed by them in the print room, varies greatly.
Influence and recognition[edit]
     
 [...] I maintain that it did not occur to Protogenes, Apelles or Parrhasius, nor could it occur to them were they return to earth that (I am amazed simply to report this) a youth, a Dutchman, a beardless miller, could bring together so much in one human figure and express what is universal. All honor to thee, my Rembrandt! To have carried Illium, indeed all Asia, to Italy is a lesser achievement than to have brought the laurels of Greece and Italy to Holland, the achievement of a Dutchman who has seldom ventured outside the walls of his native city... —  Constantijn Huygens, Lord of Zuilichem, possibly the earliest known notable Rembrandt connoisseur and critic, 1629. Excerpt from the manuscript Autobiography of Constantijn Huygens (Koninklijke Bibliotheek, Den Haag), originally published in Oud Holland (1891), translated from the Dutch. [105]    
Rembrandt is one of the most famous  [106]   [107]  and the best expertly researched visual artists in history. [108]   [109]  His life and art have long attracted the attention of interdisciplinary scholarship such as art history, socio-political history, [110]  cultural history, [111]  education, humanities, philosophy and aesthetics, [112]  psychology, sociology, literary studies, [113]  anatomy, [114]  medicine, [115]  religious studies, [h]   [116]  theology, [117]  Jewish studies, [118]  Oriental studies (Asian studies), [119]  global studies, [120]  and art market research. [121]  He has been the subject of a vast amount of literature in genres of both fiction and nonfiction. Research and scholarship related to Rembrandt is an academic field in its own right with many notable connoisseurs and scholars  [122]  and has been very dynamic since the Dutch Golden Age. [108]   [123]   [109] 
 
According to art historian and Rembrandt scholar Stephanie Dickey:   [Rembrandt] earned international renown as a painter, printmaker, teacher, and art collector while never leaving the Dutch Republic. In his home city of Leiden and in Amsterdam, where he worked for nearly forty years, he mentored generations of other painters and produced a body of work that has never ceased to attract admiration, critique, and interpretation. (...) Rembrandt's art is a key component in any study of the Dutch Golden Age, and his membership in the canon of artistic genius is well established, but he is also a figure whose significance transcends specialist interest. Literary critics have pondered "Rembrandt" as a "cultural text"; novelists, playwrights, and filmmakers have romanticized his life, and in popular culture, his name has become synonymous with excellence for products and services, ranging from toothpaste to self-help advice. [109]   
      In 1775, a 25-year-old Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote in a letter that "I live wholly with Rembrandt" ("...ich zeichne, künstle p. Und lebe ganz mit Rembrandt."). At the age of 81 (1831), Goethe wrote the essay "Rembrandt der Denker" ("Rembrandt the Thinker"), published in the posthumous collection of his works. [124]   [125]    
 Francisco Goya, often considered to be among the last of the Old Masters, said, "I have had three masters: Nature, Velázquez, and Rembrandt." ("Yo no he tenido otros maestros que la Naturaleza, Velázquez y Rembrandt.") [126]   [127]   [128]  In the history of the reception and interpretation of Rembrandt's art, it was the significant Rembrandt-inspired 'revivals' or 'rediscoveries' in 18th–19th century France, [129]   [130]  Germany, [131]   [132]   [133]  and Britain [134]   [135]   [136]   [137]  that decisively helped in establishing his lasting fame in subsequent centuries. [138]  When a critic referred to Auguste Rodin's busts in the same vein as Rembrandt's portraits, the French sculptor responded: "Compare me with Rembrandt? What sacrilege! With Rembrandt, the colossus of Art! What are you thinking of, my friend! We should prostrate ourselves before Rembrandt and never compare anyone with him!” [9]  Vincent van Gogh wrote to his brother Theo (1885), "Rembrandt goes so deep into the mysterious that he says things for which there are no words in any language. It is with justice that they call Rembrandt—magician—that's no easy occupation." [139] 
Rembrandt and the Jewish world[edit]
Although Rembrandt was not Jewish, he has had a considerable influence on many modern Jewish artists, writers and scholars (art critics and art historians in particular). [140]   [141]  The German-Jewish painter Max Liebermann said, "Whenever I see a Frans Hals, I feel like painting; whenever I see a Rembrandt, I feel like giving up." [142]  Marc Chagall wrote in 1922, "Neither Imperial Russia, nor the Russia of the Soviets needs me. They don't understand me. I am a stranger to them," and he added, "I'm certain Rembrandt loves me." [143] 
        The Jewish Bride , c. 1665–9, Rijksmuseum Amsterdam. In Vincent van Gogh's own words (1885), "I should be happy to give 10 years of my life if I could go on sitting here in front of this picture [The Jewish Bride] fortnight, with only a crust of dry bread for food." In a letter to his brother Theo, Vincent wrote, "What an intimate, what an infinitely sympathetic picture it is," [144]    
  Rembrandt regarded the Bible as the greatest Book in the world and held it in reverent affection all his life, in affluence and poverty, in success and failure. He never wearied in his devotion to biblical themes as subjects for his paintings and other graphic presentations, and in these portrayals he was the first to have the courage to use the Jews of his environment as models for the heroes of the sacred narratives. — Franz Landsberger, a German Jewish émigré to America, the author of Rembrandt, the Jews, and the Bible (1946) [145]   [146]    
Criticism of Rembrandt[edit]
Rembrandt has also been one of the most controversial (visual) artists in history. [108]   [147]  Several of Rembrandt's notable critics include Constantijn Huygens, Joachim von Sandrart, [148]  Andries Pels (who called Rembrandt "the first heretic in the art of painting"), [149]  Samuel van Hoogstraten, Arnold Houbraken, [148]  Filippo Baldinucci, [148]  Gerard de Lairesse, Roger de Piles, John Ruskin, [150]  and Eugène Fromentin. [147] 
 By 1875 Rembrandt was already a powerful figure, projecting from historical past into the present with such a strength that he could not be simply overlooked or passed by. The great shadow of the old master required a decided attitude. A late Romantic painter and critic, like Fromentin was, if he happened not to like some of Rembrandt's pictures, he felt obliged to justify his feeling. The greatness of the dramatic old master was for artists of about 1875 not a matter for doubt. 'Either I am wrong', Fromentin wrote from Holland 'or everybody else is wrong'. When Fromentin realized his inability to like some of the works by Rembrandt he formulated the following comments: 'I even do not dare to write down such a blasphemy; I would get ridiculed if this is disclosed'. Only about twenty-five years earlier another French Romantic master Eugène Delacroix, when expressing his admiration for Rembrandt, has written in his Journal a very different statement: '... perhaps one day we will discover that Rembrandt is a much greater painter than Raphael. It is a blasphemy which would make hair raise on the heads of all the academic painters'. In 1851 the blasphemy was to put Rembrandt above Raphael. In 1875 the blasphemy was not to admire everything Rembrandt had ever produced. Between these two dates, the appreciation of Rembrandt reached its turning point and since that time he was never deprived of the high rank in the art world. 
In popular culture[edit]
      Rembrandt statue in Leiden  
 [...] One thing that really surprises me is the extent to which Rembrandt exists as a phenomenon in pop culture. You have this musical group call [sic] the Rembrandts, who wrote the theme song to Friends—"I'll Be There For You". There are Rembrandt restaurants, Rembrandt hotels, art supplies and other things that are more obvious. But then there's Rembrandt toothpaste. Why on Earth would somebody name a toothpaste after this artist who's known for his really dark tonalities? It doesn't make a lot of sense. But I think it's because his name has become synonymous with quality. It's even a verb—there's a term in underworld slang, 'to be Rembrandted,' which means to be framed for a crime. And people in the cinema world use it to mean pictorial effects that are overdone. He's just everywhere, and people who don't know anything, who wouldn't recognize a Rembrandt painting if they tripped over it, you say the name Rembrandt and they already know that this is a great artist. He's become a synonym for greatness. — Rembrandt scholar, Stephanie Dickey, in an interview with  Smithsonian Magazine , December 2006 [107]    
While shooting The Warrens of Virginia (1915), Cecil B. DeMille had experimented with lighting instruments borrowed from a Los Angeles opera house. When business partner Sam Goldwyn saw a scene in which only half an actor's face was illuminated, he feared the exhibitors would pay only half the price for the picture. DeMille remonstrated that it was Rembrandt lighting. "Sam's reply was jubilant with relief," recalled DeMille. "For Rembrandt lighting the exhibitors would pay double!" [151] 
Works about Rembrandt[edit]
Literary works (e.g. poetry and fiction)[edit]
  To the Picture of Rembrandt (Russian-language poem by Mikhail Lermontov, 1830)
  Gaspard de la nuit: Fantaisies à la manière de Rembrandt et de Callot  (French-language prose poems by Aloysius Bertrand, 1842)
  Picture This  (1988 novel by Joseph Heller)
 Moi, la Putain de Rembrandt (French-language novel by Sylvie Matton, 1998)
 Van Rijn (2006 novel by Sarah Emily Miano)
  I Am Rembrandt's Daughter  (2007 novel by Lynn Cullen)
  The Rembrandt Affair  (2011 novel by Daniel Silva)
 The Anatomy Lesson (2014 novel by Nina Siegal)
 Rembrandt's Mirror (2015 novel by Kim Devereux) 
Films[edit]
   The Stolen Rembrandt  (1914 film directed by Leo D. Maloney and J.P. McGowan)
  The Tragedy of a Great  / Die Tragödie eines Großen (1920 film directed by Arthur Günsburg)
  The Missing Rembrandt  (1932 film directed by Leslie S. Hiscott)
  Rembrandt  (1936 film directed by Alexander Korda)
  Rembrandt  (1940 film)
 Rembrandt in de schuilkelder / Rembrandt in the Bunker (1941 film directed by Gerard Rutten)
  Rembrandt  (1942 film directed by Hans Steinhoff)
  Rembrandt: A Self-Portrait  (1954 documentary film by Morrie Roizman)
 Rembrandt, schilder van de mens / Rembrandt, Painter of Man (1957 film directed by Bert Haanstra)
  Rembrandt fecit 1669  (1977 film directed by Jos Stelling)
 Rembrandt: The Public Eye and the Private Gaze (1992 documentary film by Simon Schama)
  Rembrandt  (1999 film directed by Charles Matton)
  Rembrandt: Fathers &amp; Sons  (1999 film directed by David Devine)
  Stealing Rembrandt  (2003 film directed by Jannik Johansen and Anders Thomas Jensen)
  Simon Schama's Power of Art: Rembrandt (2006 BBC documentary film series by Simon Schama)
  Nightwatching  (2007 film directed by Peter Greenaway)
  Rembrandt's J'Accuse  (2008 documentary film by Peter Greenaway)
  Rembrandt en ik  (2011 film directed by Marleen Gorris)
 Schama on Rembrandt: Masterpieces of the Late Years (2014 documentary film by Simon Schama)
 Rembrandt: From the National Gallery, London and Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam (2014 documentary film by Exhibition on Screen) 
Selected works[edit]
     
     
       The evangelist Matthew and the Angel, 1661  
   The Stoning of Saint Stephen  (1625) –  Musée des Beaux-Arts, Lyon  
  Andromeda Chained to the Rocks  (1630) –  Mauritshuis, The Hague  
  Jacob de Gheyn III  (1632) –  Dulwich Picture Gallery, London 
  Philosopher in Meditation  (1632) –  The Louvre, Paris 
  The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp  (1632) –  Mauritshuis, The Hague 
  Artemisia  (1634) – oil on canvas, 142 × 152 cm, Museo del Prado, Madrid 
  Descent from the Cross  (1634) – oil on canvas, 158 × 117 cm, looted from the Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel), Germany in 1806, currently Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg 
  Belshazzar's Feast  (1635) –  National Gallery, London 
  The Prodigal Son in the Tavern  (c. 1635) – oil on canvas, 161 × 131 cm Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, Dresden  
  Danaë  (1636 – c. 1643) –  Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg 
  The Scholar at the Lectern  (1641) –  Royal Castle in Warsaw, Warsaw  
  The Girl in a Picture Frame  (1641) –  Royal Castle, Warsaw  
  The Night Watch , formally The Militia Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq (1642) –  Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam 
 Christ Healing the Sick (etching c. 1643, also known as the  Hundred Guilder Print ), nicknamed for the huge sum paid for it 
  Boaz and Ruth  (1643) aka The Old Rabbi or Old Man –  Woburn Abbey/Gemaldegalerie, Berlin  
  The Mill  (1645/48) –  National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. 
  Old Man with a Gold Chain  ("Old Man with a Black Hat and Gorget") (c. 1631)  Art Institute of Chicago  
  Susanna and the Elders  (1647) – oil on panel, 76 × 91 cm, Gemäldegalerie, Berlin  
 Head of Christ (c. 1648–56) – The Philadelphia Museum of Art  [152]  
  Aristotle Contemplating a Bust of Homer  (1653) –  Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 
  Bathsheba at Her Bath  (1654) – The Louvre, Paris 
 Christ Presented to the People (Ecce Homo) (1655) – Drypoint, Birmingham Museum of Art  
 Selfportrait (1658) –  Frick Collection, New York 
 The Three Crosses (1660) Etching, fourth state
  Ahasuerus and Haman at the Feast of Esther  (1660) –  Pushkin Museum, Moscow 
  The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis  (1661) –  Nationalmuseum, Stockholm (Claudius Civilis led a Dutch revolt against the Romans) (most of the cut up painting is lost, only the central part still exists) 
  Portrait of Dirck van Os  (1662) –  Joslyn Art Museum, Omaha, Nebraska  
  Syndics of the Drapers' Guild  (Dutch De Staalmeesters, 1662) – Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam 
  The Jewish Bride  (1665) – Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam 
 Haman before Esther (1665) –  National Museum of Art of Romania, Bucharest  [153]  
 The Entombment Sketch (c. 1639, reworked c. 1654) – oil on oak panel, Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery, Glasgow 
 Saul and David (c. 1660–1665) –  Mauritshuis, The Hague 
 Portrait of an Old Man (1645) – Calouste Gulbenkian Museum, Lisbon
 Pallas Athena (c.1657) – Calouste Gulbenkian Museum, Lisbon 
Exhibitions[edit]
     
 Sept–Oct 1898: Rembrandt Tentoonstelling (Rembrandt Exhibition), Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. [154]  
Jan–Feb 1899: Rembrandt Tentoonstelling (Rembrandt Exhibition), Royal Academy, London, England. [154]  
21 April 2011 – 18 July 2011: Rembrandt and the Face of Jesus, Musée du Louvre. [155]  
16 September 2013 – 14 November 2013: Rembrandt: The Consummate Etcher, Syracuse University Art Galleries. [156]  
19 May 2014 – 27 June 2014: From Rembrandt to Rosenquist: Works on Paper from the NAC's Permanent Collection, National Arts Club. [157]  
19 October 2014 – 4 January 2015: Rembrandt, Rubens, Gainsborough and the Golden Age of Painting in Europe, Jule Collins Smith Museum of Art. [158]  
15 October 2014 – 18 January 2015: Rembrandt: The Late Works, The National Gallery, London. [159]  
12 February 2015 – 17 May 2015: Late Rembrandt, The Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam. [160]  
16 September 2018 – 6 January 2019: Rembrandt – Painter as Printmaker, Denver Art Museum, Denver. [161]  
24 Aug 2019 – 1 December 2019: Leiden circa 1630: Rembrandt Emerges, Agnes Etherington Art Centre, Kingston, Ontario. [162]  
4 October 2019 – 2 February 2020: Rembrandt's Light, Dulwich Picture Gallery, London. [163]  
18 February 2020 – 30 August 2020: Rembrandt and Amsterdam portraiture, 1590–1670 , Museo Nacional Thyssen-Bornemisza, Madrid. [164]  
10 August 2020 – 1 November 2020: Young Rembrandt, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. [165]   
Paintings[edit]
Self-portraits[edit]
	 
	       
	 
	 
	     
	 Self-Portrait with Velvet Beret and Furred Mantle 1634
	 
	       
	       
	 
	     
	 Self-portrait, Vienna c. 1655, oil on walnut, cut down in size. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna
	 
	       
	 
	       
	 
	     
	 Self-portrait, 1669.
	 
	 
Other paintings[edit]
	 
	 
	 
	     
	 Bust of an old man with a fur hat, the artist's father, 1630
	 
	       
	       
	       
	       
	 
	 
	     
	 Portrait of Saskia van Uylenburgh, c. 1633–1634
	 
	       
	 
	 
	     
	 Susanna, 1636
	 
	       
	       
	       
	       
	       
	       
	       
	       
	 
	     
	 An Old Man in Red, 1652–1654
	 
	 
	       
	 
	 
	 
	       
	       
	       
	 
	     
	 Woman in a Doorway, 1657–1658
	 
	       
	 
	       
	       
	       
	       
	 
	     
	Medieval schoolboy birched on the bare buttocks
	 
	       
Drawings and etchings[edit]
	 
	     
	 Self-portrait, c. 1628–29, pen and brush and ink on paper
	 
	 
	     
	 Self-portrait in a cap, with eyes wide open, 1630, etching and burin
	 
	 
	 
	 
	 
	     
	 An elephant, 1637, drawing in black chalk on paper, Albertina, Austria
	 
	 
	 
	     
	 Christ and the woman taken in adultery, c. 1639–41, drawing in ink, Louvre
	 
	 
	 
	     
	 The Windmill, 1641, etching
	 
	 
	       
	 
	 
	 
	     
	 Two Old Men in Conversation /Two Jews in Discussion, Walking, year unknown, black chalk and brown ink on paper, Teylers Museum
	 
	 
	     
	A child being taught to walk (c. 1635). David Hockney said: "I think it's the greatest drawing ever done... It's a magnificent drawing, magnificent." [72] 
	 
	 
	     
	 A young woman sleeping (c. 1654). Shows Rembrandt's calligraphic-style draughtsmanship. [75]   [76] 
	 
Notes[edit]
  ^  This version of his first name, "Rembrandt" with a "d," first appeared in his signatures in 1633. Until then, he had signed with a combination of initials or monograms. In late 1632, he began signing solely with his first name, "Rembrant". He added the "d" in the following year and stuck to this spelling for the rest of his life. Although scholars can only speculate, this change must have had a meaning for Rembrandt, which is generally interpreted as his wanting to be known by his first name like the great figures of the Italian Renaissance: Leonardo, Raphael etc., who did not sign with their last names, if at all. [10] 
  ^  Useful totals of the figures from various different oeuvre catalogues, often divided into classes along the lines of: "very likely authentic", "possibly authentic" and "unlikely to be authentic" are given at the Online Rembrandt catalogue  [40] 
  ^  Two hundred years ago Bartsch listed 375. More recent catalogues have added three (two in unique impressions) and excluded enough to reach totals as follows: Schwartz, p. 6, 289; Münz 1952, 279; Boon 1963, 287 Print Council of America – but Schwartz's total quoted does not tally with the book.
  ^  It is not possible to give a total, as a new wave of scholarship on Rembrandt drawings is still in progress – analysis of the Berlin collection for an exhibition in 2006/7 has produced a probable drop from 130 sheets there to about 60. Codart.nl  [41]  The British Museum is due to publish a new catalogue after a similar exercise.
  ^  While the popular interpretation is that these paintings represent a personal and introspective journey, it is possible that they were painted to satisfy a market for self-portraits by prominent artists. Van de Wetering, p. 290.
  ^  Such as Otto Benesch, [69]   [70]   [71]  David Hockney, [72]  Nigel Konstam, Jakob Rosenberg, Gary Schwartz, and Seymour Slive. [73]   [74] 
  ^  The Rijksmuseum has a smaller copy of what is thought to be the full original composition.
  ^  It is important to note that Rembrandt's religious affiliation was uncertain. There is little evidence that Rembrandt formally belonged to any Christian denomination.
 
References[edit]
 
^    a       b       c    Or possibly 1607 as on 10 June 1634 he himself claimed to be 26 years old. See Is the Rembrandt Year being celebrated one year too soon? One year too late? Archived 21 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine and (in Dutch) J. de Jong, Rembrandts geboortejaar een jaar te vroeg gevierd Archived 18 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine for sources concerning Rembrandt's birth year, especially supporting 1607. However, most sources continue to use 1606.
  ^  "Rembrandt" Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine.  Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary .
  ^  See: list of drawings, prints (etchings), and paintings by Rembrandt.
^    a       b    Gombrich, p. 420.
  ^  Gombrich, p. 427.
  ^  Clark 1969, pp. 203
  ^  Clark 1969, pp. 203–204
  ^  Clark 1969, pp. 205
^    a       b    Rodin, Auguste: Art: Conversations with Paul Gsell. Translated from the French by Jacques de Caso and Patricia B. Sanders. (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984) ISBN 0-520-03819-3, p. 85. Originally published as Auguste Rodin, L'Art: Entretiens réunis par Paul Gsell (Paris: Bernard Grasset, 1911). Auguste Rodin: "Me comparer à Rembrandt, quel sacrilège! À Rembrandt, le colosse de l'Art! Y pensez-vous, mon ami! Rembrandt, prosternons-nous et ne mettons jamais personne à côté de lui!” (original in French)
  ^   "Rembrandt Signature Files". www.rembrandt-signature-file.com. Archived from the original on 9 April 2016.
  ^  Bull, et al., p. 28.
  ^   "Doopregisters, Zoek" (in Dutch). Stadsarchief.amsterdam.nl. 3 April 2014. Retrieved 7 April 2014. [ permanent dead link ]
^    a       b    (in Dutch) Rembrandt biography in De groote schouburgh der Nederlantsche konstschilders en schilderessen (1718) by Arnold Houbraken, courtesy of the Digital library for Dutch literature
  ^  Joris van Schooten as teacher of Rembrandt and Lievens Archived 26 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine in Simon van Leeuwen's Korte besgryving van het Lugdunum Batavorum nu Leyden, Leiden, 1672
  ^  Rembrandt biography Archived 20 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine, nationalgallery.org.uk
  ^  Erhardt, Michelle A., and Amy M. Morris. 2012.  Mary Magdalene, Iconographic Studies from the Middle Ages to the Baroque  Archived 8 March 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Boston : Brill. p. 252. ISBN 978-90-04-23195-5.
  ^  Slive has a comprehensive biography, pp. 55ff.
  ^  Slive, pp. 60, 65
  ^  Slive, pp. 60–61
  ^   "Netherlands, Noord-Holland Province, Church Records, 1553–1909 Image Netherlands, Noord-Holland Province, Church Records, 1553–1909; pal:/MM9.3.1/TH-1971-31164-16374-68". Familysearch.org. Archived from the original on 5 June 2016. Retrieved 7 April 2014.
  ^  Registration of the banns of Rembrandt and Saskia, kept at the Amsterdam City Archives
^    a       b       c    Bull, et al., p. 28
  ^  Clark, 1978, pp. 26–27, 76, 102
  ^  Adams, p. 660
^    a       b    Slive, p. 71
  ^  Driessen, pp. 151–57
  ^  Slive, p. 82
  ^  Slive, p. 84
  ^  Schwartz, p. 12. The house sale was in 1658, but was agreed with two years for Rembrandt to vacate.
  ^  Clark, 1974 p. 105
  ^  Clark 1974, pp. 60–61
  ^  Bull, et al., p. 29.
  ^  Ruysscher, D. D., &amp; 'T Veld, C. I. (2021). Rembrandt's insolvency: The artist as legal actor, Oud Holland–Journal for Art of the Low Countries, 134(1), 9–24. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/18750176-13401002 Archived 7 November 2021 at the Wayback Machine
  ^  Wexuan, Li. "Review of: 'Rembrandts plan: De ware geschiedenis van zijn faillissement", Oud Holland Reviews, April 2020.
  ^  Clark 1978, p. 34
  ^  Burial register of the Westerkerk with record of Rembrandt's burial, kept at the Amsterdam City Archives
  ^  Hughes, p. 6
  ^   "A Web Catalogue of Rembrandt Paintings". 28 July 2012. Archived from the original on 28 July 2012.
  ^   "Institute Member Login – Institute for the Study of Western Civilization". Archived from the original on 29 September 2007.
  ^   "A Web Catalogue of Rembrandt Paintings". Archived from the original on 13 May 2012. Retrieved 10 July 2007.
  ^   "Rembrandt, der Zeichner". Archived from the original on 27 May 2016. Retrieved 3 October 2007.
  ^   "Schwartzlist 301 – Blog entry by the Rembrandt scholar Gary Schwartz". Garyschwartzarthistorian.nl. Archived from the original on 22 February 2012. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
  ^  White and Buvelot 1999, p. 10.
  ^  Taylor, Michael (2007).Rembrandt's Nose: Of Flesh &amp; Spirit in the Master's Portraits Archived 5 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine p. 21, D.A.P./Distributed Art Publishers, Inc., New York ISBN 978-1-933045-44-3'
  ^  Durham, p. 60.
  ^  Bull, et al., pp. 11–13.
  ^  van der Wetering, p. 268.
  ^  van de Wetering, pp. 160, 190.
  ^  Clough, p. 23
  ^  Ackley, p. 14.
^    a       b       c    van de Wetering, p. 284.
  ^  van de Wetering, p. 285.
  ^  van de Wetering, p. 287.
  ^  van de Wetering, p. 286.
  ^  van de Wetering, p. 288.
  ^  Clark 1978, p. 28
  ^  van de Wetering, pp. 163–65.
  ^  van de Wetering, p. 289.
  ^  van de Wetering, pp. 155–65.
  ^  van de Wetering, pp. 157–58, 190.
  ^  "In Rembrandt's (late) great portraits we feel face to face with real people, we sense their warmth, their need for sympathy and also their loneliness and suffering. Those keen and steady eyes that we know so well from Rembrandt's self-portraits must have been able to look straight into the human heart." Gombrich, p. 423.
  ^  "It (The Jewish Bride) is a picture of grown-up love, a marvelous amalgam of richness, tenderness, and trust... the heads which, in their truth, have a spiritual glow that painters influenced by the classical tradition could never achieve." Clark, p. 206.
  ^  Schwartz, 1994, pp. 8–12
  ^  White 1969, pp. 5–6
  ^  White 1969, p. 6
  ^  White 1969, pp. 6, 9–10
  ^  White, 1969 pp. 6–7
  ^  See Schwartz, 1994, where the works are divided by subject, following Bartsch.
  ^  Benesch, Otto: The Drawings of Rembrandt: First Complete Edition in Six Volumes. (London: Phaidon, 1954–57)
  ^  Benesch, Otto: Rembrandt as a Draughtsman: An Essay with 115 Illustrations. (London: Phaidon Press, 1960)
  ^  Benesch, Otto: The Drawings of Rembrandt. A Critical and Chronological Catalogue [2nd ed., 6 vols.]. (London: Phaidon, 1973)
^    a       b    Lewis, Tim (16 November 2014). "David Hockney: 'When I'm working, I feel like Picasso, I feel I'm 30'".  The Guardian . Archived from the original on 16 May 2020. Retrieved 16 June 2020.  David Hockney (2014): "There's a drawing by Rembrandt, I think it's the greatest drawing ever done. It's in the British Museum and it's of a family teaching a child to walk, so it's a universal thing, everybody has experienced this or seen it happen. Everybody. I used to print out Rembrandt drawings big and give them to people and say: 'If you find a better drawing send it to me. But if you find a better one it will be by Goya or Michelangelo perhaps.' But I don't think there is one actually. It's a magnificent drawing, magnificent." 
  ^  Slive, Seymour: The Drawings of Rembrandt: A New Study. (London: Thames &amp; Hudson, 2009)
  ^  Silve, Seymour: The Drawings of Rembrandt. (London: Thames &amp; Hudson, 2019)
^    a       b    Mendelowitz, Daniel Marcus: Drawing. (New York: Holt, Rinehart &amp; Winston, Inc., 1967), p. 305. As Mendelowitz (1967) noted: "Probably no one has combined to as great a degree as Rembrandt a disciplined exposition of what his eye saw and a love of line as a beautiful thing in itself. His "Winter Landscape" displays the virtuosity of performance of an Oriental master, yet unlike the Oriental calligraphy, it is not based on an established convention of brush performance. It is as personal as handwriting."
^    a       b    Sullivan, Michael: The Meeting of Eastern and Western Art. (Berkeley/Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1989), p. 91
  ^  Schrader, Stephanie; et al. (eds.):  Rembrandt and the Inspiration of India Archived 1 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine . (Los Angeles, CA: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2018) ISBN 978-1-60606-552-5
  ^   "Rembrandt and the Inspiration of India (catalogue)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 October 2019. Retrieved 18 October 2019.
  ^   "In Paintings: Rembrandt &amp; his Mughal India Inspiration". 3 September 2017. Archived from the original on 23 May 2018. Retrieved 12 May 2018.
  ^  Ganz, James (2013). Rembrandt's Century. San Francisco, CA: Fine Arts Museum of San Francisco. p. 45. ISBN  978-3-7913-5224-4 .
  ^  Beliën, H &amp; P. Knevel (2006) Langs Rembrandts roem, p. 92-121
  ^   "The Rembrandt Research Project: Past, Present, Future" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 August 2014. Retrieved 11 August 2014.
  ^  See "Further Battles for the 'Lisowczyk' (Polish Rider) by Rembrandt" Zdzislaw Zygulski, Jr., Artibus et Historiae, Vol. 21, No. 41 (2000), pp. 197–205. Also New York Times story Archived 8 January 2008 at the Wayback Machine. There is a book on the subject:Responses to Rembrandt; Who painted the Polish Rider? by Anthony Bailey (New York, 1993)
  ^  John Russell (1 December 1985). "Art View; In Search of the Real Thing". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 1 July 2017. Retrieved 12 February 2017.
  ^  Schama, Simon (1999). Rembrandt's Eyes. Knopf, p. 720.
  ^  Schama, pp 582–591.
  ^   "Rembrandt Pilate Washing His Hands Oil Painting Reproduction". Outpost Art. Archived from the original on 12 January 2015. Retrieved 1 January 2015.
  ^   "Entertainment | Lost Rembrandt works discovered". BBC News. 23 September 2005. Archived from the original on 22 December 2006. Retrieved 7 October 2009.
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  ^  van de Wetering, p. x.
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  ^  Clark 1974, pp. 147–50. See the catalogue in Further reading for the location of all accepted Rembrandts
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^    a       b    Crawford, Amy (12 December 2006). "An Interview with Stephanie Dickey, author of "Rembrandt at 400"".  Smithsonian Magazine . Archived from the original on 21 September 2018. Retrieved 10 October 2018.
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Works cited[edit]
 Ackley, Clifford, et al., Rembrandt's Journey, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 2004. ISBN 0-87846-677-0 
 Adams, Laurie Schneider (1999). Art Across Time. Volume II. New York: McGraw-Hill College. 
Bomford, D. et al., Art in the making: Rembrandt, New edition, Yale University Press, 2006
Bull, Duncan, et al., Rembrandt-Caravaggio, Rijksmuseum, 2006.
Buvelot, Quentin, White, Christopher (eds), Rembrandt by himself, 1999, National Gallery
 Clark, Kenneth (1969).  Civilisation: a personal view . New York: Harper &amp; Row. ISBN  978-0-06-010801-4 . 
 Clark, Kenneth, An Introduction to Rembrandt, 1978, London, John Murray/Readers Union, 1978
 Clough, Shepard B. (1975).  European History in a World Perspective . D.C. Heath and Company, Los Lexington, MA. ISBN  978-0-669-85555-5 . 
Driessen, Christoph, Rembrandts vrouwen, Bert Bakker, Amsterdam, 2012. ISBN 978-90-351-3690-8 
 Durham, John I. (2004).  Biblical Rembrandt: Human Painter in a Landscape of Faith . Mercer University Press. ISBN  978-0-86554-886-2 . 
 Gombrich, E.H., The Story of Art, Phaidon, 1995. ISBN 0-7148-3355-X 
 Hughes, Robert (2006), "The God of Realism", The New York Review of Books, vol. 53, no. 6 
 The Complete Etchings of Rembrandt Reproduced in Original Size, Gary Schwartz (editor). New York: Dover, 1988. ISBN 0-486-28181-7 
Slive, Seymour, Dutch Painting, 1600–1800, Yale UP, 1995, ISBN 0-300-07451-4 
 van de Wetering, Ernst in Rembrandt by himself, 1999 National Gallery, London/Mauritshuis, The Hague, ISBN 1-85709-270-8 
 van de Wetering, Ernst, Rembrandt: The Painter at Work, Amsterdam University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-520-22668-2 
White, Christopher, The Late Etchings of Rembrandt, 1999, British Museum/Lund Humphries, London ISBN 978-90-400-9315-9  
Further reading[edit]
  Catalogue raisonné: Stichting Foundation Rembrandt Research Project:
  A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume I, which deals with works from Rembrandt's early years in Leiden (1629–1631), 1982
 A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume II: 1631–1634. Bruyn, J., Haak, B. (et al.), Band 2, 1986, ISBN 978-90-247-3339-2 
 A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume III, 1635–1642. Bruyn, J., Haak, B., Levie, S.H., van Thiel, P.J.J., van de Wetering, E. (Ed. Hrsg.), Band 3, 1990, ISBN 978-90-247-3781-9 
 A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume IV. Ernst van de Wetering, Karin Groen et al. Springer, Dordrecht, the Netherlands. ISBN 1-4020-3280-3. p. 692. (Self-Portraits)  
 Rembrandt. Images and metaphors, Christian and Astrid Tümpel (editors), Haus Books London 2006 ISBN 978-1-904950-92-9 
 Anthony M. Amore; Tom Mashberg (2012). Stealing Rembrandts: The Untold Stories of Notorious Art Heists. ISBN  978-0-230-33990-3 .  
External links[edit]
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rembrandt. 
 
Wikiquote has quotations related to   Rembrandt  . 
  A biography of the artist Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn from the National Gallery, London 
 Works and literature on Rembrandt from Pubhist.com 
 The Drawings of Rembrandt: a revision of Otto Benesch's catalogue raisonné by Martin Royalton-Kisch (in progress) 
 Rembrandt's house in Amsterdam Site of the Rembrandt House Museum in Amsterdam, with images of many of his etchings
 114 artworks by or after Rembrandt at the Art UK site
 Works by or about Rembrandt at Internet Archive 
 Rembrandt van Rijn, General Resources 
   Gary Schwartz The transparent connoisseur 3: the 30 million pound question
 Rembrandt 
 The Rembrandt Database research data on the paintings, including the full contents of the first volumes of A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings by the Rembrandt Research Project
Rembrandt - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rembrandt
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Kepler
Johannes Kepler - Wikipedia
2001-09-09
None
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<table><tbody><tr><th><p>Johannes Kepler</p></th></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:JKepler.jpg"></a><p>Portrait of Kepler by an unknown artist in 1620.</p></td></tr><tr><th>Born</th><td>27 December 1571<br /><div><p><a href="/wiki/Weil_der_Stadt">Free Imperial City of Weil der Stadt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Died</th><td>15 November 1630 (aged 58)<br /><div><p><a href="/wiki/Regensburg">Free Imperial City of Regensburg</a>, Holy Roman Empire</p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Education</th><td><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCbinger_Stift">Tübinger Stift</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_T%C3%BCbingen">University of Tübingen</a> (M.A., 1591)<sup><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup></td></tr><tr><th>Known for</th><td><a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws_of_planetary_motion">Kepler's laws of planetary motion</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Kepler_conjecture">Kepler conjecture</a><br /><i><a href="/wiki/Rudolphine_Tables">Rudolphine Tables</a></i></td></tr><tr><td><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th>Fields</th><td><a href="/wiki/Astronomy">Astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astrology">astrology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy">natural philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/Doctoral_advisor">Doctoral advisor</a></th><td><a href="/wiki/Michael_Maestlin">Michael Maestlin</a></td></tr><tr><th>Influences</th><td><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Tycho_Brahe">Tycho Brahe</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a></td></tr><tr><th>Influenced</th><td><a href="/wiki/Sir_Isaac_Newton">Sir Isaac Newton</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Benoit_Mandelbrot">Benoit Mandelbrot</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Browne">Thomas Browne</a></td></tr><tr><th>Signature</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:Unterschrift_Kepler.svg"></a></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Johannes Kepler</b> (;<sup><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> <small>German: </small><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German">[joˈhanəs ˈkɛplɐ, -nɛs -]</a> (<a href="/wiki/File:De-Johannes_Kepler.ogg"></a><a href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/De-Johannes_Kepler.ogg">listen</a>);<sup><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> 27 December 1571 – 15 November 1630) was a German <a href="/wiki/Astronomer">astronomer</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_mathematician">mathematician</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astrologer">astrologer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy">natural philosopher</a> and writer on music.<sup><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> He is a key figure in the 17th-century <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>, best known for his <a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws_of_planetary_motion">laws of planetary motion</a>, and his books <i><a href="/wiki/Astronomia_nova">Astronomia nova</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Harmonice_Mundi">Harmonice Mundi</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Epitome_Astronomiae_Copernicanae">Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae</a></i>. These works also provided one of the foundations for <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton">Newton</a>'s theory of <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation">universal gravitation</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p><p>Kepler was a mathematics teacher at a <a href="/wiki/Seminary">seminary</a> school in <a href="/wiki/Graz">Graz</a>, where he became an associate of <a href="/wiki/Hans_Ulrich_von_Eggenberg">Prince Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg</a>. Later he became an assistant to the astronomer <a href="/wiki/Tycho_Brahe">Tycho Brahe</a> in <a href="/wiki/Prague">Prague</a>, and eventually the imperial mathematician to <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor">Emperor Rudolf II</a> and his two successors <a href="/wiki/Matthias,_Holy_Roman_Emperor">Matthias</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor">Ferdinand II</a>. He also taught mathematics in <a href="/wiki/Linz">Linz</a>, and was an adviser to <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_von_Wallenstein">General Wallenstein</a>.
Additionally, he did fundamental work in the field of <a href="/wiki/Optics">optics</a>, invented an improved version of the <a href="/wiki/Refracting_telescope">refracting (or Keplerian) telescope</a>, and was mentioned in the <a href="/wiki/Telescope">telescopic</a> discoveries of his contemporary <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a>. He was a corresponding member of the <a href="/wiki/Accademia_dei_Lincei">Accademia dei Lincei</a> in Rome.<sup><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup>
</p><p>Kepler lived in an era when there was no clear distinction between <a href="/wiki/Astronomy">astronomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astrology">astrology</a>, but there was a strong division between astronomy (a branch of <a href="/wiki/Quadrivium">mathematics</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_arts">liberal arts</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Physics">physics</a> (a branch of <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy">natural philosophy</a>). Kepler also incorporated religious arguments and reasoning into his work, motivated by the religious conviction and belief that God had created the world according to an intelligible plan that is accessible through the natural light of <a href="/wiki/Reason">reason</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> Kepler described his new astronomy as "celestial physics",<sup><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup> as "an excursion into <a href="/wiki/Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></i>",<sup><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup> and as "a supplement to Aristotle's <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Heavens">On the Heavens</a></i>",<sup><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup> transforming the ancient tradition of physical cosmology by treating astronomy as part of a universal mathematical physics.<sup><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup>
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<h2>Early life[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1">edit</a>]</h2>
<h3>Childhood (1571–1590)[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2">edit</a>]</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Kepler-Geburtshaus.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Kepler's birthplace, in Weil der Stadt</p></div></div>
<p>Kepler was born on 27 December 1571, in the <a href="/wiki/Free_Imperial_City">Free Imperial City</a> of <a href="/wiki/Weil_der_Stadt">Weil der Stadt</a> (now part of the <a href="/wiki/Stuttgart_Region">Stuttgart Region</a> in the German state of <a href="/wiki/Baden-W%C3%BCrttemberg">Baden-Württemberg</a>, 30 km west of Stuttgart's center). His grandfather, Sebald Kepler, had been Lord Mayor of the city. By the time Johannes was born, he had two brothers and one sister and the Kepler family fortune was in decline. His father, Heinrich Kepler, earned a precarious living as a <a href="/wiki/Mercenary">mercenary</a>, and he left the family when Johannes was five years old. He was believed to have died in the <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War">Eighty Years' War</a> in the Netherlands. His mother, <a href="/wiki/Katharina_Kepler">Katharina Guldenmann</a>, an innkeeper's daughter, was a <a href="/wiki/Healer_(alternative_medicine)">healer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herbalist">herbalist</a>. Born prematurely, Johannes claimed to have been weak and sickly as a child. Nevertheless, he often impressed travelers at his grandfather's inn with his phenomenal mathematical faculty.<sup><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup>
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<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Von_einem_Schrecklichen_vnd_Wunderbarlichen_Cometen_so_sich_den_Dienstag_nach_Martini_dieses_lauffenden_M._D._Lxxvij._Jahrs_am_Himmel_erzeiget_hat_(grayscale).png"></a></p><div><p>As a child, Kepler witnessed the <a href="/wiki/Great_Comet_of_1577">Great Comet of 1577</a>, which attracted the attention of astronomers across Europe.</p></div></div>
<p>He was introduced to astronomy at an early age and developed a strong passion for it that would span his entire life. At age six, he observed the <a href="/wiki/Great_Comet_of_1577">Great Comet of 1577</a>, writing that he "was taken by [his] mother to a high place to look at it."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Koestler234-14">[14]</a></sup> In 1580, at age nine, he observed another astronomical event, a <a href="/wiki/Lunar_eclipse">lunar eclipse</a>, recording that he remembered being "called outdoors" to see it and that the <a href="/wiki/Moon">Moon</a> "appeared quite red".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Koestler234-14">[14]</a></sup> However, childhood <a href="/wiki/Smallpox">smallpox</a> left him with weak vision and crippled hands, limiting his ability in the observational aspects of astronomy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1589, after moving through grammar school, <a href="/wiki/Latin_school">Latin school</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Evangelical_Seminaries_of_Maulbronn_and_Blaubeuren">seminary at Maulbronn</a>, Kepler attended <a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCbinger_Stift">Tübinger Stift</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_T%C3%BCbingen">University of Tübingen</a>. There, he studied philosophy under Vitus Müller<sup><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Theology">theology</a> under <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Heerbrand">Jacob Heerbrand</a> (a student of <a href="/wiki/Philipp_Melanchthon">Philipp Melanchthon</a> at Wittenberg), who also taught <a href="/wiki/Michael_Maestlin">Michael Maestlin</a> while he was a student, until he became Chancellor at Tübingen in 1590. He proved himself to be a superb mathematician and earned a reputation as a skilful astrologer, casting <a href="/wiki/Horoscope">horoscopes</a> for fellow students. Under the instruction of Michael Maestlin, Tübingen's professor of mathematics from 1583 to 1631,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Kepler's_Astronomy_Author_2001_p._96-17">[17]</a></sup> he learned both the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_system">Ptolemaic system</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Copernican_heliocentrism">Copernican system</a> of planetary motion. He became a <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus">Copernican</a> at that time. In a student disputation, he defended <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism">heliocentrism</a> from both a theoretical and theological perspective, maintaining that the <a href="/wiki/Sun">Sun</a> was the principal source of motive power in the universe.<sup><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup> Despite his desire to become a minister, near the end of his studies, Kepler was recommended for a position as teacher of mathematics and astronomy at the Protestant school in Graz. He accepted the position in April 1594, at the age of 22.<sup><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup>
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<h3>Graz (1594–1600)[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3">edit</a>]</h3>
<div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Barbara_M%C3%BCller_and_Johannes_Kepler.jpg"></a></p><p>Portraits of Kepler and his wife</p></div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:House_of_Johannes_Kepler.JPG"></a></p><p>House of Kepler and Barbara Müller in <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ssendorf">Gössendorf</a>, near Graz (1597–1599)</p></div></div>
<p>Before concluding his studies at Tübingen, Kepler accepted an offer to teach mathematics as a replacement to Georg Stadius at the Protestant school in Graz (now in Styria, Austria).<sup><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup> During this period (1594–1600), he issued many official calendars and prognostications that enhanced his reputation as an astrologer. Although Kepler had mixed feelings about astrology and disparaged many customary practices of astrologers, he believed deeply in a connection between the cosmos and the individual. He eventually published some of the ideas he had entertained while a student in the <i>Mysterium Cosmographicum</i> (1596), published a little over a year after his arrival at Graz.<sup><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup>
</p><p>In December 1595, Kepler was introduced to Barbara Müller, a 23-year-old widow (twice over) with a young daughter, Regina Lorenz, and he began courting her. Müller, an heiress to the estates of her late husbands, was also the daughter of a successful mill owner. Her father Jobst initially opposed a marriage. Even though Kepler had inherited his grandfather's nobility, Kepler's poverty made him an unacceptable match. Jobst relented after Kepler completed work on <i>Mysterium</i>, but the engagement nearly fell apart while Kepler was away tending to the details of publication. However, Protestant officials—who had helped set up the match—pressured the Müllers to honor their agreement. Barbara and Johannes were married on 27 April 1597.<sup><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the first years of their marriage, the Keplers had two children (Heinrich and Susanna), both of whom died in infancy. In 1602, they had a daughter (Susanna); in 1604, a son (Friedrich); and in 1607, another son (Ludwig).<sup><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup>
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<h3>Other research[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Following the publication of <i>Mysterium</i> and with the blessing of the Graz school inspectors, Kepler began an ambitious program to extend and elaborate his work. He planned four additional books: one on the stationary aspects of the universe (the Sun and the fixed stars); one on the planets and their motions; one on the physical nature of planets and the formation of geographical features (focused especially on Earth); and one on the effects of the heavens on the Earth, to include atmospheric optics, meteorology, and astrology.<sup><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup>
</p><p>He also sought the opinions of many of the astronomers to whom he had sent <i>Mysterium</i>, among them <a href="/wiki/Reimarus_Ursus">Reimarus Ursus</a> (Nicolaus Reimers Bär)—the imperial mathematician to <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor">Rudolf II</a> and a bitter rival of <a href="/wiki/Tycho_Brahe">Tycho Brahe</a>. Ursus did not reply directly, but republished Kepler's flattering letter to pursue his priority dispute over (what is now called) the <a href="/wiki/Tychonic_system">Tychonic system</a> with Tycho. Despite this black mark, Tycho also began corresponding with Kepler, starting with a harsh but legitimate critique of Kepler's system; among a host of objections, Tycho took issue with the use of inaccurate numerical data taken from Copernicus. Through their letters, Tycho and Kepler discussed a broad range of astronomical problems, dwelling on lunar phenomena and Copernican theory (particularly its theological viability). But without the significantly more accurate data of Tycho's observatory, Kepler had no way to address many of these issues.<sup><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup>
</p><p>Instead, he turned his attention to <a href="/wiki/Chronology">chronology</a> and "harmony," the <a href="/wiki/Numerology">numerological</a> relationships among music, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics">mathematics</a> and the physical world, and their <a href="/wiki/Astrology">astrological</a> consequences. By assuming the Earth to possess a soul (a property he would later invoke to explain how the Sun causes the motion of planets), he established a speculative system connecting <a href="/wiki/Astrological_aspects">astrological aspects</a> and astronomical distances to <a href="/wiki/Meteorology">weather</a> and other earthly phenomena. By 1599, however, he again felt his work limited by the inaccuracy of available data—just as growing religious tension was also threatening his continued employment in Graz. In December of that year, Tycho invited Kepler to visit him in <a href="/wiki/Prague">Prague</a>; on 1 January 1600 (before he even received the invitation), Kepler set off in the hopes that Tycho's patronage could solve his philosophical problems as well as his social and financial ones.<sup><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup>
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<h2>Scientific career[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5">edit</a>]</h2>
<h3>Prague (1600–1612)[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6">edit</a>]</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Tycho_Brahe.JPG"></a></p></div>
<p>On 4 February 1600, Kepler met <a href="/wiki/Tycho_Brahe">Tycho Brahe</a> and his assistants <a href="/wiki/Franz_Tengnagel">Franz Tengnagel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Longomontanus">Longomontanus</a> at <a href="/wiki/Ben%C3%A1tky_nad_Jizerou">Benátky nad Jizerou</a> (35 km from Prague), the site where Tycho's new observatory was being constructed. Over the next two months, he stayed as a guest, analyzing some of Tycho's observations of Mars; Tycho guarded his data closely, but was impressed by Kepler's theoretical ideas and soon allowed him more access. Kepler planned to test his theory<sup><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup> from <i>Mysterium Cosmographicum</i> based on the Mars data, but he estimated that the work would take up to two years (since he was not allowed to simply copy the data for his own use). With the help of <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Jessenius">Johannes Jessenius</a>, Kepler attempted to negotiate a more formal employment arrangement with Tycho, but negotiations broke down in an angry argument and Kepler left for Prague on 6 April. Kepler and Tycho soon reconciled and eventually reached an agreement on salary and living arrangements, and in June, Kepler returned home to Graz to collect his family.<sup><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup>
</p><p>Political and religious difficulties in Graz dashed his hopes of returning immediately to Brahe; in hopes of continuing his astronomical studies, Kepler sought an appointment as a mathematician to <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor">Archduke Ferdinand</a>. To that end, Kepler composed an essay—dedicated to Ferdinand—in which he proposed a force-based theory of lunar motion: "In Terra inest virtus, quae Lunam ciet" ("There is a force in the earth which causes the moon to move").<sup><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup> Though the essay did not earn him a place in Ferdinand's court, it did detail a new method for measuring lunar eclipses, which he applied during the 10 July eclipse in Graz. These observations formed the basis of his explorations of the laws of optics that would culminate in <i>Astronomiae Pars Optica</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 2 August 1600, after refusing to convert to Catholicism, Kepler and his family were banished from Graz. Several months later, Kepler returned, now with the rest of his household, to Prague. Through most of 1601, he was supported directly by Tycho, who assigned him to analyzing planetary observations and writing a tract against Tycho's (by then deceased) rival, Ursus. In September, Tycho secured him a commission as a collaborator on the new project he had proposed to the emperor: the <i><a href="/wiki/Rudolphine_Tables">Rudolphine Tables</a></i> that should replace the <i><a href="/wiki/Prutenic_Tables">Prutenic Tables</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Erasmus_Reinhold">Erasmus Reinhold</a>. Two days after Tycho's unexpected death on 24 October 1601, Kepler was appointed his successor as the imperial mathematician with the responsibility to complete his unfinished work. The next 11 years as imperial mathematician would be the most productive of his life.<sup><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup>
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<h3>Imperial Advisor[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Kepler's primary obligation as imperial mathematician was to provide astrological advice to the emperor. Though Kepler took a dim view of the attempts of contemporary astrologers to precisely predict the future or divine specific events, he had been casting well-received detailed horoscopes for friends, family, and patrons since his time as a student in Tübingen. In addition to horoscopes for allies and foreign leaders, the emperor sought Kepler's advice in times of political trouble. Rudolf was actively interested in the work of many of his court scholars (including numerous <a href="/wiki/Alchemy">alchemists</a>) and kept up with Kepler's work in physical astronomy as well.<sup><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup>
</p><p>Officially, the only acceptable religious doctrines in Prague were Catholic and <a href="/wiki/Utraquist">Utraquist</a>, but Kepler's position in the imperial court allowed him to practice his Lutheran faith unhindered. The emperor nominally provided an ample income for his family, but the difficulties of the over-extended imperial treasury meant that actually getting hold of enough money to meet financial obligations was a continual struggle. Partly because of financial troubles, his life at home with Barbara was unpleasant, marred with bickering and bouts of sickness. Court life, however, brought Kepler into contact with other prominent scholars (<a href="/wiki/Johannes_Matth%C3%A4us_Wackher_von_Wackhenfels">Johannes Matthäus Wackher von Wackhenfels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jost_B%C3%BCrgi">Jost Bürgi</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Fabricius">David Fabricius</a>, Martin Bachazek, and Johannes Brengger, among others) and astronomical work proceeded rapidly.<sup><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup>
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<h3>Supernova of 1604[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8">edit</a>]</h3>
 <div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Keplers_supernova.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Remnant of Kepler's Supernova <a href="/wiki/SN_1604">SN 1604</a></p></div></div>
<p>In October 1604, a bright new evening star (<a href="/wiki/SN_1604">SN 1604</a>) appeared, but Kepler did not believe the rumors until he saw it himself.<sup><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup> Kepler began systematically observing the supernova. Astrologically, the end of 1603 marked the beginning of a <a href="/wiki/Fiery_trigon">fiery trigon</a>, the start of the about 800-year cycle of <a href="/wiki/Great_conjunction">great conjunctions</a>; astrologers associated the two previous such periods with the rise of <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> (c. 800 years earlier) and the birth of Christ (c. 1600 years earlier), and thus expected events of great portent, especially regarding the emperor.<sup><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup>
</p><p>It was in this context, as the imperial mathematician and astrologer to the emperor, that Kepler described the new star two years later in his <i><a href="/wiki/De_Stella_Nova">De Stella Nova</a></i>. In it, Kepler addressed the star's astronomical properties while taking a skeptical approach to the many astrological interpretations then circulating. He noted its fading luminosity, speculated about its origin, and used the lack of observed parallax to argue that it was in the sphere of fixed stars, further undermining the doctrine of the immutability of the heavens (the idea accepted since Aristotle that the <a href="/wiki/Celestial_spheres">celestial spheres</a> were perfect and unchanging). The birth of a new star implied the variability of the heavens. Kepler also attached an appendix where he discussed the recent chronology work of the Polish historian <a href="/wiki/Laurentius_Suslyga">Laurentius Suslyga</a>; he calculated that, if Suslyga was correct that accepted timelines were four years behind, then the <a href="/wiki/Star_of_Bethlehem">Star of Bethlehem</a>—analogous to the present new star—would have coincided with the first great conjunction of the earlier 800-year cycle.<sup><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup>
</p><p>Over the following years, Kepler attempted (unsuccessfully) to begin a collaboration with Italian astronomer <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Antonio_Magini">Giovanni Antonio Magini</a>, and dealt with chronology, especially the <a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_Jesus">dating of events in the life of Jesus</a>. Around 1611, Kepler circulated a manuscript of what would eventually be published (posthumously) as <i><a href="/wiki/Somnium_(novel)">Somnium</a></i> [The Dream]. Part of the purpose of <i>Somnium</i> was to describe what practicing astronomy would be like from the perspective of another planet, to show the feasibility of a non-geocentric system. The manuscript, which disappeared after changing hands several times, described a fantastic trip to the Moon; it was part allegory, part autobiography, and part treatise on interplanetary travel (and is sometimes described as the first work of science fiction). Years later, a distorted version of the story may have instigated the witchcraft trial against his mother, as the mother of the narrator consults a demon to learn the means of space travel. Following her eventual acquittal, Kepler composed 223 footnotes to the story—several times longer than the actual text—which explained the allegorical aspects as well as the considerable scientific content (particularly regarding lunar geography) hidden within the text.<sup><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup>
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<h2>Later life[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9">edit</a>]</h2>
<h3>Troubles[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10">edit</a>]</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Karlova_str_No4,_Prague_Old_Town.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Karlova street in Old Town, <a href="/wiki/Prague">Prague</a> – house where Kepler lived. Now a museum <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090910212442/http://www.keplervpraze.cz/en/">[2]</a></p></div></div>
<p>In 1611, the growing political-religious tension in Prague came to a head. Emperor Rudolf—whose health was failing—was forced to abdicate as <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Bohemia">King of Bohemia</a> by his brother <a href="/wiki/Matthias,_Holy_Roman_Emperor">Matthias</a>. Both sides sought Kepler's astrological advice, an opportunity he used to deliver conciliatory political advice (with little reference to the stars, except in general statements to discourage drastic action). However, it was clear that Kepler's future prospects in the court of Matthias were dim.<sup><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup>
</p><p>Also in that year, Barbara Kepler contracted <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_spotted_fever">Hungarian spotted fever</a>, then began having <a href="/wiki/Seizure">seizures</a>. As Barbara was recovering, Kepler's three children all fell sick with smallpox; Friedrich, 6, died. Following his son's death, Kepler sent letters to potential patrons in <a href="/wiki/W%C3%BCrttemberg">Württemberg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Padua">Padua</a>. At the <a href="/wiki/University_of_T%C3%BCbingen">University of Tübingen</a> in Württemberg, concerns over Kepler's perceived <a href="/wiki/Calvinism">Calvinist</a> heresies in violation of the <a href="/wiki/Augsburg_Confession">Augsburg Confession</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Formula_of_Concord">Formula of Concord</a> prevented his return. The <a href="/wiki/University_of_Padua">University of Padua</a>—on the recommendation of the departing Galileo—sought Kepler to fill the mathematics professorship, but Kepler, preferring to keep his family in German territory, instead travelled to Austria to arrange a position as teacher and district mathematician in <a href="/wiki/Linz">Linz</a>. However, Barbara relapsed into illness and died shortly after Kepler's return.<sup><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup>
</p><p>Kepler postponed the move to Linz and remained in Prague until Rudolf's death in early 1612, though between political upheaval, religious tension, and family tragedy (along with the legal dispute over his wife's estate), Kepler could do no research. Instead, he pieced together a chronology manuscript, <i>Eclogae Chronicae</i>, from correspondence and earlier work. Upon succession as Holy Roman Emperor, Matthias re-affirmed Kepler's position (and salary) as imperial mathematician but allowed him to move to Linz.<sup><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup>
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<h3>Linz (1612–1630)[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11">edit</a>]</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Kepler_Statue_Linz.jpg"></a></p><div><p>A statue of Kepler in <a href="/wiki/Linz">Linz</a></p></div></div>
<p>In Linz, Kepler's primary responsibilities (beyond completing the <i>Rudolphine Tables</i>) were teaching at the district school and providing astrological and astronomical services. In his first years there, he enjoyed financial security and religious freedom relative to his life in Prague—though he was excluded from <a href="/wiki/Eucharist">Eucharist</a> by his Lutheran church over his theological scruples. It was also during his time in Linz that Kepler had to deal with the accusation and ultimate verdict of witchcraft against his mother <a href="/wiki/Katharina_Kepler">Katharina</a> in the Protestant town of <a href="/wiki/Leonberg">Leonberg</a>. That blow, happening only a few years after Kepler's <a href="/wiki/Excommunication">excommunication</a>, is not seen as a coincidence but as a symptom of the full-fledged assault waged by the Lutherans against Kepler.<sup><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup>
</p><p>His first publication in Linz was <i>De vero Anno</i> (1613), an expanded treatise on the year of Christ's birth. He also participated in deliberations on whether to introduce <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XIII">Pope Gregory</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar">reformed calendar</a> to Protestant German lands. On 30 October 1613, Kepler married the 24-year-old Susanna Reuttinger. Following the death of his first wife Barbara, Kepler had considered 11 different matches over two years (a decision process formalized later as the <a href="/wiki/Secretary_problem">marriage problem</a>).<sup><a href="#cite_note-ferguson-42">[42]</a></sup> He eventually returned to Reuttinger (the fifth match) who, he wrote, "won me over with love, humble loyalty, economy of household, diligence, and the love she gave the stepchildren."<sup><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup> The first three children of this marriage (Margareta Regina, Katharina, and Sebald) died in childhood. Three more survived into adulthood: Cordula (born 1621); Fridmar (born 1623); and Hildebert (born 1625). According to Kepler's biographers, this was a much happier marriage than his first.<sup><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 8 October 1630, Kepler set out for Regensburg, hoping to collect interest on work he had done previously. A few days after reaching Regensburg, Kepler became sick, and progressively became worse. On 15 November 1630, just over a month after his arrival, he died. He was buried in a Protestant churchyard that was completely destroyed during the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War">Thirty Years' War</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup>
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<h3>Christianity[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Kepler's belief that God created the cosmos in an orderly fashion caused him to attempt to determine and comprehend the laws that govern the natural world, most profoundly in astronomy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup> The phrase "I am merely thinking God's thoughts after Him" has been attributed to him, although this is probably a capsulized version of a writing from his hand:
</p>
<blockquote><p>Those laws [of nature] are within the grasp of the human mind; God wanted us to recognize them by creating us after his own image so that we could share in his own thoughts.<sup><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup></p></blockquote><p>Kepler advocated for <a href="/wiki/Religious_tolerance">tolerance</a> among Christian denominations, for example arguing that Catholics and Lutherans should be able to take communion together. He wrote, "Christ the Lord neither was nor is Lutheran, nor Calvinist, nor Papist."<sup><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup>
</p><h2>Astronomy[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13">edit</a>]</h2>
<h3><i>Mysterium Cosmographicum</i>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14">edit</a>]</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Kepler-solar-system-1.png"></a></p></div>
<p>Kepler's first major astronomical work, <i><a href="/wiki/Mysterium_Cosmographicum">Mysterium Cosmographicum</a></i> (<i>The Cosmographic Mystery</i>, 1596), was the first published defense of the Copernican system. Kepler claimed to have had an <a href="/wiki/Epiphany_(feeling)">epiphany</a> on 19 July 1595, while teaching in <a href="/wiki/Graz">Graz</a>, demonstrating the periodic <a href="/wiki/Conjunction_(astronomy_and_astrology)">conjunction</a> of <a href="/wiki/Saturn">Saturn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jupiter">Jupiter</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Zodiac">zodiac</a>: he realized that <a href="/wiki/Regular_polygon">regular polygons</a> bound one inscribed and one circumscribed circle at definite ratios, which, he reasoned, might be the geometrical basis of the universe. After failing to find a unique arrangement of polygons that fit known astronomical observations (even with extra planets added to the system), Kepler began experimenting with 3-dimensional <a href="/wiki/Polyhedron">polyhedra</a>. He found that each of the five <a href="/wiki/Platonic_solid">Platonic solids</a> could be inscribed and circumscribed by spherical <a href="/wiki/Orb_(astronomy)">orbs</a>; nesting these solids, each encased in a sphere, within one another would produce six layers, corresponding to the six known planets—<a href="/wiki/Mercury_(planet)">Mercury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Venus">Venus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Earth">Earth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mars">Mars</a>, Jupiter, and Saturn. By ordering the solids selectively—<a href="/wiki/Octahedron">octahedron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Icosahedron">icosahedron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dodecahedron">dodecahedron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tetrahedron">tetrahedron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cube">cube</a>—Kepler found that the spheres could be placed at intervals corresponding to the relative sizes of each planet's path, assuming the planets circle the Sun. Kepler also found a formula relating the size of each planet's orb to the length of its <a href="/wiki/Orbital_period">orbital period</a>: from inner to outer planets, the ratio of increase in orbital period is twice the difference in orb radius. However, Kepler later rejected this formula, because it was not precise enough.<sup><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup>
</p><p>Kepler thought the <i>Mysterium</i> had revealed God's geometrical plan for the universe. Much of Kepler's enthusiasm for the Copernican system stemmed from his <a href="/wiki/Theological">theological</a> convictions about the connection between the physical and the <a href="/wiki/Spirituality">spiritual</a>; the universe itself was an image of God, with the Sun corresponding to the Father, the stellar sphere to the <a href="/wiki/Jesus">Son</a>, and the intervening space between them to the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit">Holy Spirit</a>. His first manuscript of <i>Mysterium</i> contained an extensive chapter reconciling heliocentrism with biblical passages that seemed to support geocentrism.<sup><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup> With the support of his mentor Michael Maestlin, Kepler received permission from the Tübingen university senate to publish his manuscript, pending removal of the Bible <a href="/wiki/Exegesis">exegesis</a> and the addition of a simpler, more understandable, description of the Copernican system as well as Kepler's new ideas. <i>Mysterium</i> was published late in 1596, and Kepler received his copies and began sending them to prominent astronomers and patrons early in 1597; it was not widely read, but it established Kepler's reputation as a highly skilled astronomer. The effusive dedication, to powerful patrons as well as to the men who controlled his position in Graz, also provided a crucial doorway into the <a href="/wiki/Patronage">patronage system</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1621, Kepler published an expanded second edition of <i>Mysterium</i>, half as long again as the first, detailing in footnotes the corrections and improvements he had achieved in the 25 years since its first publication.<sup><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup> In terms of impact, the <i>Mysterium</i> can be seen as an important first step in modernizing the theory proposed by <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus">Copernicus</a> in his <i><a href="/wiki/De_revolutionibus_orbium_coelestium">De revolutionibus orbium coelestium</a></i>. Whilst Copernicus sought to advance a heliocentric system in this book, he resorted to <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy">Ptolemaic</a> devices (viz., epicycles and eccentric circles) in order to explain the change in planets' orbital speed, and also continued to use as a point of reference the center of the Earth's orbit rather than that of the Sun "as an aid to calculation and in order not to confuse the reader by diverging too much from Ptolemy." Modern astronomy owes much to <i>Mysterium Cosmographicum</i>, despite flaws in its main thesis, "since it represents the first step in cleansing the Copernican system of the remnants of the Ptolemaic theory still clinging to it."<sup><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup>
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<h3><i>Astronomia Nova</i>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15">edit</a>]</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Kepler_Mars_retrograde.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>The extended line of research that culminated in <i><a href="/wiki/Astronomia_Nova">Astronomia Nova</a></i> (<i>A New Astronomy</i>)—including the first two <a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws_of_planetary_motion">laws of planetary motion</a>—began with the analysis, under Tycho's direction, of the orbit of Mars. In this work Kepler introduced the revolutionary concept of planetary orbit, a path of a planet in space resulting from the action of physical causes, distinct from previously held notion of planetary orb (a spherical shell to which planet is attached). As a result of this breakthrough astronomical phenomena came to be seen as being governed by physical laws.<sup><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup> Kepler calculated and recalculated various approximations of Mars's orbit using an <a href="/wiki/Equant">equant</a> (the mathematical tool that Copernicus had eliminated with his system), eventually creating a model that generally agreed with Tycho's observations to within two <a href="/wiki/Arcminute">arcminutes</a> (the average measurement error). But he was not satisfied with the complex and still slightly inaccurate result; at certain points the model differed from the data by up to eight arcminutes. The wide array of traditional mathematical astronomy methods having failed him, Kepler set about trying to fit an <a href="/wiki/Oval">ovoid</a> orbit to the data.<sup><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup>
</p><p>In Kepler's religious view of the cosmos, the Sun (a symbol of <a href="/wiki/God_the_Father">God the Father</a>) was the source of motive force in the Solar System. As a physical basis, Kepler drew by analogy on <a href="/wiki/William_Gilbert_(physician)">William Gilbert</a>'s theory of the magnetic soul of the Earth from <i><a href="/wiki/De_Magnete">De Magnete</a></i> (1600) and on his own work on optics. Kepler supposed that the motive power (or motive <i>species</i>)<sup><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup> radiated by the Sun weakens with distance, causing faster or slower motion as planets move closer or farther from it.<sup><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-60">[note 1]</a></sup> Perhaps this assumption entailed a mathematical relationship that would restore astronomical order. Based on measurements of the <a href="/wiki/Aphelion">aphelion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Perihelion">perihelion</a> of the Earth and Mars, he created a formula in which a planet's rate of motion is inversely proportional to its distance from the Sun. Verifying this relationship throughout the orbital cycle required very extensive calculation; to simplify this task, by late 1602 Kepler reformulated the proportion in terms of geometry: <i>planets sweep out equal areas in equal times</i>—his second law of planetary motion.<sup><a href="#cite_note-61">[60]</a></sup>
</p><p>He then set about calculating the entire orbit of Mars, using the geometrical rate law and assuming an egg-shaped <a href="/wiki/Ovoid">ovoid</a> orbit. After approximately 40 failed attempts, in late 1604 he at last hit upon the idea of an ellipse,<sup><a href="#cite_note-62">[61]</a></sup> which he had previously assumed to be too simple a solution for earlier astronomers to have overlooked.<sup><a href="#cite_note-63">[62]</a></sup> Finding that an elliptical orbit fit the Mars data (the <a href="/wiki/Vicarious_Hypothesis">Vicarious Hypothesis</a>), Kepler immediately concluded that <i>all planets move in ellipses, with the Sun at one focus</i>—his first law of planetary motion. Because he employed no calculating assistants, he did not extend the mathematical analysis beyond Mars. By the end of the year, he completed the manuscript for <i>Astronomia nova</i>, though it would not be published until 1609 due to legal disputes over the use of Tycho's observations, the property of his heirs.<sup><a href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a></sup>
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<h3><i>Epitome of Copernican Astronomy</i>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Since completing the <i>Astronomia Nova</i>, Kepler had intended to compose an astronomy textbook that would cover all the fundamentals of <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism">heliocentric astronomy</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-65">[64]</a></sup> Kepler spent the next several years working on what would become <i>Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae</i> (<i>Epitome of Copernican Astronomy</i>). Despite its title, which merely hints at heliocentrism, the <i>Epitome</i> is less about Copernicus's work and more about Kepler's own astronomical system. The <i>Epitome</i> contained all three laws of planetary motion and attempted to explain heavenly motions through physical causes.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Gingerich_pp_302-66">[65]</a></sup> Although it explicitly extended the first two laws of planetary motion (applied to Mars in <i>Astronomia nova</i>) to all the planets as well as the Moon and the <a href="/wiki/Galilean_moons">Medicean satellites of Jupiter</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-69">[note 2]</a></sup> it did not explain how elliptical orbits could be derived from observational data.<sup><a href="#cite_note-70">[68]</a></sup>
</p><p>Originally intended as an introduction for the uninitiated, Kepler sought to model his <i>Epitome</i> after that of his master <a href="/wiki/Michael_Maestlin">Michael Maestlin</a>, who published a well-regarded book explaining the basics of <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model">geocentric astronomy</a> to non-experts.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:1-71">[69]</a></sup> Kepler completed the first of three volumes, consisting of Books I–III, by 1615 in the same question-answer format of Maestlin's and have it printed in 1617.<sup><a href="#cite_note-72">[70]</a></sup> However, the <a href="/wiki/Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum">banning of Copernican books</a> by the Catholic Church, as well as the start of the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War">Thirty Years' War</a>, meant that publication of the next two volumes would be delayed. In the interim, and to avoid being subject to the ban, Kepler switched the audience of the <i>Epitome</i> from beginners to that of expert astronomers and mathematicians, as the arguments became more and more sophisticated and required advanced mathematics to be understood.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:1-71">[69]</a></sup> The second volume, consisting of Book IV, was published in 1620, followed by the third volume, consisting of Books V–VII, in 1621.
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<h3><i>Rudolphine Tables</i>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17">edit</a>]</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Rudolphine_tables.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Two pages from Kepler's <i>Rudolphine Tables</i> showing eclipses of the Sun and Moon</p></div></div>
<p>In the years following the completion of <i>Astronomia Nova</i>, most of Kepler's research was focused on preparations for the <i>Rudolphine Tables</i> and a comprehensive set of <a href="/wiki/Ephemerides">ephemerides</a> (specific predictions of planet and star positions) based on the table, though neither would be completed for many years.<sup><a href="#cite_note-73">[71]</a></sup>
</p><p>Kepler, at last, completed the <i><a href="/wiki/Rudolphine_Tables">Rudolphine Tables</a></i> in 1623, which at the time was considered his major work. However, due to the publishing requirements of the emperor and negotiations with Tycho Brahe's heir, it would not be printed until 1627.<sup><a href="#cite_note-74">[72]</a></sup>
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<h2>Astrology[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Kepler-Wallenstein-Horoskop.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Like <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>, Kepler considered astrology as the counterpart to astronomy, and as being of equal interest and value. However, in the following years, the two subjects drifted apart until astrology was no longer practiced among professional astronomers.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:0-75">[73]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Joseph_Lodge">Sir Oliver Lodge</a> observed that Kepler was somewhat disdainful of astrology in his own day, as he was "continually attacking and throwing sarcasm at astrology, but it was the only thing for which people would pay him, and on it after a fashion he lived."<sup><a href="#cite_note-76">[74]</a></sup> Nonetheless, Kepler spent a huge amount of time trying to restore astrology on a firmer philosophical footing, composing numerous astrological calendars, more than 800 nativities, and a number of treaties dealing with the subject of astrology proper.<sup><a href="#cite_note-77">[75]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><i>De Fundamentis</i>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>In his bid to become imperial astronomer, Kepler wrote <i>De Fundamentis</i> (1601), whose full title can be translated as “On Giving Astrology Sounder Foundations”, as a short foreword to one of his yearly almanacs.<sup><a href="#cite_note-78">[76]</a></sup>
</p><p>In this work, Kepler describes the effects of the Sun, Moon, and the planets in terms of their light and their influences upon humors, finalizing with Kepler's view that the Earth possesses a soul with some sense of geometry. Stimulated by the geometric convergence of rays formed around it, the <a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi">world-soul</a> is sentient but not conscious. As a shepherd is pleased by the piping of a flute without understanding the theory of musical harmony, so likewise Earth responds to the angles and aspects made by the heavens but not in a conscious manner. Eclipses are important as omens because the animal faculty of the Earth is violently disturbed by the sudden intermission of light, experiencing something like emotion and persisting in it for some time.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:0-75">[73]</a></sup>
</p><p>Kepler surmises that the Earth has "cycles of humors" as living animals do, and gives for an example that "the highest tides of the sea are said by sailors to return after nineteen years around the same days of the year". (This may refer to the 18.6-year <a href="/wiki/Lunar_node#Effect_on_tides">lunar node precession cycle</a>.) Kepler advocates searching for such cycles by gathering observations over a period of many years, "and so far this observation has not been made".<sup><a href="#cite_note-79">[77]</a></sup>
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<h3><i>Tertius Interveniens</i>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Kepler and <a href="/wiki/Helisaeus_Roeslin">Helisaeus Roeslin</a> engaged in a series of published attacks and counter-attacks on the importance of astrology after the supernova of 1604; around the same time, physician Philip Feselius published a work dismissing astrology altogether (and Roeslin's work in particular).<sup><a href="#cite_note-80">[78]</a></sup>
</p><p>In response to what Kepler saw as the excesses of astrology, on the one hand, and overzealous rejection of it, on the other, Kepler prepared <i>Tertius Interveniens</i> (1610). Nominally this work—presented to the common patron of Roeslin and Feselius—was a neutral mediation between the feuding scholars (the titled meaning "Third-party interventions"), but it also set out Kepler's general views on the value of astrology, including some hypothesized mechanisms of interaction between planets and individual souls. While Kepler considered most traditional rules and methods of astrology to be the "evil-smelling dung" in which "an industrious hen" scrapes, there was an "occasional grain-seed, indeed, even a pearl or a gold nugget" to be found by the conscientious scientific astrologer.<sup><a href="#cite_note-81">[79]</a></sup>
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<h2>Music[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21">edit</a>]</h2>
<h3><i>Harmonice Mundi</i>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22">edit</a>]</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Kepler-1619-pl-3.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Kepler was convinced "that the geometrical things have provided the Creator with the model for decorating the whole world".<sup><a href="#cite_note-82">[80]</a></sup> In <i>Harmonice Mundi</i> (1619), he attempted to explain the proportions of the natural world—particularly the astronomical and astrological aspects—in terms of music.<sup><a href="#cite_note-83">[note 3]</a></sup> The central set of "harmonies" was the <i><a href="/wiki/Musica_universalis">musica universalis</a></i> or "music of the spheres", which had been studied by <a href="/wiki/Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> and others before Kepler; in fact, soon after publishing <i>Harmonice Mundi</i>, Kepler was embroiled in a priority dispute with <a href="/wiki/Robert_Fludd">Robert Fludd</a>, who had recently published his own harmonic theory.<sup><a href="#cite_note-84">[81]</a></sup>
</p><p>Kepler began by exploring regular polygons and <a href="/wiki/Regular_solid">regular solids</a>, including the figures that would come to be known as <a href="/wiki/Kepler-Poinsot_polyhedra">Kepler's solids</a>. From there, he extended his harmonic analysis to music, meteorology, and astrology; harmony resulted from the tones made by the souls of heavenly bodies—and in the case of astrology, the interaction between those tones and human souls. In the final portion of the work (Book V), Kepler dealt with planetary motions, especially relationships between <a href="/wiki/Orbital_speed">orbital velocity</a> and orbital distance from the Sun. Similar relationships had been used by other astronomers, but Kepler—with Tycho's data and his own astronomical theories—treated them much more precisely and attached new physical significance to them.<sup><a href="#cite_note-85">[82]</a></sup>
</p><p>Among many other harmonies, Kepler articulated what came to be known as the third law of planetary motion. He tried many combinations until he discovered that (approximately) "<i>The square of the periodic times are to each other as the cubes of the mean distances</i>." Although he gives the date of this epiphany (8 March 1618), he does not give any details about how he arrived at this conclusion.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Miller2009-86">[83]</a></sup> However, the wider significance for planetary dynamics of this purely kinematical law was not realized until the 1660s. When conjoined with <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a>' newly discovered law of centrifugal force, it enabled <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton">Isaac Newton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Halley">Edmund Halley</a>, and perhaps <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Wren">Christopher Wren</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke">Robert Hooke</a> to demonstrate independently that the presumed gravitational attraction between the Sun and its planets decreased with the square of the distance between them.<sup><a href="#cite_note-87">[84]</a></sup> This refuted the traditional assumption of scholastic physics that the power of gravitational attraction remained constant with distance whenever it applied between two bodies, such as was assumed by Kepler and also by Galileo in his mistaken universal law that gravitational fall is uniformly accelerated, and also by Galileo's student Borrelli in his 1666 celestial mechanics.<sup><a href="#cite_note-88">[85]</a></sup>
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<h2>Optics[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23">edit</a>]</h2>
<h3><i>Astronomiae Pars Optica</i>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24">edit</a>]</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Kepler_Optica.jpg"></a></p><div><p>A plate from <i>Astronomiae Pars Optica</i>, illustrating the structure of <a href="/wiki/Eye">eyes</a> of various species.</p></div></div>
<p>As Kepler slowly continued analyzing Tycho's Mars observations—now available to him in their entirety—and began the slow process of tabulating the <i><a href="/wiki/Rudolphine_Tables">Rudolphine Tables</a></i>, Kepler also picked up the investigation of the laws of optics from his lunar essay of 1600. Both lunar and <a href="/wiki/Solar_eclipse">solar eclipses</a> presented unexplained phenomena, such as unexpected shadow sizes, the red color of a total lunar eclipse, and the reportedly unusual light surrounding a total solar eclipse. Related issues of <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_refraction">atmospheric refraction</a> applied to <i>all</i> astronomical observations. Through most of 1603, Kepler paused his other work to focus on optical theory; the resulting manuscript, presented to the emperor on 1 January 1604, was published as <i>Astronomiae Pars Optica</i> (The Optical Part of Astronomy). In it, Kepler described the <a href="/wiki/Inverse-square_law">inverse-square law</a> governing the intensity of light, reflection by flat and curved mirrors, and principles of <a href="/wiki/Pinhole_camera">pinhole cameras</a>, as well as the astronomical implications of optics such as <a href="/wiki/Parallax">parallax</a> and the apparent sizes of heavenly bodies. He also extended his study of optics to the human eye, and is generally considered by neuroscientists to be the first to recognize that images are projected inverted and reversed by the <a href="/wiki/Lens_(anatomy)">eye's lens</a> onto the <a href="/wiki/Retina">retina</a>. The solution to this dilemma was not of particular importance to Kepler as he did not see it as pertaining to optics, although he did suggest that the image was later corrected "in the hollows of the brain" due to the "activity of the Soul."<sup><a href="#cite_note-89">[86]</a></sup>
</p><p>Today, <i>Astronomiae Pars Optica</i> is generally recognized as the foundation of modern optics (though the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_refraction">law of refraction</a> is conspicuously absent).<sup><a href="#cite_note-90">[87]</a></sup> With respect to the beginnings of <a href="/wiki/Projective_geometry">projective geometry</a>, Kepler introduced the idea of continuous change of a mathematical entity in this work. He argued that if a <a href="/wiki/Focus_(geometry)">focus</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Conic_section">conic section</a> were allowed to move along the line joining the foci, the geometric form would morph or degenerate, one into another. In this way, an <a href="/wiki/Ellipse">ellipse</a> becomes a <a href="/wiki/Parabola">parabola</a> when a focus moves toward infinity, and when two foci of an ellipse merge into one another, a circle is formed. As the foci of a hyperbola merge into one another, the hyperbola becomes a pair of straight lines. He also assumed that if a straight line is extended to infinity it will meet itself at a single <a href="/wiki/Point_at_infinity">point at infinity</a>, thus having the properties of a large circle.<sup><a href="#cite_note-91">[88]</a></sup>
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<h3><i>Dioptrice</i>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>In the first months of 1610, <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a>—using his powerful new <a href="/wiki/Telescope">telescope</a>—discovered four satellites orbiting Jupiter. Upon publishing his account as <i><a href="/wiki/Sidereus_Nuncius">Sidereus Nuncius</a></i> [Starry Messenger], Galileo sought the opinion of Kepler, in part to bolster the credibility of his observations. Kepler responded enthusiastically with a short published reply, <i>Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo</i> [Conversation with the Starry Messenger]. He endorsed Galileo's observations and offered a range of speculations about the meaning and implications of Galileo's discoveries and telescopic methods, for astronomy and optics as well as cosmology and astrology. Later that year, Kepler published his own telescopic observations of the moons in <i>Narratio de Jovis Satellitibus</i>, providing further support of Galileo. To Kepler's disappointment, however, Galileo never published his reactions (if any) to <i>Astronomia Nova</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-92">[89]</a></sup>
</p><p>Kepler also started a theoretical and experimental investigation of telescopic lenses using a telescope borrowed from Duke Ernest of Cologne.<sup><a href="#cite_note-93">[90]</a></sup> The resulting manuscript was completed in September 1610 and published as <i>Dioptrice</i> in 1611. In it, Kepler set out the theoretical basis of <a href="/wiki/Double-convex_converging_lens">double-convex converging lenses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Double-concave_diverging_lens">double-concave diverging lenses</a>—and how they are combined to produce a <a href="/wiki/Galilean_telescope">Galilean telescope</a>—as well as the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Real_image">real</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Virtual_image">virtual</a> images, upright vs. inverted images, and the effects of focal length on magnification and reduction. He also described an improved telescope—now known as the <i>astronomical</i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Keplerian_telescope">Keplerian telescope</a></i>—in which two convex lenses can produce higher magnification than Galileo's combination of convex and concave lenses.<sup><a href="#cite_note-94">[91]</a></sup>
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<h2>Mathematics and physics[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=26">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Kepler_conjecture_1.jpg"></a></p><div><p>A diagram illustrating the <a href="/wiki/Kepler_conjecture">Kepler conjecture</a> from <i>Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula</i> (1611)</p></div></div>
<p>As a New Year's gift that year (1611), he also composed for his friend and some-time patron, Baron Wackher von Wackhenfels, a short pamphlet entitled <i>Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula</i> (<i>A New Year's Gift of Hexagonal Snow</i>). In this treatise, he published the first description of the hexagonal symmetry of snowflakes and, extending the discussion into a hypothetical <a href="/wiki/Atomism">atomistic</a> physical basis for the symmetry, posed what later became known as the <a href="/wiki/Kepler_conjecture">Kepler conjecture</a>, a statement about the most efficient arrangement for packing spheres.<sup><a href="#cite_note-95">[92]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-96">[93]</a></sup>
</p><p>Kepler wrote the influential mathematical treatise <i>Nova stereometria doliorum vinariorum</i> in 1613, on measuring the volume of containers such as wine barrels, which was published in 1615.<sup><a href="#cite_note-97">[94]</a></sup> Kepler also contributed to the development of infinitesimal methods and numerical analysis, including iterative approximations, infinitesimals, and the early use of logarithms and transcendental equations.<sup><a href="#cite_note-98">[95]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-99">[96]</a></sup> Kepler's work on calculating volumes of shapes, and on finding the optimal shape of a wine barrel, were significant steps toward the development of <a href="/wiki/Calculus">calculus</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-100">[97]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Simpson%27s_rule">Simpson's rule</a>, an approximation method used in <a href="/wiki/Integral_calculus">integral calculus</a>, is known in German as <i>Keplersche Fassregel</i> (Kepler's barrel rule).<sup><a href="#cite_note-101">[98]</a></sup>
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<h2>Legacy[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=27">edit</a>]</h2>
<h3>Reception of his astronomy[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=28">edit</a>]</h3>
<p><a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws_of_planetary_motion">Kepler's laws of planetary motion</a> were not immediately accepted. Several major figures such as <a href="/wiki/Galileo">Galileo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes">René Descartes</a> completely ignored Kepler's <i>Astronomia nova</i>. Many astronomers, including Kepler's teacher, Michael Maestlin, objected to Kepler's introduction of physics into his astronomy. Some adopted compromise positions. <a href="/wiki/Isma%C3%ABl_Bullialdus">Ismaël Bullialdus</a> accepted elliptical orbits but replaced Kepler's area law with uniform motion in respect to the empty focus of the ellipse, while <a href="/wiki/Seth_Ward_(bishop)">Seth Ward</a> used an elliptical orbit with motions defined by an equant.<sup><a href="#cite_note-102">[99]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-103">[100]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-104">[101]</a></sup>
</p><p>Several astronomers tested Kepler's theory, and its various modifications, against astronomical observations. Two transits of Venus and Mercury across the face of the sun provided sensitive tests of the theory, under circumstances when these planets could not normally be observed. In the case of the transit of Mercury in 1631, Kepler had been extremely uncertain of the parameters for Mercury, and advised observers to look for the transit the day before and after the predicted date. <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Gassendi">Pierre Gassendi</a> observed the transit on the date predicted, a confirmation of Kepler's prediction.<sup><a href="#cite_note-105">[102]</a></sup> This was the first observation of a transit of Mercury. However, his attempt to observe the <a href="/wiki/Transit_of_Venus">transit of Venus</a> just one month later was unsuccessful due to inaccuracies in the Rudolphine Tables. Gassendi did not realize that it was not visible from most of Europe, including Paris.<sup><a href="#cite_note-106">[103]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jeremiah_Horrocks">Jeremiah Horrocks</a>, who observed the <a href="/wiki/Transit_of_Venus,_1639">1639 Venus transit</a>, had used his own observations to adjust the parameters of the Keplerian model, predicted the transit, and then built apparatus to observe the transit. He remained a firm advocate of the Keplerian model.<sup><a href="#cite_note-107">[104]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-108">[105]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-109">[106]</a></sup>
</p><p><i>Epitome of Copernican Astronomy</i> was read by astronomers throughout Europe, and following Kepler's death, it was the main vehicle for spreading Kepler's ideas. In the period 1630–1650, this book was the most widely used astronomy textbook, winning many converts to ellipse-based astronomy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Gingerich_pp_302-66">[65]</a></sup> However, few adopted his ideas on the physical basis for celestial motions. In the late 17th century, a number of physical astronomy theories drawing from Kepler's work—notably those of <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Alfonso_Borelli">Giovanni Alfonso Borelli</a> and Robert Hooke—began to incorporate attractive forces (though not the quasi-spiritual motive species postulated by Kepler) and the Cartesian concept of <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_inertia_(physics)">inertia</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-110">[107]</a></sup> This culminated in Isaac Newton's <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophiae_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica">Principia Mathematica</a></i> (1687), in which Newton derived Kepler's laws of planetary motion from a force-based theory of <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation">universal gravitation</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-111">[108]</a></sup> a mathematical challenge later known as "solving the <a href="/wiki/Kepler_problem">Kepler problem</a>".<sup><a href="#cite_note-:02-112">[109]</a></sup>
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<h3>History of science[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=29">edit</a>]</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Brahe_kepler.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Monument to Tycho Brahe and Kepler in <a href="/wiki/Prague">Prague</a>, Czech Republic</p></div></div>
<p>Beyond his role in the historical development of astronomy and natural philosophy, Kepler has loomed large in the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science">philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_science">historiography of science</a>. Kepler and his laws of motion were central to early histories of astronomy such as <a href="/wiki/Jean-%C3%89tienne_Montucla">Jean-Étienne Montucla</a>'s 1758 <i>Histoire des mathématiques</i> and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Delambre">Jean-Baptiste Delambre</a>'s 1821 <i>Histoire de l'astronomie moderne</i>. These and other histories written from an <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> perspective treated Kepler's metaphysical and religious arguments with skepticism and disapproval, but later <a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_science">Romantic</a>-era natural philosophers viewed these elements as central to his success.
<a href="/wiki/William_Whewell">William Whewell</a>, in his influential <i>History of the Inductive Sciences</i> of 1837, found Kepler to be the archetype of the inductive scientific genius; in his <i>Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences</i> of 1840, Whewell held Kepler up as the embodiment of the most advanced forms of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method">scientific method</a>. Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Friedrich_Apelt">Ernst Friedrich Apelt</a>—the first to extensively study Kepler's manuscripts, after their purchase by <a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great">Catherine the Great</a>—identified Kepler as a key to the "<a href="/wiki/Scientific_revolution">Revolution of the sciences</a>".
Apelt, who saw Kepler's mathematics, aesthetic sensibility, physical ideas, and theology as part of a unified system of thought, produced the first extended analysis of Kepler's life and work.<sup><a href="#cite_note-113">[110]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Koyr%C3%A9">Alexandre Koyré</a>'s work on Kepler was, after Apelt, the first major milestone in historical interpretations of Kepler's cosmology and its influence. In the 1930s and 1940s, Koyré, and a number of others in the first generation of professional historians of science, described the "<a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>" as the central event in the history of science, and Kepler as a (perhaps the) central figure in the revolution. Koyré placed Kepler's theorization, rather than his empirical work, at the center of the intellectual transformation from ancient to modern world-views. Since the 1960s, the volume of historical Kepler scholarship has expanded greatly, including studies of his astrology and meteorology, his geometrical methods, the role of his religious views in his work, his literary and rhetorical methods, his interaction with the broader cultural and philosophical currents of his time, and even his role as an historian of science.<sup><a href="#cite_note-114">[111]</a></sup>
</p><p>Philosophers of science—such as <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norwood_Russell_Hanson">Norwood Russell Hanson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Toulmin">Stephen Toulmin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper">Karl Popper</a>—have repeatedly turned to Kepler: examples of <a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)">incommensurability</a>, <a href="/wiki/Analogical_reasoning">analogical reasoning</a>, falsification, and many other philosophical concepts have been found in Kepler's work. Physicist <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli">Wolfgang Pauli</a> even used Kepler's priority dispute with Robert Fludd to explore the implications of <a href="/wiki/Analytical_psychology">analytical psychology</a> on scientific investigation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-115">[112]</a></sup>
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<h3>Editions and translations[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=30">edit</a>]</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Stamps_of_Germany_(DDR)_1971,_MiNr_1649.jpg"></a></p><div><p>The <a href="/wiki/East_Germany">GDR</a> stamp featuring Kepler</p></div></div>
<p>Modern translations of a number of Kepler's books appeared in the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries, the systematic publication of his collected works began in 1937 (and is nearing completion in the early 21st century).
</p><p>An edition in eight volumes, <i> Kepleri Opera omnia,</i> was prepared by Christian Frisch (1807–1881), during 1858 to 1871, on the occasion of Kepler's 300th birthday.
Frisch's edition only included Kepler's Latin, with a Latin commentary.
</p><p>A new edition was planned beginning in 1914 by <a href="/wiki/Walther_von_Dyck">Walther von Dyck</a> (1856–1934). Dyck compiled copies of Kepler's unedited manuscripts, using international diplomatic contacts to convince the Soviet authorities to lend him the manuscripts kept in Leningrad for photographic reproduction. These manuscripts contained several works by Kepler that had not been available to Frisch. Dyck's photographs remain the basis for the modern editions of Kepler's unpublished manuscripts.
</p><p>Max Caspar (1880–1956) published his German translation of Kepler's <i>Mysterium Cosmographicum</i> in 1923. Both Dyck and Caspar were influenced in their interest in Kepler by mathematician <a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Brill">Alexander von Brill</a> (1842–1935). Caspar became Dyck's collaborator, succeeding him as project leader in 1934, establishing the <i>Kepler-Kommission</i> in the following year. Assisted by Martha List (1908–1992) and Franz Hammer (1898–1969), Caspar continued editorial work during World War II. Max Caspar also published a biography of Kepler in 1948.<sup><a href="#cite_note-116">[113]</a></sup> The commission was later chaired by Volker Bialas (during 1976–2003) and <a href="/wiki/Ulrich_Grigull">Ulrich Grigull</a> (during 1984–1999) and <a href="/wiki/Roland_Bulirsch">Roland Bulirsch</a> (1998–2014).<sup><a href="#cite_note-117">[114]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-118">[115]</a></sup>
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<h3>Cultural influence and eponymy[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=31">edit</a>]</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:AS12-52-7745.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Kepler has acquired a popular image as an icon of scientific modernity and a man before his time; science popularizer <a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan">Carl Sagan</a> described him as "the first <a href="/wiki/Astrophysics">astrophysicist</a> and the last scientific astrologer".<sup><a href="#cite_note-119">[116]</a></sup> The debate over Kepler's place in the Scientific Revolution has produced a wide variety of philosophical and popular treatments. One of the most influential is <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Koestler">Arthur Koestler</a>'s 1959 <i><a href="/wiki/The_Sleepwalkers_(Koestler_book)">The Sleepwalkers</a></i>, in which Kepler is unambiguously the hero (morally and theologically as well as intellectually) of the revolution.<sup><a href="#cite_note-120">[117]</a></sup>
</p><p>A well-received historical novel by <a href="/wiki/John_Banville">John Banville</a>, <i>Kepler</i> (1981), explored many of the themes developed in Koestler's non-fiction narrative and in the philosophy of science.<sup><a href="#cite_note-121">[118]</a></sup> A 2004 nonfiction book, <i>Heavenly Intrigue</i>, suggested that Kepler murdered Tycho Brahe to gain access to his data.<sup><a href="#cite_note-122">[119]</a></sup>
</p><p>In Austria, a silver collector's <a href="/wiki/Euro_gold_and_silver_commemorative_coins_(Austria)#2002_coinage">10-euro Johannes Kepler silver coin</a> was minted in 2002. The reverse side of the coin has a portrait of Kepler, who spent some time teaching in Graz and the surrounding areas. Kepler was acquainted with <a href="/wiki/Hans_Ulrich_von_Eggenberg">Prince Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg</a> personally, and he probably influenced the construction of <a href="/wiki/Eggenberg_Castle">Eggenberg Castle</a> (the motif of the obverse of the coin). In front of him on the coin is the model of nested spheres and polyhedra from <i>Mysterium Cosmographicum</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Eggenberg_Palace_coin-123">[120]</a></sup>
</p><p>The German composer <a href="/wiki/Paul_Hindemith">Paul Hindemith</a> wrote an opera about Kepler entitled <i><a href="/wiki/Die_Harmonie_der_Welt">Die Harmonie der Welt</a></i> (1957), and during the prolonged process of its creation, he also wrote a symphony of the same name based on the musical ideas he developed for it.<sup><a href="#cite_note-124">[121]</a></sup> Hindemith's opera inspired <a href="/wiki/John_Rodgers_(geologist)">John Rodgers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Willie_Ruff">Willie Ruff</a> of <a href="/wiki/Yale_University">Yale University</a> to create a <a href="/wiki/Synthesizer">synthesizer</a> composition based on Kepler's scheme for representing planetary motion with music.<sup><a href="#cite_note-125">[122]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Philip_Glass">Philip Glass</a> wrote an opera called <i><a href="/wiki/Kepler_(opera)">Kepler</a></i> (2009) based on Kepler's life, with a libretto in German and Latin by Martina Winkel.<sup><a href="#cite_note-126">[123]</a></sup>
</p><p>Directly named for Kepler's contribution to science are <a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws_of_planetary_motion">Kepler's laws of planetary motion</a>; <a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_Supernova">Kepler's Supernova</a> SN 1604, which he observed and described; the <a href="/wiki/Kepler%E2%80%93Poinsot_polyhedron">Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra</a> a set of geometrical constructions, two of which were described by him; and the <a href="/wiki/Kepler_conjecture">Kepler conjecture</a> on <a href="/wiki/Sphere_packing">sphere packing</a>. Places and entities <a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Johannes_Kepler">named in his honor</a> include multiple city streets and squares, several educational institutions, <a href="/wiki/1134_Kepler">an asteroid</a>, and both a <a href="/wiki/Kepler_(lunar_crater)">lunar</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Kepler_(Martian_crater)">Martian crater</a>.
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<h2>Works[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=32">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Epitome_astronomiae_copernicanae.tif"></a></p><div><p><i>Epitome astronomiae copernicanae</i>, 1618</p></div></div>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mysterium_Cosmographicum">Mysterium Cosmographicum</a></i> (<i>The Sacred Mystery of the Cosmos</i>) (1596)</li>
<li><i>De Fundamentis Astrologiae Certioribus</i> (<i><a href="http://www.johannes.cz/kepler.php">On Firmer Fundaments of Astrology</a></i>) (1601)</li>
<li><cite><a href="https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=158093"><i>Astronomiae pars optica</i></a> (in Latin). Frankfurt am Main: Claude de Marne. 1604.</cite></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Stella_Nova">De Stella nova in pede Serpentarii</a></i> (<i>On the New Star in Ophiuchus's Foot</i>) (1606)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Astronomia_nova">Astronomia nova</a></i> (<i>New Astronomy</i>) (1609)</li>
<li><i>Tertius Interveniens</i> (<i>Third-party Interventions</i>) (1610)</li>
<li><i>Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo</i> (<i>Conversation with the Starry Messenger</i>) (1610)</li>
<li><i>Dioptrice</i> (1611)</li>
<li><i>De nive sexangula</i> (<i><a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yE8yTUFWLXgC">On the Six-Cornered Snowflake</a></i>) (1611)</li>
<li><i>De vero Anno, quo aeternus Dei Filius humanam naturam in Utero benedictae Virginis Mariae assumpsit</i> (1614)<sup><a href="#cite_note-127">[124]</a></sup></li>
<li><i>Eclogae Chronicae</i> (1615, published with <i>Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo</i>)</li>
<li><i>Nova stereometria doliorum vinariorum</i> (<i>New Stereometry of Wine Barrels</i>) (1615)</li>
<li><a href="https://www.loc.gov/item/45027112/"><i>Ephemerides nouae motuum coelestium</i></a> (1617–30)</li>
<li><cite><a href="https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=9586372"><i>Epitome astronomiae copernicanae</i></a> (in Latin). Linz: Johann Planck. 1618.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=204698"><i>Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae. 1-3, De doctrina sphaerica</i></a> (in Latin). Vol. 44199. Linz: Johann Planck. 1618.</cite>
<ul><li><cite><a href="https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=205577"><i>Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae. 4, Doctrina theorica. 1, Physica coelestis</i></a> (in Latin). Vol. 4. Linz: Gottfried Tambach. 1622.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=205998"><i>Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae. 5-7, Doctrina theorica</i></a> (in Latin). Vol. 44323. Linz: Gottfried Tambach. 1621.</cite></li></ul></li>
<li><cite><a href="https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=208511"><i>De cometis</i></a> (in Latin). Augsburg: Sebastian Müller. 1619.</cite></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Harmonice_Mundi">Harmonice Mundi</a></i> (<i><a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rEkLAAAAIAAJ">Harmony of the Worlds</a></i>) (1619)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Mysterium_cosmographicum">Mysterium cosmographicum</a></i> (<i>The Sacred Mystery of the Cosmos</i>), 2nd edition (1621)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Rudolphine_Tables">Tabulae Rudolphinae</a></i> (<i>Rudolphine Tables</i>) (1627)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Somnium_(novel)">Somnium</a></i> (<a href="https://www.loc.gov/item/39010144"><i>The Dream</i></a>) (1634) (<a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OdCJAS0eQ64C">English translation on Google Books preview</a>)</li>
<li><cite><a href="https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=12128068"><i>[Opere]</i></a> (in Latin). Vol. 1. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder &amp; Zimmer. 1858.</cite>
<ul><li><cite><a href="https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=12130159"><i>[Opere]</i></a> (in Latin). Vol. 2. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder &amp; Zimmer. 1859.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=12132742"><i>[Opere]</i></a> (in Latin). Vol. 3. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder &amp; Zimmer. 1860.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=12135025"><i>[Opere]</i></a> (in Latin). Vol. 4. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder &amp; Zimmer. 1863.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=12137068"><i>[Opere]</i></a> (in Latin). Vol. 5. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder &amp; Zimmer. 1864.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=12139075"><i>[Opere]</i></a> (in Latin). Vol. 6. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder &amp; Zimmer. 1866.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=12141460"><i>[Opere]</i></a> (in Latin). Vol. 7. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder &amp; Zimmer. 1868.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=12144061"><i>[Opere]</i></a> (in Latin). Vol. 8. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder &amp; Zimmer. 1870.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=12145780"><i>[Opere]</i></a> (in Latin). Vol. 9. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder &amp; Zimmer. 1871.</cite></li></ul></li></ul>
<p>A critical edition of Kepler's collected works (<i>Johannes Kepler Gesammelte Werke</i>, KGW) in 22 volumes is being edited by the <i>Kepler-Kommission</i> (founded 1935) on behalf of the <a href="/wiki/Bayerische_Akademie_der_Wissenschaften">Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften</a>.
</p>
<dl><dd>Vol. 1: <i>Mysterium Cosmographicum. De Stella Nova</i>. Ed. M. Caspar. 1938, 2nd ed. 1993. Paperback <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-01639-1">3-406-01639-1</a>.</dd>
<dd>Vol. 2: <i>Astronomiae pars optica</i>. Ed. F. Hammer. 1939, Paperback <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-01641-3">3-406-01641-3</a>.</dd>
<dd>Vol. 3: <i>Astronomia Nova</i>. Ed. M. Caspar. 1937. IV, 487 p. 2. ed. 1990. Paperback <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-01643-X">3-406-01643-X</a>. Semi-parchment <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-01642-1">3-406-01642-1</a>.</dd>
<dd>Vol. 4: <i>Kleinere Schriften 1602–1611. Dioptrice</i>. Ed. M. Caspar, F. Hammer. 1941. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-01644-8">3-406-01644-8</a>.</dd>
<dd>Vol. 5: <i>Chronologische Schriften</i>. Ed. F. Hammer. 1953. Out-of-print.</dd>
<dd>Vol. 6: <i>Harmonice Mundi</i>. Ed. M. Caspar. 1940, 2nd ed. 1981, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-01648-0">3-406-01648-0</a>.</dd>
<dd>Vol. 7: <i>Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae</i>. Ed. M. Caspar. 1953, 2nd ed. 1991. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-01650-2">3-406-01650-2</a>, Paperback <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-01651-0">3-406-01651-0</a>.</dd>
<dd>Vol. 8: <i>Mysterium Cosmographicum. Editio altera cum notis. De Cometis. Hyperaspistes</i>. Commentary F. Hammer. 1955. Paperback <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-01653-7">3-406-01653-7</a>.</dd>
<dd>Vol 9: <i>Mathematische Schriften</i>. Ed. F. Hammer. 1955, 2nd ed. 1999. Out-of-print.</dd>
<dd>Vol. 10: <i>Tabulae Rudolphinae</i>. Ed. F. Hammer. 1969. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-01656-1">3-406-01656-1</a>.</dd>
<dd>Vol. 11,1: <i>Ephemerides novae motuum coelestium</i>. Commentary V. Bialas. 1983. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-01658-8">3-406-01658-8</a>, Paperback <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-01659-6">3-406-01659-6</a>.</dd>
<dd>Vol. 11,2: <i>Calendaria et Prognostica. Astronomica minora. Somnium</i>. Commentary V. Bialas, H. Grössing. 1993. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-37510-3">3-406-37510-3</a>, Paperback <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-37511-1">3-406-37511-1</a>.</dd>
<dd>Vol. 12: <i>Theologica. Hexenprozeß. Tacitus-Übersetzung. Gedichte</i>. Commentary J. Hübner, H. Grössing, F. Boockmann, F. Seck. Directed by V. Bialas. 1990. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-01660-X">3-406-01660-X</a>, Paperback <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-01661-8">3-406-01661-8</a>.</dd></dl>
<ul><li>Vols. 13–18: Letters:</li></ul>
<dl><dd><dl><dd>Vol. 13: <i>Briefe 1590–1599</i>. Ed. M. Caspar. 1945. 432 p. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-01663-4">3-406-01663-4</a>.</dd>
<dd>Vol. 14: <i>Briefe 1599–1603</i>. Ed. M. Caspar. 1949. Out-of-print. 2nd ed. in preparation.</dd>
<dd>Vol 15: <i>Briefe 1604–1607</i>. Ed. M. Caspar. 1951. 2nd ed. 1995. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-01667-7">3-406-01667-7</a>.</dd>
<dd>Vol. 16: <i>Briefe 1607–1611</i>. Ed. M. Caspar. 1954. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-01668-5">3-406-01668-5</a>.</dd>
<dd>Vol. 17: <i>Briefe 1612–1620</i>. Ed. M. Caspar. 1955. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-01671-5">3-406-01671-5</a>.</dd>
<dd>Vol. 18: <i>Briefe 1620–1630</i>. Ed. M. Caspar. 1959. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-01672-3">3-406-01672-3</a>.</dd></dl></dd>
<dd>Vol. 19: <i>Dokumente zu Leben und Werk</i>. Commentary M. List. 1975. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-406-01674-5">978-3-406-01674-5</a>.</dd>
<dd>Vols. 20–21: manuscripts
<dl><dd>Vol. 20,1: <i>Manuscripta astronomica (I). Apologia, De motu Terrae, Hipparchus etc.</i> Commentary V. Bialas. 1988. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-31501-1">3-406-31501-1</a>. Paperback <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-31502-X">3-406-31502-X</a>.</dd>
<dd>Vol. 20,2: <i>Manuscripta astronomica (II). Commentaria in Theoriam Martis</i>. Commentary V. Bialas. 1998. Paperback <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-40593-2">3-406-40593-2</a>.</dd>
<dd>Vol. 21,1: <i>Manuscripta astronomica (III) et mathematica. De Calendario Gregoriano</i>. In preparation.</dd>
<dd>Vol. 21,2: <i>Manuscripta varia</i>. In preparation.</dd></dl></dd>
<dd>Vol. 22: General index, in preparation.</dd></dl>
<p>The Kepler-Kommission also publishes <i>Bibliographia Kepleriana</i> (2nd ed. List, 1968), a complete bibliography of editions of Kepler's works, with a supplementary volume to the second edition (ed. Hamel 1998).
</p>
<h2>See also[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=33">edit</a>]</h2>
<div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics">Theoretical physics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cavalieri%27s_principle">Cavalieri's principle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_astronomy">History of astronomy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_physics">History of physics</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kepler_orbit">Kepler orbit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kepler_triangle">Kepler triangle</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kepler%E2%80%93Bouwkamp_constant">Kepler–Bouwkamp constant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Penrose_tiling">Penrose tiling</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_pressure">Radiation pressure</a></li></ul>
</div>
<h2>Notes[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=34">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b> "Kepler's decision to base his causal explanation of planetary motion on a distance-velocity law, rather than on uniform circular motions of compounded spheres, marks a major shift from ancient to modern conceptions of science ... [Kepler] had begun with physical principles and had then derived a trajectory from it, rather than simply constructing new models. In other words, even before discovering the area law, Kepler had abandoned uniform circular motion as a physical principle."<sup><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b> By 1621 or earlier, Kepler recognized that Jupiter's moons obey his third law. Kepler contended that rotating massive bodies communicate their rotation to their satellites, so that the satellites are swept around the central body; thus the rotation of the Sun drives the revolutions of the planets and the rotation of the Earth drives the revolution of the Moon. In Kepler's era, no one had any evidence of Jupiter's rotation. However, Kepler argued that the force by which a central body causes its satellites to revolve around it, weakens with distance; consequently, satellites that are farther from the central body revolve slower. Kepler noted that Jupiter's moons obeyed this pattern and he inferred that a similar force was responsible. He also noted that the orbital periods and semi-major axes of Jupiter's satellites were roughly related by a 3/2 power law, as are the orbits of the six (then known) planets. However, this relation was approximate: the periods of Jupiter's moons were known within a few percent of their modern values, but the moons' semi-major axes were determined less accurately. Kepler discussed Jupiter's moons in his <i><a href="/wiki/Epitome_Astronomiae_Copernicanae">Summary of Copernican Astronomy</a></i>:<sup><a href="#cite_note-67">[66]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-68">[67]</a></sup><blockquote><p>(4) However, the credibility of this [argument] is proved by the comparison of the four [moons] of Jupiter and Jupiter with the six planets and the Sun. Because, regarding the body of Jupiter, whether it turns around its axis, we don't have proofs for what suffices for us [regarding the rotation of ] the body of the Earth and especially of the Sun, certainly [as reason proves to us]: but reason attests that, just as it is clearly [true] among the six planets around the Sun, so also it is among the four [moons] of Jupiter, because around the body of Jupiter any [satellite] that can go farther from it orbits slower, and even that [orbit's period] is not in the same proportion, but greater [than the distance from Jupiter]; that is, 3/2 (<i>sescupla</i> ) of the proportion of each of the distances from Jupiter, which is clearly the very [proportion] as [is used for] the six planets above. In his [book] <i>The World of Jupiter</i> [<i>Mundus Jovialis</i>, 1614], <a href="/wiki/Simon_Marius">[Simon] Mayr</a> [1573–1624] presents these distances, from Jupiter, of the four [moons] of Jupiter: 3, 5, 8, 13 (or 14 [according to] Galileo) ... Mayr presents their time periods: 1 day 18 1/2 hours, 3 days 13 1/3 hours, 7 days 3 hours, 16 days 18 hours: for all [of these data] the proportion is greater than double, thus greater than [the proportion] of the distances 3, 5, 8, 13 or 14, although less than [the proportion] of the squares, which double the proportions of the distances, namely 9, 25, 64, 169 or 196, just as [a power of] 3/2 is also greater than 1 but less than 2.</p></blockquote>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b> The opening of the movie <i><a href="/wiki/Mars_et_Avril">Mars et Avril</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Martin_Villeneuve">Martin Villeneuve</a> is based on German astronomer Johannes Kepler's cosmological model from the 17th century, <i><a href="/wiki/Harmonice_Mundi">Harmonice Mundi</a></i>, in which the harmony of the universe is determined by the motion of celestial bodies. <a href="/wiki/Beno%C3%AEt_Charest">Benoît Charest</a> also composed the score according to this theory.
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2>References[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=35">edit</a>]</h2>
<h3>Citations[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=36">edit</a>]</h3>
<div><ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b> <cite>Liscia, Daniel A. Di. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kepler/">"Johannes Kepler"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.dictionary.com/browse/kepler">"Kepler"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Random_House_Webster%27s_Unabridged_Dictionary">Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary</a></i>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b> <cite>Dudenredaktion; Kleiner, Stefan; Knöbl, Ralf (2015) [First published 1962]. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T6vWCgAAQBAJ"><i>Das Aussprachewörterbuch</i></a> [<i>The Pronunciation Dictionary</i>] (in German) (7th ed.). Berlin: Dudenverlag. pp. 487, 505. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-411-04067-4"><bdi>978-3-411-04067-4</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b> <cite>Krech, Eva-Maria; Stock, Eberhard; Hirschfeld, Ursula; Anders, Lutz Christian (2009). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E-1tr_oVkW4C&amp;q=deutsches+ausspracheworterbuch"><i>Deutsches Aussprachewörterbuch</i></a> [<i>German Pronunciation Dictionary</i>] (in German). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 628, 646. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-018202-6"><bdi>978-3-11-018202-6</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Susi_Jeans">Jeans, Susi</a> (2013) [2001]. <a href="https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000014903">"Kepler [Keppler], Johannes"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Grove_Music_Online">Grove Music Online</a></i>. Revised by <a href="/wiki/H._Floris_Cohen">H. Floris Cohen</a>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.article.14903">10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.14903</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56159-263-0"><bdi>978-1-56159-263-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 26 September 2021.</cite> (subscription or <a href="https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/page/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b> <cite>Voelkel, James R. (2001). <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3080920">"Commentary on Ernan McMullin, "The Impact of Newton's Principia on the Philosophy of Science""</a>. <i>Philosophy of Science</i>. <b>68</b> (3): 319–326. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F392885">10.1086/392885</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0031-8248">0031-8248</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/3080920">3080920</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144781947">144781947</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b> <a href="https://www.bl.uk/catalogues/ItalianAcademies/PersonFullDisplay.aspx?RecordId=022-000006427">[1]</a><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot">permanent dead link</a></i>]</sup> Retrieved 9 July 2017
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b> Barker and Goldstein. "Theological Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy", pp. 112–13.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b> Kepler. <i>New Astronomy</i>, title page, tr. Donohue, pp. 26–7
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b> Kepler. <i>New Astronomy</i>, p. 48
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b> <i>Epitome of Copernican Astronomy</i> in <i>Great Books of the Western World</i>, Vol 15, p. 845
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b> Stephenson. <i>Kepler's Physical Astronomy,</i> pp. 1–2; Dear, <i>Revolutionizing the Sciences</i>, pp. 74–78
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b> Caspar. <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 29–36; Connor. <i>Kepler's Witch</i>, pp. 23–46.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Koestler234_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koestler234_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Koestler. <i>The Sleepwalkers</i>, p. 234 (translated from Kepler's family horoscope).
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b> Caspar. <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 36–38; Connor. <i>Kepler's Witch</i>, pp. 25–27.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b> Connor, James A. <i>Kepler's Witch</i> (2004), p. 58.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kepler's_Astronomy_Author_2001_p._96_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kepler's_Astronomy_Author_2001_p._96_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Barker, Peter; Goldstein, Bernard R. "Theological Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy", Osiris, 2nd Series, Vol. 16, Science<i> in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions</i> (2001), p. 96.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b> Westman, Robert S. "Kepler's Early Physico-Astrological Problematic," <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_for_the_History_of_Astronomy">Journal for the History of Astronomy</a></i>, <b>32</b> (2001): 227–36.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b> Caspar. <i>Kepler</i>, pp.  38–52; Connor. <i>Kepler's Witch</i>, pp.  49–69.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>. pp. 50–51.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>. pp. 58–65.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>. pp. 71–75.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b> Connor. <i>Kepler's Witch</i>, pp. 89–100, 114–116; Caspar. <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 75–77
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b> Caspar. <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 85–86.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 86–89
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 89–100
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110721014442/http://knol.google.com/k/the-sky-before-the-telescope">"Using Tycho's data, see 'Two views of a system'"</a>. Archived from <a href="http://knol.google.com/k/the-sky-before-the-telescope#">the original</a> on 21 July 2011.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 100–08.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>, p. 110.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 108–11.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 111–22.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 149–53
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 146–148, 159–177
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>, p. 151.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 151–153.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 153–157
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b> Lear, <i>Kepler's Dream</i>, pp. 1–78
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 202–204
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b> Connor, <i>Kepler's Witch</i>, pp. 222–226; Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 204–07
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 208–11
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b> <cite>Mazer, Arthur (2010). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GhamrvcsVyIC&amp;q=mazer+waged+an+assault+against+kepler&amp;pg=PT125"><i>Shifting the Earth: The Mathematica Quest to Understand the Motion of the Universe</i></a>. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-02427-0"><bdi>978-1-118-02427-0</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-ferguson_42-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Thomas_S._Ferguson">Ferguson, Thomas S.</a> (1989), "Who solved the secretary problem ?", <i>Statistical Science</i>, <b>4</b> (3): 282–289, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1214%2Fss%2F1177012493">10.1214/ss/1177012493</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/2245639">2245639</a>, <q>When the celebrated German astronomer, Johannes Kepler (1571–1630), lost his first wife to cholera in 1611, he set about finding a new wife using the same methodical thoroughness and careful consideration of the data that he used in finding the orbit of Mars to be an ellipse ... The process consumed much of his attention and energy for nearly 2 years ...</q></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b> Quotation from Connor, <i>Kepler's Witch</i>, p 252, translated from an 23 October 1613 letter from Kepler to an anonymous nobleman
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 220–223; Connor, <i>Kepler's Witch</i>, pp. 251–54.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 358–360
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Johannes-Kepler">"Johannes Kepler | Biography, Discoveries, &amp; Facts"</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/astronomy/The-techniques-of-astronomy#ref1211452">"Astronomy – the techniques of astronomy"</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b> Letter (9/10 Apr 1599) to the Bavarian chancellor Herwart von Hohenburg. Collected in Carola Baumgardt and Jamie Callan, <i>Johannes Kepler Life and Letters</i> (1953), 50
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b> <cite>Rothman, Aviva (1 January 2020). <a href="http://physicstoday.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/PT.3.4388">"Johannes Kepler's pursuit of harmony"</a>. <i>Physics Today</i>. <b>73</b> (1): 36–42. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020PhT....73a..36R">2020PhT....73a..36R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2FPT.3.4388">10.1063/PT.3.4388</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0031-9228">0031-9228</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:214144110">214144110</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b> Caspar. <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 60–65; see also: Barker and Goldstein, "Theological Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy."
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b> Barker and Goldstein. "Theological Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy," pp. 99–103, 112–113.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b> Caspar. <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 65–71.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b> Field. <i>Kepler's Geometrical Cosmology</i>, Chapter IV, p 73ff.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b> Dreyer, J.L.E. <i>A History of Astronomy from <a href="/wiki/Thales">Thales</a> to Kepler</i>, Dover Publications, 1953, pp. 331, 377–379.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b> <cite>Goldstein, Bernard; Hon, Giora (2005). <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/246602496">"Kepler's Move from Orbs to Orbits: Documenting a Revolutionary Scientific Concept"</a>. <i>Perspectives on Science</i>. <b>13</b>: 74–111. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2F1063614053714126">10.1162/1063614053714126</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:57559843">57559843</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 123–128
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b> On motive species, see Lindberg, "The Genesis of Kepler's Theory of Light," pp. 38–40.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b> Koyré, <i>The Astronomical Revolution</i>, pp. 199–202.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b> Peter Barker and Bernard R. Goldstein, "Distance and Velocity in Kepler's Astronomy", <i>Annals of Science,</i> 51 (1994): 59–73, at p. 60.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 129–132
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/John_Louis_Emil_Dreyer">Dreyer, John Louis Emil</a> (1906). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OgRAAQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA402"><i>History of the Planetary Systems from Thales to Kepler</i></a>. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 402.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>, p. 133
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 131–140; Koyré, <i>The Astronomical Revolution</i>, pp. 277–279
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 239–240, 293–300
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gingerich_pp_302_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gingerich_pp_302_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Gingerich, "Kepler, Johannes" from <i>Dictionary of Scientific Biography</i>, pp. 302–04
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b> Linz ("Lentiis ad Danubium"), (Austria): Johann Planck, 1622), book 4, part 2, <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wa2SE_6ZL7YC&amp;pg=PA554#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false">page 554</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b> Christian Frisch, ed., <i>Joannis Kepleri Astronomi Opera Omnia</i>, vol. 6 (Frankfurt-am-Main, (Germany): Heyder &amp; Zimmer, 1866), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xjMAAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PA361#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false">page 361</a>.)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b> Wolf, <i>A History of Science, Technology and Philosophy</i>, pp. 140–41; Pannekoek, <i>A History of Astronomy</i>, p 252
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Rothman, A. (2021). <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1600-0498.12356">"Kepler's Epitome of Copernican Astronomy in context"</a>. <i>Centaurus</i>. <b>63</b>: 171–191. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1600-0498.12356">10.1111/1600-0498.12356</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0008-8994">0008-8994</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:230613099">230613099</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b> <cite>Gingerich, Owen (1990). <a href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990teas.conf..189G">"Five Centuries of Astronomical Textbooks and Their Role in Teaching"</a>. <i>The Teaching of Astronomy, Proceedings of IAU Colloq. 105, Held in Williamstown, MA, 27–30 July 1988</i>: 189. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990teas.conf..189G">1990teas.conf..189G</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>. pp. 178–179.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b> Robert J. King, “Johannes Kepler and Australia”, <i>The Globe,</i> no.90, 2021, pp.15-24.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Field, J. V. (1984). <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41133735">"A Lutheran Astrologer: Johannes Kepler"</a>. <i>Archive for History of Exact Sciences</i>. <b>31</b> (3): 189–272. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984AHES...31..189F">1984AHES...31..189F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00327703">10.1007/BF00327703</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0003-9519">0003-9519</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/41133735">41133735</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119811074">119811074</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b> <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Joseph_Lodge">Lodge, O.J.</a>, "Johann Kepler" in <i>The World of Mathematics</i>, Vol. 1 (1956) Ed. <a href="/wiki/James_R._Newman">Newman, J.R.</a>, <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster">Simon and Schuster</a>, pp. 231.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b> <cite>Boner, P. J. (2005). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/002182860503600102">"Soul-Searching with Kepler: An Analysis of Anima in His Astrology"</a>. <i>Journal for the History of Astronomy</i>. <b>36</b> (1): 7–20. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005JHA....36....7B">2005JHA....36....7B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002182860503600102">10.1177/002182860503600102</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:124764022">124764022</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b> <cite>Simon, G. (1975). <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0083665675901221">"Kepler's astrology: The direction of a reform"</a>. <i>Vistas in Astronomy</i>. <b>18</b> (1): 439–448. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1975VA.....18..439S">1975VA.....18..439S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0083-6656%2875%2990122-1">10.1016/0083-6656(75)90122-1</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b> <cite>Brackenridge, J. Bruce; Rossi, Mary Ann (1979). <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/986232">"Johannes Kepler's on the More Certain Fundamentals of Astrology Prague 1601"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society</i>. <b>123</b> (2): 85–116. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0003-049X">0003-049X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/986232">986232</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 178–81
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 181–85. The full title is <i>Tertius Interveniens, das ist Warnung an etliche Theologos, Medicos vnd Philosophos, sonderlich D. Philippum Feselium, dass sie bey billicher Verwerffung der Sternguckerischen Aberglauben nict das Kindt mit dem Badt aussschütten vnd hiermit jhrer Profession vnwissendt zuwider handlen</i>, translated by <a href="/wiki/C._Doris_Hellman">C. Doris Hellman</a> as "<i>Tertius Interveniens</i>, that is warning to some theologians, medics and philosophers, especially D. Philip Feselius, that they in cheap condemnation of the star-gazer's superstition do not throw out the child with the bath and hereby unknowingly act contrary to their profession."
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b> Quotation from Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 265–266, translated from <i>Harmonice Mundi</i>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 264–66, 290–93
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 266–90
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Miller2009_86-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Arthur_I._Miller">Miller, Arthur I.</a> (24 March 2009). <a href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780393065329"><i>Deciphering the cosmic number: the strange friendship of Wolfgang Pauli and Carl Jung</i></a>. W. W. Norton &amp; Company. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780393065329/page/80">80</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-06532-9"><bdi>978-0-393-06532-9</bdi></a>. Retrieved 7 March 2011.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b> Westfall, <i>Never at Rest</i>, pp. 143, 152, 402–03; Toulmin and Goodfield, <i>The Fabric of the Heavens</i>, p 248; De Gandt, 'Force and Geometry in Newton's Principia', chapter 2; Wolf, <i>History of Science, Technology and Philosophy</i>, p. 150; Westfall, <i>The Construction of Modern Science</i>, chapters 7 and 8
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b> Koyré, <i>The Astronomical Revolution</i>, p. 502
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b> Finger, "Origins of Neuroscience," p. 74. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 2001.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 142–146
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b> <a href="/wiki/Morris_Kline">Morris Kline</a>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mathematical_Thought_from_Ancient_to_Modern_Times&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1">Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times</a></i>, p. 299. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 1972.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 192–197
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b> Koestler, <i>The Sleepwalkers</i> p. 384
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 198–202
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b> Schneer, "Kepler's New Year's Gift of a Snowflake," pp. 531–45
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b> <cite>Kepler, Johannes (1966) [1611]. Hardie, Colin (ed.). <i>De nive sexangula</i> [<i>The Six-sided Snowflake</i>]. Oxford: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/974730">974730</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b> Caspar, <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 209–20, 227–240. In 2018 a complete English translation was publihed: <i>Nova stereometria doliorum vinariorum / New solid geometry of wine barrels. Accessit stereometriæ Archimedeæ supplementum / A supplement to the Archimedean solid geometry has been added</i>. Edited and translated, with an Introduction, by <a href="/wiki/Eberhard_Knobloch">Eberhard Knobloch</a>. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 2018. ISBN 978-2-251-44832-9
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b> <cite>Belyi, Y. A. (1975). <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/008366567590149X">"Johannes Kepler and the development of mathematics"</a>. <i>Vistas in Astronomy</i>. <b>18</b> (1): 643–660. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1975VA.....18..643B">1975VA.....18..643B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0083-6656%2875%2990149-X">10.1016/0083-6656(75)90149-X</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b> <cite>Thorvaldsen, S. (2010). <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/science-in-context/article/abs/early-numerical-analysis-in-keplers-new-astronomy/0E28ED84C5D50F003537FCB2C97B31D0">"Early Numerical Analysis in Kepler's New Astronomy"</a>. <i>Science in Context</i>. <b>23</b> (1): 39–63. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0269889709990238">10.1017/S0269889709990238</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:122605799">122605799</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b> <cite>Cardil, Roberto (2020). <a href="https://www.maa.org/book/export/html/117621">"Kepler: The Volume of a Wine Barrel"</a>. <i>Mathematical Association of America</i>. Retrieved 16 July 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b> <cite>Albinus, Hans-Joachim (June 2002). <a href="http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF03024733">"Joannes Keplerus Leomontanus: Kepler's childhood in Weil der Stadt and Leonberg 1571–1584"</a>. <i>The Mathematical Intelligencer</i>. <b>24</b> (3): 50–58. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF03024733">10.1007/BF03024733</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0343-6993">0343-6993</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:123965600">123965600</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b> For a detailed study of the reception of Kepler's astronomy see Wilbur Applebaum, <a href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996HisSc..34..451A">"Keplerian Astronomy after Kepler: Researches and Problems,"</a> <i>History of Science</i>, 34(1996): 451–504.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b> Koyré, <i>The Astronomical Revolution</i>, pp. 362–364
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b> North, <i>History of Astronomy and Cosmology</i>, pp.  355–60
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b> <cite>van Helden, Albert (1976). "The Importance of the Transit of Mercury of 1631". <i>Journal for the History of Astronomy</i>. <b>7</b>: 1–10. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1976JHA.....7....1V">1976JHA.....7....1V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002182867600700101">10.1177/002182867600700101</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220916972">220916972</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b> <cite>HM Nautical Almanac Office (10 June 2004). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061001062918/http://www.nao.rl.ac.uk/nao/transit/V_1631/">"1631 Transit of Venus"</a>. Archived from <a href="http://www.nao.rl.ac.uk/nao/transit/V_1631/">the original</a> on 1 October 2006. Retrieved 28 August 2006.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b> Allan Chapman, <a href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990QJRAS..31..333C">"Jeremiah Horrocks, the transit of Venus, and the 'New Astronomy' in early 17th-century England,"</a> <i>Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society,</i> 31 (1990): 333–357.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b> North, <i>History of Astronomy and Cosmology</i>, pp.  348–349
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b> Wilbur Applebaum and Robert Hatch, <a href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1983JHA....14..166A">"Boulliau, Mercator, and Horrock's <i>Venus in sole visa</i>: Three Unpublished Letters,"</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_for_the_History_of_Astronomy">Journal for the History of Astronomy</a></i>, 14(1983): 166–179
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b> Lawrence Nolan (ed.), <i>The Cambridge Descartes Lexicon</i>, Cambridge University Press, 2016, "Inertia."
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b> Kuhn, <i>The Copernican Revolution</i>, pp. 238, 246–252
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-:02_112-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Steven_Frautschi">Frautschi, Steven C.</a>; Olenick, Richard P.; <a href="/wiki/Tom_M._Apostol">Apostol, Tom M.</a>; <a href="/wiki/David_L._Goodstein">Goodstein, David L.</a> (2007). <a href="/wiki/The_Mechanical_Universe"><i>The Mechanical Universe: Mechanics and Heat</i></a> (Advanced ed.). Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]: Cambridge University Press. p. 451. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-71590-4"><bdi>978-0-521-71590-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/227002144">227002144</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b> Jardine, "Koyré's Kepler/Kepler's Koyré," pp. 363–367
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b> Jardine, "Koyré's Kepler/Kepler's Koyré," pp. 367–372; Shapin, <i>The Scientific Revolution</i>, pp. 1–2
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b> Pauli, "The Influence of Archetypical Ideas"
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b> Gingerich, introduction to Caspar's <i>Kepler</i>, pp. 3–4
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b> <a href="/wiki/Ulrich_Grigull">Ulrich Grigull</a>, "Sechzig Jahre Kepler-Kommission", in: Sitzungsberichte der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften [Sitzung vom 5. Juli 1996], 1996.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.kepler-kommission.de/">kepler-kommission.de</a>.
Ulf Hashagen, Walther von Dyck (1856–1934). Mathematik, Technik und Wissenschaftsorganisation an der TH München, Stuttgart, 2003.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b> Quote from <a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan">Carl Sagan</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Cosmos:_A_Personal_Voyage">Cosmos: A Personal Voyage</a></i>, episode III: "The Harmony of the Worlds".
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b> Stephen Toulmin, Review of <i>The Sleepwalkers</i> in <i>The Journal of Philosophy</i>, Vol. 59, no. 18 (1962), pp. 500–503
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b> William Donahue, "A Novelist's Kepler," <i>Journal for the History of Astronomy</i>, Vol. 13 (1982), pp. 135–136; "Dancing the grave dance: Science, art and religion in John Banville's <i>Kepler</i>," <i>English Studies</i>, Vol. 86, no. 5 (October 2005), pp. 424–438
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b> <a href="/wiki/Marcelo_Gleiser">Marcelo Gleiser</a>, "Kepler in the Dock", review of Gilder and Gilder's <i>Heavenly Intrigue</i>, <i>Journal for the History of Astronomy</i>, Vol. 35, pt. 4 (2004), pp. 487–489
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Eggenberg_Palace_coin_123-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110531210659/http://www.austrian-mint.at/silbermuenzen?l=en">"Eggenberg Palace coin"</a>. Austrian Mint. Archived from <a href="http://austrian-mint.at/silbermuenzen?l=en&amp;muenzeSubTypeId=108&amp;muenzeId=336">the original</a> on May 31, 2011. Retrieved September 9, 2009.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b> <cite>MacDonald, Calum (2004). <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3878689">"Review of Hindemith: Die Harmonie der Welt"</a>. <i>Tempo</i>. <b>58</b> (227): 63–66. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0040298204210063">10.1017/S0040298204210063</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0040-2982">0040-2982</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/3878689">3878689</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b> <cite>Rodgers, John; Ruff, Willie (1979). <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27849220">"Kepler's Harmony of the World: A Realization for the Ear"</a>. <i>American Scientist</i>. <b>67</b> (3): 286–292. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979AmSci..67..286R">1979AmSci..67..286R</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0003-0996">0003-0996</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/27849220">27849220</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b> <cite>Pasachoff, Jay M.; Pasachoff, Naomi (December 2009). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F462724a">"Third physics opera for Philip Glass"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>462</b> (7274): 724. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009Natur.462..724P">2009Natur.462..724P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F462724a">10.1038/462724a</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836">0028-0836</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4391370">4391370</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b> "... in 1614, Johannes Kepler published his book <i>De vero anno quo aeternus dei filius humanum naturam in utero benedictae Virginis Mariae assumpsit</i>, on the chronology related to the Star of Bethlehem.", <a href="http://www.rug.nl/research/kapteyn/bethlehem2014">The Star of Bethlehem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kapteyn_Astronomical_Institute">Kapteyn Astronomical Institute</a>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2>Sources[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=37">edit</a>]</h2>
<div>
<ul><li>Andersen, Hanne; Peter Barker; and Xiang Chen. <i>The Cognitive Structure of Scientific Revolutions</i>, chapter 6: "The Copernican Revolution." New York: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, 2006. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85575-4">978-0-521-85575-4</a></li>
<li>Armitage, Angus. <i>John Kepler</i>, Faber, 1966.</li>
<li>Banville, John. <i>Kepler</i>, Martin, Secker and Warburg, London, 1981 (fictionalised biography)</li>
<li>Barker, Peter and Bernard R. Goldstein: "Theological Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy". <i>Osiris</i>, Volume 16. <i>Science in Theistic Contexts.</i> <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press">University of Chicago Press</a>, 2001, pp.  88–113</li>
<li>Caspar, Max. <i>Kepler</i>; transl. and ed. by <a href="/wiki/C._Doris_Hellman">C. Doris Hellman</a>; with a new introduction and references by Owen Gingerich; bibliographic citations by Owen Gingerich and Alain Segonds. New York: Dover, 1993. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-67605-0">978-0-486-67605-0</a></li>
<li>Connor, James A. <i>Kepler's Witch: An Astronomer's Discovery of Cosmic Order Amid Religious War, Political Intrigue, and the Heresy Trial of His Mother</i>. HarperSanFrancisco, 2004. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-052255-1">978-0-06-052255-1</a></li>
<li>De Gandt, Francois. <i>Force and Geometry in Newton's</i> Principia, Translated by Curtis Wilson, <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press">Princeton University Press</a>, 1995. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-03367-9">978-0-691-03367-9</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J._L._E._Dreyer">Dreyer, J. L. E.</a> <i>A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler</i>. Dover Publications Inc, 1967. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-60079-3">0-486-60079-3</a></li>
<li>Ferguson, Kitty. <i>The nobleman and his housedog: Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler: the strange partnership that revolutionized science.</i> London: Review, 2002. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7472-7022-5">978-0-7472-7022-5</a> – published in the US as: <i>Tycho &amp; Kepler: the unlikely partnership that forever changed our understanding of the heavens.</i> New York: Walker, 2002. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8027-1390-4">0-8027-1390-4</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Judith_V._Field">Field, J. V.</a> <i>Kepler's geometrical cosmology</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press">University of Chicago Press</a>, 1988. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-24823-3">978-0-226-24823-3</a></li>
<li>Gilder, Joshua and Anne-Lee Gilder: <i>Heavenly Intrigue: Johannes Kepler, Tycho Brahe, and the Murder Behind One of History's Greatest Scientific Discoveries</i>, Doubleday (18 May 2004). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-50844-5">978-0-385-50844-5</a> Reviews <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061125003508/http://www.bookpage.com/0407bp/nonfiction/heavenly_intrigue.html">bookpage.com</a>, <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061224121800/http://crisismagazine.com/october2004/book4.htm">crisismagazine.com</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Owen_Gingerich">Gingerich, Owen</a>. <i>The Eye of Heaven: Ptolemy, Copernicus, Kepler</i>. American Institute of Physics, 1993. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88318-863-7">978-0-88318-863-7</a> (Masters of modern physics; v. 7)</li>
<li>Gingerich, Owen: "Kepler, Johannes" in <i>Dictionary of Scientific Biography</i>, Volume VII. Charles Coulston Gillispie, editor. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973</li>
<li>Greenbaum and Boockmann: "Kepler's Astrology", <i>Culture and Cosmos</i> Vol. 14. Special Double Issue, 2012.</li>
<li>Jardine, Nick: "Koyré's Kepler/Kepler's Koyré," <i>History of Science</i>, Vol. 38 (2000), pp.  363–376</li>
<li>Kepler, Johannes. <i>Johannes Kepler New Astronomy</i> trans. W. Donahue, foreword by O. Gingerich, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press">Cambridge University Press</a> 1993. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-30131-9">0-521-30131-9</a></li>
<li>Kepler, Johannes and Christian Frisch. <i>Joannis Kepleri Astronomi Opera Omnia</i> (<i>John Kepler, Astronomer; Complete Works</i>), 8 vols.(1858–1871). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dTMAAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false">vol. 1, 1858</a>, <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gzMAAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR2#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false">vol. 2, 1859</a>, <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qjMAAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false">vol. 3, 1860</a>, <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xjMAAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false">vol. 6, 1866</a>, <a href="https://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC12905968&amp;id=gMkKAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PP16&amp;lpg=PP16&amp;dq=kepleri+%22heyder+%26+zimmer%22">vol. 7, 1868</a>, Frankfurt am Main and Erlangen, Heyder &amp; Zimmer, – <a href="/wiki/Google_Books">Google Books</a></li>
<li>Kepler, Johannes, et al. <i>Great Books of the Western World. Volume 16: Ptolemy, Copernicus, Kepler</i>, Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1952. (contains English translations by of Kepler's <i>Epitome</i>, Books IV &amp; V and <i>Harmonice</i> Book 5)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Koestler">Koestler, Arthur</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Sleepwalkers_(Koestler_book)">The Sleepwalkers</a>: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe.</i> (1959). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-019246-9">978-0-14-019246-9</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Koyr%C3%A9">Koyré, Alexandre</a>: <i>Galilean Studies</i> Harvester Press, 1977. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85527-354-5">978-0-85527-354-5</a></li>
<li>Koyré, Alexandre: <i>The Astronomical Revolution: Copernicus-Kepler-Borelli</i> Ithaca, NY: <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Press">Cornell University Press</a>, 1973. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-0504-4">978-0-8014-0504-4</a>; Methuen, 1973. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-416-76980-7">978-0-416-76980-7</a>; Hermann, 1973. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7056-5648-5">978-2-7056-5648-5</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Samuel_Kuhn">Kuhn, Thomas S.</a> <i>The Copernican Revolution: Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1957. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-17103-9">978-0-674-17103-9</a></li>
<li>Lindberg, David C.: "The Genesis of Kepler's Theory of Light: Light Metaphysics from Plotinus to Kepler." <i>Osiris</i>, N.S. 2. University of Chicago Press, 1986, pp.  5–42.</li>
<li>Lear, John. <i>Kepler's Dream</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965</li>
<li>M.T.K Al-Tamimi. "Great collapse Kepler's first law", <i>Natural Science</i>, 2 (2010), <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&amp;q=n2:2150-4091">2150-4091</a></li>
<li>North, John. <i>The Fontana History of Astronomy and Cosmology,</i> Fontana Press, 1994. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-686177-5">978-0-00-686177-5</a></li>
<li>Pannekoek, Anton: <i>A History of Astronomy</i>, Dover Publications Inc 1989. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-65994-7">978-0-486-65994-7</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli">Pauli, Wolfgang</a>. <i>Wolfgang Pauli – Writings on physics and philosophy</i>, translated by Robert Schlapp and edited by P. Enz and Karl von Meyenn (Springer Verlag, Berlin, 1994). See section 21, <i>The influence of archetypical ideas on the scientific theories of Kepler</i>, concerning Johannes Kepler and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Fludd">Robert Fludd</a> (1574–1637). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-56859-9">978-3-540-56859-9</a></li>
<li>Schneer, Cecil: "Kepler's New Year's Gift of a Snowflake." <i><a href="/wiki/Isis_(journal)">Isis</a></i>, Volume 51, No. 4. University of Chicago Press, 1960, pp.  531–545.</li>
<li>Shapin, Steven. <i>The Scientific Revolution</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-75020-0">978-0-226-75020-0</a></li>
<li>Stephenson, Bruce. <i>Kepler's physical astronomy</i>. New York: Springer, 1987. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-96541-3">978-0-387-96541-3</a> (Studies in the history of mathematics and physical sciences; 13); reprinted Princeton:Princeton Univ. Pr., 1994. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-03652-6">978-0-691-03652-6</a></li>
<li>Stephenson, Bruce. <i>The Music of the Heavens: Kepler's Harmonic Astronomy</i>, <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press">Princeton University Press</a>, 1994. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-03439-3">978-0-691-03439-3</a></li>
<li>Toulmin, Stephen and June Goodfield. <i>The Fabric of the Heavens: The Development of Astronomy and Dynamics</i>. Pelican, 1963.</li>
<li>Voelkel, James R. <i>The Composition of Kepler's Astronomia nova</i>, Princeton University Press, 2001. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00738-0">978-0-691-00738-0</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Richard_S._Westfall">Westfall, Richard S.</a> <i>The Construction of Modern Science: Mechanism and Mechanics</i>. John Wiley and Sons, 1971. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-93531-X">0-471-93531-X</a>; reprinted Cambridge University Press, 1978. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-29295-6">0-521-29295-6</a></li>
<li>Westfall, Richard S. <i>Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton</i>. Cambridge University Press, 1981. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-23143-5">978-0-521-23143-5</a></li>
<li>Wolf, A. <i>A History of Science, Technology and Philosophy in the 16th and 17th centuries</i>. George Allen &amp; Unwin, 1950.</li></ul>
</div>
<h2>External links[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Kepler&amp;action=edit&amp;section=38">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li><a href="http://digitalcollections.library.cmu.edu/awweb/awarchive?type=file&amp;item=393654">Kepler's Conversation with the Starry Messenger (English translation of <i>Dissertation cum Nuncio Sidereo</i>)</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201017152550/http://digitalcollections.library.cmu.edu/awweb/awarchive?type=file&amp;item=393654">Archived</a> 17 October 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li><a href="https://kepler.badw.de/kepler-digital.html"><i>Herausgabe der Werke von Johannes Kepler</i> (with links to digital scans of the published volumes)</a></li>
<li><a href="https://mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=127098">Johannes Kepler</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Mathematics_Genealogy_Project">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/author/Johannes+Kepler">Works by Johannes Kepler</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li>
<li><a href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Kepler%2C%20Johannes%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Johannes%20Kepler%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Kepler%2C%20Johannes%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Johannes%20Kepler%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Kepler%2C%20J%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Johannes%20Kepler%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Kepler%2C%20Johannes%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Johannes%20Kepler%22%29%20OR%20%28%221571-1630%22%20AND%20Kepler%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Johannes Kepler</a> at <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive">Internet Archive</a></li>
<li>Walter W. Bryant. <i><a href="https://gutenberg.org/ebooks/12406">Kepler</a></i> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a> (1920 book, part of <i>Men of Science</i> series)</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Agnes_Mary_Clerke">Clerke, Agnes Mary</a> (1911). <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Kepler,_Johann">"Kepler, Johann" </a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). pp. 749–751.</cite></li>
<li><a href="https://curlie.org/Science/Astronomy/History/People/Kepler,_Johannes">Johannes Kepler</a> at <a href="/wiki/Curlie">Curlie</a></li>
<li>Plant, David, <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120512064724/http://www.skyscript.co.uk/kepler.html">Kepler and the "Music of the Spheres"</a></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/John_J._O%27Connor_(mathematician)">O'Connor, John J.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson">Robertson, Edmund F.</a>, <a href="https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Kepler.html">"Johannes Kepler"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_archive">MacTutor History of Mathematics archive</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews">University of St Andrews</a></cite></li></ul>
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 Contents

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 * (Top)
 * 1 Early life
 + 1.1 Childhood (1571–1590)
 + 1.2 Graz (1594–1600)
 + 1.3 Other research
 * 2 Scientific career
 + 2.1 Prague (1600–1612)
 + 2.2 Imperial Advisor
 + 2.3 Supernova of 1604
 * 3 Later life
 + 3.1 Troubles
 + 3.2 Linz (1612–1630)
 + 3.3 Christianity
 * 4 Astronomy
 + 4.1 Mysterium Cosmographicum
 + 4.2 Astronomia Nova
 + 4.3 Epitome of Copernican Astronomy
 + 4.4 Rudolphine Tables
 * 5 Astrology
 + 5.1 De Fundamentis
 + 5.2 Tertius Interveniens
 * 6 Music
 + 6.1 Harmonice Mundi
 * 7 Optics
 + 7.1 Astronomiae Pars Optica
 + 7.2 Dioptrice
 * 8 Mathematics and physics
 * 9 Legacy
 + 9.1 Reception of his astronomy
 + 9.2 History of science
 + 9.3 Editions and translations
 + 9.4 Cultural influence and eponymy
 * 10 Works
 * 11 See also
 * 12 Notes
 * 13 References
 + 13.1 Citations
 * 14 Sources
 * 15 External links
 Toggle the table of contents

 Johannes Kepler

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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 "Kepler" redirects here. For the European cargo spacecraft, see Johannes Kepler ATV. For the space observatory, see Kepler space telescope. For other uses, see Kepler (disambiguation).

 Johannes Kepler 
 Portrait of Kepler by an unknown artist in 1620.
 Born 27 December 1571 
  Free Imperial City of Weil der Stadt, Holy Roman Empire
 Died 15 November 1630 (aged 58) 
  Free Imperial City of Regensburg, Holy Roman Empire 
 Education Tübinger Stift, University of Tübingen (M.A., 1591)[1] 
  Kepler's laws of planetary motion 
 Known for Kepler conjecture 
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 Fields Astronomy, astrology, mathematics, natural philosophy 
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 Johannes Kepler (/ ˈ k ɛ p l ər /;[2] German: [joˈhanəs ˈkɛplɐ, -nɛs -] ( listen ) ;[3][4] 27 December 1571 – 15 November 1630) was a German astronomer, mathematician, astrologer, natural philosopher and writer on music.[5] He is a key figure in the 17th-century Scientific Revolution, best known for his laws of planetary motion, and his books Astronomia nova, Harmonice Mundi, and Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae. These works also provided one of the foundations for Newton's theory of universal gravitation.[6]

 Kepler was a mathematics teacher at a seminary school in Graz, where he became an associate of Prince Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg. Later he became an assistant to the astronomer Tycho Brahe in Prague, and eventually the imperial mathematician to Emperor Rudolf II and his two successors Matthias and Ferdinand II. He also taught mathematics in Linz, and was an adviser to General Wallenstein. Additionally, he did fundamental work in the field of optics, invented an improved version of the refracting (or Keplerian) telescope, and was mentioned in the telescopic discoveries of his contemporary Galileo Galilei. He was a corresponding member of the Accademia dei Lincei in Rome.[7]

 Kepler lived in an era when there was no clear distinction between astronomy and astrology, but there was a strong division between astronomy (a branch of mathematics within the liberal arts) and physics (a branch of natural philosophy). Kepler also incorporated religious arguments and reasoning into his work, motivated by the religious conviction and belief that God had created the world according to an intelligible plan that is accessible through the natural light of reason.[8] Kepler described his new astronomy as "celestial physics",[9] as "an excursion into Aristotle's Metaphysics",[10] and as "a supplement to Aristotle's On the Heavens",[11] transforming the ancient tradition of physical cosmology by treating astronomy as part of a universal mathematical physics.[12]

 Early life [ edit ]

 Childhood (1571–1590) [ edit ]

 Kepler's birthplace, in Weil der Stadt

 Kepler was born on 27 December 1571, in the Free Imperial City of Weil der Stadt (now part of the Stuttgart Region in the German state of Baden-Württemberg, 30 km west of Stuttgart's center). His grandfather, Sebald Kepler, had been Lord Mayor of the city. By the time Johannes was born, he had two brothers and one sister and the Kepler family fortune was in decline. His father, Heinrich Kepler, earned a precarious living as a mercenary, and he left the family when Johannes was five years old. He was believed to have died in the Eighty Years' War in the Netherlands. His mother, Katharina Guldenmann, an innkeeper's daughter, was a healer and herbalist. Born prematurely, Johannes claimed to have been weak and sickly as a child. Nevertheless, he often impressed travelers at his grandfather's inn with his phenomenal mathematical faculty.[13]

 As a child, Kepler witnessed the Great Comet of 1577, which attracted the attention of astronomers across Europe.

 He was introduced to astronomy at an early age and developed a strong passion for it that would span his entire life. At age six, he observed the Great Comet of 1577, writing that he "was taken by [his] mother to a high place to look at it."[14] In 1580, at age nine, he observed another astronomical event, a lunar eclipse, recording that he remembered being "called outdoors" to see it and that the Moon "appeared quite red".[14] However, childhood smallpox left him with weak vision and crippled hands, limiting his ability in the observational aspects of astronomy.[15]

 In 1589, after moving through grammar school, Latin school, and seminary at Maulbronn, Kepler attended Tübinger Stift at the University of Tübingen. There, he studied philosophy under Vitus Müller[16] and theology under Jacob Heerbrand (a student of Philipp Melanchthon at Wittenberg), who also taught Michael Maestlin while he was a student, until he became Chancellor at Tübingen in 1590.[17] He proved himself to be a superb mathematician and earned a reputation as a skilful astrologer, casting horoscopes for fellow students. Under the instruction of Michael Maestlin, Tübingen's professor of mathematics from 1583 to 1631,[17] he learned both the Ptolemaic system and the Copernican system of planetary motion. He became a Copernican at that time. In a student disputation, he defended heliocentrism from both a theoretical and theological perspective, maintaining that the Sun was the principal source of motive power in the universe.[18] Despite his desire to become a minister, near the end of his studies, Kepler was recommended for a position as teacher of mathematics and astronomy at the Protestant school in Graz. He accepted the position in April 1594, at the age of 22.[19]

 Graz (1594–1600) [ edit ]

 Portraits of Kepler and his wife
 House of Kepler and Barbara Müller in Gössendorf, near Graz (1597–1599)

 Before concluding his studies at Tübingen, Kepler accepted an offer to teach mathematics as a replacement to Georg Stadius at the Protestant school in Graz (now in Styria, Austria).[20] During this period (1594–1600), he issued many official calendars and prognostications that enhanced his reputation as an astrologer. Although Kepler had mixed feelings about astrology and disparaged many customary practices of astrologers, he believed deeply in a connection between the cosmos and the individual. He eventually published some of the ideas he had entertained while a student in the Mysterium Cosmographicum (1596), published a little over a year after his arrival at Graz.[21]

 In December 1595, Kepler was introduced to Barbara Müller, a 23-year-old widow (twice over) with a young daughter, Regina Lorenz, and he began courting her. Müller, an heiress to the estates of her late husbands, was also the daughter of a successful mill owner. Her father Jobst initially opposed a marriage. Even though Kepler had inherited his grandfather's nobility, Kepler's poverty made him an unacceptable match. Jobst relented after Kepler completed work on Mysterium, but the engagement nearly fell apart while Kepler was away tending to the details of publication. However, Protestant officials—who had helped set up the match—pressured the Müllers to honor their agreement. Barbara and Johannes were married on 27 April 1597.[22]

 In the first years of their marriage, the Keplers had two children (Heinrich and Susanna), both of whom died in infancy. In 1602, they had a daughter (Susanna); in 1604, a son (Friedrich); and in 1607, another son (Ludwig).[23]

 Other research [ edit ]

 Following the publication of Mysterium and with the blessing of the Graz school inspectors, Kepler began an ambitious program to extend and elaborate his work. He planned four additional books: one on the stationary aspects of the universe (the Sun and the fixed stars); one on the planets and their motions; one on the physical nature of planets and the formation of geographical features (focused especially on Earth); and one on the effects of the heavens on the Earth, to include atmospheric optics, meteorology, and astrology.[24]

 He also sought the opinions of many of the astronomers to whom he had sent Mysterium, among them Reimarus Ursus (Nicolaus Reimers Bär)—the imperial mathematician to Rudolf II and a bitter rival of Tycho Brahe. Ursus did not reply directly, but republished Kepler's flattering letter to pursue his priority dispute over (what is now called) the Tychonic system with Tycho. Despite this black mark, Tycho also began corresponding with Kepler, starting with a harsh but legitimate critique of Kepler's system; among a host of objections, Tycho took issue with the use of inaccurate numerical data taken from Copernicus. Through their letters, Tycho and Kepler discussed a broad range of astronomical problems, dwelling on lunar phenomena and Copernican theory (particularly its theological viability). But without the significantly more accurate data of Tycho's observatory, Kepler had no way to address many of these issues.[25]

 Instead, he turned his attention to chronology and "harmony," the numerological relationships among music, mathematics and the physical world, and their astrological consequences. By assuming the Earth to possess a soul (a property he would later invoke to explain how the Sun causes the motion of planets), he established a speculative system connecting astrological aspects and astronomical distances to weather and other earthly phenomena. By 1599, however, he again felt his work limited by the inaccuracy of available data—just as growing religious tension was also threatening his continued employment in Graz. In December of that year, Tycho invited Kepler to visit him in Prague; on 1 January 1600 (before he even received the invitation), Kepler set off in the hopes that Tycho's patronage could solve his philosophical problems as well as his social and financial ones.[26]

 Scientific career [ edit ]

 Prague (1600–1612) [ edit ]

 Tycho Brahe

 On 4 February 1600, Kepler met Tycho Brahe and his assistants Franz Tengnagel and Longomontanus at Benátky nad Jizerou (35 km from Prague), the site where Tycho's new observatory was being constructed. Over the next two months, he stayed as a guest, analyzing some of Tycho's observations of Mars; Tycho guarded his data closely, but was impressed by Kepler's theoretical ideas and soon allowed him more access. Kepler planned to test his theory[27] from Mysterium Cosmographicum based on the Mars data, but he estimated that the work would take up to two years (since he was not allowed to simply copy the data for his own use). With the help of Johannes Jessenius, Kepler attempted to negotiate a more formal employment arrangement with Tycho, but negotiations broke down in an angry argument and Kepler left for Prague on 6 April. Kepler and Tycho soon reconciled and eventually reached an agreement on salary and living arrangements, and in June, Kepler returned home to Graz to collect his family.[28]

 Political and religious difficulties in Graz dashed his hopes of returning immediately to Brahe; in hopes of continuing his astronomical studies, Kepler sought an appointment as a mathematician to Archduke Ferdinand. To that end, Kepler composed an essay—dedicated to Ferdinand—in which he proposed a force-based theory of lunar motion: "In Terra inest virtus, quae Lunam ciet" ("There is a force in the earth which causes the moon to move").[29] Though the essay did not earn him a place in Ferdinand's court, it did detail a new method for measuring lunar eclipses, which he applied during the 10 July eclipse in Graz. These observations formed the basis of his explorations of the laws of optics that would culminate in Astronomiae Pars Optica.[30]

 On 2 August 1600, after refusing to convert to Catholicism, Kepler and his family were banished from Graz. Several months later, Kepler returned, now with the rest of his household, to Prague. Through most of 1601, he was supported directly by Tycho, who assigned him to analyzing planetary observations and writing a tract against Tycho's (by then deceased) rival, Ursus. In September, Tycho secured him a commission as a collaborator on the new project he had proposed to the emperor: the Rudolphine Tables that should replace the Prutenic Tables of Erasmus Reinhold. Two days after Tycho's unexpected death on 24 October 1601, Kepler was appointed his successor as the imperial mathematician with the responsibility to complete his unfinished work. The next 11 years as imperial mathematician would be the most productive of his life.[31]

 Imperial Advisor [ edit ]

 Kepler's primary obligation as imperial mathematician was to provide astrological advice to the emperor. Though Kepler took a dim view of the attempts of contemporary astrologers to precisely predict the future or divine specific events, he had been casting well-received detailed horoscopes for friends, family, and patrons since his time as a student in Tübingen. In addition to horoscopes for allies and foreign leaders, the emperor sought Kepler's advice in times of political trouble. Rudolf was actively interested in the work of many of his court scholars (including numerous alchemists) and kept up with Kepler's work in physical astronomy as well.[32]

 Officially, the only acceptable religious doctrines in Prague were Catholic and Utraquist, but Kepler's position in the imperial court allowed him to practice his Lutheran faith unhindered. The emperor nominally provided an ample income for his family, but the difficulties of the over-extended imperial treasury meant that actually getting hold of enough money to meet financial obligations was a continual struggle. Partly because of financial troubles, his life at home with Barbara was unpleasant, marred with bickering and bouts of sickness. Court life, however, brought Kepler into contact with other prominent scholars (Johannes Matthäus Wackher von Wackhenfels, Jost Bürgi, David Fabricius, Martin Bachazek, and Johannes Brengger, among others) and astronomical work proceeded rapidly.[33]

 Supernova of 1604 [ edit ]

 See also: Kepler's Supernova
 Remnant of Kepler's Supernova SN 1604

 In October 1604, a bright new evening star (SN 1604) appeared, but Kepler did not believe the rumors until he saw it himself.[34] Kepler began systematically observing the supernova. Astrologically, the end of 1603 marked the beginning of a fiery trigon, the start of the about 800-year cycle of great conjunctions; astrologers associated the two previous such periods with the rise of Charlemagne (c. 800 years earlier) and the birth of Christ (c. 1600 years earlier), and thus expected events of great portent, especially regarding the emperor.[35]

 It was in this context, as the imperial mathematician and astrologer to the emperor, that Kepler described the new star two years later in his De Stella Nova. In it, Kepler addressed the star's astronomical properties while taking a skeptical approach to the many astrological interpretations then circulating. He noted its fading luminosity, speculated about its origin, and used the lack of observed parallax to argue that it was in the sphere of fixed stars, further undermining the doctrine of the immutability of the heavens (the idea accepted since Aristotle that the celestial spheres were perfect and unchanging). The birth of a new star implied the variability of the heavens. Kepler also attached an appendix where he discussed the recent chronology work of the Polish historian Laurentius Suslyga; he calculated that, if Suslyga was correct that accepted timelines were four years behind, then the Star of Bethlehem—analogous to the present new star—would have coincided with the first great conjunction of the earlier 800-year cycle.[36]

 Over the following years, Kepler attempted (unsuccessfully) to begin a collaboration with Italian astronomer Giovanni Antonio Magini, and dealt with chronology, especially the dating of events in the life of Jesus. Around 1611, Kepler circulated a manuscript of what would eventually be published (posthumously) as Somnium [The Dream]. Part of the purpose of Somnium was to describe what practicing astronomy would be like from the perspective of another planet, to show the feasibility of a non-geocentric system. The manuscript, which disappeared after changing hands several times, described a fantastic trip to the Moon; it was part allegory, part autobiography, and part treatise on interplanetary travel (and is sometimes described as the first work of science fiction). Years later, a distorted version of the story may have instigated the witchcraft trial against his mother, as the mother of the narrator consults a demon to learn the means of space travel. Following her eventual acquittal, Kepler composed 223 footnotes to the story—several times longer than the actual text—which explained the allegorical aspects as well as the considerable scientific content (particularly regarding lunar geography) hidden within the text.[37]

 Later life [ edit ]

 Troubles [ edit ]

 Karlova street in Old Town, Prague – house where Kepler lived. Now a museum [2]

 In 1611, the growing political-religious tension in Prague came to a head. Emperor Rudolf—whose health was failing—was forced to abdicate as King of Bohemia by his brother Matthias. Both sides sought Kepler's astrological advice, an opportunity he used to deliver conciliatory political advice (with little reference to the stars, except in general statements to discourage drastic action). However, it was clear that Kepler's future prospects in the court of Matthias were dim.[38]

 Also in that year, Barbara Kepler contracted Hungarian spotted fever, then began having seizures. As Barbara was recovering, Kepler's three children all fell sick with smallpox; Friedrich, 6, died. Following his son's death, Kepler sent letters to potential patrons in Württemberg and Padua. At the University of Tübingen in Württemberg, concerns over Kepler's perceived Calvinist heresies in violation of the Augsburg Confession and the Formula of Concord prevented his return. The University of Padua—on the recommendation of the departing Galileo—sought Kepler to fill the mathematics professorship, but Kepler, preferring to keep his family in German territory, instead travelled to Austria to arrange a position as teacher and district mathematician in Linz. However, Barbara relapsed into illness and died shortly after Kepler's return.[39]

 Kepler postponed the move to Linz and remained in Prague until Rudolf's death in early 1612, though between political upheaval, religious tension, and family tragedy (along with the legal dispute over his wife's estate), Kepler could do no research. Instead, he pieced together a chronology manuscript, Eclogae Chronicae, from correspondence and earlier work. Upon succession as Holy Roman Emperor, Matthias re-affirmed Kepler's position (and salary) as imperial mathematician but allowed him to move to Linz.[40]

 Linz (1612–1630) [ edit ]

 A statue of Kepler in Linz

 In Linz, Kepler's primary responsibilities (beyond completing the Rudolphine Tables) were teaching at the district school and providing astrological and astronomical services. In his first years there, he enjoyed financial security and religious freedom relative to his life in Prague—though he was excluded from Eucharist by his Lutheran church over his theological scruples. It was also during his time in Linz that Kepler had to deal with the accusation and ultimate verdict of witchcraft against his mother Katharina in the Protestant town of Leonberg. That blow, happening only a few years after Kepler's excommunication, is not seen as a coincidence but as a symptom of the full-fledged assault waged by the Lutherans against Kepler.[41]

 His first publication in Linz was De vero Anno (1613), an expanded treatise on the year of Christ's birth. He also participated in deliberations on whether to introduce Pope Gregory's reformed calendar to Protestant German lands. On 30 October 1613, Kepler married the 24-year-old Susanna Reuttinger. Following the death of his first wife Barbara, Kepler had considered 11 different matches over two years (a decision process formalized later as the marriage problem).[42] He eventually returned to Reuttinger (the fifth match) who, he wrote, "won me over with love, humble loyalty, economy of household, diligence, and the love she gave the stepchildren."[43] The first three children of this marriage (Margareta Regina, Katharina, and Sebald) died in childhood. Three more survived into adulthood: Cordula (born 1621); Fridmar (born 1623); and Hildebert (born 1625). According to Kepler's biographers, this was a much happier marriage than his first.[44]

 On 8 October 1630, Kepler set out for Regensburg, hoping to collect interest on work he had done previously. A few days after reaching Regensburg, Kepler became sick, and progressively became worse. On 15 November 1630, just over a month after his arrival, he died. He was buried in a Protestant churchyard that was completely destroyed during the Thirty Years' War.[45]

 Christianity [ edit ]

 Kepler's belief that God created the cosmos in an orderly fashion caused him to attempt to determine and comprehend the laws that govern the natural world, most profoundly in astronomy.[46][47] The phrase "I am merely thinking God's thoughts after Him" has been attributed to him, although this is probably a capsulized version of a writing from his hand:

 Those laws [of nature] are within the grasp of the human mind; God wanted us to recognize them by creating us after his own image so that we could share in his own thoughts.[48]

 Kepler advocated for tolerance among Christian denominations, for example arguing that Catholics and Lutherans should be able to take communion together. He wrote, "Christ the Lord neither was nor is Lutheran, nor Calvinist, nor Papist."[49]

 Astronomy [ edit ]

 Mysterium Cosmographicum [ edit ]

 Kepler's Platonic solid model of the Solar System, from Mysterium Cosmographicum (1596)

 Kepler's first major astronomical work, Mysterium Cosmographicum (The Cosmographic Mystery, 1596), was the first published defense of the Copernican system. Kepler claimed to have had an epiphany on 19 July 1595, while teaching in Graz, demonstrating the periodic conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter in the zodiac: he realized that regular polygons bound one inscribed and one circumscribed circle at definite ratios, which, he reasoned, might be the geometrical basis of the universe. After failing to find a unique arrangement of polygons that fit known astronomical observations (even with extra planets added to the system), Kepler began experimenting with 3-dimensional polyhedra. He found that each of the five Platonic solids could be inscribed and circumscribed by spherical orbs; nesting these solids, each encased in a sphere, within one another would produce six layers, corresponding to the six known planets—Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. By ordering the solids selectively—octahedron, icosahedron, dodecahedron, tetrahedron, cube—Kepler found that the spheres could be placed at intervals corresponding to the relative sizes of each planet's path, assuming the planets circle the Sun. Kepler also found a formula relating the size of each planet's orb to the length of its orbital period: from inner to outer planets, the ratio of increase in orbital period is twice the difference in orb radius. However, Kepler later rejected this formula, because it was not precise enough.[50]

 Kepler thought the Mysterium had revealed God's geometrical plan for the universe. Much of Kepler's enthusiasm for the Copernican system stemmed from his theological convictions about the connection between the physical and the spiritual; the universe itself was an image of God, with the Sun corresponding to the Father, the stellar sphere to the Son, and the intervening space between them to the Holy Spirit. His first manuscript of Mysterium contained an extensive chapter reconciling heliocentrism with biblical passages that seemed to support geocentrism.[51] With the support of his mentor Michael Maestlin, Kepler received permission from the Tübingen university senate to publish his manuscript, pending removal of the Bible exegesis and the addition of a simpler, more understandable, description of the Copernican system as well as Kepler's new ideas. Mysterium was published late in 1596, and Kepler received his copies and began sending them to prominent astronomers and patrons early in 1597; it was not widely read, but it established Kepler's reputation as a highly skilled astronomer. The effusive dedication, to powerful patrons as well as to the men who controlled his position in Graz, also provided a crucial doorway into the patronage system.[52]

 In 1621, Kepler published an expanded second edition of Mysterium, half as long again as the first, detailing in footnotes the corrections and improvements he had achieved in the 25 years since its first publication.[53] In terms of impact, the Mysterium can be seen as an important first step in modernizing the theory proposed by Copernicus in his De revolutionibus orbium coelestium. Whilst Copernicus sought to advance a heliocentric system in this book, he resorted to Ptolemaic devices (viz., epicycles and eccentric circles) in order to explain the change in planets' orbital speed, and also continued to use as a point of reference the center of the Earth's orbit rather than that of the Sun "as an aid to calculation and in order not to confuse the reader by diverging too much from Ptolemy." Modern astronomy owes much to Mysterium Cosmographicum, despite flaws in its main thesis, "since it represents the first step in cleansing the Copernican system of the remnants of the Ptolemaic theory still clinging to it."[54]

 Astronomia Nova [ edit ]

 Diagram of the geocentric trajectory of Mars through several periods of apparent retrograde motion in Astronomia Nova (1609)

 The extended line of research that culminated in Astronomia Nova (A New Astronomy)—including the first two laws of planetary motion—began with the analysis, under Tycho's direction, of the orbit of Mars. In this work Kepler introduced the revolutionary concept of planetary orbit, a path of a planet in space resulting from the action of physical causes, distinct from previously held notion of planetary orb (a spherical shell to which planet is attached). As a result of this breakthrough astronomical phenomena came to be seen as being governed by physical laws.[55] Kepler calculated and recalculated various approximations of Mars's orbit using an equant (the mathematical tool that Copernicus had eliminated with his system), eventually creating a model that generally agreed with Tycho's observations to within two arcminutes (the average measurement error). But he was not satisfied with the complex and still slightly inaccurate result; at certain points the model differed from the data by up to eight arcminutes. The wide array of traditional mathematical astronomy methods having failed him, Kepler set about trying to fit an ovoid orbit to the data.[56]

 In Kepler's religious view of the cosmos, the Sun (a symbol of God the Father) was the source of motive force in the Solar System. As a physical basis, Kepler drew by analogy on William Gilbert's theory of the magnetic soul of the Earth from De Magnete (1600) and on his own work on optics. Kepler supposed that the motive power (or motive species)[57] radiated by the Sun weakens with distance, causing faster or slower motion as planets move closer or farther from it.[58][note 1] Perhaps this assumption entailed a mathematical relationship that would restore astronomical order. Based on measurements of the aphelion and perihelion of the Earth and Mars, he created a formula in which a planet's rate of motion is inversely proportional to its distance from the Sun. Verifying this relationship throughout the orbital cycle required very extensive calculation; to simplify this task, by late 1602 Kepler reformulated the proportion in terms of geometry: planets sweep out equal areas in equal times—his second law of planetary motion.[60]

 He then set about calculating the entire orbit of Mars, using the geometrical rate law and assuming an egg-shaped ovoid orbit. After approximately 40 failed attempts, in late 1604 he at last hit upon the idea of an ellipse,[61] which he had previously assumed to be too simple a solution for earlier astronomers to have overlooked.[62] Finding that an elliptical orbit fit the Mars data (the Vicarious Hypothesis), Kepler immediately concluded that all planets move in ellipses, with the Sun at one focus—his first law of planetary motion. Because he employed no calculating assistants, he did not extend the mathematical analysis beyond Mars. By the end of the year, he completed the manuscript for Astronomia nova, though it would not be published until 1609 due to legal disputes over the use of Tycho's observations, the property of his heirs.[63]

 Epitome of Copernican Astronomy [ edit ]

 Further information: Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae

 Since completing the Astronomia Nova, Kepler had intended to compose an astronomy textbook that would cover all the fundamentals of heliocentric astronomy.[64] Kepler spent the next several years working on what would become Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae (Epitome of Copernican Astronomy). Despite its title, which merely hints at heliocentrism, the Epitome is less about Copernicus's work and more about Kepler's own astronomical system. The Epitome contained all three laws of planetary motion and attempted to explain heavenly motions through physical causes.[65] Although it explicitly extended the first two laws of planetary motion (applied to Mars in Astronomia nova) to all the planets as well as the Moon and the Medicean satellites of Jupiter,[note 2] it did not explain how elliptical orbits could be derived from observational data.[68]

 Originally intended as an introduction for the uninitiated, Kepler sought to model his Epitome after that of his master Michael Maestlin, who published a well-regarded book explaining the basics of geocentric astronomy to non-experts.[69] Kepler completed the first of three volumes, consisting of Books I–III, by 1615 in the same question-answer format of Maestlin's and have it printed in 1617.[70] However, the banning of Copernican books by the Catholic Church, as well as the start of the Thirty Years' War, meant that publication of the next two volumes would be delayed. In the interim, and to avoid being subject to the ban, Kepler switched the audience of the Epitome from beginners to that of expert astronomers and mathematicians, as the arguments became more and more sophisticated and required advanced mathematics to be understood.[69] The second volume, consisting of Book IV, was published in 1620, followed by the third volume, consisting of Books V–VII, in 1621.

 Rudolphine Tables [ edit ]

 Two pages from Kepler's Rudolphine Tables showing eclipses of the Sun and Moon

 In the years following the completion of Astronomia Nova, most of Kepler's research was focused on preparations for the Rudolphine Tables and a comprehensive set of ephemerides (specific predictions of planet and star positions) based on the table, though neither would be completed for many years.[71]

 Kepler, at last, completed the Rudolphine Tables in 1623, which at the time was considered his major work. However, due to the publishing requirements of the emperor and negotiations with Tycho Brahe's heir, it would not be printed until 1627.[72]

 Astrology [ edit ]

 Kepler's horoscope for General Wallenstein

 Like Ptolemy, Kepler considered astrology as the counterpart to astronomy, and as being of equal interest and value. However, in the following years, the two subjects drifted apart until astrology was no longer practiced among professional astronomers.[73]

 Sir Oliver Lodge observed that Kepler was somewhat disdainful of astrology in his own day, as he was "continually attacking and throwing sarcasm at astrology, but it was the only thing for which people would pay him, and on it after a fashion he lived."[74] Nonetheless, Kepler spent a huge amount of time trying to restore astrology on a firmer philosophical footing, composing numerous astrological calendars, more than 800 nativities, and a number of treaties dealing with the subject of astrology proper.[75]

 De Fundamentis [ edit ]

 In his bid to become imperial astronomer, Kepler wrote De Fundamentis (1601), whose full title can be translated as “On Giving Astrology Sounder Foundations”, as a short foreword to one of his yearly almanacs.[76]

 In this work, Kepler describes the effects of the Sun, Moon, and the planets in terms of their light and their influences upon humors, finalizing with Kepler's view that the Earth possesses a soul with some sense of geometry. Stimulated by the geometric convergence of rays formed around it, the world-soul is sentient but not conscious. As a shepherd is pleased by the piping of a flute without understanding the theory of musical harmony, so likewise Earth responds to the angles and aspects made by the heavens but not in a conscious manner. Eclipses are important as omens because the animal faculty of the Earth is violently disturbed by the sudden intermission of light, experiencing something like emotion and persisting in it for some time.[73]

 Kepler surmises that the Earth has "cycles of humors" as living animals do, and gives for an example that "the highest tides of the sea are said by sailors to return after nineteen years around the same days of the year". (This may refer to the 18.6-year lunar node precession cycle.) Kepler advocates searching for such cycles by gathering observations over a period of many years, "and so far this observation has not been made".[77]

 Tertius Interveniens [ edit ]

 Kepler and Helisaeus Roeslin engaged in a series of published attacks and counter-attacks on the importance of astrology after the supernova of 1604; around the same time, physician Philip Feselius published a work dismissing astrology altogether (and Roeslin's work in particular).[78]

 In response to what Kepler saw as the excesses of astrology, on the one hand, and overzealous rejection of it, on the other, Kepler prepared Tertius Interveniens (1610). Nominally this work—presented to the common patron of Roeslin and Feselius—was a neutral mediation between the feuding scholars (the titled meaning "Third-party interventions"), but it also set out Kepler's general views on the value of astrology, including some hypothesized mechanisms of interaction between planets and individual souls. While Kepler considered most traditional rules and methods of astrology to be the "evil-smelling dung" in which "an industrious hen" scrapes, there was an "occasional grain-seed, indeed, even a pearl or a gold nugget" to be found by the conscientious scientific astrologer.[79]

 Music [ edit ]

 Harmonice Mundi [ edit ]

 Main article: Harmonice Mundi
 Geometrical harmonies from Harmonice Mundi (1619)

 Kepler was convinced "that the geometrical things have provided the Creator with the model for decorating the whole world".[80] In Harmonice Mundi (1619), he attempted to explain the proportions of the natural world—particularly the astronomical and astrological aspects—in terms of music.[note 3] The central set of "harmonies" was the musica universalis or "music of the spheres", which had been studied by Pythagoras, Ptolemy and others before Kepler; in fact, soon after publishing Harmonice Mundi, Kepler was embroiled in a priority dispute with Robert Fludd, who had recently published his own harmonic theory.[81]

 Kepler began by exploring regular polygons and regular solids, including the figures that would come to be known as Kepler's solids. From there, he extended his harmonic analysis to music, meteorology, and astrology; harmony resulted from the tones made by the souls of heavenly bodies—and in the case of astrology, the interaction between those tones and human souls. In the final portion of the work (Book V), Kepler dealt with planetary motions, especially relationships between orbital velocity and orbital distance from the Sun. Similar relationships had been used by other astronomers, but Kepler—with Tycho's data and his own astronomical theories—treated them much more precisely and attached new physical significance to them.[82]

 Among many other harmonies, Kepler articulated what came to be known as the third law of planetary motion. He tried many combinations until he discovered that (approximately) "The square of the periodic times are to each other as the cubes of the mean distances." Although he gives the date of this epiphany (8 March 1618), he does not give any details about how he arrived at this conclusion.[83] However, the wider significance for planetary dynamics of this purely kinematical law was not realized until the 1660s. When conjoined with Christiaan Huygens' newly discovered law of centrifugal force, it enabled Isaac Newton, Edmund Halley, and perhaps Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke to demonstrate independently that the presumed gravitational attraction between the Sun and its planets decreased with the square of the distance between them.[84] This refuted the traditional assumption of scholastic physics that the power of gravitational attraction remained constant with distance whenever it applied between two bodies, such as was assumed by Kepler and also by Galileo in his mistaken universal law that gravitational fall is uniformly accelerated, and also by Galileo's student Borrelli in his 1666 celestial mechanics.[85]

 Optics [ edit ]

 Astronomiae Pars Optica [ edit ]

 A plate from Astronomiae Pars Optica, illustrating the structure of eyes of various species.

 As Kepler slowly continued analyzing Tycho's Mars observations—now available to him in their entirety—and began the slow process of tabulating the Rudolphine Tables, Kepler also picked up the investigation of the laws of optics from his lunar essay of 1600. Both lunar and solar eclipses presented unexplained phenomena, such as unexpected shadow sizes, the red color of a total lunar eclipse, and the reportedly unusual light surrounding a total solar eclipse. Related issues of atmospheric refraction applied to all astronomical observations. Through most of 1603, Kepler paused his other work to focus on optical theory; the resulting manuscript, presented to the emperor on 1 January 1604, was published as Astronomiae Pars Optica (The Optical Part of Astronomy). In it, Kepler described the inverse-square law governing the intensity of light, reflection by flat and curved mirrors, and principles of pinhole cameras, as well as the astronomical implications of optics such as parallax and the apparent sizes of heavenly bodies. He also extended his study of optics to the human eye, and is generally considered by neuroscientists to be the first to recognize that images are projected inverted and reversed by the eye's lens onto the retina. The solution to this dilemma was not of particular importance to Kepler as he did not see it as pertaining to optics, although he did suggest that the image was later corrected "in the hollows of the brain" due to the "activity of the Soul."[86]

 Today, Astronomiae Pars Optica is generally recognized as the foundation of modern optics (though the law of refraction is conspicuously absent).[87] With respect to the beginnings of projective geometry, Kepler introduced the idea of continuous change of a mathematical entity in this work. He argued that if a focus of a conic section were allowed to move along the line joining the foci, the geometric form would morph or degenerate, one into another. In this way, an ellipse becomes a parabola when a focus moves toward infinity, and when two foci of an ellipse merge into one another, a circle is formed. As the foci of a hyperbola merge into one another, the hyperbola becomes a pair of straight lines. He also assumed that if a straight line is extended to infinity it will meet itself at a single point at infinity, thus having the properties of a large circle.[88]

 Dioptrice [ edit ]

 In the first months of 1610, Galileo Galilei—using his powerful new telescope—discovered four satellites orbiting Jupiter. Upon publishing his account as Sidereus Nuncius [Starry Messenger], Galileo sought the opinion of Kepler, in part to bolster the credibility of his observations. Kepler responded enthusiastically with a short published reply, Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo [Conversation with the Starry Messenger]. He endorsed Galileo's observations and offered a range of speculations about the meaning and implications of Galileo's discoveries and telescopic methods, for astronomy and optics as well as cosmology and astrology. Later that year, Kepler published his own telescopic observations of the moons in Narratio de Jovis Satellitibus, providing further support of Galileo. To Kepler's disappointment, however, Galileo never published his reactions (if any) to Astronomia Nova.[89]

 Kepler also started a theoretical and experimental investigation of telescopic lenses using a telescope borrowed from Duke Ernest of Cologne.[90] The resulting manuscript was completed in September 1610 and published as Dioptrice in 1611. In it, Kepler set out the theoretical basis of double-convex converging lenses and double-concave diverging lenses—and how they are combined to produce a Galilean telescope—as well as the concepts of real vs. virtual images, upright vs. inverted images, and the effects of focal length on magnification and reduction. He also described an improved telescope—now known as the astronomical or Keplerian telescope—in which two convex lenses can produce higher magnification than Galileo's combination of convex and concave lenses.[91]

 Mathematics and physics [ edit ]

 A diagram illustrating the Kepler conjecture from Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula (1611)

 As a New Year's gift that year (1611), he also composed for his friend and some-time patron, Baron Wackher von Wackhenfels, a short pamphlet entitled Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula (A New Year's Gift of Hexagonal Snow). In this treatise, he published the first description of the hexagonal symmetry of snowflakes and, extending the discussion into a hypothetical atomistic physical basis for the symmetry, posed what later became known as the Kepler conjecture, a statement about the most efficient arrangement for packing spheres.[92][93]

 Kepler wrote the influential mathematical treatise Nova stereometria doliorum vinariorum in 1613, on measuring the volume of containers such as wine barrels, which was published in 1615.[94] Kepler also contributed to the development of infinitesimal methods and numerical analysis, including iterative approximations, infinitesimals, and the early use of logarithms and transcendental equations.[95][96] Kepler's work on calculating volumes of shapes, and on finding the optimal shape of a wine barrel, were significant steps toward the development of calculus.[97] Simpson's rule, an approximation method used in integral calculus, is known in German as Keplersche Fassregel (Kepler's barrel rule).[98]

 Legacy [ edit ]

 Reception of his astronomy [ edit ]

 Kepler's laws of planetary motion were not immediately accepted. Several major figures such as Galileo and René Descartes completely ignored Kepler's Astronomia nova. Many astronomers, including Kepler's teacher, Michael Maestlin, objected to Kepler's introduction of physics into his astronomy. Some adopted compromise positions. Ismaël Bullialdus accepted elliptical orbits but replaced Kepler's area law with uniform motion in respect to the empty focus of the ellipse, while Seth Ward used an elliptical orbit with motions defined by an equant.[99][100][101]

 Several astronomers tested Kepler's theory, and its various modifications, against astronomical observations. Two transits of Venus and Mercury across the face of the sun provided sensitive tests of the theory, under circumstances when these planets could not normally be observed. In the case of the transit of Mercury in 1631, Kepler had been extremely uncertain of the parameters for Mercury, and advised observers to look for the transit the day before and after the predicted date. Pierre Gassendi observed the transit on the date predicted, a confirmation of Kepler's prediction.[102] This was the first observation of a transit of Mercury. However, his attempt to observe the transit of Venus just one month later was unsuccessful due to inaccuracies in the Rudolphine Tables. Gassendi did not realize that it was not visible from most of Europe, including Paris.[103] Jeremiah Horrocks, who observed the 1639 Venus transit, had used his own observations to adjust the parameters of the Keplerian model, predicted the transit, and then built apparatus to observe the transit. He remained a firm advocate of the Keplerian model.[104][105][106]

 Epitome of Copernican Astronomy was read by astronomers throughout Europe, and following Kepler's death, it was the main vehicle for spreading Kepler's ideas. In the period 1630–1650, this book was the most widely used astronomy textbook, winning many converts to ellipse-based astronomy.[65] However, few adopted his ideas on the physical basis for celestial motions. In the late 17th century, a number of physical astronomy theories drawing from Kepler's work—notably those of Giovanni Alfonso Borelli and Robert Hooke—began to incorporate attractive forces (though not the quasi-spiritual motive species postulated by Kepler) and the Cartesian concept of inertia.[107] This culminated in Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica (1687), in which Newton derived Kepler's laws of planetary motion from a force-based theory of universal gravitation,[108] a mathematical challenge later known as "solving the Kepler problem".[109]

 History of science [ edit ]

 Monument to Tycho Brahe and Kepler in Prague, Czech Republic

 Beyond his role in the historical development of astronomy and natural philosophy, Kepler has loomed large in the philosophy and historiography of science. Kepler and his laws of motion were central to early histories of astronomy such as Jean-Étienne Montucla's 1758 Histoire des mathématiques and Jean-Baptiste Delambre's 1821 Histoire de l'astronomie moderne. These and other histories written from an Enlightenment perspective treated Kepler's metaphysical and religious arguments with skepticism and disapproval, but later Romantic-era natural philosophers viewed these elements as central to his success. William Whewell, in his influential History of the Inductive Sciences of 1837, found Kepler to be the archetype of the inductive scientific genius; in his Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences of 1840, Whewell held Kepler up as the embodiment of the most advanced forms of scientific method. Similarly, Ernst Friedrich Apelt—the first to extensively study Kepler's manuscripts, after their purchase by Catherine the Great—identified Kepler as a key to the "Revolution of the sciences". Apelt, who saw Kepler's mathematics, aesthetic sensibility, physical ideas, and theology as part of a unified system of thought, produced the first extended analysis of Kepler's life and work.[110]

 Alexandre Koyré's work on Kepler was, after Apelt, the first major milestone in historical interpretations of Kepler's cosmology and its influence. In the 1930s and 1940s, Koyré, and a number of others in the first generation of professional historians of science, described the "Scientific Revolution" as the central event in the history of science, and Kepler as a (perhaps the) central figure in the revolution. Koyré placed Kepler's theorization, rather than his empirical work, at the center of the intellectual transformation from ancient to modern world-views. Since the 1960s, the volume of historical Kepler scholarship has expanded greatly, including studies of his astrology and meteorology, his geometrical methods, the role of his religious views in his work, his literary and rhetorical methods, his interaction with the broader cultural and philosophical currents of his time, and even his role as an historian of science.[111]

 Philosophers of science—such as Charles Sanders Peirce, Norwood Russell Hanson, Stephen Toulmin, and Karl Popper—have repeatedly turned to Kepler: examples of incommensurability, analogical reasoning, falsification, and many other philosophical concepts have been found in Kepler's work. Physicist Wolfgang Pauli even used Kepler's priority dispute with Robert Fludd to explore the implications of analytical psychology on scientific investigation.[112]

 Editions and translations [ edit ]

 The GDR stamp featuring Kepler

 Modern translations of a number of Kepler's books appeared in the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries, the systematic publication of his collected works began in 1937 (and is nearing completion in the early 21st century).

 An edition in eight volumes, Kepleri Opera omnia, was prepared by Christian Frisch (1807–1881), during 1858 to 1871, on the occasion of Kepler's 300th birthday. Frisch's edition only included Kepler's Latin, with a Latin commentary.

 A new edition was planned beginning in 1914 by Walther von Dyck (1856–1934). Dyck compiled copies of Kepler's unedited manuscripts, using international diplomatic contacts to convince the Soviet authorities to lend him the manuscripts kept in Leningrad for photographic reproduction. These manuscripts contained several works by Kepler that had not been available to Frisch. Dyck's photographs remain the basis for the modern editions of Kepler's unpublished manuscripts.

 Max Caspar (1880–1956) published his German translation of Kepler's Mysterium Cosmographicum in 1923. Both Dyck and Caspar were influenced in their interest in Kepler by mathematician Alexander von Brill (1842–1935). Caspar became Dyck's collaborator, succeeding him as project leader in 1934, establishing the Kepler-Kommission in the following year. Assisted by Martha List (1908–1992) and Franz Hammer (1898–1969), Caspar continued editorial work during World War II. Max Caspar also published a biography of Kepler in 1948.[113] The commission was later chaired by Volker Bialas (during 1976–2003) and Ulrich Grigull (during 1984–1999) and Roland Bulirsch (1998–2014).[114][115]

 Cultural influence and eponymy [ edit ]

 Main article: List of things named after Johannes Kepler
 The Kepler crater as photographed by Apollo 12 in 1969

 Kepler has acquired a popular image as an icon of scientific modernity and a man before his time; science popularizer Carl Sagan described him as "the first astrophysicist and the last scientific astrologer".[116] The debate over Kepler's place in the Scientific Revolution has produced a wide variety of philosophical and popular treatments. One of the most influential is Arthur Koestler's 1959 The Sleepwalkers, in which Kepler is unambiguously the hero (morally and theologically as well as intellectually) of the revolution.[117]

 A well-received historical novel by John Banville, Kepler (1981), explored many of the themes developed in Koestler's non-fiction narrative and in the philosophy of science.[118] A 2004 nonfiction book, Heavenly Intrigue, suggested that Kepler murdered Tycho Brahe to gain access to his data.[119]

 In Austria, a silver collector's 10-euro Johannes Kepler silver coin was minted in 2002. The reverse side of the coin has a portrait of Kepler, who spent some time teaching in Graz and the surrounding areas. Kepler was acquainted with Prince Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg personally, and he probably influenced the construction of Eggenberg Castle (the motif of the obverse of the coin). In front of him on the coin is the model of nested spheres and polyhedra from Mysterium Cosmographicum.[120]

 The German composer Paul Hindemith wrote an opera about Kepler entitled Die Harmonie der Welt (1957), and during the prolonged process of its creation, he also wrote a symphony of the same name based on the musical ideas he developed for it.[121] Hindemith's opera inspired John Rodgers and Willie Ruff of Yale University to create a synthesizer composition based on Kepler's scheme for representing planetary motion with music.[122] Philip Glass wrote an opera called Kepler (2009) based on Kepler's life, with a libretto in German and Latin by Martina Winkel.[123]

 Directly named for Kepler's contribution to science are Kepler's laws of planetary motion; Kepler's Supernova SN 1604, which he observed and described; the Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra a set of geometrical constructions, two of which were described by him; and the Kepler conjecture on sphere packing. Places and entities named in his honor include multiple city streets and squares, several educational institutions, an asteroid, and both a lunar and a Martian crater.

 Works [ edit ]

 Epitome astronomiae copernicanae, 1618
 * Mysterium Cosmographicum (The Sacred Mystery of the Cosmos) (1596)
 * De Fundamentis Astrologiae Certioribus (On Firmer Fundaments of Astrology) (1601)
 * Astronomiae pars optica (in Latin). Frankfurt am Main: Claude de Marne. 1604.
 * De Stella nova in pede Serpentarii (On the New Star in Ophiuchus's Foot) (1606)
 * Astronomia nova (New Astronomy) (1609)
 * Tertius Interveniens (Third-party Interventions) (1610)
 * Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo (Conversation with the Starry Messenger) (1610)
 * Dioptrice (1611)
 * De nive sexangula (On the Six-Cornered Snowflake) (1611)
 * De vero Anno, quo aeternus Dei Filius humanam naturam in Utero benedictae Virginis Mariae assumpsit (1614)[124]
 * Eclogae Chronicae (1615, published with Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo)
 * Nova stereometria doliorum vinariorum (New Stereometry of Wine Barrels) (1615)
 * Ephemerides nouae motuum coelestium (1617–30)
 * Epitome astronomiae copernicanae (in Latin). Linz: Johann Planck. 1618.
 * Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae. 1-3, De doctrina sphaerica (in Latin). Vol. 44199. Linz: Johann Planck. 1618.
 + Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae. 4, Doctrina theorica. 1, Physica coelestis (in Latin). Vol. 4. Linz: Gottfried Tambach. 1622.
 + Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae. 5-7, Doctrina theorica (in Latin). Vol. 44323. Linz: Gottfried Tambach. 1621.
 * De cometis (in Latin). Augsburg: Sebastian Müller. 1619.
 * Harmonice Mundi (Harmony of the Worlds) (1619)
 * Mysterium cosmographicum (The Sacred Mystery of the Cosmos), 2nd edition (1621)
 * Tabulae Rudolphinae (Rudolphine Tables) (1627)
 * Somnium (The Dream) (1634) (English translation on Google Books preview)
 * [Opere] (in Latin). Vol. 1. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder & Zimmer. 1858.
 + [Opere] (in Latin). Vol. 2. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder & Zimmer. 1859.
 + [Opere] (in Latin). Vol. 3. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder & Zimmer. 1860.
 + [Opere] (in Latin). Vol. 4. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder & Zimmer. 1863.
 + [Opere] (in Latin). Vol. 5. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder & Zimmer. 1864.
 + [Opere] (in Latin). Vol. 6. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder & Zimmer. 1866.
 + [Opere] (in Latin). Vol. 7. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder & Zimmer. 1868.
 + [Opere] (in Latin). Vol. 8. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder & Zimmer. 1870.
 + [Opere] (in Latin). Vol. 9. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder & Zimmer. 1871.

 A critical edition of Kepler's collected works (Johannes Kepler Gesammelte Werke, KGW) in 22 volumes is being edited by the Kepler-Kommission (founded 1935) on behalf of the Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften.

 Vol. 1: Mysterium Cosmographicum. De Stella Nova. Ed. M. Caspar. 1938, 2nd ed. 1993. Paperback ISBN 3-406-01639-1. Vol. 2: Astronomiae pars optica. Ed. F. Hammer. 1939, Paperback ISBN 3-406-01641-3. Vol. 3: Astronomia Nova. Ed. M. Caspar. 1937. IV, 487 p. 2. ed. 1990. Paperback ISBN 3-406-01643-X. Semi-parchment ISBN 3-406-01642-1. Vol. 4: Kleinere Schriften 1602–1611. Dioptrice. Ed. M. Caspar, F. Hammer. 1941. ISBN 3-406-01644-8. Vol. 5: Chronologische Schriften. Ed. F. Hammer. 1953. Out-of-print. Vol. 6: Harmonice Mundi. Ed. M. Caspar. 1940, 2nd ed. 1981, ISBN 3-406-01648-0. Vol. 7: Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae. Ed. M. Caspar. 1953, 2nd ed. 1991. ISBN 3-406-01650-2, Paperback ISBN 3-406-01651-0. Vol. 8: Mysterium Cosmographicum. Editio altera cum notis. De Cometis. Hyperaspistes. Commentary F. Hammer. 1955. Paperback ISBN 3-406-01653-7. Vol 9: Mathematische Schriften. Ed. F. Hammer. 1955, 2nd ed. 1999. Out-of-print. Vol. 10: Tabulae Rudolphinae. Ed. F. Hammer. 1969. ISBN 3-406-01656-1. Vol. 11,1: Ephemerides novae motuum coelestium. Commentary V. Bialas. 1983. ISBN 3-406-01658-8, Paperback ISBN 3-406-01659-6. Vol. 11,2: Calendaria et Prognostica. Astronomica minora. Somnium. Commentary V. Bialas, H. Grössing. 1993. ISBN 3-406-37510-3, Paperback ISBN 3-406-37511-1. Vol. 12: Theologica. Hexenprozeß. Tacitus-Übersetzung. Gedichte. Commentary J. Hübner, H. Grössing, F. Boockmann, F. Seck. Directed by V. Bialas. 1990. ISBN 3-406-01660-X, Paperback ISBN 3-406-01661-8.
 * Vols. 13–18: Letters:
 Vol. 13: Briefe 1590–1599. Ed. M. Caspar. 1945. 432 p. ISBN 3-406-01663-4. Vol. 14: Briefe 1599–1603. Ed. M. Caspar. 1949. Out-of-print. 2nd ed. in preparation. Vol 15: Briefe 1604–1607. Ed. M. Caspar. 1951. 2nd ed. 1995. ISBN 3-406-01667-7. Vol. 16: Briefe 1607–1611. Ed. M. Caspar. 1954. ISBN 3-406-01668-5. Vol. 17: Briefe 1612–1620. Ed. M. Caspar. 1955. ISBN 3-406-01671-5. Vol. 18: Briefe 1620–1630. Ed. M. Caspar. 1959. ISBN 3-406-01672-3. Vol. 19: Dokumente zu Leben und Werk. Commentary M. List. 1975. ISBN 978-3-406-01674-5. Vols. 20–21: manuscripts Vol. 20,1: Manuscripta astronomica (I). Apologia, De motu Terrae, Hipparchus etc. Commentary V. Bialas. 1988. ISBN 3-406-31501-1. Paperback ISBN 3-406-31502-X. Vol. 20,2: Manuscripta astronomica (II). Commentaria in Theoriam Martis. Commentary V. Bialas. 1998. Paperback ISBN 3-406-40593-2. Vol. 21,1: Manuscripta astronomica (III) et mathematica. De Calendario Gregoriano. In preparation. Vol. 21,2: Manuscripta varia. In preparation. Vol. 22: General index, in preparation.

 The Kepler-Kommission also publishes Bibliographia Kepleriana (2nd ed. List, 1968), a complete bibliography of editions of Kepler's works, with a supplementary volume to the second edition (ed. Hamel 1998).

 See also [ edit ]

 * Theoretical physics
 * Cavalieri's principle
 * History of astronomy
 * History of physics
 + Kepler orbit
 + Kepler triangle
 * Kepler–Bouwkamp constant
 * Penrose tiling
 * Radiation pressure

 Notes [ edit ]

 1. ^ "Kepler's decision to base his causal explanation of planetary motion on a distance-velocity law, rather than on uniform circular motions of compounded spheres, marks a major shift from ancient to modern conceptions of science ... [Kepler] had begun with physical principles and had then derived a trajectory from it, rather than simply constructing new models. In other words, even before discovering the area law, Kepler had abandoned uniform circular motion as a physical principle." [59]
 2. ^ By 1621 or earlier, Kepler recognized that Jupiter's moons obey his third law. Kepler contended that rotating massive bodies communicate their rotation to their satellites, so that the satellites are swept around the central body; thus the rotation of the Sun drives the revolutions of the planets and the rotation of the Earth drives the revolution of the Moon. In Kepler's era, no one had any evidence of Jupiter's rotation. However, Kepler argued that the force by which a central body causes its satellites to revolve around it, weakens with distance; consequently, satellites that are farther from the central body revolve slower. Kepler noted that Jupiter's moons obeyed this pattern and he inferred that a similar force was responsible. He also noted that the orbital periods and semi-major axes of Jupiter's satellites were roughly related by a 3/2 power law, as are the orbits of the six (then known) planets. However, this relation was approximate: the periods of Jupiter's moons were known within a few percent of their modern values, but the moons' semi-major axes were determined less accurately. Kepler discussed Jupiter's moons in his Summary of Copernican Astronomy : [66][67]

 (4) However, the credibility of this [argument] is proved by the comparison of the four [moons] of Jupiter and Jupiter with the six planets and the Sun. Because, regarding the body of Jupiter, whether it turns around its axis, we don't have proofs for what suffices for us [regarding the rotation of ] the body of the Earth and especially of the Sun, certainly [as reason proves to us]: but reason attests that, just as it is clearly [true] among the six planets around the Sun, so also it is among the four [moons] of Jupiter, because around the body of Jupiter any [satellite] that can go farther from it orbits slower, and even that [orbit's period] is not in the same proportion, but greater [than the distance from Jupiter]; that is, 3/2 (sescupla ) of the proportion of each of the distances from Jupiter, which is clearly the very [proportion] as [is used for] the six planets above. In his [book] The World of Jupiter [Mundus Jovialis, 1614], [Simon] Mayr [1573–1624] presents these distances, from Jupiter, of the four [moons] of Jupiter: 3, 5, 8, 13 (or 14 [according to] Galileo) ... Mayr presents their time periods: 1 day 18 1/2 hours, 3 days 13 1/3 hours, 7 days 3 hours, 16 days 18 hours: for all [of these data] the proportion is greater than double, thus greater than [the proportion] of the distances 3, 5, 8, 13 or 14, although less than [the proportion] of the squares, which double the proportions of the distances, namely 9, 25, 64, 169 or 196, just as [a power of] 3/2 is also greater than 1 but less than 2.

 3. ^ The opening of the movie Mars et Avril by Martin Villeneuve is based on German astronomer Johannes Kepler's cosmological model from the 17th century, Harmonice Mundi , in which the harmony of the universe is determined by the motion of celestial bodies. Benoît Charest also composed the score according to this theory.

 References [ edit ]

 Citations [ edit ]

 1. ^ Liscia, Daniel A. Di. "Johannes Kepler". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
 2. ^ "Kepler" . Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary .
 3. ^ Dudenredaktion; Kleiner, Stefan; Knöbl, Ralf (2015) [First published 1962]. Das Aussprachewörterbuch [The Pronunciation Dictionary] (in German) (7th ed.). Berlin: Dudenverlag. pp. 487, 505. ISBN 978-3-411-04067-4.
 4. ^ Krech, Eva-Maria; Stock, Eberhard; Hirschfeld, Ursula; Anders, Lutz Christian (2009). Deutsches Aussprachewörterbuch [German Pronunciation Dictionary] (in German). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 628, 646. ISBN 978-3-11-018202-6.
 5. ^ Jeans, Susi (2013) [2001]. "Kepler [Keppler], Johannes". Grove Music Online. Revised by H. Floris Cohen. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.14903. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0 . Retrieved 26 September 2021 . (subscription or UK public library membership required)
 6. ^ Voelkel, James R. (2001). "Commentary on Ernan McMullin, "The Impact of Newton's Principia on the Philosophy of Science"". Philosophy of Science. 68 (3): 319–326. doi:10.1086/392885. ISSN 0031-8248. JSTOR 3080920. S2CID 144781947.
 7. ^ [1] [ permanent dead link ] Retrieved 9 July 2017
 8. ^ Barker and Goldstein. "Theological Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy", pp. 112–13.
 9. ^ Kepler. New Astronomy , title page, tr. Donohue, pp. 26–7
 10. ^ Kepler. New Astronomy , p. 48
 11. ^ Epitome of Copernican Astronomy in Great Books of the Western World , Vol 15, p. 845
 12. ^ Stephenson. Kepler's Physical Astronomy, pp. 1–2; Dear, Revolutionizing the Sciences , pp. 74–78
 13. ^ Caspar. Kepler , pp. 29–36; Connor. Kepler's Witch , pp. 23–46.
 14. ^ a b Koestler. The Sleepwalkers , p. 234 (translated from Kepler's family horoscope).
 15. ^ Caspar. Kepler , pp. 36–38; Connor. Kepler's Witch , pp. 25–27.
 16. ^ Connor, James A. Kepler's Witch (2004), p. 58.
 17. ^ a b Barker, Peter; Goldstein, Bernard R. "Theological Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy", Osiris, 2nd Series, Vol. 16, Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions (2001), p. 96.
 18. ^ Westman, Robert S. "Kepler's Early Physico-Astrological Problematic," Journal for the History of Astronomy , 32 (2001): 227–36.
 19. ^ Caspar. Kepler , pp. 38–52; Connor. Kepler's Witch , pp. 49–69.
 20. ^ Caspar, Kepler . pp. 50–51.
 21. ^ Caspar, Kepler . pp. 58–65.
 22. ^ Caspar, Kepler . pp. 71–75.
 23. ^ Connor. Kepler's Witch , pp. 89–100, 114–116; Caspar. Kepler , pp. 75–77
 24. ^ Caspar. Kepler , pp. 85–86.
 25. ^ Caspar, Kepler , pp. 86–89
 26. ^ Caspar, Kepler , pp. 89–100
 27. ^ "Using Tycho's data, see 'Two views of a system'". Archived from the original on 21 July 2011.
 28. ^ Caspar, Kepler , pp. 100–08.
 29. ^ Caspar, Kepler , p. 110.
 30. ^ Caspar, Kepler , pp. 108–11.
 31. ^ Caspar, Kepler , pp. 111–22.
 32. ^ Caspar, Kepler , pp. 149–53
 33. ^ Caspar, Kepler , pp. 146–148, 159–177
 34. ^ Caspar, Kepler , p. 151.
 35. ^ Caspar, Kepler , pp. 151–153.
 36. ^ Caspar, Kepler , pp. 153–157
 37. ^ Lear, Kepler's Dream , pp. 1–78
 38. ^ Caspar, Kepler , pp. 202–204
 39. ^ Connor, Kepler's Witch , pp. 222–226; Caspar, Kepler , pp. 204–07
 40. ^ Caspar, Kepler , pp. 208–11
 41. ^ Mazer, Arthur (2010). Shifting the Earth: The Mathematica Quest to Understand the Motion of the Universe. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-1-118-02427-0.
 42. ^ Ferguson, Thomas S. (1989), "Who solved the secretary problem ?", Statistical Science, 4 (3): 282–289, doi:10.1214/ss/1177012493, JSTOR 2245639, "When the celebrated German astronomer, Johannes Kepler (1571–1630), lost his first wife to cholera in 1611, he set about finding a new wife using the same methodical thoroughness and careful consideration of the data that he used in finding the orbit of Mars to be an ellipse ... The process consumed much of his attention and energy for nearly 2 years ..."
 43. ^ Quotation from Connor, Kepler's Witch , p 252, translated from an 23 October 1613 letter from Kepler to an anonymous nobleman
 44. ^ Caspar, Kepler , pp. 220–223; Connor, Kepler's Witch , pp. 251–54.
 45. ^ Caspar, Kepler , pp. 358–360
 46. ^ "Johannes Kepler | Biography, Discoveries, & Facts".
 47. ^ "Astronomy – the techniques of astronomy".
 48. ^ Letter (9/10 Apr 1599) to the Bavarian chancellor Herwart von Hohenburg. Collected in Carola Baumgardt and Jamie Callan, Johannes Kepler Life and Letters (1953), 50
 49. ^ Rothman, Aviva (1 January 2020). "Johannes Kepler's pursuit of harmony". Physics Today. 73 (1): 36–42. Bibcode:2020PhT....73a..36R. doi:10.1063/PT.3.4388. ISSN 0031-9228. S2CID 214144110.
 50. ^ Caspar. Kepler , pp. 60–65; see also: Barker and Goldstein, "Theological Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy."
 51. ^ Barker and Goldstein. "Theological Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy," pp. 99–103, 112–113.
 52. ^ Caspar. Kepler , pp. 65–71.
 53. ^ Field. Kepler's Geometrical Cosmology , Chapter IV, p 73ff.
 54. ^ Dreyer, J.L.E. A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler , Dover Publications, 1953, pp. 331, 377–379.
 55. ^ Goldstein, Bernard; Hon, Giora (2005). "Kepler's Move from Orbs to Orbits: Documenting a Revolutionary Scientific Concept". Perspectives on Science. 13: 74–111. doi:10.1162/1063614053714126. S2CID 57559843.
 56. ^ Caspar, Kepler , pp. 123–128
 57. ^ On motive species, see Lindberg, "The Genesis of Kepler's Theory of Light," pp. 38–40.
 58. ^ Koyré, The Astronomical Revolution , pp. 199–202.
 59. ^ Peter Barker and Bernard R. Goldstein, "Distance and Velocity in Kepler's Astronomy", Annals of Science, 51 (1994): 59–73, at p. 60.
 60. ^ Caspar, Kepler , pp. 129–132
 61. ^ Dreyer, John Louis Emil (1906). History of the Planetary Systems from Thales to Kepler. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 402.
 62. ^ Caspar, Kepler , p. 133
 63. ^ Caspar, Kepler , pp. 131–140; Koyré, The Astronomical Revolution , pp. 277–279
 64. ^ Caspar, Kepler , pp. 239–240, 293–300
 65. ^ a b Gingerich, "Kepler, Johannes" from Dictionary of Scientific Biography , pp. 302–04
 66. ^ Linz ("Lentiis ad Danubium"), (Austria): Johann Planck, 1622), book 4, part 2, page 554
 67. ^ Christian Frisch, ed., Joannis Kepleri Astronomi Opera Omnia , vol. 6 (Frankfurt-am-Main, (Germany): Heyder & Zimmer, 1866), page 361 .)
 68. ^ Wolf, A History of Science, Technology and Philosophy , pp. 140–41; Pannekoek, A History of Astronomy , p 252
 69. ^ a b Rothman, A. (2021). "Kepler's Epitome of Copernican Astronomy in context". Centaurus. 63: 171–191. doi:10.1111/1600-0498.12356. ISSN 0008-8994. S2CID 230613099.
 70. ^ Gingerich, Owen (1990). "Five Centuries of Astronomical Textbooks and Their Role in Teaching". The Teaching of Astronomy, Proceedings of IAU Colloq. 105, Held in Williamstown, MA, 27–30 July 1988: 189. Bibcode:1990teas.conf..189G.
 71. ^ Caspar, Kepler . pp. 178–179.
 72. ^ Robert J. King, “Johannes Kepler and Australia”, The Globe, no.90, 2021, pp.15-24.
 73. ^ a b Field, J. V. (1984). "A Lutheran Astrologer: Johannes Kepler". Archive for History of Exact Sciences. 31 (3): 189–272. Bibcode:1984AHES...31..189F. doi:10.1007/BF00327703. ISSN 0003-9519. JSTOR 41133735. S2CID 119811074.
 74. ^ Lodge, O.J. , "Johann Kepler" in The World of Mathematics , Vol. 1 (1956) Ed. Newman, J.R. , Simon and Schuster , pp. 231.
 75. ^ Boner, P. J. (2005). "Soul-Searching with Kepler: An Analysis of Anima in His Astrology". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 36 (1): 7–20. Bibcode:2005JHA....36....7B. doi:10.1177/002182860503600102. S2CID 124764022.
 76. ^ Simon, G. (1975). "Kepler's astrology: The direction of a reform". Vistas in Astronomy. 18 (1): 439–448. Bibcode:1975VA.....18..439S. doi:10.1016/0083-6656(75)90122-1.
 77. ^ Brackenridge, J. Bruce; Rossi, Mary Ann (1979). "Johannes Kepler's on the More Certain Fundamentals of Astrology Prague 1601". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 123 (2): 85–116. ISSN 0003-049X. JSTOR 986232.
 78. ^ Caspar, Kepler , pp. 178–81
 79. ^ Caspar, Kepler , pp. 181–85. The full title is Tertius Interveniens, das ist Warnung an etliche Theologos, Medicos vnd Philosophos, sonderlich D. Philippum Feselium, dass sie bey billicher Verwerffung der Sternguckerischen Aberglauben nict das Kindt mit dem Badt aussschütten vnd hiermit jhrer Profession vnwissendt zuwider handlen , translated by C. Doris Hellman as " Tertius Interveniens , that is warning to some theologians, medics and philosophers, especially D. Philip Feselius, that they in cheap condemnation of the star-gazer's superstition do not throw out the child with the bath and hereby unknowingly act contrary to their profession."
 80. ^ Quotation from Caspar, Kepler , pp. 265–266, translated from Harmonice Mundi
 81. ^ Caspar, Kepler , pp. 264–66, 290–93
 82. ^ Caspar, Kepler , pp. 266–90
 83. ^ Miller, Arthur I. (24 March 2009). Deciphering the cosmic number: the strange friendship of Wolfgang Pauli and Carl Jung. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-393-06532-9 . Retrieved 7 March 2011 .
 84. ^ Westfall, Never at Rest , pp. 143, 152, 402–03; Toulmin and Goodfield, The Fabric of the Heavens , p 248; De Gandt, 'Force and Geometry in Newton's Principia', chapter 2; Wolf, History of Science, Technology and Philosophy , p. 150; Westfall, The Construction of Modern Science , chapters 7 and 8
 85. ^ Koyré, The Astronomical Revolution , p. 502
 86. ^ Finger, "Origins of Neuroscience," p. 74. Oxford University Press , 2001.
 87. ^ Caspar, Kepler , pp. 142–146
 88. ^ Morris Kline , Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times , p. 299. Oxford University Press , 1972.
 89. ^ Caspar, Kepler , pp. 192–197
 90. ^ Koestler, The Sleepwalkers p. 384
 91. ^ Caspar, Kepler , pp. 198–202
 92. ^ Schneer, "Kepler's New Year's Gift of a Snowflake," pp. 531–45
 93. ^ Kepler, Johannes (1966) [1611]. Hardie, Colin (ed.). De nive sexangula [The Six-sided Snowflake]. Oxford: Clarendon Press. OCLC 974730.
 94. ^ Caspar, Kepler , pp. 209–20, 227–240. In 2018 a complete English translation was publihed: Nova stereometria doliorum vinariorum / New solid geometry of wine barrels. Accessit stereometriæ Archimedeæ supplementum / A supplement to the Archimedean solid geometry has been added . Edited and translated, with an Introduction, by Eberhard Knobloch . Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 2018. ISBN 978-2-251-44832-9
 95. ^ Belyi, Y. A. (1975). "Johannes Kepler and the development of mathematics". Vistas in Astronomy. 18 (1): 643–660. Bibcode:1975VA.....18..643B. doi:10.1016/0083-6656(75)90149-X.
 96. ^ Thorvaldsen, S. (2010). "Early Numerical Analysis in Kepler's New Astronomy". Science in Context. 23 (1): 39–63. doi:10.1017/S0269889709990238. S2CID 122605799.
 97. ^ Cardil, Roberto (2020). "Kepler: The Volume of a Wine Barrel". Mathematical Association of America . Retrieved 16 July 2022 .
 98. ^ Albinus, Hans-Joachim (June 2002). "Joannes Keplerus Leomontanus: Kepler's childhood in Weil der Stadt and Leonberg 1571–1584". The Mathematical Intelligencer. 24 (3): 50–58. doi:10.1007/BF03024733. ISSN 0343-6993. S2CID 123965600.
 99. ^ For a detailed study of the reception of Kepler's astronomy see Wilbur Applebaum, "Keplerian Astronomy after Kepler: Researches and Problems," History of Science , 34(1996): 451–504.
 100. ^ Koyré, The Astronomical Revolution , pp. 362–364
 101. ^ North, History of Astronomy and Cosmology , pp. 355–60
 102. ^ van Helden, Albert (1976). "The Importance of the Transit of Mercury of 1631". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 7: 1–10. Bibcode:1976JHA.....7....1V. doi:10.1177/002182867600700101. S2CID 220916972.
 103. ^ HM Nautical Almanac Office (10 June 2004). "1631 Transit of Venus". Archived from the original on 1 October 2006 . Retrieved 28 August 2006 .
 104. ^ Allan Chapman, "Jeremiah Horrocks, the transit of Venus, and the 'New Astronomy' in early 17th-century England," Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, 31 (1990): 333–357.
 105. ^ North, History of Astronomy and Cosmology , pp. 348–349
 106. ^ Wilbur Applebaum and Robert Hatch, "Boulliau, Mercator, and Horrock's Venus in sole visa: Three Unpublished Letters," Journal for the History of Astronomy , 14(1983): 166–179
 107. ^ Lawrence Nolan (ed.), The Cambridge Descartes Lexicon , Cambridge University Press, 2016, "Inertia."
 108. ^ Kuhn, The Copernican Revolution , pp. 238, 246–252
 109. ^ Frautschi, Steven C.; Olenick, Richard P.; Apostol, Tom M.; Goodstein, David L. (2007). The Mechanical Universe: Mechanics and Heat (Advanced ed.). Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]: Cambridge University Press. p. 451. ISBN 978-0-521-71590-4. OCLC 227002144.
 110. ^ Jardine, "Koyré's Kepler/Kepler's Koyré," pp. 363–367
 111. ^ Jardine, "Koyré's Kepler/Kepler's Koyré," pp. 367–372; Shapin, The Scientific Revolution , pp. 1–2
 112. ^ Pauli, "The Influence of Archetypical Ideas"
 113. ^ Gingerich, introduction to Caspar's Kepler , pp. 3–4
 114. ^ Ulrich Grigull , "Sechzig Jahre Kepler-Kommission", in: Sitzungsberichte der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften [Sitzung vom 5. Juli 1996], 1996.
 115. ^ kepler-kommission.de . Ulf Hashagen, Walther von Dyck (1856–1934). Mathematik, Technik und Wissenschaftsorganisation an der TH München, Stuttgart, 2003.
 116. ^ Quote from Carl Sagan , Cosmos: A Personal Voyage , episode III: "The Harmony of the Worlds".
 117. ^ Stephen Toulmin, Review of The Sleepwalkers in The Journal of Philosophy , Vol. 59, no. 18 (1962), pp. 500–503
 118. ^ William Donahue, "A Novelist's Kepler," Journal for the History of Astronomy , Vol. 13 (1982), pp. 135–136; "Dancing the grave dance: Science, art and religion in John Banville's Kepler ," English Studies , Vol. 86, no. 5 (October 2005), pp. 424–438
 119. ^ Marcelo Gleiser , "Kepler in the Dock", review of Gilder and Gilder's Heavenly Intrigue , Journal for the History of Astronomy , Vol. 35, pt. 4 (2004), pp. 487–489
 120. ^ "Eggenberg Palace coin". Austrian Mint. Archived from the original on May 31, 2011 . Retrieved September 9, 2009 .
 121. ^ MacDonald, Calum (2004). "Review of Hindemith: Die Harmonie der Welt". Tempo. 58 (227): 63–66. doi:10.1017/S0040298204210063. ISSN 0040-2982. JSTOR 3878689.
 122. ^ Rodgers, John; Ruff, Willie (1979). "Kepler's Harmony of the World: A Realization for the Ear". American Scientist. 67 (3): 286–292. Bibcode:1979AmSci..67..286R. ISSN 0003-0996. JSTOR 27849220.
 123. ^ Pasachoff, Jay M.; Pasachoff, Naomi (December 2009). "Third physics opera for Philip Glass". Nature. 462 (7274): 724. Bibcode:2009Natur.462..724P. doi:10.1038/462724a. ISSN 0028-0836. S2CID 4391370.
 124. ^ "... in 1614, Johannes Kepler published his book De vero anno quo aeternus dei filius humanum naturam in utero benedictae Virginis Mariae assumpsit , on the chronology related to the Star of Bethlehem.", The Star of Bethlehem , Kapteyn Astronomical Institute

 Sources [ edit ]

 * Andersen, Hanne; Peter Barker; and Xiang Chen. The Cognitive Structure of Scientific Revolutions, chapter 6: "The Copernican Revolution." New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0-521-85575-4
 * Armitage, Angus. John Kepler, Faber, 1966.
 * Banville, John. Kepler, Martin, Secker and Warburg, London, 1981 (fictionalised biography)
 * Barker, Peter and Bernard R. Goldstein: "Theological Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy". Osiris, Volume 16. Science in Theistic Contexts. University of Chicago Press, 2001, pp. 88–113
 * Caspar, Max. Kepler; transl. and ed. by C. Doris Hellman; with a new introduction and references by Owen Gingerich; bibliographic citations by Owen Gingerich and Alain Segonds. New York: Dover, 1993. ISBN 978-0-486-67605-0
 * Connor, James A. Kepler's Witch: An Astronomer's Discovery of Cosmic Order Amid Religious War, Political Intrigue, and the Heresy Trial of His Mother. HarperSanFrancisco, 2004. ISBN 978-0-06-052255-1
 * De Gandt, Francois. Force and Geometry in Newton's Principia, Translated by Curtis Wilson, Princeton University Press, 1995. ISBN 978-0-691-03367-9
 * Dreyer, J. L. E. A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler. Dover Publications Inc, 1967. ISBN 0-486-60079-3
 * Ferguson, Kitty. The nobleman and his housedog: Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler: the strange partnership that revolutionized science. London: Review, 2002. ISBN 978-0-7472-7022-5 – published in the US as: Tycho & Kepler: the unlikely partnership that forever changed our understanding of the heavens. New York: Walker, 2002. ISBN 0-8027-1390-4
 * Field, J. V. Kepler's geometrical cosmology. University of Chicago Press, 1988. ISBN 978-0-226-24823-3
 * Gilder, Joshua and Anne-Lee Gilder: Heavenly Intrigue: Johannes Kepler, Tycho Brahe, and the Murder Behind One of History's Greatest Scientific Discoveries, Doubleday (18 May 2004). ISBN 978-0-385-50844-5 Reviews bookpage.com, crisismagazine.com
 * Gingerich, Owen. The Eye of Heaven: Ptolemy, Copernicus, Kepler. American Institute of Physics, 1993. ISBN 978-0-88318-863-7 (Masters of modern physics; v. 7)
 * Gingerich, Owen: "Kepler, Johannes" in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Volume VII. Charles Coulston Gillispie, editor. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973
 * Greenbaum and Boockmann: "Kepler's Astrology", Culture and Cosmos Vol. 14. Special Double Issue, 2012.
 * Jardine, Nick: "Koyré's Kepler/Kepler's Koyré," History of Science, Vol. 38 (2000), pp. 363–376
 * Kepler, Johannes. Johannes Kepler New Astronomy trans. W. Donahue, foreword by O. Gingerich, Cambridge University Press 1993. ISBN 0-521-30131-9
 * Kepler, Johannes and Christian Frisch. Joannis Kepleri Astronomi Opera Omnia (John Kepler, Astronomer; Complete Works), 8 vols.(1858–1871). vol. 1, 1858, vol. 2, 1859, vol. 3, 1860, vol. 6, 1866, vol. 7, 1868, Frankfurt am Main and Erlangen, Heyder & Zimmer, – Google Books
 * Kepler, Johannes, et al. Great Books of the Western World. Volume 16: Ptolemy, Copernicus, Kepler, Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1952. (contains English translations by of Kepler's Epitome, Books IV & V and Harmonice Book 5)
 * Koestler, Arthur. The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe. (1959). ISBN 978-0-14-019246-9
 * Koyré, Alexandre: Galilean Studies Harvester Press, 1977. ISBN 978-0-85527-354-5
 * Koyré, Alexandre: The Astronomical Revolution: Copernicus-Kepler-Borelli Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1973. ISBN 978-0-8014-0504-4; Methuen, 1973. ISBN 978-0-416-76980-7; Hermann, 1973. ISBN 978-2-7056-5648-5
 * Kuhn, Thomas S. The Copernican Revolution: Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1957. ISBN 978-0-674-17103-9
 * Lindberg, David C.: "The Genesis of Kepler's Theory of Light: Light Metaphysics from Plotinus to Kepler." Osiris, N.S. 2. University of Chicago Press, 1986, pp. 5–42.
 * Lear, John. Kepler's Dream. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965
 * M.T.K Al-Tamimi. "Great collapse Kepler's first law", Natural Science, 2 (2010), ISSN 2150-4091
 * North, John. The Fontana History of Astronomy and Cosmology, Fontana Press, 1994. ISBN 978-0-00-686177-5
 * Pannekoek, Anton: A History of Astronomy, Dover Publications Inc 1989. ISBN 978-0-486-65994-7
 * Pauli, Wolfgang. Wolfgang Pauli – Writings on physics and philosophy, translated by Robert Schlapp and edited by P. Enz and Karl von Meyenn (Springer Verlag, Berlin, 1994). See section 21, The influence of archetypical ideas on the scientific theories of Kepler, concerning Johannes Kepler and Robert Fludd (1574–1637). ISBN 978-3-540-56859-9
 * Schneer, Cecil: "Kepler's New Year's Gift of a Snowflake." Isis, Volume 51, No. 4. University of Chicago Press, 1960, pp. 531–545.
 * Shapin, Steven. The Scientific Revolution. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996. ISBN 978-0-226-75020-0
 * Stephenson, Bruce. Kepler's physical astronomy. New York: Springer, 1987. ISBN 978-0-387-96541-3 (Studies in the history of mathematics and physical sciences; 13); reprinted Princeton:Princeton Univ. Pr., 1994. ISBN 978-0-691-03652-6
 * Stephenson, Bruce. The Music of the Heavens: Kepler's Harmonic Astronomy, Princeton University Press, 1994. ISBN 978-0-691-03439-3
 * Toulmin, Stephen and June Goodfield. The Fabric of the Heavens: The Development of Astronomy and Dynamics. Pelican, 1963.
 * Voelkel, James R. The Composition of Kepler's Astronomia nova, Princeton University Press, 2001. ISBN 978-0-691-00738-0
 * Westfall, Richard S. The Construction of Modern Science: Mechanism and Mechanics. John Wiley and Sons, 1971. ISBN 0-471-93531-X; reprinted Cambridge University Press, 1978. ISBN 0-521-29295-6
 * Westfall, Richard S. Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton. Cambridge University Press, 1981. ISBN 978-0-521-23143-5
 * Wolf, A. A History of Science, Technology and Philosophy in the 16th and 17th centuries. George Allen & Unwin, 1950.

 External links [ edit ]

 Johannes Kepler at Wikipedia's sister projects
 * Media from Commons
 * Quotations from Wikiquote
 * Texts from Wikisource
 * Textbooks from Wikibooks
 * Kepler's Conversation with the Starry Messenger (English translation of Dissertation cum Nuncio Sidereo) Archived 17 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine
 * Herausgabe der Werke von Johannes Kepler (with links to digital scans of the published volumes)
 * Johannes Kepler at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
 * Works by Johannes Kepler at Project Gutenberg
 * Works by or about Johannes Kepler at Internet Archive
 * Walter W. Bryant. Kepler at Project Gutenberg (1920 book, part of Men of Science series)
 * Clerke, Agnes Mary (1911). "Kepler, Johann" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). pp. 749–751.
 * Johannes Kepler at Curlie
 * Plant, David, Kepler and the "Music of the Spheres"
 * O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Johannes Kepler", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews
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Johannes Kepler       Portrait of Kepler by an unknown artist in 1620.    Born 27 December 1571   Free Imperial City of Weil der Stadt, Holy Roman Empire      Died 15 November 1630 (aged 58)   Free Imperial City of Regensburg, Holy Roman Empire     Education  Tübinger Stift, University of Tübingen (M.A., 1591) [1]     Known for  Kepler's laws of planetary motion  Kepler conjecture   Rudolphine Tables      Scientific career    Fields  Astronomy, astrology, mathematics, natural philosophy     Doctoral advisor   Michael Maestlin    Influences  Nicolaus Copernicus  Tycho Brahe  Pythagoras    Influenced  Sir Isaac Newton  Benoit Mandelbrot  Thomas Browne    Signature         
 Johannes Kepler (; [2]  German:  [joˈhanəs ˈkɛplɐ, -nɛs -] (  listen); [3]   [4]  27 December 1571 – 15 November 1630) was a German astronomer, mathematician, astrologer, natural philosopher and writer on music. [5]  He is a key figure in the 17th-century Scientific Revolution, best known for his laws of planetary motion, and his books  Astronomia nova ,  Harmonice Mundi , and  Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae . These works also provided one of the foundations for Newton's theory of universal gravitation. [6] 
 Kepler was a mathematics teacher at a seminary school in Graz, where he became an associate of Prince Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg. Later he became an assistant to the astronomer Tycho Brahe in Prague, and eventually the imperial mathematician to Emperor Rudolf II and his two successors Matthias and Ferdinand II. He also taught mathematics in Linz, and was an adviser to General Wallenstein.
Additionally, he did fundamental work in the field of optics, invented an improved version of the refracting (or Keplerian) telescope, and was mentioned in the telescopic discoveries of his contemporary Galileo Galilei. He was a corresponding member of the Accademia dei Lincei in Rome. [7] 
 Kepler lived in an era when there was no clear distinction between astronomy and astrology, but there was a strong division between astronomy (a branch of mathematics within the liberal arts) and physics (a branch of natural philosophy). Kepler also incorporated religious arguments and reasoning into his work, motivated by the religious conviction and belief that God had created the world according to an intelligible plan that is accessible through the natural light of reason. [8]  Kepler described his new astronomy as "celestial physics", [9]  as "an excursion into Aristotle's  Metaphysics ", [10]  and as "a supplement to Aristotle's  On the Heavens ", [11]  transforming the ancient tradition of physical cosmology by treating astronomy as part of a universal mathematical physics. [12] 
Early life[edit]
Childhood (1571–1590)[edit]
      Kepler's birthplace, in Weil der Stadt  
Kepler was born on 27 December 1571, in the Free Imperial City of Weil der Stadt (now part of the Stuttgart Region in the German state of Baden-Württemberg, 30 km west of Stuttgart's center). His grandfather, Sebald Kepler, had been Lord Mayor of the city. By the time Johannes was born, he had two brothers and one sister and the Kepler family fortune was in decline. His father, Heinrich Kepler, earned a precarious living as a mercenary, and he left the family when Johannes was five years old. He was believed to have died in the Eighty Years' War in the Netherlands. His mother, Katharina Guldenmann, an innkeeper's daughter, was a healer and herbalist. Born prematurely, Johannes claimed to have been weak and sickly as a child. Nevertheless, he often impressed travelers at his grandfather's inn with his phenomenal mathematical faculty. [13] 
      As a child, Kepler witnessed the Great Comet of 1577, which attracted the attention of astronomers across Europe.  
He was introduced to astronomy at an early age and developed a strong passion for it that would span his entire life. At age six, he observed the Great Comet of 1577, writing that he "was taken by [his] mother to a high place to look at it." [14]  In 1580, at age nine, he observed another astronomical event, a lunar eclipse, recording that he remembered being "called outdoors" to see it and that the Moon "appeared quite red". [14]  However, childhood smallpox left him with weak vision and crippled hands, limiting his ability in the observational aspects of astronomy. [15] 
 In 1589, after moving through grammar school, Latin school, and seminary at Maulbronn, Kepler attended Tübinger Stift at the University of Tübingen. There, he studied philosophy under Vitus Müller [16]  and theology under Jacob Heerbrand (a student of Philipp Melanchthon at Wittenberg), who also taught Michael Maestlin while he was a student, until he became Chancellor at Tübingen in 1590. He proved himself to be a superb mathematician and earned a reputation as a skilful astrologer, casting horoscopes for fellow students. Under the instruction of Michael Maestlin, Tübingen's professor of mathematics from 1583 to 1631, [17]  he learned both the Ptolemaic system and the Copernican system of planetary motion. He became a Copernican at that time. In a student disputation, he defended heliocentrism from both a theoretical and theological perspective, maintaining that the Sun was the principal source of motive power in the universe. [18]  Despite his desire to become a minister, near the end of his studies, Kepler was recommended for a position as teacher of mathematics and astronomy at the Protestant school in Graz. He accepted the position in April 1594, at the age of 22. [19] 
Graz (1594–1600)[edit]
      Portraits of Kepler and his wife       House of Kepler and Barbara Müller in Gössendorf, near Graz (1597–1599)  
Before concluding his studies at Tübingen, Kepler accepted an offer to teach mathematics as a replacement to Georg Stadius at the Protestant school in Graz (now in Styria, Austria). [20]  During this period (1594–1600), he issued many official calendars and prognostications that enhanced his reputation as an astrologer. Although Kepler had mixed feelings about astrology and disparaged many customary practices of astrologers, he believed deeply in a connection between the cosmos and the individual. He eventually published some of the ideas he had entertained while a student in the Mysterium Cosmographicum (1596), published a little over a year after his arrival at Graz. [21] 
 In December 1595, Kepler was introduced to Barbara Müller, a 23-year-old widow (twice over) with a young daughter, Regina Lorenz, and he began courting her. Müller, an heiress to the estates of her late husbands, was also the daughter of a successful mill owner. Her father Jobst initially opposed a marriage. Even though Kepler had inherited his grandfather's nobility, Kepler's poverty made him an unacceptable match. Jobst relented after Kepler completed work on Mysterium, but the engagement nearly fell apart while Kepler was away tending to the details of publication. However, Protestant officials—who had helped set up the match—pressured the Müllers to honor their agreement. Barbara and Johannes were married on 27 April 1597. [22] 
 In the first years of their marriage, the Keplers had two children (Heinrich and Susanna), both of whom died in infancy. In 1602, they had a daughter (Susanna); in 1604, a son (Friedrich); and in 1607, another son (Ludwig). [23] 
Other research[edit]
Following the publication of Mysterium and with the blessing of the Graz school inspectors, Kepler began an ambitious program to extend and elaborate his work. He planned four additional books: one on the stationary aspects of the universe (the Sun and the fixed stars); one on the planets and their motions; one on the physical nature of planets and the formation of geographical features (focused especially on Earth); and one on the effects of the heavens on the Earth, to include atmospheric optics, meteorology, and astrology. [24] 
 He also sought the opinions of many of the astronomers to whom he had sent Mysterium, among them Reimarus Ursus (Nicolaus Reimers Bär)—the imperial mathematician to Rudolf II and a bitter rival of Tycho Brahe. Ursus did not reply directly, but republished Kepler's flattering letter to pursue his priority dispute over (what is now called) the Tychonic system with Tycho. Despite this black mark, Tycho also began corresponding with Kepler, starting with a harsh but legitimate critique of Kepler's system; among a host of objections, Tycho took issue with the use of inaccurate numerical data taken from Copernicus. Through their letters, Tycho and Kepler discussed a broad range of astronomical problems, dwelling on lunar phenomena and Copernican theory (particularly its theological viability). But without the significantly more accurate data of Tycho's observatory, Kepler had no way to address many of these issues. [25] 
 Instead, he turned his attention to chronology and "harmony," the numerological relationships among music, mathematics and the physical world, and their astrological consequences. By assuming the Earth to possess a soul (a property he would later invoke to explain how the Sun causes the motion of planets), he established a speculative system connecting astrological aspects and astronomical distances to weather and other earthly phenomena. By 1599, however, he again felt his work limited by the inaccuracy of available data—just as growing religious tension was also threatening his continued employment in Graz. In December of that year, Tycho invited Kepler to visit him in Prague; on 1 January 1600 (before he even received the invitation), Kepler set off in the hopes that Tycho's patronage could solve his philosophical problems as well as his social and financial ones. [26] 
Scientific career[edit]
Prague (1600–1612)[edit]
     
On 4 February 1600, Kepler met Tycho Brahe and his assistants Franz Tengnagel and Longomontanus at Benátky nad Jizerou (35 km from Prague), the site where Tycho's new observatory was being constructed. Over the next two months, he stayed as a guest, analyzing some of Tycho's observations of Mars; Tycho guarded his data closely, but was impressed by Kepler's theoretical ideas and soon allowed him more access. Kepler planned to test his theory [27]  from Mysterium Cosmographicum based on the Mars data, but he estimated that the work would take up to two years (since he was not allowed to simply copy the data for his own use). With the help of Johannes Jessenius, Kepler attempted to negotiate a more formal employment arrangement with Tycho, but negotiations broke down in an angry argument and Kepler left for Prague on 6 April. Kepler and Tycho soon reconciled and eventually reached an agreement on salary and living arrangements, and in June, Kepler returned home to Graz to collect his family. [28] 
 Political and religious difficulties in Graz dashed his hopes of returning immediately to Brahe; in hopes of continuing his astronomical studies, Kepler sought an appointment as a mathematician to Archduke Ferdinand. To that end, Kepler composed an essay—dedicated to Ferdinand—in which he proposed a force-based theory of lunar motion: "In Terra inest virtus, quae Lunam ciet" ("There is a force in the earth which causes the moon to move"). [29]  Though the essay did not earn him a place in Ferdinand's court, it did detail a new method for measuring lunar eclipses, which he applied during the 10 July eclipse in Graz. These observations formed the basis of his explorations of the laws of optics that would culminate in Astronomiae Pars Optica. [30] 
 On 2 August 1600, after refusing to convert to Catholicism, Kepler and his family were banished from Graz. Several months later, Kepler returned, now with the rest of his household, to Prague. Through most of 1601, he was supported directly by Tycho, who assigned him to analyzing planetary observations and writing a tract against Tycho's (by then deceased) rival, Ursus. In September, Tycho secured him a commission as a collaborator on the new project he had proposed to the emperor: the  Rudolphine Tables  that should replace the  Prutenic Tables  of Erasmus Reinhold. Two days after Tycho's unexpected death on 24 October 1601, Kepler was appointed his successor as the imperial mathematician with the responsibility to complete his unfinished work. The next 11 years as imperial mathematician would be the most productive of his life. [31] 
Imperial Advisor[edit]
Kepler's primary obligation as imperial mathematician was to provide astrological advice to the emperor. Though Kepler took a dim view of the attempts of contemporary astrologers to precisely predict the future or divine specific events, he had been casting well-received detailed horoscopes for friends, family, and patrons since his time as a student in Tübingen. In addition to horoscopes for allies and foreign leaders, the emperor sought Kepler's advice in times of political trouble. Rudolf was actively interested in the work of many of his court scholars (including numerous alchemists) and kept up with Kepler's work in physical astronomy as well. [32] 
 Officially, the only acceptable religious doctrines in Prague were Catholic and Utraquist, but Kepler's position in the imperial court allowed him to practice his Lutheran faith unhindered. The emperor nominally provided an ample income for his family, but the difficulties of the over-extended imperial treasury meant that actually getting hold of enough money to meet financial obligations was a continual struggle. Partly because of financial troubles, his life at home with Barbara was unpleasant, marred with bickering and bouts of sickness. Court life, however, brought Kepler into contact with other prominent scholars (Johannes Matthäus Wackher von Wackhenfels, Jost Bürgi, David Fabricius, Martin Bachazek, and Johannes Brengger, among others) and astronomical work proceeded rapidly. [33] 
Supernova of 1604[edit]
       Remnant of Kepler's Supernova SN 1604   
In October 1604, a bright new evening star (SN 1604) appeared, but Kepler did not believe the rumors until he saw it himself. [34]  Kepler began systematically observing the supernova. Astrologically, the end of 1603 marked the beginning of a fiery trigon, the start of the about 800-year cycle of great conjunctions; astrologers associated the two previous such periods with the rise of Charlemagne (c. 800 years earlier) and the birth of Christ (c. 1600 years earlier), and thus expected events of great portent, especially regarding the emperor. [35] 
 It was in this context, as the imperial mathematician and astrologer to the emperor, that Kepler described the new star two years later in his  De Stella Nova . In it, Kepler addressed the star's astronomical properties while taking a skeptical approach to the many astrological interpretations then circulating. He noted its fading luminosity, speculated about its origin, and used the lack of observed parallax to argue that it was in the sphere of fixed stars, further undermining the doctrine of the immutability of the heavens (the idea accepted since Aristotle that the celestial spheres were perfect and unchanging). The birth of a new star implied the variability of the heavens. Kepler also attached an appendix where he discussed the recent chronology work of the Polish historian Laurentius Suslyga; he calculated that, if Suslyga was correct that accepted timelines were four years behind, then the Star of Bethlehem—analogous to the present new star—would have coincided with the first great conjunction of the earlier 800-year cycle. [36] 
 Over the following years, Kepler attempted (unsuccessfully) to begin a collaboration with Italian astronomer Giovanni Antonio Magini, and dealt with chronology, especially the dating of events in the life of Jesus. Around 1611, Kepler circulated a manuscript of what would eventually be published (posthumously) as  Somnium  [The Dream]. Part of the purpose of Somnium was to describe what practicing astronomy would be like from the perspective of another planet, to show the feasibility of a non-geocentric system. The manuscript, which disappeared after changing hands several times, described a fantastic trip to the Moon; it was part allegory, part autobiography, and part treatise on interplanetary travel (and is sometimes described as the first work of science fiction). Years later, a distorted version of the story may have instigated the witchcraft trial against his mother, as the mother of the narrator consults a demon to learn the means of space travel. Following her eventual acquittal, Kepler composed 223 footnotes to the story—several times longer than the actual text—which explained the allegorical aspects as well as the considerable scientific content (particularly regarding lunar geography) hidden within the text. [37] 
Later life[edit]
Troubles[edit]
      Karlova street in Old Town, Prague – house where Kepler lived. Now a museum [2]   
In 1611, the growing political-religious tension in Prague came to a head. Emperor Rudolf—whose health was failing—was forced to abdicate as King of Bohemia by his brother Matthias. Both sides sought Kepler's astrological advice, an opportunity he used to deliver conciliatory political advice (with little reference to the stars, except in general statements to discourage drastic action). However, it was clear that Kepler's future prospects in the court of Matthias were dim. [38] 
 Also in that year, Barbara Kepler contracted Hungarian spotted fever, then began having seizures. As Barbara was recovering, Kepler's three children all fell sick with smallpox; Friedrich, 6, died. Following his son's death, Kepler sent letters to potential patrons in Württemberg and Padua. At the University of Tübingen in Württemberg, concerns over Kepler's perceived Calvinist heresies in violation of the Augsburg Confession and the Formula of Concord prevented his return. The University of Padua—on the recommendation of the departing Galileo—sought Kepler to fill the mathematics professorship, but Kepler, preferring to keep his family in German territory, instead travelled to Austria to arrange a position as teacher and district mathematician in Linz. However, Barbara relapsed into illness and died shortly after Kepler's return. [39] 
 Kepler postponed the move to Linz and remained in Prague until Rudolf's death in early 1612, though between political upheaval, religious tension, and family tragedy (along with the legal dispute over his wife's estate), Kepler could do no research. Instead, he pieced together a chronology manuscript, Eclogae Chronicae, from correspondence and earlier work. Upon succession as Holy Roman Emperor, Matthias re-affirmed Kepler's position (and salary) as imperial mathematician but allowed him to move to Linz. [40] 
Linz (1612–1630)[edit]
      A statue of Kepler in Linz   
In Linz, Kepler's primary responsibilities (beyond completing the Rudolphine Tables) were teaching at the district school and providing astrological and astronomical services. In his first years there, he enjoyed financial security and religious freedom relative to his life in Prague—though he was excluded from Eucharist by his Lutheran church over his theological scruples. It was also during his time in Linz that Kepler had to deal with the accusation and ultimate verdict of witchcraft against his mother Katharina in the Protestant town of Leonberg. That blow, happening only a few years after Kepler's excommunication, is not seen as a coincidence but as a symptom of the full-fledged assault waged by the Lutherans against Kepler. [41] 
 His first publication in Linz was De vero Anno (1613), an expanded treatise on the year of Christ's birth. He also participated in deliberations on whether to introduce Pope Gregory's reformed calendar to Protestant German lands. On 30 October 1613, Kepler married the 24-year-old Susanna Reuttinger. Following the death of his first wife Barbara, Kepler had considered 11 different matches over two years (a decision process formalized later as the marriage problem). [42]  He eventually returned to Reuttinger (the fifth match) who, he wrote, "won me over with love, humble loyalty, economy of household, diligence, and the love she gave the stepchildren." [43]  The first three children of this marriage (Margareta Regina, Katharina, and Sebald) died in childhood. Three more survived into adulthood: Cordula (born 1621); Fridmar (born 1623); and Hildebert (born 1625). According to Kepler's biographers, this was a much happier marriage than his first. [44] 
 On 8 October 1630, Kepler set out for Regensburg, hoping to collect interest on work he had done previously. A few days after reaching Regensburg, Kepler became sick, and progressively became worse. On 15 November 1630, just over a month after his arrival, he died. He was buried in a Protestant churchyard that was completely destroyed during the Thirty Years' War. [45] 
Christianity[edit]
Kepler's belief that God created the cosmos in an orderly fashion caused him to attempt to determine and comprehend the laws that govern the natural world, most profoundly in astronomy. [46]   [47]  The phrase "I am merely thinking God's thoughts after Him" has been attributed to him, although this is probably a capsulized version of a writing from his hand:
 Those laws [of nature] are within the grasp of the human mind; God wanted us to recognize them by creating us after his own image so that we could share in his own thoughts. [48]    Kepler advocated for tolerance among Christian denominations, for example arguing that Catholics and Lutherans should be able to take communion together. He wrote, "Christ the Lord neither was nor is Lutheran, nor Calvinist, nor Papist." [49] 
 Astronomy[edit]
 Mysterium Cosmographicum[edit]
     
Kepler's first major astronomical work,  Mysterium Cosmographicum  (The Cosmographic Mystery, 1596), was the first published defense of the Copernican system. Kepler claimed to have had an epiphany on 19 July 1595, while teaching in Graz, demonstrating the periodic conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter in the zodiac: he realized that regular polygons bound one inscribed and one circumscribed circle at definite ratios, which, he reasoned, might be the geometrical basis of the universe. After failing to find a unique arrangement of polygons that fit known astronomical observations (even with extra planets added to the system), Kepler began experimenting with 3-dimensional polyhedra. He found that each of the five Platonic solids could be inscribed and circumscribed by spherical orbs; nesting these solids, each encased in a sphere, within one another would produce six layers, corresponding to the six known planets—Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. By ordering the solids selectively—octahedron, icosahedron, dodecahedron, tetrahedron, cube—Kepler found that the spheres could be placed at intervals corresponding to the relative sizes of each planet's path, assuming the planets circle the Sun. Kepler also found a formula relating the size of each planet's orb to the length of its orbital period: from inner to outer planets, the ratio of increase in orbital period is twice the difference in orb radius. However, Kepler later rejected this formula, because it was not precise enough. [50] 
 Kepler thought the Mysterium had revealed God's geometrical plan for the universe. Much of Kepler's enthusiasm for the Copernican system stemmed from his theological convictions about the connection between the physical and the spiritual; the universe itself was an image of God, with the Sun corresponding to the Father, the stellar sphere to the Son, and the intervening space between them to the Holy Spirit. His first manuscript of Mysterium contained an extensive chapter reconciling heliocentrism with biblical passages that seemed to support geocentrism. [51]  With the support of his mentor Michael Maestlin, Kepler received permission from the Tübingen university senate to publish his manuscript, pending removal of the Bible exegesis and the addition of a simpler, more understandable, description of the Copernican system as well as Kepler's new ideas. Mysterium was published late in 1596, and Kepler received his copies and began sending them to prominent astronomers and patrons early in 1597; it was not widely read, but it established Kepler's reputation as a highly skilled astronomer. The effusive dedication, to powerful patrons as well as to the men who controlled his position in Graz, also provided a crucial doorway into the patronage system. [52] 
 In 1621, Kepler published an expanded second edition of Mysterium, half as long again as the first, detailing in footnotes the corrections and improvements he had achieved in the 25 years since its first publication. [53]  In terms of impact, the Mysterium can be seen as an important first step in modernizing the theory proposed by Copernicus in his  De revolutionibus orbium coelestium . Whilst Copernicus sought to advance a heliocentric system in this book, he resorted to Ptolemaic devices (viz., epicycles and eccentric circles) in order to explain the change in planets' orbital speed, and also continued to use as a point of reference the center of the Earth's orbit rather than that of the Sun "as an aid to calculation and in order not to confuse the reader by diverging too much from Ptolemy." Modern astronomy owes much to Mysterium Cosmographicum, despite flaws in its main thesis, "since it represents the first step in cleansing the Copernican system of the remnants of the Ptolemaic theory still clinging to it." [54] 
 Astronomia Nova[edit]
     
The extended line of research that culminated in  Astronomia Nova  (A New Astronomy)—including the first two laws of planetary motion—began with the analysis, under Tycho's direction, of the orbit of Mars. In this work Kepler introduced the revolutionary concept of planetary orbit, a path of a planet in space resulting from the action of physical causes, distinct from previously held notion of planetary orb (a spherical shell to which planet is attached). As a result of this breakthrough astronomical phenomena came to be seen as being governed by physical laws. [55]  Kepler calculated and recalculated various approximations of Mars's orbit using an equant (the mathematical tool that Copernicus had eliminated with his system), eventually creating a model that generally agreed with Tycho's observations to within two arcminutes (the average measurement error). But he was not satisfied with the complex and still slightly inaccurate result; at certain points the model differed from the data by up to eight arcminutes. The wide array of traditional mathematical astronomy methods having failed him, Kepler set about trying to fit an ovoid orbit to the data. [56] 
 In Kepler's religious view of the cosmos, the Sun (a symbol of God the Father) was the source of motive force in the Solar System. As a physical basis, Kepler drew by analogy on William Gilbert's theory of the magnetic soul of the Earth from  De Magnete  (1600) and on his own work on optics. Kepler supposed that the motive power (or motive species) [57]  radiated by the Sun weakens with distance, causing faster or slower motion as planets move closer or farther from it. [58]   [note 1]  Perhaps this assumption entailed a mathematical relationship that would restore astronomical order. Based on measurements of the aphelion and perihelion of the Earth and Mars, he created a formula in which a planet's rate of motion is inversely proportional to its distance from the Sun. Verifying this relationship throughout the orbital cycle required very extensive calculation; to simplify this task, by late 1602 Kepler reformulated the proportion in terms of geometry: planets sweep out equal areas in equal times—his second law of planetary motion. [60] 
 He then set about calculating the entire orbit of Mars, using the geometrical rate law and assuming an egg-shaped ovoid orbit. After approximately 40 failed attempts, in late 1604 he at last hit upon the idea of an ellipse, [61]  which he had previously assumed to be too simple a solution for earlier astronomers to have overlooked. [62]  Finding that an elliptical orbit fit the Mars data (the Vicarious Hypothesis), Kepler immediately concluded that all planets move in ellipses, with the Sun at one focus—his first law of planetary motion. Because he employed no calculating assistants, he did not extend the mathematical analysis beyond Mars. By the end of the year, he completed the manuscript for Astronomia nova, though it would not be published until 1609 due to legal disputes over the use of Tycho's observations, the property of his heirs. [63] 
 Epitome of Copernican Astronomy[edit]
Since completing the Astronomia Nova, Kepler had intended to compose an astronomy textbook that would cover all the fundamentals of heliocentric astronomy. [64]  Kepler spent the next several years working on what would become Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae (Epitome of Copernican Astronomy). Despite its title, which merely hints at heliocentrism, the Epitome is less about Copernicus's work and more about Kepler's own astronomical system. The Epitome contained all three laws of planetary motion and attempted to explain heavenly motions through physical causes. [65]  Although it explicitly extended the first two laws of planetary motion (applied to Mars in Astronomia nova) to all the planets as well as the Moon and the Medicean satellites of Jupiter, [note 2]  it did not explain how elliptical orbits could be derived from observational data. [68] 
 Originally intended as an introduction for the uninitiated, Kepler sought to model his Epitome after that of his master Michael Maestlin, who published a well-regarded book explaining the basics of geocentric astronomy to non-experts. [69]  Kepler completed the first of three volumes, consisting of Books I–III, by 1615 in the same question-answer format of Maestlin's and have it printed in 1617. [70]  However, the banning of Copernican books by the Catholic Church, as well as the start of the Thirty Years' War, meant that publication of the next two volumes would be delayed. In the interim, and to avoid being subject to the ban, Kepler switched the audience of the Epitome from beginners to that of expert astronomers and mathematicians, as the arguments became more and more sophisticated and required advanced mathematics to be understood. [69]  The second volume, consisting of Book IV, was published in 1620, followed by the third volume, consisting of Books V–VII, in 1621.
 Rudolphine Tables[edit]
      Two pages from Kepler's Rudolphine Tables showing eclipses of the Sun and Moon  
In the years following the completion of Astronomia Nova, most of Kepler's research was focused on preparations for the Rudolphine Tables and a comprehensive set of ephemerides (specific predictions of planet and star positions) based on the table, though neither would be completed for many years. [71] 
 Kepler, at last, completed the  Rudolphine Tables  in 1623, which at the time was considered his major work. However, due to the publishing requirements of the emperor and negotiations with Tycho Brahe's heir, it would not be printed until 1627. [72] 
Astrology[edit]
     
Like Ptolemy, Kepler considered astrology as the counterpart to astronomy, and as being of equal interest and value. However, in the following years, the two subjects drifted apart until astrology was no longer practiced among professional astronomers. [73] 
  Sir Oliver Lodge observed that Kepler was somewhat disdainful of astrology in his own day, as he was "continually attacking and throwing sarcasm at astrology, but it was the only thing for which people would pay him, and on it after a fashion he lived." [74]  Nonetheless, Kepler spent a huge amount of time trying to restore astrology on a firmer philosophical footing, composing numerous astrological calendars, more than 800 nativities, and a number of treaties dealing with the subject of astrology proper. [75] 
 De Fundamentis[edit]
In his bid to become imperial astronomer, Kepler wrote De Fundamentis (1601), whose full title can be translated as “On Giving Astrology Sounder Foundations”, as a short foreword to one of his yearly almanacs. [76] 
 In this work, Kepler describes the effects of the Sun, Moon, and the planets in terms of their light and their influences upon humors, finalizing with Kepler's view that the Earth possesses a soul with some sense of geometry. Stimulated by the geometric convergence of rays formed around it, the world-soul is sentient but not conscious. As a shepherd is pleased by the piping of a flute without understanding the theory of musical harmony, so likewise Earth responds to the angles and aspects made by the heavens but not in a conscious manner. Eclipses are important as omens because the animal faculty of the Earth is violently disturbed by the sudden intermission of light, experiencing something like emotion and persisting in it for some time. [73] 
 Kepler surmises that the Earth has "cycles of humors" as living animals do, and gives for an example that "the highest tides of the sea are said by sailors to return after nineteen years around the same days of the year". (This may refer to the 18.6-year lunar node precession cycle.) Kepler advocates searching for such cycles by gathering observations over a period of many years, "and so far this observation has not been made". [77] 
 Tertius Interveniens[edit]
Kepler and Helisaeus Roeslin engaged in a series of published attacks and counter-attacks on the importance of astrology after the supernova of 1604; around the same time, physician Philip Feselius published a work dismissing astrology altogether (and Roeslin's work in particular). [78] 
 In response to what Kepler saw as the excesses of astrology, on the one hand, and overzealous rejection of it, on the other, Kepler prepared Tertius Interveniens (1610). Nominally this work—presented to the common patron of Roeslin and Feselius—was a neutral mediation between the feuding scholars (the titled meaning "Third-party interventions"), but it also set out Kepler's general views on the value of astrology, including some hypothesized mechanisms of interaction between planets and individual souls. While Kepler considered most traditional rules and methods of astrology to be the "evil-smelling dung" in which "an industrious hen" scrapes, there was an "occasional grain-seed, indeed, even a pearl or a gold nugget" to be found by the conscientious scientific astrologer. [79] 
Music[edit]
 Harmonice Mundi[edit]
     
Kepler was convinced "that the geometrical things have provided the Creator with the model for decorating the whole world". [80]  In Harmonice Mundi (1619), he attempted to explain the proportions of the natural world—particularly the astronomical and astrological aspects—in terms of music. [note 3]  The central set of "harmonies" was the  musica universalis  or "music of the spheres", which had been studied by Pythagoras, Ptolemy and others before Kepler; in fact, soon after publishing Harmonice Mundi, Kepler was embroiled in a priority dispute with Robert Fludd, who had recently published his own harmonic theory. [81] 
 Kepler began by exploring regular polygons and regular solids, including the figures that would come to be known as Kepler's solids. From there, he extended his harmonic analysis to music, meteorology, and astrology; harmony resulted from the tones made by the souls of heavenly bodies—and in the case of astrology, the interaction between those tones and human souls. In the final portion of the work (Book V), Kepler dealt with planetary motions, especially relationships between orbital velocity and orbital distance from the Sun. Similar relationships had been used by other astronomers, but Kepler—with Tycho's data and his own astronomical theories—treated them much more precisely and attached new physical significance to them. [82] 
 Among many other harmonies, Kepler articulated what came to be known as the third law of planetary motion. He tried many combinations until he discovered that (approximately) "The square of the periodic times are to each other as the cubes of the mean distances." Although he gives the date of this epiphany (8 March 1618), he does not give any details about how he arrived at this conclusion. [83]  However, the wider significance for planetary dynamics of this purely kinematical law was not realized until the 1660s. When conjoined with Christiaan Huygens' newly discovered law of centrifugal force, it enabled Isaac Newton, Edmund Halley, and perhaps Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke to demonstrate independently that the presumed gravitational attraction between the Sun and its planets decreased with the square of the distance between them. [84]  This refuted the traditional assumption of scholastic physics that the power of gravitational attraction remained constant with distance whenever it applied between two bodies, such as was assumed by Kepler and also by Galileo in his mistaken universal law that gravitational fall is uniformly accelerated, and also by Galileo's student Borrelli in his 1666 celestial mechanics. [85] 
Optics[edit]
 Astronomiae Pars Optica[edit]
      A plate from Astronomiae Pars Optica, illustrating the structure of eyes of various species.  
As Kepler slowly continued analyzing Tycho's Mars observations—now available to him in their entirety—and began the slow process of tabulating the  Rudolphine Tables , Kepler also picked up the investigation of the laws of optics from his lunar essay of 1600. Both lunar and solar eclipses presented unexplained phenomena, such as unexpected shadow sizes, the red color of a total lunar eclipse, and the reportedly unusual light surrounding a total solar eclipse. Related issues of atmospheric refraction applied to all astronomical observations. Through most of 1603, Kepler paused his other work to focus on optical theory; the resulting manuscript, presented to the emperor on 1 January 1604, was published as Astronomiae Pars Optica (The Optical Part of Astronomy). In it, Kepler described the inverse-square law governing the intensity of light, reflection by flat and curved mirrors, and principles of pinhole cameras, as well as the astronomical implications of optics such as parallax and the apparent sizes of heavenly bodies. He also extended his study of optics to the human eye, and is generally considered by neuroscientists to be the first to recognize that images are projected inverted and reversed by the eye's lens onto the retina. The solution to this dilemma was not of particular importance to Kepler as he did not see it as pertaining to optics, although he did suggest that the image was later corrected "in the hollows of the brain" due to the "activity of the Soul." [86] 
 Today, Astronomiae Pars Optica is generally recognized as the foundation of modern optics (though the law of refraction is conspicuously absent). [87]  With respect to the beginnings of projective geometry, Kepler introduced the idea of continuous change of a mathematical entity in this work. He argued that if a focus of a conic section were allowed to move along the line joining the foci, the geometric form would morph or degenerate, one into another. In this way, an ellipse becomes a parabola when a focus moves toward infinity, and when two foci of an ellipse merge into one another, a circle is formed. As the foci of a hyperbola merge into one another, the hyperbola becomes a pair of straight lines. He also assumed that if a straight line is extended to infinity it will meet itself at a single point at infinity, thus having the properties of a large circle. [88] 
 Dioptrice[edit]
In the first months of 1610, Galileo Galilei—using his powerful new telescope—discovered four satellites orbiting Jupiter. Upon publishing his account as  Sidereus Nuncius  [Starry Messenger], Galileo sought the opinion of Kepler, in part to bolster the credibility of his observations. Kepler responded enthusiastically with a short published reply, Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo [Conversation with the Starry Messenger]. He endorsed Galileo's observations and offered a range of speculations about the meaning and implications of Galileo's discoveries and telescopic methods, for astronomy and optics as well as cosmology and astrology. Later that year, Kepler published his own telescopic observations of the moons in Narratio de Jovis Satellitibus, providing further support of Galileo. To Kepler's disappointment, however, Galileo never published his reactions (if any) to Astronomia Nova. [89] 
 Kepler also started a theoretical and experimental investigation of telescopic lenses using a telescope borrowed from Duke Ernest of Cologne. [90]  The resulting manuscript was completed in September 1610 and published as Dioptrice in 1611. In it, Kepler set out the theoretical basis of double-convex converging lenses and double-concave diverging lenses—and how they are combined to produce a Galilean telescope—as well as the concepts of real vs. virtual images, upright vs. inverted images, and the effects of focal length on magnification and reduction. He also described an improved telescope—now known as the astronomical or  Keplerian telescope —in which two convex lenses can produce higher magnification than Galileo's combination of convex and concave lenses. [91] 
Mathematics and physics[edit]
      A diagram illustrating the Kepler conjecture from Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula (1611)  
As a New Year's gift that year (1611), he also composed for his friend and some-time patron, Baron Wackher von Wackhenfels, a short pamphlet entitled Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula (A New Year's Gift of Hexagonal Snow). In this treatise, he published the first description of the hexagonal symmetry of snowflakes and, extending the discussion into a hypothetical atomistic physical basis for the symmetry, posed what later became known as the Kepler conjecture, a statement about the most efficient arrangement for packing spheres. [92]   [93] 
 Kepler wrote the influential mathematical treatise Nova stereometria doliorum vinariorum in 1613, on measuring the volume of containers such as wine barrels, which was published in 1615. [94]  Kepler also contributed to the development of infinitesimal methods and numerical analysis, including iterative approximations, infinitesimals, and the early use of logarithms and transcendental equations. [95]   [96]  Kepler's work on calculating volumes of shapes, and on finding the optimal shape of a wine barrel, were significant steps toward the development of calculus. [97]  Simpson's rule, an approximation method used in integral calculus, is known in German as Keplersche Fassregel (Kepler's barrel rule). [98] 
Legacy[edit]
Reception of his astronomy[edit]
 Kepler's laws of planetary motion were not immediately accepted. Several major figures such as Galileo and René Descartes completely ignored Kepler's Astronomia nova. Many astronomers, including Kepler's teacher, Michael Maestlin, objected to Kepler's introduction of physics into his astronomy. Some adopted compromise positions. Ismaël Bullialdus accepted elliptical orbits but replaced Kepler's area law with uniform motion in respect to the empty focus of the ellipse, while Seth Ward used an elliptical orbit with motions defined by an equant. [99]   [100]   [101] 
 Several astronomers tested Kepler's theory, and its various modifications, against astronomical observations. Two transits of Venus and Mercury across the face of the sun provided sensitive tests of the theory, under circumstances when these planets could not normally be observed. In the case of the transit of Mercury in 1631, Kepler had been extremely uncertain of the parameters for Mercury, and advised observers to look for the transit the day before and after the predicted date. Pierre Gassendi observed the transit on the date predicted, a confirmation of Kepler's prediction. [102]  This was the first observation of a transit of Mercury. However, his attempt to observe the transit of Venus just one month later was unsuccessful due to inaccuracies in the Rudolphine Tables. Gassendi did not realize that it was not visible from most of Europe, including Paris. [103]  Jeremiah Horrocks, who observed the 1639 Venus transit, had used his own observations to adjust the parameters of the Keplerian model, predicted the transit, and then built apparatus to observe the transit. He remained a firm advocate of the Keplerian model. [104]   [105]   [106] 
  Epitome of Copernican Astronomy was read by astronomers throughout Europe, and following Kepler's death, it was the main vehicle for spreading Kepler's ideas. In the period 1630–1650, this book was the most widely used astronomy textbook, winning many converts to ellipse-based astronomy. [65]  However, few adopted his ideas on the physical basis for celestial motions. In the late 17th century, a number of physical astronomy theories drawing from Kepler's work—notably those of Giovanni Alfonso Borelli and Robert Hooke—began to incorporate attractive forces (though not the quasi-spiritual motive species postulated by Kepler) and the Cartesian concept of inertia. [107]  This culminated in Isaac Newton's  Principia Mathematica  (1687), in which Newton derived Kepler's laws of planetary motion from a force-based theory of universal gravitation, [108]  a mathematical challenge later known as "solving the Kepler problem". [109] 
History of science[edit]
      Monument to Tycho Brahe and Kepler in Prague, Czech Republic  
Beyond his role in the historical development of astronomy and natural philosophy, Kepler has loomed large in the philosophy and historiography of science. Kepler and his laws of motion were central to early histories of astronomy such as Jean-Étienne Montucla's 1758 Histoire des mathématiques and Jean-Baptiste Delambre's 1821 Histoire de l'astronomie moderne. These and other histories written from an Enlightenment perspective treated Kepler's metaphysical and religious arguments with skepticism and disapproval, but later Romantic-era natural philosophers viewed these elements as central to his success.
William Whewell, in his influential History of the Inductive Sciences of 1837, found Kepler to be the archetype of the inductive scientific genius; in his Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences of 1840, Whewell held Kepler up as the embodiment of the most advanced forms of scientific method. Similarly, Ernst Friedrich Apelt—the first to extensively study Kepler's manuscripts, after their purchase by Catherine the Great—identified Kepler as a key to the "Revolution of the sciences".
Apelt, who saw Kepler's mathematics, aesthetic sensibility, physical ideas, and theology as part of a unified system of thought, produced the first extended analysis of Kepler's life and work. [110] 
  Alexandre Koyré's work on Kepler was, after Apelt, the first major milestone in historical interpretations of Kepler's cosmology and its influence. In the 1930s and 1940s, Koyré, and a number of others in the first generation of professional historians of science, described the "Scientific Revolution" as the central event in the history of science, and Kepler as a (perhaps the) central figure in the revolution. Koyré placed Kepler's theorization, rather than his empirical work, at the center of the intellectual transformation from ancient to modern world-views. Since the 1960s, the volume of historical Kepler scholarship has expanded greatly, including studies of his astrology and meteorology, his geometrical methods, the role of his religious views in his work, his literary and rhetorical methods, his interaction with the broader cultural and philosophical currents of his time, and even his role as an historian of science. [111] 
 Philosophers of science—such as Charles Sanders Peirce, Norwood Russell Hanson, Stephen Toulmin, and Karl Popper—have repeatedly turned to Kepler: examples of incommensurability, analogical reasoning, falsification, and many other philosophical concepts have been found in Kepler's work. Physicist Wolfgang Pauli even used Kepler's priority dispute with Robert Fludd to explore the implications of analytical psychology on scientific investigation. [112] 
Editions and translations[edit]
      The GDR stamp featuring Kepler  
Modern translations of a number of Kepler's books appeared in the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries, the systematic publication of his collected works began in 1937 (and is nearing completion in the early 21st century).
 An edition in eight volumes,  Kepleri Opera omnia, was prepared by Christian Frisch (1807–1881), during 1858 to 1871, on the occasion of Kepler's 300th birthday.
Frisch's edition only included Kepler's Latin, with a Latin commentary.
 A new edition was planned beginning in 1914 by Walther von Dyck (1856–1934). Dyck compiled copies of Kepler's unedited manuscripts, using international diplomatic contacts to convince the Soviet authorities to lend him the manuscripts kept in Leningrad for photographic reproduction. These manuscripts contained several works by Kepler that had not been available to Frisch. Dyck's photographs remain the basis for the modern editions of Kepler's unpublished manuscripts.
 Max Caspar (1880–1956) published his German translation of Kepler's Mysterium Cosmographicum in 1923. Both Dyck and Caspar were influenced in their interest in Kepler by mathematician Alexander von Brill (1842–1935). Caspar became Dyck's collaborator, succeeding him as project leader in 1934, establishing the Kepler-Kommission in the following year. Assisted by Martha List (1908–1992) and Franz Hammer (1898–1969), Caspar continued editorial work during World War II. Max Caspar also published a biography of Kepler in 1948. [113]  The commission was later chaired by Volker Bialas (during 1976–2003) and Ulrich Grigull (during 1984–1999) and Roland Bulirsch (1998–2014). [114]   [115] 
Cultural influence and eponymy[edit]
     
Kepler has acquired a popular image as an icon of scientific modernity and a man before his time; science popularizer Carl Sagan described him as "the first astrophysicist and the last scientific astrologer". [116]  The debate over Kepler's place in the Scientific Revolution has produced a wide variety of philosophical and popular treatments. One of the most influential is Arthur Koestler's 1959  The Sleepwalkers , in which Kepler is unambiguously the hero (morally and theologically as well as intellectually) of the revolution. [117] 
 A well-received historical novel by John Banville, Kepler (1981), explored many of the themes developed in Koestler's non-fiction narrative and in the philosophy of science. [118]  A 2004 nonfiction book, Heavenly Intrigue, suggested that Kepler murdered Tycho Brahe to gain access to his data. [119] 
 In Austria, a silver collector's 10-euro Johannes Kepler silver coin was minted in 2002. The reverse side of the coin has a portrait of Kepler, who spent some time teaching in Graz and the surrounding areas. Kepler was acquainted with Prince Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg personally, and he probably influenced the construction of Eggenberg Castle (the motif of the obverse of the coin). In front of him on the coin is the model of nested spheres and polyhedra from Mysterium Cosmographicum. [120] 
 The German composer Paul Hindemith wrote an opera about Kepler entitled  Die Harmonie der Welt  (1957), and during the prolonged process of its creation, he also wrote a symphony of the same name based on the musical ideas he developed for it. [121]  Hindemith's opera inspired John Rodgers and Willie Ruff of Yale University to create a synthesizer composition based on Kepler's scheme for representing planetary motion with music. [122]  Philip Glass wrote an opera called  Kepler  (2009) based on Kepler's life, with a libretto in German and Latin by Martina Winkel. [123] 
 Directly named for Kepler's contribution to science are Kepler's laws of planetary motion; Kepler's Supernova SN 1604, which he observed and described; the Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra a set of geometrical constructions, two of which were described by him; and the Kepler conjecture on sphere packing. Places and entities named in his honor include multiple city streets and squares, several educational institutions, an asteroid, and both a lunar and a Martian crater.
Works[edit]
       Epitome astronomiae copernicanae, 1618  
   Mysterium Cosmographicum  (The Sacred Mystery of the Cosmos) (1596)
 De Fundamentis Astrologiae Certioribus ( On Firmer Fundaments of Astrology ) (1601)
   Astronomiae pars optica  (in Latin). Frankfurt am Main: Claude de Marne. 1604. 
  De Stella nova in pede Serpentarii  (On the New Star in Ophiuchus's Foot) (1606)
  Astronomia nova  (New Astronomy) (1609)
 Tertius Interveniens (Third-party Interventions) (1610)
 Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo (Conversation with the Starry Messenger) (1610)
 Dioptrice (1611)
 De nive sexangula ( On the Six-Cornered Snowflake ) (1611)
 De vero Anno, quo aeternus Dei Filius humanam naturam in Utero benedictae Virginis Mariae assumpsit (1614) [124]  
 Eclogae Chronicae (1615, published with Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo)
 Nova stereometria doliorum vinariorum (New Stereometry of Wine Barrels) (1615)
  Ephemerides nouae motuum coelestium  (1617–30)
   Epitome astronomiae copernicanae  (in Latin). Linz: Johann Planck. 1618. 
   Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae. 1-3, De doctrina sphaerica  (in Latin). Vol. 44199. Linz: Johann Planck. 1618.
    Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae. 4, Doctrina theorica. 1, Physica coelestis  (in Latin). Vol. 4. Linz: Gottfried Tambach. 1622. 
   Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae. 5-7, Doctrina theorica  (in Latin). Vol. 44323. Linz: Gottfried Tambach. 1621.   
   De cometis  (in Latin). Augsburg: Sebastian Müller. 1619. 
  Harmonice Mundi  ( Harmony of the Worlds ) (1619)
  Mysterium cosmographicum  (The Sacred Mystery of the Cosmos), 2nd edition (1621)
  Tabulae Rudolphinae  (Rudolphine Tables) (1627)
  Somnium  ( The Dream ) (1634) (English translation on Google Books preview)
   [Opere]  (in Latin). Vol. 1. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder &amp; Zimmer. 1858.
    [Opere]  (in Latin). Vol. 2. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder &amp; Zimmer. 1859. 
   [Opere]  (in Latin). Vol. 3. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder &amp; Zimmer. 1860. 
   [Opere]  (in Latin). Vol. 4. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder &amp; Zimmer. 1863. 
   [Opere]  (in Latin). Vol. 5. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder &amp; Zimmer. 1864. 
   [Opere]  (in Latin). Vol. 6. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder &amp; Zimmer. 1866. 
   [Opere]  (in Latin). Vol. 7. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder &amp; Zimmer. 1868. 
   [Opere]  (in Latin). Vol. 8. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder &amp; Zimmer. 1870. 
   [Opere]  (in Latin). Vol. 9. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder &amp; Zimmer. 1871.    
A critical edition of Kepler's collected works (Johannes Kepler Gesammelte Werke, KGW) in 22 volumes is being edited by the Kepler-Kommission (founded 1935) on behalf of the Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften.
 Vol. 1: Mysterium Cosmographicum. De Stella Nova. Ed. M. Caspar. 1938, 2nd ed. 1993. Paperback ISBN 3-406-01639-1.
Vol. 2: Astronomiae pars optica. Ed. F. Hammer. 1939, Paperback ISBN 3-406-01641-3.
Vol. 3: Astronomia Nova. Ed. M. Caspar. 1937. IV, 487 p. 2. ed. 1990. Paperback ISBN 3-406-01643-X. Semi-parchment ISBN 3-406-01642-1.
Vol. 4: Kleinere Schriften 1602–1611. Dioptrice. Ed. M. Caspar, F. Hammer. 1941. ISBN 3-406-01644-8.
Vol. 5: Chronologische Schriften. Ed. F. Hammer. 1953. Out-of-print.
Vol. 6: Harmonice Mundi. Ed. M. Caspar. 1940, 2nd ed. 1981, ISBN 3-406-01648-0.
Vol. 7: Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae. Ed. M. Caspar. 1953, 2nd ed. 1991. ISBN 3-406-01650-2, Paperback ISBN 3-406-01651-0.
Vol. 8: Mysterium Cosmographicum. Editio altera cum notis. De Cometis. Hyperaspistes. Commentary F. Hammer. 1955. Paperback ISBN 3-406-01653-7.
Vol 9: Mathematische Schriften. Ed. F. Hammer. 1955, 2nd ed. 1999. Out-of-print.
Vol. 10: Tabulae Rudolphinae. Ed. F. Hammer. 1969. ISBN 3-406-01656-1.
Vol. 11,1: Ephemerides novae motuum coelestium. Commentary V. Bialas. 1983. ISBN 3-406-01658-8, Paperback ISBN 3-406-01659-6.
Vol. 11,2: Calendaria et Prognostica. Astronomica minora. Somnium. Commentary V. Bialas, H. Grössing. 1993. ISBN 3-406-37510-3, Paperback ISBN 3-406-37511-1.
Vol. 12: Theologica. Hexenprozeß. Tacitus-Übersetzung. Gedichte. Commentary J. Hübner, H. Grössing, F. Boockmann, F. Seck. Directed by V. Bialas. 1990. ISBN 3-406-01660-X, Paperback ISBN 3-406-01661-8. 
 Vols. 13–18: Letters: 
   Vol. 13: Briefe 1590–1599. Ed. M. Caspar. 1945. 432 p. ISBN 3-406-01663-4.
Vol. 14: Briefe 1599–1603. Ed. M. Caspar. 1949. Out-of-print. 2nd ed. in preparation.
Vol 15: Briefe 1604–1607. Ed. M. Caspar. 1951. 2nd ed. 1995. ISBN 3-406-01667-7.
Vol. 16: Briefe 1607–1611. Ed. M. Caspar. 1954. ISBN 3-406-01668-5.
Vol. 17: Briefe 1612–1620. Ed. M. Caspar. 1955. ISBN 3-406-01671-5.
Vol. 18: Briefe 1620–1630. Ed. M. Caspar. 1959. ISBN 3-406-01672-3.  
Vol. 19: Dokumente zu Leben und Werk. Commentary M. List. 1975. ISBN 978-3-406-01674-5.
Vols. 20–21: manuscripts
 Vol. 20,1: Manuscripta astronomica (I). Apologia, De motu Terrae, Hipparchus etc. Commentary V. Bialas. 1988. ISBN 3-406-31501-1. Paperback ISBN 3-406-31502-X.
Vol. 20,2: Manuscripta astronomica (II). Commentaria in Theoriam Martis. Commentary V. Bialas. 1998. Paperback ISBN 3-406-40593-2.
Vol. 21,1: Manuscripta astronomica (III) et mathematica. De Calendario Gregoriano. In preparation.
Vol. 21,2: Manuscripta varia. In preparation.  
Vol. 22: General index, in preparation. 
The Kepler-Kommission also publishes Bibliographia Kepleriana (2nd ed. List, 1968), a complete bibliography of editions of Kepler's works, with a supplementary volume to the second edition (ed. Hamel 1998).
See also[edit]
  Theoretical physics 
 Cavalieri's principle 
 History of astronomy 
 History of physics
  Kepler orbit 
 Kepler triangle   
 Kepler–Bouwkamp constant 
 Penrose tiling 
 Radiation pressure  
Notes[edit]
 
  ^  "Kepler's decision to base his causal explanation of planetary motion on a distance-velocity law, rather than on uniform circular motions of compounded spheres, marks a major shift from ancient to modern conceptions of science ... [Kepler] had begun with physical principles and had then derived a trajectory from it, rather than simply constructing new models. In other words, even before discovering the area law, Kepler had abandoned uniform circular motion as a physical principle." [59] 
  ^  By 1621 or earlier, Kepler recognized that Jupiter's moons obey his third law. Kepler contended that rotating massive bodies communicate their rotation to their satellites, so that the satellites are swept around the central body; thus the rotation of the Sun drives the revolutions of the planets and the rotation of the Earth drives the revolution of the Moon. In Kepler's era, no one had any evidence of Jupiter's rotation. However, Kepler argued that the force by which a central body causes its satellites to revolve around it, weakens with distance; consequently, satellites that are farther from the central body revolve slower. Kepler noted that Jupiter's moons obeyed this pattern and he inferred that a similar force was responsible. He also noted that the orbital periods and semi-major axes of Jupiter's satellites were roughly related by a 3/2 power law, as are the orbits of the six (then known) planets. However, this relation was approximate: the periods of Jupiter's moons were known within a few percent of their modern values, but the moons' semi-major axes were determined less accurately. Kepler discussed Jupiter's moons in his  Summary of Copernican Astronomy : [66]   [67]   (4) However, the credibility of this [argument] is proved by the comparison of the four [moons] of Jupiter and Jupiter with the six planets and the Sun. Because, regarding the body of Jupiter, whether it turns around its axis, we don't have proofs for what suffices for us [regarding the rotation of ] the body of the Earth and especially of the Sun, certainly [as reason proves to us]: but reason attests that, just as it is clearly [true] among the six planets around the Sun, so also it is among the four [moons] of Jupiter, because around the body of Jupiter any [satellite] that can go farther from it orbits slower, and even that [orbit's period] is not in the same proportion, but greater [than the distance from Jupiter]; that is, 3/2 (sescupla ) of the proportion of each of the distances from Jupiter, which is clearly the very [proportion] as [is used for] the six planets above. In his [book] The World of Jupiter [Mundus Jovialis, 1614], [Simon] Mayr [1573–1624] presents these distances, from Jupiter, of the four [moons] of Jupiter: 3, 5, 8, 13 (or 14 [according to] Galileo) ... Mayr presents their time periods: 1 day 18 1/2 hours, 3 days 13 1/3 hours, 7 days 3 hours, 16 days 18 hours: for all [of these data] the proportion is greater than double, thus greater than [the proportion] of the distances 3, 5, 8, 13 or 14, although less than [the proportion] of the squares, which double the proportions of the distances, namely 9, 25, 64, 169 or 196, just as [a power of] 3/2 is also greater than 1 but less than 2. 
  ^  The opening of the movie  Mars et Avril  by Martin Villeneuve is based on German astronomer Johannes Kepler's cosmological model from the 17th century,  Harmonice Mundi , in which the harmony of the universe is determined by the motion of celestial bodies. Benoît Charest also composed the score according to this theory.
 
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
 
  ^  Liscia, Daniel A. Di. "Johannes Kepler". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.).  Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy .
  ^  "Kepler".  Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary .
  ^  Dudenredaktion; Kleiner, Stefan; Knöbl, Ralf (2015) [First published 1962].  Das Aussprachewörterbuch  [The Pronunciation Dictionary] (in German) (7th ed.). Berlin: Dudenverlag. pp. 487, 505. ISBN  978-3-411-04067-4 .
  ^  Krech, Eva-Maria; Stock, Eberhard; Hirschfeld, Ursula; Anders, Lutz Christian (2009).  Deutsches Aussprachewörterbuch  [German Pronunciation Dictionary] (in German). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 628, 646. ISBN  978-3-11-018202-6 .
  ^   Jeans, Susi (2013) [2001]. "Kepler [Keppler], Johannes".  Grove Music Online . Revised by H. Floris Cohen. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.14903. ISBN  978-1-56159-263-0 . Retrieved 26 September 2021. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  ^  Voelkel, James R. (2001). "Commentary on Ernan McMullin, "The Impact of Newton's Principia on the Philosophy of Science"". Philosophy of Science. 68 (3): 319–326. doi:10.1086/392885. ISSN 0031-8248. JSTOR 3080920. S2CID 144781947.
  ^  [1] [ permanent dead link ] Retrieved 9 July 2017
  ^  Barker and Goldstein. "Theological Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy", pp. 112–13.
  ^  Kepler. New Astronomy, title page, tr. Donohue, pp. 26–7
  ^  Kepler. New Astronomy, p. 48
  ^  Epitome of Copernican Astronomy in Great Books of the Western World, Vol 15, p. 845
  ^  Stephenson. Kepler's Physical Astronomy, pp. 1–2; Dear, Revolutionizing the Sciences, pp. 74–78
  ^  Caspar. Kepler, pp. 29–36; Connor. Kepler's Witch, pp. 23–46.
^    a       b    Koestler. The Sleepwalkers, p. 234 (translated from Kepler's family horoscope).
  ^  Caspar. Kepler, pp. 36–38; Connor. Kepler's Witch, pp. 25–27.
  ^  Connor, James A. Kepler's Witch (2004), p. 58.
^    a       b    Barker, Peter; Goldstein, Bernard R. "Theological Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy", Osiris, 2nd Series, Vol. 16, Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions (2001), p. 96.
  ^  Westman, Robert S. "Kepler's Early Physico-Astrological Problematic,"  Journal for the History of Astronomy , 32 (2001): 227–36.
  ^  Caspar. Kepler, pp.  38–52; Connor. Kepler's Witch, pp.  49–69.
  ^  Caspar, Kepler. pp. 50–51.
  ^  Caspar, Kepler. pp. 58–65.
  ^  Caspar, Kepler. pp. 71–75.
  ^  Connor. Kepler's Witch, pp. 89–100, 114–116; Caspar. Kepler, pp. 75–77
  ^  Caspar. Kepler, pp. 85–86.
  ^  Caspar, Kepler, pp. 86–89
  ^  Caspar, Kepler, pp. 89–100
  ^   "Using Tycho's data, see 'Two views of a system'". Archived from the original on 21 July 2011.
  ^  Caspar, Kepler, pp. 100–08.
  ^  Caspar, Kepler, p. 110.
  ^  Caspar, Kepler, pp. 108–11.
  ^  Caspar, Kepler, pp. 111–22.
  ^  Caspar, Kepler, pp. 149–53
  ^  Caspar, Kepler, pp. 146–148, 159–177
  ^  Caspar, Kepler, p. 151.
  ^  Caspar, Kepler, pp. 151–153.
  ^  Caspar, Kepler, pp. 153–157
  ^  Lear, Kepler's Dream, pp. 1–78
  ^  Caspar, Kepler, pp. 202–204
  ^  Connor, Kepler's Witch, pp. 222–226; Caspar, Kepler, pp. 204–07
  ^  Caspar, Kepler, pp. 208–11
  ^  Mazer, Arthur (2010).  Shifting the Earth: The Mathematica Quest to Understand the Motion of the Universe . Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc. ISBN  978-1-118-02427-0 .
  ^   Ferguson, Thomas S. (1989), "Who solved the secretary problem ?", Statistical Science, 4 (3): 282–289, doi:10.1214/ss/1177012493, JSTOR 2245639, When the celebrated German astronomer, Johannes Kepler (1571–1630), lost his first wife to cholera in 1611, he set about finding a new wife using the same methodical thoroughness and careful consideration of the data that he used in finding the orbit of Mars to be an ellipse ... The process consumed much of his attention and energy for nearly 2 years ... 
  ^  Quotation from Connor, Kepler's Witch, p 252, translated from an 23 October 1613 letter from Kepler to an anonymous nobleman
  ^  Caspar, Kepler, pp. 220–223; Connor, Kepler's Witch, pp. 251–54.
  ^  Caspar, Kepler, pp. 358–360
  ^   "Johannes Kepler | Biography, Discoveries, &amp; Facts".
  ^   "Astronomy – the techniques of astronomy".
  ^  Letter (9/10 Apr 1599) to the Bavarian chancellor Herwart von Hohenburg. Collected in Carola Baumgardt and Jamie Callan, Johannes Kepler Life and Letters (1953), 50
  ^  Rothman, Aviva (1 January 2020). "Johannes Kepler's pursuit of harmony". Physics Today. 73 (1): 36–42. Bibcode:2020PhT....73a..36R. doi:10.1063/PT.3.4388. ISSN 0031-9228. S2CID 214144110.
  ^  Caspar. Kepler, pp. 60–65; see also: Barker and Goldstein, "Theological Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy."
  ^  Barker and Goldstein. "Theological Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy," pp. 99–103, 112–113.
  ^  Caspar. Kepler, pp. 65–71.
  ^  Field. Kepler's Geometrical Cosmology, Chapter IV, p 73ff.
  ^  Dreyer, J.L.E. A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler, Dover Publications, 1953, pp. 331, 377–379.
  ^  Goldstein, Bernard; Hon, Giora (2005). "Kepler's Move from Orbs to Orbits: Documenting a Revolutionary Scientific Concept". Perspectives on Science. 13: 74–111. doi:10.1162/1063614053714126. S2CID 57559843.
  ^  Caspar, Kepler, pp. 123–128
  ^  On motive species, see Lindberg, "The Genesis of Kepler's Theory of Light," pp. 38–40.
  ^  Koyré, The Astronomical Revolution, pp. 199–202.
  ^  Peter Barker and Bernard R. Goldstein, "Distance and Velocity in Kepler's Astronomy", Annals of Science, 51 (1994): 59–73, at p. 60.
  ^  Caspar, Kepler, pp. 129–132
  ^   Dreyer, John Louis Emil (1906).  History of the Planetary Systems from Thales to Kepler . Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 402.
  ^  Caspar, Kepler, p. 133
  ^  Caspar, Kepler, pp. 131–140; Koyré, The Astronomical Revolution, pp. 277–279
  ^  Caspar, Kepler, pp. 239–240, 293–300
^    a       b    Gingerich, "Kepler, Johannes" from Dictionary of Scientific Biography, pp. 302–04
  ^  Linz ("Lentiis ad Danubium"), (Austria): Johann Planck, 1622), book 4, part 2, page 554
  ^  Christian Frisch, ed., Joannis Kepleri Astronomi Opera Omnia, vol. 6 (Frankfurt-am-Main, (Germany): Heyder &amp; Zimmer, 1866), page 361.)
  ^  Wolf, A History of Science, Technology and Philosophy, pp. 140–41; Pannekoek, A History of Astronomy, p 252
^    a       b    Rothman, A. (2021). "Kepler's Epitome of Copernican Astronomy in context". Centaurus. 63: 171–191. doi:10.1111/1600-0498.12356. ISSN 0008-8994. S2CID 230613099.
  ^  Gingerich, Owen (1990). "Five Centuries of Astronomical Textbooks and Their Role in Teaching". The Teaching of Astronomy, Proceedings of IAU Colloq. 105, Held in Williamstown, MA, 27–30 July 1988: 189. Bibcode:1990teas.conf..189G.
  ^  Caspar, Kepler. pp. 178–179.
  ^  Robert J. King, “Johannes Kepler and Australia”, The Globe, no.90, 2021, pp.15-24.
^    a       b    Field, J. V. (1984). "A Lutheran Astrologer: Johannes Kepler". Archive for History of Exact Sciences. 31 (3): 189–272. Bibcode:1984AHES...31..189F. doi:10.1007/BF00327703. ISSN 0003-9519. JSTOR 41133735. S2CID 119811074.
  ^  Lodge, O.J., "Johann Kepler" in The World of Mathematics, Vol. 1 (1956) Ed. Newman, J.R., Simon and Schuster, pp. 231.
  ^  Boner, P. J. (2005). "Soul-Searching with Kepler: An Analysis of Anima in His Astrology". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 36 (1): 7–20. Bibcode:2005JHA....36....7B. doi:10.1177/002182860503600102. S2CID 124764022.
  ^  Simon, G. (1975). "Kepler's astrology: The direction of a reform". Vistas in Astronomy. 18 (1): 439–448. Bibcode:1975VA.....18..439S. doi:10.1016/0083-6656(75)90122-1.
  ^  Brackenridge, J. Bruce; Rossi, Mary Ann (1979). "Johannes Kepler's on the More Certain Fundamentals of Astrology Prague 1601". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 123 (2): 85–116. ISSN 0003-049X. JSTOR 986232.
  ^  Caspar, Kepler, pp. 178–81
  ^  Caspar, Kepler, pp. 181–85. The full title is Tertius Interveniens, das ist Warnung an etliche Theologos, Medicos vnd Philosophos, sonderlich D. Philippum Feselium, dass sie bey billicher Verwerffung der Sternguckerischen Aberglauben nict das Kindt mit dem Badt aussschütten vnd hiermit jhrer Profession vnwissendt zuwider handlen, translated by C. Doris Hellman as "Tertius Interveniens, that is warning to some theologians, medics and philosophers, especially D. Philip Feselius, that they in cheap condemnation of the star-gazer's superstition do not throw out the child with the bath and hereby unknowingly act contrary to their profession."
  ^  Quotation from Caspar, Kepler, pp. 265–266, translated from Harmonice Mundi
  ^  Caspar, Kepler, pp. 264–66, 290–93
  ^  Caspar, Kepler, pp. 266–90
  ^   Miller, Arthur I. (24 March 2009).  Deciphering the cosmic number: the strange friendship of Wolfgang Pauli and Carl Jung . W. W. Norton &amp; Company. p. 80. ISBN  978-0-393-06532-9 . Retrieved 7 March 2011.
  ^  Westfall, Never at Rest, pp. 143, 152, 402–03; Toulmin and Goodfield, The Fabric of the Heavens, p 248; De Gandt, 'Force and Geometry in Newton's Principia', chapter 2; Wolf, History of Science, Technology and Philosophy, p. 150; Westfall, The Construction of Modern Science, chapters 7 and 8
  ^  Koyré, The Astronomical Revolution, p. 502
  ^  Finger, "Origins of Neuroscience," p. 74. Oxford University Press, 2001.
  ^  Caspar, Kepler, pp. 142–146
  ^  Morris Kline,  Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times , p. 299. Oxford University Press, 1972.
  ^  Caspar, Kepler, pp. 192–197
  ^  Koestler, The Sleepwalkers p. 384
  ^  Caspar, Kepler, pp. 198–202
  ^  Schneer, "Kepler's New Year's Gift of a Snowflake," pp. 531–45
  ^  Kepler, Johannes (1966) [1611]. Hardie, Colin (ed.). De nive sexangula [The Six-sided Snowflake]. Oxford: Clarendon Press. OCLC 974730.
  ^  Caspar, Kepler, pp. 209–20, 227–240. In 2018 a complete English translation was publihed: Nova stereometria doliorum vinariorum / New solid geometry of wine barrels. Accessit stereometriæ Archimedeæ supplementum / A supplement to the Archimedean solid geometry has been added. Edited and translated, with an Introduction, by Eberhard Knobloch. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 2018. ISBN 978-2-251-44832-9
  ^  Belyi, Y. A. (1975). "Johannes Kepler and the development of mathematics". Vistas in Astronomy. 18 (1): 643–660. Bibcode:1975VA.....18..643B. doi:10.1016/0083-6656(75)90149-X.
  ^  Thorvaldsen, S. (2010). "Early Numerical Analysis in Kepler's New Astronomy". Science in Context. 23 (1): 39–63. doi:10.1017/S0269889709990238. S2CID 122605799.
  ^  Cardil, Roberto (2020). "Kepler: The Volume of a Wine Barrel". Mathematical Association of America. Retrieved 16 July 2022.
  ^  Albinus, Hans-Joachim (June 2002). "Joannes Keplerus Leomontanus: Kepler's childhood in Weil der Stadt and Leonberg 1571–1584". The Mathematical Intelligencer. 24 (3): 50–58. doi:10.1007/BF03024733. ISSN 0343-6993. S2CID 123965600.
  ^  For a detailed study of the reception of Kepler's astronomy see Wilbur Applebaum, "Keplerian Astronomy after Kepler: Researches and Problems," History of Science, 34(1996): 451–504.
  ^  Koyré, The Astronomical Revolution, pp. 362–364
  ^  North, History of Astronomy and Cosmology, pp.  355–60
  ^  van Helden, Albert (1976). "The Importance of the Transit of Mercury of 1631". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 7: 1–10. Bibcode:1976JHA.....7....1V. doi:10.1177/002182867600700101. S2CID 220916972.
  ^  HM Nautical Almanac Office (10 June 2004). "1631 Transit of Venus". Archived from the original on 1 October 2006. Retrieved 28 August 2006.
  ^  Allan Chapman, "Jeremiah Horrocks, the transit of Venus, and the 'New Astronomy' in early 17th-century England," Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, 31 (1990): 333–357.
  ^  North, History of Astronomy and Cosmology, pp.  348–349
  ^  Wilbur Applebaum and Robert Hatch, "Boulliau, Mercator, and Horrock's Venus in sole visa: Three Unpublished Letters,"  Journal for the History of Astronomy , 14(1983): 166–179
  ^  Lawrence Nolan (ed.), The Cambridge Descartes Lexicon, Cambridge University Press, 2016, "Inertia."
  ^  Kuhn, The Copernican Revolution, pp. 238, 246–252
  ^   Frautschi, Steven C.; Olenick, Richard P.; Apostol, Tom M.; Goodstein, David L. (2007).  The Mechanical Universe: Mechanics and Heat  (Advanced ed.). Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]: Cambridge University Press. p. 451. ISBN  978-0-521-71590-4 . OCLC 227002144.
  ^  Jardine, "Koyré's Kepler/Kepler's Koyré," pp. 363–367
  ^  Jardine, "Koyré's Kepler/Kepler's Koyré," pp. 367–372; Shapin, The Scientific Revolution, pp. 1–2
  ^  Pauli, "The Influence of Archetypical Ideas"
  ^  Gingerich, introduction to Caspar's Kepler, pp. 3–4
  ^  Ulrich Grigull, "Sechzig Jahre Kepler-Kommission", in: Sitzungsberichte der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften [Sitzung vom 5. Juli 1996], 1996.
  ^  kepler-kommission.de.
Ulf Hashagen, Walther von Dyck (1856–1934). Mathematik, Technik und Wissenschaftsorganisation an der TH München, Stuttgart, 2003.
  ^  Quote from Carl Sagan,  Cosmos: A Personal Voyage , episode III: "The Harmony of the Worlds".
  ^  Stephen Toulmin, Review of The Sleepwalkers in The Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 59, no. 18 (1962), pp. 500–503
  ^  William Donahue, "A Novelist's Kepler," Journal for the History of Astronomy, Vol. 13 (1982), pp. 135–136; "Dancing the grave dance: Science, art and religion in John Banville's Kepler," English Studies, Vol. 86, no. 5 (October 2005), pp. 424–438
  ^  Marcelo Gleiser, "Kepler in the Dock", review of Gilder and Gilder's Heavenly Intrigue, Journal for the History of Astronomy, Vol. 35, pt. 4 (2004), pp. 487–489
  ^   "Eggenberg Palace coin". Austrian Mint. Archived from the original on May 31, 2011. Retrieved September 9, 2009.
  ^  MacDonald, Calum (2004). "Review of Hindemith: Die Harmonie der Welt". Tempo. 58 (227): 63–66. doi:10.1017/S0040298204210063. ISSN 0040-2982. JSTOR 3878689.
  ^  Rodgers, John; Ruff, Willie (1979). "Kepler's Harmony of the World: A Realization for the Ear". American Scientist. 67 (3): 286–292. Bibcode:1979AmSci..67..286R. ISSN 0003-0996. JSTOR 27849220.
  ^  Pasachoff, Jay M.; Pasachoff, Naomi (December 2009). "Third physics opera for Philip Glass". Nature. 462 (7274): 724. Bibcode:2009Natur.462..724P. doi:10.1038/462724a. ISSN 0028-0836. S2CID 4391370.
  ^  "... in 1614, Johannes Kepler published his book De vero anno quo aeternus dei filius humanum naturam in utero benedictae Virginis Mariae assumpsit, on the chronology related to the Star of Bethlehem.", The Star of Bethlehem, Kapteyn Astronomical Institute
 
Sources[edit]
 Andersen, Hanne; Peter Barker; and Xiang Chen. The Cognitive Structure of Scientific Revolutions, chapter 6: "The Copernican Revolution." New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0-521-85575-4 
Armitage, Angus. John Kepler, Faber, 1966.
Banville, John. Kepler, Martin, Secker and Warburg, London, 1981 (fictionalised biography)
Barker, Peter and Bernard R. Goldstein: "Theological Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy". Osiris, Volume 16. Science in Theistic Contexts. University of Chicago Press, 2001, pp.  88–113
Caspar, Max. Kepler; transl. and ed. by C. Doris Hellman; with a new introduction and references by Owen Gingerich; bibliographic citations by Owen Gingerich and Alain Segonds. New York: Dover, 1993. ISBN 978-0-486-67605-0 
Connor, James A. Kepler's Witch: An Astronomer's Discovery of Cosmic Order Amid Religious War, Political Intrigue, and the Heresy Trial of His Mother. HarperSanFrancisco, 2004. ISBN 978-0-06-052255-1 
De Gandt, Francois. Force and Geometry in Newton's Principia, Translated by Curtis Wilson, Princeton University Press, 1995. ISBN 978-0-691-03367-9 
 Dreyer, J. L. E. A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler. Dover Publications Inc, 1967. ISBN 0-486-60079-3 
Ferguson, Kitty. The nobleman and his housedog: Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler: the strange partnership that revolutionized science. London: Review, 2002. ISBN 978-0-7472-7022-5 – published in the US as: Tycho &amp; Kepler: the unlikely partnership that forever changed our understanding of the heavens. New York: Walker, 2002. ISBN 0-8027-1390-4 
 Field, J. V. Kepler's geometrical cosmology. University of Chicago Press, 1988. ISBN 978-0-226-24823-3 
Gilder, Joshua and Anne-Lee Gilder: Heavenly Intrigue: Johannes Kepler, Tycho Brahe, and the Murder Behind One of History's Greatest Scientific Discoveries, Doubleday (18 May 2004). ISBN 978-0-385-50844-5 Reviews bookpage.com, crisismagazine.com 
 Gingerich, Owen. The Eye of Heaven: Ptolemy, Copernicus, Kepler. American Institute of Physics, 1993. ISBN 978-0-88318-863-7 (Masters of modern physics; v. 7)
Gingerich, Owen: "Kepler, Johannes" in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Volume VII. Charles Coulston Gillispie, editor. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973
Greenbaum and Boockmann: "Kepler's Astrology", Culture and Cosmos Vol. 14. Special Double Issue, 2012.
Jardine, Nick: "Koyré's Kepler/Kepler's Koyré," History of Science, Vol. 38 (2000), pp.  363–376
Kepler, Johannes. Johannes Kepler New Astronomy trans. W. Donahue, foreword by O. Gingerich, Cambridge University Press 1993. ISBN 0-521-30131-9 
Kepler, Johannes and Christian Frisch. Joannis Kepleri Astronomi Opera Omnia (John Kepler, Astronomer; Complete Works), 8 vols.(1858–1871). vol. 1, 1858, vol. 2, 1859, vol. 3, 1860, vol. 6, 1866, vol. 7, 1868, Frankfurt am Main and Erlangen, Heyder &amp; Zimmer, – Google Books 
Kepler, Johannes, et al. Great Books of the Western World. Volume 16: Ptolemy, Copernicus, Kepler, Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1952. (contains English translations by of Kepler's Epitome, Books IV &amp; V and Harmonice Book 5)
 Koestler, Arthur.  The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe. (1959). ISBN 978-0-14-019246-9 
 Koyré, Alexandre: Galilean Studies Harvester Press, 1977. ISBN 978-0-85527-354-5 
Koyré, Alexandre: The Astronomical Revolution: Copernicus-Kepler-Borelli Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1973. ISBN 978-0-8014-0504-4; Methuen, 1973. ISBN 978-0-416-76980-7; Hermann, 1973. ISBN 978-2-7056-5648-5 
 Kuhn, Thomas S. The Copernican Revolution: Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1957. ISBN 978-0-674-17103-9 
Lindberg, David C.: "The Genesis of Kepler's Theory of Light: Light Metaphysics from Plotinus to Kepler." Osiris, N.S. 2. University of Chicago Press, 1986, pp.  5–42.
Lear, John. Kepler's Dream. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965
M.T.K Al-Tamimi. "Great collapse Kepler's first law", Natural Science, 2 (2010), ISSN 2150-4091 
North, John. The Fontana History of Astronomy and Cosmology, Fontana Press, 1994. ISBN 978-0-00-686177-5 
Pannekoek, Anton: A History of Astronomy, Dover Publications Inc 1989. ISBN 978-0-486-65994-7 
 Pauli, Wolfgang. Wolfgang Pauli – Writings on physics and philosophy, translated by Robert Schlapp and edited by P. Enz and Karl von Meyenn (Springer Verlag, Berlin, 1994). See section 21, The influence of archetypical ideas on the scientific theories of Kepler, concerning Johannes Kepler and Robert Fludd (1574–1637). ISBN 978-3-540-56859-9 
Schneer, Cecil: "Kepler's New Year's Gift of a Snowflake."  Isis , Volume 51, No. 4. University of Chicago Press, 1960, pp.  531–545.
Shapin, Steven. The Scientific Revolution. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996. ISBN 978-0-226-75020-0 
Stephenson, Bruce. Kepler's physical astronomy. New York: Springer, 1987. ISBN 978-0-387-96541-3 (Studies in the history of mathematics and physical sciences; 13); reprinted Princeton:Princeton Univ. Pr., 1994. ISBN 978-0-691-03652-6 
Stephenson, Bruce. The Music of the Heavens: Kepler's Harmonic Astronomy, Princeton University Press, 1994. ISBN 978-0-691-03439-3 
Toulmin, Stephen and June Goodfield. The Fabric of the Heavens: The Development of Astronomy and Dynamics. Pelican, 1963.
Voelkel, James R. The Composition of Kepler's Astronomia nova, Princeton University Press, 2001. ISBN 978-0-691-00738-0 
 Westfall, Richard S. The Construction of Modern Science: Mechanism and Mechanics. John Wiley and Sons, 1971. ISBN 0-471-93531-X; reprinted Cambridge University Press, 1978. ISBN 0-521-29295-6 
Westfall, Richard S. Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton. Cambridge University Press, 1981. ISBN 978-0-521-23143-5 
Wolf, A. A History of Science, Technology and Philosophy in the 16th and 17th centuries. George Allen &amp; Unwin, 1950. 
External links[edit]
  Kepler's Conversation with the Starry Messenger (English translation of Dissertation cum Nuncio Sidereo) Archived 17 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine 
  Herausgabe der Werke von Johannes Kepler (with links to digital scans of the published volumes) 
 Johannes Kepler at the Mathematics Genealogy Project 
 Works by Johannes Kepler at Project Gutenberg 
 Works by or about Johannes Kepler at Internet Archive 
Walter W. Bryant.  Kepler  at Project Gutenberg (1920 book, part of Men of Science series)
  Clerke, Agnes Mary (1911). "Kepler, Johann" .  Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 15 (11th ed.). pp. 749–751. 
 Johannes Kepler at Curlie 
Plant, David, Kepler and the "Music of the Spheres" 
  O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Johannes Kepler",  MacTutor History of Mathematics archive , University of St Andrews
Johannes Kepler - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Kepler
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton
Isaac Newton - Wikipedia
2001-10-22
Authority control
<div><div>
<p>This article is about the scientist and mathematician. For the American agriculturalist, see <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton_(agriculturalist)">Isaac Newton (agriculturalist)</a>.</p>
<table><tbody><tr><th><div><p><a href="/wiki/Sir">Sir</a></p></div><p>Isaac Newton</p><br /><div><p><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Royal_Society">PRS</a></p></div></th></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Sir_Isaac_Newton,_1689.jpg"></a><div><p>Portrait of Newton at 46 by <a href="/wiki/Godfrey_Kneller">Godfrey Kneller</a>, 1689</p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Born</th><td>4 January 1643 [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates">O.S.</a> 25 December 1642]<sup><a href="#cite_note-OSNS-2">[a]</a></sup><br /><div><p><a href="/wiki/Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth">Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lincolnshire">Lincolnshire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England">England</a></p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Died</th><td>31 March 1727 (aged 84) [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates">O.S.</a> 20 March 1726]<sup><a href="#cite_note-OSNS-2">[a]</a></sup><br /><div><p><a href="/wiki/Kensington">Kensington</a>, <a href="/wiki/Middlesex">Middlesex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain">Great Britain</a></p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Resting place</th><td><a href="/wiki/Westminster_Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a></td></tr><tr><th>Education</th><td><a href="/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridge">Trinity College, Cambridge</a> (<a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts">M.A.</a>, 1668)<sup><a href="#cite_note-3">[2]</a></sup></td></tr><tr><th>Known for</th><td><div>
<div><p>List</p></div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics">Newtonian mechanics</a></li><li> <a href="/wiki/Universal_gravitation">universal gravitation</a></li><li> <a href="/wiki/Calculus">calculus</a></li><li> <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion">Newton's laws of motion</a></li><li> <a href="/wiki/Optics">optics</a></li><li> <a href="/wiki/Binomial_series">binomial series</a></li><li> <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica">Principia</a></i></li><li> <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_method">Newton's method</a> </li><li> <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_cooling">Newton's law of cooling</a></li><li> <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_identities">Newton's identities</a></li><li> <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_metal">Newton's metal</a></li><li> <a href="/wiki/Newton_line">Newton line</a></li><li> <a href="/wiki/Newton%E2%80%93Gauss_line">Newton–Gauss line</a></li><li> <a href="/wiki/Newtonian_fluid">Newtonian fluid</a></li><li> <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_rings">Newton's rings</a></li><li><i><a href="/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants">Standing on the shoulders of giants</a></i> </li><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Isaac_Newton">List of all other works and concepts</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th>Awards</th><td><div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society">FRS</a> (1672)<sup><a href="#cite_note-frs-4">[3]</a></sup></li><li><a href="/wiki/Knight_Bachelor">Knight Bachelor</a> (1705)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th>Fields</th><td><div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physics">Physics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy">natural philosophy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy">alchemy</a></li><li>theology</li><li>mathematics</li><li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy">astronomy</a></li><li>economics</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Institutions</th><td><div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Society">Royal Society</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Mint">Royal Mint</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Academic advisors</th><td><div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Barrow">Isaac Barrow</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-5">[4]</a></sup></li><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Pulleyn">Benjamin Pulleyn</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-6">[5]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-The_Newton_Handbook-7">[6]</a></sup></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Notable students</th><td><div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Cotes">Roger Cotes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/William_Whiston">William Whiston</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Influences</th><td><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle">Boyle</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-8">[7]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Descartes">Descartes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Galileo">Galileo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens">Huygens</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-CohenSmith2002-9">[8]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Guicciardini2009-10">[9]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kepler">Kepler</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J._Locke">Locke</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-LockeNewtonInfluence-11">[10]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-EssayPrincipia-12">[11]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides">Maimonides</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Street_(astronomer)">Street</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-14">[13]</a></sup></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th>Influenced</th><td><div>
<div><p>List</p></div>
<ul><li>
<div>
<div><p>In the natural sciences and mathematics</p></div>
<ul><li>
<div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boole">Boole</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Einstein">Einstein</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Euler">Euler</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_Clairaut">Clairaut</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89milie_du_Ch%C3%A2telet">Châtelet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/%27s_Gravesande">'s Gravesande</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Gregory_(mathematician)">Gregory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Rowan_Hamilton">Hamilton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/James_Jurin">Jurin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Laplace">Laplace</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J._C._Maxwell">Maxwell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Maclaurin">Maclaurin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Routh">Routh</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Smith_(mathematician)">Smith</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li></ul>
</div>
</li></ul>
</div>
<div>
<div><p>In the humanities</p></div>
<ul><li>
<div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bentley">Bentley</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot">Diderot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin">Godwin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hartley_(philosopher)">Hartley</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume">Hume</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant">Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes">Keynes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke">Locke</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-LockeNewtonInfluence-11">[10]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-EssayPrincipia-12">[11]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-Saint-Simon-15">[14]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Verri">Verri</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-Verri-16">[15]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire">Voltaire</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-17">[16]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_philosophy">Enlightenment philosophy</a> in general</li></ul>
</div>
</li></ul>
</div>
</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_England">Member of Parliament</a> for <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_(UK_Parliament_constituency)">the University of Cambridge</a></th></tr><tr><td><b>In office</b><br />1689–1690</td></tr><tr><th>Preceded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/Robert_Brady_(writer)">Robert Brady</a></td></tr><tr><th>Succeeded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/Edward_Finch_(composer)">Edward Finch</a></td></tr><tr><td><b>In office</b><br />1701–1702</td></tr><tr><th>Preceded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Hammond">Anthony Hammond</a></td></tr><tr><th>Succeeded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Annesley,_5th_Earl_of_Anglesey">Arthur Annesley, 5th Earl of Anglesey</a></td></tr><tr><th>12th <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Royal_Society">President of the Royal Society</a></th></tr><tr><td><b>In office</b><br />1703–1727</td></tr><tr><th>Preceded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/John_Somers,_1st_Baron_Somers">John Somers</a></td></tr><tr><th>Succeeded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/Hans_Sloane">Hans Sloane</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/Master_of_the_Mint">Master of the Mint</a></th></tr><tr><td><b>In office</b><br />1699–1727</td></tr><tr><th>1696–1699</th><td><a href="/wiki/Warden_of_the_Mint">Warden of the Mint</a></td></tr><tr><th>Preceded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Neale">Thomas Neale</a></td></tr><tr><th>Succeeded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/John_Conduitt">John Conduitt</a></td></tr><tr><th>2nd <a href="/wiki/Lucasian_Professor_of_Mathematics">Lucasian Professor of Mathematics</a></th></tr><tr><td><b>In office</b><br />1669–1702</td></tr><tr><th>Preceded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Barrow">Isaac Barrow</a></td></tr><tr><th>Succeeded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/William_Whiston">William Whiston</a></td></tr><tr><th>Personal details</th></tr><tr><th>Political party</th><td><a href="/wiki/Whigs_(British_political_party)">Whig</a></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><th>Signature</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:Isaac_Newton_signature_ws.svg"></a></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Sir Isaac Newton</b> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Royal_Society">PRS</a> (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1726/27)<sup><a href="#cite_note-OSNS-2">[a]</a></sup> was an English mathematician, <a href="/wiki/Physicist">physicist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomer">astronomer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alchemist">alchemist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theology">theologian</a>, and author (described in his time as a "<a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy">natural philosopher</a>"). He was a key figure in the philosophical revolution known as the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>. His book <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica">Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica</a></i> (<i>Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy</i>), first published in 1687, established <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics">classical mechanics</a>. Newton also made seminal contributions to <a href="/wiki/Optics">optics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Multiple_discovery">shares credit</a> with German mathematician <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a> for developing <a href="/wiki/Calculus">infinitesimal calculus</a>.
</p><p>In the <i>Principia</i>, Newton formulated the <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion">laws of motion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation">universal gravitation</a> that formed the dominant scientific viewpoint for centuries until it was superseded by the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity">theory of relativity</a>. Newton used his mathematical description of <a href="/wiki/Gravity">gravity</a> to derive <a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws_of_planetary_motion">Kepler's laws of planetary motion</a>, account for <a href="/wiki/Tide">tides</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Trajectory">trajectories</a> of <a href="/wiki/Comet">comets</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Axial_precession">precession of the equinoxes</a> and other phenomena, eradicating doubt about the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System">Solar System</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism">heliocentricity</a>. He demonstrated that the <a href="/wiki/Dynamics_(mechanics)">motion of objects</a> on Earth and <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_object">celestial bodies</a> could be accounted for by the same principles. Newton's inference that the Earth is an <a href="/wiki/Spheroid#Oblate_spheroids">oblate spheroid</a> was later confirmed by the geodetic measurements of <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Louis_Maupertuis">Maupertuis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Marie_de_La_Condamine">La Condamine</a>, and others, convincing most European scientists of the superiority of Newtonian mechanics over earlier systems.
</p><p>Newton built the <a href="/wiki/Newtonian_telescope">first practical reflecting telescope</a> and developed a sophisticated <a href="/wiki/Color_theory">theory of colour</a> based on the observation that a <a href="/wiki/Dispersive_prism">prism</a> separates <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum#Visible_radiation_(light)">white light</a> into the colours of the <a href="/wiki/Visible_spectrum">visible spectrum</a>. His work on light was collected in his highly influential book <i><a href="/wiki/Opticks">Opticks</a></i>, published in 1704. He also formulated an <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_cooling">empirical law of cooling</a>, made the first theoretical calculation of the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_sound">speed of sound</a>, and introduced the notion of a <a href="/wiki/Newtonian_fluid">Newtonian fluid</a>. In addition to his work on calculus, as a mathematician Newton contributed to the study of power series, generalised the <a href="/wiki/Binomial_theorem">binomial theorem</a> to non-integer exponents, developed <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_method">a method</a> for approximating the <a href="/wiki/Zero_of_a_function">roots of a function</a>, and classified most of the <a href="/wiki/Cubic_plane_curve">cubic plane curves</a>.
</p><p>Newton was a fellow of <a href="/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridge">Trinity College</a> and the second <a href="/wiki/Lucasian_Professor_of_Mathematics">Lucasian Professor of Mathematics</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a>. He was a devout but unorthodox <a href="/wiki/Christian">Christian</a> who privately rejected the doctrine of the <a href="/wiki/Trinity">Trinity</a>. He refused to take <a href="/wiki/Holy_orders">holy orders</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England">Church of England</a>, unlike most members of the Cambridge faculty of the day. Beyond his work on the <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sciences">mathematical sciences</a>, Newton dedicated much of his time to the study of <a href="/wiki/Alchemy">alchemy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_Bible">biblical chronology</a>, but most of his work in those areas remained unpublished until long after his death. Politically and personally tied to the <a href="/wiki/Whigs_(British_political_party)">Whig party</a>, Newton served two brief terms as <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_(UK_Parliament_constituency)">Member of Parliament for the University of Cambridge</a>, in 1689–1690 and 1701–1702. He was <a href="/wiki/Knight">knighted</a> by <a href="/wiki/Anne,_Queen_of_Great_Britain">Queen Anne</a> in 1705 and spent the last three decades of his life in London, serving as <a href="/wiki/Warden_of_the_Mint">Warden</a> (1696–1699) and <a href="/wiki/Master_of_the_Mint">Master</a> (1699–1727) of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Mint">Royal Mint</a>, as well as president of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society">Royal Society</a> (1703–1727).
</p>
<h2>Early life</h2>
<h3>Early life</h3>
<p>Isaac Newton was born (according to the <a href="/wiki/Julian_calendar">Julian calendar</a> in use in England at the time) on Christmas Day, 25 December 1642 (<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates">NS</a> 4 January 1643<sup><a href="#cite_note-OSNS-2">[a]</a></sup>), "an hour or two after midnight",<sup><a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a></sup> at <a href="/wiki/Woolsthorpe_Manor">Woolsthorpe Manor</a> in <a href="/wiki/Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth">Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Hamlet_(place)">hamlet</a> in the county of Lincolnshire. His father, also named Isaac Newton, had died three months before. <a href="/wiki/Premature_birth">Born prematurely</a>, Newton was a small child; his mother Hannah Ayscough reportedly said that he could have fit inside a <a href="/wiki/Quart">quart</a> mug.<sup><a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a></sup> When Newton was three, his mother remarried and went to live with her new husband, the Reverend Barnabas Smith, leaving her son in the care of his maternal grandmother, Margery Ayscough (née Blythe). Newton disliked his stepfather and maintained some enmity towards his mother for marrying him, as revealed by this entry in a list of sins committed up to the age of 19: "Threatening my father and mother Smith to burn them and the house over them."<sup><a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a></sup> Newton's mother had three children (Mary, Benjamin, and Hannah) from her second marriage.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall198055-21">[20]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>The King's School</h3>
<p>From the age of about twelve until he was seventeen, Newton was educated at <a href="/wiki/The_King%27s_School,_Grantham">The King's School</a> in <a href="/wiki/Grantham">Grantham</a>, which taught Latin and Ancient Greek and probably imparted a significant foundation of mathematics.<sup><a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a></sup> He was removed from school and returned to Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth by October 1659. His mother, widowed for the second time, attempted to make him a farmer, an occupation he hated.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall199416–19-23">[22]</a></sup> Henry Stokes, master at The King's School, persuaded his mother to send him back to school. Motivated partly by a desire for revenge against a schoolyard bully, he became the top-ranked student,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite199722-24">[23]</a></sup> distinguishing himself mainly by building <a href="/wiki/Sundial">sundials</a> and models of windmills.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall198060–62-25">[24]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>University of Cambridge</h3>
<p>In June 1661, Newton was admitted to <a href="/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridge">Trinity College</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a>. His uncle Reverend William Ayscough, who had studied at Cambridge, recommended him to the university. At Cambridge, Newton started as a <a href="/wiki/Subsizar">subsizar</a>, paying his way by performing <a href="/wiki/Valet">valet</a> duties until he was awarded a scholarship in 1664, which covered his university costs for four more years until the completion of his <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts_(Oxbridge_and_Dublin)">MA</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall198071,_103-26">[25]</a></sup> At the time, Cambridge's teachings were based on those of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, whom Newton read along with then more modern philosophers, including <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes">Descartes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astronomer">astronomers</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Street_(astronomer)">Thomas Street</a>. He set down in his notebook a series of "<a href="/wiki/Quaestiones_quaedam_philosophicae"><i>Quaestiones</i></a>" about <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_philosophy">mechanical philosophy</a> as he found it. In 1665, he discovered the generalised <a href="/wiki/Binomial_theorem">binomial theorem</a> and began to develop a mathematical theory that later became <a href="/wiki/Calculus">calculus</a>. Soon after Newton obtained his BA degree at Cambridge in August 1665, the university temporarily closed as a precaution against the <a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_of_London">Great Plague</a>. Although he had been undistinguished as a Cambridge student,<sup><a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a></sup> Newton's private studies at his home in Woolsthorpe over the next two years saw the development of his theories on calculus,<sup><a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Optics">optics</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_gravitation">law of gravitation</a>.
</p><p>In April 1667, Newton returned to the University of Cambridge, and in October he was elected as a fellow of Trinity.<sup><a href="#cite_note-29">[28]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980178-30">[29]</a></sup> Fellows were required to be ordained as priests, although this was not enforced in the <a href="/wiki/English_restoration">restoration</a> years and an assertion of conformity to the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England">Church of England</a> was sufficient. However, by 1675 the issue could not be avoided and by then his unconventional views stood in the way.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980330–331-31">[30]</a></sup> Nevertheless, Newton managed to avoid it by means of special permission from <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_England">Charles II</a>.
</p><p>His academic work impressed the <a href="/wiki/Lucasian_Professor_of_Mathematics">Lucasian professor</a> <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Barrow">Isaac Barrow</a>, who was anxious to develop his own religious and administrative potential (he became master of Trinity College two years later); in 1669, Newton succeeded him, only one year after receiving his MA. Newton was elected a <a href="/wiki/List_of_Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society_elected_in_1672">Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1672</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-frs-4">[3]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Work</h2>
<h3>Calculus</h3>
<p>Newton's work has been said "to distinctly advance every branch of mathematics then studied".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall1908319-32">[31]</a></sup> His work on the subject, usually referred to as fluxions or calculus, seen in a manuscript of October 1666, is now published among Newton's mathematical papers.<sup><a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a></sup> His work <i><a href="/wiki/De_analysi_per_aequationes_numero_terminorum_infinitas">De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas</a></i>, sent by <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Barrow">Isaac Barrow</a> to <a href="/wiki/John_Collins_(mathematician)">John Collins</a> in June 1669, was identified by Barrow in a letter sent to Collins that August as the work "of an extraordinary genius and proficiency in these things".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGjertsen1986149-34">[33]</a></sup>
</p><p>Newton later became involved in a dispute with <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz">Leibniz</a> over priority in the development of calculus (the <a href="/wiki/Leibniz%E2%80%93Newton_calculus_controversy">Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy</a>). Most modern historians believe that Newton and Leibniz developed calculus independently, although with very different <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_notation">mathematical notations</a>. Occasionally it has been suggested that Newton published almost nothing about it until 1693, and did not give a full account until 1704, while Leibniz began publishing a full account of his methods in 1684. Leibniz's notation and "differential Method", nowadays recognised as much more convenient notations, were adopted by continental European mathematicians, and after 1820 or so, also by British mathematicians.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>His work extensively uses calculus in geometric form based on limiting values of the ratios of vanishingly small quantities: in the <i>Principia</i> itself, Newton gave demonstration of this under the name of "the method of first and last ratios"<sup><a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a></sup> and explained why he put his expositions in this form,<sup><a href="#cite_note-36">[35]</a></sup> remarking also that "hereby the same thing is performed as by the method of indivisibles."<sup><a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a></sup>
</p><p>Because of this, the <i>Principia</i> has been called "a book dense with the theory and application of the infinitesimal calculus" in modern times<sup><a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a></sup> and in Newton's time "nearly all of it is of this calculus."<sup><a href="#cite_note-39">[38]</a></sup> His use of methods involving "one or more orders of the infinitesimally small" is present in his <i>De motu corporum in gyrum</i> of 1684<sup><a href="#cite_note-40">[39]</a></sup> and in his papers on motion "during the two decades preceding 1684".<sup><a href="#cite_note-41">[40]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Sir_Isaac_Newton_by_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller,_Bt.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Newton had been reluctant to publish his calculus because he feared controversy and criticism.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2009107-42">[41]</a></sup> He was close to the Swiss mathematician <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Fatio_de_Duillier">Nicolas Fatio de Duillier</a>. In 1691, Duillier started to write a new version of Newton's <i>Principia</i>, and corresponded with Leibniz.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980538–539-43">[42]</a></sup> In 1693, the relationship between Duillier and Newton deteriorated and the book was never completed.<sup><a href="#cite_note-44">[43]</a></sup>
</p><p>Starting in 1699, other members<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions">who?</a></i>]</sup> of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society">Royal Society</a> accused Leibniz of plagiarism.<sup><a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a></sup> The dispute then broke out in full force in 1711 when the Royal Society proclaimed in a study that it was Newton who was the true discoverer and labelled Leibniz a fraud; it was later found that Newton wrote the study's concluding remarks on Leibniz. Thus began the bitter controversy which marred the lives of both Newton and Leibniz until the latter's death in 1716.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall1908356-46">[45]</a></sup>
</p><p>Newton is generally credited with the <a href="/wiki/Binomial_theorem#Newton's_generalized_binomial_theorem">generalised binomial theorem</a>, valid for any exponent. He discovered <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_identities">Newton's identities</a>, <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_method">Newton's method</a>, classified <a href="/wiki/Cubic_plane_curve">cubic plane curves</a> (<a href="/wiki/Polynomials">polynomials</a> of degree three in two <a href="/wiki/Variable_(mathematics)">variables</a>), made substantial contributions to the theory of <a href="/wiki/Finite_differences">finite differences</a>, and was the first to use fractional indices and to employ <a href="/wiki/Coordinate_geometry">coordinate geometry</a> to derive solutions to <a href="/wiki/Diophantine_equations">Diophantine equations</a>. He approximated <a href="/wiki/Series_(mathematics)">partial</a> sums of the <a href="/wiki/Harmonic_series_(mathematics)">harmonic series</a> by <a href="/wiki/Logarithms">logarithms</a> (a precursor to <a href="/wiki/Euler%27s_summation_formula">Euler's summation formula</a>) and was the first to use <a href="/wiki/Power_series">power series</a> with confidence and to revert power series. Newton's work on infinite series was inspired by <a href="/wiki/Simon_Stevin">Simon Stevin</a>'s decimals.<sup><a href="#cite_note-47">[46]</a></sup>
</p><p>When Newton received his MA and became a Fellow of the "College of the Holy and Undivided Trinity" in 1667, he made the commitment that "I will either set Theology as the object of my studies and will take holy orders when the time prescribed by these statutes [7 years] arrives, or I will resign from the college."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980179-48">[47]</a></sup> Up until this point he had not thought much about religion and had twice signed his agreement to the <a href="/wiki/Thirty-nine_articles">thirty-nine articles</a>, the basis of <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England">Church of England</a> doctrine.
</p><p>He was appointed <a href="/wiki/Lucasian_Professor_of_Mathematics">Lucasian Professor of Mathematics</a> in 1669, on Barrow's recommendation. During that time, any Fellow of a college at Cambridge or Oxford was required to take <a href="/wiki/Holy_orders">holy orders</a> and become an ordained <a href="/wiki/Anglicanism">Anglican</a> priest. However, the terms of the Lucasian professorship required that the holder <em>not</em> be active in the church – presumably,<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words">weasel words</a></i>]</sup> so as to have more time for science. Newton argued that this should exempt him from the ordination requirement, and <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_England">Charles II</a>, whose permission was needed, accepted this argument; thus, a conflict between Newton's religious views and Anglican orthodoxy was averted.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite1997151-49">[48]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Optics</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:NewtonsTelescopeReplica.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>In 1666, Newton observed that the spectrum of colours exiting a <a href="/wiki/Triangular_prism_(optics)">prism</a> in the position of <a href="/wiki/Minimum_deviation">minimum deviation</a> is oblong, even when the light ray entering the prism is circular, which is to say, the prism refracts different colours by different angles.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Whittaker-51">[50]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a></sup> This led him to conclude that colour is a property intrinsic to light – a point which had, until then, been a matter of debate.
</p><p>From 1670 to 1672, Newton lectured on optics.<sup><a href="#cite_note-53">[52]</a></sup> During this period he investigated the <a href="/wiki/Refraction">refraction</a> of light, demonstrating that the multicoloured image produced by a prism, which he named a <a href="/wiki/Spectrum">spectrum</a>, could be recomposed into white light by a <a href="/wiki/Lens_(optics)">lens</a> and a second prism.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall1908324-54">[53]</a></sup> Modern scholarship has revealed that Newton's analysis and resynthesis of white light owes a debt to <a href="/wiki/Corpuscularianism">corpuscular</a> alchemy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-55">[54]</a></sup>
</p><p>He showed that coloured light does not change its properties by separating out a coloured beam and shining it on various objects, and that regardless of whether reflected, scattered, or transmitted, the light remains the same colour. Thus, he observed that colour is the result of objects interacting with already-coloured light rather than objects generating the colour themselves. This is known as <a href="/wiki/Early_life_of_Isaac_Newton#Newton's_theory_of_colour">Newton's theory of colour</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall1908325-56">[55]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Dispersive_Prism_Illustration.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Illustration of a <a href="/wiki/Dispersive_prism">dispersive prism</a> separating white light into the colours of the spectrum, as discovered by Newton</p></div></div>
<p>From this work, he concluded that the lens of any <a href="/wiki/Refracting_telescope">refracting telescope</a> would suffer from the <a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(optics)">dispersion</a> of light into colours (<a href="/wiki/Chromatic_aberration">chromatic aberration</a>). As a proof of the concept, he constructed a telescope using reflective mirrors instead of lenses as the <a href="/wiki/Objective_(optics)">objective</a> to bypass that problem.<sup><a href="#cite_note-The_Early_Period_(1608–1672)-57">[56]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-White_1997,_p170-58">[57]</a></sup> Building the design, the first known functional reflecting telescope, today known as a <a href="/wiki/Newtonian_telescope">Newtonian telescope</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-White_1997,_p170-58">[57]</a></sup> involved solving the problem of a suitable mirror material and shaping technique. Newton ground his own mirrors out of a custom composition of highly reflective <a href="/wiki/Speculum_metal">speculum metal</a>, using <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_rings">Newton's rings</a> to judge the <a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)">quality</a> of the optics for his telescopes. In late 1668,<sup><a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-59">[58]</a></sup> he was able to produce this first reflecting telescope. It was about eight inches long and it gave a clearer and larger image. In 1671, the Royal Society asked for a demonstration of his reflecting telescope.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite1997168-60">[59]</a></sup> Their interest encouraged him to publish his notes, <i>Of Colours</i>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-61">[60]</a></sup> which he later expanded into the work <i><a href="/wiki/Opticks">Opticks</a></i>. When <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke">Robert Hooke</a> criticised some of Newton's ideas, Newton was so offended that he withdrew from public debate. Newton and Hooke had brief exchanges in 1679–80, when Hooke, appointed to manage the Royal Society's correspondence, opened up a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions,<sup><a href="#cite_note-hooke1679nov24-62">[61]</a></sup> which had the effect of stimulating Newton to work out a proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector. But the two men remained generally on poor terms until Hooke's death.<sup><a href="#cite_note-63">[62]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Newton-letter-to-briggs_03.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Facsimile of a 1682 letter from Newton to <a href="/wiki/William_Briggs_(physician)">William Briggs</a>, commenting on Briggs' <i>A New Theory of Vision</i></p></div></div>
<p>Newton argued that light is composed of particles or corpuscles, which were refracted by accelerating into a denser medium. He verged on soundlike waves to explain the repeated pattern of reflection and transmission by thin films (Opticks Bk.II, Props. 12), but still retained his theory of 'fits' that disposed corpuscles to be reflected or transmitted (Props.13). However, later physicists favoured a purely wavelike explanation of light to account for the <a href="/wiki/Interference_(wave_propagation)">interference</a> patterns and the general phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Diffraction">diffraction</a>. Today's <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photons">photons</a>, and the idea of <a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93particle_duality">wave–particle duality</a> bear only a minor resemblance to Newton's understanding of light.
</p><p>In his <i>Hypothesis of Light</i> of 1675, Newton posited the existence of the <a href="/wiki/Luminiferous_aether">ether</a> to transmit forces between particles. The contact with the <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Platonists">Cambridge Platonist</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Henry_More">Henry More</a> revived his interest in alchemy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-More-64">[63]</a></sup> He replaced the ether with occult forces based on <a href="/wiki/Hermeticism">Hermetic</a> ideas of attraction and repulsion between particles. <a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a>, who acquired many of Newton's writings on alchemy, stated that "Newton was not the first of the age of reason: He was the last of the magicians."<sup><a href="#cite_note-The_Collected_Writings_of_John_Maynard_Keynes_Volume_X-65">[64]</a></sup> Newton's contributions to science cannot be isolated from his interest in alchemy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-More-64">[63]</a></sup> This was at a time when there was no clear distinction between alchemy and science, and had he not relied on the <a href="/wiki/Occult">occult</a> idea of <a href="/wiki/Action_at_a_distance_(physics)">action at a distance</a>, across a vacuum, he might not have developed his theory of gravity.
</p><p>In 1704, Newton published <i><a href="/wiki/Opticks">Opticks</a></i>, in which he expounded his corpuscular theory of light. He considered light to be made up of extremely subtle corpuscles, that ordinary matter was made of grosser corpuscles and speculated that through a kind of alchemical transmutation "Are not gross Bodies and Light convertible into one another, ... and may not Bodies receive much of their Activity from the Particles of Light which enter their Composition?"<sup><a href="#cite_note-Newton's_Alchemy_and_His_Theory_of_Matter-66">[65]</a></sup> Newton also constructed a primitive form of a frictional <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_generator">electrostatic generator</a>, using a glass globe.<sup><a href="#cite_note-67">[66]</a></sup>
</p><p>In his book <i>Opticks</i>, Newton was the first to show a diagram using a prism as a beam expander, and also the use of multiple-prism arrays.<sup><a href="#cite_note-OPN1-68">[67]</a></sup> Some 278 years after Newton's discussion, <a href="/wiki/Beam_expander#Multiple-prism_beam_expanders">multiple-prism beam expanders</a> became central to the development of <a href="/wiki/Laser_linewidth">narrow-linewidth</a> <a href="/wiki/Tunable_laser">tunable lasers</a>. Also, the use of these prismatic beam expanders led to the <a href="/wiki/Multiple-prism_dispersion_theory">multiple-prism dispersion theory</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-OPN1-68">[67]</a></sup>
</p><p>Subsequent to Newton, much has been amended. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)">Young</a> and <a href="/wiki/Augustin-Jean_Fresnel">Fresnel</a> discarded Newton's particle theory in favour of <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens">Huygens'</a> wave theory to show that colour is the visible manifestation of light's wavelength. Science also slowly came to realise the difference between perception of colour and mathematisable optics. The German poet and scientist, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe">Goethe</a>, could not shake the Newtonian foundation but "one hole Goethe did find in Newton's armour, ... Newton had committed himself to the doctrine that refraction without colour was impossible. He, therefore, thought that the object-glasses of telescopes must forever remain imperfect, achromatism and refraction being incompatible. This inference was proved by <a href="/wiki/John_Dollond">Dollond</a> to be wrong."<sup><a href="#cite_note-69">[68]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Sir_Isaac_Newton_(4670220).jpg"></a></p></div>
<h3>Gravity</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:NewtonsPrincipia.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>In 1679, Newton returned to his work on <a href="/wiki/Celestial_mechanics">celestial mechanics</a> by considering gravitation and its effect on the orbits of <a href="/wiki/Planet">planets</a> with reference to <a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws">Kepler's laws</a> of planetary motion. This followed stimulation by a brief exchange of letters in 1679–80 with Hooke, who had been appointed to manage the Royal Society's correspondence, and who opened a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions.<sup><a href="#cite_note-hooke1679nov24-62">[61]</a></sup> Newton's reawakening interest in astronomical matters received further stimulus by the appearance of a comet in the winter of 1680–1681, on which he corresponded with <a href="/wiki/John_Flamsteed">John Flamsteed</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980391–392-70">[69]</a></sup> After the exchanges with Hooke, Newton worked out a proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector. Newton communicated his results to <a href="/wiki/Edmond_Halley">Edmond Halley</a> and to the Royal Society in <i><a href="/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum">De motu corporum in gyrum</a></i>, a tract written on about nine sheets which was copied into the Royal Society's Register Book in December 1684.<sup><a href="#cite_note-71">[70]</a></sup> This tract contained the nucleus that Newton developed and expanded to form the <i>Principia</i>.
</p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica">Principia</a></i> was published on 5 July 1687 with encouragement and financial help from Halley. In this work, Newton stated the <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion">three universal laws of motion</a>. Together, these laws describe the relationship between any object, the forces acting upon it and the resulting motion, laying the foundation for <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics">classical mechanics</a>. They contributed to many advances during the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> which soon followed and were not improved upon for more than 200 years. Many of these advances continue to be the underpinnings of non-relativistic technologies in the modern world. He used the Latin word <i>gravitas</i> (weight) for the effect that would become known as <a href="/wiki/Gravity">gravity</a>, and defined the law of <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation">universal gravitation</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Schmitz2018-72">[71]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the same work, Newton presented a calculus-like method of geometrical analysis using 'first and last ratios', gave the first analytical determination (based on <a href="/wiki/Boyle%27s_law">Boyle's law</a>) of the speed of sound in air, inferred the oblateness of Earth's spheroidal figure, accounted for the precession of the equinoxes as a result of the Moon's gravitational attraction on the Earth's oblateness, initiated the gravitational study of the <a href="/wiki/Lunar_theory#Newton">irregularities in the motion of the Moon</a>, provided a theory for the determination of the orbits of comets, and much more.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Schmitz2018-72">[71]</a></sup> Newton's biographer <a href="/wiki/David_Brewster">David Brewster</a> reported that the complexity of applying his theory of gravity to the motion of the moon was so great it affected Newton's health: "[H]e was deprived of his appetite and sleep" during his work on the problem in 1692-3, and told the astronomer <a href="/wiki/John_Machin">John Machin</a> that "his head never ached but when he was studying the subject". According to Brewster <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Halley">Edmund Halley</a> also told <a href="/wiki/John_Conduitt">John Conduitt</a> that when pressed to complete his analysis Newton "always replied that it made his head ache, and <i>kept him awake so often, that he would think of it no more</i>". [Emphasis in original]<sup><a href="#cite_note-73">[72]</a></sup>
</p><p>Newton made clear his <a href="/wiki/Heliocentric">heliocentric</a> view of the Solar System—developed in a somewhat modern way because already in the mid-1680s he recognised the "deviation of the Sun" from the centre of gravity of the Solar System.<sup><a href="#cite_note-74">[73]</a></sup> For Newton, it was not precisely the centre of the Sun or any other body that could be considered at rest, but rather "the common centre of gravity of the Earth, the Sun and all the Planets is to be esteem'd the Centre of the World", and this centre of gravity "either is at rest or moves uniformly forward in a right line" (Newton adopted the "at rest" alternative in view of common consent that the centre, wherever it was, was at rest).<sup><a href="#cite_note-75">[74]</a></sup>
</p><p>Newton's postulate of an invisible <a href="/wiki/Action_at_a_distance_(physics)">force able to act over vast distances</a> led to him being criticised for introducing "<a href="/wiki/Occult">occult</a> agencies" into science.<sup><a href="#cite_note-76">[75]</a></sup> Later, in the second edition of the <i>Principia</i> (1713), Newton firmly rejected such criticisms in a concluding <a href="/wiki/General_Scholium">General Scholium</a>, writing that it was enough that the phenomena implied a gravitational attraction, as they did; but they did not so far indicate its cause, and it was both unnecessary and improper to frame hypotheses of things that were not implied by the phenomena. (Here Newton used what became his famous expression <i>"hypotheses non-fingo"</i><sup><a href="#cite_note-77">[76]</a></sup>).
</p><p>With the <i>Principia</i>, Newton became internationally recognised.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980Chapter_11-78">[77]</a></sup> He acquired a circle of admirers, including the Swiss-born mathematician <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Fatio_de_Duillier">Nicolas Fatio de Duillier</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Hatch-79">[78]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1710, Newton found 72 of the 78 "species" of cubic curves and categorised them into four types.<sup><a href="#cite_note-80">[79]</a></sup> In 1717, and probably with Newton's help, <a href="/wiki/James_Stirling_(mathematician)">James Stirling</a> proved that every cubic was one of these four types. Newton also claimed that the four types could be obtained by <a href="/wiki/Projective_plane">plane projection</a> from one of them, and this was proved in 1731, four years after his death.<sup><a href="#cite_note-81">[80]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Later life</h2>
<h3>Royal Mint</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Newton_25.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>In the 1690s, Newton wrote a number of <a href="/wiki/Religious_tracts">religious tracts</a> dealing with the literal and symbolic interpretation of the Bible. A manuscript Newton sent to <a href="/wiki/John_Locke">John Locke</a> in which he disputed the fidelity of <a href="/wiki/1_John_5:7">1 John 5:7</a>—the <a href="/wiki/Johannine_Comma">Johannine Comma</a>—and its fidelity to the original manuscripts of the New Testament, remained unpublished until 1785.<sup><a href="#cite_note-82">[81]</a></sup>
</p><p>Newton was also a member of the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_England">Parliament of England</a> for <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_(UK_Parliament_constituency)">Cambridge University</a> in 1689 and 1701, but according to some accounts his only comments were to complain about a cold draught in the chamber and request that the window be closed.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite1997232-83">[82]</a></sup> He was, however, noted by Cambridge diarist <a href="/wiki/Abraham_de_la_Pryme">Abraham de la Pryme</a> to have rebuked students who were frightening locals by claiming that a house was haunted.<sup><a href="#cite_note-84">[83]</a></sup>
</p><p>Newton moved to London to take up the post of warden of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Mint">Royal Mint</a> in 1696, a position that he had obtained through the patronage of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Montagu,_1st_Earl_of_Halifax">Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax</a>, then <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Exchequer">Chancellor of the Exchequer</a>. He took charge of England's great recoining, trod on the toes of Lord Lucas, Governor of the Tower, and secured the job of deputy <a href="/wiki/Comptroller">comptroller</a> of the temporary Chester branch for Edmond Halley. Newton became perhaps the best-known <a href="/wiki/Master_of_the_Mint">Master of the Mint</a> upon the death of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Neale">Thomas Neale</a> in 1699, a position Newton held for the last 30 years of his life.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Mint-85">[84]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-86">[85]</a></sup> These appointments were intended as <a href="/wiki/Sinecure">sinecures</a>, but Newton took them seriously. He retired from his Cambridge duties in 1701, and exercised his authority to reform the currency and punish <a href="/wiki/Methods_of_coin_debasement">clippers</a> and counterfeiters.
</p><p>As Warden, and afterwards as Master, of the Royal Mint, Newton estimated that 20 percent of the coins taken in during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Recoinage_of_1696">Great Recoinage of 1696</a> were <a href="/wiki/Counterfeit">counterfeit</a>. Counterfeiting was <a href="/wiki/High_treason_in_the_United_Kingdom">high treason</a>, punishable by the felon being <a href="/wiki/Hanged,_drawn_and_quartered">hanged, drawn and quartered</a>. Despite this, convicting even the most flagrant criminals could be extremely difficult, but Newton proved equal to the task.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite1997259-87">[86]</a></sup>
</p><p>Disguised as a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/habitu%C3%A9">habitué</a> of bars and taverns, he gathered much of that evidence himself.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite1997267-88">[87]</a></sup> For all the barriers placed to prosecution, and separating the branches of government, <a href="/wiki/English_law">English law</a> still had ancient and formidable customs of authority. Newton had himself made a <a href="/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace">justice of the peace</a> in all the <a href="/wiki/Home_counties">home counties</a>. A draft letter regarding the matter is included in Newton's personal first edition of <i>Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica</i>, which he must have been amending at the time.<sup><a href="#cite_note-89">[88]</a></sup> Then he conducted more than 100 cross-examinations of witnesses, informers, and suspects between June 1698 and Christmas 1699. Newton successfully prosecuted 28 coiners.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall200773-90">[89]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:ENG_COA_Newton.svg"></a></p></div>
<p>Newton was made president of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society">Royal Society</a> in 1703 and an associate of the French <a href="/wiki/French_Academy_of_Sciences">Académie des Sciences</a>. In his position at the Royal Society, Newton made an enemy of <a href="/wiki/John_Flamsteed">John Flamsteed</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Astronomer_Royal">Astronomer Royal</a>, by prematurely publishing Flamsteed's <i>Historia Coelestis Britannica</i>, which Newton had used in his studies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite1997317-92">[91]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Knighthood</h3>
<p>In April 1705, Queen Anne <a href="/wiki/Knight_Bachelor">knighted</a> Newton during a royal visit to Trinity College, Cambridge. The knighthood is likely to have been motivated by political considerations connected with the <a href="/wiki/1705_English_general_election">parliamentary election in May 1705</a>, rather than any recognition of Newton's scientific work or services as Master of the Mint.<sup><a href="#cite_note-93">[92]</a></sup> Newton was the second scientist to be knighted, after <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon">Francis Bacon</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-94">[93]</a></sup>
</p><p>As a result of a report written by Newton on 21 September 1717 to the Lords Commissioners of His Majesty's Treasury, the bimetallic relationship between gold coins and silver coins was changed by royal proclamation on 22 December 1717, forbidding the exchange of gold guineas for more than 21 silver shillings.<sup><a href="#cite_note-95">[94]</a></sup> This inadvertently resulted in a silver shortage as silver coins were used to pay for imports, while exports were paid for in gold, effectively moving Britain from the <a href="/wiki/Silver_standard">silver standard</a> to its first <a href="/wiki/Gold_standard">gold standard</a>. It is a matter of debate as to whether he intended to do this or not.<sup><a href="#cite_note-96">[95]</a></sup> It has been argued that Newton conceived of his work at the Mint as a continuation of his alchemical work.<sup><a href="#cite_note-97">[96]</a></sup>
</p><p>Newton was invested in the <a href="/wiki/South_Sea_Company">South Sea Company</a> and lost some £20,000 (£4.4 million in 2020<sup><a href="#cite_note-98">[97]</a></sup>) when it collapsed in around 1720.<sup><a href="#cite_note-99">[98]</a></sup>
</p><p>Toward the end of his life, Newton took up residence at <a href="/wiki/Cranbury_Park">Cranbury Park</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Winchester">Winchester</a>, with his niece and her husband, until his death.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Yonge6-100">[99]</a></sup> His half-niece, <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Barton">Catherine Barton</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall198044-101">[100]</a></sup> served as his hostess in social affairs at his house on <a href="/wiki/Jermyn_Street">Jermyn Street</a> in London; he was her "very loving Uncle",<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980595-102">[101]</a></sup> according to his letter to her when she was recovering from <a href="/wiki/Smallpox">smallpox</a>.
</p>
<h3>Death</h3>
<p>Newton died in his sleep in London on 20 March 1727 (<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates">OS</a> 20 March 1726; <a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates">NS</a> 31 March 1727).<sup><a href="#cite_note-OSNS-2">[a]</a></sup> He was given a ceremonial funeral, attended by nobles, scientists, and philosophers, and was buried in <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a> among kings and queens. He is also the first scientist to be buried in the abbey.<sup><a href="#cite_note-103">[102]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Voltaire">Voltaire</a> may have been present at his funeral.<sup><a href="#cite_note-104">[103]</a></sup> A bachelor, he had divested much of his estate to relatives during his last years, and died <a href="/wiki/Intestacy">intestate</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Newton,_Isaac_(1642–1727)-105">[104]</a></sup> His papers went to <a href="/wiki/John_Conduitt">John Conduitt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Barton">Catherine Barton</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Mann-106">[105]</a></sup>
</p><p>After his death, Newton's hair was examined and found to contain <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)">mercury</a>, probably resulting from his alchemical pursuits. <a href="/wiki/Mercury_poisoning">Mercury poisoning</a> could explain Newton's eccentricity in late life.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Newton,_Isaac_(1642–1727)-105">[104]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Personality</h2>
<p>Although it was claimed that he was once engaged,<sup><a href="#cite_note-claim-108">[b]</a></sup> Newton never married. The French writer and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Voltaire">Voltaire</a>, who was in London at the time of Newton's funeral, said that he "was never sensible to any passion, was not subject to the common frailties of mankind, nor had any commerce with women—a circumstance which was assured me by the physician and surgeon who attended him in his last moments".<sup><a href="#cite_note-109">[107]</a></sup> There exists a widespread belief that Newton died a <a href="/wiki/Virginity">virgin</a>, and writers as diverse as mathematician <a href="/wiki/Charles_Hutton">Charles Hutton</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-110">[108]</a></sup> economist <a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-111">[109]</a></sup> and physicist <a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan">Carl Sagan</a> each have commented on it.<sup><a href="#cite_note-112">[110]</a></sup>
</p><p>Newton had a close friendship with the Swiss mathematician <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Fatio_de_Duillier">Nicolas Fatio de Duillier</a>, who he met in London around 1689<sup><a href="#cite_note-Hatch-79">[78]</a></sup>—some of their correspondence has survived.<sup><a href="#cite_note-113">[111]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-114">[112]</a></sup> Their relationship came to an abrupt and unexplained end in 1693, and at the same time Newton suffered a <a href="/wiki/Nervous_breakdown">nervous breakdown</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-115">[113]</a></sup> which included sending wild accusatory letters to his friends <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Pepys">Samuel Pepys</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Locke">John Locke</a>. His note to the latter included the charge that Locke "endeavoured to embroil me with woemen".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuel1968219-116">[114]</a></sup>
</p><p>Newton was relatively modest about his achievements, writing in a letter to <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke">Robert Hooke</a> in February 1676, "If I have seen further it is by <a href="/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants">standing on the shoulders of giants</a>."<sup><a href="#cite_note-117">[115]</a></sup> Two writers think that the sentence, written at a time when Newton and Hooke were in dispute over optical discoveries, was an oblique attack on Hooke (said to have been short and hunchbacked), rather than—or in addition to—a statement of modesty.<sup><a href="#cite_note-118">[116]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite1997187-119">[117]</a></sup> On the other hand, the widely known proverb about <a href="/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants">standing on the shoulders of giants</a>, published among others by seventeenth-century poet <a href="/wiki/George_Herbert">George Herbert</a> (a former orator of the University of Cambridge and fellow of Trinity College) in his <i>Jacula Prudentum</i> (1651), had as its main point that "a dwarf on a giant's shoulders sees farther of the two", and so its effect as an analogy would place Newton himself rather than Hooke as the 'dwarf'.
</p><p>In a later memoir, Newton wrote, "I do not know what I may appear to the world, but to myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the sea-shore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me."<sup><a href="#cite_note-120">[118]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 2015, <a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg">Steven Weinberg</a>, a Nobel laureate in physics, called Newton "a nasty antagonist" and "a bad man to have as an enemy",<sup><a href="#cite_note-:0-121">[119]</a></sup> noting Newton's attitude towards Robert Hooke and <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a>.
</p><p>It has been suggested by some scientists and clinicians that, based on these and other traits along with his profound power of concentration, that Newton may have had an undiagnosed form of high-functioning <a href="/wiki/Autism">autism</a>, now properly known as ASD1 within <a href="/wiki/Autism_spectrum">autism spectrum</a>; formerly known as <a href="/wiki/Asperger_syndrome">Asperger syndrome</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-122">[120]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-123">[121]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-124">[122]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Theology</h2>
<h3>Religious views</h3>
<p>Although born into an <a href="/wiki/Anglicanism">Anglican</a> family, by his thirties Newton held a Christian faith that, had it been made public, would not have been considered orthodox by mainstream Christianity,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Newton_–_1-125">[123]</a></sup> with one historian labelling him a <a href="/wiki/Heresy">heretic</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-heretic-126">[124]</a></sup>
</p><p>By 1672, he had started to record his theological researches in notebooks which he showed to no one and which have only recently<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items">when?</a></i>]</sup> been examined. They demonstrate an extensive knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity">early Church</a> writings and show that in the conflict between <a href="/wiki/Athanasius">Athanasius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arius">Arius</a> which defined the <a href="/wiki/Athanasian_Creed">Creed</a>, he took the side of Arius, the loser, who rejected the conventional view of the <a href="/wiki/Trinity">Trinity</a>. Newton "recognized Christ as a divine mediator between God and man, who was subordinate to the Father who created him."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980315-127">[125]</a></sup> He was especially interested in prophecy, but for him, "the <a href="/wiki/Great_apostasy">great apostasy</a> was trinitarianism."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980321-128">[126]</a></sup>
</p><p>Newton tried unsuccessfully to obtain one of the two fellowships that exempted the holder from the ordination requirement. At the last moment in 1675 he received a dispensation from the government that excused him and all future holders of the Lucasian chair.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980331–334-129">[127]</a></sup>
</p><p>In Newton's eyes, worshipping <a href="/wiki/Jesus">Christ</a> as <a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity">God</a> was <a href="/wiki/Idolatry">idolatry</a>, to him the fundamental sin.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall1994124-130">[128]</a></sup> In 1999, historian <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Snobelen">Stephen D. Snobelen</a> wrote, "Isaac Newton was a <a href="/wiki/Heresy">heretic</a>. But ... he never made a public declaration of his private faith—which the orthodox would have deemed extremely radical. He hid his faith so well that scholars are still unraveling his personal beliefs."<sup><a href="#cite_note-heretic-126">[124]</a></sup> Snobelen concludes that Newton was at least a <a href="/wiki/Socinian">Socinian</a> sympathiser (he owned and had thoroughly read at least eight Socinian books), possibly an <a href="/wiki/Arianism">Arian</a> and almost certainly an <a href="/wiki/Anti-trinitarian">anti-trinitarian</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-heretic-126">[124]</a></sup>
</p><p>The view that Newton was <a href="/wiki/Semi-Arian">Semi-Arian</a> has lost support now that scholars have investigated Newton's theological papers, and now most scholars identify Newton as an <a href="/wiki/Nontrinitarianism">Antitrinitarian</a> <a href="/wiki/Monotheist">monotheist</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-heretic-126">[124]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-dulles-131">[129]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Newton-WilliamBlake_crop.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Although the laws of motion and universal gravitation became Newton's best-known discoveries, he warned against using them to view the Universe as a mere machine, as if akin to a great clock. He said, "So then gravity may put the planets into motion, but without the Divine Power it could never put them into such a circulating motion, as they have about the sun".<sup><a href="#cite_note-133">[131]</a></sup>
</p><p>Along with his scientific fame, Newton's studies of the Bible and of the early <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers">Church Fathers</a> were also noteworthy. Newton wrote works on <a href="/wiki/Textual_criticism">textual criticism</a>, most notably <i><a href="/wiki/An_Historical_Account_of_Two_Notable_Corruptions_of_Scripture">An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture</a></i> and <i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Observations_upon_the_Prophecies_of_Daniel">Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel, and the Apocalypse of St. John</a></i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-134">[132]</a></sup> He placed the crucifixion of <a href="/wiki/Jesus_Christ">Jesus Christ</a> at 3 April, AD 33, which agrees with one traditionally accepted date.<sup><a href="#cite_note-135">[133]</a></sup>
</p><p>He believed in a rationally <a href="/wiki/Immanent">immanent</a> world, but he rejected the <a href="/wiki/Hylozoism">hylozoism</a> implicit in <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz">Leibniz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a>. The ordered and dynamically informed Universe could be understood, and must be understood, by an active reason. In his correspondence, Newton claimed that in writing the <i>Principia</i> "I had an eye upon such Principles as might work with considering men for the belief of a Deity".<sup><a href="#cite_note-136">[134]</a></sup> He saw evidence of design in the system of the world: "Such a wonderful uniformity in the planetary system must be allowed the effect of choice". But Newton insisted that divine intervention would eventually be required to reform the system, due to the slow growth of instabilities.<sup><a href="#cite_note-137">[135]</a></sup> For this, Leibniz lampooned him: "God Almighty wants to wind up his watch from time to time: otherwise it would cease to move. He had not, it seems, sufficient foresight to make it a perpetual motion."<sup><a href="#cite_note-138">[136]</a></sup>
</p><p>Newton's position was vigorously defended by his follower <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Clarke">Samuel Clarke</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Leibniz-Clarke_correspondence">famous correspondence</a>. A century later, <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace">Pierre-Simon Laplace</a>'s work <a href="/wiki/Trait%C3%A9_de_m%C3%A9canique_c%C3%A9leste"><i>Celestial Mechanics</i></a> had a natural explanation for why the planet orbits do not require periodic divine intervention.<sup><a href="#cite_note-139">[137]</a></sup> The contrast between Laplace's mechanistic worldview and Newton's one is the most strident considering the famous answer which the French scientist gave <a href="/wiki/Napoleon">Napoleon</a>, who had criticised him for the absence of the Creator in the <i>Mécanique céleste</i>: "Sire, j'ai pu me passer de cette hypothèse" ("Sir, I didn't need this hypothesis").<sup><a href="#cite_note-140">[138]</a></sup>
</p><p>Scholars long debated whether Newton disputed the doctrine of the <a href="/wiki/Trinity">Trinity</a>. His first biographer, <a href="/wiki/David_Brewster">David Brewster</a>, who compiled his manuscripts, interpreted Newton as questioning the veracity of some passages used to support the Trinity, but never denying the doctrine of the Trinity as such.<sup><a href="#cite_note-141">[139]</a></sup> In the twentieth century, encrypted manuscripts written by Newton and bought by <a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a> (among others) were deciphered<sup><a href="#cite_note-The_Collected_Writings_of_John_Maynard_Keynes_Volume_X-65">[64]</a></sup> and it became known that Newton did indeed reject Trinitarianism.<sup><a href="#cite_note-heretic-126">[124]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Religious thought</h3>
<p>Newton and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle">Robert Boyle</a>'s approach to the <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_philosophy">mechanical philosophy</a> was promoted by <a href="/wiki/Rationalist">rationalist</a> pamphleteers as a viable alternative to the <a href="/wiki/Pantheism">pantheists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Enthusiasm">enthusiasts</a>, and was accepted hesitantly by orthodox preachers as well as dissident preachers like the <a href="/wiki/Latitudinarian">latitudinarians</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-The_Newtonians_and_the_English_Revolution:_1689–1720-142">[140]</a></sup> The clarity and simplicity of science was seen as a way to combat the emotional and <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> superlatives of both <a href="/wiki/Superstition">superstitious</a> enthusiasm and the threat of <a href="/wiki/Atheism">atheism</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Science_and_Religion_in_Seventeenth-Century_England-143">[141]</a></sup> and at the same time, the second wave of English <a href="/wiki/Deism">deists</a> used Newton's discoveries to demonstrate the possibility of a "Natural Religion".
</p><p>The attacks made against pre-<a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> "<a href="/wiki/Magical_thinking">magical thinking</a>", and the <a href="/wiki/Christian_mysticism">mystical elements of Christianity</a>, were given their foundation with Boyle's mechanical conception of the universe. Newton gave Boyle's ideas their completion through <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_proof">mathematical proofs</a> and, perhaps more importantly, was very successful in popularising them.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Enlightenment_and_Religion:_Rational_Dissent_in_eighteenth-century_Britain-144">[142]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>The occult</h3>
<p>In a manuscript he wrote in 1704 (never intended to be published), he mentions the date of 2060, but it is not given as a date for the end of days. It has been falsely reported as a prediction. The passage is clear when the date is read in context. He was against date setting for the end of days, concerned that this would put Christianity into disrepute.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Papers_Show_Isaac_Newton's_Religious_Side,_Predict_Date_of_Apocalypse-145">[143]</a></sup>
</p>
<blockquote><p>So then the time times &amp; half a time [<i><a href="/wiki/Sic">sic</a></i>] are 42 months or 1260 days or three years &amp; an half, recconing twelve months to a year &amp; 30 days to a month as was done in the Calender [<i><a href="/wiki/Sic">sic</a></i>] of the primitive year. And the days of short lived Beasts being put for the years of [long-]lived kingdoms the period of 1260 days, if dated from the complete conquest of the three kings A.C. 800, will end 2060. It may end later, but I see no reason for its ending sooner.<sup><a href="#cite_note-146">[144]</a></sup><br />
This I mention not to assert when the time of the end shall be, but to put a stop to the rash conjectures of fanciful men who are frequently predicting the time of the end, and by doing so bring the sacred prophesies into discredit as often as their predictions fail. Christ comes as a thief in the night, and it is not for us to know the times and seasons which God hath put into his own breast.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Papers_Show_Isaac_Newton's_Religious_Side,_Predict_Date_of_Apocalypse-145">[143]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<h2>Alchemy</h2>
<p>In the character of Morton Opperly in "Poor Superman" (1951), speculative fiction author <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Leiber">Fritz Leiber</a> says of Newton, "Everyone knows Newton as the great scientist. Few remember that he spent half his life muddling with alchemy, looking for the <a href="/wiki/Philosopher%27s_stone">philosopher's stone</a>. That was the pebble by the seashore he really wanted to find."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Heinlein-147">[145]</a></sup>
</p><p>Of an estimated ten million words of writing in Newton's papers, about one million deal with <a href="/wiki/Alchemy">alchemy</a>. Many of Newton's writings on alchemy are copies of other manuscripts, with his own annotations.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Mann-106">[105]</a></sup> Alchemical texts mix artisanal knowledge with philosophical speculation, often hidden behind layers of wordplay, allegory, and imagery to protect craft secrets.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Meyer-148">[146]</a></sup> Some of the content contained in Newton's papers could have been considered heretical by the church.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Mann-106">[105]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1888, after spending sixteen years cataloguing Newton's papers, Cambridge University kept a small number and returned the rest to the Earl of Portsmouth. In 1936, a descendant offered the papers for sale at Sotheby's.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Kean-149">[147]</a></sup> The collection was broken up and sold for a total of about £9,000.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Greshko-150">[148]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a> was one of about three dozen bidders who obtained part of the collection at auction. Keynes went on to reassemble an estimated half of Newton's collection of papers on alchemy before donating his collection to Cambridge University in 1946.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Mann-106">[105]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Kean-149">[147]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Dry-151">[149]</a></sup>
</p><p>All of Newton's known writings on alchemy are currently being put online in a project undertaken by <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University">Indiana University</a>: "The Chymistry of Isaac Newton"<sup><a href="#cite_note-Indiana-152">[150]</a></sup> and summarised in a book.<sup><a href="#cite_note-153">[151]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-154">[152]</a></sup>
</p>
<blockquote><p>Newton's fundamental contributions to science include the quantification of gravitational attraction, the discovery that white light is actually a mixture of immutable spectral colors, and the formulation of the calculus. Yet there is another, more mysterious side to Newton that is imperfectly known, a realm of activity that spanned some thirty years of his life, although he kept it largely hidden from his contemporaries and colleagues. We refer to Newton's involvement in the discipline of alchemy, or as it was often called in seventeenth-century England, "chymistry."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Indiana-152">[150]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p><a href="/wiki/Charles_Coulston_Gillispie">Charles Coulston Gillispie</a> disputes that Newton ever practised alchemy, saying that "his chemistry was in the spirit of Boyle's corpuscular philosophy."<sup><a href="#cite_note-155">[153]</a></sup>
</p><p>In June 2020, two unpublished pages of Newton's notes on <a href="/wiki/Jan_Baptist_van_Helmont">Jan Baptist van Helmont</a>'s book on plague, <i>De Peste</i>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-156">[154]</a></sup> were being auctioned online by <a href="/wiki/Bonhams">Bonhams</a>. Newton's analysis of this book, which he made in Cambridge while protecting himself from London's 1665–1666 <a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_of_London">infection</a>, is the most substantial written statement he is known to have made about the plague, according to Bonhams. As far as the therapy is concerned, Newton writes that "the best is a toad suspended by the legs in a chimney for three days, which at last vomited up earth with various insects in it, on to a dish of yellow wax, and shortly after died. Combining powdered toad with the excretions and serum made into lozenges and worn about the affected area drove away the contagion and drew out the poison".<sup><a href="#cite_note-157">[155]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Legacy</h2>
<h3>Fame</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Isaac_Newton_grave_in_Westminster_Abbey.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>The mathematician <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Louis_Lagrange">Joseph-Louis Lagrange</a> said that Newton was the greatest <a href="/wiki/Genius">genius</a> who ever lived, and once added that Newton was also "the most fortunate, for we cannot find more than once a system of the world to establish."<sup><a href="#cite_note-158">[156]</a></sup> English poet <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pope">Alexander Pope</a> wrote the famous <a href="/wiki/Epitaph">epitaph</a>:
</p>
<blockquote><p>Nature, and Nature's laws lay hid in night.<br />
God said, <i>Let Newton be!</i> and all was light.</p></blockquote>
<p>But this was not allowed to be inscribed in the monument. The epitaph in the monument is as follows:<sup><a href="#cite_note-westminster_newton-159">[157]</a></sup>
</p>
<blockquote><p>H. S. E. ISAACUS NEWTON Eques Auratus, / Qui, animi vi prope divinâ, / Planetarum Motus, Figuras, / Cometarum semitas, Oceanique Aestus. Suâ Mathesi facem praeferente / Primus demonstravit: / Radiorum Lucis dissimilitudines, / Colorumque inde nascentium proprietates, / Quas nemo antea vel suspicatus erat, pervestigavit. / Naturae, Antiquitatis, S. Scripturae, / Sedulus, sagax, fidus Interpres / Dei O. M. Majestatem Philosophiâ asseruit, / Evangelij Simplicitatem Moribus expressit. / Sibi gratulentur Mortales, / Tale tantumque exstitisse / HUMANI GENERIS DECUS. / NAT. XXV DEC. A.D. MDCXLII. OBIIT. XX. MAR. MDCCXXVI,</p></blockquote>
<p>which can be translated as follows:<sup><a href="#cite_note-westminster_newton-159">[157]</a></sup>
</p>
<blockquote><p>Here is buried Isaac Newton, Knight, who by a strength of mind almost divine, and mathematical principles peculiarly his own, explored the course and figures of the planets, the paths of comets, the tides of the sea, the dissimilarities in rays of light, and, what no other scholar has previously imagined, the properties of the colours thus produced. Diligent, sagacious and faithful, in his expositions of nature, antiquity and the holy Scriptures, he vindicated by his philosophy the majesty of God mighty and good, and expressed the simplicity of the Gospel in his manners. Mortals rejoice that there has existed such and so great an ornament of the human race! He was born on 25th December 1642, and died on 20th March 1726.</p></blockquote>
<p>In a 2005 survey of members of Britain's <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society">Royal Society</a> (formerly headed by Newton) asking who had the greater effect on the history of science, Newton or <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>, the members deemed Newton to have made the greater overall contribution.<sup><a href="#cite_note-royalsoc.ac.uk-160">[158]</a></sup> In 1999, an opinion poll of 100 of the day's leading physicists voted Einstein the "greatest physicist ever," with Newton the runner-up, while a parallel survey of rank-and-file physicists by the site PhysicsWeb gave the top spot to Newton.<sup><a href="#cite_note-161">[159]</a></sup> Einstein kept a picture of Newton on his study wall alongside ones of <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-162">[160]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/SI_derived_unit">SI derived unit</a> of <a href="/wiki/Force">force</a> is named the <a href="/wiki/Newton_(unit)">newton</a> in his honour.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Woolsthorpe_Manor">Woolsthorpe Manor</a> is a Grade I <a href="/wiki/Listed_building">listed building</a> by <a href="/wiki/Historic_England">Historic England</a> through being his birthplace and "where he discovered gravity and developed his theories regarding the refraction of light".<sup><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-163">[161]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1816, a tooth said to have belonged to Newton was sold for £730<sup><a href="#cite_note-164">[162]</a></sup> (US$3,633) in London to an aristocrat who had it set in a ring.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Guinness-165">[163]</a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Guinness_World_Records">Guinness World Records</a> 2002</i> classified it as the most valuable tooth, which would value approximately £25,000 (US$35,700) in late 2001.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Guinness-165">[163]</a></sup> Who bought it and who currently has it has not been disclosed.
</p>
<h3>Apple incident</h3>
<p>Newton himself often told the story that he was inspired to formulate his theory of gravitation by watching the fall of an apple from a tree.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite199786-166">[164]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENumbers201548–56-167">[165]</a></sup> The story is believed to have passed into popular knowledge after being related by <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Barton">Catherine Barton</a>, Newton's niece, to <a href="/wiki/Voltaire">Voltaire</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-168">[166]</a></sup> Voltaire then wrote in his <i>Essay on Epic Poetry</i> (1727), "Sir Isaac Newton walking in his gardens, had the first thought of his system of gravitation, upon seeing an apple falling from a tree."<sup><a href="#cite_note-169">[167]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-170">[168]</a></sup>
</p><p>Although it has been said that the apple story is a myth and that he did not arrive at his theory of gravity at any single moment,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Berkun2010-171">[169]</a></sup> acquaintances of Newton (such as <a href="/wiki/William_Stukeley">William Stukeley</a>, whose manuscript account of 1752 has been made available by the Royal Society) do in fact confirm the incident, though not the apocryphal version that the apple actually hit Newton's head. Stukeley recorded in his <i>Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life</i> a conversation with Newton in Kensington on 15 April 1726:<sup><a href="#cite_note-Newton's_apple:_The_real_story-172">[170]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Hamblyn_(2011)-173">[171]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-NP-174">[172]</a></sup>
</p>
<blockquote><p>we went into the garden, &amp; drank thea under the shade of some appletrees, only he, &amp; myself. amidst other discourse, he told me, he was just in the same situation, as when formerly, the notion of gravitation came into his mind. "why should that apple always descend perpendicularly to the ground," thought he to him self: occasion'd by the fall of an apple, as he sat in a comtemplative mood: "why should it not go sideways, or upwards? but constantly to the earths centre? assuredly, the reason is, that the earth draws it. there must be a drawing power in matter. &amp; the sum of the drawing power in the matter of the earth must be in the earths center, not in any side of the earth. therefore dos this apple fall perpendicularly, or toward the center. if matter thus draws matter; it must be in proportion of its quantity. therefore the apple draws the earth, as well as the earth draws the apple."</p></blockquote>
<p><a href="/wiki/John_Conduitt">John Conduitt</a>, Newton's assistant at the Royal Mint and husband of Newton's niece, also described the event when he wrote about Newton's life:<sup><a href="#cite_note-Keynes_Ms._130.4:Conduitt's_account_of_Newton's_life_at_Cambridge-175">[173]</a></sup>
</p>
<blockquote><p>In the year 1666 he retired again from Cambridge to his mother in Lincolnshire. Whilst he was pensively meandering in a garden it came into his thought that the power of gravity (which brought an apple from a tree to the ground) was not limited to a certain distance from earth, but that this power must extend much further than was usually thought. Why not as high as the Moon said he to himself &amp; if so, that must influence her motion &amp; perhaps retain her in her orbit, whereupon he fell a calculating what would be the effect of that supposition.</p></blockquote>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Doctor_Zirkel_follows_Newton%27s_famous_steps_under_the_fabled_Wellcome_V0011942.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>It is known from his notebooks that Newton was grappling in the late 1660s with the idea that terrestrial gravity extends, in an inverse-square proportion, to the Moon; however, it took him two decades to develop the full-fledged theory.<sup><a href="#cite_note-176">[174]</a></sup> The question was not whether gravity existed, but whether it extended so far from Earth that it could also be the force holding the Moon to its orbit. Newton showed that if the force decreased as the inverse square of the distance, one could indeed calculate the Moon's orbital period, and get good agreement. He guessed the same force was responsible for other orbital motions, and hence named it "universal gravitation".
</p><p>Various trees are claimed to be "the" apple tree which Newton describes. The <a href="/wiki/King%27s_School,_Grantham">King's School, Grantham</a> claims that the tree was purchased by the school, uprooted and transported to the headmaster's garden some years later. The staff of the (now) <a href="/wiki/National_Trust_for_Places_of_Historic_Interest_or_Natural_Beauty">National Trust</a>-owned <a href="/wiki/Woolsthorpe_Manor">Woolsthorpe Manor</a> dispute this, and claim that a tree present in their gardens is the one described by Newton. A descendant of the original tree<sup><a href="#cite_note-177">[175]</a></sup> can be seen growing outside the main gate of Trinity College, Cambridge, below the room Newton lived in when he studied there. The <a href="/wiki/National_Fruit_Collection">National Fruit Collection</a> at <a href="/wiki/Brogdale">Brogdale</a> in Kent<sup><a href="#cite_note-Brogdale—Home_of_the_National_Fruit_Collection-178">[176]</a></sup> can supply grafts from their tree, which appears identical to <a href="/wiki/Flower_of_Kent">Flower of Kent</a>, a coarse-fleshed cooking variety.<sup><a href="#cite_note-From_the_National_Fruit_Collection:_Isaac_Newton's_Tree-179">[177]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Commemorations</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Isaac_Newton_statue.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Newton's monument (1731) can be seen in <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a>, at the north of the entrance to the choir against the choir screen, near his tomb. It was executed by the sculptor <a href="/wiki/Michael_Rysbrack">Michael Rysbrack</a> (1694–1770) in white and grey marble with design by the architect <a href="/wiki/William_Kent">William Kent</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-180">[178]</a></sup> The monument features a figure of Newton reclining on top of a sarcophagus, his right elbow resting on several of his great books and his left hand pointing to a scroll with a mathematical design. Above him is a pyramid and a celestial globe showing the signs of the Zodiac and the path of the comet of 1680. A relief panel depicts <a href="/wiki/Putti">putti</a> using instruments such as a telescope and prism.<sup><a href="#cite_note-wmabbey-181">[179]</a></sup> The Latin inscription on the base translates as:
</p>
<blockquote><p>Here is buried Isaac Newton, Knight, who by a strength of mind almost divine, and mathematical principles peculiarly his own, explored the course and figures of the planets, the paths of comets, the tides of the sea, the dissimilarities in rays of light, and, what no other scholar has previously imagined, the properties of the colours thus produced. Diligent, sagacious and faithful, in his expositions of nature, antiquity and the holy Scriptures, he vindicated by his philosophy the majesty of God mighty and good, and expressed the simplicity of the Gospel in his manners. Mortals rejoice that there has existed such and so great an ornament of the human race! He was born on 25 December 1642, and died on 20 March 1726/7.
</p><dl><dd>—Translation from G. L. Smyth, <i>The Monuments and Genii of St. Paul's Cathedral, and of Westminster Abbey</i> (1826), ii, 703–704.<sup><a href="#cite_note-wmabbey-181">[179]</a></sup></dd></dl></blockquote>
<p>From 1978 until 1988, an image of Newton designed by Harry Ecclestone appeared on Series D £1 <a href="/wiki/Banknotes_of_the_pound_sterling">banknotes</a> issued by the <a href="/wiki/Bank_of_England">Bank of England</a> (the last £1 notes to be issued by the Bank of England). Newton was shown on the reverse of the notes holding a book and accompanied by a telescope, a prism and a map of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System">Solar System</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-bankofengland-182">[180]</a></sup>
</p><p>A statue of Isaac Newton, looking at an apple at his feet, can be seen at the <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Museum_of_Natural_History">Oxford University Museum of Natural History</a>. A large bronze statue, <i><a href="/wiki/Newton,_after_William_Blake">Newton, after William Blake</a></i>, by <a href="/wiki/Eduardo_Paolozzi">Eduardo Paolozzi</a>, dated 1995 and inspired by <a href="/wiki/William_Blake">Blake</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Newton_(Blake)">etching</a>, dominates the piazza of the <a href="/wiki/British_Library">British Library</a> in London. A bronze statue of Newton was erected in 1858 in the centre of <a href="/wiki/Grantham">Grantham</a> where he went to school, prominently standing in front of <a href="/wiki/Grantham_Guildhall">Grantham Guildhall</a>.
</p><p>The still-surviving farmhouse at Woolsthorpe By Colsterworth is a Grade I <a href="/wiki/Listed_building">listed building</a> by <a href="/wiki/Historic_England">Historic England</a> through being his birthplace and "where he discovered gravity and developed his theories regarding the refraction of light".<sup><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-163">[161]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>The Enlightenment</h2>
<p><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessors—Galileo, Boyle, and Newton principally—as the guides and guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of <a href="/wiki/Nature">nature</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_law">natural law</a> to every physical and social field of the day. In this respect, the lessons of history and the social structures built upon it could be discarded.<sup><a href="#cite_note-183">[181]</a></sup>
</p><p>It is held by European philosophers of the Enlightenment and by historians of the Enlightenment that Newton's publication of the <a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica"><i>Principia</i></a> was a turning point in the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a> and started the Enlightenment. It was Newton's conception of the universe based upon natural and rationally understandable laws that became one of the seeds for Enlightenment ideology.<sup><a href="#cite_note-184">[182]</a></sup> Locke and <a href="/wiki/Voltaire">Voltaire</a> applied concepts of natural law to political systems advocating intrinsic rights; the <a href="/wiki/Physiocrat">physiocrats</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith">Adam Smith</a> applied natural conceptions of <a href="/wiki/Psychology">psychology</a> and self-interest to economic systems; and <a href="/wiki/Sociology">sociologists</a> criticised the current <a href="/wiki/Social_order">social order</a> for trying to fit history into natural models of <a href="/wiki/Progress_(history)">progress</a>. <a href="/wiki/Monboddo">Monboddo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Clarke">Samuel Clarke</a> resisted elements of Newton's work, but eventually rationalised it to conform with their strong religious views of nature.
</p>
<h2>Works</h2>
<h3>Published in his lifetime</h3>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_analysi_per_aequationes_numero_terminorum_infinitas">De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas</a></i> (1669, published 1711)<sup><a href="#cite_note-185">[183]</a></sup></li>
<li><i>Of Natures Obvious Laws &amp; Processes in Vegetation</i> (unpublished, c. 1671–75)<sup><a href="#cite_note-186">[184]</a></sup></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum">De motu corporum in gyrum</a></i> (1684)<sup><a href="#cite_note-187">[185]</a></sup></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica">Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica</a></i> (1687)<sup><a href="#cite_note-188">[186]</a></sup></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Newton_scale">Scala graduum Caloris. Calorum Descriptiones &amp; signa</a></i> (1701)<sup><a href="#cite_note-189">[187]</a></sup></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Opticks">Opticks</a></i> (1704)<sup><a href="#cite_note-190">[188]</a></sup></li>
<li><i>Reports as Master of the Mint</i> (1701–1725)<sup><a href="#cite_note-Pickover2008-191">[189]</a></sup></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Arithmetica_Universalis">Arithmetica Universalis</a></i> (1707)<sup><a href="#cite_note-Pickover2008-191">[189]</a></sup></li></ul>
<h3>Published posthumously</h3>
<ul><li><i>De mundi systemate</i> (<i>The System of the World</i>) (1728)<sup><a href="#cite_note-Pickover2008-191">[189]</a></sup></li>
<li><i>Optical Lectures</i> (1728)<sup><a href="#cite_note-Pickover2008-191">[189]</a></sup></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Chronology_of_Ancient_Kingdoms_Amended">The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended</a></i> (1728)<sup><a href="#cite_note-Pickover2008-191">[189]</a></sup></li>
<li><i>Observations on Daniel and The Apocalypse of St. John</i> (1733)<sup><a href="#cite_note-Pickover2008-191">[189]</a></sup></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Method_of_Fluxions">Method of Fluxions</a></i> (1671, published 1736)<sup><a href="#cite_note-192">[190]</a></sup></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Historical_Account_of_Two_Notable_Corruptions_of_Scripture">An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture</a></i> (1754)<sup><a href="#cite_note-Pickover2008-191">[189]</a></sup></li></ul>
<h2>See also</h2>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Newton">Elements of the Philosophy of Newton</a></i>, a book by Voltaire</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries#17th_century">List of multiple discoveries: seventeenth century</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Isaac_Newton">List of things named after Isaac Newton</a></li></ul>
<h2>References</h2>
<h3>Notes</h3>
<div><ol>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-OSNS_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OSNS_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OSNS_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OSNS_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OSNS_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> During Newton's lifetime, two calendars were in use in Europe: the <a href="/wiki/Julian_Calendar">Julian</a> ("<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates">Old Style</a>") calendar in <a href="/wiki/Protestant">Protestant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church">Orthodox</a> regions, including Britain; and the <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_Calendar">Gregorian</a> ("<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates">New Style</a>") calendar in Roman Catholic Europe. At Newton's birth, Gregorian dates were ten days ahead of Julian dates; thus, his birth is recorded as taking place on 25 December 1642 Old Style, but it can be converted to a New Style (modern) date of 4 January 1643. By the time of his death, the difference between the calendars had increased to eleven days. Moreover, he died in the period after the start of the New Style year on 1 January but before that of the Old Style new year on 25 March. His death occurred on 20 March 1726, according to the Old Style calendar, but the year is usually adjusted to 1727. A full conversion to New Style gives the date 31 March 1727.<sup><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources">self-published source?</a></i>]</sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-claim_108-0">^</a></b> This claim was made by <a href="/wiki/William_Stukeley">William Stukeley</a> in 1727, in a letter about Newton written to <a href="/wiki/Richard_Mead">Richard Mead</a>. <a href="/wiki/Charles_Hutton">Charles Hutton</a>, who in the late eighteenth century collected oral traditions about earlier scientists, declared that there "do not appear to be any sufficient reason for his never marrying, if he had an inclination so to do. It is much more likely that he had a constitutional indifference to the state, and even to the sex in general."<sup><a href="#cite_note-107">[106]</a></sup>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h3>Citations</h3>
<div><ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b> <cite>Thony, Christie (2015). <a href="https://thonyc.wordpress.com/2015/03/20/calendrical-confusion-or-just-when-did-newton-die/">"Calendrical confusion or just when did Newton die?"</a>. The Renaissance Mathematicus. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402203630/https://thonyc.wordpress.com/2015/03/20/calendrical-confusion-or-just-when-did-newton-die/">Archived</a> from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 20 March 2015.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b> Kevin C. Knox, Richard Noakes (eds.), <i>From Newton to Hawking: A History of Cambridge University's Lucasian Professors of Mathematics</i>, Cambridge University Press, 2003, p. 61.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-frs_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-frs_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150316060617/https://royalsociety.org/about-us/fellowship/fellows">"Fellows of the Royal Society"</a>. London: Royal Society. Archived from <a href="https://royalsociety.org/about-us/fellowship/fellows">the original</a> on 16 March 2015.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b> Feingold, Mordechai. <a href="http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/1541">Barrow, Isaac (1630–1677)</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130129154554/http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/1541">Archived</a> 29 January 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</i>, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press">Oxford University Press</a>, September 2004; online edn, May 2007. Retrieved 24 February 2009; explained further in <cite>Feingold, Mordechai (1993). "Newton, Leibniz, and Barrow Too: An Attempt at a Reinterpretation". <i>Isis</i>. <b>84</b> (2): 310–338. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993Isis...84..310F">1993Isis...84..310F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F356464">10.1086/356464</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/236236">236236</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144019197">144019197</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050225223812/http://www.chlt.org/sandbox/lhl/dsb/page.50.a.php">"Dictionary of Scientific Biography"</a>. Notes, No. 4. Archived from <a href="http://www.chlt.org/sandbox/lhl/dsb/page.50.a.php">the original</a> on 25 February 2005.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-The_Newton_Handbook_7-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGjertsen1986">Gjertsen 1986</a>, p. <sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources">page needed</a></i>]</sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b> <cite><a>Newton, Isaac</a> (February 1678). <a href="http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00275"><i>Philosophical tract from Mr Isaac Newton</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University">Cambridge University</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161008110753/http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00275">Archived</a> from the original on 8 October 2016. Retrieved 1 October 2021. <q>But because I am indebted to you &amp; yesterday met with a friend Mr Maulyverer, who told me he was going to London &amp; intended to give you the trouble of a visit, I could not forbear to take the opportunity of conveying this to you by him.</q></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-CohenSmith2002_9-0">^</a></b> <cite>I. Bernard Cohen; George E. Smith (25 April 2002). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3wIzvqzfUXkC&amp;pg=PA69"><i>The Cambridge Companion to Newton</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65696-2"><bdi>978-0-521-65696-2</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200916053618/https://books.google.com/books?id=3wIzvqzfUXkC&amp;pg=PA69">Archived</a> from the original on 16 September 2020. Retrieved 15 May 2013.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Guicciardini2009_10-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Guicciardini">Niccolò Guicciardini</a> (2009). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U4I82SJKqAIC&amp;pg=PA344"><i>Isaac Newton on mathematical certainty and method</i></a>. MIT Press. p. 344. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-01317-8"><bdi>978-0-262-01317-8</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200916053623/https://books.google.com/books?id=U4I82SJKqAIC&amp;pg=PA344">Archived</a> from the original on 16 September 2020. Retrieved 15 May 2013.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-LockeNewtonInfluence_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LockeNewtonInfluence_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Ducheyne, Steffen (2009). <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44024132">"The Flow of Influence from Newton to Locke... and Back"</a>. <i>Rivista di Storia della Filosofia (1984–)</i>. <b>64</b> (2): 245–268. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.3280%2FSF2009-002001">10.3280/SF2009-002001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0393-2516">0393-2516</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/44024132">44024132</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220523110502/https://www.jstor.org/stable/44024132">Archived</a> from the original on 23 May 2022. Retrieved 23 May 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-EssayPrincipia_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EssayPrincipia_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Rogers, G. A. J. (1978). <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2708776">"Locke's Essay and Newton's Principia"</a>. <i>Journal of the History of Ideas</i>. <b>39</b> (2): 217–232. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2708776">10.2307/2708776</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0022-5037">0022-5037</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/2708776">2708776</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220523110503/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2708776">Archived</a> from the original on 23 May 2022. Retrieved 23 May 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.achgut.com/dadgdx/index.php/dadgd/article/issac_newton_judaic_monotheist_of_the_school_of_maimonides/">"Isaac Newton: "Judaic monotheist of the school of Maimonides""</a>. Achgut.com. 19 June 2007. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150428014646/http://www.achgut.com/dadgdx/index.php/dadgd/article/issac_newton_judaic_monotheist_of_the_school_of_maimonides/">Archived</a> from the original on 28 April 2015. Retrieved 13 March 2010.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b> See e.g. <a href="/wiki/D._T._Whiteside">D. T. Whiteside</a>, <i>Before the Principia</i>, in <i>Journal for the History of Astronomy</i> 1 (1970), 5–17, p. 7.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Saint-Simon_15-0">^</a></b> Jeremy Jennings. <i>Revolution and the Republic: A History of Political Thought in France Since the Eighteenth Century.</i> Oxford University Press, 2011. p. 347.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Verri_16-0">^</a></b> <cite>Bruni, Luigino; Porta, Pier Luigi (2003). "<i>Economia Civile</i> and <i>Pubblica Felicità</i> in the Italian Enlightenment". <i>History of Political Economy</i>. <b>35</b> (Suppl. 1): 361–385 (365). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F00182702-35-Suppl_1-361">10.1215/00182702-35-Suppl_1-361</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143538016">143538016</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b> <cite>Pearson, Roger (2005). <a href="http://archive.org/details/voltairealmighty00pear"><i>Voltaire almighty : a life in pursuit of freedom</i></a>. Internet Archive. New York : Bloomsbury : Distributed to the trade by Holtzbrinck. p. 138. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58234-630-4"><bdi>978-1-58234-630-4</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.astro.com/astro-databank/Newton,_Isaac">"Isaac Newton, horoscope for birth date 25 December 1642 Jul.Cal"</a>. <i>Astro-Databank Wiki</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170105083651/http://www.astro.com/astro-databank/Newton,_Isaac">Archived</a> from the original on 5 January 2017. Retrieved 4 January 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Storr">Storr, Anthony</a> (December 1985). <a href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1419183">"Isaac Newton"</a>. <i>British Medical Journal (Clinical Research Edition)</i>. <b>291</b> (6511): 1779–1784. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.291.6511.1779">10.1136/bmj.291.6511.1779</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/29521701">29521701</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)">PMC</a> <a href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1419183">1419183</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)">PMID</a> <a href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3936583">3936583</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b> <cite>Keynes, Milo (20 September 2008). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsnr.2007.0025">"Balancing Newton's Mind: His Singular Behaviour and His Madness of 1692–93"</a>. <i>Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London</i>. <b>62</b> (3): 289–300. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsnr.2007.0025">10.1098/rsnr.2007.0025</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/20462679">20462679</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)">PMID</a> <a href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19244857">19244857</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestfall198055_21-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWestfall1980">Westfall 1980</a>, p. 55.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b> "Newton the Mathematician" Z. Bechler, ed., Contemporary Newtonian Research(Dordrecht 1982) pp. 110–111
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestfall199416–19_23-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWestfall1994">Westfall 1994</a>, pp. 16–19.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite199722_24-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWhite1997">White 1997</a>, p. 22.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestfall198060–62_25-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWestfall1980">Westfall 1980</a>, pp. 60–62.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestfall198071,_103_26-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWestfall1980">Westfall 1980</a>, pp. 71, 103.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b> <cite>Hoskins, Michael, ed. (1997). <i>Cambridge Illustrated History of Astronomy</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 159. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-41158-5"><bdi>978-0-521-41158-5</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b> <cite>Newton, Isaac. <a href="http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-ADD-04004">"Waste Book"</a>. Cambridge University Digital Library. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120108205159/http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-ADD-04004/">Archived</a> from the original on 8 January 2012. Retrieved 10 January 2012.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=&amp;suro=w&amp;fir=&amp;firo=c&amp;cit=&amp;cito=c&amp;c=all&amp;z=all&amp;tex=NWTN661I&amp;sye=&amp;eye=&amp;col=all&amp;maxcount=50">"Newton, Isaac (NWTN661I)"</a>. <i>A Cambridge Alumni Database</i>. University of Cambridge.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980178_30-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWestfall1980">Westfall 1980</a>, p. 178.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980330–331_31-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWestfall1980">Westfall 1980</a>, pp. 330–331.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall1908319_32-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBall1908">Ball 1908</a>, p. 319.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b> Whiteside, D.T., ed. (1967). "Part 7: The October 1666 Tract on Fluxions". <i>The Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton</i>. <b>1</b>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1ZcYsNBptfYC&amp;pg=PA400">p. 400.</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160512135610/https://books.google.com/books?id=1ZcYsNBptfYC&amp;pg=PA400">Archived</a> 12 May 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGjertsen1986149_34-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFGjertsen1986">Gjertsen 1986</a>, p. 149.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b> Newton, <i>Principia</i>, 1729 English translation, <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PA41">p. 41</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151003114205/https://books.google.com/books?id=Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PA41">Archived</a> 3 October 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b> Newton, <i>Principia</i>, 1729 English translation, <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PA54">p. 54</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160503022921/https://books.google.com/books?id=Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PA54">Archived</a> 3 May 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b> <cite>Newton, Sir Isaac (1850). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N-hHAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA102"><i>Newton's Principia: The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy</i></a>. Geo. P. Putnam. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190626230020/https://books.google.com/books?id=N-hHAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA102">Archived</a> from the original on 26 June 2019. Retrieved 9 March 2019.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b> Clifford Truesdell, <i>Essays in the History of Mechanics</i> (1968), p. 99.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b> In the preface to the Marquis de L'Hospital's <i>Analyse des Infiniment Petits</i> (Paris, 1696).
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b> Starting with <a href="/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum#Contents">De motu corporum in gyrum</a>, see also <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvMGAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=RA1-PA2">(Latin) Theorem 1</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160512135306/https://books.google.com/books?id=uvMGAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=RA1-PA2">Archived</a> 12 May 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b> Whiteside, D.T., ed. (1970). "The Mathematical principles underlying Newton's Principia Mathematica". <i>Journal for the History of Astronomy</i>. <b>1</b>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 116–138.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2009107_42-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFStewart2009">Stewart 2009</a>, p. 107.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980538–539_43-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWestfall1980">Westfall 1980</a>, pp. 538–539.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b> <cite>Stern, Keith (2009). <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/317453194"><i>Queers in history : the comprehensive encyclopedia of historical gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and transgenders</i></a>. Dallas, Tex.: BenBella. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-933771-87-8"><bdi>978-1-933771-87-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/317453194">317453194</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b> <cite>Nowlan, Robert (2017). <i>Masters of Mathematics: The Problems They Solved, Why These Are Important, and What You Should Know about Them</i>. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. p. 136. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-6300-891-4"><bdi>978-94-6300-891-4</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall1908356_46-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBall1908">Ball 1908</a>, p. 356.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b> <cite>Błaszczyk, P.; et al. (March 2013). "Ten misconceptions from the history of analysis and their debunking". <i><a href="/wiki/Foundations_of_Science">Foundations of Science</a></i>. <b>18</b> (1): 43–74. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a href="//arxiv.org/abs/1202.4153">1202.4153</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10699-012-9285-8">10.1007/s10699-012-9285-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119134151">119134151</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980179_48-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWestfall1980">Westfall 1980</a>, p. 179.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite1997151_49-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWhite1997">White 1997</a>, p. 151.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b> <cite>King, Henry C (2003). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KAWwzHlDVksC&amp;dq=%22history%2Bof%2Bthe%2Btelescope%22"><i>The History of the Telescope</i></a>. p. 74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-43265-6"><bdi>978-0-486-43265-6</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Whittaker_51-0">^</a></b> <a href="/wiki/E._T._Whittaker">Whittaker, E.T.</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/A_History_of_the_Theories_of_Aether_and_Electricity">A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity</a></i>, Dublin University Press, 1910.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b> <cite>Olivier Darrigol (2012). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ye_1AAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PAPA81"><i>A History of Optics from Greek Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 81. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-964437-7"><bdi>978-0-19-964437-7</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b> <cite>Newton, Isaac. <a href="http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-ADD-03970/">"Hydrostatics, Optics, Sound and Heat"</a>. Cambridge University Digital Library. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120108215515/http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-ADD-03970/">Archived</a> from the original on 8 January 2012. Retrieved 10 January 2012.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall1908324_54-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBall1908">Ball 1908</a>, p. 324.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b> <a href="/wiki/William_R._Newman">William R. Newman</a>, "Newton's Early Optical Theory and its Debt to Chymistry", in Danielle Jacquart and Michel Hochmann, eds., <i>Lumière et vision dans les sciences et dans les arts</i> (Geneva: Droz, 2010), pp. 283–307. A free access online version of this article can be found at <a href="http://webapp1.dlib.indiana.edu/newton/html/Newton_optics-alchemy_Jacquart_paper.pdf">the <i>Chymistry of Isaac Newton</i> project</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160528020600/http://webapp1.dlib.indiana.edu/newton/html/Newton_optics-alchemy_Jacquart_paper.pdf">Archived</a> 28 May 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (PDF)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall1908325_56-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBall1908">Ball 1908</a>, p. 325.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-The_Early_Period_(1608–1672)_57-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://etoile.berkeley.edu/~jrg/TelescopeHistory/Early_Period.html">"The Early Period (1608–1672)"</a>. James R. Graham's Home Page. Retrieved 3 February 2009.</cite><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot">permanent dead link</a></i>]</sup>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-White_1997,_p170_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-White_1997,_p170_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFWhite1997">White 1997</a>, p. 170
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-books.google.com_59-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Rupert_Hall">Hall, Alfred Rupert</a> (1996). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7R8LsvMcUioC"><i>Isaac Newton: adventurer in thought</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56669-8"><bdi>978-0-521-56669-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/606137087">606137087</a>. <q>This is the one dated 23 February 1669, in which Newton described his first reflecting telescope, constructed (it seems) near the close of the previous year.</q></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite1997168_60-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWhite1997">White 1997</a>, p. 168.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b> <cite>Newton, Isaac. <a href="http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00004">"Of Colours"</a>. <i>The Newton Project</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141009051407/http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00004">Archived</a> from the original on 9 October 2014. Retrieved 6 October 2014.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-hooke1679nov24_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hooke1679nov24_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> See 'Correspondence of Isaac Newton, vol. 2, 1676–1687' ed. H.W. Turnbull, Cambridge University Press 1960; at p. 297, document No. 235, letter from Hooke to Newton dated 24 November 1679.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b> Iliffe, Robert (2007) Newton. A very short introduction, Oxford University Press 2007
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-More_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-More_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Westfall, Richard S. (1983) [1980]. <a href="https://archive.org/details/neveratrestbiogr00west/page/530"><i>Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. <a href="https://archive.org/details/neveratrestbiogr00west/page/530">530–531</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-27435-7"><bdi>978-0-521-27435-7</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Collected_Writings_of_John_Maynard_Keynes_Volume_X_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Collected_Writings_of_John_Maynard_Keynes_Volume_X_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Keynes, John Maynard (1972). "Newton, The Man". <i>The Collected Writings of John Maynard Keynes Volume X</i>. MacMillan St. Martin's Press. pp. 363–366.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Newton's_Alchemy_and_His_Theory_of_Matter_66-0">^</a></b> <cite>Dobbs, J.T. (December 1982). "Newton's Alchemy and His Theory of Matter". <i>Isis</i>. <b>73</b> (4): 523. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F353114">10.1086/353114</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170669199">170669199</a>.</cite> quoting <i>Opticks</i>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b> Opticks, 2nd Ed 1706. Query 8.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-OPN1_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OPN1_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="/wiki/F._J._Duarte">Duarte, F.J.</a> (2000). <a href="http://www.tunablelasers.com/F.J.DuarteOPN%282000%29.pdf">"Newton, prisms, and the 'opticks' of tunable lasers"</a> (PDF). <i>Optics and Photonics News</i>. <b>11</b> (5): 24–25. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000OptPN..11...24D">2000OptPN..11...24D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1364%2FOPN.11.5.000024">10.1364/OPN.11.5.000024</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150217223512/http://www.tunablelasers.com/F.J.DuarteOPN%282000%29.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 17 February 2015. Retrieved 17 February 2015.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b> Tyndall, John. (1880). <i>Popular Science Monthly</i> Volume 17, July. <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Popular_Science_Monthly/Volume_17/July_1880/Goethe%27s_Farbenlehre:_Theory_of_Colors_II">s:Popular Science Monthly/Volume 17/July 1880/Goethe's Farbenlehre: Theory of Colors II</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980391–392_70-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWestfall1980">Westfall 1980</a>, pp. 391–392.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b> Whiteside, D.T., ed. (1974). <i>Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton, 1684–1691</i>. <b>6</b>. Cambridge University Press. p. 30.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schmitz2018_72-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schmitz2018_72-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Schmitz, Kenneth S. (2018). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4WGdBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA251"><i>Physical Chemistry: Multidisciplinary Applications in Society</i></a>. Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 251. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-800599-6"><bdi>978-0-12-800599-6</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200310132426/https://books.google.com/books?id=4WGdBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA251">Archived</a> from the original on 10 March 2020. Retrieved 1 March 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b> <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;id=acBV7QHgMIAC&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PA3&amp;dq=Brewster+Newton+Lunar+Theory+Halley+head&amp;ots=5iXEsh7Dx0&amp;sig=BZIpvGq0VRexEKdy5elm87Oumbo#v=onepage&amp;q=head%20ache&amp;f=false">Brewster, Sir David <i>Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton</i>, Volume 2. Edinburgh: 1860 p108</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b> See Curtis Wilson, "The Newtonian achievement in astronomy", pp. 233–274 in R Taton &amp; C Wilson (eds) (1989) <i>The General History of Astronomy</i>, Volume, 2A', <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rkQKU-wfPYMC&amp;pg=PA233">at p. 233</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151003121307/https://books.google.com/books?id=rkQKU-wfPYMC&amp;pg=PA233">Archived</a> 3 October 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b> Text quotations are from 1729 translation of Newton's <i>Principia</i>, Book 3 (1729 vol.2) <a href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_6EqxPav3vIsC/page/n257">at pp. 232–233</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b> Edelglass et al., <i>Matter and Mind</i>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-940262-45-2">0-940262-45-2</a>. p. 54
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b> On the meaning and origins of this expression, see Kirsten Walsh, <a href="https://blogs.otago.ac.nz/emxphi/2010/10/does-newton-feign-an-hypothesis/">Does Newton feign an hypothesis?</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140714120054/https://blogs.otago.ac.nz/emxphi/2010/10/does-newton-feign-an-hypothesis/">Archived</a> 14 July 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="https://blogs.otago.ac.nz/emxphi/">Early Modern Experimental Philosophy</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110721051523/https://blogs.otago.ac.nz/emxphi/">Archived</a> 21 July 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 18 October 2010.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980Chapter_11_78-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWestfall1980">Westfall 1980</a>, Chapter 11.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hatch_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hatch_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Professor Robert A. Hatch, University of Florida. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120802071026/http://web.clas.ufl.edu/users/ufhatch/pages/13-NDFE/newton/05-newton-timeline-m.htm">"Newton Timeline"</a>. Archived from <a href="http://web.clas.ufl.edu/users/ufhatch/pages/13-NDFE/newton/05-newton-timeline-m.htm">the original</a> on 2 August 2012. Retrieved 13 August 2012.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b> <cite>Weisstein, Eric W. <a href="https://mathworld.wolfram.com/CubicCurve.html">"Cubic Curve"</a>. <i>mathworld.wolfram.com</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210127195314/https://mathworld.wolfram.com/CubicCurve.html">Archived</a> from the original on 27 January 2021. Retrieved 20 January 2021.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b> <i>Conics and Cubics,</i> Robert Bix, Springer <a href="/wiki/Undergraduate_Texts_in_Mathematics">Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics</a>, 2nd edition, 2006, Springer Verlag.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.libraries.psu.edu/tas/locke/mss/c1690.html">"John Locke Manuscripts – Chronological Listing: 1690"</a>. <i>psu.edu</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170709035722/https://www.libraries.psu.edu/tas/locke/mss/c1690.html">Archived</a> from the original on 9 July 2017. Retrieved 20 January 2013.</cite>; and John C. Attig, <a href="http://www.libraries.psu.edu/tas/locke/bib/ch5c.html#01160">John Locke Bibliography — Chapter 5, Religion, 1751–1900</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121112070820/http://www.libraries.psu.edu/tas/locke/bib/ch5c.html#01160">Archived</a> 12 November 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite1997232_83-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWhite1997">White 1997</a>, p. 232.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b> <cite>Patrick Sawer (6 September 2016). <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/09/06/what-students-should-avoid-during-freshers-week-100-years-ago-an/">"What students should avoid during fresher's week (100 years ago and now)"</a>. <i>The Daily Telegraph</i>. <a href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/09/06/what-students-should-avoid-during-freshers-week-100-years-ago-an/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 7 September 2016.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mint_85-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=105012144">"Isaac Newton: Physicist And ... Crime Fighter?"</a>. <i>Science Friday</i>. 5 June 2009. NPR. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141101074330/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=105012144">Archived</a> from the original on 1 November 2014. <a href="https://www.npr.org/templates/transcript/transcript.php?storyId=105012144">Transcript</a>. Retrieved 1 August 2014.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b> <cite>Levenson, Thomas (2009). <a href="https://archive.org/details/newtoncounterfei00leve_1"><i>Newton and the counterfeiter: the unknown detective career of the world's greatest scientist</i></a>. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-15-101278-7"><bdi>978-0-15-101278-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/276340857">276340857</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite1997259_87-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWhite1997">White 1997</a>, p. 259.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite1997267_88-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWhite1997">White 1997</a>, p. 267.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b> <cite>Newton, Isaac. <a href="http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/PR-ADV-B-00039-00001/">"Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica"</a>. Cambridge University Digital Library. pp. 265–266. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120108031556/http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/PR-ADV-B-00039-00001/">Archived</a> from the original on 8 January 2012. Retrieved 10 January 2012.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestfall200773_90-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWestfall2007">Westfall 2007</a>, p. 73.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Wagner">Wagner, Anthony</a> (1972). <a href="https://archive.org/details/historicheraldry0000wagn/page/85"><i>Historic Heraldry of Britain</i></a> (2nd ed.). London and Chichester: Phillimore. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/historicheraldry0000wagn/page/85">85</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85033-022-9"><bdi>978-0-85033-022-9</bdi></a>.</cite>; and <cite><a href="https://archive.org/details/genealogicalmemo00inlond"><i>Genealogical Memoranda Relating to the Family of Newton</i></a>. London: Taylor and Co. 1871.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite1997317_92-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWhite1997">White 1997</a>, p. 317.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b> "The Queen's 'great Assistance' to Newton's election was his knighting, an honor bestowed not for his contributions to science, nor for his service at the Mint, but for the greater glory of party politics in the election of 1705." <a href="#CITEREFWestfall1994">Westfall 1994</a>, p. 245
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.historychannel.com.au/classroom/day-in-history/553/isaac-newton-is-knighted">"This Day in History: Isaac Newton is Knighted"</a>. <i>History Channel</i>. A&amp;E Television Networks. 20 June 2016. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140819103011/http://www.historychannel.com.au/classroom/day-in-history/553/isaac-newton-is-knighted">Archived</a> from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 18 August 2014;</cite> and <cite>Barnham, Kay (2014). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2f5LAgAAQBAJ"><i>Isaac Newton</i></a>. Raintree. p. 26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4109-6235-5"><bdi>978-1-4109-6235-5</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b> <cite>Fay, C.R. (1 January 1935). "Newton and the Gold Standard". <i>Cambridge Historical Journal</i>. <b>5</b> (1): 109–117. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1474691300001256">10.1017/S1474691300001256</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/3020836">3020836</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://archive.today/20130217100410/http://gtresearchnews.gatech.edu/newsrelease/newton.htm">"Sir Isaac Newton's Unpublished Manuscripts Explain Connections He Made Between Alchemy and Economics"</a>. Georgia Tech Research News. 12 September 2006. Archived from <a href="http://gtresearchnews.gatech.edu/newsrelease/newton.htm">the original</a> on 17 February 2013. Retrieved 30 July 2014.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Yonge6_100-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_M._Yonge">Yonge, Charlotte M.</a> (1898). <a href="http://www.online-literature.com/charlotte-yonge/john-keble/6/">"Cranbury and Brambridge"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/John_Keble">John Keble</a>'s Parishes – Chapter 6</i>. online-literature.com. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081208223436/http://www.online-literature.com/charlotte-yonge/john-keble/6/">Archived</a> from the original on 8 December 2008. Retrieved 23 September 2009.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestfall198044_101-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWestfall1980">Westfall 1980</a>, p. 44.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980595_102-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWestfall1980">Westfall 1980</a>, p. 595.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/6569/page/7">"No. 6569"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_London_Gazette">The London Gazette</a></i>. 1 April 1727. p. 7.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b> Dobre and Nyden suggest that there is no clear evidence that Voltaire was present; see p. 89 of <cite>Mihnea Dobre, Tammy Nyden (2013). <i>Cartesian Empiricism</i>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-007-7690-6"><bdi>978-94-007-7690-6</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Newton,_Isaac_(1642–1727)_105-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newton,_Isaac_(1642–1727)_105-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Newton.html">"Newton, Isaac (1642–1727)"</a>. <i>Eric Weisstein's World of Biography</i>. Eric W. Weisstein. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060428081045/http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Newton.html">Archived</a> from the original on 28 April 2006. Retrieved 30 August 2006.</cite>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mann_106-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mann_106-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mann_106-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mann_106-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Mann, Adam (14 May 2014). <a href="https://www.wired.com/2014/05/newton-papers-q-and-a/">"The Strange, Secret History of Isaac Newton's Papers"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170911221912/https://www.wired.com/2014/05/newton-papers-q-and-a/">Archived</a> from the original on 11 September 2017. Retrieved 25 April 2016.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b> Hutton, Charles (1795/6). <i>A Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary</i>. vol. 2. p. 100.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b> <cite>Voltaire (1894). <a href="https://archive.org/stream/lettersonenglan00voltgoog#page/n102">"14"</a>. <i>Letters on England</i>. Cassell. p. 100.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hutton">Hutton, Charles</a> (1815). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_xk2AAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PAPA100"><i>A Philosophical and Mathematical Dictionary Containing ... Memoirs of the Lives and Writings of the Most Eminent Authors, Volume 2</i></a>. p. 100.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b> <cite>Keynes, John Maynard. <a href="http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Extras/Keynes_Newton.html">"Newton: the Man"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews">University of St Andrews</a> School of Mathematics and Statistics. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190617095839/http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Extras/Keynes_Newton.html">Archived</a> from the original on 17 June 2019. Retrieved 11 September 2012.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan">Sagan, Carl</a> (1980). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Cl06FjKX6doC"><i>Cosmos</i></a>. New York: Random House. p. 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-50294-6"><bdi>978-0-394-50294-6</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://janus.lib.cam.ac.uk/db/node.xsp?id=CV%2FPers%2FDuillier%2C%20Nicholas%20Fatio%20de%20%281664-1753%29%20mathematician%20and%20natural%20philosopher">"Duillier, Nicholas Fatio de (1664–1753) mathematician and natural philosopher"</a>. Janus database. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130701114749/http://janus.lib.cam.ac.uk/db/node.xsp?id=CV%2FPers%2FDuillier%2C%20Nicholas%20Fatio%20de%20%281664-1753%29%20mathematician%20and%20natural%20philosopher">Archived</a> from the original on 1 July 2013. Retrieved 22 March 2013.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.oac.cdlib.org/search?style=oac4;Institution=UCLA::Clark%20%28William%20Andrews%29%20Memorial%20Library;idT=4859632">"Collection Guide: Fatio de Duillier, Nicolas [Letters to Isaac Newton]"</a>. Online Archive of California. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130531055908/http://www.oac.cdlib.org/search?style=oac4;Institution=UCLA::Clark%20%28William%20Andrews%29%20Memorial%20Library;idT=4859632">Archived</a> from the original on 31 May 2013. Retrieved 22 March 2013.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWestfall1980">Westfall 1980</a>, pp. 493–497 on the friendship with Fatio, pp. 531–540 on Newton's breakdown.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuel1968219_116-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFManuel1968">Manuel 1968</a>, p. 219.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b> Letter from Isaac Newton to Robert Hooke, 5 February 1676, as transcribed in <cite>Maury, Jean-Pierre (1992) [1990]. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8N5tQgAACAAJ"><i>Newton: Understanding the Cosmos</i></a>. "<a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9couvertes_Gallimard">New Horizons</a>" series. Translated by Paris, I. Mark. London: Thames &amp; Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-30023-7"><bdi>978-0-500-30023-7</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201221174716/https://books.google.com/books?id=8N5tQgAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 21 December 2020. Retrieved 18 October 2020.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b> John Gribbin (2002) <i>Science: A History 1543–2001</i>, p. 164.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite1997187_119-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWhite1997">White 1997</a>, p. 187.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b> <i>Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton</i> (1855) by Sir David Brewster (Volume II. Ch. 27)
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_121-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2015/2/150301-aristotle-archimedes-einstein-darwin-ptolemy-razi-ngbooktalk/">"Is Islam Hostile to Science?"</a>. <i>National Geographic News</i>. 27 February 2015. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210109090356/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2015/2/150301-aristotle-archimedes-einstein-darwin-ptolemy-razi-ngbooktalk/">Archived</a> from the original on 9 January 2021. Retrieved 5 January 2021.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3676-einstein-and-newton-showed-signs-of-autism/">"Einstein and Newton showed signs of autism"</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170618092341/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3676-einstein-and-newton-showed-signs-of-autism/">Archived</a> from the original on 18 June 2017. Retrieved 29 September 2021.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://ascendautism.com/ascend-autism-blog/understanding-autism-level-1/">"Understanding Level 1 of Autism Spectrum Disorder | Ascend Autism"</a>. <i>ascendautism.com</i>. 12 February 2021. Retrieved 8 January 2023.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Newton_–_1_125-0">^</a></b> <a href="/wiki/Richard_S._Westfall">Richard S. Westfall</a> – <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University">Indiana University</a> <cite><a href="http://galileo.rice.edu/Catalog/NewFiles/newton.html"><i>The Galileo Project</i></a>. (<a href="/wiki/Rice_University">Rice University</a>). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200929133323/http://galileo.rice.edu/Catalog/NewFiles/newton.html">Archived</a> from the original on 29 September 2020. Retrieved 5 July 2008.</cite>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-heretic_126-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-heretic_126-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-heretic_126-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-heretic_126-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-heretic_126-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Snobelen, Stephen D. (December 1999). "Isaac Newton, heretic: the strategies of a Nicodemite". <i>The British Journal for the History of Science</i>. <b>32</b> (4): 381–419. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0007087499003751">10.1017/S0007087499003751</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/4027945">4027945</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145208136">145208136</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980315_127-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWestfall1980">Westfall 1980</a>, p. 315.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980321_128-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWestfall1980">Westfall 1980</a>, p. 321.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980331–334_129-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWestfall1980">Westfall 1980</a>, pp. 331–334.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestfall1994124_130-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWestfall1994">Westfall 1994</a>, p. 124.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-dulles_131-0">^</a></b> Avery Cardinal Dulles. <a href="https://www.firstthings.com/article/2005/01/the-deist-minimum">The Deist Minimum</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131006023220/http://www.firstthings.com/print.php?type=article&amp;year=2008&amp;month=08&amp;title_link=the-deist-minimum--28">Archived</a> 6 October 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (January 2005).
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130927214741/http://www.blakearchive.org/exist/blake/archive/copyinfo.xq?copyid=but306.1">"Newton, object 1 (Butlin 306) "Newton""</a>. <a href="/wiki/William_Blake_Archive">William Blake Archive</a>. 25 September 2013. Archived from <a href="http://www.blakearchive.org/exist/blake/archive/copyinfo.xq?copyid=but306.1">the original</a> on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 25 September 2013.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b> <cite>Newton, Isaac (1782). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Dz2FzJqaJMUC&amp;q=%22gravity%20may%20put%20the%20planets%20into%20motion%22&amp;pg=PA436"><i>Isaaci Newtoni Opera quae exstant omnia</i></a>. London: Joannes Nichols. pp. 436–437. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414055022/https://books.google.com/books?id=Dz2FzJqaJMUC&amp;q=%22gravity%20may%20put%20the%20planets%20into%20motion%22&amp;pg=PA436">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 18 October 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/16878"><i>Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel, and the Apocalypse of St. John</i></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170120113904/http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/16878">Archived</a> 20 January 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> 1733
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b> John P. Meier, <i><a href="/wiki/John_P._Meier#A_Marginal_Jew:_Rethinking_the_Historical_Jesus">A Marginal Jew</a></i>, v. 1, pp. 382–402. after narrowing the years to 30 or 33, provisionally judges 30 most likely.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b> Newton to <a href="/wiki/Richard_Bentley">Richard Bentley</a> 10 December 1692, in Turnbull et al. (1959–77), vol 3, p. 233.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b> Opticks, 2nd Ed 1706. Query 31.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b> H.G. Alexander (ed) <i>The Leibniz-Clarke correspondence</i>, <a href="/wiki/Manchester_University_Press">Manchester University Press</a>, 1998, p. 11.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Neil_deGrasse_Tyson">Tyson, Neil Degrasse</a> (1 November 2005). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180906154623/http://www.haydenplanetarium.org/tyson/read/2005/11/01/the-perimeter-of-ignorance">"The Perimeter of Ignorance"</a>. <i>Natural History Magazine</i>. Archived from <a href="http://www.haydenplanetarium.org/tyson/read/2005/11/01/the-perimeter-of-ignorance">the original</a> on 6 September 2018. Retrieved 7 January 2016.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b> Dijksterhuis, E. J. <i>The Mechanization of the World Picture</i>, IV 329–330, Oxford University Press, 1961. The author's final comment on this episode is:"The mechanization of the world picture led with irresistible coherence to the conception of God as a sort of 'retired engineer', and from here to God's complete elimination it took just one more step".
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b> Brewster states that Newton was never known as an <a href="/wiki/Arianism">Arian</a> during his lifetime, it was <a href="/wiki/William_Whiston">William Whiston</a>, an Arian, who first argued that "Sir Isaac Newton was so hearty for the Baptists, as well as for the Eusebians or Arians, that he sometimes suspected these two were the two witnesses in the Revelations," while others like <a href="/wiki/Hopton_Haynes">Hopton Haynes</a> (a Mint employee and Humanitarian), "mentioned to <a href="/wiki/Richard_Baron_(dissenting_minister)">Richard Baron</a>, that Newton held the same doctrine as himself". David Brewster. <i>Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton</i>. p. 268.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-The_Newtonians_and_the_English_Revolution:_1689–1720_142-0">^</a></b> <cite>Jacob, Margaret C. (1976). <a href="https://archive.org/details/newtoniansenglis00jaco"><i>The Newtonians and the English Revolution: 1689–1720</i></a>. Cornell University Press. pp. <a href="https://archive.org/details/newtoniansenglis00jaco/page/37">37</a>, 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85527-066-7"><bdi>978-0-85527-066-7</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Science_and_Religion_in_Seventeenth-Century_England_143-0">^</a></b> <cite>Westfall, Richard S. (1958). <i>Science and Religion in Seventeenth-Century England</i>. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 200. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-208-00843-5"><bdi>978-0-208-00843-5</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Enlightenment_and_Religion:_Rational_Dissent_in_eighteenth-century_Britain_144-0">^</a></b> <cite>Haakonssen, Knud (1996). "The Enlightenment, politics and providence: some Scottish and English comparisons". In Martin Fitzpatrick (ed.). <i>Enlightenment and Religion: Rational Dissent in Eighteenth-century Britain</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56060-3"><bdi>978-0-521-56060-3</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Papers_Show_Isaac_Newton's_Religious_Side,_Predict_Date_of_Apocalypse_145-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Papers_Show_Isaac_Newton's_Religious_Side,_Predict_Date_of_Apocalypse_145-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070813033620/http://www.christianpost.com/article/20070619/28049_Papers_Show_Isaac_Newton%27s_Religious_Side%2C_Predict_Date_of_Apocalypse.htm">"Papers Show Isaac Newton's Religious Side, Predict Date of Apocalypse"</a>. Associated Press. 19 June 2007. Archived from <a href="http://www.christianpost.com/article/20070619/28049_Papers_Show_Isaac_Newton%27s_Religious_Side%2C_Predict_Date_of_Apocalypse.htm">the original</a> on 13 August 2007. Retrieved 1 August 2007.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b> <cite>Grayling, A.C. (2016). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XXNeCwAAQBAJ&amp;q=%22It+may+end+later,+but+I+see+no+reason+for+its+ending+sooner,%22&amp;pg=PT113"><i>The Age of Genius: The Seventeenth Century and the Birth of the Modern Mind</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4088-4329-1"><bdi>978-1-4088-4329-1</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414025609/https://books.google.com/books?id=XXNeCwAAQBAJ&amp;q=%22It+may+end+later,+but+I+see+no+reason+for+its+ending+sooner,%22&amp;pg=PT113">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 18 October 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Heinlein_147-0">^</a></b> <cite>Leiber, Fritz (1981). "Poor Superman". In Heinlein, Robert A. (ed.). <i>Tomorrow, the Stars</i> (16th ed.). New York: Berkley Book / published by arrangement with Doubleday &amp; Company, Inc. p. 208. <q>First published in <i>Galaxy</i> magazine, July 1951; Variously titled <i>Appointment in Tomorrow</i>; in some reprints of Leiber's story the sentence 'That was the pebble..' is replaced by 'Which Newton did the world need then?'</q></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Meyer_148-0">^</a></b> <cite>Meyer, Michal (2014). <a href="https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/gold-secrecy-and-prestige">"Gold, secrecy and prestige"</a>. <i>Chemical Heritage Magazine</i>. <b>32</b> (1): 42–43. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180320230826/https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/gold-secrecy-and-prestige">Archived</a> from the original on 20 March 2018. Retrieved 20 March 2018.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kean_149-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kean_149-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Kean, Sam (2011). <a href="http://www.neh.gov/humanities/2011/januaryfebruary/feature/newton-the-last-magician">"Newton, The Last Magician"</a>. <i>Humanities</i>. <b>32</b> (1). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160413235352/http://www.neh.gov/humanities/2011/januaryfebruary/feature/newton-the-last-magician">Archived</a> from the original on 13 April 2016. Retrieved 25 April 2016.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Greshko_150-0">^</a></b> <cite>Greshko, Michael (4 April 2016). <a href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/04/160404-isaac-newton-alchemy-mercury-recipe-chemistry-science/">"Isaac Newton's Lost Alchemy Recipe Rediscovered"</a>. <i>National Geographic</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160426031049/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/04/160404-isaac-newton-alchemy-mercury-recipe-chemistry-science/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 April 2016. Retrieved 25 April 2016.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dry_151-0">^</a></b> <cite>Dry, Sarah (2014). <i>The Newton papers : the strange and true odyssey of Isaac Newton's manuscripts</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-995104-8"><bdi>978-0-19-995104-8</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Indiana_152-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Indiana_152-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="https://webapp1.dlib.indiana.edu/newton/">"The Chymistry of Isaac Newton"</a>. <i>Indiana University, Bloomington</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160426013127/http://webapp1.dlib.indiana.edu/newton/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 April 2016. Retrieved 25 April 2016.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b> <cite>Levitin, Dimitri (March 2019). <a href="https://literaryreview.co.uk/going-for-gold-2">"Going for Gold"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Literary_Review">Literary Review</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190307113828/https://literaryreview.co.uk/going-for-gold-2">Archived</a> from the original on 7 March 2019. Retrieved 6 March 2019.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b> <cite>Newman, William R (2018). <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/titles/13261.html"><i>Newton the Alchemist Science, Enigma, and the Quest for Nature's "Secret Fire"</i></a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-17487-7"><bdi>978-0-691-17487-7</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190402130607/https://press.princeton.edu/titles/13261.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 6 March 2019.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Charles_Coulston_Gillispie">Gillispie, Charles Coulston</a> (1960). <a href="https://archive.org/details/edgeofobjectivit00char"><i>The Edge of Objectivity: An Essay in the History of Scientific Ideas</i></a>. Princeton University Press. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/edgeofobjectivit00char/page/122">122</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-02350-6"><bdi>0-691-02350-6</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b> Van Helmont, Iohannis Baptistae, <i>Opuscula Medica Inaudita: IV. De Peste</i>, Editor Hieronymo Christian Paullo (Frankfurt am Main) Publisher Sumptibus Hieronimi Christiani Pauli, typis Matthiæ Andreæ, 1707.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b> <cite>Flood, Alison (2 June 2020). <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2020/jun/02/isaac-newton-plague-cure-toad-vomit">"Isaac Newton proposed curing plague with toad vomit, unseen papers show"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200606192933/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2020/jun/02/isaac-newton-plague-cure-toad-vomit">Archived</a> from the original on 6 June 2020. Retrieved 6 June 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b> Fred L. Wilson, <i>History of Science: Newton</i> citing: Delambre, M. "Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de M. le comte J.L. Lagrange", <i>Oeuvres de Lagrange</i> I. Paris, 1867, p. xx.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-westminster_newton_159-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-westminster_newton_159-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Westminster Abbey. <a href="https://www.westminster-abbey.org/ko/abbey-commemorations/commemorations/sir-isaac-newton">"Sir Isaac Newton Scientist, Mathematician and Astronomer"</a>. <i>westminster-abbey.org</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220809191135/https://www.westminster-abbey.org/ko/abbey-commemorations/commemorations/sir-isaac-newton">Archived</a> from the original on 9 August 2022. Retrieved 19 January 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-royalsoc.ac.uk_160-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://royalsociety.org/News.aspx?id=1324&amp;terms=Newton+beats+Einstein+in+polls+of+scientists+and+the+public">"Newton beats Einstein in polls of Royal Society scientists and the public"</a>. <i>The Royal Society</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170713073814/https://royalsociety.org/News.aspx?id=1324&amp;terms=Newton+beats+Einstein+in+polls+of+scientists+and+the+public">Archived</a> from the original on 13 July 2017. Retrieved 24 August 2010.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/541840.stm">"Opinion poll. Einstein voted 'greatest physicist ever' by leading physicists; Newton runner-up"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 29 November 1999. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170812011359/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/541840.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 12 August 2017. Retrieved 17 January 2012.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b> <cite>Gleeson-White, Jane (10 November 2003). <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/books/einsteins-heroes-20031110-gdhr3v.html">"Einstein's Heroes"</a>. <i>The Sydney Morning Herald</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191128115406/https://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/books/einsteins-heroes-20031110-gdhr3v.html">Archived</a> from the original on 28 November 2019. Retrieved 29 September 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_163-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_163-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="/wiki/Historic_England">Historic England</a>. <a href="https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1062362">"Woolsthorpe Manor House, Colsterworth (1062362)"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/National_Heritage_List_for_England">National Heritage List for England</a></i>. Retrieved 5 October 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1881/01/16/archives/silly-relicworship-former-high-prices-for-personal-relics-of-great.html">"Silly relic-worship"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. 16 January 1881. p. 10. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190120194516/https://www.nytimes.com/1881/01/16/archives/silly-relicworship-former-high-prices-for-personal-relics-of-great.html">Archived</a> from the original on 20 January 2019. Retrieved 12 July 2009.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Guinness_165-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Guinness_165-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Cunningham, Antonia, ed. (2002). <a href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/product-description/0553583786"><i>Guinness World Records 2002</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-553-58378-6"><bdi>978-0-553-58378-6</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220809191132/https://www.amazon.com/dp/0553583786?ie=UTF8&amp;*entries*=0&amp;viewID=&amp;*Version*=1">Archived</a> from the original on 9 August 2022. Retrieved 12 July 2009.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite199786_166-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFWhite1997">White 1997</a>, p. 86.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENumbers201548–56_167-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFNumbers2015">Numbers 2015</a>, pp. 48–56.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b> <cite>Malament, David B. (2002). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TqcMQy-Ioc4C&amp;q=catherine+barton+apple&amp;pg=PA118"><i>Reading Natural Philosophy: Essays in the History and Philosophy of Science and Mathematics</i></a>. Open Court Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8126-9507-6"><bdi>978-0-8126-9507-6</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414055334/https://books.google.com/books?id=TqcMQy-Ioc4C&amp;q=catherine+barton+apple&amp;pg=PA118">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 18 October 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b> <cite>Voltaire (1727). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0o5bAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PA104"><i>An Essay upon the Civil Wars of France, extracted from curious Manuscripts and also upon the Epick Poetry of the European Nations, from Homer down to Milton</i></a>. London, England: Samuel Jallasson. p. 104. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210614182518/https://books.google.com/books?id=0o5bAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PA104">Archived</a> from the original on 14 June 2021. Retrieved 14 June 2021.</cite> From p. 104: 'In the like Manner <i>Pythagoras</i> ow'd the Invention of Musik to the noise of the Hammer of a Blacksmith. And thus in our Days Sir <i>Isaak Newton</i> walking in his Garden had the first Thought of his System of Gravitation, upon seeing an apple falling from a Tree.'
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b> Voltaire (1786) heard the story of Newton and the apple tree from Newton's niece, Catherine Conduit (née Barton) (1679–1740): <cite>Voltaire (1786). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NKWTGHiZSm4C&amp;pg=PA175"><i>Oeuvres completes de Voltaire</i></a> [<i>The complete works of Voltaire</i>] (in French). Vol. 31. Basel, Switzerland: Jean-Jacques Tourneisen. p. 175. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210709192112/https://books.google.com/books?id=NKWTGHiZSm4C&amp;pg=PA175">Archived</a> from the original on 9 July 2021. Retrieved 15 June 2021.</cite> From p. 175: <i>"Un jour en l'année 1666, </i>Newton<i> retiré à la campagne, et voyant tomber des fruits d'un arbre, à ce que m'a conté sa nièce, (Mme </i>Conduit<i>) se laissa aller à une méditation profonde sur la cause qui entraine ainsi tous les corps dans une ligne, qui, si elle était prolongée, passerait à peu près par le centre de la terre."</i> (One day in the year 1666 <i>Newton</i> withdrew to the country, and seeing the fruits of a tree fall, according to what his niece (Madame <i>Conduit</i>) told me, he entered into a deep meditation on the cause that draws all bodies in a [straight] line, which, if it were extended, would pass very near to the center of the Earth.)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Berkun2010_171-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Scott_Berkun">Berkun, Scott</a> (2010). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kPCgnc70MSgC&amp;pg=PAPA4"><i>The Myths of Innovation</i></a>. O'Reilly Media, Inc. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4493-8962-8"><bdi>978-1-4493-8962-8</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Newton's_apple:_The_real_story_172-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://archive.today/20100121073908/http://www.newscientist.com/blogs/culturelab/2010/01/newtons-apple-the-real-story.php">"Newton's apple: The real story"</a>. <i>New Scientist</i>. 18 January 2010. Archived from <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/blogs/culturelab/2010/01/newtons-apple-the-real-story.php">the original</a> on 21 January 2010. Retrieved 10 May 2010.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hamblyn_(2011)_173-0">^</a></b> <cite>Hamblyn, Richard (2011). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1xKFSqsDj0MC&amp;pg=PAPT57">"Newtonian Apples: William Stukeley"</a>. <i>The Art of Science</i>. <a href="/wiki/Pan_Macmillan">Pan Macmillan</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4472-0415-2"><bdi>978-1-4472-0415-2</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-NP_174-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.newtonproject.ox.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/OTHE00001">"Revised Memoir of Newton (Normalized Version)"</a>. <i>The Newton Project</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170314064817/http://www.newtonproject.ox.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/OTHE00001">Archived</a> from the original on 14 March 2017. Retrieved 13 March 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Keynes_Ms._130.4:Conduitt's_account_of_Newton's_life_at_Cambridge_175-0">^</a></b> <cite>Conduitt, John. <a href="http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/THEM00167">"Keynes Ms. 130.4:Conduitt's account of Newton's life at Cambridge"</a>. <i>Newtonproject</i>. Imperial College London. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091107101632/http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/THEM00167">Archived</a> from the original on 7 November 2009. Retrieved 30 August 2006.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b> I. Bernard Cohen and George E. Smith, eds. <i>The Cambridge Companion to Newton</i> (2002) p. 6
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b> Alberto A. Martinez <i>Science Secrets: The Truth about Darwin's Finches, Einstein's Wife, and Other Myths</i>, p. 69 (University of Pittsburgh Press, 2011); <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-4407-2">978-0-8229-4407-2</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brogdale—Home_of_the_National_Fruit_Collection_178-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081201035839/http://www.brogdale.org/">"Brogdale – Home of the National Fruit Collection"</a>. Brogdale.org. Archived from <a href="http://www.brogdale.org/">the original</a> on 1 December 2008. Retrieved 20 December 2008.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-From_the_National_Fruit_Collection:_Isaac_Newton's_Tree_179-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.brogdale.org.uk/image1.php?varietyid=1089">"From the National Fruit Collection: Isaac Newton's Tree"</a>. Retrieved 10 January 2009.</cite><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot">permanent dead link</a></i>]</sup> <a href="http://www.nationalfruitcollection.org.uk/full2.php?varid=2946&amp;&amp;acc=1948729">Alternate Page</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220705225956/http://www.nationalfruitcollection.org.uk/full2.php?varid=2946&amp;&amp;acc=1948729">Archived</a> 5 July 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved 5 July 2022.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b> 'The Abbey Scientists' Hall, A.R. p13: London; Roger &amp; Robert Nicholson; 1966
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-wmabbey_181-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wmabbey_181-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="http://www.westminster-abbey.org/our-history/people/sir-isaac-newton">"Famous People &amp; the Abbey: Sir Isaac Newton"</a>. Westminster Abbey. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091016081238/http://www.westminster-abbey.org/our-history/people/sir-isaac-newton">Archived</a> from the original on 16 October 2009. Retrieved 13 November 2009.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-bankofengland_182-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100505053927/http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/banknotes/denom_guide/nonflash/1-SeriesD-Revised.htm">"Withdrawn banknotes reference guide"</a>. Bank of England. Archived from <a href="http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/banknotes/denom_guide/nonflash/1-SeriesD-Revised.htm">the original</a> on 5 May 2010. Retrieved 27 August 2009.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b> Cassels, Alan. Ideology and International Relations in the Modern World. p. 2.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b> "Although it was just one of the many factors in the Enlightenment, the success of Newtonian physics in providing a mathematical description of an ordered world clearly played a big part in the flowering of this movement in the eighteenth century" by John Gribbin, <i>Science: A History 1543–2001</i> (2002), p. 241 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7139-9503-9">978-0-7139-9503-9</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b> Anders Hald 2003 – <i>A history of probability and statistics and their applications before 1750</i> – 586 pages <i>Volume 501 of Wiley series in probability and statistics</i> <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pOQy6-qnVx8C&amp;pg=PA563&amp;q=de%20analysi%20per%20aequationes%20numero%20terminorum%20infinitas">Wiley-IEEE, 2003</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220602024647/https://books.google.com/books?id=pOQy6-qnVx8C&amp;pg=PA563&amp;q=de%20analysi%20per%20aequationes%20numero%20terminorum%20infinitas">Archived</a> 2 June 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved 27 January 2012 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-47129-1">0-471-47129-1</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://webapp1.dlib.indiana.edu/newton/mss/intro/ALCH00081/query/field1=text&amp;text1=Of%20Natures%20obvious%20laws%20&amp;%20processes%20in%20vegetation">"Natures obvious laws &amp; processes in vegetation – Introduction"</a>. <i>The Chymistry of Isaac Newton</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210117172142/http://webapp1.dlib.indiana.edu/newton/mss/intro/ALCH00081/query/">Archived</a> from the original on 17 January 2021. Retrieved 17 January 2021.</cite> Transcribed and online at <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_(Bloomington)">Indiana University</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b> Whiteside, D.T., ed. (1974). <i>Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton, 1684–1691</i>. <b>6</b>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lIZ0v23iqRgC&amp;pg=PA30">pp. 30–91.</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160610163025/https://books.google.com/books?id=lIZ0v23iqRgC&amp;pg=PA30">Archived</a> 10 June 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120331192529/http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/archive/exhibits/pepys/pages/largeImage.asp?id=101&amp;size=3&amp;nav=none">"Museum of London exhibit including facsimile of title page from John Flamsteed's copy of 1687 edition of Newton's <i>Principia</i>"</a>. Museumoflondon.org.uk. Archived from <a href="http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/archive/exhibits/pepys/pages/largeImage.asp?id=101&amp;size=3&amp;nav=none">the original</a> on 31 March 2012. Retrieved 16 March 2012.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b> Published anonymously as "Scala graduum Caloris. Calorum Descriptiones &amp; signa." in <i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, 1701, <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x8NeAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PA824">824</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200121085937/https://books.google.com/books?id=x8NeAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PA824">Archived</a> 21 January 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>–829;
ed. Joannes Nichols, <i>Isaaci Newtoni Opera quae exstant omnia</i>, vol. 4 (1782), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Dz2FzJqaJMUC&amp;pg=PA403">403</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160617115723/https://books.google.com/books?id=Dz2FzJqaJMUC&amp;pg=PA403">Archived</a> 17 June 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>–407.
Mark P. Silverman, <i>A Universe of Atoms, An Atom in the Universe</i>, Springer, 2002, <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-Er5pIsYe_AC&amp;pg=PA49">p. 49.</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160624011536/https://books.google.com/books?id=-Er5pIsYe_AC&amp;pg=PA49">Archived</a> 24 June 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b> <cite>Newton, Isaac (1704). <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3362k"><i>Opticks or, a Treatise of the reflexions, refractions, inflexions and colours of light. Also two treatises of the species and magnitude of curvilinear figures</i></a>. Sam. Smith. and Benj. Walford. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210224021530/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3362k">Archived</a> from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 17 March 2018.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pickover2008_191-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pickover2008_191-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pickover2008_191-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pickover2008_191-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pickover2008_191-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pickover2008_191-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pickover2008_191-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Pickover, Clifford (2008). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SQXcpvjcJBUC&amp;pg=PAPA117"><i>Archimedes to Hawking: Laws of Science and the Great Minds Behind Them</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 117–118. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-979268-9"><bdi>978-0-19-979268-9</bdi></a>. Retrieved 17 March 2018.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a></b> <cite>Swetz, Frank J. <a href="https://www.maa.org/press/periodicals/convergence/mathematical-treasure-newtons-method-of-fluxions">"Mathematical Treasure: Newton's Method of Fluxions"</a>. <i>Convergence</i>. Mathematical Association of America. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170628213844/http://www.maa.org/press/periodicals/convergence/mathematical-treasure-newtons-method-of-fluxions">Archived</a> from the original on 28 June 2017. Retrieved 17 March 2018.</cite>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h3>Bibliography</h3>
<div>
<ul><li><cite>Ball, W.W. Rouse (1908). <a href="https://archive.org/details/shortaccountofhi0000ball"><i>A Short Account of the History of Mathematics</i></a>. New York: Dover. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-20630-1"><bdi>978-0-486-20630-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Christianson, Gale (1984). <a href="https://archive.org/details/inpresenceofcr00chri"><i>In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton &amp; His Times</i></a>. New York: Free Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-905190-0"><bdi>978-0-02-905190-0</bdi></a>.</cite> This well documented work provides, in particular, valuable information regarding Newton's knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Patristics">Patristics</a></li>
<li><cite>Craig, John (1958). "Isaac Newton – Crime Investigator". <i>Nature</i>. <b>182</b> (4629): 149–152. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1958Natur.182..149C">1958Natur.182..149C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F182149a0">10.1038/182149a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4200994">4200994</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Craig, John (1963). "Isaac Newton and the Counterfeiters". <i>Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London</i>. <b>18</b> (2): 136–145. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsnr.1963.0017">10.1098/rsnr.1963.0017</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143981415">143981415</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Gjertsen, Derek (1986). <i>The Newton Handbook</i>. London: Routledge &amp; Kegan Paul. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7102-0279-2"><bdi>0-7102-0279-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Levenson, Thomas (2010). <i>Newton and the Counterfeiter: The Unknown Detective Career of the World's Greatest Scientist</i>. Mariner Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-547-33604-6"><bdi>978-0-547-33604-6</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Manuel, Frank E (1968). <a href="https://archive.org/details/portraitofisaacn00manu"><i>A Portrait of Isaac Newton</i></a>. Belknap Press of Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Stewart, James (2009). <i>Calculus: Concepts and Contexts</i>. Cengage Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-495-55742-5"><bdi>978-0-495-55742-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Richard_S._Westfall">Westfall, Richard S.</a> (1980). <a href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=creator%3A%28westfall%29%20newton"><i>Never at Rest</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-27435-7"><bdi>978-0-521-27435-7</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Westfall, Richard S. (2007). <i>Isaac Newton</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-921355-9"><bdi>978-0-19-921355-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Westfall, Richard S. (1994). <a href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=creator%3A%28westfall%29%20newton"><i>The Life of Isaac Newton</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47737-6"><bdi>978-0-521-47737-6</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Michael_White_(author)">White, Michael</a> (1997). <i>Isaac Newton: The Last Sorcerer</i>. Fourth Estate Limited. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85702-416-6"><bdi>978-1-85702-416-6</bdi></a>.</cite></li></ul>
</div>
<h2>Further reading</h2>
<h3>Primary</h3>
<div>
<ul><li>Newton, Isaac. <i>The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.</i> <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press">University of California Press</a>, (1999)
<ul><li>Brackenridge, J. Bruce. <i>The Key to Newton's Dynamics: The Kepler Problem and the Principia: Containing an English Translation of Sections 1, 2, and 3 of Book One from the First (1687) Edition of Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy</i>, University of California Press (1996)</li></ul></li>
<li>Newton, Isaac. <i>The Optical Papers of Isaac Newton. Vol. 1: The Optical Lectures, 1670–1672</i>, Cambridge University Press (1984)
<ul><li>Newton, Isaac. <i>Opticks</i> (4th ed. 1730) <a href="https://archive.org/details/opticksoratreat00newtgoog">online edition</a></li>
<li>Newton, I. (1952). Opticks, or A Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections &amp; Colours of Light. New York: Dover Publications.</li></ul></li>
<li>Newton, I. <i>Sir Isaac Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy and His System of the World</i>, tr. A. Motte, rev. <a href="/wiki/Florian_Cajori">Florian Cajori</a>. Berkeley: University of California Press (1934)</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Tom_Whiteside">Whiteside, D.T.</a>, ed. (1967–1982). <i>The Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-07740-8"><bdi>978-0-521-07740-8</bdi></a>.</cite> – 8 volumes.</li>
<li>Newton, Isaac. <i>The correspondence of Isaac Newton,</i> ed. H.W. Turnbull and others, 7 vols (1959–77)</li>
<li><i>Newton's Philosophy of Nature: Selections from His Writings</i> edited by H.S. Thayer (1953; online edition)</li>
<li>Isaac Newton, Sir; J Edleston; <a href="/wiki/Roger_Cotes">Roger Cotes</a>, <i>Correspondence of Sir Isaac Newton and Professor Cotes, including letters of other eminent men</i>, London, John W. Parker, West Strand; Cambridge, John Deighton (1850, Google Books)</li>
<li>Maclaurin, C. (1748). An Account of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophical Discoveries, in Four Books. London: A. Millar and J. Nourse</li>
<li>Newton, I. (1958). Isaac Newton's Papers and Letters on Natural Philosophy and Related Documents, eds. I.B. Cohen and R.E. Schofield. Cambridge: Harvard University Press</li>
<li>Newton, I. (1962). The Unpublished Scientific Papers of Isaac Newton: A Selection from the Portsmouth Collection in the University Library, Cambridge, ed. A.R. Hall and M.B. Hall. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</li>
<li>Newton, I. (1975). Isaac Newton's 'Theory of the Moon's Motion' (1702). London: Dawson</li></ul>
</div>
<h3>Alchemy</h3>
<div>
<ul><li><cite>Craig, John (1946). <i>Newton at the Mint</i>. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Craig, John (1953). "XII. Isaac Newton". <i>The Mint: A History of the London Mint from A.D. 287 to 1948</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge">Cambridge</a>, England: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 198–222. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)">ASIN</a> <a href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0000CIHG7">B0000CIHG7</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Richard_de_Villamil">de Villamil, Richard</a> (1931). <i>Newton, the Man</i>. London: G.D. Knox.</cite> – Preface by Albert Einstein. Reprinted by Johnson Reprint Corporation, New York (1972)</li>
<li><cite>Dobbs, B.J.T. (1975). <i>The Foundations of Newton's Alchemy or "The Hunting of the Greene Lyon"</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes">Keynes, John Maynard</a> (1963). <a href="https://archive.org/details/essaysinbiograph0000keyn"><i>Essays in Biography</i></a>. W.W. Norton &amp; Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-00189-1"><bdi>978-0-393-00189-1</bdi></a>.</cite> Keynes took a close interest in Newton and owned many of Newton's private papers.</li>
<li><cite>Stukeley, W. (1936). <i>Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life</i>. London: Taylor and Francis.</cite> (edited by A.H. White; originally published in 1752)</li>
<li>Trabue, J. "Ann and Arthur Storer of Calvert County, Maryland, Friends of Sir Isaac Newton," <i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Genealogist">The American Genealogist</a></i> 79 (2004): 13–27.</li></ul>
</div>
<h3>Religion</h3>
<div>
<ul><li>Dobbs, Betty Jo Tetter. <i>The Janus Faces of Genius: The Role of Alchemy in Newton's Thought.</i> (1991), links the alchemy to Arianism</li>
<li>Force, James E., and Richard H. Popkin, eds. <i>Newton and Religion: Context, Nature, and Influence.</i> (1999), pp. xvii, 325.; 13 papers by scholars using newly opened manuscripts</li>
<li><cite>Pfizenmaier, Thomas C (1997). "Was Isaac Newton an Arian?". <i>Journal of the History of Ideas</i>. <b>58</b> (1): 57–80. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjhi.1997.0001">10.1353/jhi.1997.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/3653988">3653988</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170545277">170545277</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Ramati, Ayval (2001). "The Hidden Truth of Creation: Newton's Method of Fluxions". <i>The British Journal for the History of Science</i>. <b>34</b> (4): 417–438. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0007087401004484">10.1017/S0007087401004484</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/4028372">4028372</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143045863">143045863</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Snobelen, Stephen D. (2001). "'God of Gods, and Lord of Lords': The Theology of Isaac Newton's General Scholium to the Principia". <i>Osiris</i>. <b>16</b>: 169–208. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001Osir...16..169S">2001Osir...16..169S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F649344">10.1086/649344</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/301985">301985</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170364912">170364912</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Snobelen, Stephen D. (December 1999). "Isaac Newton, heretic: the strategies of a Nicodemite". <i>The British Journal for the History of Science</i>. <b>32</b> (4): 381–419. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0007087499003751">10.1017/S0007087499003751</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/4027945">4027945</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145208136">145208136</a>.</cite></li></ul>
</div>
<h3>Science</h3>
<div>
<ul><li><cite>Bechler, Zev (2013). <i>Contemporary Newtonian Research (Studies in the History of Modern Science)(Volume 9)</i>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-009-7717-4"><bdi>978-94-009-7717-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li>Berlinski, David. <i>Newton's Gift: How Sir Isaac Newton Unlocked the System of the World.</i> (2000); <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-84392-7">0-684-84392-7</a></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar">Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan</a> (1995). <i>Newton's Principia for the Common Reader</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-851744-3"><bdi>978-0-19-851744-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li>Cohen, I. Bernard and Smith, George E., ed. <i>The Cambridge Companion to Newton.</i> (2002). Focuses on philosophical issues only; excerpt and text search; complete edition online <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081008010311/http://www.questia.com/read/105054986">"The Cambridge Companion to Newton"</a>. Archived from the original on 8 October 2008. Retrieved 13 October 2008.</cite><code>{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown">link</a>)</li>
<li><cite>Cohen, I.B. (1980). <i>The Newtonian Revolution</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22964-7"><bdi>978-0-521-22964-7</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Gleick, James (2003). <i>Isaac Newton</i>. Alfred A. Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-375-42233-1"><bdi>978-0-375-42233-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Halley, E. (1687). "Review of Newton's Principia". <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society">Philosophical Transactions</a></i>. <b>186</b>: 291–297.</cite></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking">Hawking, Stephen</a>, ed. <i>On the Shoulders of Giants</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7624-1348-4">0-7624-1348-4</a> Places selections from Newton's <i>Principia</i> in the context of selected writings by Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Einstein</li>
<li><cite>Herivel, J.W. (1965). <a href="https://archive.org/details/backgroundtonewt0000heri"><i>The Background to Newton's Principia. A Study of Newton's Dynamical Researches in the Years 1664–84</i></a>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</cite></li>
<li>Newton, Isaac. <i>Papers and Letters in Natural Philosophy</i>, edited by <a href="/wiki/I._Bernard_Cohen">I. Bernard Cohen</a>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press">Harvard University Press</a>, 1958, 1978; <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-46853-8">0-674-46853-8</a>.</li>
<li><cite>Numbers, R.L. (2015). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pWouCwAAQBAJ"><i>Newton's Apple and Other Myths about Science</i></a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-91547-3"><bdi>978-0-674-91547-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Pemberton, H. (1728). "A View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy". <i>The Physics Teacher</i>. <b>4</b> (1): 8–9. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1966PhTea...4....8M">1966PhTea...4....8M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.2350900">10.1119/1.2350900</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Shamos, Morris H. (1959). <a href="https://archive.org/details/greatexperiments0000unse"><i>Great Experiments in Physics</i></a>. New York: Henry Holt and Company, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-25346-6"><bdi>978-0-486-25346-6</bdi></a>.</cite></li></ul>
</div>
<h2>External links</h2>
<div><p></p><p><a href="/wiki/File:Isaac_Newton.ogg">This audio file</a> was created from a revision of this article dated 30 July 2008, and does not reflect subsequent edits.</p></div>
<h3>Writings by Newton</h3>
<ul><li><a href="http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/prism.php?id=43">Newton's works – full texts, at the Newton Project</a></li>
<li><a href="https://makingscience.royalsociety.org/s/rs/people/fst01801333">Newton's papers in the Royal Society's archives</a></li>
<li><a href="http://web.nli.org.il/sites/NLI/English/collections/Humanities/Pages/newton.aspx">The Newton Manuscripts at the National Library of Israel – the collection of all his religious writings</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/author/Newton,+Isaac,+Sir">Works by Isaac Newton</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li>
<li><a href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Newton%2C%20Isaac%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Isaac%20Newton%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Newton%2C%20Isaac%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Isaac%20Newton%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Newton%2C%20I%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Isaac%20Newton%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Newton%2C%20Isaac%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Isaac%20Newton%22%29%20OR%20%28%221642-1727%22%20AND%20Newton%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Isaac Newton</a> at <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive">Internet Archive</a></li>
<li><a href="https://librivox.org/author/2836">Works by Isaac Newton</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) </li>
<li><a href="http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/collections/newton">"Newton Papers"</a> – Cambridge Digital Library</li></ul>
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 Contents

 move to sidebar hide
 * (Top)
 * 1 Early life
 + 1.1 Early life
 + 1.2 The King's School
 + 1.3 University of Cambridge
 * 2 Work
 + 2.1 Calculus
 + 2.2 Optics
 + 2.3 Gravity
 * 3 Later life
 + 3.1 Royal Mint
 + 3.2 Knighthood
 + 3.3 Death
 * 4 Personality
 * 5 Theology
 + 5.1 Religious views
 + 5.2 Religious thought
 + 5.3 The occult
 * 6 Alchemy
 * 7 Legacy
 + 7.1 Fame
 + 7.2 Apple incident
 + 7.3 Commemorations
 * 8 The Enlightenment
 * 9 Works
 + 9.1 Published in his lifetime
 + 9.2 Published posthumously
 * 10 See also
 * 11 References
 + 11.1 Notes
 + 11.2 Citations
 + 11.3 Bibliography
 * 12 Further reading
 + 12.1 Primary
 + 12.2 Alchemy
 + 12.3 Religion
 + 12.4 Science
 * 13 External links
 + 13.1 Writings by Newton
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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 This article is about the scientist and mathematician. For the American agriculturalist, see Isaac Newton (agriculturalist).

 Sir 
 Isaac Newton 
 PRS 
 Portrait of Newton at 46 by Godfrey Kneller, 1689 
 Born 4 January 1643 [O.S. 25 December 1642][a] 
  Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth , Lincolnshire, England 
 Died 31 March 1727 (aged 84) [O.S. 20 March 1726][a] 
  Kensington, Middlesex, Great Britain 
 Resting place Westminster Abbey 
 Education Trinity College, Cambridge (M.A., 1668)[2] 
  List 
  * Newtonian mechanics 
  * universal gravitation 
  * calculus 
  * Newton's laws of motion 
  * optics 
  * binomial series 
  * Principia 
 Known for * Newton's method 
  * Newton's law of cooling 
  * Newton's identities 
  * Newton's metal 
  * Newton line 
  * Newton–Gauss line 
  * Newtonian fluid 
  * Newton's rings 
  * Standing on the shoulders of giants 
  * List of all other works and concepts 
 Awards * FRS (1672)[3] 
  * Knight Bachelor (1705) 
 Scientific career 
  * Physics 
  * natural philosophy 
  * alchemy 
 Fields * theology 
  * mathematics 
  * astronomy 
  * economics 
  * University of Cambridge 
 Institutions * Royal Society 
  * Royal Mint 
 Academic advisors * Isaac Barrow[4] 
  * Benjamin Pulleyn[5][6] 
 Notable students * Roger Cotes 
  * William Whiston 
  * Aristotle 
  * Boyle[7] 
  * Descartes 
  * Galileo 
 Influences * Huygens[8][9] 
  * Kepler 
  * Locke[10][11] 
  * Maimonides[12] 
  * Street[13] 
  List 
  * In the natural sciences and mathematics 
  + 
  o Boole 
  o Einstein 
  o Euler 
  o Clairaut 
  o Châtelet 
  o 's Gravesande 
  o Gregory 
  o Hamilton 
  o Jurin 
  o Laplace 
  o Maxwell 
  o Maclaurin 
  o Routh 
 Influenced o Smith 
  o Newtonianism 
  In the humanities 
  + 
  o Bentley 
  o Berkeley 
  o Diderot 
  o Godwin 
  o Hartley 
  o Hume 
  o Jefferson 
  o Kant 
  o Keynes 
  o Locke[10][11] 
  o Saint-Simon[14] 
  o Verri[15] 
  o Voltaire[16] 
  o Enlightenment philosophy in general
  
  
  
 Member of Parliament for the University of Cambridge
 In office 
 1689–1690 
 Preceded by Robert Brady 
 Succeeded by Edward Finch 
 In office 
 1701–1702 
 Preceded by Anthony Hammond 
 Succeeded by Arthur Annesley, 5th Earl of Anglesey 
 12th President of the Royal Society 
 In office 
 1703–1727 
 Preceded by John Somers 
 Succeeded by Hans Sloane 
 Master of the Mint 
 In office 
 1699–1727 
 1696–1699 Warden of the Mint 
 Preceded by Thomas Neale 
 Succeeded by John Conduitt 
 2nd Lucasian Professor of Mathematics 
 In office 
 1669–1702 
 Preceded by Isaac Barrow 
 Succeeded by William Whiston 
  
 Personal details 
 Political party Whig 
  
  
 Signature 
  
 

 Sir Isaac Newton PRS (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1726/27)[a] was an English mathematician, physicist, astronomer, alchemist, theologian, and author (described in his time as a "natural philosopher"). He was a key figure in the philosophical revolution known as the Enlightenment. His book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), first published in 1687, established classical mechanics. Newton also made seminal contributions to optics, and shares credit with German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz for developing infinitesimal calculus.

 In the Principia, Newton formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation that formed the dominant scientific viewpoint for centuries until it was superseded by the theory of relativity. Newton used his mathematical description of gravity to derive Kepler's laws of planetary motion, account for tides, the trajectories of comets, the precession of the equinoxes and other phenomena, eradicating doubt about the Solar System's heliocentricity. He demonstrated that the motion of objects on Earth and celestial bodies could be accounted for by the same principles. Newton's inference that the Earth is an oblate spheroid was later confirmed by the geodetic measurements of Maupertuis, La Condamine, and others, convincing most European scientists of the superiority of Newtonian mechanics over earlier systems.

 Newton built the first practical reflecting telescope and developed a sophisticated theory of colour based on the observation that a prism separates white light into the colours of the visible spectrum. His work on light was collected in his highly influential book Opticks, published in 1704. He also formulated an empirical law of cooling, made the first theoretical calculation of the speed of sound, and introduced the notion of a Newtonian fluid. In addition to his work on calculus, as a mathematician Newton contributed to the study of power series, generalised the binomial theorem to non-integer exponents, developed a method for approximating the roots of a function, and classified most of the cubic plane curves.

 Newton was a fellow of Trinity College and the second Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge. He was a devout but unorthodox Christian who privately rejected the doctrine of the Trinity. He refused to take holy orders in the Church of England, unlike most members of the Cambridge faculty of the day. Beyond his work on the mathematical sciences, Newton dedicated much of his time to the study of alchemy and biblical chronology, but most of his work in those areas remained unpublished until long after his death. Politically and personally tied to the Whig party, Newton served two brief terms as Member of Parliament for the University of Cambridge, in 1689–1690 and 1701–1702. He was knighted by Queen Anne in 1705 and spent the last three decades of his life in London, serving as Warden (1696–1699) and Master (1699–1727) of the Royal Mint, as well as president of the Royal Society (1703–1727).

 Early life

 Main article: Early life of Isaac Newton
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 Early life

 Isaac Newton was born (according to the Julian calendar in use in England at the time) on Christmas Day, 25 December 1642 (NS 4 January 1643[a]), "an hour or two after midnight",[17] at Woolsthorpe Manor in Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, a hamlet in the county of Lincolnshire. His father, also named Isaac Newton, had died three months before. Born prematurely, Newton was a small child; his mother Hannah Ayscough reportedly said that he could have fit inside a quart mug.[18] When Newton was three, his mother remarried and went to live with her new husband, the Reverend Barnabas Smith, leaving her son in the care of his maternal grandmother, Margery Ayscough (née Blythe). Newton disliked his stepfather and maintained some enmity towards his mother for marrying him, as revealed by this entry in a list of sins committed up to the age of 19: "Threatening my father and mother Smith to burn them and the house over them."[19] Newton's mother had three children (Mary, Benjamin, and Hannah) from her second marriage.[20]

 The King's School

 From the age of about twelve until he was seventeen, Newton was educated at The King's School in Grantham, which taught Latin and Ancient Greek and probably imparted a significant foundation of mathematics.[21] He was removed from school and returned to Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth by October 1659. His mother, widowed for the second time, attempted to make him a farmer, an occupation he hated.[22] Henry Stokes, master at The King's School, persuaded his mother to send him back to school. Motivated partly by a desire for revenge against a schoolyard bully, he became the top-ranked student,[23] distinguishing himself mainly by building sundials and models of windmills.[24]

 University of Cambridge

 In June 1661, Newton was admitted to Trinity College at the University of Cambridge. His uncle Reverend William Ayscough, who had studied at Cambridge, recommended him to the university. At Cambridge, Newton started as a subsizar, paying his way by performing valet duties until he was awarded a scholarship in 1664, which covered his university costs for four more years until the completion of his MA.[25] At the time, Cambridge's teachings were based on those of Aristotle, whom Newton read along with then more modern philosophers, including Descartes and astronomers such as Galileo Galilei and Thomas Street. He set down in his notebook a series of "Quaestiones" about mechanical philosophy as he found it. In 1665, he discovered the generalised binomial theorem and began to develop a mathematical theory that later became calculus. Soon after Newton obtained his BA degree at Cambridge in August 1665, the university temporarily closed as a precaution against the Great Plague. Although he had been undistinguished as a Cambridge student,[26] Newton's private studies at his home in Woolsthorpe over the next two years saw the development of his theories on calculus,[27] optics, and the law of gravitation.

 In April 1667, Newton returned to the University of Cambridge, and in October he was elected as a fellow of Trinity.[28][29] Fellows were required to be ordained as priests, although this was not enforced in the restoration years and an assertion of conformity to the Church of England was sufficient. However, by 1675 the issue could not be avoided and by then his unconventional views stood in the way.[30] Nevertheless, Newton managed to avoid it by means of special permission from Charles II.

 His academic work impressed the Lucasian professor Isaac Barrow, who was anxious to develop his own religious and administrative potential (he became master of Trinity College two years later); in 1669, Newton succeeded him, only one year after receiving his MA. Newton was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1672.[3]

 Work

 Calculus

 Newton's work has been said "to distinctly advance every branch of mathematics then studied".[31] His work on the subject, usually referred to as fluxions or calculus, seen in a manuscript of October 1666, is now published among Newton's mathematical papers.[32] His work De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas, sent by Isaac Barrow to John Collins in June 1669, was identified by Barrow in a letter sent to Collins that August as the work "of an extraordinary genius and proficiency in these things".[33]

 Newton later became involved in a dispute with Leibniz over priority in the development of calculus (the Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy). Most modern historians believe that Newton and Leibniz developed calculus independently, although with very different mathematical notations. Occasionally it has been suggested that Newton published almost nothing about it until 1693, and did not give a full account until 1704, while Leibniz began publishing a full account of his methods in 1684. Leibniz's notation and "differential Method", nowadays recognised as much more convenient notations, were adopted by continental European mathematicians, and after 1820 or so, also by British mathematicians.[ citation needed ]

 His work extensively uses calculus in geometric form based on limiting values of the ratios of vanishingly small quantities: in the Principia itself, Newton gave demonstration of this under the name of "the method of first and last ratios"[34] and explained why he put his expositions in this form,[35] remarking also that "hereby the same thing is performed as by the method of indivisibles."[36]

 Because of this, the Principia has been called "a book dense with the theory and application of the infinitesimal calculus" in modern times[37] and in Newton's time "nearly all of it is of this calculus."[38] His use of methods involving "one or more orders of the infinitesimally small" is present in his De motu corporum in gyrum of 1684[39] and in his papers on motion "during the two decades preceding 1684".[40]

 Newton in 1702 by Godfrey Kneller

 Newton had been reluctant to publish his calculus because he feared controversy and criticism.[41] He was close to the Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier. In 1691, Duillier started to write a new version of Newton's Principia, and corresponded with Leibniz.[42] In 1693, the relationship between Duillier and Newton deteriorated and the book was never completed.[43]

 Starting in 1699, other members[ who? ] of the Royal Society accused Leibniz of plagiarism.[44] The dispute then broke out in full force in 1711 when the Royal Society proclaimed in a study that it was Newton who was the true discoverer and labelled Leibniz a fraud; it was later found that Newton wrote the study's concluding remarks on Leibniz. Thus began the bitter controversy which marred the lives of both Newton and Leibniz until the latter's death in 1716.[45]

 Newton is generally credited with the generalised binomial theorem, valid for any exponent. He discovered Newton's identities, Newton's method, classified cubic plane curves (polynomials of degree three in two variables), made substantial contributions to the theory of finite differences, and was the first to use fractional indices and to employ coordinate geometry to derive solutions to Diophantine equations. He approximated partial sums of the harmonic series by logarithms (a precursor to Euler's summation formula) and was the first to use power series with confidence and to revert power series. Newton's work on infinite series was inspired by Simon Stevin's decimals.[46]

 When Newton received his MA and became a Fellow of the "College of the Holy and Undivided Trinity" in 1667, he made the commitment that "I will either set Theology as the object of my studies and will take holy orders when the time prescribed by these statutes [7 years] arrives, or I will resign from the college."[47] Up until this point he had not thought much about religion and had twice signed his agreement to the thirty-nine articles, the basis of Church of England doctrine.

 He was appointed Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in 1669, on Barrow's recommendation. During that time, any Fellow of a college at Cambridge or Oxford was required to take holy orders and become an ordained Anglican priest. However, the terms of the Lucasian professorship required that the holder not be active in the church – presumably,[ weasel words ] so as to have more time for science. Newton argued that this should exempt him from the ordination requirement, and Charles II, whose permission was needed, accepted this argument; thus, a conflict between Newton's religious views and Anglican orthodoxy was averted.[48]

 Optics

 Replica of Newton's second reflecting telescope, which he presented to the Royal Society in 1672[49]

 In 1666, Newton observed that the spectrum of colours exiting a prism in the position of minimum deviation is oblong, even when the light ray entering the prism is circular, which is to say, the prism refracts different colours by different angles.[50][51] This led him to conclude that colour is a property intrinsic to light – a point which had, until then, been a matter of debate.

 From 1670 to 1672, Newton lectured on optics.[52] During this period he investigated the refraction of light, demonstrating that the multicoloured image produced by a prism, which he named a spectrum, could be recomposed into white light by a lens and a second prism.[53] Modern scholarship has revealed that Newton's analysis and resynthesis of white light owes a debt to corpuscular alchemy.[54]

 He showed that coloured light does not change its properties by separating out a coloured beam and shining it on various objects, and that regardless of whether reflected, scattered, or transmitted, the light remains the same colour. Thus, he observed that colour is the result of objects interacting with already-coloured light rather than objects generating the colour themselves. This is known as Newton's theory of colour.[55]

 Illustration of a dispersive prism separating white light into the colours of the spectrum, as discovered by Newton

 From this work, he concluded that the lens of any refracting telescope would suffer from the dispersion of light into colours (chromatic aberration). As a proof of the concept, he constructed a telescope using reflective mirrors instead of lenses as the objective to bypass that problem.[56][57] Building the design, the first known functional reflecting telescope, today known as a Newtonian telescope,[57] involved solving the problem of a suitable mirror material and shaping technique. Newton ground his own mirrors out of a custom composition of highly reflective speculum metal, using Newton's rings to judge the quality of the optics for his telescopes. In late 1668,[58] he was able to produce this first reflecting telescope. It was about eight inches long and it gave a clearer and larger image. In 1671, the Royal Society asked for a demonstration of his reflecting telescope.[59] Their interest encouraged him to publish his notes, Of Colours,[60] which he later expanded into the work Opticks. When Robert Hooke criticised some of Newton's ideas, Newton was so offended that he withdrew from public debate. Newton and Hooke had brief exchanges in 1679–80, when Hooke, appointed to manage the Royal Society's correspondence, opened up a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions,[61] which had the effect of stimulating Newton to work out a proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector. But the two men remained generally on poor terms until Hooke's death.[62]

 Facsimile of a 1682 letter from Newton to William Briggs, commenting on Briggs' A New Theory of Vision

 Newton argued that light is composed of particles or corpuscles, which were refracted by accelerating into a denser medium. He verged on soundlike waves to explain the repeated pattern of reflection and transmission by thin films (Opticks Bk.II, Props. 12), but still retained his theory of 'fits' that disposed corpuscles to be reflected or transmitted (Props.13). However, later physicists favoured a purely wavelike explanation of light to account for the interference patterns and the general phenomenon of diffraction. Today's quantum mechanics, photons, and the idea of wave–particle duality bear only a minor resemblance to Newton's understanding of light.

 In his Hypothesis of Light of 1675, Newton posited the existence of the ether to transmit forces between particles. The contact with the Cambridge Platonist philosopher Henry More revived his interest in alchemy.[63] He replaced the ether with occult forces based on Hermetic ideas of attraction and repulsion between particles. John Maynard Keynes, who acquired many of Newton's writings on alchemy, stated that "Newton was not the first of the age of reason: He was the last of the magicians."[64] Newton's contributions to science cannot be isolated from his interest in alchemy.[63] This was at a time when there was no clear distinction between alchemy and science, and had he not relied on the occult idea of action at a distance, across a vacuum, he might not have developed his theory of gravity.

 In 1704, Newton published Opticks, in which he expounded his corpuscular theory of light. He considered light to be made up of extremely subtle corpuscles, that ordinary matter was made of grosser corpuscles and speculated that through a kind of alchemical transmutation "Are not gross Bodies and Light convertible into one another, ... and may not Bodies receive much of their Activity from the Particles of Light which enter their Composition?"[65] Newton also constructed a primitive form of a frictional electrostatic generator, using a glass globe.[66]

 In his book Opticks, Newton was the first to show a diagram using a prism as a beam expander, and also the use of multiple-prism arrays.[67] Some 278 years after Newton's discussion, multiple-prism beam expanders became central to the development of narrow-linewidth tunable lasers. Also, the use of these prismatic beam expanders led to the multiple-prism dispersion theory.[67]

 Subsequent to Newton, much has been amended. Young and Fresnel discarded Newton's particle theory in favour of Huygens' wave theory to show that colour is the visible manifestation of light's wavelength. Science also slowly came to realise the difference between perception of colour and mathematisable optics. The German poet and scientist, Goethe, could not shake the Newtonian foundation but "one hole Goethe did find in Newton's armour, ... Newton had committed himself to the doctrine that refraction without colour was impossible. He, therefore, thought that the object-glasses of telescopes must forever remain imperfect, achromatism and refraction being incompatible. This inference was proved by Dollond to be wrong."[68]

 Engraving of Portrait of Newton by John Vanderbank

 Gravity

 Further information: Writing of Principia Mathematica
 See also: Cubic plane curve
 Newton's own copy of Principia with Newton's hand-written corrections for the second edition, now housed at Wren Library at Trinity College, Cambridge

 In 1679, Newton returned to his work on celestial mechanics by considering gravitation and its effect on the orbits of planets with reference to Kepler's laws of planetary motion. This followed stimulation by a brief exchange of letters in 1679–80 with Hooke, who had been appointed to manage the Royal Society's correspondence, and who opened a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions.[61] Newton's reawakening interest in astronomical matters received further stimulus by the appearance of a comet in the winter of 1680–1681, on which he corresponded with John Flamsteed.[69] After the exchanges with Hooke, Newton worked out a proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector. Newton communicated his results to Edmond Halley and to the Royal Society in De motu corporum in gyrum, a tract written on about nine sheets which was copied into the Royal Society's Register Book in December 1684.[70] This tract contained the nucleus that Newton developed and expanded to form the Principia.

 The Principia was published on 5 July 1687 with encouragement and financial help from Halley. In this work, Newton stated the three universal laws of motion. Together, these laws describe the relationship between any object, the forces acting upon it and the resulting motion, laying the foundation for classical mechanics. They contributed to many advances during the Industrial Revolution which soon followed and were not improved upon for more than 200 years. Many of these advances continue to be the underpinnings of non-relativistic technologies in the modern world. He used the Latin word gravitas (weight) for the effect that would become known as gravity, and defined the law of universal gravitation.[71]

 In the same work, Newton presented a calculus-like method of geometrical analysis using 'first and last ratios', gave the first analytical determination (based on Boyle's law) of the speed of sound in air, inferred the oblateness of Earth's spheroidal figure, accounted for the precession of the equinoxes as a result of the Moon's gravitational attraction on the Earth's oblateness, initiated the gravitational study of the irregularities in the motion of the Moon, provided a theory for the determination of the orbits of comets, and much more.[71] Newton's biographer David Brewster reported that the complexity of applying his theory of gravity to the motion of the moon was so great it affected Newton's health: "[H]e was deprived of his appetite and sleep" during his work on the problem in 1692-3, and told the astronomer John Machin that "his head never ached but when he was studying the subject". According to Brewster Edmund Halley also told John Conduitt that when pressed to complete his analysis Newton "always replied that it made his head ache, and kept him awake so often, that he would think of it no more". [Emphasis in original][72]

 Newton made clear his heliocentric view of the Solar System—developed in a somewhat modern way because already in the mid-1680s he recognised the "deviation of the Sun" from the centre of gravity of the Solar System.[73] For Newton, it was not precisely the centre of the Sun or any other body that could be considered at rest, but rather "the common centre of gravity of the Earth, the Sun and all the Planets is to be esteem'd the Centre of the World", and this centre of gravity "either is at rest or moves uniformly forward in a right line" (Newton adopted the "at rest" alternative in view of common consent that the centre, wherever it was, was at rest).[74]

 Newton's postulate of an invisible force able to act over vast distances led to him being criticised for introducing "occult agencies" into science.[75] Later, in the second edition of the Principia (1713), Newton firmly rejected such criticisms in a concluding General Scholium, writing that it was enough that the phenomena implied a gravitational attraction, as they did; but they did not so far indicate its cause, and it was both unnecessary and improper to frame hypotheses of things that were not implied by the phenomena. (Here Newton used what became his famous expression "hypotheses non-fingo"[76]).

 With the Principia, Newton became internationally recognised.[77] He acquired a circle of admirers, including the Swiss-born mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier.[78]

 In 1710, Newton found 72 of the 78 "species" of cubic curves and categorised them into four types.[79] In 1717, and probably with Newton's help, James Stirling proved that every cubic was one of these four types. Newton also claimed that the four types could be obtained by plane projection from one of them, and this was proved in 1731, four years after his death.[80]

 Later life

 Royal Mint

 Main article: Later life of Isaac Newton
 Isaac Newton in old age in 1712, portrait by Sir James Thornhill

 In the 1690s, Newton wrote a number of religious tracts dealing with the literal and symbolic interpretation of the Bible. A manuscript Newton sent to John Locke in which he disputed the fidelity of 1 John 5:7—the Johannine Comma—and its fidelity to the original manuscripts of the New Testament, remained unpublished until 1785.[81]

 Newton was also a member of the Parliament of England for Cambridge University in 1689 and 1701, but according to some accounts his only comments were to complain about a cold draught in the chamber and request that the window be closed.[82] He was, however, noted by Cambridge diarist Abraham de la Pryme to have rebuked students who were frightening locals by claiming that a house was haunted.[83]

 Newton moved to London to take up the post of warden of the Royal Mint in 1696, a position that he had obtained through the patronage of Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax, then Chancellor of the Exchequer. He took charge of England's great recoining, trod on the toes of Lord Lucas, Governor of the Tower, and secured the job of deputy comptroller of the temporary Chester branch for Edmond Halley. Newton became perhaps the best-known Master of the Mint upon the death of Thomas Neale in 1699, a position Newton held for the last 30 years of his life.[84][85] These appointments were intended as sinecures, but Newton took them seriously. He retired from his Cambridge duties in 1701, and exercised his authority to reform the currency and punish clippers and counterfeiters.

 As Warden, and afterwards as Master, of the Royal Mint, Newton estimated that 20 percent of the coins taken in during the Great Recoinage of 1696 were counterfeit. Counterfeiting was high treason, punishable by the felon being hanged, drawn and quartered. Despite this, convicting even the most flagrant criminals could be extremely difficult, but Newton proved equal to the task.[86]

 Disguised as a habitué of bars and taverns, he gathered much of that evidence himself.[87] For all the barriers placed to prosecution, and separating the branches of government, English law still had ancient and formidable customs of authority. Newton had himself made a justice of the peace in all the home counties. A draft letter regarding the matter is included in Newton's personal first edition of Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, which he must have been amending at the time.[88] Then he conducted more than 100 cross-examinations of witnesses, informers, and suspects between June 1698 and Christmas 1699. Newton successfully prosecuted 28 coiners.[89]

 Coat of arms of the Newton family of Great Gonerby, Lincolnshire, afterwards used by Sir Isaac[90]

 Newton was made president of the Royal Society in 1703 and an associate of the French Académie des Sciences. In his position at the Royal Society, Newton made an enemy of John Flamsteed, the Astronomer Royal, by prematurely publishing Flamsteed's Historia Coelestis Britannica, which Newton had used in his studies.[91]

 Knighthood

 In April 1705, Queen Anne knighted Newton during a royal visit to Trinity College, Cambridge. The knighthood is likely to have been motivated by political considerations connected with the parliamentary election in May 1705, rather than any recognition of Newton's scientific work or services as Master of the Mint.[92] Newton was the second scientist to be knighted, after Francis Bacon.[93]

 As a result of a report written by Newton on 21 September 1717 to the Lords Commissioners of His Majesty's Treasury, the bimetallic relationship between gold coins and silver coins was changed by royal proclamation on 22 December 1717, forbidding the exchange of gold guineas for more than 21 silver shillings.[94] This inadvertently resulted in a silver shortage as silver coins were used to pay for imports, while exports were paid for in gold, effectively moving Britain from the silver standard to its first gold standard. It is a matter of debate as to whether he intended to do this or not.[95] It has been argued that Newton conceived of his work at the Mint as a continuation of his alchemical work.[96]

 Newton was invested in the South Sea Company and lost some £20,000 (£4.4 million in 2020[97]) when it collapsed in around 1720.[98]

 Toward the end of his life, Newton took up residence at Cranbury Park, near Winchester, with his niece and her husband, until his death.[99] His half-niece, Catherine Barton,[100] served as his hostess in social affairs at his house on Jermyn Street in London; he was her "very loving Uncle",[101] according to his letter to her when she was recovering from smallpox.

 Death

 Newton died in his sleep in London on 20 March 1727 (OS 20 March 1726; NS 31 March 1727).[a] He was given a ceremonial funeral, attended by nobles, scientists, and philosophers, and was buried in Westminster Abbey among kings and queens. He is also the first scientist to be buried in the abbey.[102] Voltaire may have been present at his funeral.[103] A bachelor, he had divested much of his estate to relatives during his last years, and died intestate.[104] His papers went to John Conduitt and Catherine Barton.[105]

 After his death, Newton's hair was examined and found to contain mercury, probably resulting from his alchemical pursuits. Mercury poisoning could explain Newton's eccentricity in late life.[104]

 Personality

 Although it was claimed that he was once engaged,[b] Newton never married. The French writer and philosopher Voltaire, who was in London at the time of Newton's funeral, said that he "was never sensible to any passion, was not subject to the common frailties of mankind, nor had any commerce with women—a circumstance which was assured me by the physician and surgeon who attended him in his last moments".[107] There exists a widespread belief that Newton died a virgin, and writers as diverse as mathematician Charles Hutton,[108] economist John Maynard Keynes,[109] and physicist Carl Sagan each have commented on it.[110]

 Newton had a close friendship with the Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, who he met in London around 1689[78]—some of their correspondence has survived.[111][112] Their relationship came to an abrupt and unexplained end in 1693, and at the same time Newton suffered a nervous breakdown,[113] which included sending wild accusatory letters to his friends Samuel Pepys and John Locke. His note to the latter included the charge that Locke "endeavoured to embroil me with woemen".[114]

 Newton was relatively modest about his achievements, writing in a letter to Robert Hooke in February 1676, "If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of giants."[115] Two writers think that the sentence, written at a time when Newton and Hooke were in dispute over optical discoveries, was an oblique attack on Hooke (said to have been short and hunchbacked), rather than—or in addition to—a statement of modesty.[116][117] On the other hand, the widely known proverb about standing on the shoulders of giants, published among others by seventeenth-century poet George Herbert (a former orator of the University of Cambridge and fellow of Trinity College) in his Jacula Prudentum (1651), had as its main point that "a dwarf on a giant's shoulders sees farther of the two", and so its effect as an analogy would place Newton himself rather than Hooke as the 'dwarf'.

 In a later memoir, Newton wrote, "I do not know what I may appear to the world, but to myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the sea-shore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me."[118]

 In 2015, Steven Weinberg, a Nobel laureate in physics, called Newton "a nasty antagonist" and "a bad man to have as an enemy",[119] noting Newton's attitude towards Robert Hooke and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.

 It has been suggested by some scientists and clinicians that, based on these and other traits along with his profound power of concentration, that Newton may have had an undiagnosed form of high-functioning autism, now properly known as ASD1 within autism spectrum; formerly known as Asperger syndrome.[120][121][122]

 Theology

 Religious views

 Main article: Religious views of Isaac Newton

 Although born into an Anglican family, by his thirties Newton held a Christian faith that, had it been made public, would not have been considered orthodox by mainstream Christianity,[123] with one historian labelling him a heretic.[124]

 By 1672, he had started to record his theological researches in notebooks which he showed to no one and which have only recently[ when? ] been examined. They demonstrate an extensive knowledge of early Church writings and show that in the conflict between Athanasius and Arius which defined the Creed, he took the side of Arius, the loser, who rejected the conventional view of the Trinity. Newton "recognized Christ as a divine mediator between God and man, who was subordinate to the Father who created him."[125] He was especially interested in prophecy, but for him, "the great apostasy was trinitarianism."[126]

 Newton tried unsuccessfully to obtain one of the two fellowships that exempted the holder from the ordination requirement. At the last moment in 1675 he received a dispensation from the government that excused him and all future holders of the Lucasian chair.[127]

 In Newton's eyes, worshipping Christ as God was idolatry, to him the fundamental sin.[128] In 1999, historian Stephen D. Snobelen wrote, "Isaac Newton was a heretic. But ... he never made a public declaration of his private faith—which the orthodox would have deemed extremely radical. He hid his faith so well that scholars are still unraveling his personal beliefs."[124] Snobelen concludes that Newton was at least a Socinian sympathiser (he owned and had thoroughly read at least eight Socinian books), possibly an Arian and almost certainly an anti-trinitarian.[124]

 The view that Newton was Semi-Arian has lost support now that scholars have investigated Newton's theological papers, and now most scholars identify Newton as an Antitrinitarian monotheist.[124][129]

 Newton (1795, detail) by William Blake. Newton is depicted critically as a "divine geometer".[130]

 Although the laws of motion and universal gravitation became Newton's best-known discoveries, he warned against using them to view the Universe as a mere machine, as if akin to a great clock. He said, "So then gravity may put the planets into motion, but without the Divine Power it could never put them into such a circulating motion, as they have about the sun".[131]

 Along with his scientific fame, Newton's studies of the Bible and of the early Church Fathers were also noteworthy. Newton wrote works on textual criticism, most notably An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture and Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel, and the Apocalypse of St. John.[132] He placed the crucifixion of Jesus Christ at 3 April, AD 33, which agrees with one traditionally accepted date.[133]

 He believed in a rationally immanent world, but he rejected the hylozoism implicit in Leibniz and Baruch Spinoza. The ordered and dynamically informed Universe could be understood, and must be understood, by an active reason. In his correspondence, Newton claimed that in writing the Principia "I had an eye upon such Principles as might work with considering men for the belief of a Deity".[134] He saw evidence of design in the system of the world: "Such a wonderful uniformity in the planetary system must be allowed the effect of choice". But Newton insisted that divine intervention would eventually be required to reform the system, due to the slow growth of instabilities.[135] For this, Leibniz lampooned him: "God Almighty wants to wind up his watch from time to time: otherwise it would cease to move. He had not, it seems, sufficient foresight to make it a perpetual motion."[136]

 Newton's position was vigorously defended by his follower Samuel Clarke in a famous correspondence. A century later, Pierre-Simon Laplace's work Celestial Mechanics had a natural explanation for why the planet orbits do not require periodic divine intervention.[137] The contrast between Laplace's mechanistic worldview and Newton's one is the most strident considering the famous answer which the French scientist gave Napoleon, who had criticised him for the absence of the Creator in the Mécanique céleste: "Sire, j'ai pu me passer de cette hypothèse" ("Sir, I didn't need this hypothesis").[138]

 Scholars long debated whether Newton disputed the doctrine of the Trinity. His first biographer, David Brewster, who compiled his manuscripts, interpreted Newton as questioning the veracity of some passages used to support the Trinity, but never denying the doctrine of the Trinity as such.[139] In the twentieth century, encrypted manuscripts written by Newton and bought by John Maynard Keynes (among others) were deciphered[64] and it became known that Newton did indeed reject Trinitarianism.[124]

 Religious thought

 Newton and Robert Boyle's approach to the mechanical philosophy was promoted by rationalist pamphleteers as a viable alternative to the pantheists and enthusiasts, and was accepted hesitantly by orthodox preachers as well as dissident preachers like the latitudinarians.[140] The clarity and simplicity of science was seen as a way to combat the emotional and metaphysical superlatives of both superstitious enthusiasm and the threat of atheism,[141] and at the same time, the second wave of English deists used Newton's discoveries to demonstrate the possibility of a "Natural Religion".

 The attacks made against pre-Enlightenment "magical thinking", and the mystical elements of Christianity, were given their foundation with Boyle's mechanical conception of the universe. Newton gave Boyle's ideas their completion through mathematical proofs and, perhaps more importantly, was very successful in popularising them.[142]

 The occult

 See also: Isaac Newton's occult studies and eschatology

 In a manuscript he wrote in 1704 (never intended to be published), he mentions the date of 2060, but it is not given as a date for the end of days. It has been falsely reported as a prediction. The passage is clear when the date is read in context. He was against date setting for the end of days, concerned that this would put Christianity into disrepute.[143]

 So then the time times & half a time [sic] are 42 months or 1260 days or three years & an half, recconing twelve months to a year & 30 days to a month as was done in the Calender [sic] of the primitive year. And the days of short lived Beasts being put for the years of [long-]lived kingdoms the period of 1260 days, if dated from the complete conquest of the three kings A.C. 800, will end 2060. It may end later, but I see no reason for its ending sooner.[144]
 This I mention not to assert when the time of the end shall be, but to put a stop to the rash conjectures of fanciful men who are frequently predicting the time of the end, and by doing so bring the sacred prophesies into discredit as often as their predictions fail. Christ comes as a thief in the night, and it is not for us to know the times and seasons which God hath put into his own breast.[143]

 Alchemy

 In the character of Morton Opperly in "Poor Superman" (1951), speculative fiction author Fritz Leiber says of Newton, "Everyone knows Newton as the great scientist. Few remember that he spent half his life muddling with alchemy, looking for the philosopher's stone. That was the pebble by the seashore he really wanted to find."[145]

 Of an estimated ten million words of writing in Newton's papers, about one million deal with alchemy. Many of Newton's writings on alchemy are copies of other manuscripts, with his own annotations.[105] Alchemical texts mix artisanal knowledge with philosophical speculation, often hidden behind layers of wordplay, allegory, and imagery to protect craft secrets.[146] Some of the content contained in Newton's papers could have been considered heretical by the church.[105]

 In 1888, after spending sixteen years cataloguing Newton's papers, Cambridge University kept a small number and returned the rest to the Earl of Portsmouth. In 1936, a descendant offered the papers for sale at Sotheby's.[147] The collection was broken up and sold for a total of about £9,000.[148] John Maynard Keynes was one of about three dozen bidders who obtained part of the collection at auction. Keynes went on to reassemble an estimated half of Newton's collection of papers on alchemy before donating his collection to Cambridge University in 1946.[105][147][149]

 All of Newton's known writings on alchemy are currently being put online in a project undertaken by Indiana University: "The Chymistry of Isaac Newton"[150] and summarised in a book.[151][152]

 Newton's fundamental contributions to science include the quantification of gravitational attraction, the discovery that white light is actually a mixture of immutable spectral colors, and the formulation of the calculus. Yet there is another, more mysterious side to Newton that is imperfectly known, a realm of activity that spanned some thirty years of his life, although he kept it largely hidden from his contemporaries and colleagues. We refer to Newton's involvement in the discipline of alchemy, or as it was often called in seventeenth-century England, "chymistry."[150]

 Charles Coulston Gillispie disputes that Newton ever practised alchemy, saying that "his chemistry was in the spirit of Boyle's corpuscular philosophy."[153]

 In June 2020, two unpublished pages of Newton's notes on Jan Baptist van Helmont's book on plague, De Peste,[154] were being auctioned online by Bonhams. Newton's analysis of this book, which he made in Cambridge while protecting himself from London's 1665–1666 infection, is the most substantial written statement he is known to have made about the plague, according to Bonhams. As far as the therapy is concerned, Newton writes that "the best is a toad suspended by the legs in a chimney for three days, which at last vomited up earth with various insects in it, on to a dish of yellow wax, and shortly after died. Combining powdered toad with the excretions and serum made into lozenges and worn about the affected area drove away the contagion and drew out the poison".[155]

 Legacy

 See also: Isaac Newton in popular culture

 Fame

 Newton's tomb monument in Westminster Abbey by Rysbrack

 The mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange said that Newton was the greatest genius who ever lived, and once added that Newton was also "the most fortunate, for we cannot find more than once a system of the world to establish."[156] English poet Alexander Pope wrote the famous epitaph:

 Nature, and Nature's laws lay hid in night.
 God said, Let Newton be! and all was light.

 But this was not allowed to be inscribed in the monument. The epitaph in the monument is as follows:[157]

 H. S. E. ISAACUS NEWTON Eques Auratus, / Qui, animi vi prope divinâ, / Planetarum Motus, Figuras, / Cometarum semitas, Oceanique Aestus. Suâ Mathesi facem praeferente / Primus demonstravit: / Radiorum Lucis dissimilitudines, / Colorumque inde nascentium proprietates, / Quas nemo antea vel suspicatus erat, pervestigavit. / Naturae, Antiquitatis, S. Scripturae, / Sedulus, sagax, fidus Interpres / Dei O. M. Majestatem Philosophiâ asseruit, / Evangelij Simplicitatem Moribus expressit. / Sibi gratulentur Mortales, / Tale tantumque exstitisse / HUMANI GENERIS DECUS. / NAT. XXV DEC. A.D. MDCXLII. OBIIT. XX. MAR. MDCCXXVI,

 which can be translated as follows:[157]

 Here is buried Isaac Newton, Knight, who by a strength of mind almost divine, and mathematical principles peculiarly his own, explored the course and figures of the planets, the paths of comets, the tides of the sea, the dissimilarities in rays of light, and, what no other scholar has previously imagined, the properties of the colours thus produced. Diligent, sagacious and faithful, in his expositions of nature, antiquity and the holy Scriptures, he vindicated by his philosophy the majesty of God mighty and good, and expressed the simplicity of the Gospel in his manners. Mortals rejoice that there has existed such and so great an ornament of the human race! He was born on 25th December 1642, and died on 20th March 1726.

 In a 2005 survey of members of Britain's Royal Society (formerly headed by Newton) asking who had the greater effect on the history of science, Newton or Albert Einstein, the members deemed Newton to have made the greater overall contribution.[158] In 1999, an opinion poll of 100 of the day's leading physicists voted Einstein the "greatest physicist ever," with Newton the runner-up, while a parallel survey of rank-and-file physicists by the site PhysicsWeb gave the top spot to Newton.[159] Einstein kept a picture of Newton on his study wall alongside ones of Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell.[160]

 The SI derived unit of force is named the newton in his honour.

 Woolsthorpe Manor is a Grade I listed building by Historic England through being his birthplace and "where he discovered gravity and developed his theories regarding the refraction of light".[161]

 In 1816, a tooth said to have belonged to Newton was sold for £730[162] ( US$ 3,633) in London to an aristocrat who had it set in a ring.[163] Guinness World Records 2002 classified it as the most valuable tooth, which would value approximately £25,000 ( US$ 35,700) in late 2001.[163] Who bought it and who currently has it has not been disclosed.

 Apple incident

 Reputed descendants of Newton's apple tree at (from top to bottom): Trinity College, Cambridge, the Cambridge University Botanic Garden, and the Instituto Balseiro library garden in Argentina

 Newton himself often told the story that he was inspired to formulate his theory of gravitation by watching the fall of an apple from a tree.[164][165] The story is believed to have passed into popular knowledge after being related by Catherine Barton, Newton's niece, to Voltaire.[166] Voltaire then wrote in his Essay on Epic Poetry (1727), "Sir Isaac Newton walking in his gardens, had the first thought of his system of gravitation, upon seeing an apple falling from a tree."[167][168]

 Although it has been said that the apple story is a myth and that he did not arrive at his theory of gravity at any single moment,[169] acquaintances of Newton (such as William Stukeley, whose manuscript account of 1752 has been made available by the Royal Society) do in fact confirm the incident, though not the apocryphal version that the apple actually hit Newton's head. Stukeley recorded in his Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life a conversation with Newton in Kensington on 15 April 1726:[170][171][172]

 we went into the garden, & drank thea under the shade of some appletrees, only he, & myself. amidst other discourse, he told me, he was just in the same situation, as when formerly, the notion of gravitation came into his mind. "why should that apple always descend perpendicularly to the ground," thought he to him self: occasion'd by the fall of an apple, as he sat in a comtemplative mood: "why should it not go sideways, or upwards? but constantly to the earths centre? assuredly, the reason is, that the earth draws it. there must be a drawing power in matter. & the sum of the drawing power in the matter of the earth must be in the earths center, not in any side of the earth. therefore dos this apple fall perpendicularly, or toward the center. if matter thus draws matter; it must be in proportion of its quantity. therefore the apple draws the earth, as well as the earth draws the apple."

 John Conduitt, Newton's assistant at the Royal Mint and husband of Newton's niece, also described the event when he wrote about Newton's life:[173]

 In the year 1666 he retired again from Cambridge to his mother in Lincolnshire. Whilst he was pensively meandering in a garden it came into his thought that the power of gravity (which brought an apple from a tree to the ground) was not limited to a certain distance from earth, but that this power must extend much further than was usually thought. Why not as high as the Moon said he to himself & if so, that must influence her motion & perhaps retain her in her orbit, whereupon he fell a calculating what would be the effect of that supposition.

 A wood engraving of Newton's famous steps under the apple tree

 It is known from his notebooks that Newton was grappling in the late 1660s with the idea that terrestrial gravity extends, in an inverse-square proportion, to the Moon; however, it took him two decades to develop the full-fledged theory.[174] The question was not whether gravity existed, but whether it extended so far from Earth that it could also be the force holding the Moon to its orbit. Newton showed that if the force decreased as the inverse square of the distance, one could indeed calculate the Moon's orbital period, and get good agreement. He guessed the same force was responsible for other orbital motions, and hence named it "universal gravitation".

 Various trees are claimed to be "the" apple tree which Newton describes. The King's School, Grantham claims that the tree was purchased by the school, uprooted and transported to the headmaster's garden some years later. The staff of the (now) National Trust-owned Woolsthorpe Manor dispute this, and claim that a tree present in their gardens is the one described by Newton. A descendant of the original tree[175] can be seen growing outside the main gate of Trinity College, Cambridge, below the room Newton lived in when he studied there. The National Fruit Collection at Brogdale in Kent[176] can supply grafts from their tree, which appears identical to Flower of Kent, a coarse-fleshed cooking variety.[177]

 Commemorations

 Newton statue on display at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History

 Newton's monument (1731) can be seen in Westminster Abbey, at the north of the entrance to the choir against the choir screen, near his tomb. It was executed by the sculptor Michael Rysbrack (1694–1770) in white and grey marble with design by the architect William Kent.[178] The monument features a figure of Newton reclining on top of a sarcophagus, his right elbow resting on several of his great books and his left hand pointing to a scroll with a mathematical design. Above him is a pyramid and a celestial globe showing the signs of the Zodiac and the path of the comet of 1680. A relief panel depicts putti using instruments such as a telescope and prism.[179] The Latin inscription on the base translates as:

 Here is buried Isaac Newton, Knight, who by a strength of mind almost divine, and mathematical principles peculiarly his own, explored the course and figures of the planets, the paths of comets, the tides of the sea, the dissimilarities in rays of light, and, what no other scholar has previously imagined, the properties of the colours thus produced. Diligent, sagacious and faithful, in his expositions of nature, antiquity and the holy Scriptures, he vindicated by his philosophy the majesty of God mighty and good, and expressed the simplicity of the Gospel in his manners. Mortals rejoice that there has existed such and so great an ornament of the human race! He was born on 25 December 1642, and died on 20 March 1726/7.

 —Translation from G. L. Smyth, The Monuments and Genii of St. Paul's Cathedral, and of Westminster Abbey (1826), ii, 703–704.[179]

 From 1978 until 1988, an image of Newton designed by Harry Ecclestone appeared on Series D £1 banknotes issued by the Bank of England (the last £1 notes to be issued by the Bank of England). Newton was shown on the reverse of the notes holding a book and accompanied by a telescope, a prism and a map of the Solar System.[180]

 A statue of Isaac Newton, looking at an apple at his feet, can be seen at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History. A large bronze statue, Newton, after William Blake, by Eduardo Paolozzi, dated 1995 and inspired by Blake's etching, dominates the piazza of the British Library in London. A bronze statue of Newton was erected in 1858 in the centre of Grantham where he went to school, prominently standing in front of Grantham Guildhall.

 The still-surviving farmhouse at Woolsthorpe By Colsterworth is a Grade I listed building by Historic England through being his birthplace and "where he discovered gravity and developed his theories regarding the refraction of light".[161]

 The Enlightenment

 Enlightenment philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessors—Galileo, Boyle, and Newton principally—as the guides and guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of nature and natural law to every physical and social field of the day. In this respect, the lessons of history and the social structures built upon it could be discarded.[181]

 It is held by European philosophers of the Enlightenment and by historians of the Enlightenment that Newton's publication of the Principia was a turning point in the Scientific Revolution and started the Enlightenment. It was Newton's conception of the universe based upon natural and rationally understandable laws that became one of the seeds for Enlightenment ideology.[182] Locke and Voltaire applied concepts of natural law to political systems advocating intrinsic rights; the physiocrats and Adam Smith applied natural conceptions of psychology and self-interest to economic systems; and sociologists criticised the current social order for trying to fit history into natural models of progress. Monboddo and Samuel Clarke resisted elements of Newton's work, but eventually rationalised it to conform with their strong religious views of nature.

 Works

 See also: Writing of Principia Mathematica

 Published in his lifetime

 * De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas (1669, published 1711)[183]
 * Of Natures Obvious Laws & Processes in Vegetation (unpublished, c. 1671–75)[184]
 * De motu corporum in gyrum (1684)[185]
 * Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687)[186]
 * Scala graduum Caloris. Calorum Descriptiones & signa (1701)[187]
 * Opticks (1704)[188]
 * Reports as Master of the Mint (1701–1725)[189]
 * Arithmetica Universalis (1707)[189]

 Published posthumously

 * De mundi systemate (The System of the World) (1728)[189]
 * Optical Lectures (1728)[189]
 * The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended (1728)[189]
 * Observations on Daniel and The Apocalypse of St. John (1733)[189]
 * Method of Fluxions (1671, published 1736)[190]
 * An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture (1754)[189]

 See also

 * Elements of the Philosophy of Newton, a book by Voltaire
 * List of multiple discoveries: seventeenth century
 * List of things named after Isaac Newton

 References

 Notes

 1. ^ a b c d e During Newton's lifetime, two calendars were in use in Europe: the Julian (" Old Style ") calendar in Protestant and Orthodox regions, including Britain; and the Gregorian (" New Style ") calendar in Roman Catholic Europe. At Newton's birth, Gregorian dates were ten days ahead of Julian dates; thus, his birth is recorded as taking place on 25 December 1642 Old Style, but it can be converted to a New Style (modern) date of 4 January 1643. By the time of his death, the difference between the calendars had increased to eleven days. Moreover, he died in the period after the start of the New Style year on 1 January but before that of the Old Style new year on 25 March. His death occurred on 20 March 1726, according to the Old Style calendar, but the year is usually adjusted to 1727. A full conversion to New Style gives the date 31 March 1727. [1][ self-published source? ]
 2. ^ This claim was made by William Stukeley in 1727, in a letter about Newton written to Richard Mead . Charles Hutton , who in the late eighteenth century collected oral traditions about earlier scientists, declared that there "do not appear to be any sufficient reason for his never marrying, if he had an inclination so to do. It is much more likely that he had a constitutional indifference to the state, and even to the sex in general." [106]

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 147. ^ a b Kean, Sam (2011). "Newton, The Last Magician". Humanities. 32 (1). Archived from the original on 13 April 2016 . Retrieved 25 April 2016 .
 148. ^ Greshko, Michael (4 April 2016). "Isaac Newton's Lost Alchemy Recipe Rediscovered". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 26 April 2016 . Retrieved 25 April 2016 .
 149. ^ Dry, Sarah (2014). The Newton papers : the strange and true odyssey of Isaac Newton's manuscripts. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-995104-8.
 150. ^ a b "The Chymistry of Isaac Newton". Indiana University, Bloomington. Archived from the original on 26 April 2016 . Retrieved 25 April 2016 .
 151. ^ Levitin, Dimitri (March 2019). "Going for Gold". Literary Review. Archived from the original on 7 March 2019 . Retrieved 6 March 2019 .
 152. ^ Newman, William R (2018). Newton the Alchemist Science, Enigma, and the Quest for Nature's "Secret Fire". Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-17487-7. Archived from the original on 2 April 2019 . Retrieved 6 March 2019 .
 153. ^ Gillispie, Charles Coulston (1960). The Edge of Objectivity: An Essay in the History of Scientific Ideas. Princeton University Press. p. 122. ISBN 0-691-02350-6.
 154. ^ Van Helmont, Iohannis Baptistae, Opuscula Medica Inaudita: IV. De Peste , Editor Hieronymo Christian Paullo (Frankfurt am Main) Publisher Sumptibus Hieronimi Christiani Pauli, typis Matthiæ Andreæ, 1707.
 155. ^ Flood, Alison (2 June 2020). "Isaac Newton proposed curing plague with toad vomit, unseen papers show". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 6 June 2020 . Retrieved 6 June 2020 .
 156. ^ Fred L. Wilson, History of Science: Newton citing: Delambre, M. "Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de M. le comte J.L. Lagrange", Oeuvres de Lagrange I. Paris, 1867, p. xx.
 157. ^ a b Westminster Abbey. "Sir Isaac Newton Scientist, Mathematician and Astronomer". westminster-abbey.org. Archived from the original on 9 August 2022 . Retrieved 19 January 2022 .
 158. ^ "Newton beats Einstein in polls of Royal Society scientists and the public". The Royal Society. Archived from the original on 13 July 2017 . Retrieved 24 August 2010 .
 159. ^ "Opinion poll. Einstein voted 'greatest physicist ever' by leading physicists; Newton runner-up". BBC News. 29 November 1999. Archived from the original on 12 August 2017 . Retrieved 17 January 2012 .
 160. ^ Gleeson-White, Jane (10 November 2003). "Einstein's Heroes". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 28 November 2019 . Retrieved 29 September 2021 .
 161. ^ a b Historic England. "Woolsthorpe Manor House, Colsterworth (1062362)". National Heritage List for England . Retrieved 5 October 2021 .
 162. ^ "Silly relic-worship". The New York Times. 16 January 1881. p. 10. Archived from the original on 20 January 2019 . Retrieved 12 July 2009 .
 163. ^ a b Cunningham, Antonia, ed. (2002). Guinness World Records 2002. ISBN 978-0-553-58378-6. Archived from the original on 9 August 2022 . Retrieved 12 July 2009 .
 164. ^ White 1997 , p. 86.
 165. ^ Numbers 2015 , pp. 48–56.
 166. ^ Malament, David B. (2002). Reading Natural Philosophy: Essays in the History and Philosophy of Science and Mathematics. Open Court Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8126-9507-6. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021 . Retrieved 18 October 2020 .
 167. ^ Voltaire (1727). An Essay upon the Civil Wars of France, extracted from curious Manuscripts and also upon the Epick Poetry of the European Nations, from Homer down to Milton. London, England: Samuel Jallasson. p. 104. Archived from the original on 14 June 2021 . Retrieved 14 June 2021 . From p. 104: 'In the like Manner Pythagoras ow'd the Invention of Musik to the noise of the Hammer of a Blacksmith. And thus in our Days Sir Isaak Newton walking in his Garden had the first Thought of his System of Gravitation, upon seeing an apple falling from a Tree.'
 168. ^ Voltaire (1786) heard the story of Newton and the apple tree from Newton's niece, Catherine Conduit (née Barton) (1679–1740): Voltaire (1786). Oeuvres completes de Voltaire [The complete works of Voltaire] (in French). Vol. 31. Basel, Switzerland: Jean-Jacques Tourneisen. p. 175. Archived from the original on 9 July 2021 . Retrieved 15 June 2021 . From p. 175: "Un jour en l'année 1666, Newton retiré à la campagne, et voyant tomber des fruits d'un arbre, à ce que m'a conté sa nièce, (Mme Conduit ) se laissa aller à une méditation profonde sur la cause qui entraine ainsi tous les corps dans une ligne, qui, si elle était prolongée, passerait à peu près par le centre de la terre." (One day in the year 1666 Newton withdrew to the country, and seeing the fruits of a tree fall, according to what his niece (Madame Conduit ) told me, he entered into a deep meditation on the cause that draws all bodies in a [straight] line, which, if it were extended, would pass very near to the center of the Earth.)
 169. ^ Berkun, Scott (2010). The Myths of Innovation. O'Reilly Media, Inc. p. 4. ISBN 978-1-4493-8962-8.
 170. ^ "Newton's apple: The real story". New Scientist. 18 January 2010. Archived from the original on 21 January 2010 . Retrieved 10 May 2010 .
 171. ^ Hamblyn, Richard (2011). "Newtonian Apples: William Stukeley". The Art of Science. Pan Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4472-0415-2.
 172. ^ "Revised Memoir of Newton (Normalized Version)". The Newton Project. Archived from the original on 14 March 2017 . Retrieved 13 March 2017 .
 173. ^ Conduitt, John. "Keynes Ms. 130.4:Conduitt's account of Newton's life at Cambridge". Newtonproject. Imperial College London. Archived from the original on 7 November 2009 . Retrieved 30 August 2006 .
 174. ^ I. Bernard Cohen and George E. Smith, eds. The Cambridge Companion to Newton (2002) p. 6
 175. ^ Alberto A. Martinez Science Secrets: The Truth about Darwin's Finches, Einstein's Wife, and Other Myths , p. 69 (University of Pittsburgh Press, 2011); ISBN 978-0-8229-4407-2
 176. ^ "Brogdale – Home of the National Fruit Collection". Brogdale.org. Archived from the original on 1 December 2008 . Retrieved 20 December 2008 .
 177. ^ "From the National Fruit Collection: Isaac Newton's Tree" . Retrieved 10 January 2009 . [ permanent dead link ] Alternate Page Archived 5 July 2022 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 5 July 2022.
 178. ^ 'The Abbey Scientists' Hall, A.R. p13: London; Roger & Robert Nicholson; 1966
 179. ^ a b "Famous People & the Abbey: Sir Isaac Newton". Westminster Abbey. Archived from the original on 16 October 2009 . Retrieved 13 November 2009 .
 180. ^ "Withdrawn banknotes reference guide". Bank of England. Archived from the original on 5 May 2010 . Retrieved 27 August 2009 .
 181. ^ Cassels, Alan. Ideology and International Relations in the Modern World. p. 2.
 182. ^ "Although it was just one of the many factors in the Enlightenment, the success of Newtonian physics in providing a mathematical description of an ordered world clearly played a big part in the flowering of this movement in the eighteenth century" by John Gribbin, Science: A History 1543–2001 (2002), p. 241 ISBN 978-0-7139-9503-9
 183. ^ Anders Hald 2003 – A history of probability and statistics and their applications before 1750 – 586 pages Volume 501 of Wiley series in probability and statistics Wiley-IEEE, 2003 Archived 2 June 2022 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 27 January 2012 ISBN 0-471-47129-1
 184. ^ "Natures obvious laws & processes in vegetation – Introduction". The Chymistry of Isaac Newton. Archived from the original on 17 January 2021 . Retrieved 17 January 2021 . Transcribed and online at Indiana University .
 185. ^ Whiteside, D.T., ed. (1974). Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton, 1684–1691 . 6 . Cambridge University Press. pp. 30–91. Archived 10 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine
 186. ^ "Museum of London exhibit including facsimile of title page from John Flamsteed's copy of 1687 edition of Newton's Principia". Museumoflondon.org.uk. Archived from the original on 31 March 2012 . Retrieved 16 March 2012 .
 187. ^ Published anonymously as "Scala graduum Caloris. Calorum Descriptiones & signa." in Philosophical Transactions , 1701, 824 Archived 21 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine –829; ed. Joannes Nichols, Isaaci Newtoni Opera quae exstant omnia , vol. 4 (1782), 403 Archived 17 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine –407. Mark P. Silverman, A Universe of Atoms, An Atom in the Universe , Springer, 2002, p. 49. Archived 24 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine
 188. ^ Newton, Isaac (1704). Opticks or, a Treatise of the reflexions, refractions, inflexions and colours of light. Also two treatises of the species and magnitude of curvilinear figures. Sam. Smith. and Benj. Walford. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021 . Retrieved 17 March 2018 .
 189. ^ a b c d e f g Pickover, Clifford (2008). Archimedes to Hawking: Laws of Science and the Great Minds Behind Them. Oxford University Press. pp. 117–118. ISBN 978-0-19-979268-9 . Retrieved 17 March 2018 .
 190. ^ Swetz, Frank J. "Mathematical Treasure: Newton's Method of Fluxions". Convergence. Mathematical Association of America. Archived from the original on 28 June 2017 . Retrieved 17 March 2018 .

 Bibliography

 * Ball, W.W. Rouse (1908). A Short Account of the History of Mathematics. New York: Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-20630-1.
 * Christianson, Gale (1984). In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton & His Times. New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-0-02-905190-0. This well documented work provides, in particular, valuable information regarding Newton's knowledge of Patristics
 * Craig, John (1958). "Isaac Newton – Crime Investigator". Nature. 182 (4629): 149–152. Bibcode:1958Natur.182..149C. doi:10.1038/182149a0. S2CID 4200994.
 * Craig, John (1963). "Isaac Newton and the Counterfeiters". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. 18 (2): 136–145. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1963.0017. S2CID 143981415.
 * Gjertsen, Derek (1986). The Newton Handbook. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-7102-0279-2.
 * Levenson, Thomas (2010). Newton and the Counterfeiter: The Unknown Detective Career of the World's Greatest Scientist. Mariner Books. ISBN 978-0-547-33604-6.
 * Manuel, Frank E (1968). A Portrait of Isaac Newton. Belknap Press of Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
 * Stewart, James (2009). Calculus: Concepts and Contexts. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-495-55742-5.
 * Westfall, Richard S. (1980). Never at Rest. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-27435-7.
 * Westfall, Richard S. (2007). Isaac Newton. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-921355-9.
 * Westfall, Richard S. (1994). The Life of Isaac Newton. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-47737-6.
 * White, Michael (1997). Isaac Newton: The Last Sorcerer. Fourth Estate Limited. ISBN 978-1-85702-416-6.

 Further reading

 Primary

 * Newton, Isaac. The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. University of California Press, (1999)
 + Brackenridge, J. Bruce. The Key to Newton's Dynamics: The Kepler Problem and the Principia: Containing an English Translation of Sections 1, 2, and 3 of Book One from the First (1687) Edition of Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, University of California Press (1996)
 * Newton, Isaac. The Optical Papers of Isaac Newton. Vol. 1: The Optical Lectures, 1670–1672, Cambridge University Press (1984)
 + Newton, Isaac. Opticks (4th ed. 1730) online edition
 + Newton, I. (1952). Opticks, or A Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections & Colours of Light. New York: Dover Publications.
 * Newton, I. Sir Isaac Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy and His System of the World, tr. A. Motte, rev. Florian Cajori. Berkeley: University of California Press (1934)
 * Whiteside, D.T., ed. (1967–1982). The Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-07740-8. – 8 volumes.
 * Newton, Isaac. The correspondence of Isaac Newton, ed. H.W. Turnbull and others, 7 vols (1959–77)
 * Newton's Philosophy of Nature: Selections from His Writings edited by H.S. Thayer (1953; online edition)
 * Isaac Newton, Sir; J Edleston; Roger Cotes, Correspondence of Sir Isaac Newton and Professor Cotes, including letters of other eminent men, London, John W. Parker, West Strand; Cambridge, John Deighton (1850, Google Books)
 * Maclaurin, C. (1748). An Account of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophical Discoveries, in Four Books. London: A. Millar and J. Nourse
 * Newton, I. (1958). Isaac Newton's Papers and Letters on Natural Philosophy and Related Documents, eds. I.B. Cohen and R.E. Schofield. Cambridge: Harvard University Press
 * Newton, I. (1962). The Unpublished Scientific Papers of Isaac Newton: A Selection from the Portsmouth Collection in the University Library, Cambridge, ed. A.R. Hall and M.B. Hall. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
 * Newton, I. (1975). Isaac Newton's 'Theory of the Moon's Motion' (1702). London: Dawson

 Alchemy

 * Craig, John (1946). Newton at the Mint. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
 * Craig, John (1953). "XII. Isaac Newton". The Mint: A History of the London Mint from A.D. 287 to 1948. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 198–222. ASIN B0000CIHG7.
 * de Villamil, Richard (1931). Newton, the Man. London: G.D. Knox. – Preface by Albert Einstein. Reprinted by Johnson Reprint Corporation, New York (1972)
 * Dobbs, B.J.T. (1975). The Foundations of Newton's Alchemy or "The Hunting of the Greene Lyon". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 * Keynes, John Maynard (1963). Essays in Biography. W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 978-0-393-00189-1. Keynes took a close interest in Newton and owned many of Newton's private papers.
 * Stukeley, W. (1936). Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life. London: Taylor and Francis. (edited by A.H. White; originally published in 1752)
 * Trabue, J. "Ann and Arthur Storer of Calvert County, Maryland, Friends of Sir Isaac Newton," The American Genealogist 79 (2004): 13–27.

 Religion

 * Dobbs, Betty Jo Tetter. The Janus Faces of Genius: The Role of Alchemy in Newton's Thought. (1991), links the alchemy to Arianism
 * Force, James E., and Richard H. Popkin, eds. Newton and Religion: Context, Nature, and Influence. (1999), pp. xvii, 325.; 13 papers by scholars using newly opened manuscripts
 * Pfizenmaier, Thomas C (1997). "Was Isaac Newton an Arian?". Journal of the History of Ideas. 58 (1): 57–80. doi:10.1353/jhi.1997.0001. JSTOR 3653988. S2CID 170545277.
 * Ramati, Ayval (2001). "The Hidden Truth of Creation: Newton's Method of Fluxions". The British Journal for the History of Science. 34 (4): 417–438. doi:10.1017/S0007087401004484. JSTOR 4028372. S2CID 143045863.
 * Snobelen, Stephen D. (2001). "'God of Gods, and Lord of Lords': The Theology of Isaac Newton's General Scholium to the Principia". Osiris. 16: 169–208. Bibcode:2001Osir...16..169S. doi:10.1086/649344. JSTOR 301985. S2CID 170364912.
 * Snobelen, Stephen D. (December 1999). "Isaac Newton, heretic: the strategies of a Nicodemite". The British Journal for the History of Science. 32 (4): 381–419. doi:10.1017/S0007087499003751. JSTOR 4027945. S2CID 145208136.

 Science

 * Bechler, Zev (2013). Contemporary Newtonian Research (Studies in the History of Modern Science)(Volume 9). Springer. ISBN 978-94-009-7717-4.
 * Berlinski, David. Newton's Gift: How Sir Isaac Newton Unlocked the System of the World. (2000); ISBN 0-684-84392-7
 * Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan (1995). Newton's Principia for the Common Reader. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-851744-3.
 * Cohen, I. Bernard and Smith, George E., ed. The Cambridge Companion to Newton. (2002). Focuses on philosophical issues only; excerpt and text search; complete edition online "The Cambridge Companion to Newton". Archived from the original on 8 October 2008 . Retrieved 13 October 2008 .{{cite web}} : CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( link )
 * Cohen, I.B. (1980). The Newtonian Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-22964-7.
 * Gleick, James (2003). Isaac Newton. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-375-42233-1.
 * Halley, E. (1687). "Review of Newton's Principia". Philosophical Transactions. 186: 291–297.
 * Hawking, Stephen, ed. On the Shoulders of Giants. ISBN 0-7624-1348-4 Places selections from Newton's Principia in the context of selected writings by Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Einstein
 * Herivel, J.W. (1965). The Background to Newton's Principia. A Study of Newton's Dynamical Researches in the Years 1664–84. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
 * Newton, Isaac. Papers and Letters in Natural Philosophy, edited by I. Bernard Cohen. Harvard University Press, 1958, 1978; ISBN 0-674-46853-8.
 * Numbers, R.L. (2015). Newton's Apple and Other Myths about Science. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-91547-3.
 * Pemberton, H. (1728). "A View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy". The Physics Teacher. 4 (1): 8–9. Bibcode:1966PhTea...4....8M. doi:10.1119/1.2350900.
 * Shamos, Morris H. (1959). Great Experiments in Physics. New York: Henry Holt and Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0-486-25346-6.

 External links

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 * Enlightening Science digital project: Texts of his papers, "Popularisations" and podcasts at the Newton Project
 * "Archival material relating to Isaac Newton". UK National Archives.
 * Portraits of Sir Isaac Newton at the National Portrait Gallery, London

 Writings by Newton

 * Newton's works – full texts, at the Newton Project
 * Newton's papers in the Royal Society's archives
 * The Newton Manuscripts at the National Library of Israel – the collection of all his religious writings
 * Works by Isaac Newton at Project Gutenberg
 * Works by or about Isaac Newton at Internet Archive
 * Works by Isaac Newton at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
 * "Newton Papers" – Cambridge Digital Library
 * v 
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 Sir Isaac Newton
 Publications * Fluxions (1671) 
 * De Motu (1684) 
 * Principia (1687; writing) 
 * Opticks (1704) 
 * Queries (1704) 
 * Arithmetica (1707) 
 * De Analysi (1711) 
 Other writings * Quaestiones (1661–1665) 
 * "standing on the shoulders of giants" (1675) 
 * Notes on the Jewish Temple (c. 1680) 
 * "General Scholium" (1713; "hypotheses non fingo" )
 * Ancient Kingdoms Amended (1728) 
 * Corruptions of Scripture (1754) 
 Contributions * Calculus 
 + fluxion 
 * Impact depth 
 * Inertia 
 * Newton disc 
 * Newton polygon 
 + Newton–Okounkov body 
 * Newton's reflector 
 * Newtonian telescope 
 * Newton scale 
 * Newton's metal 
 * Spectrum 
 * Structural coloration 
 Newtonianism * Bucket argument 
 * Newton's inequalities 
 * Newton's law of cooling 
 * Newton's law of universal gravitation 
 + post-Newtonian expansion 
 + parameterized 
 + gravitational constant 
 * Newton–Cartan theory 
 * Schrödinger–Newton equation 
 * Newton's laws of motion 
 + Kepler's laws 
 * Newtonian dynamics 
 * Newton's method in optimization 
 + Apollonius's problem 
 + truncated Newton method 
 * Gauss–Newton algorithm 
 * Newton's rings 
 * Newton's theorem about ovals 
 * Newton–Pepys problem 
 * Newtonian potential 
 * Newtonian fluid 
 * Classical mechanics 
 * Corpuscular theory of light 
 * Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy 
 * Newton's notation 
 * Rotating spheres 
 * Newton's cannonball 
 * Newton–Cotes formulas 
 * Newton's method 
 + generalized Gauss–Newton method 
 * Newton fractal 
 * Newton's identities 
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 * Newton–Euler equations 
 * Newton number 
 + kissing number problem 
 * Newton's quotient 
 * Parallelogram of force 
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 * Absolute space and time 
 * Luminiferous aether 
 * Newtonian series 
 + table 
 Personal life * Woolsthorpe Manor (birthplace) 
 * Cranbury Park (home) 
 * Early life 
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 * Religious views 
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 * Scientific Revolution 
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 Relations * Catherine Barton (niece) 
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  * Atalanta fugiens   
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 Scientists whose names are used as units   
 SI base units   * André-Marie Ampère (ampere) 
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 SI derived units   * Isaac Newton (newton) 
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 List of scientists whose names are used as units · Scientists whose names are used in physical constants · People whose names are used in chemical element names 
     
 
 Offices and positions held by Isaac Newton  
 Academic offices  
 Preceded by Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge Succeeded by 
 Isaac Barrow 1669–1702 William Whiston 
 Preceded by President of the Royal Society Succeeded by 
 The Lord Somers 1703–1727 Hans Sloane 
 Parliament of England  
 Preceded by Member of Parliament for Cambridge University Succeeded by 
 Robert Brady 1689–1690 Edward Finch 
 With: Robert Sawyer  
 Preceded by Member of Parliament for Cambridge University Succeeded by 
 Anthony Hammond 1701–1702 The Earl of Anglesey
 With: The Lord Carleton  
 Government offices  
 Preceded by Warden of the Mint Succeeded by 
 Benjamin Overton 1696–1700 John Stanley 
 Preceded by Master of the Mint Succeeded by 
 Thomas Neale 1700–1727 John Conduitt 
   
 
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This article is about the scientist and mathematician. For the American agriculturalist, see Isaac Newton (agriculturalist).
      Sir   Isaac Newton    PRS          Portrait of Newton at 46 by Godfrey Kneller, 1689     Born 4 January 1643 [O.S. 25 December 1642] [a]     Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, Lincolnshire, England      Died 31 March 1727 (aged 84) [O.S. 20 March 1726] [a]     Kensington, Middlesex, Great Britain      Resting place  Westminster Abbey    Education  Trinity College, Cambridge (M.A., 1668) [2]     Known for  
 List 
  Newtonian mechanics   universal gravitation   calculus   Newton's laws of motion   optics   binomial series    Principia    Newton's method   Newton's law of cooling   Newton's identities   Newton's metal   Newton line   Newton–Gauss line   Newtonian fluid   Newton's rings    Standing on the shoulders of giants    List of all other works and concepts  
    Awards     FRS (1672) [3]    Knight Bachelor (1705)       Scientific career    Fields     Physics   natural philosophy   alchemy  theology mathematics  astronomy  economics      Institutions     University of Cambridge   Royal Society   Royal Mint       Academic advisors     Isaac Barrow  [4]    Benjamin Pulleyn  [5]   [6]        Notable students     Roger Cotes   William Whiston       Influences  
  Aristotle 
 Boyle  [7]  
 Descartes 
 Galileo 
 Huygens  [8]   [9]  
 Kepler 
 Locke  [10]   [11]  
 Maimonides  [12]  
 Street  [13]   
    Influenced  
 List 
 
 In the natural sciences and mathematics 
 
  Boole 
 Einstein 
 Euler 
 Clairaut 
 Châtelet 
 's Gravesande 
 Gregory 
 Hamilton 
 Jurin 
 Laplace 
 Maxwell 
 Maclaurin 
 Routh 
 Smith 
 Newtonianism  
 
 In the humanities 
 
  Bentley 
 Berkeley 
 Diderot 
 Godwin 
 Hartley 
 Hume 
 Jefferson 
 Kant 
 Keynes 
 Locke  [10]   [11]  
 Saint-Simon  [14]  
 Verri  [15]  
 Voltaire  [16]  
 Enlightenment philosophy in general 
 
 
             Member of Parliament for the University of Cambridge     In office 1689–1690   Preceded by  Robert Brady    Succeeded by  Edward Finch     In office 1701–1702   Preceded by  Anthony Hammond    Succeeded by  Arthur Annesley, 5th Earl of Anglesey    12th President of the Royal Society     In office 1703–1727   Preceded by  John Somers    Succeeded by  Hans Sloane     Master of the Mint     In office 1699–1727   1696–1699  Warden of the Mint    Preceded by  Thomas Neale    Succeeded by  John Conduitt    2nd Lucasian Professor of Mathematics     In office 1669–1702   Preceded by  Isaac Barrow    Succeeded by  William Whiston    Personal details   Political party  Whig        Signature         
 Sir Isaac Newton PRS (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1726/27) [a]  was an English mathematician, physicist, astronomer, alchemist, theologian, and author (described in his time as a "natural philosopher"). He was a key figure in the philosophical revolution known as the Enlightenment. His book  Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica  (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), first published in 1687, established classical mechanics. Newton also made seminal contributions to optics, and shares credit with German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz for developing infinitesimal calculus.
 In the Principia, Newton formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation that formed the dominant scientific viewpoint for centuries until it was superseded by the theory of relativity. Newton used his mathematical description of gravity to derive Kepler's laws of planetary motion, account for tides, the trajectories of comets, the precession of the equinoxes and other phenomena, eradicating doubt about the Solar System's heliocentricity. He demonstrated that the motion of objects on Earth and celestial bodies could be accounted for by the same principles. Newton's inference that the Earth is an oblate spheroid was later confirmed by the geodetic measurements of Maupertuis, La Condamine, and others, convincing most European scientists of the superiority of Newtonian mechanics over earlier systems.
 Newton built the first practical reflecting telescope and developed a sophisticated theory of colour based on the observation that a prism separates white light into the colours of the visible spectrum. His work on light was collected in his highly influential book  Opticks , published in 1704. He also formulated an empirical law of cooling, made the first theoretical calculation of the speed of sound, and introduced the notion of a Newtonian fluid. In addition to his work on calculus, as a mathematician Newton contributed to the study of power series, generalised the binomial theorem to non-integer exponents, developed a method for approximating the roots of a function, and classified most of the cubic plane curves.
 Newton was a fellow of Trinity College and the second Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge. He was a devout but unorthodox Christian who privately rejected the doctrine of the Trinity. He refused to take holy orders in the Church of England, unlike most members of the Cambridge faculty of the day. Beyond his work on the mathematical sciences, Newton dedicated much of his time to the study of alchemy and biblical chronology, but most of his work in those areas remained unpublished until long after his death. Politically and personally tied to the Whig party, Newton served two brief terms as Member of Parliament for the University of Cambridge, in 1689–1690 and 1701–1702. He was knighted by Queen Anne in 1705 and spent the last three decades of his life in London, serving as Warden (1696–1699) and Master (1699–1727) of the Royal Mint, as well as president of the Royal Society (1703–1727).
Early life
Early life
Isaac Newton was born (according to the Julian calendar in use in England at the time) on Christmas Day, 25 December 1642 (NS 4 January 1643 [a] ), "an hour or two after midnight", [17]  at Woolsthorpe Manor in Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, a hamlet in the county of Lincolnshire. His father, also named Isaac Newton, had died three months before. Born prematurely, Newton was a small child; his mother Hannah Ayscough reportedly said that he could have fit inside a quart mug. [18]  When Newton was three, his mother remarried and went to live with her new husband, the Reverend Barnabas Smith, leaving her son in the care of his maternal grandmother, Margery Ayscough (née Blythe). Newton disliked his stepfather and maintained some enmity towards his mother for marrying him, as revealed by this entry in a list of sins committed up to the age of 19: "Threatening my father and mother Smith to burn them and the house over them." [19]  Newton's mother had three children (Mary, Benjamin, and Hannah) from her second marriage. [20] 
The King's School
From the age of about twelve until he was seventeen, Newton was educated at The King's School in Grantham, which taught Latin and Ancient Greek and probably imparted a significant foundation of mathematics. [21]  He was removed from school and returned to Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth by October 1659. His mother, widowed for the second time, attempted to make him a farmer, an occupation he hated. [22]  Henry Stokes, master at The King's School, persuaded his mother to send him back to school. Motivated partly by a desire for revenge against a schoolyard bully, he became the top-ranked student, [23]  distinguishing himself mainly by building sundials and models of windmills. [24] 
University of Cambridge
In June 1661, Newton was admitted to Trinity College at the University of Cambridge. His uncle Reverend William Ayscough, who had studied at Cambridge, recommended him to the university. At Cambridge, Newton started as a subsizar, paying his way by performing valet duties until he was awarded a scholarship in 1664, which covered his university costs for four more years until the completion of his MA. [25]  At the time, Cambridge's teachings were based on those of Aristotle, whom Newton read along with then more modern philosophers, including Descartes and astronomers such as Galileo Galilei and Thomas Street. He set down in his notebook a series of " Quaestiones " about mechanical philosophy as he found it. In 1665, he discovered the generalised binomial theorem and began to develop a mathematical theory that later became calculus. Soon after Newton obtained his BA degree at Cambridge in August 1665, the university temporarily closed as a precaution against the Great Plague. Although he had been undistinguished as a Cambridge student, [26]  Newton's private studies at his home in Woolsthorpe over the next two years saw the development of his theories on calculus, [27]  optics, and the law of gravitation.
 In April 1667, Newton returned to the University of Cambridge, and in October he was elected as a fellow of Trinity. [28]   [29]  Fellows were required to be ordained as priests, although this was not enforced in the restoration years and an assertion of conformity to the Church of England was sufficient. However, by 1675 the issue could not be avoided and by then his unconventional views stood in the way. [30]  Nevertheless, Newton managed to avoid it by means of special permission from Charles II.
 His academic work impressed the Lucasian professor Isaac Barrow, who was anxious to develop his own religious and administrative potential (he became master of Trinity College two years later); in 1669, Newton succeeded him, only one year after receiving his MA. Newton was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1672. [3] 
Work
Calculus
Newton's work has been said "to distinctly advance every branch of mathematics then studied". [31]  His work on the subject, usually referred to as fluxions or calculus, seen in a manuscript of October 1666, is now published among Newton's mathematical papers. [32]  His work  De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas , sent by Isaac Barrow to John Collins in June 1669, was identified by Barrow in a letter sent to Collins that August as the work "of an extraordinary genius and proficiency in these things". [33] 
 Newton later became involved in a dispute with Leibniz over priority in the development of calculus (the Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy). Most modern historians believe that Newton and Leibniz developed calculus independently, although with very different mathematical notations. Occasionally it has been suggested that Newton published almost nothing about it until 1693, and did not give a full account until 1704, while Leibniz began publishing a full account of his methods in 1684. Leibniz's notation and "differential Method", nowadays recognised as much more convenient notations, were adopted by continental European mathematicians, and after 1820 or so, also by British mathematicians.[ citation needed ]
 His work extensively uses calculus in geometric form based on limiting values of the ratios of vanishingly small quantities: in the Principia itself, Newton gave demonstration of this under the name of "the method of first and last ratios" [34]  and explained why he put his expositions in this form, [35]  remarking also that "hereby the same thing is performed as by the method of indivisibles." [36] 
 Because of this, the Principia has been called "a book dense with the theory and application of the infinitesimal calculus" in modern times [37]  and in Newton's time "nearly all of it is of this calculus." [38]  His use of methods involving "one or more orders of the infinitesimally small" is present in his De motu corporum in gyrum of 1684 [39]  and in his papers on motion "during the two decades preceding 1684". [40] 
     
Newton had been reluctant to publish his calculus because he feared controversy and criticism. [41]  He was close to the Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier. In 1691, Duillier started to write a new version of Newton's Principia, and corresponded with Leibniz. [42]  In 1693, the relationship between Duillier and Newton deteriorated and the book was never completed. [43] 
 Starting in 1699, other members[ who? ] of the Royal Society accused Leibniz of plagiarism. [44]  The dispute then broke out in full force in 1711 when the Royal Society proclaimed in a study that it was Newton who was the true discoverer and labelled Leibniz a fraud; it was later found that Newton wrote the study's concluding remarks on Leibniz. Thus began the bitter controversy which marred the lives of both Newton and Leibniz until the latter's death in 1716. [45] 
 Newton is generally credited with the generalised binomial theorem, valid for any exponent. He discovered Newton's identities, Newton's method, classified cubic plane curves (polynomials of degree three in two variables), made substantial contributions to the theory of finite differences, and was the first to use fractional indices and to employ coordinate geometry to derive solutions to Diophantine equations. He approximated partial sums of the harmonic series by logarithms (a precursor to Euler's summation formula) and was the first to use power series with confidence and to revert power series. Newton's work on infinite series was inspired by Simon Stevin's decimals. [46] 
 When Newton received his MA and became a Fellow of the "College of the Holy and Undivided Trinity" in 1667, he made the commitment that "I will either set Theology as the object of my studies and will take holy orders when the time prescribed by these statutes [7 years] arrives, or I will resign from the college." [47]  Up until this point he had not thought much about religion and had twice signed his agreement to the thirty-nine articles, the basis of Church of England doctrine.
 He was appointed Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in 1669, on Barrow's recommendation. During that time, any Fellow of a college at Cambridge or Oxford was required to take holy orders and become an ordained Anglican priest. However, the terms of the Lucasian professorship required that the holder not be active in the church – presumably,[ weasel words ] so as to have more time for science. Newton argued that this should exempt him from the ordination requirement, and Charles II, whose permission was needed, accepted this argument; thus, a conflict between Newton's religious views and Anglican orthodoxy was averted. [48] 
Optics
     
In 1666, Newton observed that the spectrum of colours exiting a prism in the position of minimum deviation is oblong, even when the light ray entering the prism is circular, which is to say, the prism refracts different colours by different angles. [50]   [51]  This led him to conclude that colour is a property intrinsic to light – a point which had, until then, been a matter of debate.
 From 1670 to 1672, Newton lectured on optics. [52]  During this period he investigated the refraction of light, demonstrating that the multicoloured image produced by a prism, which he named a spectrum, could be recomposed into white light by a lens and a second prism. [53]  Modern scholarship has revealed that Newton's analysis and resynthesis of white light owes a debt to corpuscular alchemy. [54] 
 He showed that coloured light does not change its properties by separating out a coloured beam and shining it on various objects, and that regardless of whether reflected, scattered, or transmitted, the light remains the same colour. Thus, he observed that colour is the result of objects interacting with already-coloured light rather than objects generating the colour themselves. This is known as Newton's theory of colour. [55] 
      Illustration of a dispersive prism separating white light into the colours of the spectrum, as discovered by Newton  
From this work, he concluded that the lens of any refracting telescope would suffer from the dispersion of light into colours (chromatic aberration). As a proof of the concept, he constructed a telescope using reflective mirrors instead of lenses as the objective to bypass that problem. [56]   [57]  Building the design, the first known functional reflecting telescope, today known as a Newtonian telescope, [57]  involved solving the problem of a suitable mirror material and shaping technique. Newton ground his own mirrors out of a custom composition of highly reflective speculum metal, using Newton's rings to judge the quality of the optics for his telescopes. In late 1668, [58]  he was able to produce this first reflecting telescope. It was about eight inches long and it gave a clearer and larger image. In 1671, the Royal Society asked for a demonstration of his reflecting telescope. [59]  Their interest encouraged him to publish his notes, Of Colours, [60]  which he later expanded into the work  Opticks . When Robert Hooke criticised some of Newton's ideas, Newton was so offended that he withdrew from public debate. Newton and Hooke had brief exchanges in 1679–80, when Hooke, appointed to manage the Royal Society's correspondence, opened up a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions, [61]  which had the effect of stimulating Newton to work out a proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector. But the two men remained generally on poor terms until Hooke's death. [62] 
      Facsimile of a 1682 letter from Newton to William Briggs, commenting on Briggs' A New Theory of Vision   
Newton argued that light is composed of particles or corpuscles, which were refracted by accelerating into a denser medium. He verged on soundlike waves to explain the repeated pattern of reflection and transmission by thin films (Opticks Bk.II, Props. 12), but still retained his theory of 'fits' that disposed corpuscles to be reflected or transmitted (Props.13). However, later physicists favoured a purely wavelike explanation of light to account for the interference patterns and the general phenomenon of diffraction. Today's quantum mechanics, photons, and the idea of wave–particle duality bear only a minor resemblance to Newton's understanding of light.
 In his Hypothesis of Light of 1675, Newton posited the existence of the ether to transmit forces between particles. The contact with the Cambridge Platonist philosopher Henry More revived his interest in alchemy. [63]  He replaced the ether with occult forces based on Hermetic ideas of attraction and repulsion between particles. John Maynard Keynes, who acquired many of Newton's writings on alchemy, stated that "Newton was not the first of the age of reason: He was the last of the magicians." [64]  Newton's contributions to science cannot be isolated from his interest in alchemy. [63]  This was at a time when there was no clear distinction between alchemy and science, and had he not relied on the occult idea of action at a distance, across a vacuum, he might not have developed his theory of gravity.
 In 1704, Newton published  Opticks , in which he expounded his corpuscular theory of light. He considered light to be made up of extremely subtle corpuscles, that ordinary matter was made of grosser corpuscles and speculated that through a kind of alchemical transmutation "Are not gross Bodies and Light convertible into one another, ... and may not Bodies receive much of their Activity from the Particles of Light which enter their Composition?" [65]  Newton also constructed a primitive form of a frictional electrostatic generator, using a glass globe. [66] 
 In his book Opticks, Newton was the first to show a diagram using a prism as a beam expander, and also the use of multiple-prism arrays. [67]  Some 278 years after Newton's discussion, multiple-prism beam expanders became central to the development of narrow-linewidth tunable lasers. Also, the use of these prismatic beam expanders led to the multiple-prism dispersion theory. [67] 
 Subsequent to Newton, much has been amended. Young and Fresnel discarded Newton's particle theory in favour of Huygens' wave theory to show that colour is the visible manifestation of light's wavelength. Science also slowly came to realise the difference between perception of colour and mathematisable optics. The German poet and scientist, Goethe, could not shake the Newtonian foundation but "one hole Goethe did find in Newton's armour, ... Newton had committed himself to the doctrine that refraction without colour was impossible. He, therefore, thought that the object-glasses of telescopes must forever remain imperfect, achromatism and refraction being incompatible. This inference was proved by Dollond to be wrong." [68] 
     
Gravity
     
In 1679, Newton returned to his work on celestial mechanics by considering gravitation and its effect on the orbits of planets with reference to Kepler's laws of planetary motion. This followed stimulation by a brief exchange of letters in 1679–80 with Hooke, who had been appointed to manage the Royal Society's correspondence, and who opened a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions. [61]  Newton's reawakening interest in astronomical matters received further stimulus by the appearance of a comet in the winter of 1680–1681, on which he corresponded with John Flamsteed. [69]  After the exchanges with Hooke, Newton worked out a proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector. Newton communicated his results to Edmond Halley and to the Royal Society in  De motu corporum in gyrum , a tract written on about nine sheets which was copied into the Royal Society's Register Book in December 1684. [70]  This tract contained the nucleus that Newton developed and expanded to form the Principia.
 The  Principia  was published on 5 July 1687 with encouragement and financial help from Halley. In this work, Newton stated the three universal laws of motion. Together, these laws describe the relationship between any object, the forces acting upon it and the resulting motion, laying the foundation for classical mechanics. They contributed to many advances during the Industrial Revolution which soon followed and were not improved upon for more than 200 years. Many of these advances continue to be the underpinnings of non-relativistic technologies in the modern world. He used the Latin word gravitas (weight) for the effect that would become known as gravity, and defined the law of universal gravitation. [71] 
 In the same work, Newton presented a calculus-like method of geometrical analysis using 'first and last ratios', gave the first analytical determination (based on Boyle's law) of the speed of sound in air, inferred the oblateness of Earth's spheroidal figure, accounted for the precession of the equinoxes as a result of the Moon's gravitational attraction on the Earth's oblateness, initiated the gravitational study of the irregularities in the motion of the Moon, provided a theory for the determination of the orbits of comets, and much more. [71]  Newton's biographer David Brewster reported that the complexity of applying his theory of gravity to the motion of the moon was so great it affected Newton's health: "[H]e was deprived of his appetite and sleep" during his work on the problem in 1692-3, and told the astronomer John Machin that "his head never ached but when he was studying the subject". According to Brewster Edmund Halley also told John Conduitt that when pressed to complete his analysis Newton "always replied that it made his head ache, and kept him awake so often, that he would think of it no more". [Emphasis in original] [72] 
 Newton made clear his heliocentric view of the Solar System—developed in a somewhat modern way because already in the mid-1680s he recognised the "deviation of the Sun" from the centre of gravity of the Solar System. [73]  For Newton, it was not precisely the centre of the Sun or any other body that could be considered at rest, but rather "the common centre of gravity of the Earth, the Sun and all the Planets is to be esteem'd the Centre of the World", and this centre of gravity "either is at rest or moves uniformly forward in a right line" (Newton adopted the "at rest" alternative in view of common consent that the centre, wherever it was, was at rest). [74] 
 Newton's postulate of an invisible force able to act over vast distances led to him being criticised for introducing "occult agencies" into science. [75]  Later, in the second edition of the Principia (1713), Newton firmly rejected such criticisms in a concluding General Scholium, writing that it was enough that the phenomena implied a gravitational attraction, as they did; but they did not so far indicate its cause, and it was both unnecessary and improper to frame hypotheses of things that were not implied by the phenomena. (Here Newton used what became his famous expression "hypotheses non-fingo"  [76] ).
 With the Principia, Newton became internationally recognised. [77]  He acquired a circle of admirers, including the Swiss-born mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier. [78] 
 In 1710, Newton found 72 of the 78 "species" of cubic curves and categorised them into four types. [79]  In 1717, and probably with Newton's help, James Stirling proved that every cubic was one of these four types. Newton also claimed that the four types could be obtained by plane projection from one of them, and this was proved in 1731, four years after his death. [80] 
Later life
Royal Mint
     
In the 1690s, Newton wrote a number of religious tracts dealing with the literal and symbolic interpretation of the Bible. A manuscript Newton sent to John Locke in which he disputed the fidelity of 1 John 5:7—the Johannine Comma—and its fidelity to the original manuscripts of the New Testament, remained unpublished until 1785. [81] 
 Newton was also a member of the Parliament of England for Cambridge University in 1689 and 1701, but according to some accounts his only comments were to complain about a cold draught in the chamber and request that the window be closed. [82]  He was, however, noted by Cambridge diarist Abraham de la Pryme to have rebuked students who were frightening locals by claiming that a house was haunted. [83] 
 Newton moved to London to take up the post of warden of the Royal Mint in 1696, a position that he had obtained through the patronage of Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax, then Chancellor of the Exchequer. He took charge of England's great recoining, trod on the toes of Lord Lucas, Governor of the Tower, and secured the job of deputy comptroller of the temporary Chester branch for Edmond Halley. Newton became perhaps the best-known Master of the Mint upon the death of Thomas Neale in 1699, a position Newton held for the last 30 years of his life. [84]   [85]  These appointments were intended as sinecures, but Newton took them seriously. He retired from his Cambridge duties in 1701, and exercised his authority to reform the currency and punish clippers and counterfeiters.
 As Warden, and afterwards as Master, of the Royal Mint, Newton estimated that 20 percent of the coins taken in during the Great Recoinage of 1696 were counterfeit. Counterfeiting was high treason, punishable by the felon being hanged, drawn and quartered. Despite this, convicting even the most flagrant criminals could be extremely difficult, but Newton proved equal to the task. [86] 
 Disguised as a habitué of bars and taverns, he gathered much of that evidence himself. [87]  For all the barriers placed to prosecution, and separating the branches of government, English law still had ancient and formidable customs of authority. Newton had himself made a justice of the peace in all the home counties. A draft letter regarding the matter is included in Newton's personal first edition of Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, which he must have been amending at the time. [88]  Then he conducted more than 100 cross-examinations of witnesses, informers, and suspects between June 1698 and Christmas 1699. Newton successfully prosecuted 28 coiners. [89] 
     
Newton was made president of the Royal Society in 1703 and an associate of the French Académie des Sciences. In his position at the Royal Society, Newton made an enemy of John Flamsteed, the Astronomer Royal, by prematurely publishing Flamsteed's Historia Coelestis Britannica, which Newton had used in his studies. [91] 
Knighthood
In April 1705, Queen Anne knighted Newton during a royal visit to Trinity College, Cambridge. The knighthood is likely to have been motivated by political considerations connected with the parliamentary election in May 1705, rather than any recognition of Newton's scientific work or services as Master of the Mint. [92]  Newton was the second scientist to be knighted, after Francis Bacon. [93] 
 As a result of a report written by Newton on 21 September 1717 to the Lords Commissioners of His Majesty's Treasury, the bimetallic relationship between gold coins and silver coins was changed by royal proclamation on 22 December 1717, forbidding the exchange of gold guineas for more than 21 silver shillings. [94]  This inadvertently resulted in a silver shortage as silver coins were used to pay for imports, while exports were paid for in gold, effectively moving Britain from the silver standard to its first gold standard. It is a matter of debate as to whether he intended to do this or not. [95]  It has been argued that Newton conceived of his work at the Mint as a continuation of his alchemical work. [96] 
 Newton was invested in the South Sea Company and lost some £20,000 (£4.4 million in 2020 [97] ) when it collapsed in around 1720. [98] 
 Toward the end of his life, Newton took up residence at Cranbury Park, near Winchester, with his niece and her husband, until his death. [99]  His half-niece, Catherine Barton, [100]  served as his hostess in social affairs at his house on Jermyn Street in London; he was her "very loving Uncle", [101]  according to his letter to her when she was recovering from smallpox.
Death
Newton died in his sleep in London on 20 March 1727 (OS 20 March 1726; NS 31 March 1727). [a]  He was given a ceremonial funeral, attended by nobles, scientists, and philosophers, and was buried in Westminster Abbey among kings and queens. He is also the first scientist to be buried in the abbey. [102]  Voltaire may have been present at his funeral. [103]  A bachelor, he had divested much of his estate to relatives during his last years, and died intestate. [104]  His papers went to John Conduitt and Catherine Barton. [105] 
 After his death, Newton's hair was examined and found to contain mercury, probably resulting from his alchemical pursuits. Mercury poisoning could explain Newton's eccentricity in late life. [104] 
Personality
Although it was claimed that he was once engaged, [b]  Newton never married. The French writer and philosopher Voltaire, who was in London at the time of Newton's funeral, said that he "was never sensible to any passion, was not subject to the common frailties of mankind, nor had any commerce with women—a circumstance which was assured me by the physician and surgeon who attended him in his last moments". [107]  There exists a widespread belief that Newton died a virgin, and writers as diverse as mathematician Charles Hutton, [108]  economist John Maynard Keynes, [109]  and physicist Carl Sagan each have commented on it. [110] 
 Newton had a close friendship with the Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, who he met in London around 1689 [78] —some of their correspondence has survived. [111]   [112]  Their relationship came to an abrupt and unexplained end in 1693, and at the same time Newton suffered a nervous breakdown, [113]  which included sending wild accusatory letters to his friends Samuel Pepys and John Locke. His note to the latter included the charge that Locke "endeavoured to embroil me with woemen". [114] 
 Newton was relatively modest about his achievements, writing in a letter to Robert Hooke in February 1676, "If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of giants." [115]  Two writers think that the sentence, written at a time when Newton and Hooke were in dispute over optical discoveries, was an oblique attack on Hooke (said to have been short and hunchbacked), rather than—or in addition to—a statement of modesty. [116]   [117]  On the other hand, the widely known proverb about standing on the shoulders of giants, published among others by seventeenth-century poet George Herbert (a former orator of the University of Cambridge and fellow of Trinity College) in his Jacula Prudentum (1651), had as its main point that "a dwarf on a giant's shoulders sees farther of the two", and so its effect as an analogy would place Newton himself rather than Hooke as the 'dwarf'.
 In a later memoir, Newton wrote, "I do not know what I may appear to the world, but to myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the sea-shore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me." [118] 
 In 2015, Steven Weinberg, a Nobel laureate in physics, called Newton "a nasty antagonist" and "a bad man to have as an enemy", [119]  noting Newton's attitude towards Robert Hooke and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.
 It has been suggested by some scientists and clinicians that, based on these and other traits along with his profound power of concentration, that Newton may have had an undiagnosed form of high-functioning autism, now properly known as ASD1 within autism spectrum; formerly known as Asperger syndrome. [120]   [121]   [122] 
Theology
Religious views
Although born into an Anglican family, by his thirties Newton held a Christian faith that, had it been made public, would not have been considered orthodox by mainstream Christianity, [123]  with one historian labelling him a heretic. [124] 
 By 1672, he had started to record his theological researches in notebooks which he showed to no one and which have only recently[ when? ] been examined. They demonstrate an extensive knowledge of early Church writings and show that in the conflict between Athanasius and Arius which defined the Creed, he took the side of Arius, the loser, who rejected the conventional view of the Trinity. Newton "recognized Christ as a divine mediator between God and man, who was subordinate to the Father who created him." [125]  He was especially interested in prophecy, but for him, "the great apostasy was trinitarianism." [126] 
 Newton tried unsuccessfully to obtain one of the two fellowships that exempted the holder from the ordination requirement. At the last moment in 1675 he received a dispensation from the government that excused him and all future holders of the Lucasian chair. [127] 
 In Newton's eyes, worshipping Christ as God was idolatry, to him the fundamental sin. [128]  In 1999, historian Stephen D. Snobelen wrote, "Isaac Newton was a heretic. But ... he never made a public declaration of his private faith—which the orthodox would have deemed extremely radical. He hid his faith so well that scholars are still unraveling his personal beliefs." [124]  Snobelen concludes that Newton was at least a Socinian sympathiser (he owned and had thoroughly read at least eight Socinian books), possibly an Arian and almost certainly an anti-trinitarian. [124] 
 The view that Newton was Semi-Arian has lost support now that scholars have investigated Newton's theological papers, and now most scholars identify Newton as an Antitrinitarian monotheist. [124]   [129] 
     
Although the laws of motion and universal gravitation became Newton's best-known discoveries, he warned against using them to view the Universe as a mere machine, as if akin to a great clock. He said, "So then gravity may put the planets into motion, but without the Divine Power it could never put them into such a circulating motion, as they have about the sun". [131] 
 Along with his scientific fame, Newton's studies of the Bible and of the early Church Fathers were also noteworthy. Newton wrote works on textual criticism, most notably  An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture  and  Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel, and the Apocalypse of St. John . [132]  He placed the crucifixion of Jesus Christ at 3 April, AD 33, which agrees with one traditionally accepted date. [133] 
 He believed in a rationally immanent world, but he rejected the hylozoism implicit in Leibniz and Baruch Spinoza. The ordered and dynamically informed Universe could be understood, and must be understood, by an active reason. In his correspondence, Newton claimed that in writing the Principia "I had an eye upon such Principles as might work with considering men for the belief of a Deity". [134]  He saw evidence of design in the system of the world: "Such a wonderful uniformity in the planetary system must be allowed the effect of choice". But Newton insisted that divine intervention would eventually be required to reform the system, due to the slow growth of instabilities. [135]  For this, Leibniz lampooned him: "God Almighty wants to wind up his watch from time to time: otherwise it would cease to move. He had not, it seems, sufficient foresight to make it a perpetual motion." [136] 
 Newton's position was vigorously defended by his follower Samuel Clarke in a famous correspondence. A century later, Pierre-Simon Laplace's work  Celestial Mechanics  had a natural explanation for why the planet orbits do not require periodic divine intervention. [137]  The contrast between Laplace's mechanistic worldview and Newton's one is the most strident considering the famous answer which the French scientist gave Napoleon, who had criticised him for the absence of the Creator in the Mécanique céleste: "Sire, j'ai pu me passer de cette hypothèse" ("Sir, I didn't need this hypothesis"). [138] 
 Scholars long debated whether Newton disputed the doctrine of the Trinity. His first biographer, David Brewster, who compiled his manuscripts, interpreted Newton as questioning the veracity of some passages used to support the Trinity, but never denying the doctrine of the Trinity as such. [139]  In the twentieth century, encrypted manuscripts written by Newton and bought by John Maynard Keynes (among others) were deciphered [64]  and it became known that Newton did indeed reject Trinitarianism. [124] 
Religious thought
Newton and Robert Boyle's approach to the mechanical philosophy was promoted by rationalist pamphleteers as a viable alternative to the pantheists and enthusiasts, and was accepted hesitantly by orthodox preachers as well as dissident preachers like the latitudinarians. [140]  The clarity and simplicity of science was seen as a way to combat the emotional and metaphysical superlatives of both superstitious enthusiasm and the threat of atheism, [141]  and at the same time, the second wave of English deists used Newton's discoveries to demonstrate the possibility of a "Natural Religion".
 The attacks made against pre-Enlightenment "magical thinking", and the mystical elements of Christianity, were given their foundation with Boyle's mechanical conception of the universe. Newton gave Boyle's ideas their completion through mathematical proofs and, perhaps more importantly, was very successful in popularising them. [142] 
The occult
In a manuscript he wrote in 1704 (never intended to be published), he mentions the date of 2060, but it is not given as a date for the end of days. It has been falsely reported as a prediction. The passage is clear when the date is read in context. He was against date setting for the end of days, concerned that this would put Christianity into disrepute. [143] 
 So then the time times &amp; half a time [ sic ] are 42 months or 1260 days or three years &amp; an half, recconing twelve months to a year &amp; 30 days to a month as was done in the Calender [ sic ] of the primitive year. And the days of short lived Beasts being put for the years of [long-]lived kingdoms the period of 1260 days, if dated from the complete conquest of the three kings A.C. 800, will end 2060. It may end later, but I see no reason for its ending sooner. [144]  
This I mention not to assert when the time of the end shall be, but to put a stop to the rash conjectures of fanciful men who are frequently predicting the time of the end, and by doing so bring the sacred prophesies into discredit as often as their predictions fail. Christ comes as a thief in the night, and it is not for us to know the times and seasons which God hath put into his own breast. [143]   
Alchemy
In the character of Morton Opperly in "Poor Superman" (1951), speculative fiction author Fritz Leiber says of Newton, "Everyone knows Newton as the great scientist. Few remember that he spent half his life muddling with alchemy, looking for the philosopher's stone. That was the pebble by the seashore he really wanted to find." [145] 
 Of an estimated ten million words of writing in Newton's papers, about one million deal with alchemy. Many of Newton's writings on alchemy are copies of other manuscripts, with his own annotations. [105]  Alchemical texts mix artisanal knowledge with philosophical speculation, often hidden behind layers of wordplay, allegory, and imagery to protect craft secrets. [146]  Some of the content contained in Newton's papers could have been considered heretical by the church. [105] 
 In 1888, after spending sixteen years cataloguing Newton's papers, Cambridge University kept a small number and returned the rest to the Earl of Portsmouth. In 1936, a descendant offered the papers for sale at Sotheby's. [147]  The collection was broken up and sold for a total of about £9,000. [148]  John Maynard Keynes was one of about three dozen bidders who obtained part of the collection at auction. Keynes went on to reassemble an estimated half of Newton's collection of papers on alchemy before donating his collection to Cambridge University in 1946. [105]   [147]   [149] 
 All of Newton's known writings on alchemy are currently being put online in a project undertaken by Indiana University: "The Chymistry of Isaac Newton" [150]  and summarised in a book. [151]   [152] 
 Newton's fundamental contributions to science include the quantification of gravitational attraction, the discovery that white light is actually a mixture of immutable spectral colors, and the formulation of the calculus. Yet there is another, more mysterious side to Newton that is imperfectly known, a realm of activity that spanned some thirty years of his life, although he kept it largely hidden from his contemporaries and colleagues. We refer to Newton's involvement in the discipline of alchemy, or as it was often called in seventeenth-century England, "chymistry." [150]   
 Charles Coulston Gillispie disputes that Newton ever practised alchemy, saying that "his chemistry was in the spirit of Boyle's corpuscular philosophy." [153] 
 In June 2020, two unpublished pages of Newton's notes on Jan Baptist van Helmont's book on plague, De Peste, [154]  were being auctioned online by Bonhams. Newton's analysis of this book, which he made in Cambridge while protecting himself from London's 1665–1666 infection, is the most substantial written statement he is known to have made about the plague, according to Bonhams. As far as the therapy is concerned, Newton writes that "the best is a toad suspended by the legs in a chimney for three days, which at last vomited up earth with various insects in it, on to a dish of yellow wax, and shortly after died. Combining powdered toad with the excretions and serum made into lozenges and worn about the affected area drove away the contagion and drew out the poison". [155] 
Legacy
Fame
     
The mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange said that Newton was the greatest genius who ever lived, and once added that Newton was also "the most fortunate, for we cannot find more than once a system of the world to establish." [156]  English poet Alexander Pope wrote the famous epitaph:
 Nature, and Nature's laws lay hid in night.
God said, Let Newton be! and all was light. 
But this was not allowed to be inscribed in the monument. The epitaph in the monument is as follows: [157] 
 H. S. E. ISAACUS NEWTON Eques Auratus, / Qui, animi vi prope divinâ, / Planetarum Motus, Figuras, / Cometarum semitas, Oceanique Aestus. Suâ Mathesi facem praeferente / Primus demonstravit: / Radiorum Lucis dissimilitudines, / Colorumque inde nascentium proprietates, / Quas nemo antea vel suspicatus erat, pervestigavit. / Naturae, Antiquitatis, S. Scripturae, / Sedulus, sagax, fidus Interpres / Dei O. M. Majestatem Philosophiâ asseruit, / Evangelij Simplicitatem Moribus expressit. / Sibi gratulentur Mortales, / Tale tantumque exstitisse / HUMANI GENERIS DECUS. / NAT. XXV DEC. A.D. MDCXLII. OBIIT. XX. MAR. MDCCXXVI, 
which can be translated as follows: [157] 
 Here is buried Isaac Newton, Knight, who by a strength of mind almost divine, and mathematical principles peculiarly his own, explored the course and figures of the planets, the paths of comets, the tides of the sea, the dissimilarities in rays of light, and, what no other scholar has previously imagined, the properties of the colours thus produced. Diligent, sagacious and faithful, in his expositions of nature, antiquity and the holy Scriptures, he vindicated by his philosophy the majesty of God mighty and good, and expressed the simplicity of the Gospel in his manners. Mortals rejoice that there has existed such and so great an ornament of the human race! He was born on 25th December 1642, and died on 20th March 1726. 
In a 2005 survey of members of Britain's Royal Society (formerly headed by Newton) asking who had the greater effect on the history of science, Newton or Albert Einstein, the members deemed Newton to have made the greater overall contribution. [158]  In 1999, an opinion poll of 100 of the day's leading physicists voted Einstein the "greatest physicist ever," with Newton the runner-up, while a parallel survey of rank-and-file physicists by the site PhysicsWeb gave the top spot to Newton. [159]  Einstein kept a picture of Newton on his study wall alongside ones of Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell. [160] 
 The SI derived unit of force is named the newton in his honour.
  Woolsthorpe Manor is a Grade I listed building by Historic England through being his birthplace and "where he discovered gravity and developed his theories regarding the refraction of light". [161] 
 In 1816, a tooth said to have belonged to Newton was sold for £730 [162]  (US$3,633) in London to an aristocrat who had it set in a ring. [163]   Guinness World Records 2002 classified it as the most valuable tooth, which would value approximately £25,000 (US$35,700) in late 2001. [163]  Who bought it and who currently has it has not been disclosed.
Apple incident
Newton himself often told the story that he was inspired to formulate his theory of gravitation by watching the fall of an apple from a tree. [164]   [165]  The story is believed to have passed into popular knowledge after being related by Catherine Barton, Newton's niece, to Voltaire. [166]  Voltaire then wrote in his Essay on Epic Poetry (1727), "Sir Isaac Newton walking in his gardens, had the first thought of his system of gravitation, upon seeing an apple falling from a tree." [167]   [168] 
 Although it has been said that the apple story is a myth and that he did not arrive at his theory of gravity at any single moment, [169]  acquaintances of Newton (such as William Stukeley, whose manuscript account of 1752 has been made available by the Royal Society) do in fact confirm the incident, though not the apocryphal version that the apple actually hit Newton's head. Stukeley recorded in his Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life a conversation with Newton in Kensington on 15 April 1726: [170]   [171]   [172] 
 we went into the garden, &amp; drank thea under the shade of some appletrees, only he, &amp; myself. amidst other discourse, he told me, he was just in the same situation, as when formerly, the notion of gravitation came into his mind. "why should that apple always descend perpendicularly to the ground," thought he to him self: occasion'd by the fall of an apple, as he sat in a comtemplative mood: "why should it not go sideways, or upwards? but constantly to the earths centre? assuredly, the reason is, that the earth draws it. there must be a drawing power in matter. &amp; the sum of the drawing power in the matter of the earth must be in the earths center, not in any side of the earth. therefore dos this apple fall perpendicularly, or toward the center. if matter thus draws matter; it must be in proportion of its quantity. therefore the apple draws the earth, as well as the earth draws the apple." 
 John Conduitt, Newton's assistant at the Royal Mint and husband of Newton's niece, also described the event when he wrote about Newton's life: [173] 
 In the year 1666 he retired again from Cambridge to his mother in Lincolnshire. Whilst he was pensively meandering in a garden it came into his thought that the power of gravity (which brought an apple from a tree to the ground) was not limited to a certain distance from earth, but that this power must extend much further than was usually thought. Why not as high as the Moon said he to himself &amp; if so, that must influence her motion &amp; perhaps retain her in her orbit, whereupon he fell a calculating what would be the effect of that supposition. 
     
It is known from his notebooks that Newton was grappling in the late 1660s with the idea that terrestrial gravity extends, in an inverse-square proportion, to the Moon; however, it took him two decades to develop the full-fledged theory. [174]  The question was not whether gravity existed, but whether it extended so far from Earth that it could also be the force holding the Moon to its orbit. Newton showed that if the force decreased as the inverse square of the distance, one could indeed calculate the Moon's orbital period, and get good agreement. He guessed the same force was responsible for other orbital motions, and hence named it "universal gravitation".
 Various trees are claimed to be "the" apple tree which Newton describes. The King's School, Grantham claims that the tree was purchased by the school, uprooted and transported to the headmaster's garden some years later. The staff of the (now) National Trust-owned Woolsthorpe Manor dispute this, and claim that a tree present in their gardens is the one described by Newton. A descendant of the original tree [175]  can be seen growing outside the main gate of Trinity College, Cambridge, below the room Newton lived in when he studied there. The National Fruit Collection at Brogdale in Kent [176]  can supply grafts from their tree, which appears identical to Flower of Kent, a coarse-fleshed cooking variety. [177] 
Commemorations
     
Newton's monument (1731) can be seen in Westminster Abbey, at the north of the entrance to the choir against the choir screen, near his tomb. It was executed by the sculptor Michael Rysbrack (1694–1770) in white and grey marble with design by the architect William Kent. [178]  The monument features a figure of Newton reclining on top of a sarcophagus, his right elbow resting on several of his great books and his left hand pointing to a scroll with a mathematical design. Above him is a pyramid and a celestial globe showing the signs of the Zodiac and the path of the comet of 1680. A relief panel depicts putti using instruments such as a telescope and prism. [179]  The Latin inscription on the base translates as:
 Here is buried Isaac Newton, Knight, who by a strength of mind almost divine, and mathematical principles peculiarly his own, explored the course and figures of the planets, the paths of comets, the tides of the sea, the dissimilarities in rays of light, and, what no other scholar has previously imagined, the properties of the colours thus produced. Diligent, sagacious and faithful, in his expositions of nature, antiquity and the holy Scriptures, he vindicated by his philosophy the majesty of God mighty and good, and expressed the simplicity of the Gospel in his manners. Mortals rejoice that there has existed such and so great an ornament of the human race! He was born on 25 December 1642, and died on 20 March 1726/7.
  —Translation from G. L. Smyth, The Monuments and Genii of St. Paul's Cathedral, and of Westminster Abbey (1826), ii, 703–704. [179]    
From 1978 until 1988, an image of Newton designed by Harry Ecclestone appeared on Series D £1 banknotes issued by the Bank of England (the last £1 notes to be issued by the Bank of England). Newton was shown on the reverse of the notes holding a book and accompanied by a telescope, a prism and a map of the Solar System. [180] 
 A statue of Isaac Newton, looking at an apple at his feet, can be seen at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History. A large bronze statue,  Newton, after William Blake , by Eduardo Paolozzi, dated 1995 and inspired by Blake's etching, dominates the piazza of the British Library in London. A bronze statue of Newton was erected in 1858 in the centre of Grantham where he went to school, prominently standing in front of Grantham Guildhall.
 The still-surviving farmhouse at Woolsthorpe By Colsterworth is a Grade I listed building by Historic England through being his birthplace and "where he discovered gravity and developed his theories regarding the refraction of light". [161] 
The Enlightenment
 Enlightenment philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessors—Galileo, Boyle, and Newton principally—as the guides and guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of nature and natural law to every physical and social field of the day. In this respect, the lessons of history and the social structures built upon it could be discarded. [181] 
 It is held by European philosophers of the Enlightenment and by historians of the Enlightenment that Newton's publication of the  Principia  was a turning point in the Scientific Revolution and started the Enlightenment. It was Newton's conception of the universe based upon natural and rationally understandable laws that became one of the seeds for Enlightenment ideology. [182]  Locke and Voltaire applied concepts of natural law to political systems advocating intrinsic rights; the physiocrats and Adam Smith applied natural conceptions of psychology and self-interest to economic systems; and sociologists criticised the current social order for trying to fit history into natural models of progress. Monboddo and Samuel Clarke resisted elements of Newton's work, but eventually rationalised it to conform with their strong religious views of nature.
Works
Published in his lifetime
   De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas  (1669, published 1711) [183]  
 Of Natures Obvious Laws &amp; Processes in Vegetation (unpublished, c. 1671–75) [184]  
  De motu corporum in gyrum  (1684) [185]  
  Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica  (1687) [186]  
  Scala graduum Caloris. Calorum Descriptiones &amp; signa  (1701) [187]  
  Opticks  (1704) [188]  
 Reports as Master of the Mint (1701–1725) [189]  
  Arithmetica Universalis  (1707) [189]   
Published posthumously
  De mundi systemate (The System of the World) (1728) [189]  
 Optical Lectures (1728) [189]  
  The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended  (1728) [189]  
 Observations on Daniel and The Apocalypse of St. John (1733) [189]  
  Method of Fluxions  (1671, published 1736) [190]  
  An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture  (1754) [189]   
See also
   Elements of the Philosophy of Newton , a book by Voltaire
 List of multiple discoveries: seventeenth century 
 List of things named after Isaac Newton  
References
Notes
 
^    a       b       c       d       e    During Newton's lifetime, two calendars were in use in Europe: the Julian ("Old Style") calendar in Protestant and Orthodox regions, including Britain; and the Gregorian ("New Style") calendar in Roman Catholic Europe. At Newton's birth, Gregorian dates were ten days ahead of Julian dates; thus, his birth is recorded as taking place on 25 December 1642 Old Style, but it can be converted to a New Style (modern) date of 4 January 1643. By the time of his death, the difference between the calendars had increased to eleven days. Moreover, he died in the period after the start of the New Style year on 1 January but before that of the Old Style new year on 25 March. His death occurred on 20 March 1726, according to the Old Style calendar, but the year is usually adjusted to 1727. A full conversion to New Style gives the date 31 March 1727. [1]  [ self-published source? ]
  ^  This claim was made by William Stukeley in 1727, in a letter about Newton written to Richard Mead. Charles Hutton, who in the late eighteenth century collected oral traditions about earlier scientists, declared that there "do not appear to be any sufficient reason for his never marrying, if he had an inclination so to do. It is much more likely that he had a constitutional indifference to the state, and even to the sex in general." [106] 
 
Citations
 
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^    a       b     "Fellows of the Royal Society". London: Royal Society. Archived from the original on 16 March 2015.
  ^  Feingold, Mordechai. Barrow, Isaac (1630–1677) Archived 29 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, September 2004; online edn, May 2007. Retrieved 24 February 2009; explained further in Feingold, Mordechai (1993). "Newton, Leibniz, and Barrow Too: An Attempt at a Reinterpretation". Isis. 84 (2): 310–338. Bibcode:1993Isis...84..310F. doi:10.1086/356464. JSTOR 236236. S2CID 144019197.
  ^   "Dictionary of Scientific Biography". Notes, No. 4. Archived from the original on 25 February 2005.
  ^  Gjertsen 1986, p. [ page needed ]
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  ^  White 1997, p. 22.
  ^  Westfall 1980, pp. 60–62.
  ^  Westfall 1980, pp. 71, 103.
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  ^  Westfall 1980, p. 178.
  ^  Westfall 1980, pp. 330–331.
  ^  Ball 1908, p. 319.
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  ^  Gjertsen 1986, p. 149.
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  ^  Newton, Principia, 1729 English translation, p. 54 Archived 3 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
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  ^  In the preface to the Marquis de L'Hospital's Analyse des Infiniment Petits (Paris, 1696).
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  ^  Westfall 1980, pp. 538–539.
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  ^  Westfall 1980, p. 179.
  ^  White 1997, p. 151.
  ^  King, Henry C (2003).  The History of the Telescope . p. 74. ISBN  978-0-486-43265-6 .
  ^  Whittaker, E.T.,  A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity , Dublin University Press, 1910.
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^    a       b    White 1997, p. 170
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  ^  White 1997, p. 168.
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^    a       b    See 'Correspondence of Isaac Newton, vol. 2, 1676–1687' ed. H.W. Turnbull, Cambridge University Press 1960; at p. 297, document No. 235, letter from Hooke to Newton dated 24 November 1679.
  ^  Iliffe, Robert (2007) Newton. A very short introduction, Oxford University Press 2007
^    a       b    Westfall, Richard S. (1983) [1980].  Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 530–531. ISBN  978-0-521-27435-7 .
^    a       b    Keynes, John Maynard (1972). "Newton, The Man". The Collected Writings of John Maynard Keynes Volume X. MacMillan St. Martin's Press. pp. 363–366.
  ^  Dobbs, J.T. (December 1982). "Newton's Alchemy and His Theory of Matter". Isis. 73 (4): 523. doi:10.1086/353114. S2CID 170669199. quoting Opticks
  ^  Opticks, 2nd Ed 1706. Query 8.
^    a       b     Duarte, F.J. (2000). "Newton, prisms, and the 'opticks' of tunable lasers" (PDF). Optics and Photonics News. 11 (5): 24–25. Bibcode:2000OptPN..11...24D. doi:10.1364/OPN.11.5.000024. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 February 2015. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
  ^  Tyndall, John. (1880). Popular Science Monthly Volume 17, July. s:Popular Science Monthly/Volume 17/July 1880/Goethe's Farbenlehre: Theory of Colors II
  ^  Westfall 1980, pp. 391–392.
  ^  Whiteside, D.T., ed. (1974). Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton, 1684–1691. 6. Cambridge University Press. p. 30.
^    a       b    Schmitz, Kenneth S. (2018).  Physical Chemistry: Multidisciplinary Applications in Society . Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 251. ISBN  978-0-12-800599-6 . Archived from the original on 10 March 2020. Retrieved 1 March 2020.
  ^  Brewster, Sir David Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton, Volume 2. Edinburgh: 1860 p108
  ^  See Curtis Wilson, "The Newtonian achievement in astronomy", pp. 233–274 in R Taton &amp; C Wilson (eds) (1989) The General History of Astronomy, Volume, 2A', at p. 233 Archived 3 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine.
  ^  Text quotations are from 1729 translation of Newton's Principia, Book 3 (1729 vol.2) at pp. 232–233.
  ^  Edelglass et al., Matter and Mind, ISBN 0-940262-45-2. p. 54
  ^  On the meaning and origins of this expression, see Kirsten Walsh, Does Newton feign an hypothesis? Archived 14 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Early Modern Experimental Philosophy Archived 21 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, 18 October 2010.
  ^  Westfall 1980, Chapter 11.
^    a       b    Professor Robert A. Hatch, University of Florida. "Newton Timeline". Archived from the original on 2 August 2012. Retrieved 13 August 2012.
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  ^  Patrick Sawer (6 September 2016). "What students should avoid during fresher's week (100 years ago and now)". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 7 September 2016.
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  ^  White 1997, p. 317.
  ^  "The Queen's 'great Assistance' to Newton's election was his knighting, an honor bestowed not for his contributions to science, nor for his service at the Mint, but for the greater glory of party politics in the election of 1705." Westfall 1994, p. 245
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  ^  Dobre and Nyden suggest that there is no clear evidence that Voltaire was present; see p. 89 of Mihnea Dobre, Tammy Nyden (2013). Cartesian Empiricism. Springer. ISBN  978-94-007-7690-6 .
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  ^  Westfall 1980, p. 315.
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  ^  Opticks, 2nd Ed 1706. Query 31.
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  ^  Brewster states that Newton was never known as an Arian during his lifetime, it was William Whiston, an Arian, who first argued that "Sir Isaac Newton was so hearty for the Baptists, as well as for the Eusebians or Arians, that he sometimes suspected these two were the two witnesses in the Revelations," while others like Hopton Haynes (a Mint employee and Humanitarian), "mentioned to Richard Baron, that Newton held the same doctrine as himself". David Brewster. Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton. p. 268.
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  ^  Voltaire (1786) heard the story of Newton and the apple tree from Newton's niece, Catherine Conduit (née Barton) (1679–1740): Voltaire (1786).  Oeuvres completes de Voltaire  [The complete works of Voltaire] (in French). Vol. 31. Basel, Switzerland: Jean-Jacques Tourneisen. p. 175. Archived from the original on 9 July 2021. Retrieved 15 June 2021. From p. 175: "Un jour en l'année 1666, Newton retiré à la campagne, et voyant tomber des fruits d'un arbre, à ce que m'a conté sa nièce, (Mme Conduit) se laissa aller à une méditation profonde sur la cause qui entraine ainsi tous les corps dans une ligne, qui, si elle était prolongée, passerait à peu près par le centre de la terre." (One day in the year 1666 Newton withdrew to the country, and seeing the fruits of a tree fall, according to what his niece (Madame Conduit) told me, he entered into a deep meditation on the cause that draws all bodies in a [straight] line, which, if it were extended, would pass very near to the center of the Earth.)
  ^   Berkun, Scott (2010).  The Myths of Innovation . O'Reilly Media, Inc. p. 4. ISBN  978-1-4493-8962-8 .
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  ^  Cassels, Alan. Ideology and International Relations in the Modern World. p. 2.
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  ^  Anders Hald 2003 – A history of probability and statistics and their applications before 1750 – 586 pages Volume 501 of Wiley series in probability and statistics Wiley-IEEE, 2003 Archived 2 June 2022 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 27 January 2012 ISBN 0-471-47129-1
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Mark P. Silverman, A Universe of Atoms, An Atom in the Universe, Springer, 2002, p. 49. Archived 24 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine
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Bibliography
  Ball, W.W. Rouse (1908).  A Short Account of the History of Mathematics . New York: Dover. ISBN  978-0-486-20630-1 . 
 Christianson, Gale (1984).  In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton &amp; His Times . New York: Free Press. ISBN  978-0-02-905190-0 . This well documented work provides, in particular, valuable information regarding Newton's knowledge of Patristics 
 Craig, John (1958). "Isaac Newton – Crime Investigator". Nature. 182 (4629): 149–152. Bibcode:1958Natur.182..149C. doi:10.1038/182149a0. S2CID 4200994. 
 Craig, John (1963). "Isaac Newton and the Counterfeiters". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. 18 (2): 136–145. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1963.0017. S2CID 143981415. 
 Gjertsen, Derek (1986). The Newton Handbook. London: Routledge &amp; Kegan Paul. ISBN  0-7102-0279-2 . 
 Levenson, Thomas (2010). Newton and the Counterfeiter: The Unknown Detective Career of the World's Greatest Scientist. Mariner Books. ISBN  978-0-547-33604-6 . 
 Manuel, Frank E (1968).  A Portrait of Isaac Newton . Belknap Press of Harvard University, Cambridge, MA. 
 Stewart, James (2009). Calculus: Concepts and Contexts. Cengage Learning. ISBN  978-0-495-55742-5 . 
  Westfall, Richard S. (1980).  Never at Rest . Cambridge University Press. ISBN  978-0-521-27435-7 . 
 Westfall, Richard S. (2007). Isaac Newton. Cambridge University Press. ISBN  978-0-19-921355-9 . 
 Westfall, Richard S. (1994).  The Life of Isaac Newton . Cambridge University Press. ISBN  978-0-521-47737-6 . 
  White, Michael (1997). Isaac Newton: The Last Sorcerer. Fourth Estate Limited. ISBN  978-1-85702-416-6 .  
Further reading
Primary
 Newton, Isaac. The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. University of California Press, (1999)
 Brackenridge, J. Bruce. The Key to Newton's Dynamics: The Kepler Problem and the Principia: Containing an English Translation of Sections 1, 2, and 3 of Book One from the First (1687) Edition of Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, University of California Press (1996)  
Newton, Isaac. The Optical Papers of Isaac Newton. Vol. 1: The Optical Lectures, 1670–1672, Cambridge University Press (1984)
 Newton, Isaac. Opticks (4th ed. 1730) online edition 
Newton, I. (1952). Opticks, or A Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections &amp; Colours of Light. New York: Dover Publications.  
Newton, I. Sir Isaac Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy and His System of the World, tr. A. Motte, rev. Florian Cajori. Berkeley: University of California Press (1934)
  Whiteside, D.T., ed. (1967–1982). The Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN  978-0-521-07740-8 . – 8 volumes.
Newton, Isaac. The correspondence of Isaac Newton, ed. H.W. Turnbull and others, 7 vols (1959–77)
 Newton's Philosophy of Nature: Selections from His Writings edited by H.S. Thayer (1953; online edition)
Isaac Newton, Sir; J Edleston; Roger Cotes, Correspondence of Sir Isaac Newton and Professor Cotes, including letters of other eminent men, London, John W. Parker, West Strand; Cambridge, John Deighton (1850, Google Books)
Maclaurin, C. (1748). An Account of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophical Discoveries, in Four Books. London: A. Millar and J. Nourse
Newton, I. (1958). Isaac Newton's Papers and Letters on Natural Philosophy and Related Documents, eds. I.B. Cohen and R.E. Schofield. Cambridge: Harvard University Press
Newton, I. (1962). The Unpublished Scientific Papers of Isaac Newton: A Selection from the Portsmouth Collection in the University Library, Cambridge, ed. A.R. Hall and M.B. Hall. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Newton, I. (1975). Isaac Newton's 'Theory of the Moon's Motion' (1702). London: Dawson 
Alchemy
  Craig, John (1946). Newton at the Mint. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. 
 Craig, John (1953). "XII. Isaac Newton". The Mint: A History of the London Mint from A.D. 287 to 1948. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 198–222. ASIN B0000CIHG7. 
  de Villamil, Richard (1931). Newton, the Man. London: G.D. Knox. – Preface by Albert Einstein. Reprinted by Johnson Reprint Corporation, New York (1972)
 Dobbs, B.J.T. (1975). The Foundations of Newton's Alchemy or "The Hunting of the Greene Lyon". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 
  Keynes, John Maynard (1963).  Essays in Biography . W.W. Norton &amp; Co. ISBN  978-0-393-00189-1 . Keynes took a close interest in Newton and owned many of Newton's private papers.
 Stukeley, W. (1936). Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life. London: Taylor and Francis. (edited by A.H. White; originally published in 1752)
Trabue, J. "Ann and Arthur Storer of Calvert County, Maryland, Friends of Sir Isaac Newton,"  The American Genealogist  79 (2004): 13–27. 
Religion
 Dobbs, Betty Jo Tetter. The Janus Faces of Genius: The Role of Alchemy in Newton's Thought. (1991), links the alchemy to Arianism
Force, James E., and Richard H. Popkin, eds. Newton and Religion: Context, Nature, and Influence. (1999), pp. xvii, 325.; 13 papers by scholars using newly opened manuscripts
 Pfizenmaier, Thomas C (1997). "Was Isaac Newton an Arian?". Journal of the History of Ideas. 58 (1): 57–80. doi:10.1353/jhi.1997.0001. JSTOR 3653988. S2CID 170545277. 
 Ramati, Ayval (2001). "The Hidden Truth of Creation: Newton's Method of Fluxions". The British Journal for the History of Science. 34 (4): 417–438. doi:10.1017/S0007087401004484. JSTOR 4028372. S2CID 143045863. 
 Snobelen, Stephen D. (2001). "'God of Gods, and Lord of Lords': The Theology of Isaac Newton's General Scholium to the Principia". Osiris. 16: 169–208. Bibcode:2001Osir...16..169S. doi:10.1086/649344. JSTOR 301985. S2CID 170364912. 
 Snobelen, Stephen D. (December 1999). "Isaac Newton, heretic: the strategies of a Nicodemite". The British Journal for the History of Science. 32 (4): 381–419. doi:10.1017/S0007087499003751. JSTOR 4027945. S2CID 145208136.  
Science
  Bechler, Zev (2013). Contemporary Newtonian Research (Studies in the History of Modern Science)(Volume 9). Springer. ISBN  978-94-009-7717-4 . 
Berlinski, David. Newton's Gift: How Sir Isaac Newton Unlocked the System of the World. (2000); ISBN 0-684-84392-7 
  Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan (1995). Newton's Principia for the Common Reader. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN  978-0-19-851744-3 . 
Cohen, I. Bernard and Smith, George E., ed. The Cambridge Companion to Newton. (2002). Focuses on philosophical issues only; excerpt and text search; complete edition online  "The Cambridge Companion to Newton". Archived from the original on 8 October 2008. Retrieved 13 October 2008. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
 Cohen, I.B. (1980). The Newtonian Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN  978-0-521-22964-7 . 
 Gleick, James (2003). Isaac Newton. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN  978-0-375-42233-1 . 
 Halley, E. (1687). "Review of Newton's Principia".  Philosophical Transactions . 186: 291–297. 
 Hawking, Stephen, ed. On the Shoulders of Giants. ISBN 0-7624-1348-4 Places selections from Newton's Principia in the context of selected writings by Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Einstein
 Herivel, J.W. (1965).  The Background to Newton's Principia. A Study of Newton's Dynamical Researches in the Years 1664–84 . Oxford: Clarendon Press. 
Newton, Isaac. Papers and Letters in Natural Philosophy, edited by I. Bernard Cohen. Harvard University Press, 1958, 1978; ISBN 0-674-46853-8.
 Numbers, R.L. (2015).  Newton's Apple and Other Myths about Science . Harvard University Press. ISBN  978-0-674-91547-3 . 
 Pemberton, H. (1728). "A View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy". The Physics Teacher. 4 (1): 8–9. Bibcode:1966PhTea...4....8M. doi:10.1119/1.2350900. 
 Shamos, Morris H. (1959).  Great Experiments in Physics . New York: Henry Holt and Company, Inc. ISBN  978-0-486-25346-6 .  
External links
    This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 30 July 2008, and does not reflect subsequent edits. 
Writings by Newton
  Newton's works – full texts, at the Newton Project 
 Newton's papers in the Royal Society's archives 
 The Newton Manuscripts at the National Library of Israel – the collection of all his religious writings 
 Works by Isaac Newton at Project Gutenberg 
 Works by or about Isaac Newton at Internet Archive 
 Works by Isaac Newton at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) 
 "Newton Papers" – Cambridge Digital Library
Isaac Newton - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton
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Learn about René Descartes
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René Descartes
<div><div>
<h2>About </h2>
<p>Dealt in reason through meditations. He famously claimed, "I think therefore I am." He was considered to be the Father of Modern Philosophy.</p>
<h2>Before Fame</h2>
<p>He was not expected to survive at birth. He studied law at the University of Poitiers in accordance with his father's wishes.</p>
<h2>Trivia</h2>
<p>His innovations in mathematics influenced how graphing was done. In1629, he joined the University of Franeker to study under Adriaan Metius.</p>
<h2>Family Life</h2>
<p>His mother died when he was only one. He had a daughter named Francine Descartes.</p>
<h2>Associated With</h2>
<p>He was one of the major players during the Scientific Revolution along with <a href="https://www.famousbirthdays.com/people/galileo-galilei.html">Galileo Galilei</a>.</p>
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 René Descartes

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 Birthday March 31 , 1596

 Birth Sign Aries

 Birthplace Indre-et-Loire, France

 DEATH DATE Feb 11 , 1650 ( age 53 )

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 Dealt in reason through meditations. He famously claimed, "I think therefore I am." He was considered to be the Father of Modern Philosophy.

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 He was not expected to survive at birth. He studied law at the University of Poitiers in accordance with his father's wishes.

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 His innovations in mathematics influenced how graphing was done. In1629, he joined the University of Franeker to study under Adriaan Metius.

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 His mother died when he was only one. He had a daughter named Francine Descartes.

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 He was one of the major players during the Scientific Revolution along with Galileo Galilei.

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About 
Dealt in reason through meditations. He famously claimed, "I think therefore I am." He was considered to be the Father of Modern Philosophy.
Before Fame
He was not expected to survive at birth. He studied law at the University of Poitiers in accordance with his father's wishes.
Trivia
His innovations in mathematics influenced how graphing was done. In1629, he joined the University of Franeker to study under Adriaan Metius.
Family Life
His mother died when he was only one. He had a daughter named Francine Descartes.
Associated With
He was one of the major players during the Scientific Revolution along with Galileo Galilei.
Learn about René Descartes
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Learn about John Locke
2000-01-01
John Locke
<div><div>
<h2>About<a href="#"><i></i></a></h2>
<p>English philosopher and doctor commonly referred to as "The Father of Liberalism." He was one of the Enlightenment Age's most influential thinkers. His ideas heavily influenced the writing of the Declaration of Independence.</p>
<h2>Before Fame</h2>
<p>He earned a medicine degree from Oxford in 1674.</p>
<h2>Trivia</h2>
<p>He had influential theories on limited government, right to property, and the social contract. His theory of mind led to modern understandings of identity and the self and influenced Kant, Hume, and Rousseau.</p>
<h2>Family Life</h2>
<p>He grew up with one brother named Thomas. His father was a country lawyer and clerk for the Chew Magna Justices of the Peace. He was raised in a Puritan household.</p>
<h2>Associated With</h2>
<p>He and Sir <a href="https://www.famousbirthdays.com/people/sir-francis-bacon.html">Francis Bacon</a> were among the first British empiricists and had a huge impact on social contract theory.</p>
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 John Locke

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 August Aug 29, 1632

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 Wrington, England

 DEATH DATE

 Oct 28, 1704 ( age 72)

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 August Aug 29, 1632

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 Oct 28, 1704 ( age 72)

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 English philosopher and doctor commonly referred to as "The Father of Liberalism." He was one of the Enlightenment Age's most influential thinkers. His ideas heavily influenced the writing of the Declaration of Independence.

 Before Fame

 He earned a medicine degree from Oxford in 1674.

 Trivia

 He had influential theories on limited government, right to property, and the social contract. His theory of mind led to modern understandings of identity and the self and influenced Kant, Hume, and Rousseau.

 Family Life

 He grew up with one brother named Thomas. His father was a country lawyer and clerk for the Chew Magna Justices of the Peace. He was raised in a Puritan household.

 Associated With

 He and Sir Francis Bacon were among the first British empiricists and had a huge impact on social contract theory.


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About    
English philosopher and doctor commonly referred to as "The Father of Liberalism." He was one of the Enlightenment Age's most influential thinkers. His ideas heavily influenced the writing of the Declaration of Independence.
Before Fame
He earned a medicine degree from Oxford in 1674.
Trivia
He had influential theories on limited government, right to property, and the social contract. His theory of mind led to modern understandings of identity and the self and influenced Kant, Hume, and Rousseau.
Family Life
He grew up with one brother named Thomas. His father was a country lawyer and clerk for the Chew Magna Justices of the Peace. He was raised in a Puritan household.
Associated With
He and Sir Francis Bacon were among the first British empiricists and had a huge impact on social contract theory.
Learn about John Locke
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Learn about Edmond Halley
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Edmond Halley
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<h2>About </h2>
<p>English mathematician who is credited as being the first person to calculate the orbit of Halley's Comet. He also served as the second Astronomer Royal, a senior post in the Royal Households of the United Kingdom, in British history.</p>
<h2>Before Fame</h2>
<p>He was a fellow of the Royal Society after studying at Oxford University. </p>
<h2>Trivia</h2>
<p>He was censured by The Royal Society when he suggested that the biblical story of Noah's arc surviving a flood could have been caused by a comet. He succeeded John Flamsteed as Astronomer Royal in 1720. </p>
<h2>Family Life</h2>
<p>He fathered three children with Mary Tooke: Edmond, Margaret, and Richelle.</p>
<h2>Associated With</h2>
<p>His contemporary <a href="https://www.famousbirthdays.com/people/isaac-newton.html">Sir Isaac Newton</a> also had a comet named after him.</p>
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 Edmond Halley

 Mathematician

 Birthday November 8 , 1656

 Birth Sign Scorpio

 Birthplace England

 DEATH DATE Jan 14 , 1742 ( age 85 )

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 English mathematician who is credited as being the first person to calculate the orbit of Halley's Comet. He also served as the second Astronomer Royal, a senior post in the Royal Households of the United Kingdom, in British history.

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 He was a fellow of the Royal Society after studying at Oxford University.

 Trivia

 He was censured by The Royal Society when he suggested that the biblical story of Noah's arc surviving a flood could have been caused by a comet. He succeeded John Flamsteed as Astronomer Royal in 1720.

 Family Life

 He fathered three children with Mary Tooke: Edmond, Margaret, and Richelle.

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 His contemporary Sir Isaac Newton also had a comet named after him.

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About 
English mathematician who is credited as being the first person to calculate the orbit of Halley's Comet. He also served as the second Astronomer Royal, a senior post in the Royal Households of the United Kingdom, in British history.
Before Fame
He was a fellow of the Royal Society after studying at Oxford University. 
Trivia
He was censured by The Royal Society when he suggested that the biblical story of Noah's arc surviving a flood could have been caused by a comet. He succeeded John Flamsteed as Astronomer Royal in 1720. 
Family Life
He fathered three children with Mary Tooke: Edmond, Margaret, and Richelle.
Associated With
His contemporary Sir Isaac Newton also had a comet named after him.
Learn about Edmond Halley
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Learn about King James II
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King James II
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<h2>About </h2>
<p>King of England and Ireland as James II and King of Scotland as James VII, from 6 February 1685 until he was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. He is best known for bucking the Anglican establishment by trying to procure religious liberty for English Roman Catholics and Protestant nonconformists. </p>
<h2>Before Fame</h2>
<p>He was appointed the position of Lord High Admiral at age 3.</p>
<h2>Trivia</h2>
<p>He was the last Roman Catholic monarch in England, Ireland, and Scotland.</p>
<h2>Family Life</h2>
<p>He was married twice, first to Anne Hyde and then to Mary of Modena. He fathered nineteen children, including <a href="https://www.famousbirthdays.com/people/anne--queen-of-great-britain.html">Anne, Queen of Great Britain</a> and Mary II. </p>
<h2>Associated With</h2>
<p>He was part of the Stuart family, the ruling family after the death of Queen <a href="https://www.famousbirthdays.com/people/elizabeth-i.html">Elizabeth I</a>.</p>
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 Birthday October 14 , 1633

 Birth Sign Libra

 Birthplace London , England

 DEATH DATE Sep 16 , 1701 ( age 67 )

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 King of England and Ireland as James II and King of Scotland as James VII, from 6 February 1685 until he was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. He is best known for bucking the Anglican establishment by trying to procure religious liberty for English Roman Catholics and Protestant nonconformists.

 Before Fame

 He was appointed the position of Lord High Admiral at age 3.

 Trivia

 He was the last Roman Catholic monarch in England, Ireland, and Scotland.

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 He was married twice, first to Anne Hyde and then to Mary of Modena. He fathered nineteen children, including Anne, Queen of Great Britain and Mary II.

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 He was part of the Stuart family, the ruling family after the death of Queen Elizabeth I.

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King of England and Ireland as James II and King of Scotland as James VII, from 6 February 1685 until he was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. He is best known for bucking the Anglican establishment by trying to procure religious liberty for English Roman Catholics and Protestant nonconformists. 
Before Fame
He was appointed the position of Lord High Admiral at age 3.
Trivia
He was the last Roman Catholic monarch in England, Ireland, and Scotland.
Family Life
He was married twice, first to Anne Hyde and then to Mary of Modena. He fathered nineteen children, including Anne, Queen of Great Britain and Mary II. 
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He was part of the Stuart family, the ruling family after the death of Queen Elizabeth I.
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Learn about Louis XIV
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Louis XIV
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<h2>About </h2>
<p>For more than seventy years, during a period of French political dominance that included the War of the Spanish Succession and the Franco-Dutch War, this "Sun King" and House of Bourbon member ruled France. An absolute monarch and a believer in the divine right of royalty, he became known for his lavish lifestyle at his ornate Palace of Versailles.</p>
<h2>Before Fame</h2>
<p>Because he was born over two decades into his parents' marriage and was the only non-stillborn child of Queen Anne of Austria and Louis XIII, the young Louis XIV was widely regarded as a heavenly gift to France. During his childhood years, Louis was tutored by nobleman Nicolas V de Villeroy.</p>
<h2>Trivia</h2>
<p>A notable patron of the arts as well as a legal, military, and fiscal reformer, Louis XIV supported the careers of a number of prominent French authors, including playwrights <a href="https://www.famousbirthdays.com/people/jean-racine.html">Jean Racine</a> and Moliere. He founded the French Academy of Sciences, which had centuries-long impacts. </p>
<h2>Family Life</h2>
<p>His marriage to <a href="https://www.famousbirthdays.com/people/maria-theresa.html">Maria Theresa</a> of Spain produced only one surviving child-- Louis Le Grand Dauphin -- and he later secretly married Francoise d'Aubigne. Through a series of affairs, he fathered at least sixteen children.</p>
<h2>Associated With</h2>
<p>Author <a href="https://www.famousbirthdays.com/people/alexandre-dumas.html">Alexandre Dumas</a> made Louis XIV a central character in the novels Twenty Years After and The Vicomte de Bragelonne.</p>
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 Louis XIV

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 Birthday September 5 , 1638

 Birth Sign Virgo

 Birthplace France

 DEATH DATE Sep 1 , 1715 ( age 76 )

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 About

 For more than seventy years, during a period of French political dominance that included the War of the Spanish Succession and the Franco-Dutch War, this "Sun King" and House of Bourbon member ruled France. An absolute monarch and a believer in the divine right of royalty, he became known for his lavish lifestyle at his ornate Palace of Versailles.

 Before Fame

 Because he was born over two decades into his parents' marriage and was the only non-stillborn child of Queen Anne of Austria and Louis XIII, the young Louis XIV was widely regarded as a heavenly gift to France. During his childhood years, Louis was tutored by nobleman Nicolas V de Villeroy.

 Trivia

 A notable patron of the arts as well as a legal, military, and fiscal reformer, Louis XIV supported the careers of a number of prominent French authors, including playwrights Jean Racine and Moliere. He founded the French Academy of Sciences, which had centuries-long impacts.

 Family Life

 His marriage to Maria Theresa of Spain produced only one surviving child-- Louis Le Grand Dauphin -- and he later secretly married Francoise d'Aubigne. Through a series of affairs, he fathered at least sixteen children.

 Associated With

 Author Alexandre Dumas made Louis XIV a central character in the novels Twenty Years After and The Vicomte de Bragelonne.

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About 
For more than seventy years, during a period of French political dominance that included the War of the Spanish Succession and the Franco-Dutch War, this "Sun King" and House of Bourbon member ruled France. An absolute monarch and a believer in the divine right of royalty, he became known for his lavish lifestyle at his ornate Palace of Versailles.
Before Fame
Because he was born over two decades into his parents' marriage and was the only non-stillborn child of Queen Anne of Austria and Louis XIII, the young Louis XIV was widely regarded as a heavenly gift to France. During his childhood years, Louis was tutored by nobleman Nicolas V de Villeroy.
Trivia
A notable patron of the arts as well as a legal, military, and fiscal reformer, Louis XIV supported the careers of a number of prominent French authors, including playwrights Jean Racine and Moliere. He founded the French Academy of Sciences, which had centuries-long impacts. 
Family Life
His marriage to Maria Theresa of Spain produced only one surviving child-- Louis Le Grand Dauphin -- and he later secretly married Francoise d'Aubigne. Through a series of affairs, he fathered at least sixteen children.
Associated With
Author Alexandre Dumas made Louis XIV a central character in the novels Twenty Years After and The Vicomte de Bragelonne.
Learn about Louis XIV
https://www.famousbirthdays.com/people/louis-xiv.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin
Benjamin Franklin - Wikipedia
2001-08-09
Success as an author
<div><div>
<table><tbody><tr><th><p>Benjamin Franklin</p><div><p><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society">FRS</a> <a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Arts">FRSA</a> <a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh">FRSE</a></p></div></th></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis_-_Benjamin_Franklin_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"></a><div><p><i>Benjamin Franklin</i> by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Duplessis">Joseph Duplessis</a>, 1778</p></div></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><th>6th <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Executive_Council_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Pennsylvania#Presidents">President of Pennsylvania</a></th></tr><tr><td><b>In office</b><br />October 18, 1785 – November 5, 1788</td></tr><tr><th>Vice President</th><td><a href="/wiki/Charles_Biddle">Charles Biddle</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Peter_Muhlenberg">Peter Muhlenberg</a><br /><a href="/wiki/David_Redick">David Redick</a></td></tr><tr><th>Preceded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson">John Dickinson</a></td></tr><tr><th>Succeeded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mifflin">Thomas Mifflin</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/United_States_Minister_to_Sweden">United States Minister to Sweden</a></th></tr><tr><td><b>In office</b><br />September 28, 1782 – April 3, 1783</td></tr><tr><th>Appointed by</th><td><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_Confederation">Congress of the Confederation</a></td></tr><tr><th>Preceded by</th><td><i>Position established</i></td></tr><tr><th>Succeeded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Russell">Jonathan Russell</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/United_States_Minister_to_France">United States Minister to France</a></th></tr><tr><td><b>In office</b><br />March 23, 1779 – May 17, 1785</td></tr><tr><th>Appointed by</th><td><a href="/wiki/Continental_Congress">Continental Congress</a></td></tr><tr><th>Preceded by</th><td><i>Position established</i></td></tr><tr><th>Succeeded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></td></tr><tr><th>1st <a href="/wiki/United_States_Postmaster_General">United States Postmaster General</a></th></tr><tr><td><b>In office</b><br />July 26, 1775 – November 7, 1776</td></tr><tr><th>Preceded by</th><td><i>Position established</i></td></tr><tr><th>Succeeded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bache">Richard Bache</a></td></tr><tr><th>Delegate from <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a> to <a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress">Second Continental Congress</a></th></tr><tr><td><b>In office</b><br />May 1775 – October 1776</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/United_States_Postmaster_General">Postmaster General of British America</a></th></tr><tr><td><b>In office</b><br />August 10, 1753 – January 31, 1774</td></tr><tr><th>Preceded by</th><td><i>Position established</i></td></tr><tr><th>Succeeded by</th><td>Vacant</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/List_of_Speakers_of_the_Pennsylvania_House_of_Representatives">Speaker of the Pennsylvania Assembly</a></th></tr><tr><td><b>In office</b><br />May 1764 – October 1764</td></tr><tr><th>Preceded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Norris_(statesman)">Isaac Norris</a></td></tr><tr><th>Succeeded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Norris_(statesman)">Isaac Norris</a></td></tr><tr><th>2nd <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_University_of_Pennsylvania">President of the University of Pennsylvania</a></th></tr><tr><td><b>In office</b><br />1749–1754</td></tr><tr><th>Preceded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/George_Whitefield">George Whitefield</a></td></tr><tr><th>Succeeded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/William_Smith_(Episcopal_priest)">William Smith</a></td></tr><tr><th>Personal details</th></tr><tr><th>Born</th><td>January 17, 1706 [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates">O.S.</a> January 6, 1705]<sup><a href="#cite_note-birthdate-1">[Note 1]</a></sup><br /><a href="/wiki/Boston">Boston</a>, <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Massachusetts_Bay">Massachusetts Bay</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_America">British America</a></td></tr><tr><th>Died</th><td>April 17, 1790 (aged 84)<br /><a href="/wiki/Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, Pennsylvania, U.S.</td></tr><tr><th>Resting place</th><td><a href="/wiki/Christ_Church_Burial_Ground">Christ Church Burial Ground</a> <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, Pennsylvania, U.S.</td></tr><tr><th>Political party</th><td><a href="/wiki/Independent_politician">Independent</a></td></tr><tr><th>Spouse</th><td><div><div><p><a href="/wiki/Deborah_Read">Deborah Read</a></p></div>
 <p>​</p> <p>​</p><p>(<abbr>m.</abbr> ; died 1774)<wbr></wbr>​</p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Children</th><td><div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Franklin">William</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Folger_Franklin">Francis</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Franklin_Bache">Sarah</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Parent(s)</th><td><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Franklin">Josiah Franklin</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Abiah_Folger">Abiah Folger</a></td></tr><tr><th>Education</th><td><a href="/wiki/Boston_Latin_School">Boston Latin School</a></td></tr><tr><th>Signature</th><td><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Franklin_Signature.svg"></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Benjamin_Franklin.svg"></a><br />Coat of arms of Benjamin Franklin</td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Benjamin Franklin</b> <a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society">FRS</a> <a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Arts">FRSA</a> <a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh">FRSE</a> (January 17, 1706 [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates">O.S.</a> January 6, 1705]<sup><a href="#cite_note-birthdate-1">[Note 1]</a></sup> – April 17, 1790) was an American <a href="/wiki/Polymath">polymath</a> who was active as a writer, scientist, <a href="/wiki/Invention">inventor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Statesman_(politician)">statesman</a>, diplomat, <a href="/wiki/Printer_(publishing)">printer</a>, publisher, <a href="/wiki/Forger">forger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy">political philosopher.</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-Britannica-2">[1]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-3">[2]</a></sup> Among the leading intellectuals of his time, Franklin was one of the <a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States">Founding Fathers</a> of the United States, a <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Five">drafter</a> and signer of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence">United States Declaration of Independence</a>, and the first <a href="/wiki/United_States_Postmaster_General">United States Postmaster General</a>.
</p><p>As a scientist, he was a major figure in the <a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment">American Enlightenment</a> and the <a href="/wiki/History_of_physics">history of physics</a> for his studies of electricity, and for charting and naming the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream">Gulf Stream</a> current. As an inventor, he is known for the <a href="/wiki/Lightning_rod">lightning rod</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bifocals">bifocals</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Franklin_stove">Franklin stove</a>, among others.<sup><a href="#cite_note-4">[3]</a></sup> He founded many <a href="/wiki/Civic_organization">civic organizations</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Library_Company_of_Philadelphia">Library Company</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>'s first <a href="/wiki/Union_Fire_Company">fire department</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-5">[4]</a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-auto-6">[5]</a></sup> 
Franklin earned the title of "The First American" for his early and indefatigable campaigning for <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies">colonial unity</a>, and as an author and spokesman in London for several colonies. As the first <a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_France">United States ambassador to France</a>, he exemplified the emerging American nation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-7">[6]</a></sup> Franklin was foundational in defining the American ethos as a marriage of the practical values of thrift, hard work, education, community spirit, self-governing institutions, and opposition to authoritarianism both political and religious, with the scientific and tolerant values of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>. In the words of historian <a href="/wiki/Henry_Steele_Commager">Henry Steele Commager</a>, "In Franklin could be merged the virtues of <a href="/wiki/Puritans">Puritanism</a> without its defects, the illumination of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> without its heat."<sup><a href="#cite_note-8">[7]</a></sup> Franklin has been called "the most accomplished American of his age and the most influential in inventing the type of society America would become."<sup><a href="#cite_note-9">[8]</a></sup>
</p><p>Franklin became a successful <a href="/wiki/Early_American_publishers_and_printers">newspaper editor and printer</a> in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, the leading city in the colonies, publishing the <i><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Gazette">Pennsylvania Gazette</a></i> at age 23.<sup><a href="#cite_note-10">[9]</a></sup> He became wealthy publishing this and <i><a href="/wiki/Poor_Richard%27s_Almanack">Poor Richard's Almanack</a></i>, which he wrote under the pseudonym "Richard Saunders".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Goodrich1829-11">[10]</a></sup> After 1767, he was associated with the <i><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Chronicle">Pennsylvania Chronicle</a></i>, a newspaper that was known for its revolutionary sentiments and criticisms of the policies of the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Great_Britain">British Parliament</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Crown">the Crown</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Smithsonian+Constitutional_Post-12">[11]</a></sup>
</p><p>He pioneered and was the first president of the <a href="/wiki/Academy_and_College_of_Philadelphia">Academy and College of Philadelphia</a>, which opened in 1751 and later became the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a>. He organized and was the first secretary of the <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society">American Philosophical Society</a> and was elected president in 1769. Franklin became a national hero in America as an agent for several colonies when he spearheaded an effort in London to have the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Great_Britain">Parliament of Great Britain</a> repeal the unpopular <a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_1765">Stamp Act</a>. An accomplished diplomat, he was widely admired among the French as American minister to Paris and was a major figure in the development of positive <a href="/wiki/France%E2%80%93United_States_relations">Franco–American relations</a>. His efforts proved vital for the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution">American Revolution</a> in securing French aid.
</p><p>He was promoted to deputy postmaster-general for the British colonies on August 10, 1753,<sup><a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a></sup> having been Philadelphia postmaster for many years, and this enabled him to set up the first national communications network. He was active in community affairs and colonial and state politics, as well as national and international affairs. From 1785 to 1788, he served as <a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_Pennsylvania">governor of Pennsylvania</a>. He initially owned and dealt in slaves but, by the late 1750s, he began arguing against <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States">slavery</a>, became an <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States">abolitionist</a>, and promoted education and the <a href="/wiki/Racial_integration">integration</a> of African Americans into U.S. society.
</p><p>His life and legacy of scientific and political achievement, and his status as one of America's most influential Founding Fathers, have seen Franklin honored more than two centuries after his death on the <a href="/wiki/United_States_one-hundred-dollar_bill">$100 bill</a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Franklin">warships</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_places_named_for_Benjamin_Franklin">the names of many towns</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_(United_States)">counties</a>, educational institutions, and corporations, as well as numerous <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_in_popular_culture">cultural references</a> and with a portrait in the <a href="/wiki/Oval_Office">Oval Office</a>. Over his lifetime, Franklin wrote or received more than 30,000 letters and other documents, which since the 1950s have been collected in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Papers_of_Benjamin_Franklin">The Papers of Benjamin Franklin</a></i>, published by the American Philosophical Society and Yale University.
</p>
<h2>Ancestry</h2>
<p>Benjamin Franklin's father, <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Franklin">Josiah Franklin</a>, was a <a href="/wiki/Tallow">tallow</a> <a href="/wiki/Chandlery">chandler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soaper">soaper</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Candle">candlemaker</a>. Josiah Franklin was born at <a href="/wiki/Ecton,_Northamptonshire">Ecton, Northamptonshire</a>, England, on December 23, 1657, the son of Thomas Franklin, a blacksmith and farmer, and his wife, Jane White. Benjamin's father and all four of his grandparents were born in England.<sup><a href="#cite_note-14">[13]</a></sup>
</p><p>Josiah Franklin had a total of seventeen children with his two wives. He married his first wife, Anne Child, in about 1677 in Ecton and emigrated with her to <a href="/wiki/Boston">Boston</a> in 1683; they had three children before emigration and four after. Following her death, Josiah married <a href="/wiki/Abiah_Folger">Abiah Folger</a> on July 9, 1689, in the <a href="/wiki/Old_South_Meeting_House">Old South Meeting House</a> by <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Willard">Reverend Samuel Willard</a>, and had ten children with her. Benjamin, their eighth child, was Josiah Franklin's fifteenth child overall, and his tenth and final son.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Benjamin Franklin's mother, Abiah, was born in <a href="/wiki/Nantucket">Nantucket</a>, <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony">Massachusetts Bay Colony</a>, on August 15, 1667, to <a href="/wiki/Peter_Folger_(Nantucket_settler)">Peter Folger</a>, a miller and schoolteacher, and his wife, <a href="/wiki/Mary_Morrell_Folger">Mary Morrell Folger</a>, a former <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude">indentured servant</a>. Mary Folger came from a Puritan family that was among the first <a href="/wiki/Pilgrim">Pilgrims</a> to flee to Massachusetts for <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion">religious freedom</a>, sailing for <a href="/wiki/Boston">Boston</a> in 1635 after King <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_England">Charles I of England</a> had begun persecuting Puritans. Her father Peter was "the sort of rebel destined to transform colonial America."<sup><a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a></sup> As <a href="/wiki/Court_clerk">clerk of the court</a>, he was jailed for disobeying the local magistrate in defense of middle-class shopkeepers and artisans in conflict with wealthy landowners.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h2>Early life</h2>
<h3>Boston</h3>
<div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Franklin_Birthplace_2.JPG"></a></p></div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Franklin_Birthplace.jpg"></a></p><p>Franklin's birthplace site directly across from the <a href="/wiki/Old_South_Meeting_House">Old South Meeting House</a>, commemorated by a <a href="/wiki/Bust_(sculpture)">bust</a> atop the second-floor façade of this building, May 2008</p></div></div>
<p>Franklin was born on <a href="/wiki/Milk_Street,_Boston">Milk Street</a> in <a href="/wiki/Boston">Boston</a>, Massachusetts on January 17, 1706,<sup><a href="#cite_note-birthdate-1">[Note 1]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Infant_baptism">baptized</a> at Old South Meeting House. As a child growing up along the <a href="/wiki/Charles_River">Charles River</a>, Franklin recalled that he was "generally the leader among the boys."<sup><a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a></sup>
</p><p>Franklin's father wanted him to attend school with the clergy but only had enough money to send him to school for two years. He attended <a href="/wiki/Boston_Latin_School">Boston Latin School</a> but did not graduate; he continued his education through voracious reading. Although "his parents talked of the church as a career"<sup><a href="#cite_note-autobio-19">[18]</a></sup> for Franklin, his schooling ended when he was ten. He worked for his father for a time, and at 12 he became an <a href="/wiki/Apprenticeship">apprentice</a> to his brother James, a printer, who taught him the printing trade. When Benjamin was 15, James founded <i><a href="/wiki/The_New-England_Courant">The New-England Courant</a></i>, which was one of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers">first American newspapers</a>.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>When denied the chance to write a letter to the paper for publication, Franklin adopted the pseudonym of "<a href="/wiki/Silence_Dogood">Silence Dogood</a>", a middle-aged widow. Mrs. Dogood's letters were published and became a subject of conversation around town. Neither James nor the <i>Courant</i>'s readers were aware of the ruse, and James was unhappy with Benjamin when he discovered the popular correspondent was his younger brother. Franklin was an advocate of free speech from an early age. When his brother was jailed for three weeks in 1722 for publishing material unflattering to the governor, young Franklin took over the newspaper and had Mrs. Dogood (quoting <i><a href="/wiki/Cato%27s_Letters">Cato's Letters</a></i>) proclaim, "Without freedom of thought there can be no such thing as wisdom and no such thing as public liberty without freedom of speech."<sup><a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a></sup> Franklin left his apprenticeship without his brother's permission, and in so doing became a fugitive.<sup><a href="#cite_note-vandoren-21">[20]</a></sup><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources">page needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h3>Move to Philadelphia</h3>
<p>At age 17, Franklin ran away to Philadelphia, seeking a new start in a new city. When he first arrived, he worked in several printer shops around town, but he was not satisfied by the immediate prospects. After a few months, while working in a printing house, Pennsylvania governor <a href="/wiki/Sir_William_Keith,_4th_Baronet">Sir William Keith</a> convinced him to go to London, ostensibly to acquire the equipment necessary for establishing another newspaper in Philadelphia. Discovering that Keith's promises of backing a newspaper were empty, he worked as a <a href="/wiki/Typesetting">typesetter</a> in a printer's shop in what is now the <a href="/wiki/St_Bartholomew-the-Great">Church of St Bartholomew-the-Great</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Smithfield,_London">Smithfield</a> area of London. Following this, he returned to Philadelphia in 1726 with the help of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Denham">Thomas Denham</a>, a merchant who employed him as a clerk, shopkeeper, and bookkeeper in his business.<sup><a href="#cite_note-vandoren-21">[20]</a></sup><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources">page needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h3>Junto and library</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin_-_ita,_1825_-_766672_R_(cropped).jpeg"></a></p><div><p><i>La scuola della economia e della morale</i> sketch of Franklin, 1825</p></div></div>
<p>In 1727, at age 21, Franklin formed the <a href="/wiki/Junto_(club)">Junto</a>, a group of "like minded aspiring artisans and tradesmen who hoped to improve themselves while they improved their community." The Junto was a discussion group for issues of the day; it subsequently gave rise to many organizations in Philadelphia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a></sup> The Junto was modeled after English coffeehouses that Franklin knew well and which had become the center of the spread of Enlightenment ideas in Britain.<sup><a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a></sup>
</p><p>Reading was a great pastime of the Junto, but books were rare and expensive. The members created a library initially assembled from their own books after Franklin wrote:
</p>
<blockquote><p>A proposition was made by me that since our books were often referr'd to in our disquisitions upon the inquiries, it might be convenient for us to have them altogether where we met, that upon occasion they might be consulted; and by thus clubbing our books to a common library, we should, while we lik'd to keep them together, have each of us the advantage of using the books of all the other members, which would be nearly as beneficial as if each owned the whole.<sup><a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a></sup><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources">page needed</a></i>]</sup></p></blockquote>
<p>This did not suffice, however. Franklin conceived the idea of a <a href="/wiki/Subscription_library">subscription library</a>, which would pool the funds of the members to buy books for all to read. This was the birth of the <a href="/wiki/Library_Company_of_Philadelphia">Library Company of Philadelphia</a>: its charter was composed by him in 1731. In 1732, he hired the first American librarian, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Timothee">Louis Timothee</a>. The Library Company is now a great scholarly and <a href="/wiki/Library#Research_library">research library</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Newspaperman</h3>
<p>Upon Denham's death, Franklin returned to his former trade. In 1728, he set up a printing house in partnership with <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Meredith">Hugh Meredith</a>; the following year he became the publisher of a newspaper called <i><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Gazette">The Pennsylvania Gazette</a></i>. The <i>Gazette</i> gave Franklin a forum for agitation about a variety of local reforms and initiatives through printed essays and observations. Over time, his commentary, and his adroit cultivation of a positive image as an industrious and intellectual young man, earned him a great deal of social respect. But even after he achieved fame as a scientist and statesman, he habitually signed his letters with the unpretentious 'B. Franklin, Printer.'<sup><a href="#cite_note-vandoren-21">[20]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin_the_printer2.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>In 1732, he published the first German-language newspaper in America – <i>Die Philadelphische Zeitung</i> – although it failed after only one year because four other newly founded German papers quickly dominated the newspaper market.<sup><a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a></sup> Franklin also printed <a href="/wiki/Moravian_Church">Moravian</a> religious books in German. He often visited <a href="/wiki/Bethlehem,_Pennsylvania">Bethlehem, Pennsylvania</a>, staying at the <a href="/wiki/Moravian_Sun_Inn">Moravian Sun Inn</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a></sup> In a 1751 pamphlet on demographic growth and its implications for the Thirteen Colonies, he called the <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Dutch">Pennsylvania Germans</a> "Palatine Boors" who could never acquire the "Complexion" of <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Americans">Anglo-American</a> settlers and referred to "Blacks and Tawneys" as weakening the social structure of the colonies. Although he apparently reconsidered shortly thereafter, and the phrases were omitted from all later printings of the pamphlet, his views may have played a role in his political defeat in 1764.<sup><a href="#cite_note-29">[28]</a></sup>
</p><p>According to Ralph Frasca, Franklin promoted the printing press as a device to instruct colonial Americans in moral virtue. Frasca argues he saw this as a service to God, because he understood moral virtue in terms of actions, thus, doing good provides a service to God. Despite his own moral lapses, Franklin saw himself as uniquely qualified to instruct Americans in morality. He tried to influence American moral life through the construction of a printing network based on a chain of partnerships from the Carolinas to New England. He thereby invented the first newspaper chain.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> It was more than a business venture, for like many publishers he believed that the press had a public-service duty.<sup><a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-31">[30]</a></sup>
</p><p>When he established himself in Philadelphia, shortly before 1730, the town boasted two "wretched little" news sheets, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Bradford">Andrew Bradford</a>'s <i>The American Weekly Mercury</i>, and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Keimer">Samuel Keimer</a>'s <i>Universal Instructor in all Arts and Sciences, and Pennsylvania Gazette</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a></sup> This instruction in all arts and sciences consisted of weekly extracts from <i>Chambers's Universal Dictionary</i>. Franklin quickly did away with all of this when he took over the <i>Instructor</i> and made it <i>The Pennsylvania Gazette</i>. The <i>Gazette</i> soon became his characteristic organ, which he freely used for satire, for the play of his wit, even for sheer excess of mischief or of fun. From the first, he had a way of adapting his models to his own uses. The series of essays called "<a href="/wiki/The_Busy-Body_(pen_name)">The Busy-Body</a>", which he wrote for Bradford's <i>American Mercury</i> in 1729, followed the general <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Addison">Addisonian</a> form, already modified to suit homelier conditions. The thrifty Patience, in her busy little shop, complaining of the useless visitors who waste her valuable time, is related to the women who address Mr. Spectator. The Busy-Body himself is a true Censor Morum, as <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Bickerstaff">Isaac Bickerstaff</a> had been in the <i>Tatler</i>. And a number of the fictitious characters, Ridentius, Eugenius, Cato, and Cretico, represent traditional 18th-century classicism. Even this Franklin could use for contemporary satire, since Cretico, the "sowre Philosopher", is evidently a portrait of his rival, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Keimer">Samuel Keimer</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a></sup><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources">page needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Franklin had mixed success in his plan to establish an inter-colonial network of newspapers that would produce a profit for him and disseminate virtue. Over the years he sponsored two dozen printers in Pennsylvania, South Carolina, New York, Connecticut and even the Caribbean. By 1753, 8 of the 15 English language newspapers in the colonies were published by him or his partners.<sup><a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a></sup> He began in <a href="/wiki/Charleston,_South_Carolina">Charleston, South Carolina</a>, in 1731. After his second editor died, the widow <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Timothy">Elizabeth Timothy</a> took over and made it a success. She was one of the colonial era's first woman printers.<sup><a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a></sup> For three decades Franklin maintained a close business relationship with her and her son <a href="/wiki/Peter_Timothy">Peter Timothy</a>, who took over the <i><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_Gazette">South Carolina Gazette</a></i> in 1746.<sup><a href="#cite_note-36">[35]</a></sup> The <i>Gazette</i> was impartial in political debates, while creating the opportunity for public debate, which encouraged others to challenge authority. Timothy avoided blandness and crude bias and after 1765 increasingly took a patriotic stand in the growing crisis with Great Britain.<sup><a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a></sup> However, Franklin's <i>Connecticut Gazette</i> (1755–68) proved unsuccessful.<sup><a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a></sup> As the Revolution approached, political strife slowly tore his network apart.<sup><a href="#cite_note-39">[38]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Freemasonry</h3>
<p>In 1730 or 1731, Franklin was initiated into the local <a href="/wiki/Masonic_lodge">Masonic lodge</a>. He became a <a href="/wiki/Grand_Master_(Freemasonry)">grand master</a> in 1734, indicating his rapid rise to prominence in Pennsylvania.<sup><a href="#cite_note-HC-40">[39]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-freemasonry-41">[40]</a></sup> The same year, he edited and published the first Masonic book in the Americas, a reprint of <a href="/wiki/James_Anderson_(Freemason)">James Anderson</a>'s <i>Constitutions of the Free-Masons</i>. He was the <a href="/wiki/Masonic_lodge_officers#Secretary">secretary</a> of <a href="/wiki/Grand_Lodge_of_Pennsylvania">St. John's Lodge</a> in Philadelphia from 1735 to 1738.<sup><a href="#cite_note-freemasonry-41">[40]</a></sup> Franklin remained a Freemason for the rest of his life.<sup><a href="#cite_note-42">[41]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-43">[42]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Common-law marriage to Deborah Read</h3>
<div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Deborah_Read_Franklin.jpg"></a></p></div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Sarah_Franklin_Bache1793.jpg"></a></p></div></div>
<p>At age 17 in 1723, Franklin proposed to 15-year-old <a href="/wiki/Deborah_Read">Deborah Read</a> while a boarder in the Read home. At that time, Deborah's mother was wary of allowing her young daughter to marry Franklin, who was on his way to London at Governor Keith's request, and also because of his financial instability. Her own husband had recently died, and she declined Franklin's request to marry her daughter.<sup><a href="#cite_note-vandoren-21">[20]</a></sup>
</p><p>While Franklin was in London, his trip was extended, and there were problems with the governor's promises of support. Perhaps because of the circumstances of this delay, Deborah married a man named John Rodgers. This proved to be a regrettable decision. Rodgers shortly avoided his debts and prosecution by fleeing to <a href="/wiki/Barbados">Barbados</a> with her <a href="/wiki/Dowry">dowry</a>, leaving her behind. Rodgers's fate was unknown, and because of <a href="/wiki/Bigamy">bigamy</a> laws, Deborah was not free to remarry.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Franklin established a <a href="/wiki/Common-law_marriage">common-law marriage</a> with Deborah on September 1, 1730. They took in his recently acknowledged illegitimate young son and raised him in their household. They had two children together. Their son, <a href="/wiki/Francis_Folger_Franklin">Francis Folger Franklin</a>, was born in October 1732 and died of <a href="/wiki/Smallpox">smallpox</a> in 1736. Their daughter, <a href="/wiki/Sarah_Franklin_Bache">Sarah "Sally" Franklin</a>, was born in 1743 and eventually married <a href="/wiki/Richard_Bache">Richard Bache</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-44">[43]</a></sup>
</p><p>Deborah's fear of the sea meant that she never accompanied Franklin on any of his extended trips to Europe; another possible reason why they spent much time apart is that he may have blamed her for possibly preventing their son Francis from being <a href="/wiki/Variolation">inoculated</a> against the disease that subsequently killed him.<sup><a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a></sup> Deborah wrote to him in November 1769, saying she was ill due to "dissatisfied distress" from his prolonged absence, but he did not return until his business was done.<sup><a href="#cite_note-46">[45]</a></sup> Deborah Read Franklin died of a stroke on December 14, 1774, while Franklin was on an extended mission to Great Britain; he returned in 1775.<sup><a href="#cite_note-47">[46]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>William Franklin</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:William_Franklin_painting_attributed_to_Mather_Brown.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>In 1730, 24-year-old Franklin publicly acknowledged his illegitimate son <a href="/wiki/William_Franklin">William</a> and raised him in his household. William was born on February 22, 1730, but his mother's identity is unknown.<sup><a href="#cite_note-48">[47]</a></sup> He was educated in Philadelphia and beginning at about age 30 studied law in London in the early 1760s. William himself fathered an illegitimate son, <a href="/wiki/William_Temple_Franklin">William Temple Franklin</a>, born on the same day and month: February 22, 1760.<sup><a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a></sup> The boy's mother was never identified, and he was placed in foster care. In 1762, the elder William Franklin married Elizabeth Downes, daughter of a <a href="/wiki/Planter_class">planter</a> from <a href="/wiki/Barbados">Barbados</a>, in London. In 1763, he was appointed as the last <a href="/wiki/List_of_colonial_governors_of_New_Jersey">royal governor</a> of New Jersey.
</p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Loyalist_(American_Revolution)">Loyalist</a> to the king, William Franklin saw his relations with father Benjamin eventually break down over their differences about the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War">American Revolutionary War</a>, as Benjamin Franklin could never accept William's position. Deposed in 1776 by the revolutionary government of New Jersey, William was placed under house arrest at <a href="/wiki/Proprietary_House">his home</a> in <a href="/wiki/Perth_Amboy,_New_Jersey">Perth Amboy</a> for six months. After the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence">Declaration of Independence</a>, he was formally taken into custody by order of the <a href="/wiki/Provincial_Congress_of_New_Jersey">Provincial Congress of New Jersey</a>, an entity which he refused to recognize, regarding it as an "illegal assembly".<sup><a href="#cite_note-50">[49]</a></sup> He was incarcerated in Connecticut for two years, in <a href="/wiki/Wallingford,_Connecticut">Wallingford</a> and <a href="/wiki/Middletown,_Connecticut">Middletown</a>, and, after being caught surreptitiously engaging Americans into supporting the Loyalist cause, was held in solitary confinement at <a href="/wiki/Litchfield,_Connecticut">Litchfield</a> for eight months. When finally released in a prisoner exchange in 1778, he moved to New York City, which was occupied by the British at the time.<sup><a href="#cite_note-51">[50]</a></sup>
</p><p>While in New York City, he became leader of the Board of Associated Loyalists, a quasi-military organization chartered by King <a href="/wiki/George_III">George III</a> and headquartered in New York City. They initiated guerrilla forays into New Jersey, southern Connecticut, and New York counties north of the city.<sup><a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a></sup> When British troops evacuated from New York, William Franklin left with them and sailed to England. He settled in London, never to return to North America. In the preliminary peace talks in 1782 with Britain, "... Benjamin Franklin insisted that loyalists who had borne arms against the United States would be excluded from this plea (that they be given a general pardon). He was undoubtedly thinking of William Franklin."<sup><a href="#cite_note-53">[52]</a></sup><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources">unreliable source?</a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h3></h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:The_General_Magazine_and_Historical_Chronicle_Vol_1,_January,_1741.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Franklin's <i>The General Magazine and Historical Chronicle</i> (January 1741)</p></div></div>
<p>In 1733, Franklin began to publish the noted <i>Poor Richard's Almanack</i> (with content both original and borrowed) under the pseudonym Richard Saunders, on which much of his popular reputation is based. He frequently wrote under pseudonyms. He had developed a distinct, signature style that was plain, pragmatic and had a sly, soft but self-deprecating tone with declarative sentences.<sup><a href="#cite_note-54">[53]</a></sup> Although it was no secret that he was the author, his Richard Saunders character repeatedly denied it. "Poor Richard's Proverbs", adages from this almanac, such as "A penny saved is twopence dear" (often misquoted as "A penny saved is a penny earned") and "Fish and visitors stink in three days", remain common quotations in the modern world. Wisdom in folk society meant the ability to provide an apt adage for any occasion, and his readers became well prepared. He sold about ten thousand copies per year—it became an institution.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Doren1938109-55">[54]</a></sup> In 1741, Franklin began publishing <i>The General Magazine and Historical Chronicle for all the British Plantations in America.</i> He used the <a href="/wiki/Heraldic_badge">heraldic badge</a> of the Prince of Wales as the cover illustration.
</p><p>In 1758, the year he ceased writing for the Almanack, he printed <i>Father Abraham's Sermon</i>, also known as <i><a href="/wiki/The_Way_to_Wealth">The Way to Wealth</a></i>. Franklin's <a href="/wiki/The_Autobiography_of_Benjamin_Franklin">autobiography</a>, begun in 1771 but published after his death, has become one of the classics of the genre.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> He wrote a letter, "<a href="/wiki/Advice_to_a_Friend_on_Choosing_a_Mistress">Advice to a Friend on Choosing a Mistress</a>", dated June 25, 1745, in which he gives advice to a young man about channeling sexual urges. Due to its licentious nature, it was not published in collections of his papers during the nineteenth century. Federal court decisions from the mid-to-late twentieth century cited the document as a reason for overturning obscenity laws, using it to make a case against censorship.<sup><a href="#cite_note-56">[55]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Public life</h2>
<h3>Early steps in Pennsylvania</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Feke_-_Benjamin_Franklin.png"></a></p><div><p>Portrait of Franklin c. 1746–1750,<sup><a href="#cite_note-57">[Note 2]</a></sup> by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Feke">Robert Feke</a>. Widely believed to be the earliest known painting of Franklin.<sup><a href="#cite_note-58">[56]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-59">[57]</a></sup></p></div></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Franklin_-_Join_or_Die.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>In 1736, Franklin created the <a href="/wiki/Union_Fire_Company">Union Fire Company</a>, one of the first <a href="/wiki/Volunteer_fire_department">volunteer firefighting companies</a> in America. In the same year, he printed a new currency for New Jersey based on innovative anti-<a href="/wiki/Counterfeit">counterfeiting</a> techniques he had devised. Throughout his career, he was an advocate for <a href="/wiki/Banknote">paper money</a>, publishing <i>A Modest Enquiry into the Nature and Necessity of a Paper Currency</i> in 1729, and his printer printed money. He was influential in the more restrained and thus successful monetary experiments in the Middle Colonies, which stopped <a href="/wiki/Deflation">deflation</a> without causing excessive inflation. In 1766, he made a case for paper money to the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom">British House of Commons</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-60">[58]</a></sup>
</p><p>As he matured, Franklin began to concern himself more with public affairs. In 1743, he first devised a scheme for the <a href="/wiki/Academy_and_College_of_Philadelphia">Academy, Charity School, and College of Philadelphia</a>. However, the person he had in mind to run the academy, Rev. <a href="/wiki/Richard_Peters_(priest)">Richard Peters</a>, refused and Franklin put his ideas away until 1749 when he printed his own pamphlet, <i>Proposals Relating to the Education of Youth in Pensilvania.</i><sup><a href="#cite_note-MontgomeryHistory-61">[59]</a></sup><sup>: 30 </sup> He was appointed president of the Academy on November 13, 1749; the academy and the charity school opened in 1751.<sup><a href="#cite_note-62">[60]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1743, he founded the <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society">American Philosophical Society</a> to help scientific men discuss their discoveries and theories. He began the electrical research that, along with other scientific inquiries, would occupy him for the rest of his life, in between bouts of politics and moneymaking.<sup><a href="#cite_note-vandoren-21">[20]</a></sup>
</p><p>During <a href="/wiki/King_George%27s_War">King George's War</a>, Franklin raised a militia called the Association for General Defense because the legislators of the city had decided to take no action to defend Philadelphia "either by erecting fortifications or building Ships of War". He raised money to create earthwork defenses and buy artillery. The largest of these was the "Association Battery" or "Grand Battery" of 50 guns.<sup><a href="#cite_note-63">[61]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Kyria1-64">[62]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1747, Franklin (already a very wealthy man) retired from printing and went into other businesses.<sup><a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a></sup> He formed a partnership with his foreman, <a href="/wiki/David_Hall_(printer)">David Hall</a>, which provided Franklin with half of the shop's profits for 18 years. This lucrative business arrangement provided leisure time for study, and in a few years he had made many new discoveries.
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:PennsylvaniaHospitalWilliamStrickland.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Franklin became involved in Philadelphia politics and rapidly progressed. In October 1748, he was selected as a councilman; in June 1749, he became a <a href="/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace">justice of the peace</a> for Philadelphia; and in 1751, he was elected to the Pennsylvania Assembly. On August 10, 1753, he was appointed deputy postmaster-general of <a href="/wiki/British_North_America">British North America</a>. His most notable service in domestic politics was his reform of the postal system, with mail sent out every week.<sup><a href="#cite_note-vandoren-21">[20]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1751, Franklin and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Bond_(American_physician)">Thomas Bond</a> obtained a charter from the Pennsylvania legislature to establish a hospital. <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Hospital">Pennsylvania Hospital</a> was the first hospital in the colonies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-66">[64]</a></sup> In 1752, Franklin organized the <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_Contributionship">Philadelphia Contributionship</a>, the Colonies' first <a href="/wiki/Home_insurance">homeowner's insurance</a> company.<sup><a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a></sup>
</p><p>Between 1750 and 1753, the "educational triumvirate"<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlsen2013174-69">[67]</a></sup> of Franklin, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson_(American_educator)">Samuel Johnson</a> of <a href="/wiki/Stratford,_Connecticut">Stratford, Connecticut</a>, and schoolteacher <a href="/wiki/William_Smith_(Episcopal_priest)">William Smith</a> built on Franklin's initial scheme and created what <a href="/wiki/James_Madison_(bishop)">Bishop James Madison</a>, president of the <a href="/wiki/College_of_William_%26_Mary">College of William &amp; Mary</a>, called a "new-model"<sup><a href="#cite_note-70">[68]</a></sup> plan or style of American college. Franklin solicited, printed in 1752, and promoted an American textbook of <a href="/wiki/Ethics">moral philosophy</a> by Samuel Johnson, titled <i>Elementa Philosophica</i>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a></sup> to be taught in the new colleges. In June 1753, Johnson, Franklin, and Smith met in Stratford.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlsen2013163–274-72">[70]</a></sup> They decided the new-model college would focus on the professions, with classes taught in English instead of Latin, have subject matter experts as professors instead of one tutor leading a class for four years, and there would be no religious test for admission.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlsen2013163-73">[71]</a></sup> Johnson went on to found King's College (now <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University">Columbia University</a>) in New York City in 1754, while Franklin hired Smith as provost of the College of Philadelphia, which opened in 1755. At its first commencement, on May 17, 1757, seven men graduated; six with a Bachelor of Arts and one with a Master of Arts. It was later merged with the University of the State of Pennsylvania to become the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a>. The college was to become influential in guiding <a href="/wiki/Template:Founding_Documents_of_America">the founding documents of the United States</a>: in the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Congress">Continental Congress</a>, for example, over one-third of the college-affiliated men who contributed to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence">Declaration of Independence</a> between September 4, 1774, and July 4, 1776, were affiliated with the college.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlsen2013308-74">[72]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:1757_UPenn_Seal.png"></a></p><div><p>Seal of the College of Philadelphia</p></div></div>
<p>In 1754, he headed the Pennsylvania delegation to the <a href="/wiki/Albany_Congress">Albany Congress</a>. This meeting of several colonies had been requested by the <a href="/wiki/Board_of_Trade">Board of Trade</a> in England to improve relations with the Indians and defense against the French. Franklin proposed a broad <a href="/wiki/Albany_Plan">Plan of Union</a> for the colonies. While the plan was not adopted, elements of it found their way into the <a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States">Constitution</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-75">[73]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Sketch_of_Tun_Tavern_in_the_Revolutionary_War.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>In 1753, both <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University">Harvard</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-76">[74]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Yale">Yale</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-77">[75]</a></sup> awarded him honorary master of arts degrees.<sup><a href="#cite_note-78">[76]</a></sup> In 1756, he received an honorary Master of Arts degree from the College of William &amp; Mary.<sup><a href="#cite_note-79">[77]</a></sup> Later in 1756, Franklin organized the <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Army_National_Guard">Pennsylvania Militia</a>. He used <a href="/wiki/Tun_Tavern">Tun Tavern</a> as a gathering place to recruit a regiment of soldiers to go into battle against the Native American uprisings that beset the American colonies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-80">[78]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Postmaster</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin_SC1_1847.jpg"></a></p><div><p>First U. S. postage stamp, issue of 1847, honoring Benjamin Franklin.</p></div></div>
<p>Well known as a printer and publisher, Franklin was appointed postmaster of Philadelphia in 1737, holding the office until 1753, when he and publisher <a href="/wiki/William_Hunter_(publisher)">William Hunter</a> were named deputy postmasters–general of British North America, the first to hold the office. (<a href="/wiki/Postmaster_General_of_the_United_Kingdom#Two_Postmasters_General,_1691–1823">Joint appointments</a> were standard at the time, for political reasons.) He was responsible for the British colonies from Pennsylvania north and east, as far as the <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_(island)">island of Newfoundland</a>. A post office for local and outgoing mail had been established in <a href="/wiki/Halifax,_Nova_Scotia">Halifax, Nova Scotia</a>, by local stationer Benjamin Leigh, on April 23, 1754, but service was irregular. Franklin opened the first post office to offer regular, monthly mail in Halifax on December 9, 1755. Meantime, Hunter became postal administrator in <a href="/wiki/Williamsburg,_Virginia">Williamsburg, Virginia</a>, and oversaw areas south of <a href="/wiki/Annapolis,_Maryland">Annapolis, Maryland</a>. Franklin reorganized the service's accounting system and improved speed of delivery between Philadelphia, New York, and Boston. By 1761, efficiencies led to the first profits for the colonial post office.<sup><a href="#cite_note-81">[79]</a></sup>
</p><p>When the lands of <a href="/wiki/New_France">New France</a> were ceded to the British under the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1763)">Treaty of Paris</a> in 1763, the British <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Quebec_(1763%E2%80%931791)">province of Quebec</a> was created among them, and Franklin saw mail service expanded between <a href="/wiki/Montreal">Montreal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trois-Rivi%C3%A8res">Trois-Rivières</a>, Quebec City, and New York. For the greater part of his appointment, he lived in England (from 1757 to 1762, and again from 1764 to 1774)—about three-quarters of his term.<sup><a href="#cite_note-82">[80]</a></sup> Eventually, his sympathies for the rebel cause in the American Revolution led to his dismissal on January 31, 1774.<sup><a href="#cite_note-83">[81]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin_signed_pass_for_Goddard3.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Pass, signed by Postmaster General Benjamin Franklin, gave <a href="/wiki/William_Goddard_(publisher)">William Goddard</a> the authority to travel as needed to investigate and inspect postal routes and protect the mail.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Smithsonian-84">[82]</a></sup></p></div></div>
<p>On July 26, 1775, the <a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress">Second Continental Congress</a> established the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Post_Office_Department">United States Post Office</a> and named Franklin as the first <a href="/wiki/United_States_Postmaster_General">United States postmaster general</a>. He had been a postmaster for decades and was a natural choice for the position.<sup><a href="#cite_note-85">[83]</a></sup> He had just returned from England and was appointed chairman of a Committee of Investigation to establish a postal system. The report of the committee, providing for the appointment of a postmaster general for the 13 American colonies, was considered by the Continental Congress on July 25 and 26. On July 26, 1775, Franklin was appointed postmaster general, the first appointed under the Continental Congress. His apprentice, <a href="/wiki/William_Goddard_(publisher)">William Goddard</a>, felt that his ideas were mostly responsible for shaping the postal system and that the appointment should have gone to him, but he graciously conceded it to Franklin, 36 years his senior.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Smithsonian-84">[82]</a></sup> Franklin, however, appointed Goddard as Surveyor of the Posts, issued him a signed pass, and directed him to investigate and inspect the various post offices and mail routes as he saw fit.<sup><a href="#cite_note-RI_Journalism-86">[84]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Library_of_Congress-87">[85]</a></sup> The newly established postal system became the United States Post Office, a system that continues to operate today.<sup><a href="#cite_note-88">[86]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Decades in London</h3>
<p>From the mid-1750s to the mid-1770s, Franklin spent much of his time in London.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h4>Political work</h4>
<p>In 1757, he was sent to England by the Pennsylvania Assembly as a colonial agent to protest against the political influence of the <a href="/wiki/William_Penn">Penn family</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Proprietary_colony">proprietors of the colony</a>. He remained there for five years, striving to end the proprietors' prerogative to overturn legislation from the elected Assembly and their exemption from paying taxes on their land. His lack of influential allies in <a href="/wiki/Whitehall">Whitehall</a> led to the failure of this mission.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:US-Colonial_(PA-115)-Pennsylvania-18_Jun_1764.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Pennsylvania colonial currency printed by Franklin and <a href="/wiki/David_Hall_(publisher)">David Hall</a> in 1764</p></div></div>
<p>At this time, many members of the Pennsylvania Assembly were feuding with William Penn's heirs, who controlled the colony as proprietors. After his return to the colony, Franklin led the "anti-proprietary party" in the struggle against the Penn family and was elected <a href="/wiki/List_of_speakers_of_the_Pennsylvania_House_of_Representatives">Speaker of the Pennsylvania House</a> in May 1764. His call for a change from proprietary to royal government was a rare political miscalculation, however: Pennsylvanians worried that such a move would endanger their political and religious freedoms. Because of these fears and because of political attacks on his character, Franklin lost his seat in the October 1764 Assembly elections. The anti-proprietary party dispatched him to England again to continue the struggle against the Penn family proprietorship. During this trip, events drastically changed the nature of his mission.<sup><a href="#cite_note-ANB2-89">[87]</a></sup>
</p><p>In London, Franklin opposed the <a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_1765">1765 Stamp Act</a>. Unable to prevent its passage, he made another political miscalculation and recommended a friend to the post of stamp distributor for Pennsylvania. Pennsylvanians were outraged, believing that he had supported the measure all along, and threatened to destroy his home in Philadelphia. Franklin soon learned of the extent of colonial resistance to the Stamp Act, and he testified during the House of Commons proceedings that led to its repeal.<sup><a href="#cite_note-90">[88]</a></sup> With this, Franklin suddenly emerged as the leading spokesman for American interests in England. He wrote popular essays on behalf of the colonies. <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)">Georgia</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey">New Jersey</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a> also appointed him as their agent to the Crown.<sup><a href="#cite_note-ANB2-89">[87]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Franklin_1767.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Franklin in London, 1767, wearing a blue suit with elaborate gold braid and buttons, a far cry from the simple dress he affected at the <a href="/wiki/Court_(royal)">French court</a> in later years. Painting by <a href="/wiki/David_Martin_(artist)">David Martin</a>, displayed in the <a href="/wiki/White_House">White House</a>.</p></div></div>
<p>During his lengthy missions to London between 1757 and 1775, Franklin lodged in a house on Craven Street, just off <a href="/wiki/Strand,_London">the Strand</a> in <a href="/wiki/Central_London">central London</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-91">[89]</a></sup> During his stays there, he developed a close friendship with his landlady, Margaret Stevenson, and her circle of friends and relations, in particular, her daughter Mary, who was more often known as Polly. The house is now a museum known as the <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_House">Benjamin Franklin House</a>. Whilst in London, Franklin became involved in <a href="/wiki/Radicalism_(historical)">radical</a> politics. He belonged to a <a href="/wiki/Gentleman%27s_club">gentleman's club</a> (which he called "the honest <a href="/wiki/Radical_Whigs">Whigs</a>"), which held stated meetings, and included members such as <a href="/wiki/Richard_Price">Richard Price</a>, the minister of <a href="/wiki/Newington_Green_Unitarian_Church">Newington Green Unitarian Church</a> who ignited the <a href="/wiki/Revolution_controversy">Revolution controversy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Kippis">Andrew Kippis</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-92">[90]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Scientific work</h4>
<p>In 1756, Franklin had become a member of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures &amp; Commerce (now the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Arts">Royal Society of Arts</a>), which had been founded in 1754. After his return to the United States in 1775, he became the Society's Corresponding Member, continuing a close connection. The Royal Society of Arts instituted a <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_Medal_(Royal_Society_of_Arts)">Benjamin Franklin Medal</a> in 1956 to commemorate the 250th anniversary of his birth and the 200th anniversary of his membership of the RSA.<sup><a href="#cite_note-93">[91]</a></sup>
</p><p>The study of <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy">natural philosophy</a> (referred today as science in general) drew him into overlapping circles of acquaintance. Franklin was, for example, a corresponding member of the <a href="/wiki/Lunar_Society_of_Birmingham">Lunar Society of Birmingham</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-94">[92]</a></sup> In 1759, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews">University of St Andrews</a> awarded him an honorary doctorate in recognition of his accomplishments.<sup><a href="#cite_note-95">[93]</a></sup> In October 1759, he was granted <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_City">Freedom of the Borough</a> of <a href="/wiki/St_Andrews">St Andrews</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-96">[94]</a></sup> He was also awarded an honorary doctorate by <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University">Oxford University</a> in 1762. Because of these honors, he was often addressed as "<abbr>Dr.</abbr> Franklin."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Britannica-2">[1]</a></sup>
</p><p>While living in London in 1768, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin%27s_phonetic_alphabet">he developed a phonetic alphabet</a> in <i>A Scheme for a new Alphabet and a Reformed Mode of Spelling</i>. This reformed alphabet discarded six letters he regarded as redundant (c, j, q, w, x, and y), and substituted six new letters for sounds he felt lacked letters of their own. This alphabet never caught on, and he eventually lost interest.<sup><a href="#cite_note-97">[95]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Travels around Europe</h3>
<p>Franklin used London as a base to travel. In 1771, he made short journeys through different parts of England, staying with <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley">Joseph Priestley</a> at <a href="/wiki/Leeds">Leeds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Percival">Thomas Percival</a> at <a href="/wiki/Manchester">Manchester</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erasmus_Darwin">Erasmus Darwin</a> at <a href="/wiki/Lichfield">Lichfield</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-sparks-98">[96]</a></sup> In Scotland, he spent five days with <a href="/wiki/Henry_Home,_Lord_Kames">Lord Kames</a> near <a href="/wiki/Stirling">Stirling</a> and stayed for three weeks with <a href="/wiki/David_Hume">David Hume</a> in Edinburgh. In 1759, he visited Edinburgh with his son and later reported that he considered his six weeks in Scotland "six weeks of the densest happiness I have met with in any part of my life".<sup><a href="#cite_note-99">[97]</a></sup>
</p><p>In Ireland, he stayed with <a href="/wiki/Wills_Hill,_1st_Marquess_of_Downshire">Lord Hillsborough</a>. Franklin noted of him that "all the plausible behaviour I have described is meant only, by patting and stroking the horse, to make him more patient, while the reins are drawn tighter, and the spurs set deeper into his sides."<sup><a href="#cite_note-100">[98]</a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Dublin">Dublin</a>, Franklin was invited to sit with the members of the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Ireland">Irish Parliament</a> rather than in the gallery. He was the first American to receive this honor.<sup><a href="#cite_note-sparks-98">[96]</a></sup> While touring Ireland, he was deeply moved by the level of poverty he witnessed. The <a href="/wiki/Ireland#Economy">economy</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland">Kingdom of Ireland</a> was affected by the same trade regulations and laws that governed the Thirteen Colonies. He feared that the American colonies could eventually come to the same level of poverty if the regulations and laws continued to apply to them.<sup><a href="#cite_note-auto1-101">[99]</a></sup>
</p><p>Franklin spent two months in German lands in 1766, but his connections to the country stretched across a lifetime. He declared a debt of gratitude to German scientist <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Guericke">Otto von Guericke</a> for his early studies of electricity. Franklin also co-authored the first <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Amity_and_Commerce_(Prussia%E2%80%93United_States)">treaty of friendship</a> between Prussia and America in 1785.<sup><a href="#cite_note-102">[100]</a></sup> In September 1767, he visited Paris with his usual traveling partner, <a href="/wiki/Sir_John_Pringle,_1st_Baronet">Sir John Pringle, 1st Baronet</a>. News of his electrical discoveries was widespread in France. His reputation meant that he was introduced to many influential scientists and politicians, and also to King <a href="/wiki/Louis_XV">Louis XV</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-auto-6">[5]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Defending the American cause</h3>
<p>One line of argument in Parliament was that Americans should pay a share of the costs of the <a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War">French and Indian War</a> and therefore taxes should be levied on them. Franklin became the American spokesman in highly publicized testimony in Parliament in 1766. He stated that Americans already contributed heavily to the defense of the Empire. He said local governments had raised, outfitted and paid 25,000 soldiers to fight France—as many as Britain itself sent—and spent many millions from American treasuries doing so in the French and Indian War alone.<sup><a href="#cite_note-103">[101]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-104">[102]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1772, Franklin <a href="/wiki/Hutchinson_Letters_Affair">obtained private letters</a> of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hutchinson_(governor)">Thomas Hutchinson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Oliver">Andrew Oliver</a>, <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_Massachusetts">governor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_of_Massachusetts">lieutenant governor</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Massachusetts_Bay">Province of Massachusetts Bay</a>, proving that they had encouraged the Crown to crack down on Bostonians. Franklin sent them to America, where they escalated tensions. The letters were finally <a href="/wiki/News_leak">leaked</a> to the public in the <i><a href="/wiki/Boston_Gazette">Boston Gazette</a></i> in mid-June 1773,<sup><a href="#cite_note-105">[103]</a></sup> causing a political firestorm in Massachusetts and raising significant questions in England.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Penegar29-106">[104]</a></sup> The British began to regard him as the fomenter of serious trouble. Hopes for a peaceful solution ended as he was systematically ridiculed and humiliated by <a href="/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_England_and_Wales">Solicitor-General</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Wedderburn,_1st_Earl_of_Rosslyn">Alexander Wedderburn</a>, before the <a href="/wiki/Privy_Council_of_the_United_Kingdom">Privy Council</a> on January 29, 1774. He returned to Philadelphia in March 1775, and abandoned his accommodationist stance.<sup><a href="#cite_note-107">[105]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1773, Franklin published two of his most celebrated pro-American satirical essays: <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Rules_By_Which_A_Great_Empire_May_Be_Reduced_To_A_Small_One">"Rules by Which a Great Empire May Be Reduced to a Small One"</a>, and "An Edict by the King of Prussia".<sup><a href="#cite_note-108">[106]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Agent for British and Hellfire Club membership</h3>
<p>Franklin is known to have occasionally attended the <a href="/wiki/Hellfire_Club">Hellfire Club</a>'s meetings during 1758 as a non-member during his time in England. However, some authors and historians would argue he was in fact a British spy. As there are no records left (having been burned in 1774<sup><a href="#cite_note-109">[107]</a></sup>), many of these members are just assumed or linked by letters sent to each other.<sup><a href="#cite_note-110">[108]</a></sup> One early proponent that Franklin was a member of the Hellfire Club and a double agent is the historian <a href="/wiki/Donald_McCormick">Donald McCormick</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-111">[109]</a></sup> who has a history of making controversial claims.<sup><a href="#cite_note-112">[110]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Coming of revolution</h3>
<p>In 1763, soon after Franklin returned to Pennsylvania from England for the first time, the western frontier was engulfed in a bitter war known as <a href="/wiki/Pontiac%27s_Rebellion">Pontiac's Rebellion</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Paxton_Boys">Paxton Boys</a>, a group of settlers convinced that the Pennsylvania government was not doing enough to protect them from <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States">American Indian</a> raids, murdered a group of peaceful <a href="/wiki/Susquehannock">Susquehannock</a> Indians and marched on Philadelphia. Franklin helped to organize a local militia to defend the capital against the mob. He met with the Paxton leaders and persuaded them to disperse. Franklin wrote a scathing attack against the <a href="/wiki/Racism">racial prejudice</a> of the Paxton Boys. "If an <i>Indian</i> injures me", he asked, "does it follow that I may revenge that Injury on all <i>Indians</i>?"<sup><a href="#cite_note-113">[111]</a></sup>
</p><p>He provided an early response to British surveillance through his own network of <a href="/wiki/Surveillance_art">counter-surveillance and manipulation</a>. "He waged a public relations campaign, secured secret aid, played a role in privateering expeditions, and churned out effective and inflammatory propaganda."<sup><a href="#cite_note-114">[112]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Declaration of Independence</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Declaration_of_Independence_(1819),_by_John_Trumbull.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>By the time Franklin arrived in Philadelphia on May 5, 1775, after his second mission to Great Britain, the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution">American Revolution</a> had begun—with skirmishes breaking out between colonials and British at <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Lexington_and_Concord">Lexington and Concord</a>. The New England militia had forced the main British army to remain inside Boston.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> The Pennsylvania Assembly unanimously chose Franklin as their delegate to the <a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress">Second Continental Congress</a>.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> In June 1776, he was appointed a member of the <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Five">Committee of Five</a> that drafted the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence">Declaration of Independence</a>. Although he was temporarily disabled by <a href="/wiki/Gout">gout</a> and unable to attend most meetings of the committee,<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> he made several "small but important" changes to the draft sent to him by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-116">[114]</a></sup>
</p><p>At the signing, he is quoted as having replied to a comment by <a href="/wiki/John_Hancock">John Hancock</a> that they must all hang together: "Yes, we must, indeed, all hang together, or most assuredly we shall all hang separately."<sup><a href="#cite_note-117">[115]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Ambassador to France (1776–1785)</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin1877.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Franklin, in his <a href="/wiki/Fur">fur</a> hat, charmed the French with what they perceived as rustic New World <a href="/wiki/Genius">genius</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-118">[Note 3]</a></sup></p></div></div>
<p>On October 26, 1776, Franklin was dispatched to France as <a href="/wiki/Commissioner">commissioner</a> for the United States.<sup><a href="#cite_note-119">[116]</a></sup> He took with him as secretary his 16-year-old grandson, <a href="/wiki/William_Temple_Franklin">William Temple Franklin</a>. They lived in a home in the Parisian suburb of <a href="/wiki/Passy">Passy</a>, donated by <a href="/wiki/Jacques-Donatien_Le_Ray_de_Chaumont">Jacques-Donatien Le Ray de Chaumont</a>, who supported the United States. Franklin remained in France until 1785. He conducted the affairs of his country toward the French nation with great success, which included securing a critical military alliance in 1778 and signing the 1783 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)">Treaty of Paris</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-120">[117]</a></sup>
</p><p>Among his associates in France was <a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_Gabriel_Riqueti,_comte_de_Mirabeau">Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau</a>—a <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution">French Revolutionary</a> writer, orator and statesman who in 1791 was elected president of the <a href="/wiki/National_Constituent_Assembly_(France)">National Assembly</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-121">[118]</a></sup> In July 1784, Franklin met with Mirabeau and contributed anonymous materials that the Frenchman used in his first signed work: <i>Considerations sur l'ordre de Cincinnatus</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-122">[119]</a></sup> The publication was critical of the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_Cincinnati">Society of the Cincinnati</a>, established in the United States. Franklin and Mirabeau thought of it as a "noble order", inconsistent with the <a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism">egalitarian</a> ideals of the new republic.<sup><a href="#cite_note-123">[120]</a></sup>
</p><p>During his stay in France, he was active as a Freemason, serving as venerable master of the lodge <a href="/wiki/Les_Neuf_S%C5%93urs">Les Neuf Sœurs</a> from 1779 until 1781. In 1784, when <a href="/wiki/Franz_Mesmer">Franz Mesmer</a> began to publicize his theory of "<a href="/wiki/Animal_magnetism">animal magnetism</a>" which was considered offensive by many, <a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI">Louis XVI</a> appointed a commission to investigate it. These included the chemist <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier">Antoine Lavoisier</a>, the physician <a href="/wiki/Joseph-Ignace_Guillotin">Joseph-Ignace Guillotin</a>, the astronomer <a href="/wiki/Jean_Sylvain_Bailly">Jean Sylvain Bailly</a>, and Franklin.<sup><a href="#cite_note-124">[121]</a></sup> In doing so, the committee concluded, through <a href="/wiki/Blinded_experiment">blind trials</a> that mesmerism only seemed to work when the subjects expected it, which discredited mesmerism and became the first major demonstration of the <a href="/wiki/Placebo">placebo</a> effect, which was described at that time as "imagination".<sup><a href="#cite_note-125">[122]</a></sup> In 1781, he was elected a fellow of the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-AAAS-126">[123]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Libertas_Americana_silver_medallion_1783.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Franklin's advocacy for religious tolerance in France contributed to arguments made by French philosophers and politicians that resulted in Louis XVI's signing of the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Versailles">Edict of Versailles</a> in November 1787. This edict effectively nullified the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Fontainebleau">Edict of Fontainebleau</a>, which had denied non-Catholics civil status and the right to openly practice their faith.<sup><a href="#cite_note-127">[124]</a></sup>
</p><p>Franklin also served as American minister to Sweden, although he never visited that country.<sup><a href="#cite_note-hist_Benj-128">[125]</a></sup> He negotiated a <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Amity_and_Commerce_(United_States%E2%80%93Sweden)">treaty</a> that was signed in April 1783. On August 27, 1783, in Paris, he witnessed the <a href="/wiki/Hot_air_balloon#First_manned_flight">world's first hydrogen balloon flight</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-EcceF-129">[126]</a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Robert_brothers#First_hydrogen_balloon">Le Globe</a></i>, created by professor <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Charles">Jacques Charles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_brothers">Les Frères Robert</a>, was watched by a vast crowd as it rose from the <a href="/wiki/Champ_de_Mars">Champ de Mars</a> (now the site of the <a href="/wiki/Eiffel_Tower">Eiffel Tower</a>).<sup><a href="#cite_note-Sci&amp;Soc-130">[127]</a></sup> Franklin became so enthusiastic that he subscribed financially to the next project to build a manned hydrogen balloon.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Fid_Green-131">[128]</a></sup> On December 1, 1783, Franklin was seated in the special enclosure for honored guests when <i><a href="/wiki/Robert_brothers#First_manned_hydrogen_balloon_flight">La Charlière</a></i> took off from the <a href="/wiki/Tuileries_Garden">Jardin des Tuileries</a>, piloted by Charles and <a href="/wiki/Robert_brothers">Nicolas-Louis Robert</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-EcceF-129">[126]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FAI-132">[129]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Return to America</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin%27s_return_to_Philadelphia_1785_cph.3g09906.jpg"></a></p></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Foundation_of_the_American_Government_by_Henry_Hintermeister.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>When he returned home in 1785, Franklin occupied a position second only to that of <a href="/wiki/George_Washington">George Washington</a> as the champion of American independence. He returned from France with an unexplained shortage of 100,000 pounds in Congressional funds. In response to a question from a member of Congress about this, Franklin, quoting the Bible, quipped, "Muzzle not the ox that treadeth out his master's grain." The missing funds were never again mentioned in Congress.<sup><a href="#cite_note-134">[131]</a></sup> 
Le Ray honored him with a commissioned portrait painted by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Duplessis">Joseph Duplessis</a>, which now hangs in the <a href="/wiki/National_Portrait_Gallery_(United_States)">National Portrait Gallery</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution">Smithsonian Institution</a> in Washington, D.C. After his return, Franklin became an <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism">abolitionist</a> and freed his two slaves. He eventually became president of the <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Abolition_Society">Pennsylvania Abolition Society</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-auto1-101">[99]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>President of Pennsylvania and Delegate to the Constitutional convention</h4>
<p>Special balloting conducted October 18, 1785, unanimously elected him the sixth <a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_Pennsylvania">president</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Executive_Council_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Pennsylvania">Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania</a>, replacing <a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson">John Dickinson</a>. The office was practically that of the governor. He held that office for slightly over three years, longer than any other, and served the constitutional limit of three full terms. Shortly after his initial election, he was re-elected to a full term on October 29, 1785, and again in the fall of 1786 and on October 31, 1787. In that capacity, he served as host to the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)">Constitutional Convention of 1787</a> in Philadelphia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-135">[132]</a></sup>
</p><p>He also served as a delegate to the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)">Convention</a>. It was primarily an honorary position and he seldom engaged in debate.
</p>
<h2>Death</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Franklin%27s_grave_2010.JPG"></a></p><div><p>Franklin's grave, Philadelphia</p></div></div>
<p>Franklin suffered from obesity throughout his middle-age and later years, which resulted in multiple health problems, particularly <a href="/wiki/Gout">gout</a>, which worsened as he aged. In poor health during the signing of the US Constitution in 1787, he was rarely seen in public from then until his death.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Benjamin Franklin died from <a href="/wiki/Pleurisy">pleuritic attack</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-136">[133]</a></sup> at his home in Philadelphia on April 17, 1790.<sup><a href="#cite_note-137">[134]</a></sup> He was aged 84 at the time of his death. His last words were reportedly, "a dying man can do nothing easy", to his daughter after she suggested that he change position in bed and lie on his side so he could breathe more easily.<sup><a href="#cite_note-138">[135]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-139">[136]</a></sup> Franklin's death is described in the book <i>The Life of Benjamin Franklin</i>, quoting from the account of <a href="/wiki/John_Paul_Jones">John Jones</a>:
</p>
<blockquote><p>... when the pain and difficulty of breathing entirely left him, and his family were flattering themselves with the hopes of his recovery, when an imposthume, which had formed itself in his lungs, suddenly burst, and discharged a quantity of matter, which he continued to throw up while he had power; but, as that failed, the organs of respiration became gradually oppressed; a calm, lethargic state succeeded; and on the 17th instant (April 1790), about eleven o'clock at night, he quietly expired, closing a long and useful life of eighty-four years and three months.<sup><a href="#cite_note-140">[137]</a></sup>
</p></blockquote>
<p>Approximately 20,000 people attended his funeral. He was interred in <a href="/wiki/Christ_Church_Burial_Ground">Christ Church Burial Ground</a> in Philadelphia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-141">[138]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-142">[139]</a></sup> Upon learning of his death, the Constitutional Assembly in Revolutionary France entered into a state of mourning for a period of three days, and memorial services were conducted in honor of Franklin throughout the country.<sup><a href="#cite_note-143">[140]</a></sup> In 1728, aged 22, Franklin wrote what he hoped would be his own epitaph:
</p>
<blockquote><p>The Body of B. Franklin Printer; Like the Cover of an old Book, Its Contents torn out, And stript of its Lettering and Gilding, Lies here, Food for Worms. But the Work shall not be wholly lost: For it will, as he believ'd, appear once more, In a new &amp; more perfect Edition, Corrected and Amended By the Author.<sup><a href="#cite_note-144">[141]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>Franklin's actual grave, however, as he specified in his final will, simply reads "Benjamin and Deborah Franklin".<sup><a href="#cite_note-145">[142]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Inventions and scientific inquiries</h2>
<p>Franklin was a prodigious inventor. Among his many creations were the <a href="/wiki/Lightning_rod">lightning rod</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franklin_stove">Franklin stove</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bifocals">bifocal glasses</a> and the flexible <a href="/wiki/Urinary_catheterization">urinary catheter</a>. He never patented his inventions; in his <a href="/wiki/The_Autobiography_of_Benjamin_Franklin">autobiography</a> he wrote, "... as we enjoy great advantages from the inventions of others, we should be glad of an opportunity to serve others by any invention of ours; and this we should do freely and generously."<sup><a href="#cite_note-146">[143]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Electricity</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_West,_English_(born_America)_-_Benjamin_Franklin_Drawing_Electricity_from_the_Sky_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Franklin started exploring the phenomenon of electricity in 1746 when he saw some of <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Spencer">Archibald Spencer</a>'s lectures using <a href="/wiki/Static_electricity">static electricity</a> for illustrations.<sup><a href="#cite_note-EncyColonial-147">[144]</a></sup> He proposed that "vitreous" and "resinous" electricity were not different types of "<a href="/wiki/Aether_theories">electrical fluid</a>" (as electricity was called then), but the same "fluid" under different pressures. (The same proposal was made independently that same year by <a href="/wiki/William_Watson_(scientist)">William Watson</a>.) He was the first to label them as <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge">positive and negative</a> respectively,<sup><a href="#cite_note-148">[145]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-149">[146]</a></sup> and he was the first to discover the principle of <a href="/wiki/Charge_conservation">conservation of charge</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-150">[147]</a></sup> In 1748, he constructed a multiple plate <a href="/wiki/Capacitor">capacitor</a>, that he called an "electrical battery" (not a true battery like <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta">Volta's</a> <a href="/wiki/Voltaic_pile">pile</a>) by placing eleven panes of glass sandwiched between lead plates, suspended with silk cords and connected by wires.<sup><a href="#cite_note-151">[148]</a></sup>
</p><p>In pursuit of more pragmatic uses for electricity, remarking in spring 1749 that he felt "chagrin'd a little" that his experiments had heretofore resulted in "Nothing in this Way of Use to Mankind", he planned a practical demonstration. He proposed a dinner party where a turkey was to be killed via electric shock and roasted on an electrical spit.<sup><a href="#cite_note-152">[149]</a></sup> After having prepared several turkeys this way, he noted that "the birds kill'd in this manner eat uncommonly tender."<sup><a href="#cite_note-153">[150]</a></sup> Franklin recounted that in the process of one of these experiments, he was shocked by a pair of <a href="/wiki/Leyden_jar">Leyden jars</a>, resulting in numbness in his arms that persisted for one evening, noting "I am Ashamed to have been Guilty of so Notorious a Blunder."<sup><a href="#cite_note-154">[151]</a></sup>
</p><p>Franklin briefly investigated <a href="/wiki/Electrotherapy">electrotherapy</a>, including the use of the <a href="/wiki/Electric_bath_(electrotherapy)">electric bath</a>. This work led to the field becoming widely known.<sup><a href="#cite_note-155">[152]</a></sup> In recognition of his work with electricity, he received the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society">Royal Society</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal">Copley Medal</a> in 1753, and in 1756, he became one of the few 18th-century Americans elected a fellow of the Society. The <a href="/wiki/Centimetre%E2%80%93gram%E2%80%93second_system_of_units">CGS</a> unit of electric charge has been named after him: one <i>franklin</i> (Fr) is equal to one <a href="/wiki/Statcoulomb">statcoulomb</a>.
</p><p>Franklin advised Harvard University in its acquisition of new electrical laboratory apparatus after the complete loss of its original collection, in a fire that destroyed the original <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Hall">Harvard Hall</a> in 1764. The collection he assembled later became part of the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Collection_of_Historical_Scientific_Instruments">Harvard Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments</a>, now on public display in its <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Science_Center">Science Center</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Tomase-156">[153]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Kite experiment and lightning rod</h4>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:BEP-JONES-Franklin_and_Electricity.jpg"></a></p><div><p><i>Franklin and Electricity</i> vignette <a href="/wiki/Art_and_engraving_on_United_States_banknotes">engraved</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Engraving_and_Printing">BEP</a> (c. 1860)</p></div></div>
<p>Franklin published a proposal for an experiment to prove that <a href="/wiki/Lightning">lightning</a> is electricity by <a href="/wiki/Kite_experiment">flying a kite in a storm</a>. On May 10, 1752, <a href="/wiki/Thomas-Fran%C3%A7ois_Dalibard">Thomas-François Dalibard</a> of France conducted Franklin's experiment using a 40-foot-tall (12 m) iron rod instead of a kite, and he extracted electrical sparks from a cloud. On June 15, 1752, Franklin may possibly have conducted his well-known kite experiment in Philadelphia, successfully extracting sparks from a cloud. He described the experiment in his newspaper, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Pennsylvania_Gazette">The Pennsylvania Gazette</a></i>, on October 19, 1752,<sup><a href="#cite_note-157">[154]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-158">[155]</a></sup> without mentioning that he himself had performed it.<sup><a href="#cite_note-159">[156]</a></sup> This account was read to the Royal Society on December 21 and printed as such in the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-archives-160">[157]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley">Joseph Priestley</a> published an account with additional details in his 1767 <i>History and Present Status of Electricity</i>. Franklin was careful to stand on an insulator, keeping dry under a roof to avoid the danger of <a href="/wiki/Electrical_injury">electric shock</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Doren1938159-161">[158]</a></sup> Others, such as <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Richmann">Georg Wilhelm Richmann</a> in Russia, were indeed electrocuted in performing lightning experiments during the months immediately following his experiment.<sup><a href="#cite_note-162">[159]</a></sup>
</p><p>In his writings, Franklin indicates that he was aware of the dangers and offered alternative ways to demonstrate that lightning was electrical, as shown by his use of the concept of <a href="/wiki/Ground_(electricity)">electrical ground</a>. He did not perform this experiment in the way that is often pictured in popular literature, flying the kite and waiting to be struck by lightning, as it would have been dangerous.<sup><a href="#cite_note-163">[160]</a></sup> Instead he used the kite to collect some electric charge from a storm cloud, showing that lightning was electrical.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Wolf-164">[161]</a></sup> On October 19, 1752, in a letter to England with directions for repeating the experiment, he wrote:
</p>
<blockquote><p>When rain has wet the kite twine so that it can conduct the electric fire freely, you will find it streams out plentifully from the key at the approach of your knuckle, and with this key a phial, or Leyden jar, may be charged: and from electric fire thus obtained spirits may be kindled, and all other electric experiments [may be] performed which are usually done by the help of a rubber glass globe or tube; and therefore the sameness of the electrical matter with that of lightening [<i><a href="/wiki/Sic">sic</a></i>] completely demonstrated.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Wolf-164">[161]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>Franklin's electrical experiments led to his invention of the lightning rod. He said that conductors with a sharp<sup><a href="#cite_note-165">[162]</a></sup> rather than a smooth point could discharge silently and at a far greater distance. He surmised that this could help protect buildings from lightning by attaching "upright Rods of Iron, made sharp as a Needle and gilt to prevent Rusting, and from the Foot of those Rods a Wire down the outside of the Building into the Ground; ... Would not these pointed Rods probably draw the Electrical Fire silently out of a Cloud before it came nigh enough to strike, and thereby secure us from that most sudden and terrible Mischief!" Following a series of experiments on Franklin's own house, lightning rods were installed on the Academy of Philadelphia (later the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a>) and the Pennsylvania State House (later <a href="/wiki/Independence_Hall">Independence Hall</a>) in 1752.<sup><a href="#cite_note-166">[163]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Population studies</h3>
<p>Franklin had a major influence on the emerging science of <a href="/wiki/Demography">demography</a> or population studies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-167">[164]</a></sup> In the 1730s and 1740s, he began taking notes on population growth, finding that the American population had the fastest growth rate on Earth.<sup><a href="#cite_note-168">[165]</a></sup> Emphasizing that population growth depended on food supplies, he emphasized the abundance of food and available farmland in America. He calculated that America's population was doubling every 20 years and would surpass that of England in a century.<sup><a href="#cite_note-169">[166]</a></sup> In 1751, he drafted <a href="/wiki/Observations_Concerning_the_Increase_of_Mankind,_Peopling_of_Countries,_etc."><i>Observations concerning the Increase of Mankind, Peopling of Countries, etc.</i></a> Four years later, it was anonymously printed in Boston and was quickly reproduced in Britain, where it influenced the economist <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith">Adam Smith</a> and later the demographer <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus">Thomas Malthus</a>, who credited Franklin for discovering a rule of population growth.<sup><a href="#cite_note-170">[167]</a></sup> Franklin's predictions how British mercantilism was unsustainable alarmed British leaders who did not want to be surpassed by the colonies, so they became more willing to impose restrictions on the colonial economy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-171">[168]</a></sup>
</p><p>Kammen (1990) and Drake (2011) say Franklin's <i>Observations concerning the Increase of Mankind</i> (1755) stands alongside <a href="/wiki/Ezra_Stiles">Ezra Stiles</a>' "Discourse on Christian Union" (1760) as the leading works of 18th-century Anglo-American demography; Drake credits Franklin's "wide readership and prophetic insight".<sup><a href="#cite_note-172">[169]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-173">[170]</a></sup> Franklin was also a pioneer in the study of slave demography, as shown in his 1755 essay.<sup><a href="#cite_note-174">[171]</a></sup> In his capacity as a farmer, he wrote at least one critique about the negative consequences of price controls, trade restrictions, and subsidy of the poor. This is succinctly preserved in his letter to the <i><a href="/wiki/London_Chronicle">London Chronicle</a></i> published November 29, 1766, titled "On the Price of Corn, and Management of the poor".<sup><a href="#cite_note-175">[172]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Oceanography</h3>
<p>As deputy postmaster, Franklin became interested in <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean">North Atlantic Ocean</a> circulation patterns. While in England in 1768, he heard a complaint from the Colonial Board of Customs: Why did it take British packet ships carrying mail several weeks longer to reach New York than it took an average merchant ship to reach <a href="/wiki/Newport,_Rhode_Island">Newport, Rhode Island</a>? The merchantmen had a longer and more complex voyage because they left from London, while the packets left from <a href="/wiki/Falmouth,_Cornwall">Falmouth</a> in Cornwall.<sup><a href="#cite_note-176">[173]</a></sup> Franklin put the question to his cousin Timothy Folger, a <a href="/wiki/Nantucket">Nantucket</a> whaler captain, who told him that merchant ships routinely avoided a strong eastbound mid-ocean current. The mail packet captains sailed dead into it, thus fighting an adverse current of 3 miles per hour (5 km/h). Franklin worked with Folger and other experienced ship captains, learning enough to chart the current and name it the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream">Gulf Stream</a>, by which it is still known today.<sup><a href="#cite_note-177">[174]</a></sup>
</p><p>Franklin published his Gulf Stream chart in 1770 in England, where it was ignored. Subsequent versions were printed in France in 1778 and the U.S. in 1786. The British original edition of the chart had been so thoroughly ignored that everyone assumed it was lost forever until Phil Richardson, a <a href="/wiki/Woods_Hole_Oceanographic_Institution">Woods Hole oceanographer</a> and Gulf Stream expert, discovered it in the <a href="/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France">Bibliothèque Nationale</a> in Paris in 1980.<sup><a href="#cite_note-178">[175]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-179">[176]</a></sup> This find received front-page coverage in <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times">The New York Times</a></i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-180">[177]</a></sup> It took many years for British sea captains to adopt Franklin's advice on navigating the current; once they did, they were able to trim two weeks from their sailing time.<sup><a href="#cite_note-181">[178]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-182">[179]</a></sup> In 1853, the oceanographer and cartographer <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Fontaine_Maury">Matthew Fontaine Maury</a> noted that while Franklin charted and codified the Gulf Stream, he did not discover it:
</p>
<blockquote><p>Though it was Dr. Franklin and Captain Tim Folger, who first turned the Gulf Stream to nautical account, the discovery that there was a Gulf Stream cannot be said to belong to either of them, for its existence was known to <a href="/wiki/Peter_Martyr_d%27Anghiera">Peter Martyr d'Anghiera</a>, and to <a href="/wiki/Sir_Humphrey_Gilbert">Sir Humphrey Gilbert</a>, in the 16th century.<sup><a href="#cite_note-183">[180]</a></sup></p></blockquote><p>An aging Franklin accumulated all his oceanographic findings in <i>Maritime Observations</i>, published by the Philosophical Society's <i>transactions</i> in 1786.<sup><a href="#cite_note-184">[181]</a></sup> It contained ideas for <a href="/wiki/Sea_anchor">sea anchors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catamaran">catamaran</a> hulls, <a href="/wiki/Watertight_compartment">watertight compartments</a>, shipboard lightning rods and a soup bowl designed to stay stable in stormy weather.
</p><h3>Theories and experiments</h3>
<p>Franklin was, along with his contemporary <a href="/wiki/Leonhard_Euler">Leonhard Euler</a>, the only major scientist who supported <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Wave_theory_of_light">wave theory of light</a>, which was basically ignored by the rest of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_community">scientific community</a>. In the 18th century, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton">Isaac Newton</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Corpuscular_theory_of_light">corpuscular theory</a> was held to be true; it took <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)">Thomas Young's</a> well-known <a href="/wiki/Double-slit_experiment">slit experiment</a> in 1803 to persuade most scientists to believe Huygens's theory.<sup><a href="#cite_note-185">[182]</a></sup>
</p><p>On October 21, 1743, according to the popular myth, a storm moving from the southwest denied Franklin the opportunity of witnessing a <a href="/wiki/Lunar_eclipse">lunar eclipse</a>. He was said to have noted that the <a href="/wiki/Prevailing_winds">prevailing winds</a> were actually from the northeast, contrary to what he had expected. In correspondence with his brother, he learned that the same storm had not reached Boston until after the eclipse, despite the fact that Boston is to the northeast of Philadelphia. He deduced that storms do not always travel in the direction of the prevailing wind, a concept that greatly influenced <a href="/wiki/Meteorology">meteorology</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-186">[183]</a></sup> After the Icelandic volcanic eruption of <a href="/wiki/Laki">Laki</a> in 1783, and the subsequent harsh European winter of 1784, Franklin made observations on the causal nature of these two seemingly separate events. He wrote about them in a lecture series.<sup><a href="#cite_note-187">[184]</a></sup>
</p><p>Though Franklin is famously associated with kites from his lightning experiments, he has also been noted by many for using kites to pull humans and ships across waterways.<sup><a href="#cite_note-188">[185]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/George_Pocock_(inventor)">George Pocock</a> in the book <i>A Treatise on The Aeropleustic Art, or Navigation in the Air, by means of Kites, or Buoyant Sails</i><sup><a href="#cite_note-189">[186]</a></sup> noted being inspired by Benjamin Franklin's traction of his body by kite power across a waterway.
</p><p>Franklin noted a principle of <a href="/wiki/Refrigeration">refrigeration</a> by observing that on a very hot day, he stayed cooler in a wet shirt in a breeze than he did in a dry one. To understand this phenomenon more clearly, he conducted experiments. In 1758 on a warm day in <a href="/wiki/Cambridge">Cambridge</a>, England, he and fellow scientist <a href="/wiki/John_Hadley_(chemist)">John Hadley</a> experimented by continually wetting the ball of a mercury <a href="/wiki/Thermometer">thermometer</a> with <a href="/wiki/Diethyl_ether">ether</a> and using <a href="/wiki/Bellows">bellows</a> to evaporate the ether.<sup><a href="#cite_note-190">[187]</a></sup> With each subsequent <a href="/wiki/Evaporation">evaporation</a>, the thermometer read a lower temperature, eventually reaching 7 °F (−14 °C). Another thermometer showed that the room temperature was constant at 65 °F (18 °C). In his letter <i><a href="/wiki/Cooling_by_Evaporation">Cooling by Evaporation</a></i>, Franklin noted that, "One may see the possibility of freezing a man to death on a warm summer's day."<sup><a href="#cite_note-191">[188]</a></sup>
</p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday">Michael Faraday</a>, Franklin's experiments on the non-conduction of ice are worth mentioning, although the law of the general effect of <a href="/wiki/Liquefaction">liquefaction</a> on <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte">electrolytes</a> is not attributed to Franklin.<sup><a href="#cite_note-192">[189]</a></sup> However, as reported in 1836 by Franklin's great-grandson Prof. <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dallas_Bache">Alexander Dallas Bache</a> of the University of Pennsylvania, the law of the effect of heat on the conduction of bodies otherwise non-conductors, for example, glass, could be attributed to Franklin. Franklin wrote, "... A certain quantity of heat will make some bodies good conductors, that will not otherwise conduct ..." and again, "... And water, though naturally a good conductor, will not conduct well when frozen into ice."<sup><a href="#cite_note-193">[190]</a></sup>
</p><p>
While traveling on a ship, Franklin had observed that the wake of a ship <a href="/wiki/Storm_oil">was diminished</a> when the cooks scuttled their greasy water. He studied the effects on a large pond in <a href="/wiki/Clapham_Common">Clapham Common</a>, London. "I fetched out a cruet of oil and dropt a little of it on the water ... though not more than a teaspoon full, produced an instant calm over a space of several yards square." He later used the trick to "calm the waters" by carrying "a little oil in the hollow joint of my cane".<sup><a href="#cite_note-194">[191]</a></sup></p><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:BenFranklin_Waterspout_1806.jpg"></a></p><div><p>An illustration from Franklin's paper on "<a href="/wiki/Waterspout">Water-spouts</a> and Whirlwinds"</p></div></div>
<h3>Decision-making</h3>
<p>In a 1772 letter to <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley">Joseph Priestley</a>, Franklin laid out the earliest known description of the Pro &amp; Con list,<sup><a href="#cite_note-decisions-195">[192]</a></sup> a common <a href="/wiki/Decision-making">decision-making</a> technique, now sometimes called a <a href="/wiki/Decisional_balance_sheet">decisional balance sheet</a>:
</p>
<blockquote><p>... my Way is, to divide half a Sheet of Paper by a Line into two Columns, writing over the one <i>Pro</i>, and over the other <i>Con</i>. Then during three or four Days Consideration I put down under the different Heads short Hints of the different Motives that at different Times occur to me for or against the Measure. When I have thus got them all together in one View, I endeavour to estimate their respective Weights; and where I find two, one on each side, that seem equal, I strike them both out: If I find a Reason <i>pro</i> equal to some two Reasons <i>con</i>, I strike out the three. If I judge some two Reasons <i>con</i> equal to some three Reasons <i>pro</i>, I strike out the five; and thus proceeding I find at length where the Ballance lies; and if after a Day or two of farther Consideration nothing new that is of Importance occurs on either side, I come to a Determination accordingly.<sup><a href="#cite_note-decisions-195">[192]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<h2>Political, social, and religious views</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Franklin_(1706%E2%80%931790)_MET_DT2883.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Like the other advocates of <a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States">republicanism</a>, Franklin emphasized that the new republic could survive only if the people were virtuous. All his life, he explored the role of civic and personal virtue, as expressed in <i>Poor Richard's</i> <a href="/wiki/Aphorism">aphorisms</a>. He felt that organized religion was necessary to keep men good to their fellow men, but rarely attended religious services himself.<sup><a href="#cite_note-196">[193]</a></sup> When he met <a href="/wiki/Voltaire">Voltaire</a> in Paris and asked his fellow member of the Enlightenment vanguard to bless his grandson, Voltaire said in English, "God and Liberty", and added, "this is the only appropriate benediction for the grandson of Monsieur Franklin."<sup><a href="#cite_note-197">[194]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Pedro_Am%C3%A9rico_-_Voltaire_aben%C3%A7oando_o_neto_de_Franklin_em_nome_de_Deus_e_da_Liberdade.jpg"></a></p><div><p><i>Voltaire blessing Franklin's grandson, in the name of God and Liberty</i>, by <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Am%C3%A9rico">Pedro Américo</a>, 1889–90</p></div></div>
<p>Franklin's parents were both pious Puritans.<sup><a href="#cite_note-198">[195]</a></sup> The family attended the <a href="/wiki/Old_South_Church">Old South Church</a>, the most liberal Puritan congregation in Boston, where Benjamin Franklin was baptized in 1706.<sup><a href="#cite_note-199">[196]</a></sup> Franklin's father, a poor chandler, owned a copy of a book, <i>Bonifacius: Essays to Do Good</i>, by the Puritan preacher and family friend <a href="/wiki/Cotton_Mather">Cotton Mather</a>, which Franklin often cited as a key influence on his life. "If I have been", Franklin wrote to Cotton Mather's son seventy years later, "a useful citizen, the public owes the advantage of it to that book."<sup><a href="#cite_note-200">[197]</a></sup> His first pen name, Silence Dogood, paid homage both to the book and to a widely known sermon by Mather. The book preached the importance of forming <a href="/wiki/Voluntary_association">voluntary associations</a> to benefit society. Franklin learned about forming do-good associations from Mather, but his organizational skills made him the most influential force in making <a href="/wiki/Voluntarism_(action)">voluntarism</a> an enduring part of the American ethos.<sup><a href="#cite_note-201">[198]</a></sup>
</p><p>Franklin formulated a presentation of his beliefs and published it in 1728.<sup><a href="#cite_note-202">[199]</a></sup> It did not mention many of the Puritan ideas regarding salvation, the <a href="/wiki/Christology">divinity of Jesus</a>, or indeed much religious dogma. He classified himself as a <a href="/wiki/Deism">deist</a> in his 1771 autobiography,<sup><a href="#cite_note-203">[200]</a></sup> although he still considered himself a Christian.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Christian-204">[201]</a></sup> He retained a strong faith in a God as the wellspring of morality and goodness in man, and as a Providential actor in history responsible for American independence.<sup><a href="#cite_note-205">[202]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Franklin_by_Hiram_Powers.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>At a critical impasse during the Constitutional Convention in June 1787, he attempted to introduce the practice of daily common prayer with these words:
</p>
<blockquote><p>... In the beginning of the contest with G. Britain, when we were sensible of danger we had daily prayer in this room for the Divine Protection. Our prayers, Sir, were heard, and they were graciously answered. All of us who were engaged in the struggle must have observed frequent instances of a Superintending providence in our favor. ... And have we now forgotten that powerful friend? or do we imagine that we no longer need His assistance. I have lived, Sir, a long time and the longer I live, the more convincing proofs I see of this truth—that God governs in the affairs of men. And if a sparrow cannot fall to the ground without his notice, is it probable that an empire can rise without his aid? We have been assured, Sir, in the sacred writings that "except the Lord build they labor in vain that build it." I firmly believe this; and I also believe that without his concurring aid we shall succeed in this political building no better than the Builders of Babel: ... I therefore beg leave to move—that henceforth prayers imploring the assistance of Heaven, and its blessings on our deliberations, be held in this Assembly every morning before we proceed to business, and that one or more of the Clergy of this City be requested to officiate in that service.<sup><a href="#cite_note-206">[203]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>The motion met with resistance and was never brought to a vote.<sup><a href="#cite_note-207">[204]</a></sup>
</p><p>Franklin was an enthusiastic supporter of the evangelical minister <a href="/wiki/George_Whitefield">George Whitefield</a> during the <a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening">First Great Awakening</a>. He did not himself subscribe to Whitefield's theology, but he admired Whitefield for exhorting people to worship God through good works. He published all of Whitefield's sermons and journals, thereby earning a lot of money and boosting the Great Awakening.<sup><a href="#cite_note-208">[205]</a></sup>
</p><p>When he stopped attending church, Franklin wrote in his autobiography:
</p>
<blockquote><p>... Sunday being my studying day, I never was without some religious principles. I never doubted, for instance, the existence of the Deity; that He made the world, and governed it by His providence; that the most acceptable service of God was the doing good to man; that our souls are immortal; and that all crime will be punished, and virtue rewarded, either here or hereafter.<sup><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-209">[206]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-210">[207]</a></sup>
</p></blockquote>
<p>Franklin retained a lifelong commitment to the Puritan virtues and political values he had grown up with, and through his civic work and publishing, he succeeded in passing these values into the American culture permanently. He had a "passion for virtue".<sup><a href="#cite_note-211">[208]</a></sup> These Puritan values included his devotion to egalitarianism, education, industry, thrift, honesty, temperance, charity and community spirit.<sup><a href="#cite_note-212">[209]</a></sup>
</p><p>The classical authors read in the Enlightenment period taught an abstract ideal of republican government based on hierarchical social orders of king, aristocracy and commoners. It was widely believed that English liberties relied on their balance of power, but also hierarchal deference to the privileged class.<sup><a href="#cite_note-213">[210]</a></sup> "Puritanism ... and the epidemic evangelism of the mid-eighteenth century, had created challenges to the traditional notions of social stratification"<sup><a href="#cite_note-Bailyn303-214">[211]</a></sup> by preaching that the Bible taught all men are equal, that the true value of a man lies in his moral behavior, not his class, and that all men can be saved.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Bailyn303-214">[211]</a></sup> Franklin, steeped in Puritanism and an enthusiastic supporter of the evangelical movement, rejected the salvation dogma but embraced the radical notion of egalitarian democracy.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Franklin's commitment to teach these values was itself something he gained from his Puritan upbringing, with its stress on "inculcating virtue and character in themselves and their communities."<sup><a href="#cite_note-215">[212]</a></sup> These Puritan values and the desire to pass them on, were one of his quintessentially American characteristics and helped shape the character of the nation. <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber">Max Weber</a> considered Franklin's ethical writings a culmination of the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic">Protestant ethic</a>, which ethic created the social conditions necessary for the birth of <a href="/wiki/Capitalism">capitalism</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-216">[213]</a></sup>
</p><p>One of his notable characteristics was his respect, tolerance and promotion of all churches. Referring to his experience in Philadelphia, he wrote in his autobiography, "new Places of worship were continually wanted, and generally erected by voluntary Contribution, my Mite for such purpose, whatever might be the Sect, was never refused."<sup><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-209">[206]</a></sup> "He helped create a new type of nation that would draw strength from its religious <a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(philosophy)">pluralism</a>."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Isaacson_2004_p_93ff-217">[214]</a></sup> The evangelical revivalists who were active mid-century, such as Whitefield, were the greatest advocates of religious freedom, "claiming liberty of conscience to be an 'inalienable right of every rational creature.'"<sup><a href="#cite_note-218">[215]</a></sup> Whitefield's supporters in Philadelphia, including Franklin, erected "a large, new hall, that ... could provide a pulpit to anyone of any belief."<sup><a href="#cite_note-219">[216]</a></sup> Franklin's rejection of dogma and doctrine and his stress on the God of ethics and morality and <a href="/wiki/Civic_virtue">civic virtue</a> made him the "prophet of tolerance".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Isaacson_2004_p_93ff-217">[214]</a></sup> He composed "A Parable Against Persecution", an apocryphal 51st chapter of Genesis in which God teaches Abraham the duty of tolerance.<sup><a href="#cite_note-220">[217]</a></sup> While he was living in London in 1774, he was present at the birth of <a href="/wiki/General_Assembly_of_Unitarian_and_Free_Christian_Churches">British Unitarianism</a>, attending the inaugural session of the <a href="/wiki/Essex_Street_Chapel">Essex Street Chapel</a>, at which <a href="/wiki/Theophilus_Lindsey">Theophilus Lindsey</a> drew together the first avowedly <a href="/wiki/Unitarianism">Unitarian</a> congregation in England; this was somewhat politically risky and pushed religious tolerance to new boundaries, as a denial of the doctrine of the <a href="/wiki/Trinity">Trinity</a> was illegal until <a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_the_Trinity_Act_1813">the 1813 Act</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-221">[218]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Dr_Richard_Price,_DD,_FRS_-_Benjamin_West.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Although his parents had intended for him a career in the church,<sup><a href="#cite_note-autobio-19">[18]</a></sup> Franklin as a young man adopted the Enlightenment religious belief in deism, that God's truths can be found entirely through nature and reason,<sup><a href="#cite_note-222">[219]</a></sup> declaring, "I soon became a thorough Deist."<sup><a href="#cite_note-223">[220]</a></sup> He rejected Christian dogma in a 1725 pamphlet <i><a href="/wiki/A_Dissertation_on_Liberty_and_Necessity,_Pleasure_and_Pain">A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain</a></i>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-224">[221]</a></sup> which he later saw as an embarrassment,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Isaacson45-225">[222]</a></sup> while simultaneously asserting that God is "all wise, <a href="/wiki/Omnibenevolence">all good</a>, <a href="/wiki/Omnipotence">all powerful</a>."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Isaacson45-225">[222]</a></sup> He defended his rejection of religious dogma with these words: "I think opinions should be judged by their influences and effects; and if a man holds none that tend to make him less virtuous or more vicious, it may be concluded that he holds none that are dangerous, which I hope is the case with me." After the disillusioning experience of seeing the decay in his own moral standards, and those of two friends in London whom he had converted to deism, Franklin turned back to a belief in the importance of organized religion, on the pragmatic grounds that without God and organized churches, man will not be good.<sup><a href="#cite_note-226">[223]</a></sup> Moreover, because of his proposal that prayers be said in the Constitutional Convention of 1787, many have contended that in his later life he became a pious Christian.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Pious-227">[224]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Faith-228">[225]</a></sup>
</p><p>According to David Morgan,<sup><a href="#cite_note-229">[226]</a></sup> Franklin was a proponent of religion in general. He prayed to "Powerful Goodness" and referred to God as "the infinite". <a href="/wiki/John_Adams">John Adams</a> noted that he was a mirror in which people saw their own religion: "The <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church">Catholics</a> thought him almost a Catholic. The <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England">Church of England</a> claimed him as one of them. The <a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism">Presbyterians</a> thought him half a Presbyterian, and the <a href="/wiki/Quakers">Friends</a> believed him a wet Quaker." Whatever else Franklin was, concludes Morgan, "he was a true champion of generic religion." In a letter to Richard Price, Franklin states that he believes religion should support itself without help from the government, claiming, "When a Religion is good, I conceive that it will support itself; and, when it cannot support itself, and God does not take care to support, so that its Professors are oblig'd to call for the help of the Civil Power, it is a sign, I apprehend, of its being a bad one."<sup><a href="#cite_note-230">[227]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1790, just about a month before he died, Franklin wrote a letter to <a href="/wiki/Ezra_Stiles">Ezra Stiles</a>, president of <a href="/wiki/Yale_University">Yale University</a>, who had asked him his views on religion:
</p>
<blockquote><p>As to <a href="/wiki/Jesus_of_Nazareth">Jesus of Nazareth</a>, my Opinion of whom you particularly desire, I think the System of Morals and his Religion, as he left them to us, the best the world ever saw or is likely to see; but I apprehend it has received various corrupt changes, and I have, with most of the present <a href="/wiki/English_Dissenters">Dissenters in England</a>, some Doubts as to his divinity; tho' it is a question I do not dogmatize upon, having never studied it, and I think it needless to busy myself with it now, when I expect soon an Opportunity of knowing the Truth with less Trouble. I see no harm, however, in its being believed, if that belief has the good consequence, as it probably has, of making his doctrines more respected and better observed; especially as I do not perceive that the Supreme takes it amiss, by distinguishing the unbelievers in his government of the world with any particular marks of his displeasure.<sup><a href="#cite_note-vandoren-21">[20]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>On July 4, 1776, Congress appointed a three-member committee composed of Franklin, Jefferson, and Adams to design the <a href="/wiki/Great_Seal_of_the_United_States">Great Seal of the United States</a>. Franklin's proposal (which was not adopted) featured the motto: "Rebellion to Tyrants is Obedience to God" and a scene from the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Exodus">Book of Exodus</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Moses">Moses</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Israelites">Israelites</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pillar_of_Fire_(theophany)">pillar of fire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom">George III</a> depicted as <a href="/wiki/Pharaohs_in_the_Bible#Pharaoh_of_the_Exodus">pharaoh</a>. The design that was produced was not acted upon by Congress, and the Great Seal's design was not finalized until a third committee was appointed in 1782.<sup><a href="#cite_note-231">[228]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-232">[229]</a></sup>
</p><p>Franklin strongly supported the right to <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech">freedom of speech</a>:
</p>
<blockquote><p>In those wretched countries where a man cannot call his tongue his own, he can scarce call anything his own. Whoever would overthrow the liberty of a nation must begin by subduing the freeness of speech ...
Without freedom of thought there can be no such thing as wisdom, and no such thing as public liberty without freedom of speech, which is the right of every man ...</p></blockquote>
<h3>Thirteen Virtues</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin_bust_at_Columbia_University_IMG_0924.JPG"></a></p></div>
<p>Franklin sought to cultivate his character by a plan of 13 virtues, which he developed at age 20 (in 1726) and continued to practice in some form for the rest of his life. His autobiography lists his 13 virtues as:<sup><a href="#cite_note-234">[231]</a></sup>
</p>
<ol><li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)">Temperance</a>. Eat not to dullness; drink not to elevation."</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Silence">Silence</a>. Speak not but what may benefit others or yourself; avoid trifling conversation."</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Order_(virtue)">Order</a>. Let all your things have their places; let each part of your business have its time.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Result">Resolution</a>. Resolve to perform what you ought; perform without fail what you resolve.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Frugality">Frugality</a>. Make no expense but to do good to others or yourself; i.e., waste nothing.</li>
<li>Industry. Lose no time; be always employ'd in something useful; cut off all unnecessary actions.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sincerity">Sincerity</a>. Use no hurtful deceit; think innocently and justly, and, if you speak, speak accordingly.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Justice">Justice</a>. Wrong none by doing injuries, or omitting the benefits that are your duty.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moderation">Moderation</a>. Avoid extremes; forbear resenting injuries so much as you think they deserve.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cleanliness">Cleanliness</a>. Tolerate no uncleanliness in body, clothes, or habitation.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tranquility">Tranquility</a>. Be not disturbed at trifles, or at accidents common or unavoidable.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chastity">Chastity</a>. Rarely use <a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality">venery</a> but for health or offspring, never to dullness, weakness, or the injury of your own or another's peace or reputation.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Humility">Humility</a>. Imitate Jesus and <a href="/wiki/Socrates">Socrates</a>.</li></ol>
<p>Franklin did not try to work on them all at once. Instead, he would work on one and only one each week "leaving all others to their ordinary chance." While he did not adhere completely to the enumerated virtues, and by his own admission he fell short of them many times, he believed the attempt made him a better man, contributing greatly to his success and happiness, which is why in his autobiography, he devoted more pages to this plan than to any other single point and wrote, "I hope, therefore, that some of my descendants may follow the example and reap the benefit."<sup><a href="#cite_note-235">[232]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Slavery</h3>
<p>Franklin owned as many as seven slaves, including two men who worked in his household and his shop.<sup><a href="#cite_note-236">[233]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-237">[234]</a></sup> He posted paid ads for the sale of slaves and for the capture of runaway slaves and allowed the sale of slaves in his general store. However, he later became an outspoken critic of slavery. In 1758, he advocated the opening of a school for the education of black slaves in Philadelphia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-238">[235]</a></sup> He took two slaves to England with him, Peter and King. King escaped with a woman to live in the outskirts of London,<sup><a href="#cite_note-239">[236]</a></sup> and by 1758 he was working for a household in <a href="/wiki/Suffolk">Suffolk</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-240">[237]</a></sup> After returning from England in 1762, Franklin became notably more abolitionist in nature, attacking American slavery. In the wake of <i><a href="/wiki/Somerset_v_Stewart">Somerset v Stewart</a></i>, he voiced frustration at British abolitionists:
</p>
<blockquote><p>O Pharisaical Britain! to pride thyself in setting free a single Slave that happens to land on thy coasts, while thy Merchants in all thy ports are encouraged by thy laws to continue a commerce whereby so many hundreds of thousands are dragged into a slavery that can scarce be said to end with their lives, since it is entailed on their posterity!<sup><a href="#cite_note-241">[238]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-242">[239]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>Franklin, however, refused to publicly debate the issue of slavery at the 1787 Constitutional Convention.<sup><a href="#cite_note-243">[240]</a></sup>
</p><p>At the time of the American founding, there were about half a million slaves in the United States, mostly in the five southernmost states, where they made up 40% of the population. Many of the leading American founders – most notably Thomas Jefferson, George Washington, and <a href="/wiki/James_Madison">James Madison</a> – owned slaves, but many others did not. Benjamin Franklin thought that slavery was "an atrocious debasement of human nature" and "a source of serious evils." He and <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Rush">Benjamin Rush</a> founded the <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Abolition_Society">Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery</a> in 1774.<sup><a href="#cite_note-244">[241]</a></sup> In 1790, Quakers from New York and Pennsylvania presented their petition for abolition to Congress. Their argument against slavery was backed by the Pennsylvania Abolitionist Society.<sup><a href="#cite_note-245">[242]</a></sup>
</p><p>In his later years, as Congress was forced to deal with the issue of slavery, Franklin wrote several essays that stressed the importance of the <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States">abolition of slavery</a> and of the integration of African Americans into American society. These writings included:
</p>
<ul><li><i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/An_Address_to_the_Public">An Address to the Public</a></i> (1789)</li>
<li><i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Plan_for_Improving_the_Condition_of_the_Free_Blacks">A Plan for Improving the Condition of the Free Blacks</a></i> (1789)</li>
<li><i>Sidi Mehemet Ibrahim on the Slave Trade</i> (1790)<sup><a href="#cite_note-246">[243]</a></sup></li></ul>
<h3>Vegetarianism</h3>
<p>Franklin became a vegetarian when he was a teenager apprenticing at a print shop, after coming upon a book by the early vegetarian advocate <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Tryon">Thomas Tryon</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-247">[244]</a></sup> In addition, he would have also been familiar with the moral arguments espoused by prominent vegetarian Quakers in colonial Pennsylvania, such as <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Lay">Benjamin Lay</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Woolman">John Woolman</a>. His reasons for vegetarianism were based on health, ethics, and economy:
</p>
<blockquote><p>When about 16 years of age, I happen'd to meet with a book written by one Tryon, recommending a vegetable diet. I determined to go into it ... [By not eating meat] I presently found that I could save half what [my brother] paid me. This was an additional fund for buying books: but I had another advantage in it ... I made the greater progress from that greater clearness of head and quicker apprehension which usually attend temperance in eating and drinking.<sup><a href="#cite_note-248">[245]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>Franklin also declared the consumption of meat to be "unprovoked murder".<sup><a href="#cite_note-249">[246]</a></sup> Despite his convictions, he <a href="/wiki/Pescetarianism">began to eat fish</a> after being tempted by fried cod on a boat sailing from Boston, justifying the eating of animals by observing that the fish's stomach contained other fish. Nonetheless, he recognized the faulty ethics in this argument<sup><a href="#cite_note-250">[247]</a></sup> and would continue to be a vegetarian on and off. He was "excited" by <a href="/wiki/Tofu">tofu</a>, which he learned of from the writings of a Spanish missionary to South East Asia, <a href="/wiki/Domingo_Fern%C3%A1ndez_Navarrete">Domingo Fernández Navarrete</a>. Franklin sent a sample of <a href="/wiki/Soybean">soybeans</a> to prominent American botanist <a href="/wiki/John_Bartram">John Bartram</a> and had previously written to British diplomat and Chinese trade expert <a href="/wiki/James_Flint_(merchant)">James Flint</a> inquiring as to how tofu was made,<sup><a href="#cite_note-feast-251">[248]</a></sup> with their correspondence believed to be the first documented use of the word "tofu" in the English language.<sup><a href="#cite_note-252">[249]</a></sup>
</p><p>Franklin's "Second Reply to <i>Vindex Patriae</i>", a 1766 letter advocating self-sufficiency and less dependence on England, lists various examples of the bounty of American agricultural products, and does not mention meat.<sup><a href="#cite_note-feast-251">[248]</a></sup> Detailing new American customs, he wrote that, "[t]hey resolved last spring to eat no more lamb; and not a joint of lamb has since been seen on any of their tables … the sweet little creatures are all alive to this day, with the prettiest fleeces on their backs imaginable."<sup><a href="#cite_note-253">[250]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>View on inoculation</h3>
<p>The concept of preventing <a href="/wiki/Smallpox">smallpox</a> by <a href="/wiki/Variolation">variolation</a> was introduced to colonial America by an African slave named <a href="/wiki/Onesimus_(Bostonian)">Onesimus</a> via his owner <a href="/wiki/Cotton_Mather">Cotton Mather</a> in the early eighteenth century, but the procedure was not immediately accepted. <a href="/wiki/James_Franklin_(printer)">James Franklin's</a> newspaper carried articles in 1721<sup><a href="#cite_note-254">[251]</a></sup> that vigorously denounced the concept.<sup><a href="#cite_note-255">[252]</a></sup>
</p><p>However, by 1736 Benjamin Franklin, by then a prominent Boston citizen, was known as a supporter of the procedure. Therefore, when four-year-old "Franky" died of smallpox, opponents of the procedure circulated rumors that the child had been inoculated, and that this was the cause of his subsequent death. When Franklin became aware of this gossip, he placed a notice in the Pennsylvania Gazette, stating: "I do hereby sincerely declare, that he was not inoculated, but receiv'd the Distemper in the common Way of Infection ... I intended to have my Child inoculated.". The child had a bad case of flux <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea">diarrhea</a>, and his parents had waited for him to get well before having him inoculated. Franklin wrote in his Autobiography: "In 1736 I lost one of my sons, a fine boy of four years old, by the small-pox, taken in the common way. I long regretted bitterly, and still regret that I had not given it to him by inoculation. This I mention for the sake of parents who omit that operation, on the supposition that they should never forgive themselves if a child died under it; my example showing that the regret may be the same either way, and that, therefore, the safer should be chosen."<sup><a href="#cite_note-256">[253]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Interests and activities</h2>
<h3>Musical endeavors</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Glassharmonica.png"></a></p></div>
<p>Franklin is known to have played the violin, the harp, and the guitar. He also composed music, notably a <a href="/wiki/String_quartet">string quartet</a> in <a href="/wiki/Classical_period_(music)">early classical style</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-257">[254]</a></sup> While he was in London, he developed a much-improved version of the <a href="/wiki/Glass_harmonica">glass harmonica</a>, in which the glasses rotate on a shaft, with the player's fingers held steady, instead of the other way around. He worked with the London glassblower Charles James to create it, and instruments based on his mechanical version soon found their way to other parts of Europe.<sup><a href="#cite_note-258">[255]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Haydn">Joseph Haydn</a>, a fan of Franklin's enlightened ideas, had a glass harmonica in his instrument collection.<sup><a href="#cite_note-259">[256]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart">Mozart</a> composed for Franklin's glass harmonica,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Harvard-260">[257]</a></sup> as did <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven">Beethoven</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-261">[258]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-262">[259]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Donizetti">Gaetano Donizetti</a> used the instrument in the accompaniment to Amelia's aria "Par che mi dica ancora" in the tragic opera <i><a href="/wiki/Il_castello_di_Kenilworth">Il castello di Kenilworth</a></i> (1821),<sup><a href="#cite_note-Osborne1994-263">[260]</a></sup> as did <a href="/wiki/Camille_Saint-Sa%C3%ABns">Camille Saint-Saëns</a> in his 1886 <i><a href="/wiki/The_Carnival_of_the_Animals">The Carnival of the Animals</a></i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-264">[261]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Strauss">Richard Strauss</a> calls for the glass harmonica in his 1917 <i><a href="/wiki/Die_Frau_ohne_Schatten">Die Frau ohne Schatten</a></i>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Harvard-260">[257]</a></sup> and numerous other composers used Franklin's instrument as well.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h3>Chess</h3>
<p>Franklin was an avid <a href="/wiki/Chess">chess</a> player. He was playing chess by around 1733, making him the first chess player known by name in the American colonies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McCraryChessandFranklin-265">[262]</a></sup> His essay on "<a href="/wiki/The_Morals_of_Chess">The Morals of Chess</a>" in <i><a href="/wiki/Columbian_Magazine">Columbian Magazine</a></i> in December 1786 is the second known writing on chess in America.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McCraryChessandFranklin-265">[262]</a></sup> This essay in praise of chess and prescribing a code of behavior for the game has been widely reprinted and translated.<sup><a href="#cite_note-266">[263]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-267">[264]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-268">[265]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-269">[266]</a></sup> He and a friend used chess as a means of learning the Italian language, which both were studying; the winner of each game between them had the right to assign a task, such as parts of the Italian grammar to be learned by heart, to be performed by the loser before their next meeting.<sup><a href="#cite_note-270">[267]</a></sup>
</p><p>Franklin was able to play chess more frequently against stronger opposition during his many years as a civil servant and diplomat in England, where the game was far better established than in America. He was able to improve his playing standard by facing more experienced players during this period. He regularly attended <a href="/wiki/Old_Slaughter%27s_Coffee_House">Old Slaughter's Coffee House</a> in London for chess and socializing, making many important personal contacts. While in Paris, both as a visitor and later as ambassador, he visited the famous <a href="/wiki/Caf%C3%A9_de_la_R%C3%A9gence">Café de la Régence</a>, which France's strongest players made their regular meeting place. No records of his games have survived, so it is not possible to ascertain his playing strength in modern terms.<sup><a href="#cite_note-271">[268]</a></sup>
</p><p>Franklin was inducted into the <a href="/wiki/World_Chess_Hall_of_Fame">U.S. Chess Hall of Fame</a> in 1999.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McCraryChessandFranklin-265">[262]</a></sup> The Franklin Mercantile Chess Club in Philadelphia, the second oldest chess club in the U.S., is named in his honor.<sup><a href="#cite_note-272">[269]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Legacy</h2>
<table><tbody><tr><th>Designations</th></tr><tr><th><div>
<p><a href="/wiki/List_of_Pennsylvania_state_historical_markers">Pennsylvania Historical Marker</a></p></div></th></tr><tr><th>Official name</th><td>Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790)</td></tr><tr><th>Type</th><td>City</td></tr><tr><th>Criteria</th><td>Government &amp; Politics, Government &amp; Politics 18th Century, Invention, Science &amp; Medicine, Professions &amp; Vocations, Publishing &amp; Journalism, Writers</td></tr><tr><th>Designated</th><td>June 30, 1990<sup><a href="#cite_note-273">[270]</a></sup></td></tr><tr><th>Location</th><td><a href="/wiki/Chestnut_Street_(Philadelphia)">Chestnut St.</a> between 3rd &amp; 4th Sts., at <a href="/wiki/National_Liberty_Museum">Nat'l. Liberty Mus.</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a><br /><small><a href="//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Benjamin_Franklin&amp;params=39.94881_N_75.14683_W_">39°56′56″N 75°08′49″W﻿ / ﻿39.94881°N 75.14683°W</a></small></td></tr><tr><th>Marker Text</th><td>Printer, author, inventor, diplomat, philanthropist, statesman, and scientist. The eighteenth century's most illustrious Pennsylvanian built a house in Franklin Court starting in 1763, and here he lived the last five years of his life.</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h3>Bequest</h3>
<p>Franklin <a href="/wiki/Bequest">bequeathed</a> £1,000 (about $4,400 at the time, or about $125,000 in 2021 dollars<sup><a href="#cite_note-274">[271]</a></sup>) each to the cities of Boston and Philadelphia, in trust to gather interest for 200 years. The trust began in 1785 when the French mathematician <a href="/wiki/Charles-Joseph_Mathon_de_la_Cour">Charles-Joseph Mathon de la Cour</a>, who admired Franklin greatly, wrote a friendly parody of Franklin's <i>Poor Richard's Almanack</i> called <i>Fortunate Richard</i>. The main character leaves a smallish amount of money in his will, five lots of 100 <i><a href="/wiki/French_livre">livres</a></i>, to collect interest over one, two, three, four or five full centuries, with the resulting astronomical sums to be spent on impossibly elaborate utopian projects.<sup><a href="#cite_note-275">[272]</a></sup> Franklin, who was 79 years old at the time, wrote thanking him for a great idea and telling him that he had decided to leave a bequest of 1,000 pounds each to his native Boston and his adopted Philadelphia.
</p><p>By 1990, more than $2,000,000 had accumulated in Franklin's Philadelphia trust, which had loaned the money to local residents. From 1940 to 1990, the money was used mostly for mortgage loans. When the trust came due, Philadelphia decided to spend it on scholarships for local high school students. Franklin's Boston trust fund accumulated almost $5,000,000 during that same time; at the end of its first 100 years a portion was allocated to help establish a <a href="/wiki/Vocational_school">trade school</a> that became the <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_Institute_of_Technology">Franklin Institute of Boston</a>, and the entire fund was later dedicated to supporting this institute.<sup><a href="#cite_note-276">[273]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-277">[274]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Franklin_National_Memorial.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>In 1787, a group of prominent ministers in <a href="/wiki/Lancaster,_Pennsylvania">Lancaster, Pennsylvania</a>, proposed the foundation of a new college named in Franklin's honor. Franklin donated £200 towards the development of Franklin College (now called <a href="/wiki/Franklin_%26_Marshall_College">Franklin &amp; Marshall College</a>).<sup><a href="#cite_note-278">[275]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Likeness and image</h3>
<p>As the only person to have signed the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence">Declaration of Independence</a> in 1776, <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Alliance_(1778)">Treaty of Alliance with France</a> in 1778, <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)">Treaty of Paris</a> in 1783, and <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States">U.S. Constitution</a> in 1787, Franklin is considered one of the leading <a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States">Founding Fathers of the United States</a>. His pervasive influence in the early history of the nation has led to his being jocularly called "the only president of the United States who was never president of the United States".<sup><a href="#cite_note-279">[276]</a></sup>
</p><p>Franklin's likeness is ubiquitous. Since 1928, it has adorned American <a href="/wiki/United_States_one-hundred-dollar_bill">$100 bills</a>. From 1948 to 1963, Franklin's portrait was on the <a href="/wiki/Franklin_half_dollar">half-dollar</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-280">[277]</a></sup> He has appeared on a <a href="/wiki/United_States_fifty-dollar_bill">$50 bill</a> and on several varieties of the $100 bill from 1914 and 1918.<sup><a href="#cite_note-281">[278]</a></sup> Franklin also appears on the $1,000 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Savings_Bonds#Series_EE">Series EE savings bond</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-282">[279]</a></sup>
</p><p>On April 12, 1976, as part of a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bicentennial">bicentennial</a> celebration, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress">Congress</a> dedicated a 20-foot (6 m) tall marble statue in Philadelphia's <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Institute">Franklin Institute</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_National_Memorial">Benjamin Franklin National Memorial</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-283">[280]</a></sup> Many of Franklin's personal possessions are on display at the institute. In London, his house at 36 Craven Street, which is the only surviving former residence of Franklin, was first marked with a <a href="/wiki/Blue_plaque">blue plaque</a> and has since been opened to the public as the <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_House">Benjamin Franklin House</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-284">[281]</a></sup> In 1998, workmen restoring the building dug up the remains of six children and four adults hidden below the home. A total of 15 bodies have been recovered.<sup><a href="#cite_note-285">[282]</a></sup> The Friends of Benjamin Franklin House (the organization responsible for the restoration) note that the bones were likely placed there by <a href="/wiki/William_Hewson_(surgeon)">William Hewson</a>, who lived in the house for two years and who had built a small anatomy school at the back of the house. They note that while Franklin likely knew what Hewson was doing, he probably did not participate in any dissections because he was much more of a physicist than a medical man.<sup><a href="#cite_note-286">[283]</a></sup>
</p><p>He has been honored on U.S. postage stamps many times. The image of Franklin, the first postmaster general of the United States, occurs on the face of U.S. postage more than any other notable American save that of George Washington.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Scotts-287">[284]</a></sup> He appeared on the first U.S. postage stamp issued in 1847. From 1908 through 1923, the U.S. Post Office issued a series of postage stamps commonly referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Washington%E2%80%93Franklin_Issues">Washington–Franklin Issues</a>, in which Washington and Franklin were depicted many times over a 14-year period, the longest run of any one series in U.S. postal history. However, he only appears on a few <a href="/wiki/File:Ben_Franklin_250th_1956_issue-3c.jpg">commemorative stamps</a>. Some of the finest portrayals of Franklin on record can be found on the engravings inscribed on the face of U.S. postage.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Scotts-287">[284]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Obverse_of_the_series_2009_$100_Federal_Reserve_Note.jpg"></a></p></div>
<div><div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Franklin_1861_Issue-1c.jpg"></a></p><p>Issue of 1861</p></div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Franklin2_1895_Issue-1c.jpg"></a></p><p>Issue of 1895</p></div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Franklin_2-Big-Bens_1918_Issue.jpg"></a></p><p>Issue of 1918</p></div></div><div><p>Examples of Franklin on U. S. Postage</p></div></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:2012-07_ncc_04.JPG"></a></p></div>
<h2>See also</h2>
<div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_in_popular_culture">Benjamin Franklin in popular culture</a></li>
<li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Benjamin_Franklin_on_stamps">Benjamin Franklin on postage stamps</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_early_American_publishers_and_printers">Bibliography of early American publishers and printers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Timothy">Elizabeth Timothy</a>, apprentice/partner of Franklin</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Founders_Online">Founders Online</a> database of Franklin's papers</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Franklin%27s_electrostatic_machine">Franklin's electrostatic machine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fugio_Cent">Fugio Cent</a>, 1787 coin designed by Franklin</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/James_Parker_(publisher)">James Parker</a>, apprentice/partner of Franklin</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abolitionist_forerunners">List of abolitionist forerunners</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_early_American_publishers_and_printers">List of early American publishers and printers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_opponents_of_slavery">List of opponents of slavery</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_richest_Americans_in_history">List of richest Americans in history</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wealthiest_historical_figures">List of wealthiest historical figures</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Timothee">Louis Timothee</a>, apprentice/partner of Franklin</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_to_the_56_Signers_of_the_Declaration_of_Independence">Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/The_Papers_of_Benjamin_Franklin">The Papers of Benjamin Franklin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Birch">Thomas Birch</a>'s newly discovered Franklin letters</li></ul>
</div>
<h2>Notes</h2>
<div><ol>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-birthdate_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-birthdate_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-birthdate_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> Contemporary records, which used the Julian calendar and the <a href="/wiki/New_Year#Annunciation_Style">Annunciation Style</a> of enumerating years, recorded his birth as January 6, 1705.<sup><a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-17">[16]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b> According to Professor Zara Anishanslin.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b> Portraits of Franklin at this time often contained an inscription, the best known being <a href="/wiki/Anne-Robert-Jacques_Turgot,_Baron_de_Laune">Turgot's</a> acclamation, "<i>Eripuit fulmen coelo sceptrumque tyrannis.</i>" (He snatched the lightning from the skies and the scepter from the tyrants.) Historian <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Christoph_Schlosser">Friedrich Christoph Schlosser</a> remarked at the time, with ample hyperbole, that "Such was the number of portraits, busts and medallions of him in circulation before he left Paris, that he would have been recognized from them by any adult citizen in any part of the civilized world." – <cite>Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Franklin,_Benjamin">"Franklin, Benjamin" </a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.</cite>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2>References</h2>
<div>
<ol>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica, Wood, 2021</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.historynet.com/benjamin-franklin-and-fake-news/">"Founding Forger: How Benjamin Franklin Mastered the Art of Fake News"</a>. <i>HistoryNet</i>. June 22, 2022. Retrieved January 20, 2023.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b> <a href="#institute">Franklin Institute, Essay</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b> <cite>Burt, Nathaniel (1999). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L9ueb6r1uXgC&amp;pg=PA142"><i>The Perennial Philadelphians: The Anatomy of an American Aristocracy</i></a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 142. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1693-6"><bdi>978-0-8122-1693-6</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#isaacson2004">Isaacson, 2004</a>, p.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources">page needed</a></i>]</sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b> H.W. Brands, <i>The First American: The Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin</i> (2000)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b> <a href="#isaacson2004">Isaacson, 2004</a>, p.491
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b> <a href="#isaacson2004">Isaacson, 2004</a>, pp.491–492
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b> <cite>Brands, H.W. (2010). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B2bPCEbMAvwC&amp;pg=PA390"><i>The First American: The Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin</i></a>. p. 390. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780307754943"><bdi>9780307754943</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Goodrich1829_11-0">^</a></b> <cite>Goodrich, Charles A. (1829). <a href="https://archive.org/details/livessignerstod02goodgoog"><i>Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Independence</i></a>. W. Reed &amp; Company. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/livessignerstod02goodgoog/page/n280">267</a>. Retrieved June 7, 2013.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Smithsonian+Constitutional_Post_12-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://postalmuseum.si.edu/exhibition/out-of-the-mails-hugh-finlays-journey/william-goddard%E2%80%99s-constitutional-post">"William Goddard and the Constitutional Post"</a>. Smithsonian National Postal Museum. Retrieved October 19, 2010.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://about.usps.com/who-we-are/postal-history/pmg-franklin.pdf">"Benjamin Franklin, Postmaster General"</a> (PDF). <i>United States Postal Service</i>. <a href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://about.usps.com/who-we-are/postal-history/pmg-franklin.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved May 29, 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b> <cite>Huang, Nian-Sheng (2000). <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1586007">"Franklin's Father Josiah: Life of a Colonial Boston Tallow Chandler, 1657–1745"</a>. <i>Transactions of the American Philosophical Society</i>. <b>90</b> (3): i–155. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1586007">10.2307/1586007</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1586007">1586007</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b> <a href="#isaacson2004">Isaacson, 2004</a>, p.14
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b> <cite>Mulford, Carla, ed. (2009). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hOTroomqzQQC&amp;pg=PR14"><i>The Cambridge Companion to Benjamin Franklin</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. xiv. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139828123"><bdi>9781139828123</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Gordon_S._Wood">Wood, Gordon S.</a> (2005). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ak1RVLZDv4gC&amp;pg=PA17"><i>The Americanization of Benjamin Franklin</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Group">Penguin Press</a>. p. 17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780143035282"><bdi>9780143035282</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b> <a href="#isaacson2004">Isaacson, 2004</a>, p. 16
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-autobio_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autobio_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Franklin, Benjamin (1901) [1771]. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qW4VAAAAYAAJ">"Introduction"</a>. <i>Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin</i>. Macmillan's pocket English and American classics. New York: Macmillan. p. vi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780758302939"><bdi>9780758302939</bdi></a>. Retrieved February 1, 2011.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b> <a href="#isaacson2004">Isaacson, 2004</a>, p. 32
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-vandoren_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-vandoren_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-vandoren_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-vandoren_21-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-vandoren_21-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-vandoren_21-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-vandoren_21-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> Carl Van Doren, <i>Benjamin Franklin</i>. (1938).<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources">page needed</a></i>]</sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b> <cite>On; Mumford, Michael D. (2002). "Social innovation: ten cases from Benjamin Franklin". <i>Creativity Research Journal</i>. <b>14</b> (2): 253–266. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1207%2FS15326934CRJ1402_11">10.1207/S15326934CRJ1402_11</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143550175">143550175</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b> David Waldstreicher, ed., <i> A Companion to Benjamin Franklin</i> (2011) p. 30
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b> J. A. Leo Lemay, <i>The Life of Benjamin Franklin, Volume 2: Printer and publisher, 1730–1747</i> (2005) pp. 92–94, 123
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b> <cite>Murray, Stuart A.P. (2009). <a href="https://archive.org/details/libraryillustrat0000murr"><i>The library: an illustrated history</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Skyhorse_Pub.">Skyhorse Pub.</a> <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60239-706-4"><bdi>978-1-60239-706-4</bdi></a>.</cite><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources">page needed</a></i>]</sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b> <cite>Korty, Margaret Barton (1965). "Benjamin Franklin and Eighteenth-Century American Libraries". <i>Transactions of the American Philosophical Society</i>. <b>55</b> (9): 1–83. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1006049">10.2307/1006049</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1006049">1006049</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://german.about.com/library/weekly/aa071299.htm">"German Newspapers in the US and Canada"</a>. Retrieved October 7, 2014.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b> <cite>Frantz, John B. (1998). <a href="https://journals.psu.edu/index.php/phj/article/viewFile/25467/25236">"Franklin and the Pennsylvania Germans"</a>. <i>Pennsylvania History</i>: 21–34.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b> <cite>Philip, Gleason (2000). "Trouble in the Colonial Melting Pot". <i>Journal of American Ethnic History</i>. <b>20</b> (1): 3–17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F27502642">10.2307/27502642</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/27502642">27502642</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:254480258">254480258</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b> <cite>Frasca, Ralph (1997). "Benjamin Franklin's Journalism". <i><a href="/wiki/Fides_et_Historia">Fides et Historia</a></i>. <b>29</b> (1): 60–72.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b> Ralph Frasca, <i>Benjamin Franklin's Printing Network: Disseminating Virtue in Early America</i> (University of Missouri Press, 2006) <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1540-6563.2007.00197_16.x">10.1111/j.1540-6563.2007.00197_16.x</a> online review by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Middlekauff">Robert Middlekauff</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.bartleby.com/225/index.html">"Vol. 15. Colonial and Revolutionary Literature; Early National Literature, Part I. The Cambridge History of English and American Literature: An Encyclopedia in Eighteen Volumes. 1907–21"</a>. <i>www.bartleby.com</i>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b> Cook, <i>Colonial and Revolutionary Literature; Early National Literature, Part I. Colonial Newspapers and Magazines, 1704–1775</i> (1917)<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources">page needed</a></i>]</sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b> Ralph Frasca, <i>Benjamin Franklin's Printing Network: Disseminating Virtue in Early America</i> (2006) pp. 19, 196.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b> <cite>Baker, Ira L. (1977). "Elizabeth Timothy: America's First Woman Editor". <i>Journalism Quarterly</i>. <b>54</b> (2): 280–85. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F107769907705400207">10.1177/107769907705400207</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143677057">143677057</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b> Ralph Frasca, "'The Partnership at Carolina Having succeeded, was Encourag'd to Engage in Others': The Genesis of Benjamin Franklin's Printing Network", <i>Southern Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal of the South</i> (2006), Vol. 13 Issue 1/2, pp. 1–23.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b> <cite>Smith, Jeffery A. (1993). "Impartiality and Revolutionary Ideology: Editorial Policies of the 'South-Carolina Gazette,' 1732–1735". <i>Journal of Southern History</i>. <b>49</b> (4): 511–26. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2208674">10.2307/2208674</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/2208674">2208674</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b> <cite>Frasca, Ralph (2003). "'I am now about to establish a small Printing Office ... at Newhaven': Benjamin Franklin and the First Newspaper in Connecticut". <i>Connecticut History</i>. <b>44</b> (1): 77–87. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F44369668">10.2307/44369668</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/44369668">44369668</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:254488378">254488378</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b> Frasca, <i>Benjamin Franklin's Printing Network,</i> pp. 161–167.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-HC_40-0">^</a></b> <a href="/wiki/History_(U.S._TV_channel)">The History Channel</a>, <i>Mysteries of the Freemasons: America</i>, video documentary, August 1, 2006, written by Noah Nicholas and Molly Bedell
</li>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b> Fleming, Thomas, <i>The Perils of Peace: America's Struggle for Survival</i>, (Collins, New York, 2007) p. 30
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b> Fleming, p. 236
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b> Buchan, James. <i>Crowded with Genius: The Scottish Enlightenment: Edinburgh's Moment of the Mind</i>. HarperCollins Publishers. 2003. p. 2
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b> <a href="#isaacson2004">Isaacson, 2004</a>, pp. 229-230
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b> <cite>Franklin, Benjamin. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060103051246/http://www.historycarper.com/resources/twobf3/pa-1773.htm">"reprinted on The History Carper"</a>. Archived from <a href="http://www.historycarper.com/resources/twobf3/pa-1773.htm">the original</a> on January 3, 2006.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b> Harlow Giles Unger, "Thomas Paine and the Clarion Call for American Independence" (New York: Da Capo Press, 2019), p. 90
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b> Brands, <i>The First American</i>, pp. 654–55, 694
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b> Sparks, pp. 529–30.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.ushistory.org/tour/christ-church-burial-ground.htm">"Christ Church Burial Grounds"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Ushistory.org">Ushistory.org</a></i>. Retrieved June 22, 2020.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.loc.gov/item/2016808354/">"Benjamin Franklin's grave [Christ Church Burial Ground], Philadelphia"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress">Library of Congress</a></i>. 1900. Retrieved June 22, 2020.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b> <cite>Paxton, John (1988). <i>Companion to the French Revolution</i>. New York: Facts on File. p. 85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8160-1116-8"><bdi>0-8160-1116-8</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b> <cite>Franklin, Benjamin (August 16, 2010). <a href="https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/franklin/bf-trans61.html">"Transcript of Benjamin Franklin, Epitaph - Benjamin Franklin: In His Own Words | Exhibitions (Library of Congress)"</a>. <i>www.loc.gov</i>. Retrieved December 30, 2022.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b> <a href="http://sln.fi.edu/franklin/family/lastwill.html"><i>The Last Will and Testament of Benjamin Franklin</i>.</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090821230120/http://sln.fi.edu/franklin/family/lastwill.html">Archived</a> August 21, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> The Franklin Institute Science Museum.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b> <cite>Benjamin Franklin. <a href="http://www.ushistory.org/franklin/autobiography/page55.htm">"Part three"</a>. <i>The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin</i>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-EncyColonial_147-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/science-and-medicine">"Science and Medicine"</a>. <i>Colonial America Reference Library</i>. Encyclopedia.com. 2016. Retrieved February 27, 2017. <q>Franklin's interest in electricity originated when he saw a traveling scientific lecturer, Archibald Spencer, perform an "electricity show" in Boston, Massachusetts.</q></cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b> <cite>Franklin, Benjamin (May 25, 1747). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171020014725/http://franklinpapers.org/franklin//framedVolumes.jsp?vol=3&amp;page=126b">"Letter to Peter Collinson"</a>. <i>Franklin Papers</i>. Archived from <a href="http://franklinpapers.org/franklin//framedVolumes.jsp?vol=3&amp;page=126b">the original</a> on October 20, 2017. Retrieved May 1, 2016.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b> <cite>Weisstein, Eric. <a href="http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/FranklinBenjamin.html">"Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790)"</a>. <i>World of Scientific Biography</i>. <i>Science World</i>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080218104547/http://www.physchem.co.za/Static%20Electricity/Charge.htm">"Conservation of Charge"</a>. Archived from <a href="http://www.physchem.co.za/Static%20Electricity/Charge.htm">the original</a> on February 18, 2008. Retrieved February 15, 2006.</cite>. Archived February 18, 2008.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b> <cite>Franklin, Benjamin (April 29, 1749). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171217065533/http://franklinpapers.org/franklin/framedVolumes.jsp?vol=3&amp;page=352a">"Letter to Peter Collinson"</a>. Archived from <a href="http://franklinpapers.org/franklin//framedVolumes.jsp?vol=3&amp;page=352a">the original</a> on December 17, 2017. Retrieved April 23, 2016.</cite> 
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b> <cite>Franklin, Benjamin (April 29, 1749). "Letter to Peter Collinson". <i>Franklin Papers</i>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b> * Schiffer, Michael B, <i>Draw the Lightning Down: Benjamin Franklin and Electrical Technology in the Age of Enlightenment</i>, pp. 136–37, 301, University of California Press, 2006 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-24829-5">0-520-24829-5</a>.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b> Benjamin Franklin, <a href="http://franklinpapers.org/franklin/framedVolumes.jsp?vol=4&amp;page=360a">"The Kite Experiment"</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100922095736/http://franklinpapers.org/franklin/framedVolumes.jsp?vol=4&amp;page=360a">Archived</a> September 22, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, printed in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Pennsylvania_Gazette">The Pennsylvania Gazette</a></i>, October 19, 1752. In The Papers of Benjamin Franklin, The American Philosophical Society and Yale University; digital edition by The Packard Humanities Institute, Vol. 4, p. 360a. Retrieved February 6, 2017
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b> Steven Johnson (2008) <i>The Invention of Air</i>, p. 39 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59448-401-8">978-1-59448-401-8</a>. Retrieved February 6, 2017
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-archives_160-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Franklin/01-04-02-0135">"Founders Online: The Kite Experiment, 19 October 1752"</a>. <i>founders.archives.gov</i>. Retrieved December 30, 2022.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Doren1938159_161-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFVan_Doren1938">Van Doren 1938</a>, p. 159.
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wolf_164-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wolf_164-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Wolf, Abraham (1939). <i>History of Science, Technology, and Philosophy in the Eighteenth Century</i>. New York: Macmillan. p. 232.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b> <cite>Krider, Philip (January 2006). "Benjamin Franklin and Lightning Rods". <i>Physics Today</i>. <b>59</b> (1): 42. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006PhT....59a..42K">2006PhT....59a..42K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.2180176">10.1063/1.2180176</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:110623159">110623159</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b> <cite>Houston, Alan (2008). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dMN9VEhrTxwC&amp;pg=PA106"><i>Benjamin Franklin and the Politics of Improvement</i></a>. Yale U.P. pp. 106–41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-15239-5"><bdi>978-0-300-15239-5</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b> <cite>Lemay, J.A. Leo (2008). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NL5bcRP5aRAC&amp;pg=PA245"><i>The Life of Benjamin Franklin, Volume 3: Soldier, Scientist, and Politician, 1748–1757</i></a>. U. of Pennsylvania Press. p. 245. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4121-1"><bdi>978-0-8122-4121-1</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b> <a href="#isaacson2004">Isaacson, 2004</a>, p. 150
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b> <cite>Cohen, I. Bernard (2005). <a href="https://archive.org/details/triumphofnumbers00cohe"><i>The Triumph Of Numbers: How Counting Shaped Modern Life</i></a>. W.W. Norton. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/triumphofnumbers00cohe/page/87">87</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-05769-0"><bdi>978-0-393-05769-0</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b> Philip L. Richardson (February 8, 1980), "Benjamin Franklin and Timothy Folger's first printed chart of the Gulf Stream", <i>Science</i>, vol. 207, no. 4431, pp. 643–45.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b> <cite>Wood, Anthony R. <a href="https://www.inquirer.com/philly/news/special_packages/inquirer/How_Franklin_s_chart_resurfaced.html">"How Franklin's chart resurfaced"</a>. <i>www.inquirer.com</i>. Retrieved December 30, 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b> John N. Wilford, "Prints of Franklin's chart of Gulf Stream found", <i>New York Times</i>, pp. A1, B7 (February 6, 1980).
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b> 1785: Benjamin Franklin's "Sundry Maritime Observations,"
 The Academy of Natural Sciences, April 1939 m
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/library/readings/gulf/gulf.html"><i>1785: Benjamin Franklin's 'Sundry Maritime Observations' </i>.</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081002000344/http://www.oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/library/readings/gulf/gulf.html">Archived</a> October 2, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> NOAA Ocean Explorer.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b> Source: <i>Explanations and Sailing Directions to Accompany the Wind and Current Charts</i>, 1853, p. 53, by <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Fontaine_Maury">Matthew Fontaine Maury</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Richard_Price">Price, Richard</a>; <a href="/wiki/David_Oswald_Thomas">Thomas, David Oswald</a>; Peach, Bernard (1994). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fPQfNx2TQLAC&amp;pg=RA1-PA23"><i>The Correspondence of Richard Price: February 1786 – February 1791</i></a>. Duke University Press. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-1327-4"><bdi>978-0-8223-1327-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved October 2, 2009.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b> Jogn Gribbin, "In search of Schrödinger's cat", Black Swan, p. 12
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a></b> Heidorn, Keith C. Heidorn, PhD. <a href="http://www.islandnet.com/~see/weather/almanac/arc2003/alm03oct.htm"><i>Eclipsed By Storm</i>.</a> The Weather Doctor. October 1, 2003.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180615223254/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~volcano/Fr373p77.html">"Memoirs of the literary and philosophical society of Manchester"</a>. <i>www.dartmouth.edu</i>. Archived from <a href="http://www.dartmouth.edu/~volcano/Fr373p77.html">the original</a> on June 15, 2018. Retrieved December 3, 2019.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b> <cite>Fisher, Sydney George (1903). <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34193/34193-h/34193-h.htm"><i>The True Benjamin Franklin</i></a> (5 ed.). Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company. p. 19.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b> <cite>Pocock, George (1851). <a href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_oMo-DVp_ypUC"><i>A Treatise on The Aeropleustic Art, or Navigation in the Air, by means of Kites, or Buoyant Sails</i></a>. London: Longmans, Brown, and Co. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_oMo-DVp_ypUC/page/n16">9</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110128075748/http://www.historycarper.com/resources/twobf3/letter1.htm">"The Writings of Benjamin Franklin: London, 1757–1775"</a>. Historycarper.com. Archived from <a href="http://www.historycarper.com/resources/twobf3/letter1.htm">the original</a> on January 28, 2011. Retrieved September 14, 2010.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Franklin/01-08-02-0023">"Founders Online: From Benjamin Franklin to John Lining, 17 June 1758"</a>. <i>founders.archives.gov</i>. Retrieved June 30, 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a></b> <cite>Faraday, Michael (1839). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XuITAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR5"><i>Experimental researches in electricity</i></a>. Vol. 2. R. &amp; J.E. Taylor. p. v. <q>Franklin's experiments on the non-conduction of ice ...</q></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a></b> <cite>Jones, Thomas P. (1836). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zV9DAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7"><i>Journal of the Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania</i></a>. Pergamon Press. pp. 182–83. <q>In the fourth series of his electrical researches, Mr. Faraday ...</q></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a></b> * W. Gratzer, Eurekas and Euphorias, pp. 80–81
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-decisions_195-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-decisions_195-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a>Franklin, Benjamin</a> (1975) [1772]. <a href="http://franklinpapers.org/yale?vol=19&amp;page=299a">"To Joseph Priestley"</a>. In Willcox, William Bradford (ed.). <i>The papers of Benjamin Franklin: January 1 through December 31, 1772</i>. Vol. 19. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 299–300. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-01865-3"><bdi>978-0-300-01865-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/310601">310601</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a></b> Franklin, <i>Autobiography</i>, ed. Lemay, p. 65
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a></b> <a href="#isaacson2004">Isaacson, 2004</a>, p. 354
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a></b> <a href="#isaacson2004">Isaacson, 2004</a>, p. 5–18
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080531090015/http://www.oldsouth.org/history.html">"Isaacson, 2003, p. 15"</a>. Oldsouth.org. Archived from <a href="http://www.oldsouth.org/history.html">the original</a> on May 31, 2008. Retrieved September 21, 2009.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a></b> <a href="#isaacson2004">Isaacson, 2004</a>, p. 26
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a></b> <a href="#isaacson2004">Isaacson, 2004</a>, p. 102
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a></b> <cite>Franklin, Benjamin (November 20, 1728). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110726104638/http://franklinpapers.org/franklin/yale;jsessionid=9379F5D050E36AA9D1F95700EE223865?d=-363718316&amp;d=1379669530&amp;vol=1&amp;page=101a">"Articles of Belief and Acts of Religion"</a>. <i>Benjamin Franklin Papers</i>. franklinpapers.org. Archived from <a href="http://franklinpapers.org/franklin/yale;jsessionid=9379F5D050E36AA9D1F95700EE223865?d=-363718316&amp;d=1379669530&amp;vol=1&amp;page=101a">the original</a> on July 26, 2011. Retrieved December 24, 2010.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a></b> <cite>Franklin, Benjamin (1771). <i>Autobiography and other writings</i>. Cambridge: Riverside. p. 52.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Christian_204-0">^</a></b> <cite>Olson, Roger (2009). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rGMKbaNIjIoC&amp;pg=PA61"><i>The Mosaic of Christian Belief: Twenty Centuries of Unity and Diversity</i></a>. InterVarsity Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-2695-7"><bdi>978-0-8308-2695-7</bdi></a>. <q>Other Deists and natural religionists who considered themselves Christians in some sense of the word included Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin.</q></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a></b> <a href="#isaacson2004">Isaacson, 2004</a>, p. 486
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a></b> <cite>Eidenmuller, Michael E. <a href="http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/benfranklin.htm">"Online Speech Bank: Benjamin Franklin's Prayer Speech at the Constitutional Convention of 1787"</a>. Americanrhetoric.com. Retrieved September 21, 2009.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a></b> <a href="/wiki/Clinton_Rossiter">Rossiter, Clinton</a>. 1787. <i>The Grand Convention</i> (1966), pp. 184–85
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a></b> <a href="#isaacson2004">Isaacson, 2004</a>, pp. 107–113
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_209-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_209-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Franklin Benjamin <a href="http://www.ushistory.org/franklin/autobiography/singlehtml.htm">"Benjamin Franklin's Autobiography".</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080905094326/http://ushistory.org/franklin/autobiography/singlehtml.htm">Archived</a> September 5, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Section 2 reprinted on UShistory.org.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://history.hanover.edu/courses/excerpts/111frank2.html">"Benjamin Franklin"</a>. History.hanover.edu. Retrieved September 21, 2009.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a></b> <a href="#isaacson2004">Isaacson, 2004</a>, p. 485
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a></b> <a href="#isaacson2004">Isaacson, 2004</a>, p. 149
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a></b> Bailyn, 1992, pp. 273–74, 299–300
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bailyn303_214-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bailyn303_214-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Bailyn, 1992, p. 303
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a></b> <a href="#isaacson2004">Isaacson, 2004</a>, pp. 10, 102, 489
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a></b> <cite>Weber, Max (2002). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ez7CAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT11"><i>The Protestant Ethic and the "Spirit of Capitalism"</i></a>. Translated by Peter Baehr; Gordon C. Wells. Penguin Books. pp. 9–11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780486122373"><bdi>9780486122373</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Isaacson_2004_p_93ff_217-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Isaacson_2004_p_93ff_217-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#isaacson2004">Isaacson, 2004</a>, pp. 93ff
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a></b> Bailyn, 1992, p. 249
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a></b> <a href="#isaacson2004">Isaacson, 2004</a>, p. 112
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a></b> <cite>Franklin, Benjamin (2003). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mOEjB0Pdq8oC&amp;pg=PA109"><i>The Political Thought of Benjamin Franklin</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-683-0"><bdi>978-0-87220-683-0</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120326074021/http://www.unitarian.org.uk/support/doc-EssexHall1.shtml">"Chapter 2, <i>The History of Essex Hall</i> by Mortimer Rowe B.A., D.D. Lindsey Press, 1959"</a>. Unitarian.org.uk. Archived from <a href="http://www.unitarian.org.uk/support/doc-EssexHall1.shtml">the original</a> on March 26, 2012. Retrieved June 20, 2011.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a></b> <a href="#isaacson2004">Isaacson, 2004</a>, p.46
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preservation/bios/franklin/chpt4.htm">"Benjamin Franklin's Autobiography"</a>. <i>www.usgennet.org</i>. Retrieved December 30, 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090528094815/http://www.historycarper.com/resources/twobf1/m7.htm">"A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain"</a>. Historycarper.com. Archived from <a href="http://www.historycarper.com/resources/twobf1/m7.htm">the original</a> on May 28, 2009. Retrieved September 21, 2009.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Isaacson45_225-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Isaacson45_225-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#isaacson2004">Isaacson, 2004</a>, p. 45
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a></b> <a href="#isaacson2004">Isaacson, 2004</a>, pp. 46, 486
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pious_227-0">^</a></b> <cite>Mencken, Henry Louis; Nathan, George Jean (October 19, 2009). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LqJUonES6m8C"><i>The American Mercury, Volume 8</i></a>. Garber Communications. <q>It is well known that in his youth Benjamin Franklin was a thorough-going Deist, but because he proposed that prayers be said in the Constitution Convention of 1787 many have contended that in later life he became a pious Christian.</q></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Faith_228-0">^</a></b> <cite>Frasca, Ralph (2009). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CY2UVzcU5l0C&amp;pg=PA40"><i>Benjamin Franklin's Printing Network: Disseminating Virtue in Early America</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Missouri_Press">University of Missouri Press</a>. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8262-6492-3"><bdi>978-0-8262-6492-3</bdi></a>. <q>Despite being raised a Puritan of the Congregationalist stripe by his parents, who "brought me through my Childhood piously in the Dissenting Way", Franklin recalled, he abandoned that denomination, briefly embraced deism, and finally became a non-denominational Protestant Christian.</q></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a></b> Morgan, David T. "Benjamin Franklin: Champion of Generic Religion". <i>The Historian</i>. 62#4 2000. pp. 722+
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a></b> Benjamin Franklin to Richard Price, October 9, 1780 <i>Writings</i> 8:153–54
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a></b> "<a href="https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/27807.pdf">The Great Seal of the United States</a>" (July 2003). <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Public_Affairs">Bureau of Public Affairs</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State">United States Department of State</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a></b> "1782: Original Design of the Great Seal of the United States", <i>Our Documents: 100 Milestone Documents from the National Archives</i>. <a href="/wiki/National_Archives_and_Records_Administration">National Archives</a> (<a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 2006), pp. 18–19.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a></b> <cite>Coffman, Steve, ed. (2012). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PsFnB7FA11YC&amp;pg=PA97"><i>Words of the Founding Fathers: Selected Quotations of Franklin, Washington, Adams, Jefferson, Madison and Hamilton, with Sources</i></a>. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. p. 97. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-5862-2"><bdi>978-0-7864-5862-2</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/benjamin-franklin/the-autobiography-of-benjamin-franklin/text/single-page">"The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin"</a>. <i>standardebooks.org</i>. Retrieved June 12, 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.ushistory.org/franklin/autobiography/page38.htm">"The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin"</a>. <i>www.ushistory.org</i>. Retrieved December 30, 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a></b> <a href="#nash2006">Nash, 2006</a>, p. 618-638
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.pbs.org/benfranklin/l3_citizen_abolitionist.html">"Benjamin Franklin Abolitionist"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/PBS">PBS</a></i>. Retrieved March 23, 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a></b> <a href="#nash2006">Nash, 2006</a>, p. 623-624
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a></b> <a href="#nash2006">Nash, 2006</a>, p. 619-620
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a></b> <a href="#isaacson2004">Isaacson, 2004</a>, Chapter 8, p.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources">page needed</a></i>]</sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Eighty_eight_Years/ebz5CQAAQBAJ?gbpv=1&amp;pg=PA37"><i>Eighty-eight Years – The Long Death of Slavery in the United States, 1777–1865</i></a>. University of Georgia Press. 2015. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780820333953"><bdi>9780820333953</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a></b> <cite>Arnold, Isaac N. (1866). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RW0FAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PA27"><i>The History of Abraham Lincoln, and the Overthrow of Slavery</i></a>. Clarke &amp; Company.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a></b> <cite>Waldstreicher, David (July 2004). <a href="http://commonplace.online/article/benjamin-franklin-slavery/">"Benjamin Franklin, Slavery, and the Founders: On the dangers of reading backwards"</a>. <i>Common-Place</i>. <b>04</b> (4).</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.heritage.org/american-founders/report/how-understand-slavery-and-the-american-founding">"Pennsylvania Abolition Society"</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a></b> Benjamin Franklin for The Pennsylvania Abolition Society to the United States Congress, <i>The memorial of the Pennsylvania Society for promoting the Abolition of Slavery, the relief of free Negroes unlawfully held in bondage, and the Improvement of the Conditions of the African Race</i> (February 3, 1790)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a></b> <cite>Jehlen, Myra; Warner, Michael, eds. (1997). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LAYDAZmrKkgC&amp;pg=PA891"><i>The English Literatures of America, 1500–1800</i></a>. Psychology Press. p. 891. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-91903-7"><bdi>0-415-91903-7</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a></b> <cite>Kaiser, Larry. <a href="https://www.vrg.org/history/benjamin_franklin.htm">"What Benjamin Franklin Really Said About Vegetarianism"</a>. <i>The Vegetarian Resource Group</i>. Retrieved February 8, 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a></b> <cite>Franklin, Benjamin. "Part One". <a href="https://archive.org/details/autobiographyofb20203gut"><i>The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin</i></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a></b> <cite>Richards, Jennie (January 20, 2016). <a href="https://www.humanedecisions.com/benjamin-franklin-said-eating-flesh-is-unprovoked-murder/">"Benjamin Franklin said "Eating Flesh is Unprovoked Murder""</a>. <i>Humane Decisions</i>. Retrieved February 8, 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a></b> <cite>Lamb, Camille (April 9, 2012). <a href="https://www.miaminewtimes.com/restaurants/ben-franklin-practiced-vegetarianism-6599949">"Ben Franklin Practiced Vegetarianism"</a>. <i>Miami New Times</i>. Retrieved February 8, 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-feast_251-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-feast_251-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="http://feastandphrase.com/gastronomy-and-non-fiction/benjamin-franklin-on-food/">"Benjamin Franklin on Food"</a>. <i>Feast and Phrase</i>. Retrieved February 8, 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/William_Shurtleff">Shurtleff, William</a>; Aoyagi, Akiko (2013). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gGrUNvZt0_YC&amp;pg=PA73"><i>History of Tofu and Tofu Products (965 CE to 2013)</i></a>. Soyinfo Center. p. 73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781928914556"><bdi>9781928914556</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Franklin/01-13-02-0003">""Homespun": Second Reply to "Vindex Patriae""</a>. <i>Founders Online</i>. National Archives: National Historical Publications and Records Commission. Retrieved February 8, 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://theconversation.com/benjamin-franklins-fight-against-a-deadly-virus-colonial-america-was-divided-over-smallpox-inoculation-but-he-championed-science-to-skeptics-161569">"Benjamin Franklin's Fight Against A Deadly Virus"</a>. Retrieved September 27, 2021 – via The Conversation.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a></b> One article posited that "epidemeal distempers (such as smallpox) come as Judgments from an angry and displeased God."
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a></b> <cite>Jacoby, Jeff (September 27, 2021). <a href="https://view.email.bostonglobe.com/?qs=cdc7f8085ee22f77eb071f6b9d9e4071a0c765f900ec6e121cc219f15fe3c7b0f14dac08a385bc3075ebdbdb0e92897b4a55d30a33d253fbd5bcff3a28c6d7166f8706d88252c267ccf997fa7e5174efba5c09e5fabbbcde">"A Founding Father's Vaccine Regret"</a>. Retrieved September 27, 2021 – via <a href="/wiki/Boston_Globe">Boston Globe</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a></b> <cite>Korn, Michael (September 28, 2015). <a href="https://iml.esm.rochester.edu/polyphonic-archive/article/benjamin-franklin-the-composer/">"Benjamin Franklin, the Composer"</a>. <i>Institute for Music Leadership</i>. Retrieved April 3, 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.finkenbeiner.com/gh.html">"GFI Scientific glass blowing products and services"</a>. <i>www.finkenbeiner.com</i>. Retrieved December 30, 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Robin_Waterfield">Watefield, Robin</a> (August 1, 2003). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JtJ5F1cr8WEC&amp;pg=PA67"><i>Hidden Depths: The Story of Hypnosis: The Story of Hypnosis</i></a>. Routledge. p. 67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-40367-6"><bdi>978-1-135-40367-6</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harvard_260-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvard_260-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Apel, Willi (1969). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TMdf1SioFk4C&amp;pg=PA347">"Glass harmonica"</a>. <i>Harvard Dictionary of Music</i>. Harvard. p. 347. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674375017"><bdi>9780674375017</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a></b> <cite>Benke, Richard (February 25, 2001). <a href="http://articles.latimes.com/2001/feb/25/news/mn-30005">"'Armonicists' Debate Source of Beethoven's Maladies"</a>. <i>Los Angeles Times</i>. Retrieved August 21, 2018.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a></b> <cite>Carmel, Jeffrey J. (November 22, 1983). <a href="https://www.csmonitor.com/1983/1129/112916.html">"Franklin invented it, Mozart wrote for it: the 'armonica' returns"</a>. <i>The Christian Science Monitor</i>. Retrieved August 21, 2018.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Osborne1994_263-0">^</a></b> <cite>Osborne, Charles (April 1, 1994). <a href="https://archive.org/details/belcantooperasof0000osbo"><i>The bel canto operas of Rossini, Donizetti, and Bellini</i></a>. Amadeus Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-931340-71-0"><bdi>978-0-931340-71-0</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a></b> <a href="https://imslp.org/wiki/La_Carnaval_des_Animaux_(Saint-Sa%C3%ABns,_Camille)"><i>The Carnival of the Animals</i></a>: Scores at the <a href="/wiki/International_Music_Score_Library_Project">International Music Score Library Project</a>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-McCraryChessandFranklin_265-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McCraryChessandFranklin_265-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McCraryChessandFranklin_265-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <cite>McCrary, John. <a href="http://www.benfranklin300.org/_etc_pdf/Chess_John_McCrary.pdf">"Chess and Benjamin Franklin-His Pioneering Contributions"</a> (PDF). <a href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.benfranklin300.org/_etc_pdf/Chess_John_McCrary.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved April 26, 2009.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a></b> <a href="/wiki/David_Vincent_Hooper">David Hooper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Whyld">Kenneth Whyld</a>, <i>The Oxford Companion to Chess</i>, Oxford University Press (2nd ed. 1992), p. 145. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-866164-9">0-19-866164-9</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a></b> The essay appears in <a href="/wiki/Marcello_Truzzi">Marcello Truzzi</a> (ed.), <i>Chess in Literature</i>, Avon Books, 1974, pp. 14–15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-380-00164-0">0-380-00164-0</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a></b> The essay appears in a book by the felicitously named Norman Knight, "Chess Pieces", <i><a href="/wiki/Chess_Magazine">Chess Magazine</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Sutton_Coldfield">Sutton Coldfield</a>, England (2nd ed. 1968), pp. 5–6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-380-00164-0">0-380-00164-0</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a></b> Franklin's essay is also reproduced at the <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100522105848/http://www.washingtonpost.com/gog/museums/u.s.-chess-center-museum-and-hall-of-fame,800594.html">U.S. Chess Center Museum and Hall of Fame</a> in Washington, DC. Retrieved December 3, 2008.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a></b> <a href="/wiki/William_Temple_Franklin">William Temple Franklin</a>, <i>Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Benjamin Franklin</i>, reprinted in Knight, <i>Chess Pieces</i>, pp. 136–37.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a></b> <cite>Price, Bill (2015). <i>The History of Chess in Fifty Moves</i>. Buffalo, New York: Firefly Books (U.S.) Inc. pp. 90–95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-77085-529-8"><bdi>978-1-77085-529-8</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-272">^</a></b> <cite>Murrell, David (April 21, 2017). <a href="https://www.inquirer.com/philly/news/pennsylvania/philadelphia/Franklin-Mercantile-Chess-club.html">"How the Country's Second Oldest Chess Club is Surviving in a Center City Basement"</a>. <i>The Philadelphia Inquirer</i>. Retrieved September 17, 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.phmc.state.pa.us/PHMCWebSearch/ViewMarker.aspx?markerId=1045">"Pennsylvania Historical Marker Search"</a>. <i>PHMC</i>. Retrieved November 3, 2018.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.measuringworth.com/calculators/uscompare/">"Seven Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a U.S. Dollar Amount - 1790 to Present"</a>. <i>measuringworth.com</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070408052700/http://measuringworth.com:80/calculators/uscompare/">Archived</a> from the original on April 8, 2007. Retrieved October 21, 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-275">^</a></b> Richard Price. <i>Observations on the Importance of the American Revolution, and the Means of Making it a Benefit to the World. To which is added, a Letter from M. Turgot, late Comptroller-General of the Finances of France: with an Appendix, containing a Translation of the Will of M. Fortuné Ricard, lately published in France.</i> London: T. Cadell, 1785.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100510050913/http://www.mathsci.appstate.edu/~sjg/class/1010/wc/finance/franklin1.html">"Excerpt from Philadelphia Inquirer article by Clark De Leon"</a>. Mathsci.appstate.edu. February 7, 1993. Archived from <a href="http://www.mathsci.appstate.edu/~sjg/class/1010/wc/finance/franklin1.html">the original</a> on May 10, 2010. Retrieved September 21, 2009.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-277">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080731130624/http://www.bfit.edu/aboutus/history.php">"History of the Benjamin Franklin Institute of Technology"</a>. Bfit.edu. Archived from <a href="http://www.bfit.edu/aboutus/history.php">the original</a> on July 31, 2008. Retrieved September 21, 2009.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120301155906/http://library.fandm.edu/archives/foundingdocs/fclist.jpg">"Letter of introduction : image"</a>. <i>Library.fandm.edu</i>. Archived from <a href="http://library.fandm.edu/archives/foundingdocs/fclist.jpg">the original</a> (JPG) on March 1, 2012. Retrieved September 17, 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-279">^</a></b> <a href="/wiki/Everything_You_Know_Is_Wrong">Firesign Theater quote, meant humorously but poignantly.</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Walter_H._Breen">Breen, Walter</a> (1988). <i>Walter Breen's Complete Encyclopedia of U.S. and Colonial Coins</i>. New York: Doubleday. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-14207-6"><bdi>978-0-385-14207-6</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a></b> <cite>Wilhite, Robert (1998). <a href="https://archive.org/details/standardcatalogo0000krau"><i>Standard Catalog of United States Paper Money (17th ed)</i></a>. Krause Pubns Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87341-653-8"><bdi>0-87341-653-8</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.treasurydirect.gov/instit/savbond/mat/clipart/clipart_savbond.htm">"U.S. Savings Bond Images"</a>. <i>treasurydirect.gov</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060905172433/http://www.treasurydirect.gov:80/instit/savbond/mat/clipart/clipart_savbond.htm">Archived</a> from the original on September 5, 2006. Retrieved October 21, 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/68328398/the-daily-intelligencer/">"Memorial dedicated"</a>. <i>The Intelligencer</i>. Associated Press. April 13, 1976. Retrieved January 23, 2021 – via Newspapers.com.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F160015c0">"Benjamin Franklin House"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>160</b> (4053): 15. 1947. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1947Natur.160S..15.">1947Natur.160S..15.</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F160015c0">10.1038/160015c0</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a></b> <cite>Schultz, Colin (October 23, 2013). <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/why-was-benjamin-franklins-basement-filled-with-skeletons-524521/">"Why Was Benjamin Franklin's Basement Filled with Skeletons?"</a>. <i>Smithsonian Magazine</i>. Retrieved September 17, 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-286">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://benjaminfranklinhouse.org/news/">"News"</a>. <i>Benjamin Franklin House</i>. Retrieved December 30, 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Scotts_287-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scotts_287-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Scotts Specialized Catalogue of United States Stamps
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2>Bibliography</h2>
<div>
<h3>Biographies</h3>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carl_L._Becker">Becker, Carl Lotus</a>. "Benjamin Franklin", <i>Dictionary of American Biography</i> (1931) – vol 3, with links <a href="http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker">online</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100316174915/http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker">Archived</a> March 16, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li><cite>Brands, H. W. (2000). <a href="https://archive.org/details/firstamericanlif00bran"><i>The First American: The Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-49540-0"><bdi>978-0-385-49540-0</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li>Crane, Vernon W. <i>Benjamin Franklin and a rising people</i> (1954) <a href="https://archive.org/details/benjaminfranklin00cran">short biography by a scholar; online free</a></li>
<li>Franklin, Benjamin. <i>The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin</i>; many editions</li>
<li>Gaustad, Edwin S. <i>Benjamin Franklin</i> (2006) <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780195305357.001.0001">10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195305357.001.0001</a> online</li>
<li><cite>Isaacson, Walter (2003). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L64OOJGaCKIC"><i>Benjamin Franklin: An American Life</i></a>. New York: Simon &amp; Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780743258074"><bdi>9780743258074</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/James_Srodes">James Srodes</a>, <i>Franklin, The Essential Founding Father</i>, (2002, softcover 2003, Regnery History) <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89526-163-2">978-0-89526-163-2</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89526-104-5">978-0-89526-104-5</a></li>
<li>Ketcham, Ralph. <i>Benjamin Franklin</i> (1966) 228 pp <a href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=34300175">online edition</a>, short biography by scholar</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Lemay">Lemay, J.A. Leo</a>. <i>The Life of Benjamin Franklin</i>, scholarly biography, 3 volumes appeared before the author's death in 2008
<ul><li><i>Volume 1: Journalist, 1706–1730</i> (2005) 568 pp <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-3854-9">978-0-8122-3854-9</a></li>
<li><i>Volume 2: Printer and publisher, 1730–1747</i> (2005) 664 pp <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-3855-6">978-0-8122-3855-6</a></li>
<li><i>Volume 3: Soldier, scientist, and politician, 1748–1757</i> (2008), 768 pp <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4121-1">978-0-8122-4121-1</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Morgan_(historian)">Morgan, Edmund S</a>. <i>Benjamin Franklin</i> (2003), interpretation by leading scholar <a href="https://archive.org/details/benjaminfranklin00edmu">online free</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stacy_Schiff">Schiff, Stacy</a>, <i>A Great Improvisation: Franklin, France, and the Birth of America</i>, (2005) Henry Holt</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Carl_Van_Doren">Van Doren, Carl</a> (1938). <a href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.182793"><i>Benjamin Franklin</i></a>. Viking. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-931541-85-5"><bdi>978-1-931541-85-5</bdi></a>.</cite>, Pulitzer Prize winning biography; <a href="https://archive.org/details/benjaminfranklin00vand">online free</a></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Gordon_S._Wood">Wood, Gordon S.</a> (April 13, 2021). <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Benjamin-Franklin">"Benjamin Franklin | Biography, Inventions, Books, American Revolution, &amp; Facts | Britannica"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Chicago: <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Inc.">Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210702062014/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Benjamin-Franklin">Archived</a> from the original on July 2, 2021. Retrieved July 10, 2021.</cite></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_S._Wood">Wood, Gordon</a>. <i>The Americanization of Benjamin Franklin</i> (2005) <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-303528-2">978-0-14-303528-2</a>, intellectual history by leading historian.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Esmond_Wright">Wright, Esmond</a>. <i>Franklin of Philadelphia</i> (1986) <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-31810-6">978-0-674-31810-6</a> – scholarly study</li></ul>
<h3>Scholarly studies</h3>
<ul><li><cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070305234033/http://fi.edu/franklin/inventor/inventor.html">"Inventor"</a>. The Franklin Institute. Archived from <a href="http://fi.edu/franklin/inventor/inventor.html">the original</a> on March 5, 2007. Retrieved April 25, 2012.</cite></li>
<li>Anderson, Douglas. <i>The Radical Enlightenments of Benjamin Franklin</i> (1997) – fresh look at the intellectual roots of Franklin</li>
<li>Buxbaum, M.H., ed. <i>Critical Essays on Benjamin Franklin</i> (1987)</li>
<li>Chaplin, Joyce. <i>The First Scientific American: Benjamin Franklin and the Pursuit of Genius.</i> (2007)</li>
<li>Cohen, I. Bernard. <i>Benjamin Franklin's Science</i> (1990) – Cohen, the leading specialist, has several books on Franklin's science</li>
<li>Conner, Paul W. <i>Poor Richard's Politicks</i> (1965) – analyzes Franklin's ideas in terms of the Enlightenment and republicanism</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Dray">Dray, Philip</a>. <i>Stealing God's Thunder: Benjamin Franklin's Lightning Rod and the Invention of America.</i> (2005). 279 pp.</li>
<li>Dull, Jonathan. <i>A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution</i> (1985)</li>
<li>Dull, Jonathan. <i>Benjamin Franklin and the American Revolution</i> (2010)</li>
<li>Ford, Paul Leicester. <i>The Many-Sided Franklin</i> (1899) <a href="https://archive.org/details/manysidedfrankli01ford">online edition</a> – collection of scholarly essays
<ul><li><a href="http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/sgml/moa-idx?notisid=ABP2287-0058-201">"Franklin as Politician and Diplomatist"</a> in <i>The Century</i> (October 1899) v. 57 pp. 881–899. By Paul Leicester Ford.</li>
<li><a href="http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/sgml/moa-idx?notisid=ABP2287-0057-169">"Franklin as Printer and Publisher"</a> in <i>The Century</i> (April 1899) v. 57 pp. 803–818.</li>
<li><a href="http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/sgml/moa-idx?notisid=ABP2287-0058-172">"Franklin as Scientist"</a> in <i>The Century</i> (September 1899) v.57 pp. 750–763. By Paul Leicester Ford.</li></ul></li>
<li>Frasca, Ralph. "Benjamin Franklin's Printing Network and the Stamp Act." <i>Pennsylvania History</i> 71.4 (2004): 403–419 <a href="https://journals.psu.edu/index.php/phj/article/download/25899/25668">online</a>.</li>
<li>Frasca, Ralph. <i>Benjamin Franklin's printing network: disseminating virtue in early America</i> (U of Missouri Press, 2006) <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Benjamin-Franklins-Printing-Network-Disseminating/dp/0826216145/">excerpt</a>.</li>
<li><cite>Gleason, Philip (2000). "Trouble in the Colonial Melting Pot". <i>Journal of American Ethnic History</i>. <b>20</b> (1): 3–17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F27502642">10.2307/27502642</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/27502642">27502642</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:254480258">254480258</a>.</cite></li>
<li>Houston, Alan. <i>Benjamin Franklin and the Politics of Improvement</i> (2009)</li>
<li>Lemay, J.A. Leo, ed. <i>Reappraising Benjamin Franklin: A Bicentennial Perspective</i> (1993) – scholarly essays</li>
<li>Mathews, L.K. "Benjamin Franklin's Plans for a Colonial Union, 1750–1775." <i>American Political Science Review</i> 8 (August 1914): 393–412.</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Drew_R._McCoy">McCoy, Drew R.</a> (1978). "Benjamin Franklin's Vision of a Republican Political Economy for America". <i>William and Mary Quarterly</i>. <b>35</b> (4): 607–628. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1923207">10.2307/1923207</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1923207">1923207</a>.</cite></li>
<li>Merli, Frank J., and Theodore A. Wilson, eds. <i>Makers of American diplomacy, from Benjamin Franklin to Henry Kissinger</i> (1974) <a href="https://archive.org/details/makersofamerican00merl">online free</a></li>
<li><cite>Nash, Gary B. (December 2006). <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4599029">"Franklin and Slavery"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society</i>. <b>150</b> (4): 618–638. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/4599029">4599029</a>.</cite></li>
<li>Newman, Simon P. "Benjamin Franklin and the Leather-Apron Men: The Politics of Class in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia", <i>Journal of American Studies</i>, August 2009, Vol. 43#2 pp. 161–75; Franklin took pride in his working class origins and his printer's skills.</li>
<li><cite>Olsen, Neil C. (2013). <i>Pursuing Happiness: The Organizational Culture of the Continental Congress</i>. Nonagram Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4800-6550-5"><bdi>978-1-4800-6550-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li>Olson, Lester C. <i>Benjamin Franklin's Vision of American Community: A Study in Rhetorical Iconology.</i> (2004). 323 pp.</li>
<li>Rosenthall, Karen M. "A Generative Populace: Benjamin Franklin's Economic Agendas" <i>Early American Literature</i> 51#3 (2016), pp. 571–598. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/90000884">online</a></li>
<li>Schiffer, Michael Brian. <i>Draw the Lightning Down: Benjamin Franklin and Electrical Technology in the Age of Enlightenment.</i> (2003). 383 pp.</li>
<li>Skemp, Sheila L. <i>Benjamin and William Franklin: Father and Son, Patriot and Loyalist</i> (1994) – Ben's son was a leading Loyalist</li>
<li>Sletcher, Michael. 'Domesticity: The Human Side of Benjamin Franklin', <i>Magazine of History</i>, XXI (2006).</li>
<li>Waldstreicher, David. <i>Runaway America: Benjamin Franklin, Slavery, and the American Revolution.</i> Hill and Wang, 2004. 315 pp.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kerry_S._Walters">Walters, Kerry S.</a> <i>Benjamin Franklin and His Gods.</i> (1999). 213 pp. Takes position midway between D H Lawrence's brutal 1930 denunciation of Franklin's religion as nothing more than a bourgeois commercialism tricked out in shallow utilitarian moralisms and <a href="/wiki/Owen_Aldridge">Owen Aldridge</a>'s sympathetic 1967 treatment of the dynamism and protean character of Franklin's "polytheistic" religion.</li>
<li>York, Neil. "When Words Fail: William Pitt, Benjamin Franklin and the Imperial Crisis of 1766", <i>Parliamentary History</i>, October 2009, Vol. 28#3 pp. 341–374</li></ul>
<h3>Historiography</h3>
<ul><li>Brands, H. W. "Lives and Times" <i>Reviews in American History</i> 41#2 (2013), pp. 207–212. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43661532">online</a></li>
<li>Waldstreicher, David, ed. <i>A Companion to Benjamin Franklin</i> (2011), 25 essays by scholars emphasizing how historians have handled Franklin. <a href="https://www.questia.com/library/120084135/a-companion-to-benjamin-franklin">online edition</a></li></ul>
<h3>Primary sources</h3>
<ul><li>"<i><a href="/wiki/A_Dissertation_on_Liberty_and_Necessity,_Pleasure_and_Pain">A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain</a></i>."</li>
<li>"<i><a href="/wiki/Experiments_and_Observations_on_Electricity">Experiments and Observations on Electricity</a></i>." (1751)</li>
<li>"<i><a href="/wiki/Fart_Proudly">Fart Proudly</a>: Writings of Benjamin Franklin You Never Read in School</i>." Carl Japikse, Ed. Frog Ltd.; Reprint ed. 2003. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58394-079-0">1-58394-079-0</a></li>
<li>"<i>Heroes of America Benjamin Franklin</i>."</li>
<li>"<i>On Marriage</i>."</li>
<li>"<i>Satires and Bagatelles</i>."</li>
<li><i>Autobiography, Poor Richard, &amp; Later Writings</i> (J.A. Leo Lemay, ed.) (<a href="/wiki/Library_of_America">Library of America</a>, 1987 one-volume, 2005 two-volume) <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-883011-53-6">978-1-883011-53-6</a></li>
<li><i>Benjamin Franklin Reader</i> edited by Walter Isaacson (2003)</li>
<li><i><a href="https://archive.org/details/benjaminfranklin0000fran_o8e8">Benjamin Franklin's Autobiography</a></i> edited by J.A. Leo Lemay and P.M. Zall, (Norton Critical Editions, 1986); 390 pp. text, contemporary documents and 20th century analysis</li>
<li><cite>Franklin, B.; Majault, M.J.; Le Roy, J.B.; Sallin, C.L.; Bailly, J.-S.; d'Arcet, J.; de Bory, G.; Guillotin, J.-I.; Lavoisier, A. (2002). "Report of The Commissioners charged by the King with the Examination of Animal Magnetism". <i>International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis</i>. <b>50</b> (4): 332–363. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00207140208410109">10.1080/00207140208410109</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)">PMID</a> <a href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12362951">12362951</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:36506710">36506710</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Franklin, Benjamin (1769). <a href="https://archive.org/details/b30499860_0003/page/n7/mode/2up"><i>Experiments and observations on electricity, made at Philadelphia in America</i></a>. London : Printed for David Henry; and sold by Francis Newberry.</cite></li>
<li>Houston, Alan, ed. <i>Franklin: The Autobiography and other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue.</i> Cambridge University Press, 2004. 371 pp.</li>
<li>Ketcham, Ralph, ed. <i>The Political Thought of Benjamin Franklin.</i> (1965, reprinted 2003). 459 pp.</li>
<li>Lass, Hilda, ed. <i><a href="https://archive.org/details/thefabulousamericanfranklin">The Fabulous American: A Benjamin Franklin Almanac</a>.</i> (1964). 222 pp.</li>
<li>Leonard Labaree, and others., eds., <i><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060214030435/http://www.yale.edu/franklinpapers/index.html">The Papers of Benjamin Franklin</a></i>, 39 vols. to date (1959–2008), definitive edition, through 1783. This massive collection of BF's writings, and letters to him, is available in large academic libraries. It is most useful for detailed research on specific topics. <a href="http://franklinpapers.org/franklin/">The complete text of all the documents are online and searchable</a>; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100928051438/http://www.yale.edu/franklinpapers/indexintro.html">The <i>Index</i> is also online</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived September 28, 2010).</li>
<li><i>Poor Richard Improved</i> by Benjamin Franklin (1751)</li>
<li><i>Silence Dogood, The Busy-Body, &amp; Early Writings</i> (J.A. Leo Lemay, ed.) (<a href="/wiki/Library_of_America">Library of America</a>, 1987 one-volume, 2005 two-volume) <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-931082-22-8">978-1-931082-22-8</a></li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100928051438/http://www.yale.edu/franklinpapers/indexintro.html">The Papers of Benjamin Franklin</a> online, Sponsored by The American Philosophical Society and Yale University</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Way_to_Wealth">The Way to Wealth</a></i>. Applewood Books; 1986. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-918222-88-5">0-918222-88-5</a></li>
<li><i>Writings (Franklin)|Writings</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-940450-29-1">0-940450-29-1</a></li></ul>
<h3>For young readers</h3>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Asimov">Asimov, Isaac</a>. <i>The Kite That Won the Revolution</i>, a biography for children that focuses on Franklin's scientific and diplomatic contributions.</li>
<li>Fleming, Candace. <i>Ben Franklin's Almanac: Being a True Account of the Good Gentleman's Life.</i> Atheneum/Anne Schwart, 2003, 128 pp. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-689-83549-0">978-0-689-83549-0</a>.</li>
<li>Miller, Brandon. Benjamin Franklin, American Genius: His Life and Ideas with 21 Activities (For Kids series) 2009 Chicago Review Press</li></ul>
</div>
<h2>External links</h2>
<div><p></p><p>These audio files were created from a revision of this article dated 4 August 2008, and do not reflect subsequent edits.</p></div>
<table><tbody><tr><th>External video</th></tr><tr><td> <a href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?159616-1/first-american-benjamin-franklin">Presentation by H.W. Brands on <i>The First American: The Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin</i>, October 5, 2000</a>, C-SPAN</td></tr><tr><td> <a href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?177514-1/benjamin-franklin-american-life">Presentation by Walter Isaacson on <i>Benjamin Franklin: An American Life</i>, July 22, 2003</a>, C-SPAN</td></tr><tr><td> <a href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?174035-1/benjamin-franklin">Presentation by Edmund S. Morgan on <i>Benjamin Franklin</i>, November 12, 2002</a>, C-SPAN</td></tr><tr><td> <a href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?186653-1/great-improvisation">Presentation by Stacy Schiff on <i>A Great Improvisation: Franklin, France, and the Birth of America</i>, April 12, 2005</a>, C-SPAN</td></tr><tr><td> <a href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?170126-1/franklin-essential-founding-father"><i>Booknotes</i> interview with James Srodes on <i>Franklin: The Essential Founding Father</i>, May 19, 2002</a>, C-SPAN</td></tr><tr><td> <a href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?182263-1/americanization-benjamin-franklin">Interview with Gordon S. Wood on <i>The Americanization of Benjamin Franklin</i>, June 4, 2004</a>, C-SPAN</td></tr><tr><td> <a href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?190664-1/life-legacy-benjamin-franklin">Panel discussion on Franklin with Walter Isaacson, Gordon Wood, and Stacy Schiff, hosted by Jim Lehrer, January 8, 2006</a>, C-SPAN</td></tr></tbody></table>
<ul><li><a href="http://www.compadre.org/psrc/Franklin/">Benjamin Franklin and Electrostatics</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170814134955/http://www.compadre.org/psrc/Franklin/">Archived</a> August 14, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> experiments and Franklin's electrical writings from Wright Center for Science Education</li>
<li><a href="http://hdl.library.upenn.edu/1017/d/ead/upenn_rbml_MsColl900">Benjamin Franklin Papers, Kislak Center for Special Collections, Rare Books and Manuscripts, University of Pennsylvania.</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.abc.net.au/rn/ockhamsrazor/stories/2006/1814928.htm">Franklin's impact on medicine</a> – talk by medical historian, Dr. Jim Leavesley celebrating the 300th anniversary of Franklin's birth on <i>Okham's Razor</i> ABC <a href="/wiki/Radio_National">Radio National</a> – December 2006</li>
<li><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4iKz2F0kC2U">Video with sheet music</a> of Benjamin Franklin's string quartet</li></ul>
<h3>Biographical and guides</h3>
<ul><li></li>
<li><a href="http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=F000342">Biography</a> at the <i><a href="/wiki/Biographical_Directory_of_the_United_States_Congress">Biographical Directory of the United States Congress</a></i></li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030704024551/http://www.time.com/time/2003/franklin/bffranklin.html">"Special Report: Citizen Ben's Greatest Virtues"</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)">Time</a></i></li>
<li><a href="http://www.c-span.org/video/?163159-1/writings-benjamin-franklin">"Writings of Benjamin Franklin"</a> from <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/American_Writers:_A_Journey_Through_History">American Writers: A Journey Through History</a></i></li>
<li>Afsai, Shai (2019). "<a href="https://brill.com/view/journals/rrj/22/2/article-p228_5.xml">Benjamin Franklin's Influence on <i>Mussar</i> Thought and Practice: a Chronicle of Misapprehension</a>." <i>Review of Rabbinic Judaism</i> 22, 2: 228–276.</li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120502102128/http://www.english.udel.edu/lemay/franklin/">Benjamin Franklin: A Documentary History</a> by J.A. Leo Lemay</li>
<li><a href="https://www.pbs.org/benfranklin/">Benjamin Franklin: An extraordinary life</a> PBS</li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131102055511/http://history.state.gov/milestones/1776-1783/BFranklin">Benjamin Franklin: First American Diplomat, 1776–1785</a> US State Department</li>
<li><cite>Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Franklin,_Benjamin">"Franklin, Benjamin" </a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.</cite></li>
<li><a href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/franklin/franklin.html">Finding Franklin: A Resource Guide</a> Library of Congress</li>
<li><a href="http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm">Guide to Benjamin Franklin</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100316174915/http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm">Archived</a> March 16, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> By a history professor at the University of Illinois.</li>
<li><a href="http://www.librarything.com/profile/BenjaminFranklin">Online edition of Franklin's personal library</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.ushistory.org/franklin/">The Electric Benjamin Franklin</a> ushistory.org</li></ul>
<h3>Online writings</h3>
<ul><li><a href="https://archive.org/details/SilenceDogood_201306">"A Silence Dogood Sampler" – Selections from Franklin's Silence Dogood writings</a></li>
<li><a href="http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bcp/Franklin%20Abridged/index.html">Abridgement of the Book of Common Prayer (1773), by Benjamin Franklin and Francis Dashwood</a>, transcribed by Richard Mammana</li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090821230120/http://sln.fi.edu/franklin/family/lastwill.html">Franklin's Last Will &amp; Testament</a> Transcription.</li>
<li><a href="https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/franklin-home.html">Library of Congress web resource: <i>Benjamin Franklin ... In His Own Words</i></a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.bartleby.com/people/FranklinB.html">Online Works by Franklin</a></li>
<li><a href="https://librivox.org/author/350">Works by Benjamin Franklin</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) </li>
<li><a href="https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/benjamin-franklin">Works by Benjamin Franklin in eBook form</a> at <a href="/wiki/Standard_Ebooks">Standard Ebooks</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/author/Franklin,+Benjamin">Works by Benjamin Franklin</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li>
<li><a href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Franklin%2C%20Benjamin%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Benjamin%20Franklin%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Franklin%2C%20Benjamin%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Benjamin%20Franklin%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Franklin%2C%20B%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Benjamin%20Franklin%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Franklin%2C%20Benjamin%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Benjamin%20Franklin%22%29%20OR%20%28%221706-1790%22%20AND%20Franklin%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Benjamin Franklin</a> at <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive">Internet Archive</a></li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100928051438/http://www.yale.edu/franklinpapers/indexintro.html">Yale edition of complete works</a>, the standard scholarly edition
<ul><li><a href="https://founders.archives.gov/about/Franklin">Online, searchable edition</a></li></ul></li></ul>
<h3>Autobiography</h3>
<ul><li><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/148"><i>The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin</i></a> at Project Gutenberg</li>
<li><a href="http://librivox.org/the-autobigraphy-of-benjamin-franklin-ed-by-frank-woodworth-pine/"><i>The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin</i></a> LibriVox recording</li></ul>
<h3>In the arts</h3>
<ul><li><a href="http://www.benfranklin300.com/">Benjamin Franklin 300 (1706–2006)</a> Official web site of the Benjamin Franklin Tercentenary.</li>
<li>The <a href="http://www.hsp.org/files/findingaid215franklin.pdf">Historical Society of Pennsylvania Collection of Benjamin Franklin Papers</a>, including correspondence, government documents, writings and a copy of his will, are available for research use at the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Society_of_Pennsylvania">Historical Society of Pennsylvania</a>.</li></ul>
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 Contents

 move to sidebar hide
 * (Top)
 * 1 Ancestry
 * 2 Early life
 + 2.1 Boston
 + 2.2 Move to Philadelphia
 + 2.3 Junto and library
 + 2.4 Newspaperman
 + 2.5 Freemasonry
 + 2.6 Common-law marriage to Deborah Read
 + 2.7 William Franklin
 + 2.8 Success as an author
 * 3 Public life
 + 3.1 Early steps in Pennsylvania
 + 3.2 Postmaster
 + 3.3 Decades in London
 o 3.3.1 Political work
 o 3.3.2 Scientific work
 + 3.4 Travels around Europe
 + 3.5 Defending the American cause
 + 3.6 Agent for British and Hellfire Club membership
 + 3.7 Coming of revolution
 + 3.8 Declaration of Independence
 + 3.9 Ambassador to France (1776–1785)
 + 3.10 Return to America
 o 3.10.1 President of Pennsylvania and Delegate to the Constitutional convention
 * 4 Death
 * 5 Inventions and scientific inquiries
 + 5.1 Electricity
 o 5.1.1 Kite experiment and lightning rod
 + 5.2 Population studies
 + 5.3 Oceanography
 + 5.4 Theories and experiments
 + 5.5 Decision-making
 * 6 Political, social, and religious views
 + 6.1 Thirteen Virtues
 + 6.2 Slavery
 + 6.3 Vegetarianism
 + 6.4 View on inoculation
 * 7 Interests and activities
 + 7.1 Musical endeavors
 + 7.2 Chess
 * 8 Legacy
 + 8.1 Bequest
 + 8.2 Likeness and image
 * 9 See also
 * 10 Notes
 * 11 References
 * 12 Bibliography
 + 12.1 Biographies
 + 12.2 Scholarly studies
 + 12.3 Historiography
 + 12.4 Primary sources
 + 12.5 For young readers
 * 13 External links
 + 13.1 Biographical and guides
 + 13.2 Online writings
 + 13.3 Autobiography
 + 13.4 In the arts
 Toggle the table of contents

 Benjamin Franklin

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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 "Ben Franklin" redirects here. For other uses, see Benjamin Franklin (disambiguation).

 Benjamin Franklin 
 FRS FRSA FRSE 
 Benjamin Franklin by Joseph Duplessis, 1778 
  
 6th President of Pennsylvania 
 In office 
 October 18, 1785 – November 5, 1788 
  Charles Biddle 
 Vice President Peter Muhlenberg 
  David Redick 
 Preceded by John Dickinson 
 Succeeded by Thomas Mifflin 
 United States Minister to Sweden 
 In office 
 September 28, 1782 – April 3, 1783 
 Appointed by Congress of the Confederation 
 Preceded by Position established 
 Succeeded by Jonathan Russell 
 United States Minister to France 
 In office 
 March 23, 1779 – May 17, 1785 
 Appointed by Continental Congress 
 Preceded by Position established 
 Succeeded by Thomas Jefferson 
 1st United States Postmaster General 
 In office 
 July 26, 1775 – November 7, 1776 
 Preceded by Position established 
 Succeeded by Richard Bache 
 Delegate from Pennsylvania to Second Continental Congress
 In office 
 May 1775 – October 1776 
 Postmaster General of British America 
 In office 
 August 10, 1753 – January 31, 1774 
 Preceded by Position established 
 Succeeded by Vacant 
 Speaker of the Pennsylvania Assembly 
 In office 
 May 1764 – October 1764 
 Preceded by Isaac Norris 
 Succeeded by Isaac Norris 
 2nd President of the University of Pennsylvania 
 In office 
 1749–1754 
 Preceded by George Whitefield 
 Succeeded by William Smith 
  
 Personal details 
 Born January 17, 1706 [O.S. January 6, 1705][Note 1] 
  Boston, Massachusetts Bay, British America 
 Died April 17, 1790 (aged 84) 
  Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S. 
 Resting place Christ Church Burial Ground Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.
 Political party Independent 
  Deborah Read 
 Spouse ​ 
  ​(m. 1730 ; died 1774)​ 
  * William 
 Children * Francis 
  * Sarah 
 Parent(s) Josiah Franklin 
  Abiah Folger 
 Education Boston Latin School 
 Signature  
  
 Coat of arms of Benjamin Franklin 
  
 

 Benjamin Franklin FRS FRSA FRSE (January 17, 1706 [O.S. January 6, 1705][Note 1] – April 17, 1790) was an American polymath who was active as a writer, scientist, inventor, statesman, diplomat, printer, publisher, forger and political philosopher.[1][2] Among the leading intellectuals of his time, Franklin was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States, a drafter and signer of the United States Declaration of Independence, and the first United States Postmaster General.

 As a scientist, he was a major figure in the American Enlightenment and the history of physics for his studies of electricity, and for charting and naming the Gulf Stream current. As an inventor, he is known for the lightning rod, bifocals, and the Franklin stove, among others.[3] He founded many civic organizations, including the Library Company, Philadelphia's first fire department,[4] and the University of Pennsylvania.[5] Franklin earned the title of "The First American" for his early and indefatigable campaigning for colonial unity, and as an author and spokesman in London for several colonies. As the first United States ambassador to France, he exemplified the emerging American nation.[6] Franklin was foundational in defining the American ethos as a marriage of the practical values of thrift, hard work, education, community spirit, self-governing institutions, and opposition to authoritarianism both political and religious, with the scientific and tolerant values of the Enlightenment. In the words of historian Henry Steele Commager, "In Franklin could be merged the virtues of Puritanism without its defects, the illumination of the Enlightenment without its heat."[7] Franklin has been called "the most accomplished American of his age and the most influential in inventing the type of society America would become."[8]

 Franklin became a successful newspaper editor and printer in Philadelphia, the leading city in the colonies, publishing the Pennsylvania Gazette at age 23.[9] He became wealthy publishing this and Poor Richard's Almanack, which he wrote under the pseudonym "Richard Saunders".[10] After 1767, he was associated with the Pennsylvania Chronicle, a newspaper that was known for its revolutionary sentiments and criticisms of the policies of the British Parliament and the Crown.[11]

 He pioneered and was the first president of the Academy and College of Philadelphia, which opened in 1751 and later became the University of Pennsylvania. He organized and was the first secretary of the American Philosophical Society and was elected president in 1769. Franklin became a national hero in America as an agent for several colonies when he spearheaded an effort in London to have the Parliament of Great Britain repeal the unpopular Stamp Act. An accomplished diplomat, he was widely admired among the French as American minister to Paris and was a major figure in the development of positive Franco–American relations. His efforts proved vital for the American Revolution in securing French aid.

 He was promoted to deputy postmaster-general for the British colonies on August 10, 1753,[12] having been Philadelphia postmaster for many years, and this enabled him to set up the first national communications network. He was active in community affairs and colonial and state politics, as well as national and international affairs. From 1785 to 1788, he served as governor of Pennsylvania. He initially owned and dealt in slaves but, by the late 1750s, he began arguing against slavery, became an abolitionist, and promoted education and the integration of African Americans into U.S. society.

 His life and legacy of scientific and political achievement, and his status as one of America's most influential Founding Fathers, have seen Franklin honored more than two centuries after his death on the $100 bill, warships, and the names of many towns, counties, educational institutions, and corporations, as well as numerous cultural references and with a portrait in the Oval Office. Over his lifetime, Franklin wrote or received more than 30,000 letters and other documents, which since the 1950s have been collected in The Papers of Benjamin Franklin, published by the American Philosophical Society and Yale University.

 Ancestry

 Benjamin Franklin's father, Josiah Franklin, was a tallow chandler, soaper, and candlemaker. Josiah Franklin was born at Ecton, Northamptonshire, England, on December 23, 1657, the son of Thomas Franklin, a blacksmith and farmer, and his wife, Jane White. Benjamin's father and all four of his grandparents were born in England.[13]

 Josiah Franklin had a total of seventeen children with his two wives. He married his first wife, Anne Child, in about 1677 in Ecton and emigrated with her to Boston in 1683; they had three children before emigration and four after. Following her death, Josiah married Abiah Folger on July 9, 1689, in the Old South Meeting House by Reverend Samuel Willard, and had ten children with her. Benjamin, their eighth child, was Josiah Franklin's fifteenth child overall, and his tenth and final son.[ citation needed ]

 Benjamin Franklin's mother, Abiah, was born in Nantucket, Massachusetts Bay Colony, on August 15, 1667, to Peter Folger, a miller and schoolteacher, and his wife, Mary Morrell Folger, a former indentured servant. Mary Folger came from a Puritan family that was among the first Pilgrims to flee to Massachusetts for religious freedom, sailing for Boston in 1635 after King Charles I of England had begun persecuting Puritans. Her father Peter was "the sort of rebel destined to transform colonial America."[14] As clerk of the court, he was jailed for disobeying the local magistrate in defense of middle-class shopkeepers and artisans in conflict with wealthy landowners.[ citation needed ]

 Early life

 Boston

 Franklin's birthplace on Milk Street in Boston
 Franklin's birthplace site directly across from the Old South Meeting House, commemorated by a bust atop the second-floor façade of this building, May 2008

 Franklin was born on Milk Street in Boston, Massachusetts on January 17, 1706,[Note 1] and baptized at Old South Meeting House. As a child growing up along the Charles River, Franklin recalled that he was "generally the leader among the boys."[17]

 Franklin's father wanted him to attend school with the clergy but only had enough money to send him to school for two years. He attended Boston Latin School but did not graduate; he continued his education through voracious reading. Although "his parents talked of the church as a career"[18] for Franklin, his schooling ended when he was ten. He worked for his father for a time, and at 12 he became an apprentice to his brother James, a printer, who taught him the printing trade. When Benjamin was 15, James founded The New-England Courant, which was one of the first American newspapers.[ citation needed ]

 When denied the chance to write a letter to the paper for publication, Franklin adopted the pseudonym of "Silence Dogood", a middle-aged widow. Mrs. Dogood's letters were published and became a subject of conversation around town. Neither James nor the Courant 's readers were aware of the ruse, and James was unhappy with Benjamin when he discovered the popular correspondent was his younger brother. Franklin was an advocate of free speech from an early age. When his brother was jailed for three weeks in 1722 for publishing material unflattering to the governor, young Franklin took over the newspaper and had Mrs. Dogood (quoting Cato's Letters) proclaim, "Without freedom of thought there can be no such thing as wisdom and no such thing as public liberty without freedom of speech."[19] Franklin left his apprenticeship without his brother's permission, and in so doing became a fugitive.[20][ page needed ]

 Move to Philadelphia

 At age 17, Franklin ran away to Philadelphia, seeking a new start in a new city. When he first arrived, he worked in several printer shops around town, but he was not satisfied by the immediate prospects. After a few months, while working in a printing house, Pennsylvania governor Sir William Keith convinced him to go to London, ostensibly to acquire the equipment necessary for establishing another newspaper in Philadelphia. Discovering that Keith's promises of backing a newspaper were empty, he worked as a typesetter in a printer's shop in what is now the Church of St Bartholomew-the-Great in the Smithfield area of London. Following this, he returned to Philadelphia in 1726 with the help of Thomas Denham, a merchant who employed him as a clerk, shopkeeper, and bookkeeper in his business.[20][ page needed ]

 Junto and library

 La scuola della economia e della morale sketch of Franklin, 1825

 In 1727, at age 21, Franklin formed the Junto, a group of "like minded aspiring artisans and tradesmen who hoped to improve themselves while they improved their community." The Junto was a discussion group for issues of the day; it subsequently gave rise to many organizations in Philadelphia.[21] The Junto was modeled after English coffeehouses that Franklin knew well and which had become the center of the spread of Enlightenment ideas in Britain.[22][23]

 Reading was a great pastime of the Junto, but books were rare and expensive. The members created a library initially assembled from their own books after Franklin wrote:

 A proposition was made by me that since our books were often referr'd to in our disquisitions upon the inquiries, it might be convenient for us to have them altogether where we met, that upon occasion they might be consulted; and by thus clubbing our books to a common library, we should, while we lik'd to keep them together, have each of us the advantage of using the books of all the other members, which would be nearly as beneficial as if each owned the whole.[24][ page needed ]

 This did not suffice, however. Franklin conceived the idea of a subscription library, which would pool the funds of the members to buy books for all to read. This was the birth of the Library Company of Philadelphia: its charter was composed by him in 1731. In 1732, he hired the first American librarian, Louis Timothee. The Library Company is now a great scholarly and research library.[25]

 Newspaperman

 Further information: Early American publishers and printers

 Upon Denham's death, Franklin returned to his former trade. In 1728, he set up a printing house in partnership with Hugh Meredith; the following year he became the publisher of a newspaper called The Pennsylvania Gazette. The Gazette gave Franklin a forum for agitation about a variety of local reforms and initiatives through printed essays and observations. Over time, his commentary, and his adroit cultivation of a positive image as an industrious and intellectual young man, earned him a great deal of social respect. But even after he achieved fame as a scientist and statesman, he habitually signed his letters with the unpretentious 'B. Franklin, Printer.'[20]

 Benjamin Franklin (center) at work on a printing press. Reproduction of a Charles Mills painting by the Detroit Publishing Company.

 In 1732, he published the first German-language newspaper in America – Die Philadelphische Zeitung – although it failed after only one year because four other newly founded German papers quickly dominated the newspaper market.[26] Franklin also printed Moravian religious books in German. He often visited Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, staying at the Moravian Sun Inn.[27] In a 1751 pamphlet on demographic growth and its implications for the Thirteen Colonies, he called the Pennsylvania Germans "Palatine Boors" who could never acquire the "Complexion" of Anglo-American settlers and referred to "Blacks and Tawneys" as weakening the social structure of the colonies. Although he apparently reconsidered shortly thereafter, and the phrases were omitted from all later printings of the pamphlet, his views may have played a role in his political defeat in 1764.[28]

 According to Ralph Frasca, Franklin promoted the printing press as a device to instruct colonial Americans in moral virtue. Frasca argues he saw this as a service to God, because he understood moral virtue in terms of actions, thus, doing good provides a service to God. Despite his own moral lapses, Franklin saw himself as uniquely qualified to instruct Americans in morality. He tried to influence American moral life through the construction of a printing network based on a chain of partnerships from the Carolinas to New England. He thereby invented the first newspaper chain.[ citation needed ] It was more than a business venture, for like many publishers he believed that the press had a public-service duty.[29][30]

 When he established himself in Philadelphia, shortly before 1730, the town boasted two "wretched little" news sheets, Andrew Bradford's The American Weekly Mercury, and Samuel Keimer's Universal Instructor in all Arts and Sciences, and Pennsylvania Gazette.[31] This instruction in all arts and sciences consisted of weekly extracts from Chambers's Universal Dictionary. Franklin quickly did away with all of this when he took over the Instructor and made it The Pennsylvania Gazette. The Gazette soon became his characteristic organ, which he freely used for satire, for the play of his wit, even for sheer excess of mischief or of fun. From the first, he had a way of adapting his models to his own uses. The series of essays called "The Busy-Body", which he wrote for Bradford's American Mercury in 1729, followed the general Addisonian form, already modified to suit homelier conditions. The thrifty Patience, in her busy little shop, complaining of the useless visitors who waste her valuable time, is related to the women who address Mr. Spectator. The Busy-Body himself is a true Censor Morum, as Isaac Bickerstaff had been in the Tatler. And a number of the fictitious characters, Ridentius, Eugenius, Cato, and Cretico, represent traditional 18th-century classicism. Even this Franklin could use for contemporary satire, since Cretico, the "sowre Philosopher", is evidently a portrait of his rival, Samuel Keimer.[32][ page needed ]

 Franklin had mixed success in his plan to establish an inter-colonial network of newspapers that would produce a profit for him and disseminate virtue. Over the years he sponsored two dozen printers in Pennsylvania, South Carolina, New York, Connecticut and even the Caribbean. By 1753, 8 of the 15 English language newspapers in the colonies were published by him or his partners.[33] He began in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1731. After his second editor died, the widow Elizabeth Timothy took over and made it a success. She was one of the colonial era's first woman printers.[34] For three decades Franklin maintained a close business relationship with her and her son Peter Timothy, who took over the South Carolina Gazette in 1746.[35] The Gazette was impartial in political debates, while creating the opportunity for public debate, which encouraged others to challenge authority. Timothy avoided blandness and crude bias and after 1765 increasingly took a patriotic stand in the growing crisis with Great Britain.[36] However, Franklin's Connecticut Gazette (1755–68) proved unsuccessful.[37] As the Revolution approached, political strife slowly tore his network apart.[38]

 Freemasonry

 In 1730 or 1731, Franklin was initiated into the local Masonic lodge. He became a grand master in 1734, indicating his rapid rise to prominence in Pennsylvania.[39][40] The same year, he edited and published the first Masonic book in the Americas, a reprint of James Anderson's Constitutions of the Free-Masons. He was the secretary of St. John's Lodge in Philadelphia from 1735 to 1738.[40] Franklin remained a Freemason for the rest of his life.[41][42]

 Common-law marriage to Deborah Read

 Deborah Read Franklin
 (c. 1759). Common-law wife of Benjamin Franklin
 Sarah Franklin Bache (1743–1808). Daughter of Benjamin Franklin and Deborah Read

 At age 17 in 1723, Franklin proposed to 15-year-old Deborah Read while a boarder in the Read home. At that time, Deborah's mother was wary of allowing her young daughter to marry Franklin, who was on his way to London at Governor Keith's request, and also because of his financial instability. Her own husband had recently died, and she declined Franklin's request to marry her daughter.[20]

 While Franklin was in London, his trip was extended, and there were problems with the governor's promises of support. Perhaps because of the circumstances of this delay, Deborah married a man named John Rodgers. This proved to be a regrettable decision. Rodgers shortly avoided his debts and prosecution by fleeing to Barbados with her dowry, leaving her behind. Rodgers's fate was unknown, and because of bigamy laws, Deborah was not free to remarry.[ citation needed ]

 Franklin established a common-law marriage with Deborah on September 1, 1730. They took in his recently acknowledged illegitimate young son and raised him in their household. They had two children together. Their son, Francis Folger Franklin, was born in October 1732 and died of smallpox in 1736. Their daughter, Sarah "Sally" Franklin, was born in 1743 and eventually married Richard Bache.[43]

 Deborah's fear of the sea meant that she never accompanied Franklin on any of his extended trips to Europe; another possible reason why they spent much time apart is that he may have blamed her for possibly preventing their son Francis from being inoculated against the disease that subsequently killed him.[44] Deborah wrote to him in November 1769, saying she was ill due to "dissatisfied distress" from his prolonged absence, but he did not return until his business was done.[45] Deborah Read Franklin died of a stroke on December 14, 1774, while Franklin was on an extended mission to Great Britain; he returned in 1775.[46]

 William Franklin

 William Franklin (1730-1813), son of Benjamin Franklin

 In 1730, 24-year-old Franklin publicly acknowledged his illegitimate son William and raised him in his household. William was born on February 22, 1730, but his mother's identity is unknown.[47] He was educated in Philadelphia and beginning at about age 30 studied law in London in the early 1760s. William himself fathered an illegitimate son, William Temple Franklin, born on the same day and month: February 22, 1760.[48] The boy's mother was never identified, and he was placed in foster care. In 1762, the elder William Franklin married Elizabeth Downes, daughter of a planter from Barbados, in London. In 1763, he was appointed as the last royal governor of New Jersey.

 A Loyalist to the king, William Franklin saw his relations with father Benjamin eventually break down over their differences about the American Revolutionary War, as Benjamin Franklin could never accept William's position. Deposed in 1776 by the revolutionary government of New Jersey, William was placed under house arrest at his home in Perth Amboy for six months. After the Declaration of Independence, he was formally taken into custody by order of the Provincial Congress of New Jersey, an entity which he refused to recognize, regarding it as an "illegal assembly".[49] He was incarcerated in Connecticut for two years, in Wallingford and Middletown, and, after being caught surreptitiously engaging Americans into supporting the Loyalist cause, was held in solitary confinement at Litchfield for eight months. When finally released in a prisoner exchange in 1778, he moved to New York City, which was occupied by the British at the time.[50]

 While in New York City, he became leader of the Board of Associated Loyalists, a quasi-military organization chartered by King George III and headquartered in New York City. They initiated guerrilla forays into New Jersey, southern Connecticut, and New York counties north of the city.[51] When British troops evacuated from New York, William Franklin left with them and sailed to England. He settled in London, never to return to North America. In the preliminary peace talks in 1782 with Britain, "... Benjamin Franklin insisted that loyalists who had borne arms against the United States would be excluded from this plea (that they be given a general pardon). He was undoubtedly thinking of William Franklin."[52][ unreliable source? ]

 Success as an author

 Franklin's The General Magazine and Historical Chronicle (January 1741)

 In 1733, Franklin began to publish the noted Poor Richard's Almanack (with content both original and borrowed) under the pseudonym Richard Saunders, on which much of his popular reputation is based. He frequently wrote under pseudonyms. He had developed a distinct, signature style that was plain, pragmatic and had a sly, soft but self-deprecating tone with declarative sentences.[53] Although it was no secret that he was the author, his Richard Saunders character repeatedly denied it. "Poor Richard's Proverbs", adages from this almanac, such as "A penny saved is twopence dear" (often misquoted as "A penny saved is a penny earned") and "Fish and visitors stink in three days", remain common quotations in the modern world. Wisdom in folk society meant the ability to provide an apt adage for any occasion, and his readers became well prepared. He sold about ten thousand copies per year—it became an institution.[54] In 1741, Franklin began publishing The General Magazine and Historical Chronicle for all the British Plantations in America. He used the heraldic badge of the Prince of Wales as the cover illustration.

 In 1758, the year he ceased writing for the Almanack, he printed Father Abraham's Sermon, also known as The Way to Wealth. Franklin's autobiography, begun in 1771 but published after his death, has become one of the classics of the genre.[ citation needed ] He wrote a letter, "Advice to a Friend on Choosing a Mistress", dated June 25, 1745, in which he gives advice to a young man about channeling sexual urges. Due to its licentious nature, it was not published in collections of his papers during the nineteenth century. Federal court decisions from the mid-to-late twentieth century cited the document as a reason for overturning obscenity laws, using it to make a case against censorship.[55]

 Public life

 Early steps in Pennsylvania

 Portrait of Franklin c. 1746–1750,[Note 2] by Robert Feke. Widely believed to be the earliest known painting of Franklin.[56][57]
 This Join, or Die by Franklin urged the colonies to join the French and Indian War (Seven Years' War). It later served as a symbol of colonial freedom during the American Revolution.

 In 1736, Franklin created the Union Fire Company, one of the first volunteer firefighting companies in America. In the same year, he printed a new currency for New Jersey based on innovative anti-counterfeiting techniques he had devised. Throughout his career, he was an advocate for paper money, publishing A Modest Enquiry into the Nature and Necessity of a Paper Currency in 1729, and his printer printed money. He was influential in the more restrained and thus successful monetary experiments in the Middle Colonies, which stopped deflation without causing excessive inflation. In 1766, he made a case for paper money to the British House of Commons.[58]

 As he matured, Franklin began to concern himself more with public affairs. In 1743, he first devised a scheme for the Academy, Charity School, and College of Philadelphia. However, the person he had in mind to run the academy, Rev. Richard Peters, refused and Franklin put his ideas away until 1749 when he printed his own pamphlet, Proposals Relating to the Education of Youth in Pensilvania.[59] : 30 He was appointed president of the Academy on November 13, 1749; the academy and the charity school opened in 1751.[60]

 In 1743, he founded the American Philosophical Society to help scientific men discuss their discoveries and theories. He began the electrical research that, along with other scientific inquiries, would occupy him for the rest of his life, in between bouts of politics and moneymaking.[20]

 During King George's War, Franklin raised a militia called the Association for General Defense because the legislators of the city had decided to take no action to defend Philadelphia "either by erecting fortifications or building Ships of War". He raised money to create earthwork defenses and buy artillery. The largest of these was the "Association Battery" or "Grand Battery" of 50 guns.[61][62]

 In 1747, Franklin (already a very wealthy man) retired from printing and went into other businesses.[63] He formed a partnership with his foreman, David Hall, which provided Franklin with half of the shop's profits for 18 years. This lucrative business arrangement provided leisure time for study, and in a few years he had made many new discoveries.

 In 1751, Franklin co-founded Pennsylvania Hospital in Philadelphia, one of the first hospitals in the United States (depicted in this engaving by William Strickland, 1755)

 Franklin became involved in Philadelphia politics and rapidly progressed. In October 1748, he was selected as a councilman; in June 1749, he became a justice of the peace for Philadelphia; and in 1751, he was elected to the Pennsylvania Assembly. On August 10, 1753, he was appointed deputy postmaster-general of British North America. His most notable service in domestic politics was his reform of the postal system, with mail sent out every week.[20]

 In 1751, Franklin and Thomas Bond obtained a charter from the Pennsylvania legislature to establish a hospital. Pennsylvania Hospital was the first hospital in the colonies.[64] In 1752, Franklin organized the Philadelphia Contributionship, the Colonies' first homeowner's insurance company.[65][66]

 Between 1750 and 1753, the "educational triumvirate"[67] of Franklin, Samuel Johnson of Stratford, Connecticut, and schoolteacher William Smith built on Franklin's initial scheme and created what Bishop James Madison, president of the College of William & Mary, called a "new-model"[68] plan or style of American college. Franklin solicited, printed in 1752, and promoted an American textbook of moral philosophy by Samuel Johnson, titled Elementa Philosophica,[69] to be taught in the new colleges. In June 1753, Johnson, Franklin, and Smith met in Stratford.[70] They decided the new-model college would focus on the professions, with classes taught in English instead of Latin, have subject matter experts as professors instead of one tutor leading a class for four years, and there would be no religious test for admission.[71] Johnson went on to found King's College (now Columbia University) in New York City in 1754, while Franklin hired Smith as provost of the College of Philadelphia, which opened in 1755. At its first commencement, on May 17, 1757, seven men graduated; six with a Bachelor of Arts and one with a Master of Arts. It was later merged with the University of the State of Pennsylvania to become the University of Pennsylvania. The college was to become influential in guiding the founding documents of the United States: in the Continental Congress, for example, over one-third of the college-affiliated men who contributed to the Declaration of Independence between September 4, 1774, and July 4, 1776, were affiliated with the college.[72]

 Seal of the College of Philadelphia

 In 1754, he headed the Pennsylvania delegation to the Albany Congress. This meeting of several colonies had been requested by the Board of Trade in England to improve relations with the Indians and defense against the French. Franklin proposed a broad Plan of Union for the colonies. While the plan was not adopted, elements of it found their way into the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution.[73]

 Sketch of the original Tun Tavern

 In 1753, both Harvard[74] and Yale[75] awarded him honorary master of arts degrees.[76] In 1756, he received an honorary Master of Arts degree from the College of William & Mary.[77] Later in 1756, Franklin organized the Pennsylvania Militia. He used Tun Tavern as a gathering place to recruit a regiment of soldiers to go into battle against the Native American uprisings that beset the American colonies.[78]

 Postmaster

 First U. S. postage stamp, issue of 1847, honoring Benjamin Franklin.

 Well known as a printer and publisher, Franklin was appointed postmaster of Philadelphia in 1737, holding the office until 1753, when he and publisher William Hunter were named deputy postmasters–general of British North America, the first to hold the office. (Joint appointments were standard at the time, for political reasons.) He was responsible for the British colonies from Pennsylvania north and east, as far as the island of Newfoundland. A post office for local and outgoing mail had been established in Halifax, Nova Scotia, by local stationer Benjamin Leigh, on April 23, 1754, but service was irregular. Franklin opened the first post office to offer regular, monthly mail in Halifax on December 9, 1755. Meantime, Hunter became postal administrator in Williamsburg, Virginia, and oversaw areas south of Annapolis, Maryland. Franklin reorganized the service's accounting system and improved speed of delivery between Philadelphia, New York, and Boston. By 1761, efficiencies led to the first profits for the colonial post office.[79]

 When the lands of New France were ceded to the British under the Treaty of Paris in 1763, the British province of Quebec was created among them, and Franklin saw mail service expanded between Montreal, Trois-Rivières, Quebec City, and New York. For the greater part of his appointment, he lived in England (from 1757 to 1762, and again from 1764 to 1774)—about three-quarters of his term.[80] Eventually, his sympathies for the rebel cause in the American Revolution led to his dismissal on January 31, 1774.[81]

 Pass, signed by Postmaster General Benjamin Franklin, gave William Goddard the authority to travel as needed to investigate and inspect postal routes and protect the mail.[82]

 On July 26, 1775, the Second Continental Congress established the United States Post Office and named Franklin as the first United States postmaster general. He had been a postmaster for decades and was a natural choice for the position.[83] He had just returned from England and was appointed chairman of a Committee of Investigation to establish a postal system. The report of the committee, providing for the appointment of a postmaster general for the 13 American colonies, was considered by the Continental Congress on July 25 and 26. On July 26, 1775, Franklin was appointed postmaster general, the first appointed under the Continental Congress. His apprentice, William Goddard, felt that his ideas were mostly responsible for shaping the postal system and that the appointment should have gone to him, but he graciously conceded it to Franklin, 36 years his senior.[82] Franklin, however, appointed Goddard as Surveyor of the Posts, issued him a signed pass, and directed him to investigate and inspect the various post offices and mail routes as he saw fit.[84][85] The newly established postal system became the United States Post Office, a system that continues to operate today.[86]

 Decades in London

 From the mid-1750s to the mid-1770s, Franklin spent much of his time in London.[ citation needed ]

 Political work

 In 1757, he was sent to England by the Pennsylvania Assembly as a colonial agent to protest against the political influence of the Penn family, the proprietors of the colony. He remained there for five years, striving to end the proprietors' prerogative to overturn legislation from the elected Assembly and their exemption from paying taxes on their land. His lack of influential allies in Whitehall led to the failure of this mission.[ citation needed ]

 Pennsylvania colonial currency printed by Franklin and David Hall in 1764

 At this time, many members of the Pennsylvania Assembly were feuding with William Penn's heirs, who controlled the colony as proprietors. After his return to the colony, Franklin led the "anti-proprietary party" in the struggle against the Penn family and was elected Speaker of the Pennsylvania House in May 1764. His call for a change from proprietary to royal government was a rare political miscalculation, however: Pennsylvanians worried that such a move would endanger their political and religious freedoms. Because of these fears and because of political attacks on his character, Franklin lost his seat in the October 1764 Assembly elections. The anti-proprietary party dispatched him to England again to continue the struggle against the Penn family proprietorship. During this trip, events drastically changed the nature of his mission.[87]

 In London, Franklin opposed the 1765 Stamp Act. Unable to prevent its passage, he made another political miscalculation and recommended a friend to the post of stamp distributor for Pennsylvania. Pennsylvanians were outraged, believing that he had supported the measure all along, and threatened to destroy his home in Philadelphia. Franklin soon learned of the extent of colonial resistance to the Stamp Act, and he testified during the House of Commons proceedings that led to its repeal.[88] With this, Franklin suddenly emerged as the leading spokesman for American interests in England. He wrote popular essays on behalf of the colonies. Georgia, New Jersey, and Massachusetts also appointed him as their agent to the Crown.[87]

 Franklin in London, 1767, wearing a blue suit with elaborate gold braid and buttons, a far cry from the simple dress he affected at the French court in later years. Painting by David Martin, displayed in the White House.

 During his lengthy missions to London between 1757 and 1775, Franklin lodged in a house on Craven Street, just off the Strand in central London.[89] During his stays there, he developed a close friendship with his landlady, Margaret Stevenson, and her circle of friends and relations, in particular, her daughter Mary, who was more often known as Polly. The house is now a museum known as the Benjamin Franklin House. Whilst in London, Franklin became involved in radical politics. He belonged to a gentleman's club (which he called "the honest Whigs"), which held stated meetings, and included members such as Richard Price, the minister of Newington Green Unitarian Church who ignited the Revolution controversy, and Andrew Kippis.[90]

 Scientific work

 In 1756, Franklin had become a member of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures & Commerce (now the Royal Society of Arts), which had been founded in 1754. After his return to the United States in 1775, he became the Society's Corresponding Member, continuing a close connection. The Royal Society of Arts instituted a Benjamin Franklin Medal in 1956 to commemorate the 250th anniversary of his birth and the 200th anniversary of his membership of the RSA.[91]

 The study of natural philosophy (referred today as science in general) drew him into overlapping circles of acquaintance. Franklin was, for example, a corresponding member of the Lunar Society of Birmingham.[92] In 1759, the University of St Andrews awarded him an honorary doctorate in recognition of his accomplishments.[93] In October 1759, he was granted Freedom of the Borough of St Andrews.[94] He was also awarded an honorary doctorate by Oxford University in 1762. Because of these honors, he was often addressed as "Dr. Franklin."[1]

 While living in London in 1768, he developed a phonetic alphabet in A Scheme for a new Alphabet and a Reformed Mode of Spelling. This reformed alphabet discarded six letters he regarded as redundant (c, j, q, w, x, and y), and substituted six new letters for sounds he felt lacked letters of their own. This alphabet never caught on, and he eventually lost interest.[95]

 Travels around Europe

 Franklin used London as a base to travel. In 1771, he made short journeys through different parts of England, staying with Joseph Priestley at Leeds, Thomas Percival at Manchester and Erasmus Darwin at Lichfield.[96] In Scotland, he spent five days with Lord Kames near Stirling and stayed for three weeks with David Hume in Edinburgh. In 1759, he visited Edinburgh with his son and later reported that he considered his six weeks in Scotland "six weeks of the densest happiness I have met with in any part of my life".[97]

 In Ireland, he stayed with Lord Hillsborough. Franklin noted of him that "all the plausible behaviour I have described is meant only, by patting and stroking the horse, to make him more patient, while the reins are drawn tighter, and the spurs set deeper into his sides."[98] In Dublin, Franklin was invited to sit with the members of the Irish Parliament rather than in the gallery. He was the first American to receive this honor.[96] While touring Ireland, he was deeply moved by the level of poverty he witnessed. The economy of the Kingdom of Ireland was affected by the same trade regulations and laws that governed the Thirteen Colonies. He feared that the American colonies could eventually come to the same level of poverty if the regulations and laws continued to apply to them.[99]

 Franklin spent two months in German lands in 1766, but his connections to the country stretched across a lifetime. He declared a debt of gratitude to German scientist Otto von Guericke for his early studies of electricity. Franklin also co-authored the first treaty of friendship between Prussia and America in 1785.[100] In September 1767, he visited Paris with his usual traveling partner, Sir John Pringle, 1st Baronet. News of his electrical discoveries was widespread in France. His reputation meant that he was introduced to many influential scientists and politicians, and also to King Louis XV.[5]

 Defending the American cause

 One line of argument in Parliament was that Americans should pay a share of the costs of the French and Indian War and therefore taxes should be levied on them. Franklin became the American spokesman in highly publicized testimony in Parliament in 1766. He stated that Americans already contributed heavily to the defense of the Empire. He said local governments had raised, outfitted and paid 25,000 soldiers to fight France—as many as Britain itself sent—and spent many millions from American treasuries doing so in the French and Indian War alone.[101][102]

 In 1772, Franklin obtained private letters of Thomas Hutchinson and Andrew Oliver, governor and lieutenant governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, proving that they had encouraged the Crown to crack down on Bostonians. Franklin sent them to America, where they escalated tensions. The letters were finally leaked to the public in the Boston Gazette in mid-June 1773,[103] causing a political firestorm in Massachusetts and raising significant questions in England.[104] The British began to regard him as the fomenter of serious trouble. Hopes for a peaceful solution ended as he was systematically ridiculed and humiliated by Solicitor-General Alexander Wedderburn, before the Privy Council on January 29, 1774. He returned to Philadelphia in March 1775, and abandoned his accommodationist stance.[105]

 In 1773, Franklin published two of his most celebrated pro-American satirical essays: "Rules by Which a Great Empire May Be Reduced to a Small One", and "An Edict by the King of Prussia".[106]

 Agent for British and Hellfire Club membership

 Franklin is known to have occasionally attended the Hellfire Club's meetings during 1758 as a non-member during his time in England. However, some authors and historians would argue he was in fact a British spy. As there are no records left (having been burned in 1774[107]), many of these members are just assumed or linked by letters sent to each other.[108] One early proponent that Franklin was a member of the Hellfire Club and a double agent is the historian Donald McCormick,[109] who has a history of making controversial claims.[110]

 Coming of revolution

 In 1763, soon after Franklin returned to Pennsylvania from England for the first time, the western frontier was engulfed in a bitter war known as Pontiac's Rebellion. The Paxton Boys, a group of settlers convinced that the Pennsylvania government was not doing enough to protect them from American Indian raids, murdered a group of peaceful Susquehannock Indians and marched on Philadelphia. Franklin helped to organize a local militia to defend the capital against the mob. He met with the Paxton leaders and persuaded them to disperse. Franklin wrote a scathing attack against the racial prejudice of the Paxton Boys. "If an Indian injures me", he asked, "does it follow that I may revenge that Injury on all Indians?"[111]

 He provided an early response to British surveillance through his own network of counter-surveillance and manipulation. "He waged a public relations campaign, secured secret aid, played a role in privateering expeditions, and churned out effective and inflammatory propaganda."[112]

 Declaration of Independence

 John Trumbull depicts the Committee of Five presenting their work to the Congress.[113]

 By the time Franklin arrived in Philadelphia on May 5, 1775, after his second mission to Great Britain, the American Revolution had begun—with skirmishes breaking out between colonials and British at Lexington and Concord. The New England militia had forced the main British army to remain inside Boston.[ citation needed ] The Pennsylvania Assembly unanimously chose Franklin as their delegate to the Second Continental Congress.[ citation needed ] In June 1776, he was appointed a member of the Committee of Five that drafted the Declaration of Independence. Although he was temporarily disabled by gout and unable to attend most meetings of the committee,[ citation needed ] he made several "small but important" changes to the draft sent to him by Thomas Jefferson.[114]

 At the signing, he is quoted as having replied to a comment by John Hancock that they must all hang together: "Yes, we must, indeed, all hang together, or most assuredly we shall all hang separately."[115]

 Ambassador to France (1776–1785)

 Franklin, in his fur hat, charmed the French with what they perceived as rustic New World genius.[Note 3]

 On October 26, 1776, Franklin was dispatched to France as commissioner for the United States.[116] He took with him as secretary his 16-year-old grandson, William Temple Franklin. They lived in a home in the Parisian suburb of Passy, donated by Jacques-Donatien Le Ray de Chaumont, who supported the United States. Franklin remained in France until 1785. He conducted the affairs of his country toward the French nation with great success, which included securing a critical military alliance in 1778 and signing the 1783 Treaty of Paris.[117]

 Among his associates in France was Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau—a French Revolutionary writer, orator and statesman who in 1791 was elected president of the National Assembly.[118] In July 1784, Franklin met with Mirabeau and contributed anonymous materials that the Frenchman used in his first signed work: Considerations sur l'ordre de Cincinnatus.[119] The publication was critical of the Society of the Cincinnati, established in the United States. Franklin and Mirabeau thought of it as a "noble order", inconsistent with the egalitarian ideals of the new republic.[120]

 During his stay in France, he was active as a Freemason, serving as venerable master of the lodge Les Neuf Sœurs from 1779 until 1781. In 1784, when Franz Mesmer began to publicize his theory of "animal magnetism" which was considered offensive by many, Louis XVI appointed a commission to investigate it. These included the chemist Antoine Lavoisier, the physician Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, the astronomer Jean Sylvain Bailly, and Franklin.[121] In doing so, the committee concluded, through blind trials that mesmerism only seemed to work when the subjects expected it, which discredited mesmerism and became the first major demonstration of the placebo effect, which was described at that time as "imagination".[122] In 1781, he was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.[123]

 While in France, Franklin designed and commissioned Augustin Dupré to engrave the medallion Libertas Americana, minted in Paris in 1783.

 Franklin's advocacy for religious tolerance in France contributed to arguments made by French philosophers and politicians that resulted in Louis XVI's signing of the Edict of Versailles in November 1787. This edict effectively nullified the Edict of Fontainebleau, which had denied non-Catholics civil status and the right to openly practice their faith.[124]

 Franklin also served as American minister to Sweden, although he never visited that country.[125] He negotiated a treaty that was signed in April 1783. On August 27, 1783, in Paris, he witnessed the world's first hydrogen balloon flight.[126] Le Globe, created by professor Jacques Charles and Les Frères Robert, was watched by a vast crowd as it rose from the Champ de Mars (now the site of the Eiffel Tower).[127] Franklin became so enthusiastic that he subscribed financially to the next project to build a manned hydrogen balloon.[128] On December 1, 1783, Franklin was seated in the special enclosure for honored guests when La Charlière took off from the Jardin des Tuileries, piloted by Charles and Nicolas-Louis Robert.[126][129]

 Return to America

 Franklin's return to Philadelphia, 1785, by Jean Leon Gerome Ferris
 George Washington witnesses Gouverneur Morris sign the Constitution, and Franklin is seen behind Morris, in John Henry Hintermeister's 1925 painting, Foundation of the American Government.[130]

 When he returned home in 1785, Franklin occupied a position second only to that of George Washington as the champion of American independence. He returned from France with an unexplained shortage of 100,000 pounds in Congressional funds. In response to a question from a member of Congress about this, Franklin, quoting the Bible, quipped, "Muzzle not the ox that treadeth out his master's grain." The missing funds were never again mentioned in Congress.[131] Le Ray honored him with a commissioned portrait painted by Joseph Duplessis, which now hangs in the National Portrait Gallery of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. After his return, Franklin became an abolitionist and freed his two slaves. He eventually became president of the Pennsylvania Abolition Society.[99]

 President of Pennsylvania and Delegate to the Constitutional convention

 Special balloting conducted October 18, 1785, unanimously elected him the sixth president of the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania, replacing John Dickinson. The office was practically that of the governor. He held that office for slightly over three years, longer than any other, and served the constitutional limit of three full terms. Shortly after his initial election, he was re-elected to a full term on October 29, 1785, and again in the fall of 1786 and on October 31, 1787. In that capacity, he served as host to the Constitutional Convention of 1787 in Philadelphia.[132]

 He also served as a delegate to the Convention. It was primarily an honorary position and he seldom engaged in debate.

 Death

 Franklin's grave, Philadelphia

 Franklin suffered from obesity throughout his middle-age and later years, which resulted in multiple health problems, particularly gout, which worsened as he aged. In poor health during the signing of the US Constitution in 1787, he was rarely seen in public from then until his death.[ citation needed ]

 Benjamin Franklin died from pleuritic attack[133] at his home in Philadelphia on April 17, 1790.[134] He was aged 84 at the time of his death. His last words were reportedly, "a dying man can do nothing easy", to his daughter after she suggested that he change position in bed and lie on his side so he could breathe more easily.[135][136] Franklin's death is described in the book The Life of Benjamin Franklin, quoting from the account of John Jones:

 ... when the pain and difficulty of breathing entirely left him, and his family were flattering themselves with the hopes of his recovery, when an imposthume, which had formed itself in his lungs, suddenly burst, and discharged a quantity of matter, which he continued to throw up while he had power; but, as that failed, the organs of respiration became gradually oppressed; a calm, lethargic state succeeded; and on the 17th instant (April 1790), about eleven o'clock at night, he quietly expired, closing a long and useful life of eighty-four years and three months.[137]

 Approximately 20,000 people attended his funeral. He was interred in Christ Church Burial Ground in Philadelphia.[138][139] Upon learning of his death, the Constitutional Assembly in Revolutionary France entered into a state of mourning for a period of three days, and memorial services were conducted in honor of Franklin throughout the country.[140] In 1728, aged 22, Franklin wrote what he hoped would be his own epitaph:

 The Body of B. Franklin Printer; Like the Cover of an old Book, Its Contents torn out, And stript of its Lettering and Gilding, Lies here, Food for Worms. But the Work shall not be wholly lost: For it will, as he believ'd, appear once more, In a new & more perfect Edition, Corrected and Amended By the Author.[141]

 Franklin's actual grave, however, as he specified in his final will, simply reads "Benjamin and Deborah Franklin".[142]

 Inventions and scientific inquiries

 Franklin was a prodigious inventor. Among his many creations were the lightning rod, Franklin stove, bifocal glasses and the flexible urinary catheter. He never patented his inventions; in his autobiography he wrote, "... as we enjoy great advantages from the inventions of others, we should be glad of an opportunity to serve others by any invention of ours; and this we should do freely and generously."[143]

 Electricity

 Benjamin Franklin Drawing Electricity from the Sky c. 1816 at the Philadelphia Museum of Art, by Benjamin West

 Franklin started exploring the phenomenon of electricity in 1746 when he saw some of Archibald Spencer's lectures using static electricity for illustrations.[144] He proposed that "vitreous" and "resinous" electricity were not different types of "electrical fluid" (as electricity was called then), but the same "fluid" under different pressures. (The same proposal was made independently that same year by William Watson.) He was the first to label them as positive and negative respectively,[145][146] and he was the first to discover the principle of conservation of charge.[147] In 1748, he constructed a multiple plate capacitor, that he called an "electrical battery" (not a true battery like Volta's pile) by placing eleven panes of glass sandwiched between lead plates, suspended with silk cords and connected by wires.[148]

 In pursuit of more pragmatic uses for electricity, remarking in spring 1749 that he felt "chagrin'd a little" that his experiments had heretofore resulted in "Nothing in this Way of Use to Mankind", he planned a practical demonstration. He proposed a dinner party where a turkey was to be killed via electric shock and roasted on an electrical spit.[149] After having prepared several turkeys this way, he noted that "the birds kill'd in this manner eat uncommonly tender."[150] Franklin recounted that in the process of one of these experiments, he was shocked by a pair of Leyden jars, resulting in numbness in his arms that persisted for one evening, noting "I am Ashamed to have been Guilty of so Notorious a Blunder."[151]

 Franklin briefly investigated electrotherapy, including the use of the electric bath. This work led to the field becoming widely known.[152] In recognition of his work with electricity, he received the Royal Society's Copley Medal in 1753, and in 1756, he became one of the few 18th-century Americans elected a fellow of the Society. The CGS unit of electric charge has been named after him: one franklin (Fr) is equal to one statcoulomb.

 Franklin advised Harvard University in its acquisition of new electrical laboratory apparatus after the complete loss of its original collection, in a fire that destroyed the original Harvard Hall in 1764. The collection he assembled later became part of the Harvard Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments, now on public display in its Science Center.[153]

 Kite experiment and lightning rod

 Franklin and Electricity vignette engraved by the BEP (c. 1860)

 Franklin published a proposal for an experiment to prove that lightning is electricity by flying a kite in a storm. On May 10, 1752, Thomas-François Dalibard of France conducted Franklin's experiment using a 40-foot-tall (12 m) iron rod instead of a kite, and he extracted electrical sparks from a cloud. On June 15, 1752, Franklin may possibly have conducted his well-known kite experiment in Philadelphia, successfully extracting sparks from a cloud. He described the experiment in his newspaper, The Pennsylvania Gazette, on October 19, 1752,[154][155] without mentioning that he himself had performed it.[156] This account was read to the Royal Society on December 21 and printed as such in the Philosophical Transactions.[157] Joseph Priestley published an account with additional details in his 1767 History and Present Status of Electricity. Franklin was careful to stand on an insulator, keeping dry under a roof to avoid the danger of electric shock.[158] Others, such as Georg Wilhelm Richmann in Russia, were indeed electrocuted in performing lightning experiments during the months immediately following his experiment.[159]

 In his writings, Franklin indicates that he was aware of the dangers and offered alternative ways to demonstrate that lightning was electrical, as shown by his use of the concept of electrical ground. He did not perform this experiment in the way that is often pictured in popular literature, flying the kite and waiting to be struck by lightning, as it would have been dangerous.[160] Instead he used the kite to collect some electric charge from a storm cloud, showing that lightning was electrical.[161] On October 19, 1752, in a letter to England with directions for repeating the experiment, he wrote:

 When rain has wet the kite twine so that it can conduct the electric fire freely, you will find it streams out plentifully from the key at the approach of your knuckle, and with this key a phial, or Leyden jar, may be charged: and from electric fire thus obtained spirits may be kindled, and all other electric experiments [may be] performed which are usually done by the help of a rubber glass globe or tube; and therefore the sameness of the electrical matter with that of lightening [sic] completely demonstrated.[161]

 Franklin's electrical experiments led to his invention of the lightning rod. He said that conductors with a sharp[162] rather than a smooth point could discharge silently and at a far greater distance. He surmised that this could help protect buildings from lightning by attaching "upright Rods of Iron, made sharp as a Needle and gilt to prevent Rusting, and from the Foot of those Rods a Wire down the outside of the Building into the Ground; ... Would not these pointed Rods probably draw the Electrical Fire silently out of a Cloud before it came nigh enough to strike, and thereby secure us from that most sudden and terrible Mischief!" Following a series of experiments on Franklin's own house, lightning rods were installed on the Academy of Philadelphia (later the University of Pennsylvania) and the Pennsylvania State House (later Independence Hall) in 1752.[163]

 Population studies

 Franklin had a major influence on the emerging science of demography or population studies.[164] In the 1730s and 1740s, he began taking notes on population growth, finding that the American population had the fastest growth rate on Earth.[165] Emphasizing that population growth depended on food supplies, he emphasized the abundance of food and available farmland in America. He calculated that America's population was doubling every 20 years and would surpass that of England in a century.[166] In 1751, he drafted Observations concerning the Increase of Mankind, Peopling of Countries, etc. Four years later, it was anonymously printed in Boston and was quickly reproduced in Britain, where it influenced the economist Adam Smith and later the demographer Thomas Malthus, who credited Franklin for discovering a rule of population growth.[167] Franklin's predictions how British mercantilism was unsustainable alarmed British leaders who did not want to be surpassed by the colonies, so they became more willing to impose restrictions on the colonial economy.[168]

 Kammen (1990) and Drake (2011) say Franklin's Observations concerning the Increase of Mankind (1755) stands alongside Ezra Stiles' "Discourse on Christian Union" (1760) as the leading works of 18th-century Anglo-American demography; Drake credits Franklin's "wide readership and prophetic insight".[169][170] Franklin was also a pioneer in the study of slave demography, as shown in his 1755 essay.[171] In his capacity as a farmer, he wrote at least one critique about the negative consequences of price controls, trade restrictions, and subsidy of the poor. This is succinctly preserved in his letter to the London Chronicle published November 29, 1766, titled "On the Price of Corn, and Management of the poor".[172]

 Oceanography

 As deputy postmaster, Franklin became interested in North Atlantic Ocean circulation patterns. While in England in 1768, he heard a complaint from the Colonial Board of Customs: Why did it take British packet ships carrying mail several weeks longer to reach New York than it took an average merchant ship to reach Newport, Rhode Island? The merchantmen had a longer and more complex voyage because they left from London, while the packets left from Falmouth in Cornwall.[173] Franklin put the question to his cousin Timothy Folger, a Nantucket whaler captain, who told him that merchant ships routinely avoided a strong eastbound mid-ocean current. The mail packet captains sailed dead into it, thus fighting an adverse current of 3 miles per hour (5 km/h). Franklin worked with Folger and other experienced ship captains, learning enough to chart the current and name it the Gulf Stream, by which it is still known today.[174]

 Franklin published his Gulf Stream chart in 1770 in England, where it was ignored. Subsequent versions were printed in France in 1778 and the U.S. in 1786. The British original edition of the chart had been so thoroughly ignored that everyone assumed it was lost forever until Phil Richardson, a Woods Hole oceanographer and Gulf Stream expert, discovered it in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris in 1980.[175][176] This find received front-page coverage in The New York Times.[177] It took many years for British sea captains to adopt Franklin's advice on navigating the current; once they did, they were able to trim two weeks from their sailing time.[178][179] In 1853, the oceanographer and cartographer Matthew Fontaine Maury noted that while Franklin charted and codified the Gulf Stream, he did not discover it:

 Though it was Dr. Franklin and Captain Tim Folger, who first turned the Gulf Stream to nautical account, the discovery that there was a Gulf Stream cannot be said to belong to either of them, for its existence was known to Peter Martyr d'Anghiera, and to Sir Humphrey Gilbert, in the 16th century.[180]

 An aging Franklin accumulated all his oceanographic findings in Maritime Observations, published by the Philosophical Society's transactions in 1786.[181] It contained ideas for sea anchors, catamaran hulls, watertight compartments, shipboard lightning rods and a soup bowl designed to stay stable in stormy weather.

 Theories and experiments

 Franklin was, along with his contemporary Leonhard Euler, the only major scientist who supported Christiaan Huygens's wave theory of light, which was basically ignored by the rest of the scientific community. In the 18th century, Isaac Newton's corpuscular theory was held to be true; it took Thomas Young's well-known slit experiment in 1803 to persuade most scientists to believe Huygens's theory.[182]

 On October 21, 1743, according to the popular myth, a storm moving from the southwest denied Franklin the opportunity of witnessing a lunar eclipse. He was said to have noted that the prevailing winds were actually from the northeast, contrary to what he had expected. In correspondence with his brother, he learned that the same storm had not reached Boston until after the eclipse, despite the fact that Boston is to the northeast of Philadelphia. He deduced that storms do not always travel in the direction of the prevailing wind, a concept that greatly influenced meteorology.[183] After the Icelandic volcanic eruption of Laki in 1783, and the subsequent harsh European winter of 1784, Franklin made observations on the causal nature of these two seemingly separate events. He wrote about them in a lecture series.[184]

 Though Franklin is famously associated with kites from his lightning experiments, he has also been noted by many for using kites to pull humans and ships across waterways.[185] George Pocock in the book A Treatise on The Aeropleustic Art, or Navigation in the Air, by means of Kites, or Buoyant Sails[186] noted being inspired by Benjamin Franklin's traction of his body by kite power across a waterway.

 Franklin noted a principle of refrigeration by observing that on a very hot day, he stayed cooler in a wet shirt in a breeze than he did in a dry one. To understand this phenomenon more clearly, he conducted experiments. In 1758 on a warm day in Cambridge, England, he and fellow scientist John Hadley experimented by continually wetting the ball of a mercury thermometer with ether and using bellows to evaporate the ether.[187] With each subsequent evaporation, the thermometer read a lower temperature, eventually reaching 7 °F (−14 °C). Another thermometer showed that the room temperature was constant at 65 °F (18 °C). In his letter Cooling by Evaporation, Franklin noted that, "One may see the possibility of freezing a man to death on a warm summer's day."[188]

 According to Michael Faraday, Franklin's experiments on the non-conduction of ice are worth mentioning, although the law of the general effect of liquefaction on electrolytes is not attributed to Franklin.[189] However, as reported in 1836 by Franklin's great-grandson Prof. Alexander Dallas Bache of the University of Pennsylvania, the law of the effect of heat on the conduction of bodies otherwise non-conductors, for example, glass, could be attributed to Franklin. Franklin wrote, "... A certain quantity of heat will make some bodies good conductors, that will not otherwise conduct ..." and again, "... And water, though naturally a good conductor, will not conduct well when frozen into ice."[190]

 While traveling on a ship, Franklin had observed that the wake of a ship was diminished when the cooks scuttled their greasy water. He studied the effects on a large pond in Clapham Common, London. "I fetched out a cruet of oil and dropt a little of it on the water ... though not more than a teaspoon full, produced an instant calm over a space of several yards square." He later used the trick to "calm the waters" by carrying "a little oil in the hollow joint of my cane".[191]

 An illustration from Franklin's paper on "Water-spouts and Whirlwinds"

 Decision-making

 In a 1772 letter to Joseph Priestley, Franklin laid out the earliest known description of the Pro & Con list,[192] a common decision-making technique, now sometimes called a decisional balance sheet:

 ... my Way is, to divide half a Sheet of Paper by a Line into two Columns, writing over the one Pro, and over the other Con. Then during three or four Days Consideration I put down under the different Heads short Hints of the different Motives that at different Times occur to me for or against the Measure. When I have thus got them all together in one View, I endeavour to estimate their respective Weights; and where I find two, one on each side, that seem equal, I strike them both out: If I find a Reason pro equal to some two Reasons con, I strike out the three. If I judge some two Reasons con equal to some three Reasons pro, I strike out the five; and thus proceeding I find at length where the Ballance lies; and if after a Day or two of farther Consideration nothing new that is of Importance occurs on either side, I come to a Determination accordingly.[192]

 Political, social, and religious views

 A bust of Franklin by Jean-Antoine Houdon, 1778

 Like the other advocates of republicanism, Franklin emphasized that the new republic could survive only if the people were virtuous. All his life, he explored the role of civic and personal virtue, as expressed in Poor Richard's aphorisms. He felt that organized religion was necessary to keep men good to their fellow men, but rarely attended religious services himself.[193] When he met Voltaire in Paris and asked his fellow member of the Enlightenment vanguard to bless his grandson, Voltaire said in English, "God and Liberty", and added, "this is the only appropriate benediction for the grandson of Monsieur Franklin."[194]

 Voltaire blessing Franklin's grandson, in the name of God and Liberty, by Pedro Américo, 1889–90

 Franklin's parents were both pious Puritans.[195] The family attended the Old South Church, the most liberal Puritan congregation in Boston, where Benjamin Franklin was baptized in 1706.[196] Franklin's father, a poor chandler, owned a copy of a book, Bonifacius: Essays to Do Good, by the Puritan preacher and family friend Cotton Mather, which Franklin often cited as a key influence on his life. "If I have been", Franklin wrote to Cotton Mather's son seventy years later, "a useful citizen, the public owes the advantage of it to that book."[197] His first pen name, Silence Dogood, paid homage both to the book and to a widely known sermon by Mather. The book preached the importance of forming voluntary associations to benefit society. Franklin learned about forming do-good associations from Mather, but his organizational skills made him the most influential force in making voluntarism an enduring part of the American ethos.[198]

 Franklin formulated a presentation of his beliefs and published it in 1728.[199] It did not mention many of the Puritan ideas regarding salvation, the divinity of Jesus, or indeed much religious dogma. He classified himself as a deist in his 1771 autobiography,[200] although he still considered himself a Christian.[201] He retained a strong faith in a God as the wellspring of morality and goodness in man, and as a Providential actor in history responsible for American independence.[202]

 Benjamin Franklin by Hiram Powers

 At a critical impasse during the Constitutional Convention in June 1787, he attempted to introduce the practice of daily common prayer with these words:

 ... In the beginning of the contest with G. Britain, when we were sensible of danger we had daily prayer in this room for the Divine Protection. Our prayers, Sir, were heard, and they were graciously answered. All of us who were engaged in the struggle must have observed frequent instances of a Superintending providence in our favor. ... And have we now forgotten that powerful friend? or do we imagine that we no longer need His assistance. I have lived, Sir, a long time and the longer I live, the more convincing proofs I see of this truth—that God governs in the affairs of men. And if a sparrow cannot fall to the ground without his notice, is it probable that an empire can rise without his aid? We have been assured, Sir, in the sacred writings that "except the Lord build they labor in vain that build it." I firmly believe this; and I also believe that without his concurring aid we shall succeed in this political building no better than the Builders of Babel: ... I therefore beg leave to move—that henceforth prayers imploring the assistance of Heaven, and its blessings on our deliberations, be held in this Assembly every morning before we proceed to business, and that one or more of the Clergy of this City be requested to officiate in that service.[203]

 The motion met with resistance and was never brought to a vote.[204]

 Franklin was an enthusiastic supporter of the evangelical minister George Whitefield during the First Great Awakening. He did not himself subscribe to Whitefield's theology, but he admired Whitefield for exhorting people to worship God through good works. He published all of Whitefield's sermons and journals, thereby earning a lot of money and boosting the Great Awakening.[205]

 When he stopped attending church, Franklin wrote in his autobiography:

 ... Sunday being my studying day, I never was without some religious principles. I never doubted, for instance, the existence of the Deity; that He made the world, and governed it by His providence; that the most acceptable service of God was the doing good to man; that our souls are immortal; and that all crime will be punished, and virtue rewarded, either here or hereafter.[206][207]

 Franklin retained a lifelong commitment to the Puritan virtues and political values he had grown up with, and through his civic work and publishing, he succeeded in passing these values into the American culture permanently. He had a "passion for virtue".[208] These Puritan values included his devotion to egalitarianism, education, industry, thrift, honesty, temperance, charity and community spirit.[209]

 The classical authors read in the Enlightenment period taught an abstract ideal of republican government based on hierarchical social orders of king, aristocracy and commoners. It was widely believed that English liberties relied on their balance of power, but also hierarchal deference to the privileged class.[210] "Puritanism ... and the epidemic evangelism of the mid-eighteenth century, had created challenges to the traditional notions of social stratification"[211] by preaching that the Bible taught all men are equal, that the true value of a man lies in his moral behavior, not his class, and that all men can be saved.[211] Franklin, steeped in Puritanism and an enthusiastic supporter of the evangelical movement, rejected the salvation dogma but embraced the radical notion of egalitarian democracy.[ citation needed ]

 Franklin's commitment to teach these values was itself something he gained from his Puritan upbringing, with its stress on "inculcating virtue and character in themselves and their communities."[212] These Puritan values and the desire to pass them on, were one of his quintessentially American characteristics and helped shape the character of the nation. Max Weber considered Franklin's ethical writings a culmination of the Protestant ethic, which ethic created the social conditions necessary for the birth of capitalism.[213]

 One of his notable characteristics was his respect, tolerance and promotion of all churches. Referring to his experience in Philadelphia, he wrote in his autobiography, "new Places of worship were continually wanted, and generally erected by voluntary Contribution, my Mite for such purpose, whatever might be the Sect, was never refused."[206] "He helped create a new type of nation that would draw strength from its religious pluralism."[214] The evangelical revivalists who were active mid-century, such as Whitefield, were the greatest advocates of religious freedom, "claiming liberty of conscience to be an 'inalienable right of every rational creature.'"[215] Whitefield's supporters in Philadelphia, including Franklin, erected "a large, new hall, that ... could provide a pulpit to anyone of any belief."[216] Franklin's rejection of dogma and doctrine and his stress on the God of ethics and morality and civic virtue made him the "prophet of tolerance".[214] He composed "A Parable Against Persecution", an apocryphal 51st chapter of Genesis in which God teaches Abraham the duty of tolerance.[217] While he was living in London in 1774, he was present at the birth of British Unitarianism, attending the inaugural session of the Essex Street Chapel, at which Theophilus Lindsey drew together the first avowedly Unitarian congregation in England; this was somewhat politically risky and pushed religious tolerance to new boundaries, as a denial of the doctrine of the Trinity was illegal until the 1813 Act.[218]

 Dr Richard Price, the radical minister of Newington Green Unitarian Church, holding a letter from Franklin

 Although his parents had intended for him a career in the church,[18] Franklin as a young man adopted the Enlightenment religious belief in deism, that God's truths can be found entirely through nature and reason,[219] declaring, "I soon became a thorough Deist."[220] He rejected Christian dogma in a 1725 pamphlet A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain,[221] which he later saw as an embarrassment,[222] while simultaneously asserting that God is "all wise, all good, all powerful."[222] He defended his rejection of religious dogma with these words: "I think opinions should be judged by their influences and effects; and if a man holds none that tend to make him less virtuous or more vicious, it may be concluded that he holds none that are dangerous, which I hope is the case with me." After the disillusioning experience of seeing the decay in his own moral standards, and those of two friends in London whom he had converted to deism, Franklin turned back to a belief in the importance of organized religion, on the pragmatic grounds that without God and organized churches, man will not be good.[223] Moreover, because of his proposal that prayers be said in the Constitutional Convention of 1787, many have contended that in his later life he became a pious Christian.[224][225]

 According to David Morgan,[226] Franklin was a proponent of religion in general. He prayed to "Powerful Goodness" and referred to God as "the infinite". John Adams noted that he was a mirror in which people saw their own religion: "The Catholics thought him almost a Catholic. The Church of England claimed him as one of them. The Presbyterians thought him half a Presbyterian, and the Friends believed him a wet Quaker." Whatever else Franklin was, concludes Morgan, "he was a true champion of generic religion." In a letter to Richard Price, Franklin states that he believes religion should support itself without help from the government, claiming, "When a Religion is good, I conceive that it will support itself; and, when it cannot support itself, and God does not take care to support, so that its Professors are oblig'd to call for the help of the Civil Power, it is a sign, I apprehend, of its being a bad one."[227]

 In 1790, just about a month before he died, Franklin wrote a letter to Ezra Stiles, president of Yale University, who had asked him his views on religion:

 As to Jesus of Nazareth, my Opinion of whom you particularly desire, I think the System of Morals and his Religion, as he left them to us, the best the world ever saw or is likely to see; but I apprehend it has received various corrupt changes, and I have, with most of the present Dissenters in England, some Doubts as to his divinity; tho' it is a question I do not dogmatize upon, having never studied it, and I think it needless to busy myself with it now, when I expect soon an Opportunity of knowing the Truth with less Trouble. I see no harm, however, in its being believed, if that belief has the good consequence, as it probably has, of making his doctrines more respected and better observed; especially as I do not perceive that the Supreme takes it amiss, by distinguishing the unbelievers in his government of the world with any particular marks of his displeasure.[20]

 On July 4, 1776, Congress appointed a three-member committee composed of Franklin, Jefferson, and Adams to design the Great Seal of the United States. Franklin's proposal (which was not adopted) featured the motto: "Rebellion to Tyrants is Obedience to God" and a scene from the Book of Exodus, with Moses, the Israelites, the pillar of fire, and George III depicted as pharaoh. The design that was produced was not acted upon by Congress, and the Great Seal's design was not finalized until a third committee was appointed in 1782.[228][229]

 Franklin strongly supported the right to freedom of speech:

 In those wretched countries where a man cannot call his tongue his own, he can scarce call anything his own. Whoever would overthrow the liberty of a nation must begin by subduing the freeness of speech ... Without freedom of thought there can be no such thing as wisdom, and no such thing as public liberty without freedom of speech, which is the right of every man ...

 — Silence Dogood no. 8, 1722[230]

 Thirteen Virtues

 Franklin bust in the Archives Department of Columbia University in New York City

 Franklin sought to cultivate his character by a plan of 13 virtues, which he developed at age 20 (in 1726) and continued to practice in some form for the rest of his life. His autobiography lists his 13 virtues as:[231]

 1. Temperance. Eat not to dullness; drink not to elevation."
 2. Silence. Speak not but what may benefit others or yourself; avoid trifling conversation."
 3. Order. Let all your things have their places; let each part of your business have its time.
 4. Resolution. Resolve to perform what you ought; perform without fail what you resolve.
 5. Frugality. Make no expense but to do good to others or yourself; i.e., waste nothing.
 6. Industry. Lose no time; be always employ'd in something useful; cut off all unnecessary actions.
 7. Sincerity. Use no hurtful deceit; think innocently and justly, and, if you speak, speak accordingly.
 8. Justice. Wrong none by doing injuries, or omitting the benefits that are your duty.
 9. Moderation. Avoid extremes; forbear resenting injuries so much as you think they deserve.
 10. Cleanliness. Tolerate no uncleanliness in body, clothes, or habitation.
 11. Tranquility. Be not disturbed at trifles, or at accidents common or unavoidable.
 12. Chastity. Rarely use venery but for health or offspring, never to dullness, weakness, or the injury of your own or another's peace or reputation.
 13. Humility. Imitate Jesus and Socrates.

 Franklin did not try to work on them all at once. Instead, he would work on one and only one each week "leaving all others to their ordinary chance." While he did not adhere completely to the enumerated virtues, and by his own admission he fell short of them many times, he believed the attempt made him a better man, contributing greatly to his success and happiness, which is why in his autobiography, he devoted more pages to this plan than to any other single point and wrote, "I hope, therefore, that some of my descendants may follow the example and reap the benefit."[232]

 Slavery

 Franklin owned as many as seven slaves, including two men who worked in his household and his shop.[233][234] He posted paid ads for the sale of slaves and for the capture of runaway slaves and allowed the sale of slaves in his general store. However, he later became an outspoken critic of slavery. In 1758, he advocated the opening of a school for the education of black slaves in Philadelphia.[235] He took two slaves to England with him, Peter and King. King escaped with a woman to live in the outskirts of London,[236] and by 1758 he was working for a household in Suffolk.[237] After returning from England in 1762, Franklin became notably more abolitionist in nature, attacking American slavery. In the wake of Somerset v Stewart, he voiced frustration at British abolitionists:

 O Pharisaical Britain! to pride thyself in setting free a single Slave that happens to land on thy coasts, while thy Merchants in all thy ports are encouraged by thy laws to continue a commerce whereby so many hundreds of thousands are dragged into a slavery that can scarce be said to end with their lives, since it is entailed on their posterity![238][239]

 Franklin, however, refused to publicly debate the issue of slavery at the 1787 Constitutional Convention.[240]

 At the time of the American founding, there were about half a million slaves in the United States, mostly in the five southernmost states, where they made up 40% of the population. Many of the leading American founders – most notably Thomas Jefferson, George Washington, and James Madison – owned slaves, but many others did not. Benjamin Franklin thought that slavery was "an atrocious debasement of human nature" and "a source of serious evils." He and Benjamin Rush founded the Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery in 1774.[241] In 1790, Quakers from New York and Pennsylvania presented their petition for abolition to Congress. Their argument against slavery was backed by the Pennsylvania Abolitionist Society.[242]

 In his later years, as Congress was forced to deal with the issue of slavery, Franklin wrote several essays that stressed the importance of the abolition of slavery and of the integration of African Americans into American society. These writings included:

 * An Address to the Public (1789)
 * A Plan for Improving the Condition of the Free Blacks (1789)
 * Sidi Mehemet Ibrahim on the Slave Trade (1790)[243]

 Vegetarianism

 Franklin became a vegetarian when he was a teenager apprenticing at a print shop, after coming upon a book by the early vegetarian advocate Thomas Tryon.[244] In addition, he would have also been familiar with the moral arguments espoused by prominent vegetarian Quakers in colonial Pennsylvania, such as Benjamin Lay and John Woolman. His reasons for vegetarianism were based on health, ethics, and economy:

 When about 16 years of age, I happen'd to meet with a book written by one Tryon, recommending a vegetable diet. I determined to go into it ... [By not eating meat] I presently found that I could save half what [my brother] paid me. This was an additional fund for buying books: but I had another advantage in it ... I made the greater progress from that greater clearness of head and quicker apprehension which usually attend temperance in eating and drinking.[245]

 Franklin also declared the consumption of meat to be "unprovoked murder".[246] Despite his convictions, he began to eat fish after being tempted by fried cod on a boat sailing from Boston, justifying the eating of animals by observing that the fish's stomach contained other fish. Nonetheless, he recognized the faulty ethics in this argument[247] and would continue to be a vegetarian on and off. He was "excited" by tofu, which he learned of from the writings of a Spanish missionary to South East Asia, Domingo Fernández Navarrete. Franklin sent a sample of soybeans to prominent American botanist John Bartram and had previously written to British diplomat and Chinese trade expert James Flint inquiring as to how tofu was made,[248] with their correspondence believed to be the first documented use of the word "tofu" in the English language.[249]

 Franklin's "Second Reply to Vindex Patriae", a 1766 letter advocating self-sufficiency and less dependence on England, lists various examples of the bounty of American agricultural products, and does not mention meat.[248] Detailing new American customs, he wrote that, "[t]hey resolved last spring to eat no more lamb; and not a joint of lamb has since been seen on any of their tables … the sweet little creatures are all alive to this day, with the prettiest fleeces on their backs imaginable."[250]

 View on inoculation

 The concept of preventing smallpox by variolation was introduced to colonial America by an African slave named Onesimus via his owner Cotton Mather in the early eighteenth century, but the procedure was not immediately accepted. James Franklin's newspaper carried articles in 1721[251] that vigorously denounced the concept.[252]

 However, by 1736 Benjamin Franklin, by then a prominent Boston citizen, was known as a supporter of the procedure. Therefore, when four-year-old "Franky" died of smallpox, opponents of the procedure circulated rumors that the child had been inoculated, and that this was the cause of his subsequent death. When Franklin became aware of this gossip, he placed a notice in the Pennsylvania Gazette, stating: "I do hereby sincerely declare, that he was not inoculated, but receiv'd the Distemper in the common Way of Infection ... I intended to have my Child inoculated.". The child had a bad case of flux diarrhea, and his parents had waited for him to get well before having him inoculated. Franklin wrote in his Autobiography: "In 1736 I lost one of my sons, a fine boy of four years old, by the small-pox, taken in the common way. I long regretted bitterly, and still regret that I had not given it to him by inoculation. This I mention for the sake of parents who omit that operation, on the supposition that they should never forgive themselves if a child died under it; my example showing that the regret may be the same either way, and that, therefore, the safer should be chosen."[253]

 Interests and activities

 Musical endeavors

 Glass harmonica

 Franklin is known to have played the violin, the harp, and the guitar. He also composed music, notably a string quartet in early classical style.[254] While he was in London, he developed a much-improved version of the glass harmonica, in which the glasses rotate on a shaft, with the player's fingers held steady, instead of the other way around. He worked with the London glassblower Charles James to create it, and instruments based on his mechanical version soon found their way to other parts of Europe.[255] Joseph Haydn, a fan of Franklin's enlightened ideas, had a glass harmonica in his instrument collection.[256] Mozart composed for Franklin's glass harmonica,[257] as did Beethoven.[258][259] Gaetano Donizetti used the instrument in the accompaniment to Amelia's aria "Par che mi dica ancora" in the tragic opera Il castello di Kenilworth (1821),[260] as did Camille Saint-Saëns in his 1886 The Carnival of the Animals.[261] Richard Strauss calls for the glass harmonica in his 1917 Die Frau ohne Schatten,[257] and numerous other composers used Franklin's instrument as well.[ citation needed ]

 Chess

 Franklin was an avid chess player. He was playing chess by around 1733, making him the first chess player known by name in the American colonies.[262] His essay on "The Morals of Chess" in Columbian Magazine in December 1786 is the second known writing on chess in America.[262] This essay in praise of chess and prescribing a code of behavior for the game has been widely reprinted and translated.[263][264][265][266] He and a friend used chess as a means of learning the Italian language, which both were studying; the winner of each game between them had the right to assign a task, such as parts of the Italian grammar to be learned by heart, to be performed by the loser before their next meeting.[267]

 Franklin was able to play chess more frequently against stronger opposition during his many years as a civil servant and diplomat in England, where the game was far better established than in America. He was able to improve his playing standard by facing more experienced players during this period. He regularly attended Old Slaughter's Coffee House in London for chess and socializing, making many important personal contacts. While in Paris, both as a visitor and later as ambassador, he visited the famous Café de la Régence, which France's strongest players made their regular meeting place. No records of his games have survived, so it is not possible to ascertain his playing strength in modern terms.[268]

 Franklin was inducted into the U.S. Chess Hall of Fame in 1999.[262] The Franklin Mercantile Chess Club in Philadelphia, the second oldest chess club in the U.S., is named in his honor.[269]

 Legacy

 Designations 
 Pennsylvania Historical Marker
 Official name Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790)    
 Type City    
 Criteria Government & Politics, Government & Politics 18th Century, Invention, Science & Medicine, Professions & Vocations, Publishing & Journalism, Writers  
 Designated June 30, 1990[270]    
 Location Chestnut St. between 3rd & 4th Sts., at Nat'l. Liberty Mus., Philadelphia   
 39°56′56″N 75°08′49″W ﻿ / ﻿ 39.94881°N 75.14683°W   
 Marker Text Printer, author, inventor, diplomat, philanthropist, statesman, and scientist. The eighteenth century's most illustrious Pennsylvanian built a house in Franklin Court starting in 1763, and here he lived the last five years of his life.
 
 
 Further information: List of places named for Benjamin Franklin

 Bequest

 Franklin bequeathed £1,000 (about $4,400 at the time, or about $125,000 in 2021 dollars[271]) each to the cities of Boston and Philadelphia, in trust to gather interest for 200 years. The trust began in 1785 when the French mathematician Charles-Joseph Mathon de la Cour, who admired Franklin greatly, wrote a friendly parody of Franklin's Poor Richard's Almanack called Fortunate Richard. The main character leaves a smallish amount of money in his will, five lots of 100 livres, to collect interest over one, two, three, four or five full centuries, with the resulting astronomical sums to be spent on impossibly elaborate utopian projects.[272] Franklin, who was 79 years old at the time, wrote thanking him for a great idea and telling him that he had decided to leave a bequest of 1,000 pounds each to his native Boston and his adopted Philadelphia.

 By 1990, more than $2,000,000 had accumulated in Franklin's Philadelphia trust, which had loaned the money to local residents. From 1940 to 1990, the money was used mostly for mortgage loans. When the trust came due, Philadelphia decided to spend it on scholarships for local high school students. Franklin's Boston trust fund accumulated almost $5,000,000 during that same time; at the end of its first 100 years a portion was allocated to help establish a trade school that became the Franklin Institute of Boston, and the entire fund was later dedicated to supporting this institute.[273][274]

 Marble memorial statue, Benjamin Franklin National Memorial

 In 1787, a group of prominent ministers in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, proposed the foundation of a new college named in Franklin's honor. Franklin donated £200 towards the development of Franklin College (now called Franklin & Marshall College).[275]

 Likeness and image

 As the only person to have signed the Declaration of Independence in 1776, Treaty of Alliance with France in 1778, Treaty of Paris in 1783, and U.S. Constitution in 1787, Franklin is considered one of the leading Founding Fathers of the United States. His pervasive influence in the early history of the nation has led to his being jocularly called "the only president of the United States who was never president of the United States".[276]

 Franklin's likeness is ubiquitous. Since 1928, it has adorned American $100 bills. From 1948 to 1963, Franklin's portrait was on the half-dollar.[277] He has appeared on a $50 bill and on several varieties of the $100 bill from 1914 and 1918.[278] Franklin also appears on the $1,000 Series EE savings bond.[279]

 On April 12, 1976, as part of a bicentennial celebration, Congress dedicated a 20-foot (6 m) tall marble statue in Philadelphia's Franklin Institute as the Benjamin Franklin National Memorial.[280] Many of Franklin's personal possessions are on display at the institute. In London, his house at 36 Craven Street, which is the only surviving former residence of Franklin, was first marked with a blue plaque and has since been opened to the public as the Benjamin Franklin House.[281] In 1998, workmen restoring the building dug up the remains of six children and four adults hidden below the home. A total of 15 bodies have been recovered.[282] The Friends of Benjamin Franklin House (the organization responsible for the restoration) note that the bones were likely placed there by William Hewson, who lived in the house for two years and who had built a small anatomy school at the back of the house. They note that while Franklin likely knew what Hewson was doing, he probably did not participate in any dissections because he was much more of a physicist than a medical man.[283]

 He has been honored on U.S. postage stamps many times. The image of Franklin, the first postmaster general of the United States, occurs on the face of U.S. postage more than any other notable American save that of George Washington.[284] He appeared on the first U.S. postage stamp issued in 1847. From 1908 through 1923, the U.S. Post Office issued a series of postage stamps commonly referred to as the Washington–Franklin Issues, in which Washington and Franklin were depicted many times over a 14-year period, the longest run of any one series in U.S. postal history. However, he only appears on a few commemorative stamps. Some of the finest portrayals of Franklin on record can be found on the engravings inscribed on the face of U.S. postage.[284]

 Franklin on the Series 2009 hundred dollar bill
 Issue of 1861
 Issue of 1895
 Issue of 1918
 Examples of Franklin on U. S. Postage
 Life-size bronze statue of Benjamin Franklin (seated with cane) in the National Constitution Center, Philadelphia

 See also

 * Benjamin Franklin in popular culture
 * Benjamin Franklin on postage stamps
 * Bibliography of early American publishers and printers
 * Elizabeth Timothy, apprentice/partner of Franklin
 * Founders Online database of Franklin's papers
 * Franklin's electrostatic machine
 * Fugio Cent, 1787 coin designed by Franklin
 * James Parker, apprentice/partner of Franklin
 * List of abolitionist forerunners
 * List of early American publishers and printers
 * List of opponents of slavery
 * List of richest Americans in history
 * List of wealthiest historical figures
 * Louis Timothee, apprentice/partner of Franklin
 * Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
 * The Papers of Benjamin Franklin
 * Thomas Birch's newly discovered Franklin letters

 Notes

 1. ^ a b c Contemporary records, which used the Julian calendar and the Annunciation Style of enumerating years, recorded his birth as January 6, 1705. [15][16]
 2. ^ According to Professor Zara Anishanslin.
 3. ^ Portraits of Franklin at this time often contained an inscription, the best known being Turgot's acclamation, " Eripuit fulmen coelo sceptrumque tyrannis. " (He snatched the lightning from the skies and the scepter from the tyrants.) Historian Friedrich Christoph Schlosser remarked at the time, with ample hyperbole, that "Such was the number of portraits, busts and medallions of him in circulation before he left Paris, that he would have been recognized from them by any adult citizen in any part of the civilized world." – Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Franklin, Benjamin" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

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 173. ^ Tuchman, Barbara W. The First Salute: A View of the American Revolution New York: Ballantine Books, 1988. pp.221–222.
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 176. ^ Wood, Anthony R. "How Franklin's chart resurfaced". www.inquirer.com . Retrieved December 30, 2022 .
 177. ^ John N. Wilford, "Prints of Franklin's chart of Gulf Stream found", New York Times , pp. A1, B7 (February 6, 1980).
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 179. ^ 1785: Benjamin Franklin's 'Sundry Maritime Observations' . Archived October 2, 2008, at the Wayback Machine NOAA Ocean Explorer.
 180. ^ Source: Explanations and Sailing Directions to Accompany the Wind and Current Charts , 1853, p. 53, by Matthew Fontaine Maury
 181. ^ Price, Richard; Thomas, David Oswald; Peach, Bernard (1994). The Correspondence of Richard Price: February 1786 – February 1791. Duke University Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-8223-1327-4 . Retrieved October 2, 2009 .
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 183. ^ Heidorn, Keith C. Heidorn, PhD. Eclipsed By Storm. The Weather Doctor. October 1, 2003.
 184. ^ "Memoirs of the literary and philosophical society of Manchester". www.dartmouth.edu. Archived from the original on June 15, 2018 . Retrieved December 3, 2019 .
 185. ^ Fisher, Sydney George (1903). The True Benjamin Franklin (5 ed.). Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company. p. 19.
 186. ^ Pocock, George (1851). A Treatise on The Aeropleustic Art, or Navigation in the Air, by means of Kites, or Buoyant Sails. London: Longmans, Brown, and Co. p. 9.
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 189. ^ Faraday, Michael (1839). Experimental researches in electricity. Vol. 2. R. & J.E. Taylor. p. v. "Franklin's experiments on the non-conduction of ice ..."
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 191. ^ * W. Gratzer, Eurekas and Euphorias, pp. 80–81
 192. ^ a b Franklin, Benjamin (1975) [1772]. "To Joseph Priestley". In Willcox, William Bradford (ed.). The papers of Benjamin Franklin: January 1 through December 31, 1772. Vol. 19. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 299–300. ISBN 978-0-300-01865-3. OCLC 310601.
 193. ^ Franklin, Autobiography , ed. Lemay, p. 65
 194. ^ Isaacson, 2004 , p. 354
 195. ^ Isaacson, 2004 , p. 5–18
 196. ^ "Isaacson, 2003, p. 15". Oldsouth.org. Archived from the original on May 31, 2008 . Retrieved September 21, 2009 .
 197. ^ Isaacson, 2004 , p. 26
 198. ^ Isaacson, 2004 , p. 102
 199. ^ Franklin, Benjamin (November 20, 1728). "Articles of Belief and Acts of Religion". Benjamin Franklin Papers. franklinpapers.org. Archived from the original on July 26, 2011 . Retrieved December 24, 2010 .
 200. ^ Franklin, Benjamin (1771). Autobiography and other writings. Cambridge: Riverside. p. 52.
 201. ^ Olson, Roger (2009). The Mosaic of Christian Belief: Twenty Centuries of Unity and Diversity. InterVarsity Press. ISBN 978-0-8308-2695-7. "Other Deists and natural religionists who considered themselves Christians in some sense of the word included Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin."
 202. ^ Isaacson, 2004 , p. 486
 203. ^ Eidenmuller, Michael E. "Online Speech Bank: Benjamin Franklin's Prayer Speech at the Constitutional Convention of 1787". Americanrhetoric.com . Retrieved September 21, 2009 .
 204. ^ Rossiter, Clinton . 1787. The Grand Convention (1966), pp. 184–85
 205. ^ Isaacson, 2004 , pp. 107–113
 206. ^ a b Franklin Benjamin "Benjamin Franklin's Autobiography". Archived September 5, 2008, at the Wayback Machine Section 2 reprinted on UShistory.org.
 207. ^ "Benjamin Franklin". History.hanover.edu . Retrieved September 21, 2009 .
 208. ^ Isaacson, 2004 , p. 485
 209. ^ Isaacson, 2004 , p. 149
 210. ^ Bailyn, 1992, pp. 273–74, 299–300
 211. ^ a b Bailyn, 1992, p. 303
 212. ^ Isaacson, 2004 , pp. 10, 102, 489
 213. ^ Weber, Max (2002). The Protestant Ethic and the "Spirit of Capitalism". Translated by Peter Baehr; Gordon C. Wells. Penguin Books. pp. 9–11. ISBN 9780486122373.
 214. ^ a b Isaacson, 2004 , pp. 93ff
 215. ^ Bailyn, 1992, p. 249
 216. ^ Isaacson, 2004 , p. 112
 217. ^ Franklin, Benjamin (2003). The Political Thought of Benjamin Franklin. ISBN 978-0-87220-683-0.
 218. ^ "Chapter 2, The History of Essex Hall by Mortimer Rowe B.A., D.D. Lindsey Press, 1959". Unitarian.org.uk. Archived from the original on March 26, 2012 . Retrieved June 20, 2011 .
 219. ^ Isaacson, 2004 , p.46
 220. ^ "Benjamin Franklin's Autobiography". www.usgennet.org . Retrieved December 30, 2022 .
 221. ^ "A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain". Historycarper.com. Archived from the original on May 28, 2009 . Retrieved September 21, 2009 .
 222. ^ a b Isaacson, 2004 , p. 45
 223. ^ Isaacson, 2004 , pp. 46, 486
 224. ^ Mencken, Henry Louis; Nathan, George Jean (October 19, 2009). The American Mercury, Volume 8. Garber Communications. "It is well known that in his youth Benjamin Franklin was a thorough-going Deist, but because he proposed that prayers be said in the Constitution Convention of 1787 many have contended that in later life he became a pious Christian."
 225. ^ Frasca, Ralph (2009). Benjamin Franklin's Printing Network: Disseminating Virtue in Early America. University of Missouri Press. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-8262-6492-3. "Despite being raised a Puritan of the Congregationalist stripe by his parents, who "brought me through my Childhood piously in the Dissenting Way", Franklin recalled, he abandoned that denomination, briefly embraced deism, and finally became a non-denominational Protestant Christian."
 226. ^ Morgan, David T. "Benjamin Franklin: Champion of Generic Religion". The Historian . 62#4 2000. pp. 722+
 227. ^ Benjamin Franklin to Richard Price, October 9, 1780 Writings 8:153–54
 228. ^ " The Great Seal of the United States " (July 2003). Bureau of Public Affairs , United States Department of State .
 229. ^ "1782: Original Design of the Great Seal of the United States", Our Documents: 100 Milestone Documents from the National Archives . National Archives ( Oxford University Press , 2006), pp. 18–19.
 230. ^ Coffman, Steve, ed. (2012). Words of the Founding Fathers: Selected Quotations of Franklin, Washington, Adams, Jefferson, Madison and Hamilton, with Sources. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. p. 97. ISBN 978-0-7864-5862-2.
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 233. ^ Nash, 2006 , p. 618-638
 234. ^ "Benjamin Franklin Abolitionist". PBS . Retrieved March 23, 2021 .
 235. ^ Nash, 2006 , p. 623-624
 236. ^ Nash, 2006 , p. 619-620
 237. ^ Isaacson, 2004 , Chapter 8, p. [ page needed ]
 238. ^ Eighty-eight Years – The Long Death of Slavery in the United States, 1777–1865. University of Georgia Press. 2015. ISBN 9780820333953.
 239. ^ Arnold, Isaac N. (1866). The History of Abraham Lincoln, and the Overthrow of Slavery. Clarke & Company.
 240. ^ Waldstreicher, David (July 2004). "Benjamin Franklin, Slavery, and the Founders: On the dangers of reading backwards". Common-Place. 04 (4).
 241. ^ "Pennsylvania Abolition Society".
 242. ^ Benjamin Franklin for The Pennsylvania Abolition Society to the United States Congress, The memorial of the Pennsylvania Society for promoting the Abolition of Slavery, the relief of free Negroes unlawfully held in bondage, and the Improvement of the Conditions of the African Race (February 3, 1790)
 243. ^ Jehlen, Myra; Warner, Michael, eds. (1997). The English Literatures of America, 1500–1800. Psychology Press. p. 891. ISBN 0-415-91903-7.
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 251. ^ "Benjamin Franklin's Fight Against A Deadly Virus" . Retrieved September 27, 2021 – via The Conversation.
 252. ^ One article posited that "epidemeal distempers (such as smallpox) come as Judgments from an angry and displeased God."
 253. ^ Jacoby, Jeff (September 27, 2021). "A Founding Father's Vaccine Regret" . Retrieved September 27, 2021 – via Boston Globe.
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 257. ^ a b Apel, Willi (1969). "Glass harmonica". Harvard Dictionary of Music. Harvard. p. 347. ISBN 9780674375017.
 258. ^ Benke, Richard (February 25, 2001). "'Armonicists' Debate Source of Beethoven's Maladies". Los Angeles Times . Retrieved August 21, 2018 .
 259. ^ Carmel, Jeffrey J. (November 22, 1983). "Franklin invented it, Mozart wrote for it: the 'armonica' returns". The Christian Science Monitor . Retrieved August 21, 2018 .
 260. ^ Osborne, Charles (April 1, 1994). The bel canto operas of Rossini, Donizetti, and Bellini. Amadeus Press. ISBN 978-0-931340-71-0.
 261. ^ The Carnival of the Animals : Scores at the International Music Score Library Project
 262. ^ a b c McCrary, John. "Chess and Benjamin Franklin-His Pioneering Contributions" (PDF) . Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022 . Retrieved April 26, 2009 .
 263. ^ David Hooper and Kenneth Whyld , The Oxford Companion to Chess , Oxford University Press (2nd ed. 1992), p. 145. ISBN 0-19-866164-9 .
 264. ^ The essay appears in Marcello Truzzi (ed.), Chess in Literature , Avon Books, 1974, pp. 14–15. ISBN 0-380-00164-0 .
 265. ^ The essay appears in a book by the felicitously named Norman Knight, "Chess Pieces", Chess Magazine , Sutton Coldfield , England (2nd ed. 1968), pp. 5–6. ISBN 0-380-00164-0 .
 266. ^ Franklin's essay is also reproduced at the U.S. Chess Center Museum and Hall of Fame in Washington, DC. Retrieved December 3, 2008.
 267. ^ William Temple Franklin , Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Benjamin Franklin , reprinted in Knight, Chess Pieces , pp. 136–37.
 268. ^ Price, Bill (2015). The History of Chess in Fifty Moves. Buffalo, New York: Firefly Books (U.S.) Inc. pp. 90–95. ISBN 978-1-77085-529-8.
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 272. ^ Richard Price. Observations on the Importance of the American Revolution, and the Means of Making it a Benefit to the World. To which is added, a Letter from M. Turgot, late Comptroller-General of the Finances of France: with an Appendix, containing a Translation of the Will of M. Fortuné Ricard, lately published in France. London: T. Cadell, 1785.
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 276. ^ Firesign Theater quote, meant humorously but poignantly.
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 284. ^ a b Scotts Specialized Catalogue of United States Stamps

 Bibliography

 Main article: Bibliography of Benjamin Franklin
 Further information: Bibliography of early American publishers and printers

 Biographies

 * Becker, Carl Lotus. "Benjamin Franklin", Dictionary of American Biography (1931) – vol 3, with links online Archived March 16, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
 * Brands, H. W. (2000). The First American: The Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin. ISBN 978-0-385-49540-0.
 * Crane, Vernon W. Benjamin Franklin and a rising people (1954) short biography by a scholar; online free
 * Franklin, Benjamin. The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin; many editions
 * Gaustad, Edwin S. Benjamin Franklin (2006) doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195305357.001.0001 online
 * Isaacson, Walter (2003). Benjamin Franklin: An American Life. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 9780743258074.
 * James Srodes, Franklin, The Essential Founding Father, (2002, softcover 2003, Regnery History) ISBN 978-0-89526-163-2, 978-0-89526-104-5
 * Ketcham, Ralph. Benjamin Franklin (1966) 228 pp online edition, short biography by scholar
 * Lemay, J.A. Leo. The Life of Benjamin Franklin, scholarly biography, 3 volumes appeared before the author's death in 2008
 + Volume 1: Journalist, 1706–1730 (2005) 568 pp ISBN 978-0-8122-3854-9
 + Volume 2: Printer and publisher, 1730–1747 (2005) 664 pp ISBN 978-0-8122-3855-6
 + Volume 3: Soldier, scientist, and politician, 1748–1757 (2008), 768 pp ISBN 978-0-8122-4121-1
 * Morgan, Edmund S. Benjamin Franklin (2003), interpretation by leading scholar online free
 * Schiff, Stacy, A Great Improvisation: Franklin, France, and the Birth of America, (2005) Henry Holt
 * Van Doren, Carl (1938). Benjamin Franklin. Viking. ISBN 978-1-931541-85-5., Pulitzer Prize winning biography; online free
 * Wood, Gordon S. (April 13, 2021). "Benjamin Franklin | Biography, Inventions, Books, American Revolution, & Facts | Britannica". Encyclopædia Britannica. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Archived from the original on July 2, 2021 . Retrieved July 10, 2021 .
 * Wood, Gordon. The Americanization of Benjamin Franklin (2005) ISBN 978-0-14-303528-2, intellectual history by leading historian.
 * Wright, Esmond. Franklin of Philadelphia (1986) ISBN 978-0-674-31810-6 – scholarly study

 Scholarly studies

 * "Inventor". The Franklin Institute. Archived from the original on March 5, 2007 . Retrieved April 25, 2012 .
 * Anderson, Douglas. The Radical Enlightenments of Benjamin Franklin (1997) – fresh look at the intellectual roots of Franklin
 * Buxbaum, M.H., ed. Critical Essays on Benjamin Franklin (1987)
 * Chaplin, Joyce. The First Scientific American: Benjamin Franklin and the Pursuit of Genius. (2007)
 * Cohen, I. Bernard. Benjamin Franklin's Science (1990) – Cohen, the leading specialist, has several books on Franklin's science
 * Conner, Paul W. Poor Richard's Politicks (1965) – analyzes Franklin's ideas in terms of the Enlightenment and republicanism
 * Dray, Philip. Stealing God's Thunder: Benjamin Franklin's Lightning Rod and the Invention of America. (2005). 279 pp.
 * Dull, Jonathan. A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution (1985)
 * Dull, Jonathan. Benjamin Franklin and the American Revolution (2010)
 * Ford, Paul Leicester. The Many-Sided Franklin (1899) online edition – collection of scholarly essays
 + "Franklin as Politician and Diplomatist" in The Century (October 1899) v. 57 pp. 881–899. By Paul Leicester Ford.
 + "Franklin as Printer and Publisher" in The Century (April 1899) v. 57 pp. 803–818.
 + "Franklin as Scientist" in The Century (September 1899) v.57 pp. 750–763. By Paul Leicester Ford.
 * Frasca, Ralph. "Benjamin Franklin's Printing Network and the Stamp Act." Pennsylvania History 71.4 (2004): 403–419 online.
 * Frasca, Ralph. Benjamin Franklin's printing network: disseminating virtue in early America (U of Missouri Press, 2006) excerpt.
 * Gleason, Philip (2000). "Trouble in the Colonial Melting Pot". Journal of American Ethnic History. 20 (1): 3–17. doi:10.2307/27502642. JSTOR 27502642. S2CID 254480258.
 * Houston, Alan. Benjamin Franklin and the Politics of Improvement (2009)
 * Lemay, J.A. Leo, ed. Reappraising Benjamin Franklin: A Bicentennial Perspective (1993) – scholarly essays
 * Mathews, L.K. "Benjamin Franklin's Plans for a Colonial Union, 1750–1775." American Political Science Review 8 (August 1914): 393–412.
 * McCoy, Drew R. (1978). "Benjamin Franklin's Vision of a Republican Political Economy for America". William and Mary Quarterly. 35 (4): 607–628. doi:10.2307/1923207. JSTOR 1923207.
 * Merli, Frank J., and Theodore A. Wilson, eds. Makers of American diplomacy, from Benjamin Franklin to Henry Kissinger (1974) online free
 * Nash, Gary B. (December 2006). "Franklin and Slavery". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 150 (4): 618–638. JSTOR 4599029.
 * Newman, Simon P. "Benjamin Franklin and the Leather-Apron Men: The Politics of Class in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia", Journal of American Studies, August 2009, Vol. 43#2 pp. 161–75; Franklin took pride in his working class origins and his printer's skills.
 * Olsen, Neil C. (2013). Pursuing Happiness: The Organizational Culture of the Continental Congress. Nonagram Publications. ISBN 978-1-4800-6550-5.
 * Olson, Lester C. Benjamin Franklin's Vision of American Community: A Study in Rhetorical Iconology. (2004). 323 pp.
 * Rosenthall, Karen M. "A Generative Populace: Benjamin Franklin's Economic Agendas" Early American Literature 51#3 (2016), pp. 571–598. online
 * Schiffer, Michael Brian. Draw the Lightning Down: Benjamin Franklin and Electrical Technology in the Age of Enlightenment. (2003). 383 pp.
 * Skemp, Sheila L. Benjamin and William Franklin: Father and Son, Patriot and Loyalist (1994) – Ben's son was a leading Loyalist
 * Sletcher, Michael. 'Domesticity: The Human Side of Benjamin Franklin', Magazine of History, XXI (2006).
 * Waldstreicher, David. Runaway America: Benjamin Franklin, Slavery, and the American Revolution. Hill and Wang, 2004. 315 pp.
 * Walters, Kerry S. Benjamin Franklin and His Gods. (1999). 213 pp. Takes position midway between D H Lawrence's brutal 1930 denunciation of Franklin's religion as nothing more than a bourgeois commercialism tricked out in shallow utilitarian moralisms and Owen Aldridge's sympathetic 1967 treatment of the dynamism and protean character of Franklin's "polytheistic" religion.
 * York, Neil. "When Words Fail: William Pitt, Benjamin Franklin and the Imperial Crisis of 1766", Parliamentary History, October 2009, Vol. 28#3 pp. 341–374

 Historiography

 * Brands, H. W. "Lives and Times" Reviews in American History 41#2 (2013), pp. 207–212. online
 * Waldstreicher, David, ed. A Companion to Benjamin Franklin (2011), 25 essays by scholars emphasizing how historians have handled Franklin. online edition

 Primary sources

 * "A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain."
 * "Experiments and Observations on Electricity." (1751)
 * "Fart Proudly: Writings of Benjamin Franklin You Never Read in School." Carl Japikse, Ed. Frog Ltd.; Reprint ed. 2003. ISBN 1-58394-079-0
 * "Heroes of America Benjamin Franklin."
 * "On Marriage."
 * "Satires and Bagatelles."
 * Autobiography, Poor Richard, & Later Writings (J.A. Leo Lemay, ed.) (Library of America, 1987 one-volume, 2005 two-volume) ISBN 978-1-883011-53-6
 * Benjamin Franklin Reader edited by Walter Isaacson (2003)
 * Benjamin Franklin's Autobiography edited by J.A. Leo Lemay and P.M. Zall, (Norton Critical Editions, 1986); 390 pp. text, contemporary documents and 20th century analysis
 * Franklin, B.; Majault, M.J.; Le Roy, J.B.; Sallin, C.L.; Bailly, J.-S.; d'Arcet, J.; de Bory, G.; Guillotin, J.-I.; Lavoisier, A. (2002). "Report of The Commissioners charged by the King with the Examination of Animal Magnetism". International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis. 50 (4): 332–363. doi:10.1080/00207140208410109. PMID 12362951. S2CID 36506710.
 * Franklin, Benjamin (1769). Experiments and observations on electricity, made at Philadelphia in America. London : Printed for David Henry; and sold by Francis Newberry.
 * Houston, Alan, ed. Franklin: The Autobiography and other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue. Cambridge University Press, 2004. 371 pp.
 * Ketcham, Ralph, ed. The Political Thought of Benjamin Franklin. (1965, reprinted 2003). 459 pp.
 * Lass, Hilda, ed. The Fabulous American: A Benjamin Franklin Almanac. (1964). 222 pp.
 * Leonard Labaree, and others., eds., The Papers of Benjamin Franklin, 39 vols. to date (1959–2008), definitive edition, through 1783. This massive collection of BF's writings, and letters to him, is available in large academic libraries. It is most useful for detailed research on specific topics. The complete text of all the documents are online and searchable; The Index is also online at the Wayback Machine (archived September 28, 2010).
 * Poor Richard Improved by Benjamin Franklin (1751)
 * Silence Dogood, The Busy-Body, & Early Writings (J.A. Leo Lemay, ed.) (Library of America, 1987 one-volume, 2005 two-volume) ISBN 978-1-931082-22-8
 * The Papers of Benjamin Franklin online, Sponsored by The American Philosophical Society and Yale University
 * The Way to Wealth. Applewood Books; 1986. ISBN 0-918222-88-5
 * Writings (Franklin)|Writings. ISBN 0-940450-29-1

 For young readers

 * Asimov, Isaac. The Kite That Won the Revolution, a biography for children that focuses on Franklin's scientific and diplomatic contributions.
 * Fleming, Candace. Ben Franklin's Almanac: Being a True Account of the Good Gentleman's Life. Atheneum/Anne Schwart, 2003, 128 pp. ISBN 978-0-689-83549-0.
 * Miller, Brandon. Benjamin Franklin, American Genius: His Life and Ideas with 21 Activities (For Kids series) 2009 Chicago Review Press

 External links

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 Library resources about 
 Benjamin Franklin 
 * Online books 
 * Resources in your library 
 * Resources in other libraries
 By Benjamin Franklin 
 * Online books 
 * Resources in your library 
 * Resources in other libraries
 
 External video  
 Presentation by H.W. Brands on The First American: The Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin, October 5, 2000, C-SPAN 
 Presentation by Walter Isaacson on Benjamin Franklin: An American Life, July 22, 2003, C-SPAN 
 Presentation by Edmund S. Morgan on Benjamin Franklin, November 12, 2002, C-SPAN 
 Presentation by Stacy Schiff on A Great Improvisation: Franklin, France, and the Birth of America, April 12, 2005, C-SPAN 
 Booknotes interview with James Srodes on Franklin: The Essential Founding Father, May 19, 2002, C-SPAN 
 Interview with Gordon S. Wood on The Americanization of Benjamin Franklin, June 4, 2004, C-SPAN 
 Panel discussion on Franklin with Walter Isaacson, Gordon Wood, and Stacy Schiff, hosted by Jim Lehrer, January 8, 2006, C-SPAN
 
 * Benjamin Franklin and Electrostatics Archived August 14, 2017, at the Wayback Machine experiments and Franklin's electrical writings from Wright Center for Science Education
 * Benjamin Franklin Papers, Kislak Center for Special Collections, Rare Books and Manuscripts, University of Pennsylvania.
 * Franklin's impact on medicine – talk by medical historian, Dr. Jim Leavesley celebrating the 300th anniversary of Franklin's birth on Okham's Razor ABC Radio National – December 2006
 * Video with sheet music of Benjamin Franklin's string quartet

 Biographical and guides

 * 
 * Biography at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
 * "Special Report: Citizen Ben's Greatest Virtues" Time
 * "Writings of Benjamin Franklin" from C-SPAN's American Writers: A Journey Through History
 * Afsai, Shai (2019). "Benjamin Franklin's Influence on Mussar Thought and Practice: a Chronicle of Misapprehension." Review of Rabbinic Judaism 22, 2: 228–276.
 * Benjamin Franklin: A Documentary History by J.A. Leo Lemay
 * Benjamin Franklin: An extraordinary life PBS
 * Benjamin Franklin: First American Diplomat, 1776–1785 US State Department
 * Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Franklin, Benjamin" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
 * Finding Franklin: A Resource Guide Library of Congress
 * Guide to Benjamin Franklin Archived March 16, 2010, at the Wayback Machine By a history professor at the University of Illinois.
 * Online edition of Franklin's personal library
 * The Electric Benjamin Franklin ushistory.org

 Online writings

 * "A Silence Dogood Sampler" – Selections from Franklin's Silence Dogood writings
 * Abridgement of the Book of Common Prayer (1773), by Benjamin Franklin and Francis Dashwood, transcribed by Richard Mammana
 * Franklin's Last Will & Testament Transcription.
 * Library of Congress web resource: Benjamin Franklin ... In His Own Words
 * Online Works by Franklin
 * Works by Benjamin Franklin at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
 * Works by Benjamin Franklin in eBook form at Standard Ebooks
 * Works by Benjamin Franklin at Project Gutenberg
 * Works by or about Benjamin Franklin at Internet Archive
 * Yale edition of complete works, the standard scholarly edition
 + Online, searchable edition

 Autobiography

 * The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin at Project Gutenberg
 * The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin LibriVox recording

 In the arts

 * Benjamin Franklin 300 (1706–2006) Official web site of the Benjamin Franklin Tercentenary.
 * The Historical Society of Pennsylvania Collection of Benjamin Franklin Papers, including correspondence, government documents, writings and a copy of his will, are available for research use at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania.
 * v 
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 Benjamin Franklin 
 * President of Pennsylvania (1785–1788) 
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  * Join, or Die. (1754 political cartoon) 
  * Albany Plan of Union 
  + Albany Congress 
  * Hutchinson Letters affair 
  * Committee of Secret Correspondence 
  * Committee of Five  
  * Declaration of Independence 
  * Model Treaty  
 Founding of the + Franco-American alliance 
 United States + Treaty of Amity and Commerce 
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  * Staten Island Peace Conference 
  * 1776 Pennsylvania Constitution 
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  * Delegate, 1787 Constitutional Convention 
  * Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly 
  * Postmaster General  
  * Founding Fathers  
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  * Bifocals  
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  * Glass armonica  
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  * Lightning rod  
  * Kite experiment  
  * Pay it forward  
  * Associators  
  + 111th Infantry Regiment 
  * Junto club  
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 Inventions, * Library Company of Philadelphia 
 other events * Pennsylvania Hospital 
  * Academy and College of Philadelphia 
  + University of Pennsylvania 
  * Philadelphia Contributionship 
  * Union Fire Company  
  * Early American currency 
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  * Fugio cent  
  * United States Postal Service 
  * Street lighting  
  * President, Pennsylvania Abolition Society 
  * Master, Les Neuf Sœurs 
  * Gravesite  
  * The Papers of Benjamin Franklin 
  * Founders Online  
  * Silence Dogood letters (1722) 
  * A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain (1725) 
  * The Busy-Body columns (1729) 
  * The Pennsylvania Gazette (1729–1790) 
  * Early American publishers and printers 
  * Poor Richard's Almanack (1732–1758) 
  * The Drinker's Dictionary (1737) 
  * "Advice to a Friend on Choosing a Mistress" (1745) 
  * "The Speech of Polly Baker" (1747) 
  * Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind, Peopling of Countries, etc. (1751)
  * Experiments and Observations on Electricity (1751) 
 Writings * Birch letters (1755) 
  * The Way to Wealth (1758) 
  * Pennsylvania Chronicle (1767) 
  * Rules by Which a Great Empire May Be Reduced to a Small One (1773) 
  * Proposed alliance with the Iroquois (1775) 
  * A Letter to a Royal Academy (1781) 
  * Remarks Concerning the Savages of North America (1784) 
  * "The Morals of Chess" (1786) 
  * An Address to the Public (1789) 
  * A Plan for Improving the Condition of the Free Blacks (1789) 
  * The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin (1771–1790, pub. 1791) 
  * Bagatelles and Satires (pub. 1845) 
  * Franklin as a journalist 
  * Franklin's phonetic alphabet 
  * Bibliography  
  * Franklin Court  
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  * Benjamin Franklin National Memorial 
  * Franklin Institute  
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  * Depicted in The Apotheosis of Washington 
  * Treaty of Paris (1783 painting) 
  * Benjamin Franklin Drawing Electricity from the Sky (1816 painting) 
  * Revolutionary War Door 
  * Boston statue  
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  * San Francisco statue 
  * Stanford University statue 
  * Washington D.C. statue 
  * Jefferson Memorial pediment 
  * In popular culture  
  + Ben and Me (1953 short) 
 Legacy + Ben Franklin in Paris (1964 musical play) 
  + 1776 (1969 musical 
  + 1972 film)  
  + Benjamin Franklin (miniseries) 
  + A More Perfect Union (1989 film) 
  + Liberty! (1997 documentary series) 
  + Liberty's Kids (2002 animated series) 
  + Benjamin Franklin (2002 documentary series) 
  + John Adams (2008 miniseries) 
  + Sons of Liberty (2015 miniseries) 
  + Benjamin Franklin (2022 documentary) 
  + Franklin (upcoming miniseries) 
  * Refunding Certificate 
  * Franklin half dollar 
  * One-hundred-dollar bill 
  * Franklin silver dollar 
  * Washington–Franklin stamps 
  + other stamps  
  * Cities, counties, schools named for Franklin 
  * Benjamin Franklin College 
  * Franklin Field  
  * Mount Franklin  
  * State of Franklin  
  * Sons of Ben (Philadelphia Union) 
  * Ships named USS Franklin 
  * Ben Franklin effect 
  * Age of Enlightenment 
  * American Enlightenment 
  * The New-England Courant 
 Related * The American Museum magazine 
  * American Revolution 
  + patriots  
  * Syng inkstand  
  * Deborah Read (wife) 
  * William Franklin (son) 
  * Francis Franklin (son) 
  * Sarah Franklin Bache (daughter) 
  * William Franklin (grandson) 
  * Benjamin F. Bache (grandson) 
  * Louis F. Bache (grandson) 
  * Richard Bache Jr. (grandson) 
 Family * Andrew Harwood (great-grandson) 
  * Alexander Bache (great-grandson) 
  * Josiah Franklin (father) 
  * James Franklin (brother) 
  * Jane Mecom (sister) 
  * Mary Morrell Folger (grandmother) 
  * Peter Folger (grandfather) 
  * Richard Bache (son-in-law) 
  * Ann Smith Franklin (sister-in-law) 
 * Category 
 * Commons 
 
 * v  
 * t  
 * e  
 Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence 
 Physical history of the Declaration of Independence, Memorial to the 56 Signers, Founding Fathers, Syng inkstand
 * John Adams  
 * Samuel Adams  
 * Josiah Bartlett  
 * Carter Braxton  
 * Charles Carroll  
 * Samuel Chase  
 * Abraham Clark  
 * George Clymer  
 * William Ellery  
 * William Floyd  
 * Benjamin Franklin  
 * Elbridge Gerry  
 * Button Gwinnett  
 * Lyman Hall  
 * John Hancock  
 * Benjamin Harrison V  
 * John Hart  
 * Joseph Hewes  
 * Thomas Heyward Jr.  
 * William Hooper  
 * Stephen Hopkins  
 * Francis Hopkinson  
 * Samuel Huntington  
 * Thomas Jefferson  
 * Francis Lightfoot Lee  
 * Richard Henry Lee  
 * Francis Lewis  
 * Philip Livingston  
 * Thomas Lynch Jr.  
 * Thomas McKean  
 * Arthur Middleton  
 * Lewis Morris  
 * Robert Morris  
 * John Morton  
 * Thomas Nelson Jr.  
 * William Paca  
 * Robert Treat Paine  
 * John Penn  
 * George Read  
 * Caesar Rodney  
 * George Ross  
 * Benjamin Rush  
 * Edward Rutledge  
 * Roger Sherman  
 * James Smith  
 * Richard Stockton  
 * Thomas Stone  
 * George Taylor  
 * Matthew Thornton  
 * George Walton  
 * William Whipple  
 * William Williams  
 * James Wilson  
 * John Witherspoon  
 * Oliver Wolcott  
 * George Wythe  
 
 * v 
 * t 
 * e 
 Signatories of the United States Constitution
 Convention President * George Washington 
 New Hampshire * John Langdon 
  * Nicholas Gilman 
 Massachusetts * Nathaniel Gorham 
  * Rufus King 
 Connecticut * William Samuel Johnson 
  * Roger Sherman 
 New York * Alexander Hamilton 
  * William Livingston 
 New Jersey * David Brearley 
  * William Paterson 
  * Jonathan Dayton 
  * Benjamin Franklin 
  * Thomas Mifflin 
  * Robert Morris 
 Pennsylvania * George Clymer 
  * Thomas Fitzsimons 
  * Jared Ingersoll 
  * James Wilson 
  * Gouverneur Morris 
  * George Read 
  * Gunning Bedford Jr. 
 Delaware * John Dickinson 
  * Richard Bassett 
  * Jacob Broom 
  * James McHenry 
 Maryland * Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer 
  * Daniel Carroll 
 Virginia * John Blair 
  * James Madison 
  * William Blount 
 North Carolina * Richard Dobbs Spaight 
  * Hugh Williamson 
  * John Rutledge 
 South Carolina * Charles Cotesworth Pinckney 
  * Charles Pinckney 
  * Pierce Butler 
 Georgia * William Few 
  * Abraham Baldwin 
 Attest signature * William Jackson (convention secretary)
 to marginal note  
 Related * Founding Fathers of the United States 
  * Syng inkstand 
 
 Offices and positions held by Benjamin Franklin  
 Academic offices  
  Provost of the Academy of Pennsylvania Succeeded by 
 New institution 1749–1754 William Smith 
  as Provost of the College of Pennsylvania
 Political offices  
 Preceded by Speaker of the Pennsylvania Assembly Succeeded by 
 Isaac Norris 1764 Isaac Norris 
 New office United States Postmaster General Succeeded by 
  1775–1776 Richard Bache 
 Preceded by Member of the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania Succeeded by 
 James Irvine from Philadelphia Samuel Miles 
  1785–1788  
 Preceded by President of Pennsylvania Succeeded by 
 John Dickinson 1785–1788 Thomas Mifflin 
 Diplomatic posts  
 New office United States Minister to France Succeeded by 
  1779–1785 Thomas Jefferson 
 United States Minister to Sweden Succeeded by  
 1782–1783 Jonathan Russell  
   
 
 Articles related to Benjamin Franklin 
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 Copley Medallists (1751–1800)  
 * John Canton (1751)  
 * John Pringle (1752)  
 * Benjamin Franklin (1753)  
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 * Charles Cavendish (1757)  
 * John Dollond (1758)  
 * John Smeaton (1759)  
 * Benjamin Wilson (1760)  
 * John Canton (1764)  
 * William Brownrigg / Edward Delaval / Henry Cavendish (1766) 
 * John Ellis (1767)  
 * Peter Woulfe (1768)  
 * William Hewson (1769)  
 * William Hamilton (1770)  
 * Matthew Raper (1771)  
 * Joseph Priestley (1772)  
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 * Edward Waring (1784)  
 * William Roy (1785)  
 * John Hunter (1787)  
 * Charles Blagden (1788)  
 * William Morgan (1789)  
 * James Rennell / Jean-André Deluc (1791) 
 * Benjamin Thompson (1792)  
 * Alessandro Volta (1794)  
 * Jesse Ramsden (1795)  
 * George Atwood (1796)  
 * George Shuckburgh-Evelyn / Charles Hatchett (1798) 
 * John Hellins (1799)  
 * Edward Charles Howard (1800) 
   
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 France * Louis de Jaucourt 
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 Spain * Leandro Fernández de Moratín 
 * Valentin de Foronda 
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 * Diego de Torres Villarroel 
 * James Beattie 
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 * William Cullen 
 * Adam Ferguson 
 * Thomas Gordon 
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 * Francis Hutcheson 
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 * William Ogilvie 
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 * Thomas Reid 
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 United States * James Madison 
 * George Mason 
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 * Hamilton  
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 * Kinsey  
 * Norris (II)  
 * Leech  
 * Norris (II)  
 * Leech  
 * Norris (II)  
 * Franklin  
 * Norris (II)  
 * Fox  
 * Galloway  
 * Fox  
 * Galloway  
 * Biddle  
 * Morton  
   
 * v  
 * t  
 * e  
 Chief administrators of the University of Pennsylvania 
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 The chief administrator prior to 1930 was the provost. 
   
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Benjamin Franklin   FRS FRSA FRSE           Benjamin Franklin by Joseph Duplessis, 1778         6th President of Pennsylvania     In office October 18, 1785 – November 5, 1788   Vice President  Charles Biddle  Peter Muhlenberg  David Redick    Preceded by  John Dickinson    Succeeded by  Thomas Mifflin     United States Minister to Sweden     In office September 28, 1782 – April 3, 1783   Appointed by  Congress of the Confederation    Preceded by  Position established    Succeeded by  Jonathan Russell     United States Minister to France     In office March 23, 1779 – May 17, 1785   Appointed by  Continental Congress    Preceded by  Position established    Succeeded by  Thomas Jefferson    1st United States Postmaster General     In office July 26, 1775 – November 7, 1776   Preceded by  Position established    Succeeded by  Richard Bache    Delegate from Pennsylvania to Second Continental Congress     In office May 1775 – October 1776    Postmaster General of British America     In office August 10, 1753 – January 31, 1774   Preceded by  Position established    Succeeded by Vacant    Speaker of the Pennsylvania Assembly     In office May 1764 – October 1764   Preceded by  Isaac Norris    Succeeded by  Isaac Norris    2nd President of the University of Pennsylvania     In office 1749–1754   Preceded by  George Whitefield    Succeeded by  William Smith    Personal details   Born January 17, 1706 [O.S. January 6, 1705] [Note 1]   Boston, Massachusetts Bay, British America    Died April 17, 1790 (aged 84) Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.   Resting place  Christ Church Burial Ground Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.   Political party  Independent    Spouse     Deborah Read  
 ​ ​ (m. ; died 1774) ​     Children     William   Francis   Sarah       Parent(s)  Josiah Franklin  Abiah Folger    Education  Boston Latin School    Signature          Coat of arms of Benjamin Franklin       
 Benjamin Franklin FRS FRSA FRSE (January 17, 1706 [O.S. January 6, 1705] [Note 1]  – April 17, 1790) was an American polymath who was active as a writer, scientist, inventor, statesman, diplomat, printer, publisher, forger and political philosopher.  [1]   [2]  Among the leading intellectuals of his time, Franklin was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States, a drafter and signer of the United States Declaration of Independence, and the first United States Postmaster General.
 As a scientist, he was a major figure in the American Enlightenment and the history of physics for his studies of electricity, and for charting and naming the Gulf Stream current. As an inventor, he is known for the lightning rod, bifocals, and the Franklin stove, among others. [3]  He founded many civic organizations, including the Library Company, Philadelphia's first fire department, [4]  and the University of Pennsylvania. [5]  
Franklin earned the title of "The First American" for his early and indefatigable campaigning for colonial unity, and as an author and spokesman in London for several colonies. As the first United States ambassador to France, he exemplified the emerging American nation. [6]  Franklin was foundational in defining the American ethos as a marriage of the practical values of thrift, hard work, education, community spirit, self-governing institutions, and opposition to authoritarianism both political and religious, with the scientific and tolerant values of the Enlightenment. In the words of historian Henry Steele Commager, "In Franklin could be merged the virtues of Puritanism without its defects, the illumination of the Enlightenment without its heat." [7]  Franklin has been called "the most accomplished American of his age and the most influential in inventing the type of society America would become." [8] 
 Franklin became a successful newspaper editor and printer in Philadelphia, the leading city in the colonies, publishing the  Pennsylvania Gazette  at age 23. [9]  He became wealthy publishing this and  Poor Richard's Almanack , which he wrote under the pseudonym "Richard Saunders". [10]  After 1767, he was associated with the  Pennsylvania Chronicle , a newspaper that was known for its revolutionary sentiments and criticisms of the policies of the British Parliament and the Crown. [11] 
 He pioneered and was the first president of the Academy and College of Philadelphia, which opened in 1751 and later became the University of Pennsylvania. He organized and was the first secretary of the American Philosophical Society and was elected president in 1769. Franklin became a national hero in America as an agent for several colonies when he spearheaded an effort in London to have the Parliament of Great Britain repeal the unpopular Stamp Act. An accomplished diplomat, he was widely admired among the French as American minister to Paris and was a major figure in the development of positive Franco–American relations. His efforts proved vital for the American Revolution in securing French aid.
 He was promoted to deputy postmaster-general for the British colonies on August 10, 1753, [12]  having been Philadelphia postmaster for many years, and this enabled him to set up the first national communications network. He was active in community affairs and colonial and state politics, as well as national and international affairs. From 1785 to 1788, he served as governor of Pennsylvania. He initially owned and dealt in slaves but, by the late 1750s, he began arguing against slavery, became an abolitionist, and promoted education and the integration of African Americans into U.S. society.
 His life and legacy of scientific and political achievement, and his status as one of America's most influential Founding Fathers, have seen Franklin honored more than two centuries after his death on the $100 bill, warships, and the names of many towns, counties, educational institutions, and corporations, as well as numerous cultural references and with a portrait in the Oval Office. Over his lifetime, Franklin wrote or received more than 30,000 letters and other documents, which since the 1950s have been collected in  The Papers of Benjamin Franklin , published by the American Philosophical Society and Yale University.
Ancestry
Benjamin Franklin's father, Josiah Franklin, was a tallow chandler, soaper, and candlemaker. Josiah Franklin was born at Ecton, Northamptonshire, England, on December 23, 1657, the son of Thomas Franklin, a blacksmith and farmer, and his wife, Jane White. Benjamin's father and all four of his grandparents were born in England. [13] 
 Josiah Franklin had a total of seventeen children with his two wives. He married his first wife, Anne Child, in about 1677 in Ecton and emigrated with her to Boston in 1683; they had three children before emigration and four after. Following her death, Josiah married Abiah Folger on July 9, 1689, in the Old South Meeting House by Reverend Samuel Willard, and had ten children with her. Benjamin, their eighth child, was Josiah Franklin's fifteenth child overall, and his tenth and final son.[ citation needed ]
 Benjamin Franklin's mother, Abiah, was born in Nantucket, Massachusetts Bay Colony, on August 15, 1667, to Peter Folger, a miller and schoolteacher, and his wife, Mary Morrell Folger, a former indentured servant. Mary Folger came from a Puritan family that was among the first Pilgrims to flee to Massachusetts for religious freedom, sailing for Boston in 1635 after King Charles I of England had begun persecuting Puritans. Her father Peter was "the sort of rebel destined to transform colonial America." [14]  As clerk of the court, he was jailed for disobeying the local magistrate in defense of middle-class shopkeepers and artisans in conflict with wealthy landowners.[ citation needed ]
Early life
Boston
            Franklin's birthplace site directly across from the Old South Meeting House, commemorated by a bust atop the second-floor façade of this building, May 2008  
Franklin was born on Milk Street in Boston, Massachusetts on January 17, 1706, [Note 1]  and baptized at Old South Meeting House. As a child growing up along the Charles River, Franklin recalled that he was "generally the leader among the boys." [17] 
 Franklin's father wanted him to attend school with the clergy but only had enough money to send him to school for two years. He attended Boston Latin School but did not graduate; he continued his education through voracious reading. Although "his parents talked of the church as a career" [18]  for Franklin, his schooling ended when he was ten. He worked for his father for a time, and at 12 he became an apprentice to his brother James, a printer, who taught him the printing trade. When Benjamin was 15, James founded  The New-England Courant , which was one of the first American newspapers.[ citation needed ]
 When denied the chance to write a letter to the paper for publication, Franklin adopted the pseudonym of "Silence Dogood", a middle-aged widow. Mrs. Dogood's letters were published and became a subject of conversation around town. Neither James nor the Courant's readers were aware of the ruse, and James was unhappy with Benjamin when he discovered the popular correspondent was his younger brother. Franklin was an advocate of free speech from an early age. When his brother was jailed for three weeks in 1722 for publishing material unflattering to the governor, young Franklin took over the newspaper and had Mrs. Dogood (quoting  Cato's Letters ) proclaim, "Without freedom of thought there can be no such thing as wisdom and no such thing as public liberty without freedom of speech." [19]  Franklin left his apprenticeship without his brother's permission, and in so doing became a fugitive. [20]  [ page needed ]
Move to Philadelphia
At age 17, Franklin ran away to Philadelphia, seeking a new start in a new city. When he first arrived, he worked in several printer shops around town, but he was not satisfied by the immediate prospects. After a few months, while working in a printing house, Pennsylvania governor Sir William Keith convinced him to go to London, ostensibly to acquire the equipment necessary for establishing another newspaper in Philadelphia. Discovering that Keith's promises of backing a newspaper were empty, he worked as a typesetter in a printer's shop in what is now the Church of St Bartholomew-the-Great in the Smithfield area of London. Following this, he returned to Philadelphia in 1726 with the help of Thomas Denham, a merchant who employed him as a clerk, shopkeeper, and bookkeeper in his business. [20]  [ page needed ]
Junto and library
       La scuola della economia e della morale sketch of Franklin, 1825  
In 1727, at age 21, Franklin formed the Junto, a group of "like minded aspiring artisans and tradesmen who hoped to improve themselves while they improved their community." The Junto was a discussion group for issues of the day; it subsequently gave rise to many organizations in Philadelphia. [21]  The Junto was modeled after English coffeehouses that Franklin knew well and which had become the center of the spread of Enlightenment ideas in Britain. [22]   [23] 
 Reading was a great pastime of the Junto, but books were rare and expensive. The members created a library initially assembled from their own books after Franklin wrote:
 A proposition was made by me that since our books were often referr'd to in our disquisitions upon the inquiries, it might be convenient for us to have them altogether where we met, that upon occasion they might be consulted; and by thus clubbing our books to a common library, we should, while we lik'd to keep them together, have each of us the advantage of using the books of all the other members, which would be nearly as beneficial as if each owned the whole. [24]  [ page needed ]  
This did not suffice, however. Franklin conceived the idea of a subscription library, which would pool the funds of the members to buy books for all to read. This was the birth of the Library Company of Philadelphia: its charter was composed by him in 1731. In 1732, he hired the first American librarian, Louis Timothee. The Library Company is now a great scholarly and research library. [25] 
Newspaperman
Upon Denham's death, Franklin returned to his former trade. In 1728, he set up a printing house in partnership with Hugh Meredith; the following year he became the publisher of a newspaper called  The Pennsylvania Gazette . The Gazette gave Franklin a forum for agitation about a variety of local reforms and initiatives through printed essays and observations. Over time, his commentary, and his adroit cultivation of a positive image as an industrious and intellectual young man, earned him a great deal of social respect. But even after he achieved fame as a scientist and statesman, he habitually signed his letters with the unpretentious 'B. Franklin, Printer.' [20] 
     
In 1732, he published the first German-language newspaper in America – Die Philadelphische Zeitung – although it failed after only one year because four other newly founded German papers quickly dominated the newspaper market. [26]  Franklin also printed Moravian religious books in German. He often visited Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, staying at the Moravian Sun Inn. [27]  In a 1751 pamphlet on demographic growth and its implications for the Thirteen Colonies, he called the Pennsylvania Germans "Palatine Boors" who could never acquire the "Complexion" of Anglo-American settlers and referred to "Blacks and Tawneys" as weakening the social structure of the colonies. Although he apparently reconsidered shortly thereafter, and the phrases were omitted from all later printings of the pamphlet, his views may have played a role in his political defeat in 1764. [28] 
 According to Ralph Frasca, Franklin promoted the printing press as a device to instruct colonial Americans in moral virtue. Frasca argues he saw this as a service to God, because he understood moral virtue in terms of actions, thus, doing good provides a service to God. Despite his own moral lapses, Franklin saw himself as uniquely qualified to instruct Americans in morality. He tried to influence American moral life through the construction of a printing network based on a chain of partnerships from the Carolinas to New England. He thereby invented the first newspaper chain.[ citation needed ] It was more than a business venture, for like many publishers he believed that the press had a public-service duty. [29]   [30] 
 When he established himself in Philadelphia, shortly before 1730, the town boasted two "wretched little" news sheets, Andrew Bradford's The American Weekly Mercury, and Samuel Keimer's Universal Instructor in all Arts and Sciences, and Pennsylvania Gazette. [31]  This instruction in all arts and sciences consisted of weekly extracts from Chambers's Universal Dictionary. Franklin quickly did away with all of this when he took over the Instructor and made it The Pennsylvania Gazette. The Gazette soon became his characteristic organ, which he freely used for satire, for the play of his wit, even for sheer excess of mischief or of fun. From the first, he had a way of adapting his models to his own uses. The series of essays called "The Busy-Body", which he wrote for Bradford's American Mercury in 1729, followed the general Addisonian form, already modified to suit homelier conditions. The thrifty Patience, in her busy little shop, complaining of the useless visitors who waste her valuable time, is related to the women who address Mr. Spectator. The Busy-Body himself is a true Censor Morum, as Isaac Bickerstaff had been in the Tatler. And a number of the fictitious characters, Ridentius, Eugenius, Cato, and Cretico, represent traditional 18th-century classicism. Even this Franklin could use for contemporary satire, since Cretico, the "sowre Philosopher", is evidently a portrait of his rival, Samuel Keimer. [32]  [ page needed ]
 Franklin had mixed success in his plan to establish an inter-colonial network of newspapers that would produce a profit for him and disseminate virtue. Over the years he sponsored two dozen printers in Pennsylvania, South Carolina, New York, Connecticut and even the Caribbean. By 1753, 8 of the 15 English language newspapers in the colonies were published by him or his partners. [33]  He began in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1731. After his second editor died, the widow Elizabeth Timothy took over and made it a success. She was one of the colonial era's first woman printers. [34]  For three decades Franklin maintained a close business relationship with her and her son Peter Timothy, who took over the  South Carolina Gazette  in 1746. [35]  The Gazette was impartial in political debates, while creating the opportunity for public debate, which encouraged others to challenge authority. Timothy avoided blandness and crude bias and after 1765 increasingly took a patriotic stand in the growing crisis with Great Britain. [36]  However, Franklin's Connecticut Gazette (1755–68) proved unsuccessful. [37]  As the Revolution approached, political strife slowly tore his network apart. [38] 
Freemasonry
In 1730 or 1731, Franklin was initiated into the local Masonic lodge. He became a grand master in 1734, indicating his rapid rise to prominence in Pennsylvania. [39]   [40]  The same year, he edited and published the first Masonic book in the Americas, a reprint of James Anderson's Constitutions of the Free-Masons. He was the secretary of St. John's Lodge in Philadelphia from 1735 to 1738. [40]  Franklin remained a Freemason for the rest of his life. [41]   [42] 
Common-law marriage to Deborah Read
             
At age 17 in 1723, Franklin proposed to 15-year-old Deborah Read while a boarder in the Read home. At that time, Deborah's mother was wary of allowing her young daughter to marry Franklin, who was on his way to London at Governor Keith's request, and also because of his financial instability. Her own husband had recently died, and she declined Franklin's request to marry her daughter. [20] 
 While Franklin was in London, his trip was extended, and there were problems with the governor's promises of support. Perhaps because of the circumstances of this delay, Deborah married a man named John Rodgers. This proved to be a regrettable decision. Rodgers shortly avoided his debts and prosecution by fleeing to Barbados with her dowry, leaving her behind. Rodgers's fate was unknown, and because of bigamy laws, Deborah was not free to remarry.[ citation needed ]
 Franklin established a common-law marriage with Deborah on September 1, 1730. They took in his recently acknowledged illegitimate young son and raised him in their household. They had two children together. Their son, Francis Folger Franklin, was born in October 1732 and died of smallpox in 1736. Their daughter, Sarah "Sally" Franklin, was born in 1743 and eventually married Richard Bache. [43] 
 Deborah's fear of the sea meant that she never accompanied Franklin on any of his extended trips to Europe; another possible reason why they spent much time apart is that he may have blamed her for possibly preventing their son Francis from being inoculated against the disease that subsequently killed him. [44]  Deborah wrote to him in November 1769, saying she was ill due to "dissatisfied distress" from his prolonged absence, but he did not return until his business was done. [45]  Deborah Read Franklin died of a stroke on December 14, 1774, while Franklin was on an extended mission to Great Britain; he returned in 1775. [46] 
William Franklin
     
In 1730, 24-year-old Franklin publicly acknowledged his illegitimate son William and raised him in his household. William was born on February 22, 1730, but his mother's identity is unknown. [47]  He was educated in Philadelphia and beginning at about age 30 studied law in London in the early 1760s. William himself fathered an illegitimate son, William Temple Franklin, born on the same day and month: February 22, 1760. [48]  The boy's mother was never identified, and he was placed in foster care. In 1762, the elder William Franklin married Elizabeth Downes, daughter of a planter from Barbados, in London. In 1763, he was appointed as the last royal governor of New Jersey.
 A Loyalist to the king, William Franklin saw his relations with father Benjamin eventually break down over their differences about the American Revolutionary War, as Benjamin Franklin could never accept William's position. Deposed in 1776 by the revolutionary government of New Jersey, William was placed under house arrest at his home in Perth Amboy for six months. After the Declaration of Independence, he was formally taken into custody by order of the Provincial Congress of New Jersey, an entity which he refused to recognize, regarding it as an "illegal assembly". [49]  He was incarcerated in Connecticut for two years, in Wallingford and Middletown, and, after being caught surreptitiously engaging Americans into supporting the Loyalist cause, was held in solitary confinement at Litchfield for eight months. When finally released in a prisoner exchange in 1778, he moved to New York City, which was occupied by the British at the time. [50] 
 While in New York City, he became leader of the Board of Associated Loyalists, a quasi-military organization chartered by King George III and headquartered in New York City. They initiated guerrilla forays into New Jersey, southern Connecticut, and New York counties north of the city. [51]  When British troops evacuated from New York, William Franklin left with them and sailed to England. He settled in London, never to return to North America. In the preliminary peace talks in 1782 with Britain, "... Benjamin Franklin insisted that loyalists who had borne arms against the United States would be excluded from this plea (that they be given a general pardon). He was undoubtedly thinking of William Franklin." [52]  [ unreliable source? ]
 
      Franklin's The General Magazine and Historical Chronicle (January 1741)  
In 1733, Franklin began to publish the noted Poor Richard's Almanack (with content both original and borrowed) under the pseudonym Richard Saunders, on which much of his popular reputation is based. He frequently wrote under pseudonyms. He had developed a distinct, signature style that was plain, pragmatic and had a sly, soft but self-deprecating tone with declarative sentences. [53]  Although it was no secret that he was the author, his Richard Saunders character repeatedly denied it. "Poor Richard's Proverbs", adages from this almanac, such as "A penny saved is twopence dear" (often misquoted as "A penny saved is a penny earned") and "Fish and visitors stink in three days", remain common quotations in the modern world. Wisdom in folk society meant the ability to provide an apt adage for any occasion, and his readers became well prepared. He sold about ten thousand copies per year—it became an institution. [54]  In 1741, Franklin began publishing The General Magazine and Historical Chronicle for all the British Plantations in America. He used the heraldic badge of the Prince of Wales as the cover illustration.
 In 1758, the year he ceased writing for the Almanack, he printed Father Abraham's Sermon, also known as  The Way to Wealth . Franklin's autobiography, begun in 1771 but published after his death, has become one of the classics of the genre.[ citation needed ] He wrote a letter, "Advice to a Friend on Choosing a Mistress", dated June 25, 1745, in which he gives advice to a young man about channeling sexual urges. Due to its licentious nature, it was not published in collections of his papers during the nineteenth century. Federal court decisions from the mid-to-late twentieth century cited the document as a reason for overturning obscenity laws, using it to make a case against censorship. [55] 
Public life
Early steps in Pennsylvania
      Portrait of Franklin c. 1746–1750, [Note 2]  by Robert Feke. Widely believed to be the earliest known painting of Franklin. [56]   [57]    
     
In 1736, Franklin created the Union Fire Company, one of the first volunteer firefighting companies in America. In the same year, he printed a new currency for New Jersey based on innovative anti-counterfeiting techniques he had devised. Throughout his career, he was an advocate for paper money, publishing A Modest Enquiry into the Nature and Necessity of a Paper Currency in 1729, and his printer printed money. He was influential in the more restrained and thus successful monetary experiments in the Middle Colonies, which stopped deflation without causing excessive inflation. In 1766, he made a case for paper money to the British House of Commons. [58] 
 As he matured, Franklin began to concern himself more with public affairs. In 1743, he first devised a scheme for the Academy, Charity School, and College of Philadelphia. However, the person he had in mind to run the academy, Rev. Richard Peters, refused and Franklin put his ideas away until 1749 when he printed his own pamphlet, Proposals Relating to the Education of Youth in Pensilvania.  [59]  : 30  He was appointed president of the Academy on November 13, 1749; the academy and the charity school opened in 1751. [60] 
 In 1743, he founded the American Philosophical Society to help scientific men discuss their discoveries and theories. He began the electrical research that, along with other scientific inquiries, would occupy him for the rest of his life, in between bouts of politics and moneymaking. [20] 
 During King George's War, Franklin raised a militia called the Association for General Defense because the legislators of the city had decided to take no action to defend Philadelphia "either by erecting fortifications or building Ships of War". He raised money to create earthwork defenses and buy artillery. The largest of these was the "Association Battery" or "Grand Battery" of 50 guns. [61]   [62] 
 In 1747, Franklin (already a very wealthy man) retired from printing and went into other businesses. [63]  He formed a partnership with his foreman, David Hall, which provided Franklin with half of the shop's profits for 18 years. This lucrative business arrangement provided leisure time for study, and in a few years he had made many new discoveries.
     
Franklin became involved in Philadelphia politics and rapidly progressed. In October 1748, he was selected as a councilman; in June 1749, he became a justice of the peace for Philadelphia; and in 1751, he was elected to the Pennsylvania Assembly. On August 10, 1753, he was appointed deputy postmaster-general of British North America. His most notable service in domestic politics was his reform of the postal system, with mail sent out every week. [20] 
 In 1751, Franklin and Thomas Bond obtained a charter from the Pennsylvania legislature to establish a hospital. Pennsylvania Hospital was the first hospital in the colonies. [64]  In 1752, Franklin organized the Philadelphia Contributionship, the Colonies' first homeowner's insurance company. [65]   [66] 
 Between 1750 and 1753, the "educational triumvirate" [67]  of Franklin, Samuel Johnson of Stratford, Connecticut, and schoolteacher William Smith built on Franklin's initial scheme and created what Bishop James Madison, president of the College of William &amp; Mary, called a "new-model" [68]  plan or style of American college. Franklin solicited, printed in 1752, and promoted an American textbook of moral philosophy by Samuel Johnson, titled Elementa Philosophica, [69]  to be taught in the new colleges. In June 1753, Johnson, Franklin, and Smith met in Stratford. [70]  They decided the new-model college would focus on the professions, with classes taught in English instead of Latin, have subject matter experts as professors instead of one tutor leading a class for four years, and there would be no religious test for admission. [71]  Johnson went on to found King's College (now Columbia University) in New York City in 1754, while Franklin hired Smith as provost of the College of Philadelphia, which opened in 1755. At its first commencement, on May 17, 1757, seven men graduated; six with a Bachelor of Arts and one with a Master of Arts. It was later merged with the University of the State of Pennsylvania to become the University of Pennsylvania. The college was to become influential in guiding the founding documents of the United States: in the Continental Congress, for example, over one-third of the college-affiliated men who contributed to the Declaration of Independence between September 4, 1774, and July 4, 1776, were affiliated with the college. [72] 
      Seal of the College of Philadelphia  
In 1754, he headed the Pennsylvania delegation to the Albany Congress. This meeting of several colonies had been requested by the Board of Trade in England to improve relations with the Indians and defense against the French. Franklin proposed a broad Plan of Union for the colonies. While the plan was not adopted, elements of it found their way into the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution. [73] 
     
In 1753, both Harvard  [74]  and Yale  [75]  awarded him honorary master of arts degrees. [76]  In 1756, he received an honorary Master of Arts degree from the College of William &amp; Mary. [77]  Later in 1756, Franklin organized the Pennsylvania Militia. He used Tun Tavern as a gathering place to recruit a regiment of soldiers to go into battle against the Native American uprisings that beset the American colonies. [78] 
Postmaster
      First U. S. postage stamp, issue of 1847, honoring Benjamin Franklin.  
Well known as a printer and publisher, Franklin was appointed postmaster of Philadelphia in 1737, holding the office until 1753, when he and publisher William Hunter were named deputy postmasters–general of British North America, the first to hold the office. (Joint appointments were standard at the time, for political reasons.) He was responsible for the British colonies from Pennsylvania north and east, as far as the island of Newfoundland. A post office for local and outgoing mail had been established in Halifax, Nova Scotia, by local stationer Benjamin Leigh, on April 23, 1754, but service was irregular. Franklin opened the first post office to offer regular, monthly mail in Halifax on December 9, 1755. Meantime, Hunter became postal administrator in Williamsburg, Virginia, and oversaw areas south of Annapolis, Maryland. Franklin reorganized the service's accounting system and improved speed of delivery between Philadelphia, New York, and Boston. By 1761, efficiencies led to the first profits for the colonial post office. [79] 
 When the lands of New France were ceded to the British under the Treaty of Paris in 1763, the British province of Quebec was created among them, and Franklin saw mail service expanded between Montreal, Trois-Rivières, Quebec City, and New York. For the greater part of his appointment, he lived in England (from 1757 to 1762, and again from 1764 to 1774)—about three-quarters of his term. [80]  Eventually, his sympathies for the rebel cause in the American Revolution led to his dismissal on January 31, 1774. [81] 
      Pass, signed by Postmaster General Benjamin Franklin, gave William Goddard the authority to travel as needed to investigate and inspect postal routes and protect the mail. [82]    
On July 26, 1775, the Second Continental Congress established the United States Post Office and named Franklin as the first United States postmaster general. He had been a postmaster for decades and was a natural choice for the position. [83]  He had just returned from England and was appointed chairman of a Committee of Investigation to establish a postal system. The report of the committee, providing for the appointment of a postmaster general for the 13 American colonies, was considered by the Continental Congress on July 25 and 26. On July 26, 1775, Franklin was appointed postmaster general, the first appointed under the Continental Congress. His apprentice, William Goddard, felt that his ideas were mostly responsible for shaping the postal system and that the appointment should have gone to him, but he graciously conceded it to Franklin, 36 years his senior. [82]  Franklin, however, appointed Goddard as Surveyor of the Posts, issued him a signed pass, and directed him to investigate and inspect the various post offices and mail routes as he saw fit. [84]   [85]  The newly established postal system became the United States Post Office, a system that continues to operate today. [86] 
Decades in London
From the mid-1750s to the mid-1770s, Franklin spent much of his time in London.[ citation needed ]
Political work
In 1757, he was sent to England by the Pennsylvania Assembly as a colonial agent to protest against the political influence of the Penn family, the proprietors of the colony. He remained there for five years, striving to end the proprietors' prerogative to overturn legislation from the elected Assembly and their exemption from paying taxes on their land. His lack of influential allies in Whitehall led to the failure of this mission.[ citation needed ]
      Pennsylvania colonial currency printed by Franklin and David Hall in 1764  
At this time, many members of the Pennsylvania Assembly were feuding with William Penn's heirs, who controlled the colony as proprietors. After his return to the colony, Franklin led the "anti-proprietary party" in the struggle against the Penn family and was elected Speaker of the Pennsylvania House in May 1764. His call for a change from proprietary to royal government was a rare political miscalculation, however: Pennsylvanians worried that such a move would endanger their political and religious freedoms. Because of these fears and because of political attacks on his character, Franklin lost his seat in the October 1764 Assembly elections. The anti-proprietary party dispatched him to England again to continue the struggle against the Penn family proprietorship. During this trip, events drastically changed the nature of his mission. [87] 
 In London, Franklin opposed the 1765 Stamp Act. Unable to prevent its passage, he made another political miscalculation and recommended a friend to the post of stamp distributor for Pennsylvania. Pennsylvanians were outraged, believing that he had supported the measure all along, and threatened to destroy his home in Philadelphia. Franklin soon learned of the extent of colonial resistance to the Stamp Act, and he testified during the House of Commons proceedings that led to its repeal. [88]  With this, Franklin suddenly emerged as the leading spokesman for American interests in England. He wrote popular essays on behalf of the colonies. Georgia, New Jersey, and Massachusetts also appointed him as their agent to the Crown. [87] 
      Franklin in London, 1767, wearing a blue suit with elaborate gold braid and buttons, a far cry from the simple dress he affected at the French court in later years. Painting by David Martin, displayed in the White House.  
During his lengthy missions to London between 1757 and 1775, Franklin lodged in a house on Craven Street, just off the Strand in central London. [89]  During his stays there, he developed a close friendship with his landlady, Margaret Stevenson, and her circle of friends and relations, in particular, her daughter Mary, who was more often known as Polly. The house is now a museum known as the Benjamin Franklin House. Whilst in London, Franklin became involved in radical politics. He belonged to a gentleman's club (which he called "the honest Whigs"), which held stated meetings, and included members such as Richard Price, the minister of Newington Green Unitarian Church who ignited the Revolution controversy, and Andrew Kippis. [90] 
Scientific work
In 1756, Franklin had become a member of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures &amp; Commerce (now the Royal Society of Arts), which had been founded in 1754. After his return to the United States in 1775, he became the Society's Corresponding Member, continuing a close connection. The Royal Society of Arts instituted a Benjamin Franklin Medal in 1956 to commemorate the 250th anniversary of his birth and the 200th anniversary of his membership of the RSA. [91] 
 The study of natural philosophy (referred today as science in general) drew him into overlapping circles of acquaintance. Franklin was, for example, a corresponding member of the Lunar Society of Birmingham. [92]  In 1759, the University of St Andrews awarded him an honorary doctorate in recognition of his accomplishments. [93]  In October 1759, he was granted Freedom of the Borough of St Andrews. [94]  He was also awarded an honorary doctorate by Oxford University in 1762. Because of these honors, he was often addressed as "Dr. Franklin." [1] 
 While living in London in 1768, he developed a phonetic alphabet in A Scheme for a new Alphabet and a Reformed Mode of Spelling. This reformed alphabet discarded six letters he regarded as redundant (c, j, q, w, x, and y), and substituted six new letters for sounds he felt lacked letters of their own. This alphabet never caught on, and he eventually lost interest. [95] 
Travels around Europe
Franklin used London as a base to travel. In 1771, he made short journeys through different parts of England, staying with Joseph Priestley at Leeds, Thomas Percival at Manchester and Erasmus Darwin at Lichfield. [96]  In Scotland, he spent five days with Lord Kames near Stirling and stayed for three weeks with David Hume in Edinburgh. In 1759, he visited Edinburgh with his son and later reported that he considered his six weeks in Scotland "six weeks of the densest happiness I have met with in any part of my life". [97] 
 In Ireland, he stayed with Lord Hillsborough. Franklin noted of him that "all the plausible behaviour I have described is meant only, by patting and stroking the horse, to make him more patient, while the reins are drawn tighter, and the spurs set deeper into his sides." [98]  In Dublin, Franklin was invited to sit with the members of the Irish Parliament rather than in the gallery. He was the first American to receive this honor. [96]  While touring Ireland, he was deeply moved by the level of poverty he witnessed. The economy of the Kingdom of Ireland was affected by the same trade regulations and laws that governed the Thirteen Colonies. He feared that the American colonies could eventually come to the same level of poverty if the regulations and laws continued to apply to them. [99] 
 Franklin spent two months in German lands in 1766, but his connections to the country stretched across a lifetime. He declared a debt of gratitude to German scientist Otto von Guericke for his early studies of electricity. Franklin also co-authored the first treaty of friendship between Prussia and America in 1785. [100]  In September 1767, he visited Paris with his usual traveling partner, Sir John Pringle, 1st Baronet. News of his electrical discoveries was widespread in France. His reputation meant that he was introduced to many influential scientists and politicians, and also to King Louis XV. [5] 
Defending the American cause
One line of argument in Parliament was that Americans should pay a share of the costs of the French and Indian War and therefore taxes should be levied on them. Franklin became the American spokesman in highly publicized testimony in Parliament in 1766. He stated that Americans already contributed heavily to the defense of the Empire. He said local governments had raised, outfitted and paid 25,000 soldiers to fight France—as many as Britain itself sent—and spent many millions from American treasuries doing so in the French and Indian War alone. [101]   [102] 
 In 1772, Franklin obtained private letters of Thomas Hutchinson and Andrew Oliver, governor and lieutenant governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, proving that they had encouraged the Crown to crack down on Bostonians. Franklin sent them to America, where they escalated tensions. The letters were finally leaked to the public in the  Boston Gazette  in mid-June 1773, [103]  causing a political firestorm in Massachusetts and raising significant questions in England. [104]  The British began to regard him as the fomenter of serious trouble. Hopes for a peaceful solution ended as he was systematically ridiculed and humiliated by Solicitor-General Alexander Wedderburn, before the Privy Council on January 29, 1774. He returned to Philadelphia in March 1775, and abandoned his accommodationist stance. [105] 
 In 1773, Franklin published two of his most celebrated pro-American satirical essays: "Rules by Which a Great Empire May Be Reduced to a Small One", and "An Edict by the King of Prussia". [106] 
Agent for British and Hellfire Club membership
Franklin is known to have occasionally attended the Hellfire Club's meetings during 1758 as a non-member during his time in England. However, some authors and historians would argue he was in fact a British spy. As there are no records left (having been burned in 1774 [107] ), many of these members are just assumed or linked by letters sent to each other. [108]  One early proponent that Franklin was a member of the Hellfire Club and a double agent is the historian Donald McCormick, [109]  who has a history of making controversial claims. [110] 
Coming of revolution
In 1763, soon after Franklin returned to Pennsylvania from England for the first time, the western frontier was engulfed in a bitter war known as Pontiac's Rebellion. The Paxton Boys, a group of settlers convinced that the Pennsylvania government was not doing enough to protect them from American Indian raids, murdered a group of peaceful Susquehannock Indians and marched on Philadelphia. Franklin helped to organize a local militia to defend the capital against the mob. He met with the Paxton leaders and persuaded them to disperse. Franklin wrote a scathing attack against the racial prejudice of the Paxton Boys. "If an Indian injures me", he asked, "does it follow that I may revenge that Injury on all Indians?" [111] 
 He provided an early response to British surveillance through his own network of counter-surveillance and manipulation. "He waged a public relations campaign, secured secret aid, played a role in privateering expeditions, and churned out effective and inflammatory propaganda." [112] 
Declaration of Independence
     
By the time Franklin arrived in Philadelphia on May 5, 1775, after his second mission to Great Britain, the American Revolution had begun—with skirmishes breaking out between colonials and British at Lexington and Concord. The New England militia had forced the main British army to remain inside Boston.[ citation needed ] The Pennsylvania Assembly unanimously chose Franklin as their delegate to the Second Continental Congress.[ citation needed ] In June 1776, he was appointed a member of the Committee of Five that drafted the Declaration of Independence. Although he was temporarily disabled by gout and unable to attend most meetings of the committee,[ citation needed ] he made several "small but important" changes to the draft sent to him by Thomas Jefferson. [114] 
 At the signing, he is quoted as having replied to a comment by John Hancock that they must all hang together: "Yes, we must, indeed, all hang together, or most assuredly we shall all hang separately." [115] 
Ambassador to France (1776–1785)
      Franklin, in his fur hat, charmed the French with what they perceived as rustic New World genius. [Note 3]    
On October 26, 1776, Franklin was dispatched to France as commissioner for the United States. [116]  He took with him as secretary his 16-year-old grandson, William Temple Franklin. They lived in a home in the Parisian suburb of Passy, donated by Jacques-Donatien Le Ray de Chaumont, who supported the United States. Franklin remained in France until 1785. He conducted the affairs of his country toward the French nation with great success, which included securing a critical military alliance in 1778 and signing the 1783 Treaty of Paris. [117] 
 Among his associates in France was Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau—a French Revolutionary writer, orator and statesman who in 1791 was elected president of the National Assembly. [118]  In July 1784, Franklin met with Mirabeau and contributed anonymous materials that the Frenchman used in his first signed work: Considerations sur l'ordre de Cincinnatus. [119]  The publication was critical of the Society of the Cincinnati, established in the United States. Franklin and Mirabeau thought of it as a "noble order", inconsistent with the egalitarian ideals of the new republic. [120] 
 During his stay in France, he was active as a Freemason, serving as venerable master of the lodge Les Neuf Sœurs from 1779 until 1781. In 1784, when Franz Mesmer began to publicize his theory of "animal magnetism" which was considered offensive by many, Louis XVI appointed a commission to investigate it. These included the chemist Antoine Lavoisier, the physician Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, the astronomer Jean Sylvain Bailly, and Franklin. [121]  In doing so, the committee concluded, through blind trials that mesmerism only seemed to work when the subjects expected it, which discredited mesmerism and became the first major demonstration of the placebo effect, which was described at that time as "imagination". [122]  In 1781, he was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. [123] 
     
Franklin's advocacy for religious tolerance in France contributed to arguments made by French philosophers and politicians that resulted in Louis XVI's signing of the Edict of Versailles in November 1787. This edict effectively nullified the Edict of Fontainebleau, which had denied non-Catholics civil status and the right to openly practice their faith. [124] 
 Franklin also served as American minister to Sweden, although he never visited that country. [125]  He negotiated a treaty that was signed in April 1783. On August 27, 1783, in Paris, he witnessed the world's first hydrogen balloon flight. [126]   Le Globe , created by professor Jacques Charles and Les Frères Robert, was watched by a vast crowd as it rose from the Champ de Mars (now the site of the Eiffel Tower). [127]  Franklin became so enthusiastic that he subscribed financially to the next project to build a manned hydrogen balloon. [128]  On December 1, 1783, Franklin was seated in the special enclosure for honored guests when  La Charlière  took off from the Jardin des Tuileries, piloted by Charles and Nicolas-Louis Robert. [126]   [129] 
Return to America
     
     
When he returned home in 1785, Franklin occupied a position second only to that of George Washington as the champion of American independence. He returned from France with an unexplained shortage of 100,000 pounds in Congressional funds. In response to a question from a member of Congress about this, Franklin, quoting the Bible, quipped, "Muzzle not the ox that treadeth out his master's grain." The missing funds were never again mentioned in Congress. [131]  
Le Ray honored him with a commissioned portrait painted by Joseph Duplessis, which now hangs in the National Portrait Gallery of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. After his return, Franklin became an abolitionist and freed his two slaves. He eventually became president of the Pennsylvania Abolition Society. [99] 
President of Pennsylvania and Delegate to the Constitutional convention
Special balloting conducted October 18, 1785, unanimously elected him the sixth president of the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania, replacing John Dickinson. The office was practically that of the governor. He held that office for slightly over three years, longer than any other, and served the constitutional limit of three full terms. Shortly after his initial election, he was re-elected to a full term on October 29, 1785, and again in the fall of 1786 and on October 31, 1787. In that capacity, he served as host to the Constitutional Convention of 1787 in Philadelphia. [132] 
 He also served as a delegate to the Convention. It was primarily an honorary position and he seldom engaged in debate.
Death
      Franklin's grave, Philadelphia  
Franklin suffered from obesity throughout his middle-age and later years, which resulted in multiple health problems, particularly gout, which worsened as he aged. In poor health during the signing of the US Constitution in 1787, he was rarely seen in public from then until his death.[ citation needed ]
 Benjamin Franklin died from pleuritic attack  [133]  at his home in Philadelphia on April 17, 1790. [134]  He was aged 84 at the time of his death. His last words were reportedly, "a dying man can do nothing easy", to his daughter after she suggested that he change position in bed and lie on his side so he could breathe more easily. [135]   [136]  Franklin's death is described in the book The Life of Benjamin Franklin, quoting from the account of John Jones:
 ... when the pain and difficulty of breathing entirely left him, and his family were flattering themselves with the hopes of his recovery, when an imposthume, which had formed itself in his lungs, suddenly burst, and discharged a quantity of matter, which he continued to throw up while he had power; but, as that failed, the organs of respiration became gradually oppressed; a calm, lethargic state succeeded; and on the 17th instant (April 1790), about eleven o'clock at night, he quietly expired, closing a long and useful life of eighty-four years and three months. [137] 
 
Approximately 20,000 people attended his funeral. He was interred in Christ Church Burial Ground in Philadelphia. [138]   [139]  Upon learning of his death, the Constitutional Assembly in Revolutionary France entered into a state of mourning for a period of three days, and memorial services were conducted in honor of Franklin throughout the country. [140]  In 1728, aged 22, Franklin wrote what he hoped would be his own epitaph:
 The Body of B. Franklin Printer; Like the Cover of an old Book, Its Contents torn out, And stript of its Lettering and Gilding, Lies here, Food for Worms. But the Work shall not be wholly lost: For it will, as he believ'd, appear once more, In a new &amp; more perfect Edition, Corrected and Amended By the Author. [141]   
Franklin's actual grave, however, as he specified in his final will, simply reads "Benjamin and Deborah Franklin". [142] 
Inventions and scientific inquiries
Franklin was a prodigious inventor. Among his many creations were the lightning rod, Franklin stove, bifocal glasses and the flexible urinary catheter. He never patented his inventions; in his autobiography he wrote, "... as we enjoy great advantages from the inventions of others, we should be glad of an opportunity to serve others by any invention of ours; and this we should do freely and generously." [143] 
Electricity
     
Franklin started exploring the phenomenon of electricity in 1746 when he saw some of Archibald Spencer's lectures using static electricity for illustrations. [144]  He proposed that "vitreous" and "resinous" electricity were not different types of "electrical fluid" (as electricity was called then), but the same "fluid" under different pressures. (The same proposal was made independently that same year by William Watson.) He was the first to label them as positive and negative respectively, [145]   [146]  and he was the first to discover the principle of conservation of charge. [147]  In 1748, he constructed a multiple plate capacitor, that he called an "electrical battery" (not a true battery like Volta's pile) by placing eleven panes of glass sandwiched between lead plates, suspended with silk cords and connected by wires. [148] 
 In pursuit of more pragmatic uses for electricity, remarking in spring 1749 that he felt "chagrin'd a little" that his experiments had heretofore resulted in "Nothing in this Way of Use to Mankind", he planned a practical demonstration. He proposed a dinner party where a turkey was to be killed via electric shock and roasted on an electrical spit. [149]  After having prepared several turkeys this way, he noted that "the birds kill'd in this manner eat uncommonly tender." [150]  Franklin recounted that in the process of one of these experiments, he was shocked by a pair of Leyden jars, resulting in numbness in his arms that persisted for one evening, noting "I am Ashamed to have been Guilty of so Notorious a Blunder." [151] 
 Franklin briefly investigated electrotherapy, including the use of the electric bath. This work led to the field becoming widely known. [152]  In recognition of his work with electricity, he received the Royal Society's Copley Medal in 1753, and in 1756, he became one of the few 18th-century Americans elected a fellow of the Society. The CGS unit of electric charge has been named after him: one franklin (Fr) is equal to one statcoulomb.
 Franklin advised Harvard University in its acquisition of new electrical laboratory apparatus after the complete loss of its original collection, in a fire that destroyed the original Harvard Hall in 1764. The collection he assembled later became part of the Harvard Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments, now on public display in its Science Center. [153] 
Kite experiment and lightning rod
       Franklin and Electricity vignette engraved by the BEP (c. 1860)  
Franklin published a proposal for an experiment to prove that lightning is electricity by flying a kite in a storm. On May 10, 1752, Thomas-François Dalibard of France conducted Franklin's experiment using a 40-foot-tall (12 m) iron rod instead of a kite, and he extracted electrical sparks from a cloud. On June 15, 1752, Franklin may possibly have conducted his well-known kite experiment in Philadelphia, successfully extracting sparks from a cloud. He described the experiment in his newspaper,  The Pennsylvania Gazette , on October 19, 1752, [154]   [155]  without mentioning that he himself had performed it. [156]  This account was read to the Royal Society on December 21 and printed as such in the Philosophical Transactions. [157]  Joseph Priestley published an account with additional details in his 1767 History and Present Status of Electricity. Franklin was careful to stand on an insulator, keeping dry under a roof to avoid the danger of electric shock. [158]  Others, such as Georg Wilhelm Richmann in Russia, were indeed electrocuted in performing lightning experiments during the months immediately following his experiment. [159] 
 In his writings, Franklin indicates that he was aware of the dangers and offered alternative ways to demonstrate that lightning was electrical, as shown by his use of the concept of electrical ground. He did not perform this experiment in the way that is often pictured in popular literature, flying the kite and waiting to be struck by lightning, as it would have been dangerous. [160]  Instead he used the kite to collect some electric charge from a storm cloud, showing that lightning was electrical. [161]  On October 19, 1752, in a letter to England with directions for repeating the experiment, he wrote:
 When rain has wet the kite twine so that it can conduct the electric fire freely, you will find it streams out plentifully from the key at the approach of your knuckle, and with this key a phial, or Leyden jar, may be charged: and from electric fire thus obtained spirits may be kindled, and all other electric experiments [may be] performed which are usually done by the help of a rubber glass globe or tube; and therefore the sameness of the electrical matter with that of lightening [ sic ] completely demonstrated. [161]   
Franklin's electrical experiments led to his invention of the lightning rod. He said that conductors with a sharp [162]  rather than a smooth point could discharge silently and at a far greater distance. He surmised that this could help protect buildings from lightning by attaching "upright Rods of Iron, made sharp as a Needle and gilt to prevent Rusting, and from the Foot of those Rods a Wire down the outside of the Building into the Ground; ... Would not these pointed Rods probably draw the Electrical Fire silently out of a Cloud before it came nigh enough to strike, and thereby secure us from that most sudden and terrible Mischief!" Following a series of experiments on Franklin's own house, lightning rods were installed on the Academy of Philadelphia (later the University of Pennsylvania) and the Pennsylvania State House (later Independence Hall) in 1752. [163] 
Population studies
Franklin had a major influence on the emerging science of demography or population studies. [164]  In the 1730s and 1740s, he began taking notes on population growth, finding that the American population had the fastest growth rate on Earth. [165]  Emphasizing that population growth depended on food supplies, he emphasized the abundance of food and available farmland in America. He calculated that America's population was doubling every 20 years and would surpass that of England in a century. [166]  In 1751, he drafted  Observations concerning the Increase of Mankind, Peopling of Countries, etc.  Four years later, it was anonymously printed in Boston and was quickly reproduced in Britain, where it influenced the economist Adam Smith and later the demographer Thomas Malthus, who credited Franklin for discovering a rule of population growth. [167]  Franklin's predictions how British mercantilism was unsustainable alarmed British leaders who did not want to be surpassed by the colonies, so they became more willing to impose restrictions on the colonial economy. [168] 
 Kammen (1990) and Drake (2011) say Franklin's Observations concerning the Increase of Mankind (1755) stands alongside Ezra Stiles' "Discourse on Christian Union" (1760) as the leading works of 18th-century Anglo-American demography; Drake credits Franklin's "wide readership and prophetic insight". [169]   [170]  Franklin was also a pioneer in the study of slave demography, as shown in his 1755 essay. [171]  In his capacity as a farmer, he wrote at least one critique about the negative consequences of price controls, trade restrictions, and subsidy of the poor. This is succinctly preserved in his letter to the  London Chronicle  published November 29, 1766, titled "On the Price of Corn, and Management of the poor". [172] 
Oceanography
As deputy postmaster, Franklin became interested in North Atlantic Ocean circulation patterns. While in England in 1768, he heard a complaint from the Colonial Board of Customs: Why did it take British packet ships carrying mail several weeks longer to reach New York than it took an average merchant ship to reach Newport, Rhode Island? The merchantmen had a longer and more complex voyage because they left from London, while the packets left from Falmouth in Cornwall. [173]  Franklin put the question to his cousin Timothy Folger, a Nantucket whaler captain, who told him that merchant ships routinely avoided a strong eastbound mid-ocean current. The mail packet captains sailed dead into it, thus fighting an adverse current of 3 miles per hour (5 km/h). Franklin worked with Folger and other experienced ship captains, learning enough to chart the current and name it the Gulf Stream, by which it is still known today. [174] 
 Franklin published his Gulf Stream chart in 1770 in England, where it was ignored. Subsequent versions were printed in France in 1778 and the U.S. in 1786. The British original edition of the chart had been so thoroughly ignored that everyone assumed it was lost forever until Phil Richardson, a Woods Hole oceanographer and Gulf Stream expert, discovered it in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris in 1980. [175]   [176]  This find received front-page coverage in  The New York Times . [177]  It took many years for British sea captains to adopt Franklin's advice on navigating the current; once they did, they were able to trim two weeks from their sailing time. [178]   [179]  In 1853, the oceanographer and cartographer Matthew Fontaine Maury noted that while Franklin charted and codified the Gulf Stream, he did not discover it:
 Though it was Dr. Franklin and Captain Tim Folger, who first turned the Gulf Stream to nautical account, the discovery that there was a Gulf Stream cannot be said to belong to either of them, for its existence was known to Peter Martyr d'Anghiera, and to Sir Humphrey Gilbert, in the 16th century. [180]    An aging Franklin accumulated all his oceanographic findings in Maritime Observations, published by the Philosophical Society's transactions in 1786. [181]  It contained ideas for sea anchors, catamaran hulls, watertight compartments, shipboard lightning rods and a soup bowl designed to stay stable in stormy weather.
 Theories and experiments
Franklin was, along with his contemporary Leonhard Euler, the only major scientist who supported Christiaan Huygens's wave theory of light, which was basically ignored by the rest of the scientific community. In the 18th century, Isaac Newton's corpuscular theory was held to be true; it took Thomas Young's well-known slit experiment in 1803 to persuade most scientists to believe Huygens's theory. [182] 
 On October 21, 1743, according to the popular myth, a storm moving from the southwest denied Franklin the opportunity of witnessing a lunar eclipse. He was said to have noted that the prevailing winds were actually from the northeast, contrary to what he had expected. In correspondence with his brother, he learned that the same storm had not reached Boston until after the eclipse, despite the fact that Boston is to the northeast of Philadelphia. He deduced that storms do not always travel in the direction of the prevailing wind, a concept that greatly influenced meteorology. [183]  After the Icelandic volcanic eruption of Laki in 1783, and the subsequent harsh European winter of 1784, Franklin made observations on the causal nature of these two seemingly separate events. He wrote about them in a lecture series. [184] 
 Though Franklin is famously associated with kites from his lightning experiments, he has also been noted by many for using kites to pull humans and ships across waterways. [185]  George Pocock in the book A Treatise on The Aeropleustic Art, or Navigation in the Air, by means of Kites, or Buoyant Sails  [186]  noted being inspired by Benjamin Franklin's traction of his body by kite power across a waterway.
 Franklin noted a principle of refrigeration by observing that on a very hot day, he stayed cooler in a wet shirt in a breeze than he did in a dry one. To understand this phenomenon more clearly, he conducted experiments. In 1758 on a warm day in Cambridge, England, he and fellow scientist John Hadley experimented by continually wetting the ball of a mercury thermometer with ether and using bellows to evaporate the ether. [187]  With each subsequent evaporation, the thermometer read a lower temperature, eventually reaching 7 °F (−14 °C). Another thermometer showed that the room temperature was constant at 65 °F (18 °C). In his letter  Cooling by Evaporation , Franklin noted that, "One may see the possibility of freezing a man to death on a warm summer's day." [188] 
 According to Michael Faraday, Franklin's experiments on the non-conduction of ice are worth mentioning, although the law of the general effect of liquefaction on electrolytes is not attributed to Franklin. [189]  However, as reported in 1836 by Franklin's great-grandson Prof. Alexander Dallas Bache of the University of Pennsylvania, the law of the effect of heat on the conduction of bodies otherwise non-conductors, for example, glass, could be attributed to Franklin. Franklin wrote, "... A certain quantity of heat will make some bodies good conductors, that will not otherwise conduct ..." and again, "... And water, though naturally a good conductor, will not conduct well when frozen into ice." [190] 
 
While traveling on a ship, Franklin had observed that the wake of a ship was diminished when the cooks scuttled their greasy water. He studied the effects on a large pond in Clapham Common, London. "I fetched out a cruet of oil and dropt a little of it on the water ... though not more than a teaspoon full, produced an instant calm over a space of several yards square." He later used the trick to "calm the waters" by carrying "a little oil in the hollow joint of my cane". [191]         An illustration from Franklin's paper on "Water-spouts and Whirlwinds"  
Decision-making
In a 1772 letter to Joseph Priestley, Franklin laid out the earliest known description of the Pro &amp; Con list, [192]  a common decision-making technique, now sometimes called a decisional balance sheet:
 ... my Way is, to divide half a Sheet of Paper by a Line into two Columns, writing over the one Pro, and over the other Con. Then during three or four Days Consideration I put down under the different Heads short Hints of the different Motives that at different Times occur to me for or against the Measure. When I have thus got them all together in one View, I endeavour to estimate their respective Weights; and where I find two, one on each side, that seem equal, I strike them both out: If I find a Reason pro equal to some two Reasons con, I strike out the three. If I judge some two Reasons con equal to some three Reasons pro, I strike out the five; and thus proceeding I find at length where the Ballance lies; and if after a Day or two of farther Consideration nothing new that is of Importance occurs on either side, I come to a Determination accordingly. [192]   
Political, social, and religious views
     
Like the other advocates of republicanism, Franklin emphasized that the new republic could survive only if the people were virtuous. All his life, he explored the role of civic and personal virtue, as expressed in Poor Richard's aphorisms. He felt that organized religion was necessary to keep men good to their fellow men, but rarely attended religious services himself. [193]  When he met Voltaire in Paris and asked his fellow member of the Enlightenment vanguard to bless his grandson, Voltaire said in English, "God and Liberty", and added, "this is the only appropriate benediction for the grandson of Monsieur Franklin." [194] 
       Voltaire blessing Franklin's grandson, in the name of God and Liberty, by Pedro Américo, 1889–90  
Franklin's parents were both pious Puritans. [195]  The family attended the Old South Church, the most liberal Puritan congregation in Boston, where Benjamin Franklin was baptized in 1706. [196]  Franklin's father, a poor chandler, owned a copy of a book, Bonifacius: Essays to Do Good, by the Puritan preacher and family friend Cotton Mather, which Franklin often cited as a key influence on his life. "If I have been", Franklin wrote to Cotton Mather's son seventy years later, "a useful citizen, the public owes the advantage of it to that book." [197]  His first pen name, Silence Dogood, paid homage both to the book and to a widely known sermon by Mather. The book preached the importance of forming voluntary associations to benefit society. Franklin learned about forming do-good associations from Mather, but his organizational skills made him the most influential force in making voluntarism an enduring part of the American ethos. [198] 
 Franklin formulated a presentation of his beliefs and published it in 1728. [199]  It did not mention many of the Puritan ideas regarding salvation, the divinity of Jesus, or indeed much religious dogma. He classified himself as a deist in his 1771 autobiography, [200]  although he still considered himself a Christian. [201]  He retained a strong faith in a God as the wellspring of morality and goodness in man, and as a Providential actor in history responsible for American independence. [202] 
     
At a critical impasse during the Constitutional Convention in June 1787, he attempted to introduce the practice of daily common prayer with these words:
 ... In the beginning of the contest with G. Britain, when we were sensible of danger we had daily prayer in this room for the Divine Protection. Our prayers, Sir, were heard, and they were graciously answered. All of us who were engaged in the struggle must have observed frequent instances of a Superintending providence in our favor. ... And have we now forgotten that powerful friend? or do we imagine that we no longer need His assistance. I have lived, Sir, a long time and the longer I live, the more convincing proofs I see of this truth—that God governs in the affairs of men. And if a sparrow cannot fall to the ground without his notice, is it probable that an empire can rise without his aid? We have been assured, Sir, in the sacred writings that "except the Lord build they labor in vain that build it." I firmly believe this; and I also believe that without his concurring aid we shall succeed in this political building no better than the Builders of Babel: ... I therefore beg leave to move—that henceforth prayers imploring the assistance of Heaven, and its blessings on our deliberations, be held in this Assembly every morning before we proceed to business, and that one or more of the Clergy of this City be requested to officiate in that service. [203]   
The motion met with resistance and was never brought to a vote. [204] 
 Franklin was an enthusiastic supporter of the evangelical minister George Whitefield during the First Great Awakening. He did not himself subscribe to Whitefield's theology, but he admired Whitefield for exhorting people to worship God through good works. He published all of Whitefield's sermons and journals, thereby earning a lot of money and boosting the Great Awakening. [205] 
 When he stopped attending church, Franklin wrote in his autobiography:
 ... Sunday being my studying day, I never was without some religious principles. I never doubted, for instance, the existence of the Deity; that He made the world, and governed it by His providence; that the most acceptable service of God was the doing good to man; that our souls are immortal; and that all crime will be punished, and virtue rewarded, either here or hereafter. [206]   [207] 
 
Franklin retained a lifelong commitment to the Puritan virtues and political values he had grown up with, and through his civic work and publishing, he succeeded in passing these values into the American culture permanently. He had a "passion for virtue". [208]  These Puritan values included his devotion to egalitarianism, education, industry, thrift, honesty, temperance, charity and community spirit. [209] 
 The classical authors read in the Enlightenment period taught an abstract ideal of republican government based on hierarchical social orders of king, aristocracy and commoners. It was widely believed that English liberties relied on their balance of power, but also hierarchal deference to the privileged class. [210]  "Puritanism ... and the epidemic evangelism of the mid-eighteenth century, had created challenges to the traditional notions of social stratification" [211]  by preaching that the Bible taught all men are equal, that the true value of a man lies in his moral behavior, not his class, and that all men can be saved. [211]  Franklin, steeped in Puritanism and an enthusiastic supporter of the evangelical movement, rejected the salvation dogma but embraced the radical notion of egalitarian democracy.[ citation needed ]
 Franklin's commitment to teach these values was itself something he gained from his Puritan upbringing, with its stress on "inculcating virtue and character in themselves and their communities." [212]  These Puritan values and the desire to pass them on, were one of his quintessentially American characteristics and helped shape the character of the nation. Max Weber considered Franklin's ethical writings a culmination of the Protestant ethic, which ethic created the social conditions necessary for the birth of capitalism. [213] 
 One of his notable characteristics was his respect, tolerance and promotion of all churches. Referring to his experience in Philadelphia, he wrote in his autobiography, "new Places of worship were continually wanted, and generally erected by voluntary Contribution, my Mite for such purpose, whatever might be the Sect, was never refused." [206]  "He helped create a new type of nation that would draw strength from its religious pluralism." [214]  The evangelical revivalists who were active mid-century, such as Whitefield, were the greatest advocates of religious freedom, "claiming liberty of conscience to be an 'inalienable right of every rational creature.'" [215]  Whitefield's supporters in Philadelphia, including Franklin, erected "a large, new hall, that ... could provide a pulpit to anyone of any belief." [216]  Franklin's rejection of dogma and doctrine and his stress on the God of ethics and morality and civic virtue made him the "prophet of tolerance". [214]  He composed "A Parable Against Persecution", an apocryphal 51st chapter of Genesis in which God teaches Abraham the duty of tolerance. [217]  While he was living in London in 1774, he was present at the birth of British Unitarianism, attending the inaugural session of the Essex Street Chapel, at which Theophilus Lindsey drew together the first avowedly Unitarian congregation in England; this was somewhat politically risky and pushed religious tolerance to new boundaries, as a denial of the doctrine of the Trinity was illegal until the 1813 Act. [218] 
     
Although his parents had intended for him a career in the church, [18]  Franklin as a young man adopted the Enlightenment religious belief in deism, that God's truths can be found entirely through nature and reason, [219]  declaring, "I soon became a thorough Deist." [220]  He rejected Christian dogma in a 1725 pamphlet  A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain , [221]  which he later saw as an embarrassment, [222]  while simultaneously asserting that God is "all wise, all good, all powerful." [222]  He defended his rejection of religious dogma with these words: "I think opinions should be judged by their influences and effects; and if a man holds none that tend to make him less virtuous or more vicious, it may be concluded that he holds none that are dangerous, which I hope is the case with me." After the disillusioning experience of seeing the decay in his own moral standards, and those of two friends in London whom he had converted to deism, Franklin turned back to a belief in the importance of organized religion, on the pragmatic grounds that without God and organized churches, man will not be good. [223]  Moreover, because of his proposal that prayers be said in the Constitutional Convention of 1787, many have contended that in his later life he became a pious Christian. [224]   [225] 
 According to David Morgan, [226]  Franklin was a proponent of religion in general. He prayed to "Powerful Goodness" and referred to God as "the infinite". John Adams noted that he was a mirror in which people saw their own religion: "The Catholics thought him almost a Catholic. The Church of England claimed him as one of them. The Presbyterians thought him half a Presbyterian, and the Friends believed him a wet Quaker." Whatever else Franklin was, concludes Morgan, "he was a true champion of generic religion." In a letter to Richard Price, Franklin states that he believes religion should support itself without help from the government, claiming, "When a Religion is good, I conceive that it will support itself; and, when it cannot support itself, and God does not take care to support, so that its Professors are oblig'd to call for the help of the Civil Power, it is a sign, I apprehend, of its being a bad one." [227] 
 In 1790, just about a month before he died, Franklin wrote a letter to Ezra Stiles, president of Yale University, who had asked him his views on religion:
 As to Jesus of Nazareth, my Opinion of whom you particularly desire, I think the System of Morals and his Religion, as he left them to us, the best the world ever saw or is likely to see; but I apprehend it has received various corrupt changes, and I have, with most of the present Dissenters in England, some Doubts as to his divinity; tho' it is a question I do not dogmatize upon, having never studied it, and I think it needless to busy myself with it now, when I expect soon an Opportunity of knowing the Truth with less Trouble. I see no harm, however, in its being believed, if that belief has the good consequence, as it probably has, of making his doctrines more respected and better observed; especially as I do not perceive that the Supreme takes it amiss, by distinguishing the unbelievers in his government of the world with any particular marks of his displeasure. [20]   
On July 4, 1776, Congress appointed a three-member committee composed of Franklin, Jefferson, and Adams to design the Great Seal of the United States. Franklin's proposal (which was not adopted) featured the motto: "Rebellion to Tyrants is Obedience to God" and a scene from the Book of Exodus, with Moses, the Israelites, the pillar of fire, and George III depicted as pharaoh. The design that was produced was not acted upon by Congress, and the Great Seal's design was not finalized until a third committee was appointed in 1782. [228]   [229] 
 Franklin strongly supported the right to freedom of speech:
 In those wretched countries where a man cannot call his tongue his own, he can scarce call anything his own. Whoever would overthrow the liberty of a nation must begin by subduing the freeness of speech ...
Without freedom of thought there can be no such thing as wisdom, and no such thing as public liberty without freedom of speech, which is the right of every man ... 
Thirteen Virtues
     
Franklin sought to cultivate his character by a plan of 13 virtues, which he developed at age 20 (in 1726) and continued to practice in some form for the rest of his life. His autobiography lists his 13 virtues as: [231] 
  Temperance. Eat not to dullness; drink not to elevation."
 Silence. Speak not but what may benefit others or yourself; avoid trifling conversation."
 Order. Let all your things have their places; let each part of your business have its time.
 Resolution. Resolve to perform what you ought; perform without fail what you resolve.
 Frugality. Make no expense but to do good to others or yourself; i.e., waste nothing.
Industry. Lose no time; be always employ'd in something useful; cut off all unnecessary actions.
 Sincerity. Use no hurtful deceit; think innocently and justly, and, if you speak, speak accordingly.
 Justice. Wrong none by doing injuries, or omitting the benefits that are your duty.
 Moderation. Avoid extremes; forbear resenting injuries so much as you think they deserve.
 Cleanliness. Tolerate no uncleanliness in body, clothes, or habitation.
 Tranquility. Be not disturbed at trifles, or at accidents common or unavoidable.
 Chastity. Rarely use venery but for health or offspring, never to dullness, weakness, or the injury of your own or another's peace or reputation.
 Humility. Imitate Jesus and Socrates. 
Franklin did not try to work on them all at once. Instead, he would work on one and only one each week "leaving all others to their ordinary chance." While he did not adhere completely to the enumerated virtues, and by his own admission he fell short of them many times, he believed the attempt made him a better man, contributing greatly to his success and happiness, which is why in his autobiography, he devoted more pages to this plan than to any other single point and wrote, "I hope, therefore, that some of my descendants may follow the example and reap the benefit." [232] 
Slavery
Franklin owned as many as seven slaves, including two men who worked in his household and his shop. [233]   [234]  He posted paid ads for the sale of slaves and for the capture of runaway slaves and allowed the sale of slaves in his general store. However, he later became an outspoken critic of slavery. In 1758, he advocated the opening of a school for the education of black slaves in Philadelphia. [235]  He took two slaves to England with him, Peter and King. King escaped with a woman to live in the outskirts of London, [236]  and by 1758 he was working for a household in Suffolk. [237]  After returning from England in 1762, Franklin became notably more abolitionist in nature, attacking American slavery. In the wake of  Somerset v Stewart , he voiced frustration at British abolitionists:
 O Pharisaical Britain! to pride thyself in setting free a single Slave that happens to land on thy coasts, while thy Merchants in all thy ports are encouraged by thy laws to continue a commerce whereby so many hundreds of thousands are dragged into a slavery that can scarce be said to end with their lives, since it is entailed on their posterity! [238]   [239]   
Franklin, however, refused to publicly debate the issue of slavery at the 1787 Constitutional Convention. [240] 
 At the time of the American founding, there were about half a million slaves in the United States, mostly in the five southernmost states, where they made up 40% of the population. Many of the leading American founders – most notably Thomas Jefferson, George Washington, and James Madison – owned slaves, but many others did not. Benjamin Franklin thought that slavery was "an atrocious debasement of human nature" and "a source of serious evils." He and Benjamin Rush founded the Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery in 1774. [241]  In 1790, Quakers from New York and Pennsylvania presented their petition for abolition to Congress. Their argument against slavery was backed by the Pennsylvania Abolitionist Society. [242] 
 In his later years, as Congress was forced to deal with the issue of slavery, Franklin wrote several essays that stressed the importance of the abolition of slavery and of the integration of African Americans into American society. These writings included:
   An Address to the Public  (1789)
  A Plan for Improving the Condition of the Free Blacks  (1789)
 Sidi Mehemet Ibrahim on the Slave Trade (1790) [243]   
Vegetarianism
Franklin became a vegetarian when he was a teenager apprenticing at a print shop, after coming upon a book by the early vegetarian advocate Thomas Tryon. [244]  In addition, he would have also been familiar with the moral arguments espoused by prominent vegetarian Quakers in colonial Pennsylvania, such as Benjamin Lay and John Woolman. His reasons for vegetarianism were based on health, ethics, and economy:
 When about 16 years of age, I happen'd to meet with a book written by one Tryon, recommending a vegetable diet. I determined to go into it ... [By not eating meat] I presently found that I could save half what [my brother] paid me. This was an additional fund for buying books: but I had another advantage in it ... I made the greater progress from that greater clearness of head and quicker apprehension which usually attend temperance in eating and drinking. [245]   
Franklin also declared the consumption of meat to be "unprovoked murder". [246]  Despite his convictions, he began to eat fish after being tempted by fried cod on a boat sailing from Boston, justifying the eating of animals by observing that the fish's stomach contained other fish. Nonetheless, he recognized the faulty ethics in this argument [247]  and would continue to be a vegetarian on and off. He was "excited" by tofu, which he learned of from the writings of a Spanish missionary to South East Asia, Domingo Fernández Navarrete. Franklin sent a sample of soybeans to prominent American botanist John Bartram and had previously written to British diplomat and Chinese trade expert James Flint inquiring as to how tofu was made, [248]  with their correspondence believed to be the first documented use of the word "tofu" in the English language. [249] 
 Franklin's "Second Reply to Vindex Patriae", a 1766 letter advocating self-sufficiency and less dependence on England, lists various examples of the bounty of American agricultural products, and does not mention meat. [248]  Detailing new American customs, he wrote that, "[t]hey resolved last spring to eat no more lamb; and not a joint of lamb has since been seen on any of their tables … the sweet little creatures are all alive to this day, with the prettiest fleeces on their backs imaginable." [250] 
View on inoculation
The concept of preventing smallpox by variolation was introduced to colonial America by an African slave named Onesimus via his owner Cotton Mather in the early eighteenth century, but the procedure was not immediately accepted. James Franklin's newspaper carried articles in 1721 [251]  that vigorously denounced the concept. [252] 
 However, by 1736 Benjamin Franklin, by then a prominent Boston citizen, was known as a supporter of the procedure. Therefore, when four-year-old "Franky" died of smallpox, opponents of the procedure circulated rumors that the child had been inoculated, and that this was the cause of his subsequent death. When Franklin became aware of this gossip, he placed a notice in the Pennsylvania Gazette, stating: "I do hereby sincerely declare, that he was not inoculated, but receiv'd the Distemper in the common Way of Infection ... I intended to have my Child inoculated.". The child had a bad case of flux diarrhea, and his parents had waited for him to get well before having him inoculated. Franklin wrote in his Autobiography: "In 1736 I lost one of my sons, a fine boy of four years old, by the small-pox, taken in the common way. I long regretted bitterly, and still regret that I had not given it to him by inoculation. This I mention for the sake of parents who omit that operation, on the supposition that they should never forgive themselves if a child died under it; my example showing that the regret may be the same either way, and that, therefore, the safer should be chosen." [253] 
Interests and activities
Musical endeavors
     
Franklin is known to have played the violin, the harp, and the guitar. He also composed music, notably a string quartet in early classical style. [254]  While he was in London, he developed a much-improved version of the glass harmonica, in which the glasses rotate on a shaft, with the player's fingers held steady, instead of the other way around. He worked with the London glassblower Charles James to create it, and instruments based on his mechanical version soon found their way to other parts of Europe. [255]  Joseph Haydn, a fan of Franklin's enlightened ideas, had a glass harmonica in his instrument collection. [256]  Mozart composed for Franklin's glass harmonica, [257]  as did Beethoven. [258]   [259]  Gaetano Donizetti used the instrument in the accompaniment to Amelia's aria "Par che mi dica ancora" in the tragic opera  Il castello di Kenilworth  (1821), [260]  as did Camille Saint-Saëns in his 1886  The Carnival of the Animals . [261]  Richard Strauss calls for the glass harmonica in his 1917  Die Frau ohne Schatten , [257]  and numerous other composers used Franklin's instrument as well.[ citation needed ]
Chess
Franklin was an avid chess player. He was playing chess by around 1733, making him the first chess player known by name in the American colonies. [262]  His essay on "The Morals of Chess" in  Columbian Magazine  in December 1786 is the second known writing on chess in America. [262]  This essay in praise of chess and prescribing a code of behavior for the game has been widely reprinted and translated. [263]   [264]   [265]   [266]  He and a friend used chess as a means of learning the Italian language, which both were studying; the winner of each game between them had the right to assign a task, such as parts of the Italian grammar to be learned by heart, to be performed by the loser before their next meeting. [267] 
 Franklin was able to play chess more frequently against stronger opposition during his many years as a civil servant and diplomat in England, where the game was far better established than in America. He was able to improve his playing standard by facing more experienced players during this period. He regularly attended Old Slaughter's Coffee House in London for chess and socializing, making many important personal contacts. While in Paris, both as a visitor and later as ambassador, he visited the famous Café de la Régence, which France's strongest players made their regular meeting place. No records of his games have survived, so it is not possible to ascertain his playing strength in modern terms. [268] 
 Franklin was inducted into the U.S. Chess Hall of Fame in 1999. [262]  The Franklin Mercantile Chess Club in Philadelphia, the second oldest chess club in the U.S., is named in his honor. [269] 
Legacy
   Designations    
 Pennsylvania Historical Marker      Official name Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790)   Type City   Criteria Government &amp; Politics, Government &amp; Politics 18th Century, Invention, Science &amp; Medicine, Professions &amp; Vocations, Publishing &amp; Journalism, Writers   Designated June 30, 1990 [270]     Location  Chestnut St. between 3rd &amp; 4th Sts., at Nat'l. Liberty Mus., Philadelphia   39°56′56″N 75°08′49″W﻿ / ﻿39.94881°N 75.14683°W     Marker Text Printer, author, inventor, diplomat, philanthropist, statesman, and scientist. The eighteenth century's most illustrious Pennsylvanian built a house in Franklin Court starting in 1763, and here he lived the last five years of his life.   
Bequest
Franklin bequeathed £1,000 (about $4,400 at the time, or about $125,000 in 2021 dollars [271] ) each to the cities of Boston and Philadelphia, in trust to gather interest for 200 years. The trust began in 1785 when the French mathematician Charles-Joseph Mathon de la Cour, who admired Franklin greatly, wrote a friendly parody of Franklin's Poor Richard's Almanack called Fortunate Richard. The main character leaves a smallish amount of money in his will, five lots of 100  livres , to collect interest over one, two, three, four or five full centuries, with the resulting astronomical sums to be spent on impossibly elaborate utopian projects. [272]  Franklin, who was 79 years old at the time, wrote thanking him for a great idea and telling him that he had decided to leave a bequest of 1,000 pounds each to his native Boston and his adopted Philadelphia.
 By 1990, more than $2,000,000 had accumulated in Franklin's Philadelphia trust, which had loaned the money to local residents. From 1940 to 1990, the money was used mostly for mortgage loans. When the trust came due, Philadelphia decided to spend it on scholarships for local high school students. Franklin's Boston trust fund accumulated almost $5,000,000 during that same time; at the end of its first 100 years a portion was allocated to help establish a trade school that became the Franklin Institute of Boston, and the entire fund was later dedicated to supporting this institute. [273]   [274] 
     
In 1787, a group of prominent ministers in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, proposed the foundation of a new college named in Franklin's honor. Franklin donated £200 towards the development of Franklin College (now called Franklin &amp; Marshall College). [275] 
Likeness and image
As the only person to have signed the Declaration of Independence in 1776, Treaty of Alliance with France in 1778, Treaty of Paris in 1783, and U.S. Constitution in 1787, Franklin is considered one of the leading Founding Fathers of the United States. His pervasive influence in the early history of the nation has led to his being jocularly called "the only president of the United States who was never president of the United States". [276] 
 Franklin's likeness is ubiquitous. Since 1928, it has adorned American $100 bills. From 1948 to 1963, Franklin's portrait was on the half-dollar. [277]  He has appeared on a $50 bill and on several varieties of the $100 bill from 1914 and 1918. [278]  Franklin also appears on the $1,000 Series EE savings bond. [279] 
 On April 12, 1976, as part of a bicentennial celebration, Congress dedicated a 20-foot (6 m) tall marble statue in Philadelphia's Franklin Institute as the Benjamin Franklin National Memorial. [280]  Many of Franklin's personal possessions are on display at the institute. In London, his house at 36 Craven Street, which is the only surviving former residence of Franklin, was first marked with a blue plaque and has since been opened to the public as the Benjamin Franklin House. [281]  In 1998, workmen restoring the building dug up the remains of six children and four adults hidden below the home. A total of 15 bodies have been recovered. [282]  The Friends of Benjamin Franklin House (the organization responsible for the restoration) note that the bones were likely placed there by William Hewson, who lived in the house for two years and who had built a small anatomy school at the back of the house. They note that while Franklin likely knew what Hewson was doing, he probably did not participate in any dissections because he was much more of a physicist than a medical man. [283] 
 He has been honored on U.S. postage stamps many times. The image of Franklin, the first postmaster general of the United States, occurs on the face of U.S. postage more than any other notable American save that of George Washington. [284]  He appeared on the first U.S. postage stamp issued in 1847. From 1908 through 1923, the U.S. Post Office issued a series of postage stamps commonly referred to as the Washington–Franklin Issues, in which Washington and Franklin were depicted many times over a 14-year period, the longest run of any one series in U.S. postal history. However, he only appears on a few commemorative stamps. Some of the finest portrayals of Franklin on record can be found on the engravings inscribed on the face of U.S. postage. [284] 
     
       Issue of 1861       Issue of 1895       Issue of 1918    Examples of Franklin on U. S. Postage  
     
See also
  Benjamin Franklin in popular culture 
 Benjamin Franklin on postage stamps 
 Bibliography of early American publishers and printers 
 Elizabeth Timothy, apprentice/partner of Franklin
 Founders Online database of Franklin's papers
 Franklin's electrostatic machine 
 Fugio Cent, 1787 coin designed by Franklin
 James Parker, apprentice/partner of Franklin
 List of abolitionist forerunners 
 List of early American publishers and printers 
 List of opponents of slavery 
 List of richest Americans in history 
 List of wealthiest historical figures 
 Louis Timothee, apprentice/partner of Franklin
 Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence 
 The Papers of Benjamin Franklin 
 Thomas Birch's newly discovered Franklin letters 
Notes
 
^    a       b       c    Contemporary records, which used the Julian calendar and the Annunciation Style of enumerating years, recorded his birth as January 6, 1705. [15]   [16] 
  ^  According to Professor Zara Anishanslin.
  ^  Portraits of Franklin at this time often contained an inscription, the best known being Turgot's acclamation, "Eripuit fulmen coelo sceptrumque tyrannis." (He snatched the lightning from the skies and the scepter from the tyrants.) Historian Friedrich Christoph Schlosser remarked at the time, with ample hyperbole, that "Such was the number of portraits, busts and medallions of him in circulation before he left Paris, that he would have been recognized from them by any adult citizen in any part of the civilized world." – Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Franklin, Benjamin" .  Encyclopædia Britannica  (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
 
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^    a       b    Piers Letcher – Jacques Charles (2003).  Eccentric France: Bradt Guide to mad, magical and marvellous France . ISBN  978-1-84162-068-8 . Retrieved March 17, 2010.
  ^   "Science and Society, Medal commemorating Charles and Robert's balloon ascent, Paris, 1783". Scienceandsociety.co.uk. Retrieved March 17, 2010.
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  ^  Robinson, Raymond H. (1999). "The Marketing of an Icon". George Washington: American Symbol. p. 117. ISBN  9781555951481 . Figure 56 John Henry Hintermeister (American 1869–1945) Signing of the Constitution, 1925...Alternatively labeled Title to Freedom and the Foundation of American Government...". 
  ^  Harlow Giles Unger, "Thomas Paine and the Clarion Call for American Independence" (New York: Da Capo Press, 2019), p. 90
  ^  Brands, The First American, pp. 654–55, 694
  ^  Isaacson, 2004
  ^   "Later Years and Death". Benjamin Franklin Historical Society. Archived from the original on June 27, 2016. Retrieved September 17, 2021.
  ^   "64 People and Their Famous Last Words". mentalfloss.com. February 1, 2016. Retrieved February 17, 2019.
  ^   "It was 228 years ago today: Benjamin Franklin died in Philadelphia – National Constitution Center". National Constitution Center – constitutioncenter.org. Retrieved February 17, 2019.
  ^  Sparks, pp. 529–30.
  ^   "Christ Church Burial Grounds".  Ushistory.org . Retrieved June 22, 2020.
  ^   "Benjamin Franklin's grave [Christ Church Burial Ground], Philadelphia".  Library of Congress . 1900. Retrieved June 22, 2020.
  ^  Paxton, John (1988). Companion to the French Revolution. New York: Facts on File. p. 85. ISBN  0-8160-1116-8 .
  ^  Franklin, Benjamin (August 16, 2010). "Transcript of Benjamin Franklin, Epitaph - Benjamin Franklin: In His Own Words | Exhibitions (Library of Congress)". www.loc.gov. Retrieved December 30, 2022.
  ^   The Last Will and Testament of Benjamin Franklin. Archived August 21, 2009, at the Wayback Machine The Franklin Institute Science Museum.
  ^  Benjamin Franklin. "Part three". The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin.
  ^   "Science and Medicine". Colonial America Reference Library. Encyclopedia.com. 2016. Retrieved February 27, 2017. Franklin's interest in electricity originated when he saw a traveling scientific lecturer, Archibald Spencer, perform an "electricity show" in Boston, Massachusetts. 
  ^  Franklin, Benjamin (May 25, 1747). "Letter to Peter Collinson". Franklin Papers. Archived from the original on October 20, 2017. Retrieved May 1, 2016.
  ^  Weisstein, Eric. "Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790)". World of Scientific Biography. Science World.
  ^   "Conservation of Charge". Archived from the original on February 18, 2008. Retrieved February 15, 2006.. Archived February 18, 2008.
  ^  Franklin, Benjamin (April 29, 1749). "Letter to Peter Collinson". Archived from the original on December 17, 2017. Retrieved April 23, 2016. 
  ^  Franklin, Benjamin (April 29, 1749). "Letter to Peter Collinson". Franklin Papers.
  ^  Franklin, Benjamin (February 4, 1751). "Letter to Peter Collinson". Franklin Papers.
  ^  Franklin, Benjamin (December 25, 1750). "Letter to John Franklin". Franklin Papers.
  ^  * Schiffer, Michael B, Draw the Lightning Down: Benjamin Franklin and Electrical Technology in the Age of Enlightenment, pp. 136–37, 301, University of California Press, 2006 ISBN 0-520-24829-5.
  ^  Tomase, Jennifer (June 1, 2006). "'A How-To Guide' explores Ben Franklin's 'can-do' legacy". Harvard University Gazette. Archived from the original on July 25, 2010. Retrieved August 9, 2016.
  ^  Benjamin Franklin, "The Kite Experiment" Archived September 22, 2010, at the Wayback Machine, printed in  The Pennsylvania Gazette , October 19, 1752. In The Papers of Benjamin Franklin, The American Philosophical Society and Yale University; digital edition by The Packard Humanities Institute, Vol. 4, p. 360a. Retrieved February 6, 2017
  ^   "Pennsylvania Gazette – Benjamin Franklin Historical Society". Retrieved December 30, 2022.
  ^  Steven Johnson (2008) The Invention of Air, p. 39 ISBN 978-1-59448-401-8. Retrieved February 6, 2017
  ^   "Founders Online: The Kite Experiment, 19 October 1752". founders.archives.gov. Retrieved December 30, 2022.
  ^  Van Doren 1938, p. 159.
  ^   Clarke, Ronald W. (1983).  Benjamin Franklin, A Biography . Random House. p. 87. ISBN  978-1-84212-272-3 .
  ^   "Franklin's Kite". Museum of Science (Boston).
^    a       b    Wolf, Abraham (1939). History of Science, Technology, and Philosophy in the Eighteenth Century. New York: Macmillan. p. 232.
  ^   "Lightning Rods: Franklin Had It Wrong".  The New York Times . June 1, 1983. Retrieved March 16, 2018.
  ^  Krider, Philip (January 2006). "Benjamin Franklin and Lightning Rods". Physics Today. 59 (1): 42. Bibcode:2006PhT....59a..42K. doi:10.1063/1.2180176. S2CID 110623159.
  ^  Houston, Alan (2008).  Benjamin Franklin and the Politics of Improvement . Yale U.P. pp. 106–41. ISBN  978-0-300-15239-5 .
  ^  Lemay, J.A. Leo (2008).  The Life of Benjamin Franklin, Volume 3: Soldier, Scientist, and Politician, 1748–1757 . U. of Pennsylvania Press. p. 245. ISBN  978-0-8122-4121-1 .
  ^  Isaacson, 2004, p. 150
  ^  Cohen, I. Bernard (2005).  The Triumph Of Numbers: How Counting Shaped Modern Life . W.W. Norton. p. 87. ISBN  978-0-393-05769-0 .
  ^  Aldridge, Alfred Owen (1949). "Franklin as Demographer". Journal of Economic History. 9 (1): 25–44. doi:10.1017/S0022050700090318. JSTOR 2113719. S2CID 154647498.
  ^  Drake, James David (2011).  The Nation's Nature: How Continental Presumptions Gave Rise to the United States of America . U. of Virginia Press. p. 63. ISBN  978-0-8139-3122-7 .
  ^  Kammen, Michael G. (1990).  People of Paradox: An Inquiry Concerning the Origins of American Civilization . Cornell U.P. p. 81. ISBN  978-0-8014-9755-1 .
  ^  Van Cleve, George William (2010).  A Slaveholders' Union: Slavery, Politics, and the Constitution in the Early American Republic . U. of Chicago Press. p. 148. ISBN  978-0-226-84669-9 .
  ^   "The Writings of Benjamin Franklin, Volume III: London, 1757 – 1775 – On the Price of Corn, and Management of the Poor". Historycarper.com. Archived from the original on December 2, 2011. Retrieved December 11, 2011.
  ^  Tuchman, Barbara W. The First Salute: A View of the American Revolution New York: Ballantine Books, 1988. pp.221–222.
  ^  Anon. "1785: Benjamin Franklin's 'Sundry Maritime Observations'". Ocean Explorer: Readings for ocean explorers. NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research. Archived from the original on December 18, 2005. Retrieved July 15, 2010.
  ^  Philip L. Richardson (February 8, 1980), "Benjamin Franklin and Timothy Folger's first printed chart of the Gulf Stream", Science, vol. 207, no. 4431, pp. 643–45.
  ^  Wood, Anthony R. "How Franklin's chart resurfaced". www.inquirer.com. Retrieved December 30, 2022.
  ^  John N. Wilford, "Prints of Franklin's chart of Gulf Stream found", New York Times, pp. A1, B7 (February 6, 1980).
  ^  1785: Benjamin Franklin's "Sundry Maritime Observations,"
 The Academy of Natural Sciences, April 1939 m
  ^   1785: Benjamin Franklin's 'Sundry Maritime Observations' . Archived October 2, 2008, at the Wayback Machine NOAA Ocean Explorer.
  ^  Source: Explanations and Sailing Directions to Accompany the Wind and Current Charts, 1853, p. 53, by Matthew Fontaine Maury
  ^   Price, Richard; Thomas, David Oswald; Peach, Bernard (1994).  The Correspondence of Richard Price: February 1786 – February 1791 . Duke University Press. p. 23. ISBN  978-0-8223-1327-4 . Retrieved October 2, 2009.
  ^  Jogn Gribbin, "In search of Schrödinger's cat", Black Swan, p. 12
  ^  Heidorn, Keith C. Heidorn, PhD.  Eclipsed By Storm. The Weather Doctor. October 1, 2003.
  ^   "Memoirs of the literary and philosophical society of Manchester". www.dartmouth.edu. Archived from the original on June 15, 2018. Retrieved December 3, 2019.
  ^  Fisher, Sydney George (1903).  The True Benjamin Franklin  (5 ed.). Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company. p. 19.
  ^  Pocock, George (1851).  A Treatise on The Aeropleustic Art, or Navigation in the Air, by means of Kites, or Buoyant Sails . London: Longmans, Brown, and Co. p. 9.
  ^   "The Writings of Benjamin Franklin: London, 1757–1775". Historycarper.com. Archived from the original on January 28, 2011. Retrieved September 14, 2010.
  ^   "Founders Online: From Benjamin Franklin to John Lining, 17 June 1758". founders.archives.gov. Retrieved June 30, 2021.
  ^  Faraday, Michael (1839).  Experimental researches in electricity . Vol. 2. R. &amp; J.E. Taylor. p. v. Franklin's experiments on the non-conduction of ice ... 
  ^  Jones, Thomas P. (1836).  Journal of the Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania . Pergamon Press. pp. 182–83. In the fourth series of his electrical researches, Mr. Faraday ... 
  ^  * W. Gratzer, Eurekas and Euphorias, pp. 80–81
^    a       b     Franklin, Benjamin (1975) [1772]. "To Joseph Priestley". In Willcox, William Bradford (ed.). The papers of Benjamin Franklin: January 1 through December 31, 1772. Vol. 19. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 299–300. ISBN  978-0-300-01865-3 . OCLC 310601.
  ^  Franklin, Autobiography, ed. Lemay, p. 65
  ^  Isaacson, 2004, p. 354
  ^  Isaacson, 2004, p. 5–18
  ^   "Isaacson, 2003, p. 15". Oldsouth.org. Archived from the original on May 31, 2008. Retrieved September 21, 2009.
  ^  Isaacson, 2004, p. 26
  ^  Isaacson, 2004, p. 102
  ^  Franklin, Benjamin (November 20, 1728). "Articles of Belief and Acts of Religion". Benjamin Franklin Papers. franklinpapers.org. Archived from the original on July 26, 2011. Retrieved December 24, 2010.
  ^  Franklin, Benjamin (1771). Autobiography and other writings. Cambridge: Riverside. p. 52.
  ^  Olson, Roger (2009).  The Mosaic of Christian Belief: Twenty Centuries of Unity and Diversity . InterVarsity Press. ISBN  978-0-8308-2695-7 . Other Deists and natural religionists who considered themselves Christians in some sense of the word included Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin. 
  ^  Isaacson, 2004, p. 486
  ^  Eidenmuller, Michael E. "Online Speech Bank: Benjamin Franklin's Prayer Speech at the Constitutional Convention of 1787". Americanrhetoric.com. Retrieved September 21, 2009.
  ^  Rossiter, Clinton. 1787. The Grand Convention (1966), pp. 184–85
  ^  Isaacson, 2004, pp. 107–113
^    a       b    Franklin Benjamin "Benjamin Franklin's Autobiography". Archived September 5, 2008, at the Wayback Machine Section 2 reprinted on UShistory.org.
  ^   "Benjamin Franklin". History.hanover.edu. Retrieved September 21, 2009.
  ^  Isaacson, 2004, p. 485
  ^  Isaacson, 2004, p. 149
  ^  Bailyn, 1992, pp. 273–74, 299–300
^    a       b    Bailyn, 1992, p. 303
  ^  Isaacson, 2004, pp. 10, 102, 489
  ^  Weber, Max (2002).  The Protestant Ethic and the "Spirit of Capitalism" . Translated by Peter Baehr; Gordon C. Wells. Penguin Books. pp. 9–11. ISBN  9780486122373 .
^    a       b    Isaacson, 2004, pp. 93ff
  ^  Bailyn, 1992, p. 249
  ^  Isaacson, 2004, p. 112
  ^  Franklin, Benjamin (2003).  The Political Thought of Benjamin Franklin . ISBN  978-0-87220-683-0 .
  ^   "Chapter 2, The History of Essex Hall by Mortimer Rowe B.A., D.D. Lindsey Press, 1959". Unitarian.org.uk. Archived from the original on March 26, 2012. Retrieved June 20, 2011.
  ^  Isaacson, 2004, p.46
  ^   "Benjamin Franklin's Autobiography". www.usgennet.org. Retrieved December 30, 2022.
  ^   "A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain". Historycarper.com. Archived from the original on May 28, 2009. Retrieved September 21, 2009.
^    a       b    Isaacson, 2004, p. 45
  ^  Isaacson, 2004, pp. 46, 486
  ^  Mencken, Henry Louis; Nathan, George Jean (October 19, 2009).  The American Mercury, Volume 8 . Garber Communications. It is well known that in his youth Benjamin Franklin was a thorough-going Deist, but because he proposed that prayers be said in the Constitution Convention of 1787 many have contended that in later life he became a pious Christian. 
  ^  Frasca, Ralph (2009).  Benjamin Franklin's Printing Network: Disseminating Virtue in Early America . University of Missouri Press. p. 40. ISBN  978-0-8262-6492-3 . Despite being raised a Puritan of the Congregationalist stripe by his parents, who "brought me through my Childhood piously in the Dissenting Way", Franklin recalled, he abandoned that denomination, briefly embraced deism, and finally became a non-denominational Protestant Christian. 
  ^  Morgan, David T. "Benjamin Franklin: Champion of Generic Religion". The Historian. 62#4 2000. pp. 722+
  ^  Benjamin Franklin to Richard Price, October 9, 1780 Writings 8:153–54
  ^  "The Great Seal of the United States" (July 2003). Bureau of Public Affairs, United States Department of State.
  ^  "1782: Original Design of the Great Seal of the United States", Our Documents: 100 Milestone Documents from the National Archives. National Archives (Oxford University Press, 2006), pp. 18–19.
  ^  Coffman, Steve, ed. (2012).  Words of the Founding Fathers: Selected Quotations of Franklin, Washington, Adams, Jefferson, Madison and Hamilton, with Sources . Jefferson, NC: McFarland. p. 97. ISBN  978-0-7864-5862-2 .
  ^   "The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin". standardebooks.org. Retrieved June 12, 2021.
  ^   "The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin". www.ushistory.org. Retrieved December 30, 2022.
  ^  Nash, 2006, p. 618-638
  ^   "Benjamin Franklin Abolitionist".  PBS . Retrieved March 23, 2021.
  ^  Nash, 2006, p. 623-624
  ^  Nash, 2006, p. 619-620
  ^  Isaacson, 2004, Chapter 8, p.[ page needed ]
  ^    Eighty-eight Years – The Long Death of Slavery in the United States, 1777–1865 . University of Georgia Press. 2015. ISBN  9780820333953 .
  ^  Arnold, Isaac N. (1866).  The History of Abraham Lincoln, and the Overthrow of Slavery . Clarke &amp; Company.
  ^  Waldstreicher, David (July 2004). "Benjamin Franklin, Slavery, and the Founders: On the dangers of reading backwards". Common-Place. 04 (4).
  ^   "Pennsylvania Abolition Society".
  ^  Benjamin Franklin for The Pennsylvania Abolition Society to the United States Congress, The memorial of the Pennsylvania Society for promoting the Abolition of Slavery, the relief of free Negroes unlawfully held in bondage, and the Improvement of the Conditions of the African Race (February 3, 1790)
  ^  Jehlen, Myra; Warner, Michael, eds. (1997).  The English Literatures of America, 1500–1800 . Psychology Press. p. 891. ISBN  0-415-91903-7 .
  ^  Kaiser, Larry. "What Benjamin Franklin Really Said About Vegetarianism". The Vegetarian Resource Group. Retrieved February 8, 2020.
  ^  Franklin, Benjamin. "Part One".  The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin .
  ^  Richards, Jennie (January 20, 2016). "Benjamin Franklin said "Eating Flesh is Unprovoked Murder"". Humane Decisions. Retrieved February 8, 2020.
  ^  Lamb, Camille (April 9, 2012). "Ben Franklin Practiced Vegetarianism". Miami New Times. Retrieved February 8, 2020.
^    a       b     "Benjamin Franklin on Food". Feast and Phrase. Retrieved February 8, 2020.
  ^   Shurtleff, William; Aoyagi, Akiko (2013).  History of Tofu and Tofu Products (965 CE to 2013) . Soyinfo Center. p. 73. ISBN  9781928914556 .
  ^   ""Homespun": Second Reply to "Vindex Patriae"". Founders Online. National Archives: National Historical Publications and Records Commission. Retrieved February 8, 2020.
  ^   "Benjamin Franklin's Fight Against A Deadly Virus". Retrieved September 27, 2021 – via The Conversation.
  ^  One article posited that "epidemeal distempers (such as smallpox) come as Judgments from an angry and displeased God."
  ^  Jacoby, Jeff (September 27, 2021). "A Founding Father's Vaccine Regret". Retrieved September 27, 2021 – via Boston Globe.
  ^  Korn, Michael (September 28, 2015). "Benjamin Franklin, the Composer". Institute for Music Leadership. Retrieved April 3, 2021.
  ^   "GFI Scientific glass blowing products and services". www.finkenbeiner.com. Retrieved December 30, 2022.
  ^   Watefield, Robin (August 1, 2003).  Hidden Depths: The Story of Hypnosis: The Story of Hypnosis . Routledge. p. 67. ISBN  978-1-135-40367-6 .
^    a       b    Apel, Willi (1969). "Glass harmonica". Harvard Dictionary of Music. Harvard. p. 347. ISBN  9780674375017 .
  ^  Benke, Richard (February 25, 2001). "'Armonicists' Debate Source of Beethoven's Maladies". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved August 21, 2018.
  ^  Carmel, Jeffrey J. (November 22, 1983). "Franklin invented it, Mozart wrote for it: the 'armonica' returns". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved August 21, 2018.
  ^  Osborne, Charles (April 1, 1994).  The bel canto operas of Rossini, Donizetti, and Bellini . Amadeus Press. ISBN  978-0-931340-71-0 .
  ^   The Carnival of the Animals : Scores at the International Music Score Library Project
^    a       b       c    McCrary, John. "Chess and Benjamin Franklin-His Pioneering Contributions" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved April 26, 2009.
  ^  David Hooper and Kenneth Whyld, The Oxford Companion to Chess, Oxford University Press (2nd ed. 1992), p. 145. ISBN 0-19-866164-9.
  ^  The essay appears in Marcello Truzzi (ed.), Chess in Literature, Avon Books, 1974, pp. 14–15. ISBN 0-380-00164-0.
  ^  The essay appears in a book by the felicitously named Norman Knight, "Chess Pieces",  Chess Magazine , Sutton Coldfield, England (2nd ed. 1968), pp. 5–6. ISBN 0-380-00164-0.
  ^  Franklin's essay is also reproduced at the U.S. Chess Center Museum and Hall of Fame in Washington, DC. Retrieved December 3, 2008.
  ^  William Temple Franklin, Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Benjamin Franklin, reprinted in Knight, Chess Pieces, pp. 136–37.
  ^  Price, Bill (2015). The History of Chess in Fifty Moves. Buffalo, New York: Firefly Books (U.S.) Inc. pp. 90–95. ISBN  978-1-77085-529-8 .
  ^  Murrell, David (April 21, 2017). "How the Country's Second Oldest Chess Club is Surviving in a Center City Basement". The Philadelphia Inquirer. Retrieved September 17, 2021.
  ^   "Pennsylvania Historical Marker Search". PHMC. Retrieved November 3, 2018.
  ^   "Seven Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a U.S. Dollar Amount - 1790 to Present". measuringworth.com. Archived from the original on April 8, 2007. Retrieved October 21, 2021.
  ^  Richard Price. Observations on the Importance of the American Revolution, and the Means of Making it a Benefit to the World. To which is added, a Letter from M. Turgot, late Comptroller-General of the Finances of France: with an Appendix, containing a Translation of the Will of M. Fortuné Ricard, lately published in France. London: T. Cadell, 1785.
  ^   "Excerpt from Philadelphia Inquirer article by Clark De Leon". Mathsci.appstate.edu. February 7, 1993. Archived from the original on May 10, 2010. Retrieved September 21, 2009.
  ^   "History of the Benjamin Franklin Institute of Technology". Bfit.edu. Archived from the original on July 31, 2008. Retrieved September 21, 2009.
  ^   "Letter of introduction : image". Library.fandm.edu. Archived from the original (JPG) on March 1, 2012. Retrieved September 17, 2021.
  ^  Firesign Theater quote, meant humorously but poignantly.
  ^   Breen, Walter (1988). Walter Breen's Complete Encyclopedia of U.S. and Colonial Coins. New York: Doubleday. ISBN  978-0-385-14207-6 .
  ^  Wilhite, Robert (1998).  Standard Catalog of United States Paper Money (17th ed) . Krause Pubns Inc. ISBN  0-87341-653-8 .
  ^   "U.S. Savings Bond Images". treasurydirect.gov. Archived from the original on September 5, 2006. Retrieved October 21, 2021.
  ^   "Memorial dedicated". The Intelligencer. Associated Press. April 13, 1976. Retrieved January 23, 2021 – via Newspapers.com.
  ^   "Benjamin Franklin House". Nature. 160 (4053): 15. 1947. Bibcode:1947Natur.160S..15.. doi:10.1038/160015c0.
  ^  Schultz, Colin (October 23, 2013). "Why Was Benjamin Franklin's Basement Filled with Skeletons?". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved September 17, 2021.
  ^   "News". Benjamin Franklin House. Retrieved December 30, 2022.
^    a       b    Scotts Specialized Catalogue of United States Stamps
 
Bibliography
Biographies
  Becker, Carl Lotus. "Benjamin Franklin", Dictionary of American Biography (1931) – vol 3, with links online Archived March 16, 2010, at the Wayback Machine 
 Brands, H. W. (2000).  The First American: The Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin . ISBN  978-0-385-49540-0 . 
Crane, Vernon W. Benjamin Franklin and a rising people (1954) short biography by a scholar; online free 
Franklin, Benjamin. The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin; many editions
Gaustad, Edwin S. Benjamin Franklin (2006) doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195305357.001.0001 online
 Isaacson, Walter (2003).  Benjamin Franklin: An American Life . New York: Simon &amp; Schuster. ISBN  9780743258074 . 
 James Srodes, Franklin, The Essential Founding Father, (2002, softcover 2003, Regnery History) ISBN 978-0-89526-163-2, 978-0-89526-104-5 
Ketcham, Ralph. Benjamin Franklin (1966) 228 pp online edition, short biography by scholar
 Lemay, J.A. Leo. The Life of Benjamin Franklin, scholarly biography, 3 volumes appeared before the author's death in 2008
  Volume 1: Journalist, 1706–1730 (2005) 568 pp ISBN 978-0-8122-3854-9 
 Volume 2: Printer and publisher, 1730–1747 (2005) 664 pp ISBN 978-0-8122-3855-6 
 Volume 3: Soldier, scientist, and politician, 1748–1757 (2008), 768 pp ISBN 978-0-8122-4121-1   
 Morgan, Edmund S. Benjamin Franklin (2003), interpretation by leading scholar online free 
 Schiff, Stacy, A Great Improvisation: Franklin, France, and the Birth of America, (2005) Henry Holt
  Van Doren, Carl (1938).  Benjamin Franklin . Viking. ISBN  978-1-931541-85-5 ., Pulitzer Prize winning biography; online free 
  Wood, Gordon S. (April 13, 2021). "Benjamin Franklin | Biography, Inventions, Books, American Revolution, &amp; Facts | Britannica".  Encyclopædia Britannica . Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Archived from the original on July 2, 2021. Retrieved July 10, 2021. 
 Wood, Gordon. The Americanization of Benjamin Franklin (2005) ISBN 978-0-14-303528-2, intellectual history by leading historian.
 Wright, Esmond. Franklin of Philadelphia (1986) ISBN 978-0-674-31810-6 – scholarly study 
Scholarly studies
   "Inventor". The Franklin Institute. Archived from the original on March 5, 2007. Retrieved April 25, 2012. 
Anderson, Douglas. The Radical Enlightenments of Benjamin Franklin (1997) – fresh look at the intellectual roots of Franklin
Buxbaum, M.H., ed. Critical Essays on Benjamin Franklin (1987)
Chaplin, Joyce. The First Scientific American: Benjamin Franklin and the Pursuit of Genius. (2007)
Cohen, I. Bernard. Benjamin Franklin's Science (1990) – Cohen, the leading specialist, has several books on Franklin's science
Conner, Paul W. Poor Richard's Politicks (1965) – analyzes Franklin's ideas in terms of the Enlightenment and republicanism
 Dray, Philip. Stealing God's Thunder: Benjamin Franklin's Lightning Rod and the Invention of America. (2005). 279 pp.
Dull, Jonathan. A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution (1985)
Dull, Jonathan. Benjamin Franklin and the American Revolution (2010)
Ford, Paul Leicester. The Many-Sided Franklin (1899) online edition – collection of scholarly essays
  "Franklin as Politician and Diplomatist" in The Century (October 1899) v. 57 pp. 881–899. By Paul Leicester Ford.
 "Franklin as Printer and Publisher" in The Century (April 1899) v. 57 pp. 803–818.
 "Franklin as Scientist" in The Century (September 1899) v.57 pp. 750–763. By Paul Leicester Ford.  
Frasca, Ralph. "Benjamin Franklin's Printing Network and the Stamp Act." Pennsylvania History 71.4 (2004): 403–419 online.
Frasca, Ralph. Benjamin Franklin's printing network: disseminating virtue in early America (U of Missouri Press, 2006) excerpt.
 Gleason, Philip (2000). "Trouble in the Colonial Melting Pot". Journal of American Ethnic History. 20 (1): 3–17. doi:10.2307/27502642. JSTOR 27502642. S2CID 254480258. 
Houston, Alan. Benjamin Franklin and the Politics of Improvement (2009)
Lemay, J.A. Leo, ed. Reappraising Benjamin Franklin: A Bicentennial Perspective (1993) – scholarly essays
Mathews, L.K. "Benjamin Franklin's Plans for a Colonial Union, 1750–1775." American Political Science Review 8 (August 1914): 393–412.
  McCoy, Drew R. (1978). "Benjamin Franklin's Vision of a Republican Political Economy for America". William and Mary Quarterly. 35 (4): 607–628. doi:10.2307/1923207. JSTOR 1923207. 
Merli, Frank J., and Theodore A. Wilson, eds. Makers of American diplomacy, from Benjamin Franklin to Henry Kissinger (1974) online free 
 Nash, Gary B. (December 2006). "Franklin and Slavery". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 150 (4): 618–638. JSTOR 4599029. 
Newman, Simon P. "Benjamin Franklin and the Leather-Apron Men: The Politics of Class in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia", Journal of American Studies, August 2009, Vol. 43#2 pp. 161–75; Franklin took pride in his working class origins and his printer's skills.
 Olsen, Neil C. (2013). Pursuing Happiness: The Organizational Culture of the Continental Congress. Nonagram Publications. ISBN  978-1-4800-6550-5 . 
Olson, Lester C. Benjamin Franklin's Vision of American Community: A Study in Rhetorical Iconology. (2004). 323 pp.
Rosenthall, Karen M. "A Generative Populace: Benjamin Franklin's Economic Agendas" Early American Literature 51#3 (2016), pp. 571–598. online 
Schiffer, Michael Brian. Draw the Lightning Down: Benjamin Franklin and Electrical Technology in the Age of Enlightenment. (2003). 383 pp.
Skemp, Sheila L. Benjamin and William Franklin: Father and Son, Patriot and Loyalist (1994) – Ben's son was a leading Loyalist
Sletcher, Michael. 'Domesticity: The Human Side of Benjamin Franklin', Magazine of History, XXI (2006).
Waldstreicher, David. Runaway America: Benjamin Franklin, Slavery, and the American Revolution. Hill and Wang, 2004. 315 pp.
 Walters, Kerry S. Benjamin Franklin and His Gods. (1999). 213 pp. Takes position midway between D H Lawrence's brutal 1930 denunciation of Franklin's religion as nothing more than a bourgeois commercialism tricked out in shallow utilitarian moralisms and Owen Aldridge's sympathetic 1967 treatment of the dynamism and protean character of Franklin's "polytheistic" religion.
York, Neil. "When Words Fail: William Pitt, Benjamin Franklin and the Imperial Crisis of 1766", Parliamentary History, October 2009, Vol. 28#3 pp. 341–374 
Historiography
 Brands, H. W. "Lives and Times" Reviews in American History 41#2 (2013), pp. 207–212. online 
Waldstreicher, David, ed. A Companion to Benjamin Franklin (2011), 25 essays by scholars emphasizing how historians have handled Franklin. online edition  
Primary sources
 " A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain ."
" Experiments and Observations on Electricity ." (1751)
" Fart Proudly: Writings of Benjamin Franklin You Never Read in School." Carl Japikse, Ed. Frog Ltd.; Reprint ed. 2003. ISBN 1-58394-079-0 
"Heroes of America Benjamin Franklin."
"On Marriage."
"Satires and Bagatelles."
 Autobiography, Poor Richard, &amp; Later Writings (J.A. Leo Lemay, ed.) (Library of America, 1987 one-volume, 2005 two-volume) ISBN 978-1-883011-53-6 
 Benjamin Franklin Reader edited by Walter Isaacson (2003)
  Benjamin Franklin's Autobiography  edited by J.A. Leo Lemay and P.M. Zall, (Norton Critical Editions, 1986); 390 pp. text, contemporary documents and 20th century analysis
 Franklin, B.; Majault, M.J.; Le Roy, J.B.; Sallin, C.L.; Bailly, J.-S.; d'Arcet, J.; de Bory, G.; Guillotin, J.-I.; Lavoisier, A. (2002). "Report of The Commissioners charged by the King with the Examination of Animal Magnetism". International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis. 50 (4): 332–363. doi:10.1080/00207140208410109. PMID 12362951. S2CID 36506710. 
 Franklin, Benjamin (1769).  Experiments and observations on electricity, made at Philadelphia in America . London : Printed for David Henry; and sold by Francis Newberry. 
Houston, Alan, ed. Franklin: The Autobiography and other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue. Cambridge University Press, 2004. 371 pp.
Ketcham, Ralph, ed. The Political Thought of Benjamin Franklin. (1965, reprinted 2003). 459 pp.
Lass, Hilda, ed.  The Fabulous American: A Benjamin Franklin Almanac. (1964). 222 pp.
Leonard Labaree, and others., eds.,  The Papers of Benjamin Franklin , 39 vols. to date (1959–2008), definitive edition, through 1783. This massive collection of BF's writings, and letters to him, is available in large academic libraries. It is most useful for detailed research on specific topics. The complete text of all the documents are online and searchable; The Index is also online at the Wayback Machine (archived September 28, 2010).
 Poor Richard Improved by Benjamin Franklin (1751)
 Silence Dogood, The Busy-Body, &amp; Early Writings (J.A. Leo Lemay, ed.) (Library of America, 1987 one-volume, 2005 two-volume) ISBN 978-1-931082-22-8 
 The Papers of Benjamin Franklin online, Sponsored by The American Philosophical Society and Yale University
  The Way to Wealth . Applewood Books; 1986. ISBN 0-918222-88-5 
 Writings (Franklin)|Writings. ISBN 0-940450-29-1  
For young readers
  Asimov, Isaac. The Kite That Won the Revolution, a biography for children that focuses on Franklin's scientific and diplomatic contributions.
Fleming, Candace. Ben Franklin's Almanac: Being a True Account of the Good Gentleman's Life. Atheneum/Anne Schwart, 2003, 128 pp. ISBN 978-0-689-83549-0.
Miller, Brandon. Benjamin Franklin, American Genius: His Life and Ideas with 21 Activities (For Kids series) 2009 Chicago Review Press 
External links
   These audio files were created from a revision of this article dated 4 August 2008, and do not reflect subsequent edits. 
   External video    Presentation by H.W. Brands on The First American: The Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin, October 5, 2000, C-SPAN    Presentation by Walter Isaacson on Benjamin Franklin: An American Life, July 22, 2003, C-SPAN    Presentation by Edmund S. Morgan on Benjamin Franklin, November 12, 2002, C-SPAN    Presentation by Stacy Schiff on A Great Improvisation: Franklin, France, and the Birth of America, April 12, 2005, C-SPAN     Booknotes interview with James Srodes on Franklin: The Essential Founding Father, May 19, 2002, C-SPAN    Interview with Gordon S. Wood on The Americanization of Benjamin Franklin, June 4, 2004, C-SPAN    Panel discussion on Franklin with Walter Isaacson, Gordon Wood, and Stacy Schiff, hosted by Jim Lehrer, January 8, 2006, C-SPAN   
  Benjamin Franklin and Electrostatics Archived August 14, 2017, at the Wayback Machine experiments and Franklin's electrical writings from Wright Center for Science Education
 Benjamin Franklin Papers, Kislak Center for Special Collections, Rare Books and Manuscripts, University of Pennsylvania. 
 Franklin's impact on medicine – talk by medical historian, Dr. Jim Leavesley celebrating the 300th anniversary of Franklin's birth on Okham's Razor ABC Radio National – December 2006
 Video with sheet music of Benjamin Franklin's string quartet 
Biographical and guides
  
 Biography at the  Biographical Directory of the United States Congress  
 "Special Report: Citizen Ben's Greatest Virtues"  Time  
 "Writings of Benjamin Franklin" from C-SPAN's  American Writers: A Journey Through History  
Afsai, Shai (2019). "Benjamin Franklin's Influence on Mussar Thought and Practice: a Chronicle of Misapprehension." Review of Rabbinic Judaism 22, 2: 228–276.
 Benjamin Franklin: A Documentary History by J.A. Leo Lemay
 Benjamin Franklin: An extraordinary life PBS
 Benjamin Franklin: First American Diplomat, 1776–1785 US State Department
 Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Franklin, Benjamin" .  Encyclopædia Britannica  (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 
 Finding Franklin: A Resource Guide Library of Congress
 Guide to Benjamin Franklin Archived March 16, 2010, at the Wayback Machine By a history professor at the University of Illinois.
 Online edition of Franklin's personal library 
 The Electric Benjamin Franklin ushistory.org 
Online writings
  "A Silence Dogood Sampler" – Selections from Franklin's Silence Dogood writings 
 Abridgement of the Book of Common Prayer (1773), by Benjamin Franklin and Francis Dashwood, transcribed by Richard Mammana
 Franklin's Last Will &amp; Testament Transcription.
 Library of Congress web resource: Benjamin Franklin ... In His Own Words  
 Online Works by Franklin 
 Works by Benjamin Franklin at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) 
 Works by Benjamin Franklin in eBook form at Standard Ebooks 
 Works by Benjamin Franklin at Project Gutenberg 
 Works by or about Benjamin Franklin at Internet Archive 
 Yale edition of complete works, the standard scholarly edition
  Online, searchable edition    
Autobiography
   The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin  at Project Gutenberg
  The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin  LibriVox recording 
In the arts
  Benjamin Franklin 300 (1706–2006) Official web site of the Benjamin Franklin Tercentenary.
The Historical Society of Pennsylvania Collection of Benjamin Franklin Papers, including correspondence, government documents, writings and a copy of his will, are available for research use at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania.
Benjamin Franklin - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton
Alexander Hamilton - Wikipedia
2002-02-24
Authority control
<div><div>
<table><tbody><tr><th><p>Alexander Hamilton</p></th></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:John_Trumbull_-_Alexander_Hamilton_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"></a><div><p>Portrait by <a href="/wiki/John_Trumbull">John Trumbull</a>, 1806<sup><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup></p></div></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><th>1st <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury">United States Secretary of the Treasury</a></th></tr><tr><td><b>In office</b><br />September 11, 1789 – January 31, 1795</td></tr><tr><th>President</th><td><a href="/wiki/George_Washington">George Washington</a></td></tr><tr><th>Preceded by</th><td><i>Office established</i></td></tr><tr><th>Succeeded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wolcott_Jr.">Oliver Wolcott Jr.</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/Senior_Officer_of_the_United_States_Army">Senior Officer of the United States Army</a></th></tr><tr><td><b>In office</b><br />December 14, 1799 – June 15, 1800</td></tr><tr><th>President</th><td><a href="/wiki/John_Adams">John Adams</a></td></tr><tr><th>Preceded by</th><td>George Washington</td></tr><tr><th>Succeeded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/James_Wilkinson">James Wilkinson</a><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup></td></tr><tr><th>Delegate to the<br /><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_Confederation">Congress of the Confederation</a><br />from <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)">New York</a></th></tr><tr><td><b>In office</b><br />November 3, 1788 – March 2, 1789<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup></td></tr><tr><th>Preceded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/Egbert_Benson">Egbert Benson</a><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup></td></tr><tr><th>Succeeded by</th><td><i>Seat abolished</i></td></tr><tr><td><b>In office</b><br />November 4, 1782 – June 21, 1783<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup></td></tr><tr><th>Preceded by</th><td><i>Seat established</i></td></tr><tr><th>Succeeded by</th><td><i>Seat abolished</i></td></tr><tr><th>Personal details</th></tr><tr><th>Born</th><td>January 11, 1755 or 1757<br /><a href="/wiki/Charlestown,_Nevis">Charlestown, Nevis</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_Leeward_Islands">British Leeward Islands</a> <br /> (now <a href="/wiki/Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a>)</td></tr><tr><th>Died</th><td>July 12, 1804 (aged 47 or 49)<br /><a href="/wiki/Manhattan">Manhattan</a>, New York, U.S.</td></tr><tr><th>Cause of death</th><td><a href="/wiki/Gunshot_wound">Gunshot wound</a></td></tr><tr><th>Resting place</th><td><a href="/wiki/Trinity_Church_Cemetery">Trinity Church Cemetery</a></td></tr><tr><th>Political party</th><td><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Party">Federalist</a></td></tr><tr><th>Spouse</th><td><div><div><p><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Schuyler">Elizabeth Schuyler</a></p></div> <p>​</p><p>(<abbr>m.</abbr> )<wbr></wbr>​</p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Children</th><td><div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Hamilton">Philip</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Angelica_Hamilton">Angelica</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton_Jr.">Alexander</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/James_Alexander_Hamilton">James</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/John_Church_Hamilton">John</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/William_S._Hamilton">William</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Eliza_Hamilton_Holly">Eliza</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Hamilton_(the_second)">Philip</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Parent(s)</th><td>James A. Hamilton<br />Rachel Faucette</td></tr><tr><th>Relatives</th><td><a href="/wiki/Hamilton_family">Hamilton family</a></td></tr><tr><th>Education</th><td><a href="/wiki/Snyder_Academy">Elizabethtown Academy</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/Alma_mater">Alma mater</a></th><td><a href="/wiki/Columbia_College_(New_York)">Columbia College</a> (<a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts">MA</a>)</td></tr><tr><th>Signature</th><td><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_Hamilton_Signaturert.svg"></a></td></tr><tr><th>Military service</th></tr><tr><th>Allegiance</th><td><a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)">New York</a> (1775–1777)<br />United States (1777–1800)</td></tr><tr><th>Branch/service</th><td><a href="/wiki/New_York_Provincial_Company_of_Artillery">New York Provincial Company of Artillery</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Continental_Army">Continental Army</a><br /><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army">United States Army</a></td></tr><tr><th>Years of service</th><td>1775–1776 (Militia)<br />1776–1782<br />1798–1800</td></tr><tr><th>Rank</th><td><a href="/wiki/Major_general_(United_States)">Major general</a></td></tr><tr><th>Commands</th><td><a href="/wiki/Senior_Officer_of_the_United_States_Army">U.S. Army Senior Officer</a></td></tr><tr><th>Battles/wars</th><td><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War">American Revolutionary War</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Harlem_Heights">Battle of Harlem Heights</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_White_Plains">Battle of White Plains</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Trenton">Battle of Trenton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Princeton">Battle of Princeton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Brandywine">Battle of Brandywine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Germantown">Battle of Germantown</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Monmouth">Battle of Monmouth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Yorktown">Siege of Yorktown</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-War">Quasi-War</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Alexander Hamilton</b> (January 11, 1755 or 1757<sup><a href="#cite_note-6">[a]</a></sup> – July 12, 1804) was a <a href="/wiki/Nevis">Nevisian</a>-born American military officer, statesman, and <a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States">Founding Father</a> who served as the first <a href="/wiki/United_States_secretary_of_the_treasury">United States secretary of the treasury</a> from 1789 to 1795.
</p><p>Born out of wedlock in <a href="/wiki/Charlestown,_Nevis">Charlestown, Nevis</a>, Hamilton was orphaned as a child and taken in by a prosperous merchant. He pursued his education in New York where, despite his age, he was a prolific and widely read <a href="/wiki/Pamphleteer">pamphleteer</a> advocating for the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution">American revolutionary cause</a>, though an anonymous one. He then served as an artillery officer in the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War">American Revolutionary War</a>, where he saw action in the <a href="/wiki/New_York_and_New_Jersey_campaign">New York and New Jersey campaign</a>, served for years as an aide to General <a href="/wiki/George_Washington">George Washington</a>, and helped secure American victory at the climactic <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Yorktown">Siege of Yorktown</a>. After the war, Hamilton served as a delegate from New York to the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_Confederation">Congress of the Confederation</a>. He resigned to practice law and founded the <a href="/wiki/Bank_of_New_York">Bank of New York</a>. In 1786, Hamilton led <a href="/wiki/Annapolis_Convention_(1786)">the Annapolis Convention</a> to replace the <a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States">Constitution of the United States</a>, which he helped ratify by writing 51 of the 85 installments of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i>.
</p><p>As a trusted member of President Washington's first cabinet, Hamilton led <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Treasury">the Department of the Treasury</a>. He envisioned a <a href="/wiki/Central_government">central government</a> led by an energetic president, a strong national defense, and an industrial economy. He successfully argued that the <a href="/wiki/Implied_powers">implied powers</a> of the Constitution provided the legal authority to fund <a href="/wiki/National_debt_of_the_United_States">the national debt</a>, assume the states' debts, and create the <a href="/wiki/First_Bank_of_the_United_States">First Bank of the United States</a>, which was funded by a tariff on imports and a <a href="/wiki/Whiskey_tax">whiskey tax</a>. He opposed American entanglement with the succession of unstable <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution">French Revolutionary governments</a> and pushed for the <a href="/wiki/Jay_Treaty">Jay Treaty</a>, which resumed friendly trade relations with Great Britain. He also persuaded Congress to establish the <a href="/wiki/Revenue_Cutter_Service">Revenue Cutter Service</a>. Hamilton's views became the basis for the <a href="/wiki/Federalist_Party">Federalist Party</a>, which was opposed by the <a href="/wiki/Democratic-Republican_Party">Democratic-Republican Party</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>.
</p><p>After resigning from the secretaryship, Hamilton resumed his legal and business activities. He was a leader in the abolition of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade">international slave trade</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Quasi-War">Quasi-War</a>, Hamilton called for mobilization against France and President <a href="/wiki/John_Adams">John Adams</a> appointed him as major general, but the army did not see combat. Outraged by the president's response to the crisis, Hamilton opposed Adams' <a href="/wiki/1800_United_States_presidential_election">re-election campaign</a>. Jefferson and <a href="/wiki/Aaron_Burr">Aaron Burr</a> tied for the presidency in the electoral college and, despite philosophical differences, Hamilton endorsed Jefferson to defeat Burr, whom he found unprincipled. Vice President Burr ran for governor of New York <a href="/wiki/1804_New_York_gubernatorial_election">in 1804</a> and Hamilton campaigned against him as unworthy. Taking offense, Burr challenged him to <a href="/wiki/Burr%E2%80%93Hamilton_duel">a duel</a> in which Burr shot Hamilton, who died the next day.
</p><p>Scholars generally regard Hamilton as an astute and intellectually brilliant administrator, politician, and financier, if often impetuous. His ideas are credited with laying the foundation for American government and finance.
</p>
<h2>Early life and education</h2>
<p>Alexander Hamilton was born and spent part of his childhood in <a href="/wiki/Charlestown,_Nevis">Charlestown</a>, the capital of the island of <a href="/wiki/Nevis">Nevis</a> in the <a href="/wiki/British_Leeward_Islands">British Leeward Islands</a>. Hamilton and his older brother James Jr.<sup><a href="#cite_note-ramsing-7">[6]</a></sup> were born <a href="/wiki/Out_of_wedlock">out of wedlock</a> to Rachel Faucette,<sup><a href="#cite_note-14">[b]</a></sup> a married woman of half-British and half-<a href="/wiki/French_Huguenot">French Huguenot</a> descent,<sup><a href="#cite_note-17">[c]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-18">[15]</a></sup> and James A. Hamilton, a Scotsman who was the fourth son of Alexander Hamilton, the laird of <a href="/wiki/Grange,_Ayrshire">Grange, Ayrshire</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Randall1-19">[16]</a></sup>
</p><p>Hamilton's mother had been married previously on <a href="/wiki/Saint_Croix">Saint Croix</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow10-12-20">[17]</a></sup> then ruled by <a href="/wiki/Denmark">Denmark</a>, to Danish<sup><a href="#cite_note-HamPapers1800-10">[9]</a></sup> or German merchant<sup><a href="#cite_note-Brookhiser15-21">[18]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Newton14-22">[19]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Johann_Michael_Lavien">Johann Michael Lavien</a>. They had one son, Peter Lavien.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow10-12-20">[17]</a></sup> In 1750, Faucette left her husband and first son before travelling to <a href="/wiki/Saint_Kitts">Saint Kitts</a>, where she met James Hamilton.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow10-12-20">[17]</a></sup> Hamilton and Faucette moved together to Nevis, her birthplace, where she had inherited a seaside lot in town from her father.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow17-2">[2]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England">Church of England</a> denied membership and education to Alexander and James Jr. because their parents were not legally married. While their mother lived, they received "individual tutoring"<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow17-2">[2]</a></sup> and classes in a private school led by a Jewish headmistress.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Lewisohn-23">[20]</a></sup> Alexander supplemented his education with a family library of 34 books.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow24-24">[21]</a></sup>
</p><p>James Hamilton later abandoned Rachel Faucette and their two sons, allegedly to "spar[e] [her] a charge of <a href="/wiki/Bigamy">bigamy</a>... after finding out that her first husband intend[ed] to divorce her under Danish law on grounds of adultery and desertion."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Randall1-19">[16]</a></sup> Thereafter, Rachel moved with her two children to Saint Croix, where she supported them by keeping a small store in <a href="/wiki/Christiansted">Christiansted</a>. She contracted <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever">yellow fever</a> and died on February 19, 1768, leaving Hamilton orphaned.<sup><a href="#cite_note-25">[22]</a></sup> This may have had severe emotional consequences for him, even by the standards of an 18th-century childhood.<sup><a href="#cite_note-26">[23]</a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Probate_court">probate court</a>, Faucette's "first husband seized her estate"<sup><a href="#cite_note-Randall1-19">[16]</a></sup> and obtained the few valuables that she had owned, including some household silver. Many items were auctioned off, but a friend purchased the family's books and returned them to Hamilton.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow25-30-27">[24]</a></sup>
</p><p>Hamilton became a clerk at Beekman and Cruger, a local import-export firm that traded with New York and <a href="/wiki/New_England">New England</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-28">[25]</a></sup> He and James Jr. were briefly taken in by their cousin Peter Lytton. However, Lytton took his own life in July 1769, leaving his property to his mistress and their son, and the Hamilton brothers were subsequently separated.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow25-30-27">[24]</a></sup> James Jr. apprenticed with a local carpenter, while Alexander was given a home by Thomas Stevens, a merchant from Nevis.<sup><a href="#cite_note-29">[26]</a></sup>
</p><p>Hamilton, despite being only in his teenage years, proved capable enough as a trader to be left in charge of the firm for five months in 1771 while the owner was at sea.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Founders1771-30">[27]</a></sup> He remained an avid reader and later developed an interest in writing. He began to desire a life outside the island where he lived. He wrote a letter to his father that was a detailed account of a hurricane that had devastated Christiansted on August 30, 1772.<sup><a href="#cite_note-31">[28]</a></sup> The Presbyterian Reverend Hugh Knox, a tutor and mentor to Hamilton, submitted the letter for publication in the <i>Royal Danish-American Gazette.</i> Biographer <a href="/wiki/Ron_Chernow">Ron Chernow</a> found the letter astounding because "for all its bombastic excesses, it does seem wondrous [that a] self-educated clerk could write with such verve and gusto" and that a teenage boy produced an apocalyptic "fire-and-brimstone sermon" viewing the hurricane as a "divine rebuke to human vanity and pomposity."<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow37-32">[29]</a></sup> The essay impressed community leaders, who collected a fund to send Hamilton to the North American colonies for his education.<sup><a href="#cite_note-gordon-33">[30]</a></sup>
</p><p>In October 1772, Hamilton arrived by ship in <a href="/wiki/Boston">Boston</a> and proceeded from there to <a href="/wiki/New_York_City">New York City</a>. He took lodgings with the Irish-born <a href="/wiki/Hercules_Mulligan">Hercules Mulligan</a> who, as the brother of a trader known to Hamilton's benefactors, assisted Hamilton in selling cargo that was to pay for his education and support.<sup><a href="#cite_note-OBrien-Mulligan-34">[31]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Newton64-35">[32]</a></sup> Later that year, in preparation for college work, Hamilton began to fill gaps in his education at the <a href="/wiki/Snyder_Academy">Elizabethtown Academy</a>, a preparatory school run by <a href="/wiki/Francis_Barber_(Colonel)">Francis Barber</a> in <a href="/wiki/Elizabethtown,_New_Jersey">Elizabethtown, New Jersey</a>. He there came under the influence of <a href="/wiki/William_Livingston">William Livingston</a>, a local leading intellectual and revolutionary, with whom he lived for a time.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Newton2019-227-36">[33]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-37">[34]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-38">[35]</a></sup>
</p><p>Hamilton entered Mulligan's alma mater <a href="/wiki/Columbia_College_(New_York)">King's College</a> in New York City in the autumn of 1773 as a private student, again boarding with Mulligan until officially matriculating in May 1774.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Newton69-39">[36]</a></sup> His college roommate and lifelong friend <a href="/wiki/Robert_Troup">Robert Troup</a> spoke glowingly of Hamilton's clarity in concisely explaining the patriots' case against the British in what is credited as Hamilton's first public appearance on July 6.<sup><a href="#cite_note-40">[37]</a></sup> Hamilton, Troup, and four other undergraduates formed an unnamed literary society that is regarded as a precursor of the <a href="/wiki/Philolexian_Society">Philolexian Society</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow53-41">[38]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Cardozo1902-42">[39]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Church_of_England">Church of England</a> clergyman <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Seabury_(1729%E2%80%931796)">Samuel Seabury</a> published a series of pamphlets promoting the <a href="/wiki/Loyalist">Loyalist</a> cause in 1774, to which Hamilton responded anonymously with his first political writings, <i><a href="/wiki/A_Full_Vindication_of_the_Measures_of_Congress">A Full Vindication of the Measures of Congress</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Farmer_Refuted">The Farmer Refuted</a>.</i> Seabury essentially tried to provoke fear in the colonies, and his main objective was to stop the potential union among the colonies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-43">[40]</a></sup> Hamilton published two additional pieces attacking the <a href="/wiki/Quebec_Act">Quebec Act</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-44">[41]</a></sup> and may have also authored the fifteen anonymous installments of "The Monitor" for Holt's <i>New York Journal</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Newton116-117-45">[42]</a></sup> Hamilton was a supporter of <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution">the Revolutionary cause</a> before war began, although he did not approve of mob reprisals against Loyalists. On May 10, 1775, Hamilton won credit for saving his college's president, Loyalist <a href="/wiki/Myles_Cooper">Myles Cooper</a>, from an angry mob by speaking to the crowd long enough for Cooper to escape.<sup><a href="#cite_note-46">[43]</a></sup>
</p><p>Hamilton was forced to discontinue his studies before graduating when the college closed its doors during the British occupation of the city.<sup><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-47">[44]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Revolutionary War (1775–1782)</h2>
<h3>Early military career</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_Hamilton_1757_1804_hi.jpg"></a></p><div><p><i>Alexander Hamilton in the Uniform of the New York Artillery</i> by <a href="/wiki/Alonzo_Chappel">Alonzo Chappel</a></p></div></div>
<p>In 1775, after the first engagement of American troops with the British at <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Lexington_and_Concord">Lexington and Concord</a>, Hamilton and other King's College students joined a New York volunteer <a href="/wiki/Militia_(United_States)">militia</a> company called <a href="/wiki/Hearts_of_Oak_(New_York_militia)">the Corsicans</a>, whose name reflected the <a href="/wiki/Corsican_Republic">Corsican Republic</a> that was suppressed six years earlier and young American patriots would regard as a model to be emulated.<sup><a href="#cite_note-48">[45]</a></sup>
</p><p>He drilled with the company, before classes, in the graveyard of nearby <a href="/wiki/St._Paul%27s_Chapel">St. Paul's Chapel</a>. Hamilton studied military history and tactics on his own and was soon recommended for promotion.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Newton127-49">[46]</a></sup> Under fire from <a href="/wiki/HMS_Asia_(1764)">HMS <i>Asia</i></a>, he led his newly renamed unit the "Hearts of Oak" with support from Hercules Mulligan and the <a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Liberty">Sons of Liberty</a> on a successful raid for British cannons in <a href="/wiki/The_Battery_(Manhattan)">the Battery</a>, the capture of which resulted in the unit becoming an artillery company thereafter.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McDonald-50">[47]</a></sup><sup>: 13 </sup>
</p><p>Through his connections with influential <a href="/wiki/Province_of_New_York">New York</a> patriots such as <a href="/wiki/Alexander_McDougall">Alexander McDougall</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Jay">John Jay</a>, Hamilton raised the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Provincial_Company_of_Artillery">New York Provincial Company of Artillery</a> of 60 men in 1776, and was elected <a href="/wiki/Captain_(Continental_Army)">captain</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow72-51">[48]</a></sup> The company took part in the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Campaign">campaign of 1776</a> in and around New York City; as <a href="/wiki/Rearguard">rearguard</a> of the Continental Army's retreat up Manhattan, serving at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Harlem_Heights">Battle of Harlem Heights</a> shortly after, as well as at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_White_Plains">Battle of White Plains</a> a month later. At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Trenton">Battle of Trenton</a>, it was stationed at the high point of town, the meeting of the present Warren and Broad streets, to keep the <a href="/wiki/Hessian_(soldiers)">Hessians</a> pinned in the Trenton Barracks.<sup><a href="#cite_note-stryker158-52">[49]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-ketchum361-64-53">[50]</a></sup>
</p><p>Hamilton participated in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Princeton">Battle of Princeton</a> on January 3, 1777. After an initial setback, Washington rallied the American troops and led them in a successful charge against the British forces. After making a brief stand, the British fell back, some leaving Princeton, and others taking up refuge in <a href="/wiki/Nassau_Hall">Nassau Hall</a>. Hamilton brought three cannons up and had them fire upon the building. Then some Americans rushed the front door, and broke it down. The British subsequently put a white flag outside one of the windows;<sup><a href="#cite_note-ketchum361-64-53">[50]</a></sup> 194 British soldiers walked out of the building and laid down their arms, thus ending the battle in an American victory.<sup><a href="#cite_note-stryker290-54">[51]</a></sup>
</p><p>While being stationed in <a href="/wiki/Morristown,_New_Jersey">Morristown, New Jersey</a> from December 1779 to March 1780, Hamilton met <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Schuyler">Elizabeth Schuyler</a>, a daughter of General <a href="/wiki/Philip_Schuyler">Philip Schuyler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Van_Rensselaer">Catherine Van Rensselaer</a>. They married on December 14, 1780, at the <a href="/wiki/Schuyler_Mansion">Schuyler Mansion</a> in <a href="/wiki/Albany,_New_York">Albany, New York</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow128-129-55">[52]</a></sup> They had eight children, <a href="/wiki/Philip_Hamilton">Philip</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow654-655-56">[53]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Angelica_Hamilton">Angelica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton_Jr.">Alexander</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Alexander_Hamilton">James</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-57">[54]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_Church_Hamilton">John</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_S._Hamilton">William</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eliza_Hamilton_Holly">Eliza</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Philip_Hamilton_(the_second)">another Philip</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-58">[55]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>George Washington's staff</h3>
<p>Hamilton was invited to become an aide to <a href="/wiki/William_Alexander,_Lord_Stirling">William Alexander, Lord Stirling</a>, and another general, perhaps <a href="/wiki/Nathanael_Greene">Nathanael Greene</a> or <a href="/wiki/Alexander_McDougall">Alexander McDougall</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Newton189-190-59">[56]</a></sup> He declined these invitations, believing his best chance for improving his station in life was glory on the battlefield. Hamilton eventually received an invitation he felt he could not refuse: to serve as Washington's aide, with the rank of <a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel_(United_States)">lieutenant colonel</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-60">[57]</a></sup> Washington believed that "Aides de camp are persons in whom entire confidence must be placed and it requires men of abilities to execute the duties with propriety and dispatch."<sup><a href="#cite_note-61">[58]</a></sup>
</p><p>Hamilton served four years as Washington's chief staff aide. He handled letters to Congress, state governors, and the most powerful generals of the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Army">Continental Army</a>; he drafted many of Washington's orders and letters at the latter's direction; he eventually issued orders from Washington over Hamilton's own signature.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow90-62">[59]</a></sup> Hamilton was involved in a wide variety of high-level duties, including <a href="/wiki/Military_intelligence">intelligence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diplomacy">diplomacy</a>, and negotiation with senior army officers as Washington's emissary.<sup><a href="#cite_note-63">[60]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-64">[61]</a></sup>
</p><p>During the war, Hamilton became the close friend of several fellow officers. His letters to the <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_du_Motier,_Marquis_de_Lafayette">Marquis de Lafayette</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-65">[62]</a></sup> and to <a href="/wiki/John_Laurens">John Laurens</a>, employing the <a href="/wiki/Sentimentalism_(literature)">sentimental literary conventions</a> of the late eighteenth century and alluding to Greek history and mythology,<sup><a href="#cite_note-66">[63]</a></sup> have been read by <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Ned_Katz">Jonathan Ned Katz</a> as revelatory of a <a href="/wiki/Homosocial">homosocial</a> or even homosexual relationship.<sup><a href="#cite_note-67">[64]</a></sup> Biographer Gregory D. Massey amongst others, by contrast, dismisses all such speculation as unsubstantiated, describing their friendship as purely platonic camaraderie instead and placing their correspondence in the context of the flowery diction of the time.<sup><a href="#cite_note-68">[65]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Field command</h3>
<p>While on Washington's staff, Hamilton long sought command and a return to active combat. As the war drew nearer to an end, he knew that opportunities for military glory were diminishing. On February 15, 1781, Hamilton was reprimanded by Washington after a minor misunderstanding. Although Washington quickly tried to mend their relationship, Hamilton insisted on leaving his staff.<sup><a href="#cite_note-69">[66]</a></sup> He officially left in March, and settled with his new wife <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Schuyler_Hamilton">Elizabeth Schuyler</a> close to Washington's headquarters. He continued to repeatedly ask Washington and others for a field command. Washington continued to demur, citing the need to appoint men of higher rank. This continued until early July 1781, when Hamilton submitted a letter to Washington with his <a href="/wiki/Officer_(armed_forces)">commission</a> enclosed, "thus tacitly threatening to resign if he didn't get his desired command."<sup><a href="#cite_note-70">[67]</a></sup>
</p><p>On July 31, Washington relented and assigned Hamilton as commander of <a href="/wiki/The_Light_Infantry_Division_at_Yorktown_(1781)">a battalion of light infantry companies</a> of the 1st and 2nd New York Regiments and two provisional companies from Connecticut.<sup><a href="#cite_note-71">[68]</a></sup> In the planning for <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Yorktown_(1781)">the assault on Yorktown</a>, Hamilton was given command of three <a href="/wiki/Battalion">battalions</a>, which were to fight in conjunction with the allied <a href="/wiki/France_in_the_American_Revolutionary_War">French troops</a> in taking <a href="/wiki/Redoubt">Redoubts</a> No. 9 and No. 10 of the British fortifications at Yorktown. Hamilton and his battalions took Redoubt No. 10 with <a href="/wiki/Bayonets">bayonets</a> in a nighttime action, as planned. The French also suffered heavy casualties and took Redoubt No. 9. These actions forced the British surrender of an entire army at Yorktown, marking the de facto end of the war, although small battles continued for two more years until the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)">Treaty of Paris</a> and the departure of the last British troops.<sup><a href="#cite_note-72">[69]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Morris1970-73">[70]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Return to civilian life (1782–1789)</h2>
<h3>Congress of the Confederation</h3>
<p>After Yorktown, Hamilton returned to New York and resigned his commission in March 1782. He passed the bar in July after six months of self-directed education and, in October, was licensed to argue cases before the Supreme Court of the State of New York.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Murray2007-74">[71]</a></sup> He also accepted an offer from <a href="/wiki/Robert_Morris_(financier)">Robert Morris</a> to become receiver of continental taxes for the State of New York.<sup><a href="#cite_note-75">[72]</a></sup> Hamilton was appointed in July 1782 to the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_Confederation">Congress of the Confederation</a> as a New York representative for the term beginning in November 1782.<sup><a href="#cite_note-76">[73]</a></sup> Before his appointment to Congress in 1782, Hamilton was already sharing his criticisms of Congress. He expressed these criticisms in his letter to James Duane dated September 3, 1780: "The fundamental defect is a want of power in Congress... the confederation itself is defective and requires to be altered; it is neither fit for war, nor peace."<sup><a href="#cite_note-77">[74]</a></sup>
</p><p>While on Washington's staff, Hamilton had become frustrated with the decentralized nature of the wartime Continental Congress, particularly its dependence upon the states for voluntary financial support that was not often forthcoming. Under the Articles of Confederation, Congress had no power to collect taxes or to demand money from the states. This lack of a stable source of funding had made it difficult for the Continental Army both to obtain its necessary provisions and to pay its soldiers. During the war, and for some time after, Congress obtained what funds it could from subsidies from the King of France, European loans, and aid requested from the several states, which were often unable or unwilling to contribute.<sup><a href="#cite_note-78">[75]</a></sup>
</p><p>An amendment to the Articles had been proposed by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Burke_(North_Carolina)">Thomas Burke</a>, in February 1781, to give Congress the power to collect a five percent impost, or duty on all imports, but this required ratification by all states; securing its passage as law proved impossible after it was rejected by Rhode Island in November 1782. <a href="/wiki/James_Madison">James Madison</a> joined Hamilton in influencing Congress to send a delegation to persuade Rhode Island to change its mind. Their report recommending the delegation argued the national government needed not just some level of financial autonomy, but also the ability to make laws that superseded those of the individual states. Hamilton transmitted a letter arguing that Congress already had the power to tax, since it had the power to fix the sums due from the several states; but Virginia's <a href="/wiki/Rescission_(contract_law)">rescission</a> of its own ratification of this amendment ended the Rhode Island negotiations.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow176-79">[76]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-80">[77]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Congress and the army</h3>
<p>While Hamilton was in Congress, discontented soldiers began to pose a danger to the young United States. Most of the army was then posted at <a href="/wiki/Newburgh,_New_York">Newburgh, New York</a>. Those in the army were funding much of their own supplies, and they had not been paid in eight months. Furthermore, after <a href="/wiki/Valley_Forge">Valley Forge</a>, the Continental officers had been promised in May 1778 a pension of half their pay when they were discharged.<sup><a href="#cite_note-81">[78]</a></sup> By the early 1780s, due to the structure of the government under the Articles of Confederation, it had no power to tax to either raise revenue or pay its soldiers.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Tucker15-82">[79]</a></sup> In 1782, after several months without pay, a group of officers organized to send a delegation to lobby Congress, led by Captain <a href="/wiki/Alexander_McDougall">Alexander McDougall</a>. The officers had three demands: the army's pay, their own pensions, and commutation of those pensions into a lump-sum payment if Congress were unable to afford the half-salary pensions for life. Congress rejected the proposal.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Tucker15-82">[79]</a></sup>
</p><p>Several congressmen, including Hamilton, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Morris_(financier)">Robert Morris</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gouverneur_Morris">Gouverneur Morris</a>, attempted to use the so-called <a href="/wiki/Newburgh_Conspiracy">Newburgh Conspiracy</a> as leverage to secure support from the states and in Congress for funding of the national government. They encouraged MacDougall to continue his aggressive approach, implying unknown consequences if their demands were not met, and defeated proposals designed to end the crisis without establishing general taxation: that the states assume the debt to the army, or that an impost be established dedicated to the sole purpose of paying that debt.<sup><a href="#cite_note-ellis141-83">[80]</a></sup>
</p><p>Hamilton suggested using the Army's claims to prevail upon the states for the proposed national funding system.<sup><a href="#cite_note-84">[81]</a></sup> The Morrises and Hamilton contacted General <a href="/wiki/Henry_Knox">Henry Knox</a> to suggest he and the officers defy civil authority, at least by not disbanding if the army were not satisfied. Hamilton wrote Washington to suggest that Hamilton covertly "take direction" of the officers' efforts to secure redress, to secure continental funding but keep the army within the limits of moderation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow177-85">[82]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-86">[83]</a></sup> Washington wrote Hamilton back, declining to introduce the army.<sup><a href="#cite_note-87">[84]</a></sup> After the crisis had ended, Washington warned of the dangers of using the army as leverage to gain support for the national funding plan.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow177-85">[82]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Washington1783-88">[85]</a></sup>
</p><p>On March 15, Washington defused the Newburgh situation by addressing the officers personally.<sup><a href="#cite_note-ellis141-83">[80]</a></sup> Congress ordered the Army officially disbanded in April 1783. In the same month, Congress passed a new measure for a 25-year impost—which Hamilton voted against<sup><a href="#cite_note-89">[86]</a></sup>—that again required the consent of all the states; it also approved a commutation of the officers' pensions to five years of full pay. Rhode Island again opposed these provisions, and Hamilton's robust assertions of national prerogatives in his previous letter were widely held to be excessive.<sup><a href="#cite_note-90">[87]</a></sup>
</p><p>In June 1783, a different group of disgruntled soldiers from <a href="/wiki/Lancaster,_Pennsylvania">Lancaster, Pennsylvania</a> sent Congress a petition demanding their back pay. When they began to march toward <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, Congress charged Hamilton and two others with intercepting the mob.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow177-85">[82]</a></sup> Hamilton requested militia from Pennsylvania's Supreme Executive Council, but was turned down. Hamilton instructed <a href="/wiki/United_States_Assistant_Secretary_of_War">Assistant Secretary of War</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Jackson_(secretary)">William Jackson</a> to intercept the men. Jackson was unsuccessful. The mob arrived in Philadelphia, and the soldiers proceeded to harangue Congress for their pay. Hamilton argued that Congress ought to adjourn to <a href="/wiki/Princeton,_New_Jersey">Princeton, New Jersey</a>. Congress agreed, and relocated there.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow182-91">[88]</a></sup> Frustrated with the weakness of the central government, Hamilton while in Princeton, drafted a call to revise the Articles of Confederation. This resolution contained many features of the future Constitution of the United States, including a strong federal government with the ability to collect taxes and raise an army. It also included the <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers">separation of powers</a> into the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress">legislative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States#Executive_branch">executive</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States">judicial</a> branches.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow182-91">[88]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Return to New York</h3>
<p>Hamilton resigned from Congress in 1783.<sup><a href="#cite_note-92">[89]</a></sup> When <a href="/wiki/Evacuation_Day_(New_York)">the British left New York in 1783</a>, he practiced there in partnership with <a href="/wiki/Richard_Harison">Richard Harison</a>. He specialized in defending <a href="/wiki/Tories">Tories</a> and British subjects, as in <i><a href="/wiki/Rutgers_v._Waddington">Rutgers v. Waddington</a></i>, in which he defeated a claim for damages done to a brewery by the Englishmen who held it during the military occupation of New York. He pleaded for the mayor's court to interpret state law consistent with the <a href="/wiki/1783_Treaty_of_Paris">1783 Treaty of Paris</a>, which had ended the Revolutionary War.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow197-199-93">[90]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-McDonald-50">[47]</a></sup><sup>: 64–69 </sup>
</p><p>In 1784, Hamilton founded the <a href="/wiki/Bank_of_New_York">Bank of New York</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Globe2011-94">[91]</a></sup>
</p><p>Long dissatisfied with the Articles of Confederation as too weak to be effective, Hamilton played a major leadership role at the <a href="/wiki/1786_Annapolis_Convention">1786 Annapolis Convention</a>. He drafted its resolution for a constitutional convention, and in doing so brought one step closer to reality his longtime desire to have a more effectual, more financially self-sufficient federal government.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Morris1988-95">[92]</a></sup>
</p><p>As a member of the legislature of New York, Hamilton argued forcefully and at length in favor of a bill to recognize the <a href="/wiki/Vermont_Republic">sovereignty of the State of Vermont</a>, against numerous objections to its constitutionality and policy. Consideration of the bill was deferred to a later date. From 1787 to 1789, Hamilton exchanged letters with <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Chipman">Nathaniel Chipman</a>, a lawyer representing Vermont. After the Constitution of the United States went into effect, Hamilton said, "One of the first subjects of deliberation with the new Congress will be the independence of Kentucky, for which the southern states will be anxious. The northern will be glad to send a counterpoise in Vermont."<sup><a href="#cite_note-96">[93]</a></sup> Vermont was admitted to the Union in 1791.<sup><a href="#cite_note-97">[94]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1788, he was awarded a <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts">Master of Arts</a> degree from King's College, now reconstituted as Columbia College, for his work in reopening the college and placing it on firm financial footing.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h3>Constitution and <i>The Federalist Papers</i></h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_Hamilton_making_the_first_draft_of_the_Constitution_for_the_United_States_1787_(cropped).jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>In 1787, Hamilton served as assemblyman from <a href="/wiki/New_York_County">New York County</a> in the <a href="/wiki/New_York_State_Legislature">New York State Legislature</a> and was chosen as a delegate for the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)">Constitutional Convention</a> by his father-in-law <a href="/wiki/Philip_Schuyler">Philip Schuyler</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 191 </sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-99">[96]</a></sup> Even though Hamilton had been a leader in calling for a new Constitutional Convention, his direct influence at the Convention itself was quite limited. Governor <a href="/wiki/George_Clinton_(vice_president)">George Clinton</a>'s faction in the New York legislature had chosen New York's other two delegates, <a href="/wiki/John_Lansing_Jr.">John Lansing Jr.</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Yates_(politician)">Robert Yates</a>, and both of them opposed Hamilton's goal of a strong national government.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow227-228-100">[97]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Morton15-101">[98]</a></sup> Thus, whenever the other two members of the New York delegation were present, they decided New York's vote, to ensure that there were no major alterations to the Articles of Confederation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 195 </sup>
</p><p>Early in the Convention Hamilton made a speech proposing a President-for-Life; it had no effect upon the deliberations of the convention. <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)#Alternative_plans">He proposed</a> to have an elected president and elected <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate">senators</a> who would serve for life, contingent upon "good behavior" and subject to removal for corruption or abuse; this idea contributed later to the hostile view of Hamilton as a monarchist sympathizer, held by James Madison.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow232-102">[99]</a></sup> According to Madison's notes, Hamilton said in regards to the executive, "The English model was the only good one on this subject. The hereditary interest of the king was so interwoven with that of the nation, and his personal emoluments so great, that he was placed above the danger of being corrupted from abroad... Let one executive be appointed for life who dares execute his powers."<sup><a href="#cite_note-LarsonWinship2005-103">[100]</a></sup>
</p><p>Hamilton argued, "And let me observe that an executive is less dangerous to the liberties of the people when in office during life than for seven years. It may be said this constitutes as an elective monarchy... But by making the executive subject to impeachment, the term 'monarchy' cannot apply..."<sup><a href="#cite_note-LarsonWinship2005-103">[100]</a></sup> In his notes of the convention, Madison interpreted Hamilton's proposal as claiming power for the "rich and well born". Madison's perspective all but isolated Hamilton from his fellow delegates and others who felt they did not reflect the ideas of revolution and liberty.<sup><a href="#cite_note-104">[101]</a></sup>
</p><p>During the convention, Hamilton constructed a draft for the Constitution based on the convention debates, but he never presented it. This draft had most of the features of the actual Constitution. In this draft, the Senate was to be elected in proportion to the population, being two-fifths the size of the House, and the President and Senators were to be elected through complex multistage elections, in which chosen electors would elect smaller bodies of electors; they would hold office for life, but were removable for misconduct. The President would have an absolute veto. The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States">Supreme Court</a> was to have immediate jurisdiction over all <a href="/wiki/Lawsuits">lawsuits</a> involving the United States, and state governors were to be appointed by the federal government.<sup><a href="#cite_note-105">[102]</a></sup>
</p><p>At the end of the convention, Hamilton was still not content with the final Constitution, but signed it anyway as a vast improvement over the Articles of Confederation, and urged his fellow delegates to do so also.<sup><a href="#cite_note-106">[103]</a></sup> Since the other two members of the New York delegation, Lansing and Yates, had already withdrawn, Hamilton was the only New York signer to the United States Constitution.<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 206 </sup> He then took a highly active part in the successful campaign for the document's ratification in New York in 1788, which was a crucial step in its national ratification. He first used the popularity of the Constitution by the masses to compel George Clinton to sign, but was unsuccessful. The state convention in Poughkeepsie in June 1788 pitted Hamilton, Jay, <a href="/wiki/James_Duane">James Duane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Le_Roy_Livingston">Robert Livingston</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Morris_(U.S._politician)">Richard Morris</a> against the Clintonian faction led by <a href="/wiki/Melancton_Smith">Melancton Smith</a>, Lansing, Yates, and <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Livingston_(legislator)">Gilbert Livingston</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Denboer15-107">[104]</a></sup>
</p><p>Members of Hamilton's faction were against any conditional ratification, under the impression that New York would not be accepted into the Union, while Clinton's faction wanted to amend the Constitution, while maintaining the state's right to secede if their attempts failed. During the state convention, New Hampshire and Virginia becoming the ninth and tenth states to ratify the Constitution, respectively, had ensured any adjournment would not happen and a compromise would have to be reached.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Denboer15-107">[104]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Kaplan15-108">[105]</a></sup> Hamilton's arguments used for the ratifications were largely iterations of work from <i>The Federalist Papers</i>, and Smith eventually went for ratification, though it was more out of necessity than Hamilton's rhetoric.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Kaplan15-108">[105]</a></sup> The vote in the state convention was ratified 30 to 27, on July 26, 1788.<sup><a href="#cite_note-109">[106]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><i>The Federalist Papers</i></h4>
<p>Hamilton recruited John Jay and James Madison to write <i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i>, a series of essays, to defend the proposed Constitution. He made the largest contribution to that effort, writing 51 of the 85 essays published. Hamilton supervised the entire project, enlisted the participants, wrote the majority of the essays, and oversaw the publication. During the project, each person was responsible for their areas of expertise. Jay covered foreign relations. Madison covered the history of republics and confederacies, along with the anatomy of the new government. Hamilton covered the branches of government most pertinent to him: the executive and judicial branches, with some aspects of the Senate, as well as covering military matters and taxation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow247-110">[107]</a></sup> The papers first appeared in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Independent_Journal">The Independent Journal</a></i> on October 27, 1787.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow247-110">[107]</a></sup>
</p><p>Hamilton wrote the first paper signed as <a href="/wiki/Publius_(praenomen)">Publius</a>, and all of the subsequent papers were signed under the name.<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 210 </sup> Jay wrote the next four papers to elaborate on the confederation's weakness and the need for unity against foreign aggression and against splitting into rival confederacies, and, except for <a href="/wiki/Federalist_No._64">No. 64</a>, was not further involved.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow252-257-111">[108]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 211 </sup> Hamilton's highlights included discussion that although republics have been culpable for disorders in the past, advances in the "science of politics" had fostered principles that ensured that those abuses could be prevented, such as the division of powers, legislative checks and balances, an independent judiciary, and legislators that were represented by electors (No. 7–9).<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow252-257-111">[108]</a></sup> Hamilton also wrote an extensive defense of the constitution (No. 23–36), and discussed the Senate and executive and judicial branches (No. 65–85). Hamilton and Madison worked to describe the anarchic state of the confederation (No. 15–22), and the two have been described as not being significantly different in thought during this time period—in contrast to their stark opposition later in life.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow252-257-111">[108]</a></sup> Subtle differences appeared with the two when discussing the necessity of standing armies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow252-257-111">[108]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Treasury secretaryship (1789–1795)</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:JEFraser_Hamilton.jpg"></a></p></div>
<h3>Report on Public Credit</h3>
<p>Before the adjournment of the House in September 1789, they requested Hamilton to make a report on suggestions to improve the public credit by January 1790.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Murray121-112">[109]</a></sup> Hamilton had written to Robert Morris as early as 1781, that fixing the public credit will win their objective of independence.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Murray121-112">[109]</a></sup> The sources that Hamilton used ranged from Frenchmen such as <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Necker">Jacques Necker</a> and <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a> to British writers such as <a href="/wiki/David_Hume">Hume</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes">Hobbes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Malachy_Postlethwayt">Malachy Postlethwayt</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow296-299-113">[110]</a></sup> While writing the report he also sought out suggestions from contemporaries such as <a href="/wiki/John_Witherspoon">John Witherspoon</a> and Madison. Although they agreed on additional taxes such as distilleries and duties on imported liquors and land taxes, Madison feared that the securities from the government debt would fall into foreign hands.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow121-114">[111]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 244–45 </sup>
</p><p>In the report, Hamilton felt that the securities should be paid at full value to their legitimate owners, including those who took the financial risk of buying government bonds that most experts thought would never be redeemed. He argued that liberty and property security were inseparable and that the government should honor the contracts, as they formed the basis of public and private morality. To Hamilton, the proper handling of the government debt would also allow America to borrow at affordable interest rates and would also be a stimulant to the economy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow296-299-113">[110]</a></sup>
</p><p>Hamilton divided the debt into national and state, and further divided the national debt into foreign and domestic debt. While there was agreement on how to handle the foreign debt, especially with France, there was not with regards to the national debt held by domestic creditors. During the Revolutionary War, affluent citizens had invested in bonds, and war veterans had been paid with <a href="/wiki/Promissory_notes">promissory notes</a> and <a href="/wiki/IOU">IOUs</a> that plummeted in price during the Confederation. In response, the war veterans sold the securities to speculators for as little as fifteen to twenty cents on the dollar.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow296-299-113">[110]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-115">[112]</a></sup>
</p><p>Hamilton felt the money from the bonds should not go to the soldiers who had shown little faith in the country's future, but the speculators that had bought the bonds from the soldiers. The process of attempting to track down the original bondholders along with the government showing discrimination among the classes of holders if the war veterans were to be compensated also weighed in as factors for Hamilton. As for the state debts, Hamilton suggested consolidating them with the national debt and label it as federal debt, for the sake of efficiency on a national scale.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow296-299-113">[110]</a></sup>
</p><p>The last portion of the report dealt with eliminating the debt by utilizing a <i><a href="/wiki/Sinking_fund">sinking fund</a></i> that would retire five percent of the debt annually until it was paid off. Due to the bonds being traded well below their face value, the purchases would benefit the government as the securities rose in price.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow300-305-116">[113]</a></sup><sup>: 300 </sup> When the report was submitted to the House of Representatives, detractors soon began to speak against it. Some of the negative views expressed in the House were that the notion of programs that resembled British practice were wicked, and that the balance of power would be shifted away from the representatives to the executive branch. <a href="/wiki/William_Maclay_(politician)">William Maclay</a> suspected that several congressmen were involved in government securities, seeing Congress in an unholy league with New York speculators.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow300-305-116">[113]</a></sup><sup>: 302 </sup> Congressman <a href="/wiki/James_Jackson_(Georgia_politician)">James Jackson</a> also spoke against New York, with allegations of speculators attempting to swindle those who had not yet heard about Hamilton's report.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow300-305-116">[113]</a></sup><sup>: 303 </sup>
</p><p>The involvement of those in Hamilton's circle such as Schuyler, <a href="/wiki/William_Duer_(Continental_Congressman)">William Duer</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Duane">James Duane</a>, Gouverneur Morris, and <a href="/wiki/Rufus_King">Rufus King</a> as speculators was not favorable to those against the report, either, though Hamilton personally did not own or deal a share in the debt.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow300-305-116">[113]</a></sup><sup>: 304 </sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 250 </sup> Madison eventually spoke against it by February 1790. Although he was not against current holders of government debt to profit, he wanted the windfall to go to the original holders. Madison did not feel that the original holders had lost faith in the government, but sold their securities out of desperation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow300-305-116">[113]</a></sup><sup>: 305 </sup> The compromise was seen as egregious to both Hamiltonians and their dissidents such as Maclay, and Madison's vote was defeated 36 votes to 13 on February 22.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow300-305-116">[113]</a></sup><sup>: 305 </sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 255 </sup>
</p><p>The fight for the national government to assume state debt was a longer issue, and lasted over four months. During the period, the resources that Hamilton was to apply to the payment of state debts was requested by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_White_(Virginia)">Alexander White</a>, and was rejected due to Hamilton's not being able to prepare information by March 3, and was even postponed by his own supporters in spite of configuring a report the next day, which consisted of a series of additional duties to meet the interest on the state debts.<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 297–98 </sup> Duer resigned as Assistant Secretary of the Treasury, and the vote of assumption was voted down 31 votes to 29 on April 12.<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 258–59 </sup>
</p><p>During this period, Hamilton bypassed the rising issue of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States">slavery</a> in Congress, after <a href="/wiki/Quaker">Quakers</a> petitioned for its abolition, returning to the issue the following year.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow307-117">[114]</a></sup>
</p><p>Another issue in which Hamilton played a role was the temporary location of the capital from New York City. <a href="/wiki/Tench_Coxe">Tench Coxe</a> was sent to speak to Maclay to bargain about the capital being temporarily located to Philadelphia, as a single vote in the Senate was needed and five in the House for the bill to pass.<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 263 </sup> Thomas Jefferson wrote years afterward that Hamilton had a discussion with him, around this time period, about the capital of the United States being relocated to Virginia by means of a "pill" that "would be peculiarly bitter to the Southern States, and that some concomitant measure should be adopted to sweeten it a little to them".<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 263 </sup> The bill passed in the Senate on July 21 and in the House 34 votes to 28 on July 26, 1790.<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 263 </sup>
</p>
<h3>Report on a National Bank</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:First_Bank_of_the_United_States,_Philadelphia,_Pennsylvania_LCCN2011633532_(edited).jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Hamilton's <i>Report on a National Bank</i> was a projection from the first <i>Report on the Public Credit</i>. Although Hamilton had been forming ideas of a national bank as early as 1779,<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 268 </sup> he had gathered ideas in various ways over the past eleven years. These included theories from Adam Smith,<sup><a href="#cite_note-118">[115]</a></sup> extensive studies on the <a href="/wiki/Bank_of_England">Bank of England</a>, the blunders of the <a href="/wiki/Bank_of_North_America">Bank of North America</a> and his experience in establishing the Bank of New York.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Cooke82-119">[116]</a></sup> He also used American records from <a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)">James Wilson</a>, Pelatiah Webster, Gouverneur Morris, and from his assistant treasury secretary Tench Coxe.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Cooke82-119">[116]</a></sup> He thought that this plan for a National Bank could help in any sort of financial crisis.<sup><a href="#cite_note-120">[117]</a></sup>
</p><p>Hamilton suggested that Congress should charter <a href="/wiki/First_Bank_of_the_United_States">the national bank</a> with a capitalization of $10 million, one-fifth of which would be handled by the government. Since the government did not have the money, it would borrow the money from the bank itself, and repay the loan in ten even annual installments.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McDonald-50">[47]</a></sup><sup>: 194 </sup> The rest was to be available to individual investors.<sup><a href="#cite_note-121">[118]</a></sup> The bank was to be governed by a twenty-five-member board of directors that was to represent a large majority of the private shareholders, which Hamilton considered essential for his being under a private direction.<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 268 </sup> Hamilton's bank model had many similarities to that of the Bank of England, except Hamilton wanted to exclude the government from being involved in <a href="/wiki/Public_debt">public debt</a>, but provide a large, firm, and elastic money supply for the functioning of normal businesses and usual economic development, among other differences.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McDonald-50">[47]</a></sup><sup>: 194–95 </sup> The tax revenue to initiate the bank was the same as he had previously proposed, increases on imported spirits: rum, liquor, and whiskey.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McDonald-50">[47]</a></sup><sup>: 195–96 </sup>
</p><p>The bill passed through the Senate practically without a problem, but objections to the proposal increased by the time it reached the House of Representatives. It was generally held by critics that Hamilton was serving the interests of the Northeast by means of the bank,<sup><a href="#cite_note-122">[119]</a></sup> and those of the agrarian lifestyle would not benefit from it.<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 270 </sup> Among those critics was <a href="/wiki/James_Jackson_(Georgia_politician)">James Jackson</a> of Georgia, who also attempted to refute the report by quoting from <i>The Federalist Papers</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 270 </sup> Madison and Jefferson also opposed the bank bill. The potential of the capital not being moved to the Potomac if the bank was to have a firm establishment in Philadelphia was a more significant reason, and actions that Pennsylvania members of Congress took to keep the capital there made both men anxious.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McDonald-50">[47]</a></sup><sup>: 199–200 </sup> <i>The Whiskey Rebellion</i> also showed how in other financial plans, there was a distance between the classes as the wealthy profited from the taxes.<sup><a href="#cite_note-123">[120]</a></sup>
</p><p>Madison warned the Pennsylvania congress members that he would attack the bill as unconstitutional in the House, and followed up on his threat.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McDonald-50">[47]</a></sup><sup>: 200 </sup> Madison argued his case of where the power of a bank could be established within the Constitution, but he failed to sway members of the House, and his authority on the constitution was questioned by a few members.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McDonald-50">[47]</a></sup><sup>: 200–01 </sup> The bill eventually passed in an overwhelming fashion 39 to 20, on February 8, 1791.<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 271 </sup>
</p><p>Washington hesitated to sign the bill, as he received suggestions from Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Randolph">Edmund Randolph</a> and Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson dismissed the <a href="/wiki/Necessary_and_Proper_Clause">Necessary and Proper Clause</a> as reasoning for the creation of a national bank, stating that the enumerated powers "can all be carried into execution without a bank."<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 271–72 </sup> Along with Randolph and Jefferson's objections, Washington's involvement in the movement of the capital from Philadelphia is also thought to be a reason for his hesitation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McDonald-50">[47]</a></sup><sup>: 202–03 </sup> In response to the objection of the clause, Hamilton stated that "Necessary often means no more than needful, requisite, incidental, useful, or conductive to", and the bank was a "convenient species of medium in which [taxes] are to be paid."<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 272–73 </sup> Washington would eventually sign the bill into law.<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 272–73 </sup>
</p>
<h3>Establishing the mint</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:NNC-US-1795-G$10-Turban_Head_(small_eagle).jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>In 1791, Hamilton submitted the <i>Report on the Establishment of a Mint</i> to the House of Representatives. Many of Hamilton's ideas for this report were from European economists, resolutions from the 1785 and 1786 Continental Congress meetings, and people such as Robert Morris, Gouverneur Morris and Thomas Jefferson.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McDonald-50">[47]</a></sup><sup>: 197 </sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-124">[121]</a></sup>
</p><p>Because the most circulated coins in the United States at the time were <a href="/wiki/Spanish_dollar">Spanish currency</a>, Hamilton proposed that minting a <a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar">United States dollar</a> weighing almost as much as the Spanish peso would be the simplest way to introduce a national currency.<sup><a href="#cite_note-125">[122]</a></sup> Hamilton differed from European monetary policymakers in his desire to overprice gold relative to silver, on the grounds that the United States would always receive an influx of silver from the West Indies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McDonald-50">[47]</a></sup><sup>: 197 </sup> Despite his own preference for a monometallic <a href="/wiki/Gold_standard">gold standard</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Studentski-126">[123]</a></sup> he ultimately issued a bimetallic currency at a fixed 15:1 ratio of silver to gold.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McDonald-50">[47]</a></sup><sup>: 197 </sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-nussbaum-127">[124]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-128">[125]</a></sup>
</p><p>Hamilton proposed that the U.S. dollar should have fractional coins using decimals, rather than eighths like the Spanish coinage.<sup><a href="#cite_note-129">[126]</a></sup> This innovation was originally suggested by <a href="/wiki/Superintendent_of_Finance_of_the_United_States">Superintendent of Finance</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Morris_(financier)">Robert Morris</a>, with whom Hamilton corresponded after examining one of Morris's <a href="/wiki/Nova_Constellatio">Nova Constellatio</a> coins in 1783.<sup><a href="#cite_note-130">[127]</a></sup> He also desired the minting of small value coins, such as silver ten-cent and copper cent and half-cent pieces, for reducing the cost of living for the poor.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McDonald-50">[47]</a></sup><sup>: 198 </sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Cooke82-119">[116]</a></sup> One of his main objectives was for the general public to become accustomed to handling money on a frequent basis.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McDonald-50">[47]</a></sup><sup>: 198 </sup>
</p><p>By 1792, Hamilton's principles were adopted by Congress, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Coinage_Act_of_1792">Coinage Act of 1792</a>, and the creation of the mint. There was to be a ten-dollar Gold Eagle coin, a silver dollar, and fractional money ranging from one-half to fifty cents.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Studentski-126">[123]</a></sup> The coining of silver and gold was issued by 1795.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Studentski-126">[123]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Revenue Cutter Service</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:USRC_Massachusetts_(1791).jpg"></a></p><div><p>Contemporary painting of a Revenue Marine cutter, which may be of either the <a href="/wiki/USRC_Massachusetts_(1791)">USRC <i>Massachusetts</i></a>, or its replacement, the <i>Massachusetts II</i>.</p></div></div>
<p>Smuggling off American coasts was an issue before the Revolutionary War, and after the Revolution it was more problematic. Along with smuggling, lack of shipping control, pirating, and a revenue unbalance were also major problems.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Gibowicz07-131">[128]</a></sup> In response, Hamilton proposed to Congress to enact a naval police force called <a href="/wiki/Revenue_Cutter_Service">revenue cutters</a> in order to patrol the waters and assist the custom collectors with confiscating contraband.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow340-132">[129]</a></sup> This idea was also proposed to assist in tariff controlling, boosting the American economy, and promote the merchant marine.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Gibowicz07-131">[128]</a></sup> It is thought that his experience obtained during his apprenticeship with Nicholas Kruger was influential in his decision-making.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow32-133">[130]</a></sup>
</p><p>Concerning some of the details of the System of Cutters,<sup><a href="#cite_note-134">[131]</a></sup> Hamilton wanted the first ten <a href="/wiki/Cutter_(boat)">cutters</a> in different areas in the United States, from New England to Georgia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow340-132">[129]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-135">[132]</a></sup> Each of those cutters was to be armed with ten muskets and bayonets, twenty pistols, two chisels, one broad-ax and two lanterns. The fabric of the sails was to be domestically manufactured;<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow340-132">[129]</a></sup> and provisions were made for the employees' food supply and etiquette when boarding ships.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow340-132">[129]</a></sup> Congress established the Revenue Cutter Service on August 4, 1790, which is viewed as the birth of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard">United States Coast Guard</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Gibowicz07-131">[128]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Whiskey as tax revenue</h3>
<p>One of the principal sources of revenue Hamilton prevailed upon Congress to approve was an <a href="/wiki/Excise_tax">excise tax</a> on <a href="/wiki/Whiskey">whiskey</a>. In his first Tariff Bill in January 1790, Hamilton proposed to raise the three million dollars needed to pay for government operating expenses and interest on domestic and foreign debts by means of an increase on duties on imported wines, distilled spirits, tea, coffee, and domestic spirits. It failed, with Congress complying with most recommendations excluding the excise tax on whiskey. The same year, Madison modified Hamilton's tariff to involve only imported duties; it was passed in September.<sup><a href="#cite_note-136">[133]</a></sup>
</p><p>In response of diversifying revenues, as three-fourths of revenue gathered was from commerce with Great Britain, Hamilton attempted once again during his <i>Report on Public Credit</i> when presenting it in 1790 to implement an excise tax on both imported and domestic spirits.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow342-343-137">[134]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Murray141-138">[135]</a></sup> The taxation rate was graduated in proportion to the whiskey proof, and Hamilton intended to equalize the tax burden on imported spirits with imported and domestic liquor.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Murray141-138">[135]</a></sup> In lieu of the excise on production citizens could pay 60 cents by the gallon of dispensing capacity, along with an exemption on small stills used exclusively for domestic consumption.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Murray141-138">[135]</a></sup> He realized the loathing that the tax would receive in rural areas, but thought of the taxing of spirits more reasonable than land taxes.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow342-343-137">[134]</a></sup>
</p><p>Opposition initially came from Pennsylvania's House of Representatives protesting the tax. William Maclay had noted that not even the Pennsylvanian legislators had been able to enforce excise taxes in the western regions of the state.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow342-343-137">[134]</a></sup> Hamilton was aware of the potential difficulties and proposed inspectors the ability to search buildings that distillers were designated to store their spirits, and would be able to search suspected illegal storage facilities to confiscate contraband with a warrant.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Murray40-139">[136]</a></sup> Although the inspectors were not allowed to search houses and warehouses, they were to visit twice a day and file weekly reports in extensive detail.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow342-343-137">[134]</a></sup> Hamilton cautioned against expedited judicial means, and favored a jury trial with potential offenders.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Murray40-139">[136]</a></sup> As soon as 1791, locals began to shun or threaten inspectors, as they felt the inspection methods were intrusive.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow342-343-137">[134]</a></sup> Inspectors were also <a href="/wiki/Tarred_and_feathered">tarred and feathered</a>, blindfolded, and whipped. Hamilton had attempted to appease the opposition with lowered tax rates, but it did not suffice.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow468-140">[137]</a></sup>
</p><p>Strong opposition to the whiskey tax by <a href="/wiki/Cottage_industry">cottage producers</a> in remote, rural regions erupted into the <i><a href="/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion">Whiskey Rebellion</a></i> in 1794; in <a href="/wiki/Western_Pennsylvania">Western Pennsylvania</a> and western <a href="/wiki/Virginia">Virginia</a>, whiskey was the basic export product and was fundamental to the local economy. In response to the rebellion, believing compliance with the laws was vital to the establishment of federal authority, Hamilton accompanied to the rebellion's site President Washington, General <a href="/wiki/Henry_Lee_III">Henry "Light Horse Harry" Lee</a>, and more federal troops than were ever assembled in one place during the Revolution. This overwhelming display of force intimidated the leaders of the insurrection, ending the rebellion virtually without bloodshed.<sup><a href="#cite_note-141">[138]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Manufacturing and industry</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Great_Falls_of_Paterson_2016.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Hamilton's next report was his <i>Report on Manufactures</i>. Although he was requested by Congress on January 15, 1790, for a report for manufacturing that would expand the United States' independence, the report was not submitted until December 5, 1791.<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 274, 277 </sup> In the report, Hamilton quoted from <i>Wealth of Nations</i> and used the French <a href="/wiki/Physiocrats">physiocrats</a> as an example for rejecting <a href="/wiki/Agrarianism">agrarianism</a> and the physiocratic theory, respectively.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McDonald-50">[47]</a></sup><sup>: 233 </sup> Hamilton also refuted Smith's ideas of government noninterference, as it would have been detrimental for trade with other countries.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McDonald-50">[47]</a></sup><sup>: 244 </sup> Hamilton also thought that the United States, being a primarily agrarian country, would be at a disadvantage in dealing with Europe.<sup><a href="#cite_note-142">[139]</a></sup> In response to the agrarian detractors, Hamilton stated that the agriculturists' interest would be advanced by manufactures,<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 276 </sup> and that agriculture was just as productive as manufacturing.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McDonald-50">[47]</a></sup><sup>: 233 </sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 276 </sup>
</p><p>Hamilton argued that developing an <a href="/wiki/Industrialization">industrial economy</a> is impossible without protective tariffs.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Bairoch-143">[140]</a></sup> Among the ways that the government should assist manufacturing, Hamilton argued for government assistance to "<a href="/wiki/Infant_industry_argument">infant industries</a>" so they can achieve <a href="/wiki/Economies_of_scale">economies of scale</a>, by levying protective duties on imported foreign goods that were also manufactured in the United States,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Cooke101-144">[141]</a></sup> for withdrawing duties levied on raw materials needed for domestic manufacturing,<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 277 </sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Cooke101-144">[141]</a></sup> and pecuniary boundaries.<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 277 </sup> He also called for encouraging immigration for people to better themselves in similar employment opportunities.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Cooke101-144">[141]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-145">[142]</a></sup> Congress shelved the report without much debate, except for Madison's objection to Hamilton's formulation of the <a href="/wiki/General_welfare_clause">general welfare clause</a>, which Hamilton construed liberally as a legal basis for his extensive programs.<sup><a href="#cite_note-146">[143]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1791, Hamilton, along with Coxe and several entrepreneurs from New York and Philadelphia formed the <i><a href="/wiki/Society_for_the_Establishment_of_Useful_Manufactures">Society for the Establishment of Useful Manufactures</a></i>, a private industrial corporation. In May 1792, the directors decided to examine The Passaic Falls as a possible location for a manufacturing center. On July 4, 1792, the society directors met <a href="/wiki/Philip_Schuyler">Philip Schuyler</a> at <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Godwin">Abraham Godwin</a>'s hotel on the <a href="/wiki/Passaic_River">Passaic River</a>, where they would lead a tour prospecting the area for the national manufactory. It was originally suggested that they dig mile-long trenches and build the factories away from the falls, but Hamilton argued that it would be too costly and laborious.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Shriner-147">[144]</a></sup>
</p><p>The location at <a href="/wiki/Great_Falls_of_the_Passaic_River">Great Falls of the Passaic River</a> in New Jersey was selected due to access to raw materials, it being densely inhabited, and having access to water power from the falls of the Passaic.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McDonald-50">[47]</a></sup><sup>: 231 </sup> The factory town was named <i>Paterson</i> after New Jersey's Governor <a href="/wiki/William_Paterson_(judge)">William Paterson</a>, who signed the charter.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McDonald-50">[47]</a></sup><sup>: 232 </sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Cooke103-148">[145]</a></sup> The profits were to derive from specific corporates rather than the benefits to be conferred to the nation and the citizens, which was unlike the report.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Cooke102-149">[146]</a></sup> Hamilton also suggested the first stock to be offered at $500,000 and to eventually increase to $1 million, and welcomed state and federal government subscriptions alike.<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 280 </sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Cooke102-149">[146]</a></sup> The company was never successful: numerous shareholders reneged on stock payments, some members soon went bankrupt, and <a href="/wiki/William_Duer_(Continental_Congressman)">William Duer</a>, the governor of the program, was sent to debtors' prison where he died.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Matson-150">[147]</a></sup> In spite of Hamilton's efforts to mend the disaster, the company folded.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Cooke103-148">[145]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Jay Treaty</h3>
<p>When <a href="/wiki/First_Coalition">France and Britain went to war</a> in early 1793, all four members of the Cabinet were consulted on what to do. They and Washington unanimously agreed to remain neutral, and to have the French ambassador who was raising privateers and mercenaries on American soil, <a href="/wiki/Edmond-Charles_Gen%C3%AAt">Edmond-Charles Genêt</a>, recalled.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Elkins_McK-151">[148]</a></sup><sup>: 336–41 </sup> However, in 1794, policy toward Britain became a major point of contention between the two parties. Hamilton and the Federalists wished for more trade with Britain, the largest trading partner of the newly formed United States. The Republicans saw monarchist Britain as the main threat to republicanism and proposed instead to start a trade war.<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 327–28 </sup>
</p><p>To avoid war, Washington sent Chief Justice John Jay to negotiate with the British, with Hamilton largely writing Jay's instructions. The result was a treaty denounced by the Republicans, but Hamilton mobilized support throughout the land.<sup><a href="#cite_note-152">[149]</a></sup> The Jay Treaty passed the Senate in 1795 by exactly the required two-thirds majority. The treaty resolved issues remaining from the Revolution, averted war, and made possible ten years of peaceful trade between the United States and Britain.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Elkins_McK-151">[148]</a></sup><sup>: Ch 9 </sup> Historian George Herring notes the "remarkable and fortuitous economic and diplomatic gains" produced by the Treaty.<sup><a href="#cite_note-153">[150]</a></sup>
</p><p>Several European states had formed the <a href="/wiki/Second_League_of_Armed_Neutrality">Second League of Armed Neutrality</a> against incursions on their neutral rights; the cabinet was also consulted on whether the United States should join the alliance, and decided not to. It kept that decision secret, but Hamilton revealed it in private to George Hammond, the British minister to the United States, without telling Jay or anyone else. His act remained unknown until Hammond's dispatches were read in the 1920s. This revelation may have had limited effect on the negotiations; Jay did threaten to join the League at one point, but the British had other reasons not to view the alliance as a serious threat.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Elkins_McK-151">[148]</a></sup><sup>: 411 ff </sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-154">[151]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Resignation from public office</h3>
<p>Hamilton's wife suffered a miscarriage<sup><a href="#cite_note-155">[152]</a></sup> while he was absent during his armed repression of the Whiskey Rebellion.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Chernow478-156">[153]</a></sup> In the wake of this, Hamilton tendered his resignation from office on December 1, 1794, giving Washington two months' notice,<sup><a href="#cite_note-157">[154]</a></sup> Before leaving his post on January 31, 1795, Hamilton submitted the <i><a href="/wiki/Report_on_a_Plan_for_the_Further_Support_of_Public_Credit">Report on a Plan for the Further Support of Public Credit</a></i> to Congress to curb the debt problem. Hamilton grew dissatisfied with what he viewed as a lack of a comprehensive plan to fix the public debt. He wished to have new taxes passed with older ones made permanent and stated that any surplus from the excise tax on liquor would be pledged to lower public debt. His proposals were included in a bill by Congress within slightly over a month after his departure as treasury secretary.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow480-158">[155]</a></sup> Some months later, Hamilton resumed his law practice in New York to remain closer to his family.<sup><a href="#cite_note-159">[156]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Emergence of political parties</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:T_Jefferson_by_Charles_Willson_Peale_1791_2.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Hamilton's vision was challenged by Virginia agrarians <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> and James Madison, who formed the <a href="/wiki/Democratic-Republican_Party">Democratic-Republican Party</a>. They favored strong state governments based in rural America and protected by state militias as opposed to a strong national government supported by a national army and navy. They denounced Hamilton as insufficiently devoted to republicanism, too friendly toward corrupt Britain and the monarchy in general, and too oriented toward cities, business and banking.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Henretta2011-160">[157]</a></sup>
</p><p>The two-party system <a href="/wiki/First_Party_System">began to emerge</a> as political parties coalesced around competing interests. A congressional caucus, led by Madison, Jefferson, and <a href="/wiki/William_Branch_Giles">William Branch Giles</a>, began as an opposition group to Hamilton's financial programs. Hamilton and his allies began to call themselves <a href="/wiki/Federalist_Party">the Federalists</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-161">[158]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Smith832-162">[159]</a></sup>
</p><p>Hamilton assembled a nationwide coalition to garner support for the administration, including the expansive financial programs Hamilton had made administration policy and especially the president's policy of neutrality in the European war between Britain and France. Hamilton publicly denounced French minister Genêt, who commissioned American <a href="/wiki/Privateers">privateers</a> and recruited Americans for private militias to attack British ships and colonial possessions of British allies. Eventually, even Jefferson joined Hamilton in seeking Genêt's recall.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Young2011-163">[160]</a></sup> If Hamilton's administrative republic was to succeed, Americans had to see themselves first as citizens of a nation, and experience an administration that proved firm and demonstrated the concepts found within the Constitution.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Cook2014-164">[161]</a></sup> The Federalists did impose some internal direct taxes, but they departed from most implications of Hamilton's administrative republic as risky.<sup><a href="#cite_note-165">[162]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Republicans opposed banks and cities, and favored the series of unstable revolutionary governments in France. They built their own national coalition to oppose the Federalists. Both sides gained the support of local political factions, and each side developed its own partisan newspapers. <a href="/wiki/Noah_Webster">Noah Webster</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Fenno">John Fenno</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_Cobbett">William Cobbett</a> were energetic editors for the Federalists, while <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_Bache">Benjamin Franklin Bache</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philip_Freneau">Philip Freneau</a> were fiery Republican editors. All of their newspapers were characterized by intense personal attacks, major exaggerations, and invented claims. In 1801, Hamilton established a daily newspaper, the <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Evening_Post">New York Evening Post</a></i>, and brought in <a href="/wiki/William_Coleman_(editor)">William Coleman</a> as its editor.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Nevins1922-166">[163]</a></sup> Hamilton's and Jefferson's incompatibility was heightened by the unavowed wish of each to be Washington's principal and most trusted advisor.<sup><a href="#cite_note-167">[164]</a></sup>
</p><p>An additional partisan irritant to Hamilton was the <a href="/wiki/1791_United_States_Senate_election_in_New_York">1791 United States Senate election in New York</a>, which resulted in the election of Democratic-Republican candidate <a href="/wiki/Aaron_Burr">Aaron Burr</a> over Federalist candidate Philip Schuyler, the incumbent and Hamilton's father-in-law. Hamilton blamed Burr personally for this outcome, and negative characterizations of Burr began to appear in his correspondence thereafter. The two men did work together from time to time thereafter on various projects, including Hamilton's army of 1798 and the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Water_Company">Manhattan Water Company</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-168">[165]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Post-secretaryship (1795–1804)</h2>
<h3>1796 presidential election</h3>
<p>Hamilton's resignation as secretary of the treasury in 1795 did not remove him from public life. With the resumption of his law practice, he remained close to Washington as an advisor and friend. Hamilton influenced Washington in the composition of <a href="/wiki/George_Washington%27s_Farewell_Address">his farewell address</a> by writing drafts for Washington to compare with the latter's draft, although when Washington contemplated retirement in 1792, he had consulted Madison for a draft that was used in a similar manner to Hamilton's.<sup><a href="#cite_note-169">[166]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-170">[167]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/1796_United_States_presidential_election">election of 1796</a>, under the Constitution as it stood then, each of the presidential electors had two votes, which they were to cast for different men from different states. The one who received the most votes would become president, the second-most, vice president. This system was not designed with the operation of parties in mind, as they had been thought disreputable and factious. The Federalists planned to deal with this by having all their electors vote for <a href="/wiki/John_Adams">John Adams</a>, then vice president, and all but a few for <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pinckney">Thomas Pinckney</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow117-171">[168]</a></sup>
</p><p>Adams resented Hamilton's influence with Washington and considered him overambitious and scandalous in his private life; Hamilton compared Adams unfavorably with Washington and thought him too emotionally unstable to be president.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow510-172">[169]</a></sup> Hamilton took the election as an opportunity: he urged all the northern electors to vote for Adams and Pinckney, lest Jefferson get in; but he cooperated with <a href="/wiki/Edward_Rutledge">Edward Rutledge</a> to have South Carolina's electors vote for Jefferson and Pinckney. If all this worked, Pinckney would have more votes than Adams, Pinckney would become president, and Adams would remain vice president, but it did not work. The Federalists found out about it and northern Federalists voted for Adams but not for Pinckney, in sufficient numbers that Pinckney came in third and Jefferson became vice president.<sup><a href="#cite_note-173">[170]</a></sup> Adams resented the intrigue since he felt his service to the nation was much more extensive than Pinckney's.<sup><a href="#cite_note-174">[171]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Reynolds affair</h3>
<p>In the summer of 1797, Hamilton became the first major American politician publicly involved in a <a href="/wiki/Sex_scandal">sex scandal</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Brookhiser3-175">[172]</a></sup> Six years earlier, in the summer of 1791, 34-year-old Hamilton became involved in an affair with 23-year-old <a href="/wiki/Maria_Reynolds">Maria Reynolds</a>. According to Hamilton's account Maria approached him at his house in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, claiming that her husband James Reynolds was abusive and had abandoned her, and she wished to return to her relatives in New York but lacked the means.<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 366–69 </sup> Hamilton recorded her address and subsequently delivered $30 personally to her boarding house, where she led him into her bedroom and "Some conversation ensued from which it was quickly apparent that other than pecuniary consolation would be acceptable". The two began an intermittent illicit affair that lasted approximately until June 1792.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Reynolds_Pamphlet-176">[173]</a></sup>
</p><p>Over the course of that year, while the affair was taking place, James Reynolds was well aware of his wife's infidelity, and likely orchestrated it from the beginning. He continually supported their relationship to extort blackmail money regularly from Hamilton. The common practice of the day for men of equal social standing was for the wronged husband to seek retribution in a <a href="/wiki/Duel">duel</a>, but Reynolds, of a lower social status and realizing how much Hamilton had to lose if his activity came into public view, resorted to extortion.<sup><a href="#cite_note-177">[174]</a></sup> After an initial request of $1,000<sup><a href="#cite_note-178">[175]</a></sup> to which Hamilton complied, Reynolds invited Hamilton to renew his visits to his wife "as a friend"<sup><a href="#cite_note-179">[176]</a></sup> only to extort forced "loans" after each visit that, most likely in collusion, Maria solicited with her letters. In the end, the blackmail payments totaled over $1,300 including the initial extortion.<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 369 </sup> Hamilton at this point may have been aware of both spouses being involved in the blackmail,<sup><a href="#cite_note-180">[177]</a></sup> and he welcomed and strictly complied with James Reynolds' request to end the affair.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Reynolds_Pamphlet-176">[173]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-181">[178]</a></sup>
</p><p>In November 1792, James Reynolds and his associate Jacob Clingman were arrested for counterfeiting and <a href="/wiki/Speculation">speculating</a> in Revolutionary War veterans' unpaid back wages. Clingman was released on bail and relayed information to Democratic-Republican congressman <a href="/wiki/James_Monroe">James Monroe</a> that Reynolds had evidence incriminating Hamilton in illicit activity as Treasury Secretary. Monroe consulted with congressmen Muhlenberg and Venable on what actions to take and the congressmen confronted Hamilton on December 15, 1792.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Reynolds_Pamphlet-176">[173]</a></sup> Hamilton refuted the suspicions of speculation by exposing his affair with Maria and producing as evidence the letters by both of the Reynolds, proving that his payments to James Reynolds related to blackmail over his adultery, and not to treasury misconduct. The trio agreed on their honor to keep the documents privately with the utmost confidence.<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 366–69 </sup>
</p><p>In the summer of 1797, however, the "notoriously scurrilous" journalist <a href="/wiki/James_T._Callender">James T. Callender</a> published <i>A History of the United States for the Year 1796</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McDonald-50">[47]</a></sup><sup>: 334 </sup> The pamphlet contained accusations, based on documents from the confrontation of December 15, 1792, taken out of context, that James Reynolds had been an agent of Hamilton. On July 5, 1797, Hamilton wrote to Monroe, Muhlenberg, and Venable, asking them to confirm that there was nothing that would damage the perception of his integrity while Secretary of Treasury. All but Monroe complied with Hamilton's request. Hamilton then published a 100-page booklet, later usually referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Hamilton%E2%80%93Reynolds_affair"><i>Reynolds Pamphlet</i></a>, and discussed the affair in indelicate detail for the time. Hamilton's wife Elizabeth eventually forgave him, but never forgave Monroe.<sup><a href="#cite_note-182">[179]</a></sup> Although Hamilton faced ridicule from the Democratic-Republican faction, he maintained his availability for public service.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McDonald-50">[47]</a></sup><sup>: 334–36 </sup>
</p>
<h3>Quasi-War</h3>
<p>During the military build-up of the Quasi-War, and with the strong endorsement of Washington, Adams reluctantly appointed Hamilton a <a href="/wiki/Major_general_(United_States)">major general</a> of the army. At Washington's insistence, Hamilton was made the senior major general, prompting Continental Army major general Henry Knox to decline the appointment to serve as Hamilton's junior, believing it would be degrading to serve beneath him.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow558-560-183">[180]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-184">[181]</a></sup>
</p><p>Hamilton served as <a href="/wiki/List_of_Inspectors_General_of_the_United_States_Army">inspector general of the United States Army</a> from July 18, 1798, to June 15, 1800. Because Washington was unwilling to leave Mount Vernon unless it were to command an army in the field, Hamilton was the de facto head of the army, to Adams's considerable displeasure. If full-scale war broke out with France, Hamilton argued that the army should conquer the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_North_America">North American colonies</a> of France's ally, Spain, bordering the United States.<sup><a href="#cite_note-185">[182]</a></sup> Hamilton was prepared to march the army through the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States">Southern United States</a> if necessary.<sup><a href="#cite_note-186">[183]</a></sup>
</p><p>To fund this army, Hamilton wrote regularly to <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wolcott_Jr.">Oliver Wolcott Jr.</a>, his successor at the treasury, Representative <a href="/wiki/William_Loughton_Smith">William Loughton Smith</a>, and U.S. Senator <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Sedgwick">Theodore Sedgwick</a>. He urged them to pass a direct tax to fund the war. Smith resigned in July 1797, as Hamilton complained to him for slowness, and urged Wolcott to tax houses instead of land.<sup><a href="#cite_note-187">[184]</a></sup> The eventual program included taxes on land, houses, and slaves, calculated at different rates in different states and requiring assessment of houses, and a stamp act like that of the British before the Revolution, though this time Americans were taxing themselves through their own representatives.<sup><a href="#cite_note-188">[185]</a></sup> This provoked resistance in southeastern Pennsylvania nevertheless, led primarily by men such as <a href="/wiki/John_Fries">John Fries</a> who had marched with Washington against the Whiskey Rebellion.<sup><a href="#cite_note-189">[186]</a></sup>
</p><p>Hamilton aided in all areas of the army's development, and after Washington's death he was by default the <a href="/wiki/Commanding_General_of_the_United_States_Army">senior officer of the United States Army</a> from December 14, 1799, to June 15, 1800. The army was to guard against invasion from France. Adams, however, derailed all plans for war by opening negotiations with France that led to peace.<sup><a href="#cite_note-190">[187]</a></sup> There was no longer a direct threat for the army Hamilton was commanding to respond to.<sup><a href="#cite_note-191">[188]</a></sup> Adams discovered that key members of his cabinet, namely Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Pickering">Timothy Pickering</a> and Secretary of War <a href="/wiki/James_McHenry">James McHenry</a>, were more loyal to Hamilton than himself; Adams fired them in May 1800.<sup><a href="#cite_note-192">[189]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>1800 presidential election</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Aaron_Burr_post-failure.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>In November 1799, the <a href="/wiki/Alien_and_Sedition_Acts">Alien and Sedition Acts</a> had left one Democratic-Republican newspaper functioning in New York City. When the last newspaper, the <i>New Daily Advertiser</i>, reprinted an article saying that Hamilton had attempted to purchase the <i><a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_Aurora">Philadelphia Aurora</a></i> to close it down, Hamilton had the publisher prosecuted for <a href="/wiki/Seditious_libel">seditious libel</a>, and the prosecution compelled the owner to close the paper.<sup><a href="#cite_note-193">[190]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the 1800 election, Hamilton worked to defeat not only the Democratic-Republicans, but also his party's own nominee, John Adams.<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 392–99 </sup> Aaron Burr had won New York for Jefferson in May; now Hamilton proposed a rerun of the election under different rules—with carefully drawn districts and each choosing an elector—such that the Federalists would split the electoral vote of New York. Jay, who had resigned from the Supreme Court to be governor of New York, wrote on the back of a letter, "Proposing a measure for party purposes which it would not become me to adopt," and declined to reply.<sup><a href="#cite_note-194">[191]</a></sup>
</p><p>Adams was running this time with <a href="/wiki/Charles_Cotesworth_Pinckney">Charles Cotesworth Pinckney</a>, the elder brother of former vice presidential candidate Thomas. Hamilton toured New England, again urging northern electors to hold firm for Pinckney in the renewed hope of making Pinckney president; and he again intrigued in South Carolina.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McDonald-50">[47]</a></sup><sup>: 350–51 </sup> Hamilton's ideas involved coaxing middle-state Federalists to assert their non-support for Adams if there was no support for Pinckney and writing to more of the modest supports of Adams concerning his supposed misconduct while president.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McDonald-50">[47]</a></sup><sup>: 350–51 </sup> Hamilton expected to see southern states such as the Carolinas cast their votes for Pinckney and Jefferson, and would result in the former being ahead of both Adams and Jefferson.<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 394–95 </sup>
</p><p>In accordance with the second of the aforementioned plans, and a recent personal rift with Adams,<sup><a href="#cite_note-McDonald-50">[47]</a></sup><sup>: 351 </sup> Hamilton wrote a pamphlet called <i>Letter from Alexander Hamilton, Concerning the Public Conduct and Character of John Adams, Esq. President of the United States</i> that was highly critical of him, though it closed with a tepid endorsement.<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 396 </sup> He mailed this to two hundred leading Federalists; when a copy fell into the Democratic-Republicans' hands, they printed it. This hurt Adams's re-election campaign and split the Federalist Party, virtually assuring the victory of the Democratic-Republican Party, led by Jefferson, in the election of 1800; it diminished Hamilton's position among many Federalists.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Jefferson had beaten Adams, but both he and Aaron Burr had received 73 votes in the Electoral College. With Jefferson and Burr tied, the House of Representatives had to choose between the two men.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McDonald-50">[47]</a></sup><sup>: 352 </sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 399 </sup> Several Federalists who opposed Jefferson supported Burr, and for the first 35 ballots, Jefferson was denied a majority. Before the 36th ballot, Hamilton threw his weight behind Jefferson, supporting the arrangement reached by <a href="/wiki/James_A._Bayard_(politician,_born_1767)">James A. Bayard</a> of Delaware, in which five Federalist representatives from Maryland and Vermont abstained from voting, allowing those states' delegations to go for Jefferson, ending the impasse and electing Jefferson president rather than Burr.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McDonald-50">[47]</a></sup><sup>: 350–51 </sup>
</p><p>Even though Hamilton did not like Jefferson and disagreed with him on many issues, he viewed Jefferson as the <a href="/wiki/Lesser_of_two_evils">lesser of two evils</a>. Hamilton spoke of Jefferson as being "by far not so a dangerous man" and of Burr as a "mischievous enemy" to the principal measure of the past administration.<sup><a href="#cite_note-195">[192]</a></sup> It was for that reason, along with the fact that Burr was a northerner and not a Virginian, that many Federalist representatives voted for him.<sup><a href="#cite_note-196">[193]</a></sup><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_contradicting_other_articles">contradictory</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Hamilton wrote many letters to friends in Congress to convince the members to see otherwise.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McDonald-50">[47]</a></sup><sup>: 352 </sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 401 </sup> The Federalists rejected Hamilton's diatribe as reasons to not vote for Burr,<sup><a href="#cite_note-McDonald-50">[47]</a></sup><sup>: 353 </sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 401 </sup> although historian Cokie Roberts claimed that Hamilton's campaign against Burr was a major reason Burr failed to win in the end.<sup><a href="#cite_note-197">[194]</a></sup> Nevertheless, Burr would become vice president after losing to Jefferson. When it became clear that Jefferson had developed his own concerns about Burr and would not support his return to the vice presidency,<sup><a href="#cite_note-198">[195]</a></sup> Burr sought the New York governorship <a href="/wiki/1804_New_York_gubernatorial_election">in 1804</a> with Federalist support, against the Jeffersonian <a href="/wiki/Morgan_Lewis_(governor)">Morgan Lewis</a>, but was defeated by forces including Hamilton.<sup><a href="#cite_note-199">[196]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Duel with Burr and death</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Duel_between_Aaron_Burr_and_Alexander_Hamilton.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Soon after Lewis' gubernatorial victory, the <i>Albany Register</i> published <a href="/wiki/Charles_D._Cooper">Charles D. Cooper</a>'s letters, citing Hamilton's opposition to Burr and alleging that Hamilton had expressed "a still more despicable opinion" of the vice president at an upstate New York dinner party.<sup><a href="#cite_note-jbf-200">[197]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-201">[198]</a></sup> Cooper claimed that the letter was intercepted after relaying the information, but stated he was "unusually cautious" in recollecting the information from the dinner.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow680-681-202">[199]</a></sup>
</p><p>Burr, sensing an attack on his honor, and recovering from his defeat, demanded an apology in the form of a letter. Hamilton wrote a letter in response and ultimately refused because he could not recall the instance of insulting Burr. Hamilton would also have been accused of recanting Cooper's letter out of cowardice.<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 423–24 </sup> After a series of attempts to reconcile were to no avail, a duel was arranged through liaisons on June 27, 1804.<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 426 </sup>
</p><p>The concept of honor was fundamental to Hamilton's vision of himself and of the nation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-203">[200]</a></sup> Historians have noted, as evidence of the importance that honor held in Hamilton's value system, that Hamilton had previously been a party to seven "affairs of honor" as a principal, and to three as an advisor or second.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow-interview-204">[201]</a></sup> Such affairs of honor were often concluded prior to reaching their final stage, i.e. a duel.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow-interview-204">[201]</a></sup>
</p><p>Before the duel, Hamilton wrote an explanation of his decision to participate while at the same time intending to "<a href="/wiki/Deloping">throw away</a>" his shot.<sup><a href="#cite_note-205">[202]</a></sup> His desire to be available for future political matters also played a factor.<sup><a href="#cite_note-jbf-200">[197]</a></sup> A week before the duel, at an annual Independence Day dinner of the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_Cincinnati">Society of the Cincinnati</a>, both Hamilton and Burr were in attendance. Separate accounts confirm that Hamilton was uncharacteristically effusive while Burr was, by contrast, uncharacteristically withdrawn. Accounts also agree that Burr became roused when Hamilton, again uncharacteristically, sang a favorite song, which recent scholarship indicates that it was "<a href="/wiki/How_Stands_the_Glass_Around">How Stands the Glass Around</a>", an anthem sung by military troops about fighting and dying in war.<sup><a href="#cite_note-206">[203]</a></sup>
</p><p>The duel began at dawn on July 11, 1804, along the west bank of the <a href="/wiki/Hudson_River">Hudson River</a> on a rocky ledge in <a href="/wiki/Weehawken,_New_Jersey">Weehawken, New Jersey</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-207">[204]</a></sup> Both opponents were rowed over from Manhattan separately from different locations, as the spot was not accessible from the west due to the steepness of the adjoining cliffs. Coincidentally, the duel took place relatively close to the location of the duel that had ended the life of Hamilton's eldest son, Philip, three years earlier.<sup><a href="#cite_note-208">[205]</a></sup> Lots were cast for the choice of position and which second should start the duel. Both were won by Hamilton's second, who chose the upper edge of the ledge for Hamilton facing the city to the east, toward the rising sun.<sup><a href="#cite_note-209">[206]</a></sup> After the <a href="/wiki/Duel#Offense_and_satisfaction">seconds</a> had measured the paces Hamilton, according to both <a href="/wiki/William_P._Van_Ness">William P. Van Ness</a> and Burr, raised his pistol "as if to try the light" and had to wear his glasses to prevent his vision from being obscured.<sup><a href="#cite_note-210">[207]</a></sup> Hamilton also refused the more sensitive <a href="/wiki/Hair_trigger">hairspring</a> setting for the dueling pistols offered by <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Pendleton">Nathaniel Pendleton</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Brookhiser212-211">[208]</a></sup>
</p><p>Vice President Burr shot Hamilton, delivering what proved to be a fatal wound. Hamilton's shot broke a tree branch directly above Burr's head.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow117-171">[168]</a></sup> Neither of the seconds, Pendleton nor Van Ness, could determine who fired first,<sup><a href="#cite_note-212">[209]</a></sup> as each claimed that the other man had fired first.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Brookhiser212-211">[208]</a></sup>
</p><p>Soon after, they measured and triangulated the shooting, but could not determine from which angle Hamilton had fired. Burr's shot hit Hamilton in the lower abdomen above his right hip. The bullet ricocheted off Hamilton's second or third <a href="/wiki/False_ribs">false rib</a>, fracturing it and causing considerable damage to his internal organs, particularly his <a href="/wiki/Liver">liver</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thoracic_diaphragm">diaphragm</a>, before becoming lodged in his first or second <a href="/wiki/Lumbar_vertebrae">lumbar vertebra</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-schachner-98">[95]</a></sup><sup>: 429 </sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-213">[210]</a></sup> The biographer Ron Chernow considers the circumstances to indicate that, after taking deliberate aim, Burr fired second,<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow704-214">[211]</a></sup> while the biographer James Earnest Cooke suggests that Burr took careful aim and shot first, and Hamilton fired while falling, after being struck by Burr's bullet.<sup><a href="#cite_note-215">[212]</a></sup>
</p><p>The paralyzed Hamilton was immediately attended by <a href="/wiki/David_Hosack">the same surgeon</a> who tended Phillip Hamilton, and ferried to the <a href="/wiki/Greenwich_Village">Greenwich Village</a> boarding house of his friend <a href="/wiki/William_Bayard_Jr.">William Bayard Jr.</a>, who had been waiting on the dock.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow705-216">[213]</a></sup> On his deathbed, Hamilton asked the <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_New_York">Episcopal Bishop of New York</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Moore_(bishop)">Benjamin Moore</a>, to give him <a href="/wiki/Holy_communion">holy communion</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-papers-v26-217">[214]</a></sup> Moore initially declined to do so on the grounds that participating in a duel was a <a href="/wiki/Mortal_sin">mortal sin</a> and that Hamilton, although undoubtedly sincere in his faith, was not a member of the Episcopalian denomination.<sup><a href="#cite_note-fleming-218">[215]</a></sup> After leaving, Moore was persuaded to return that afternoon by the urgent pleas of Hamilton's friends. Upon receiving Hamilton's solemn assurance that he repented for his part in the duel, Moore gave him communion.<sup><a href="#cite_note-fleming-218">[215]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_Hamilton_Grave.JPG"></a></p></div>
<p>After final visits from his family, friends, and considerable suffering for at least 31 hours, Hamilton died at two o'clock the following afternoon, July 12, 1804,<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow705-216">[213]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-jch836-219">[216]</a></sup> at Bayard's home just below the present <a href="/wiki/Gansevoort_Street">Gansevoort Street</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Miller1990-220">[217]</a></sup> The city fathers halted all business at noon two days later for Hamilton's funeral. The procession route of about two miles organized by the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_Cincinnati">Society of the Cincinnati</a> had so many participants of every class of citizen that it took hours to complete and was widely reported nationwide by newspapers.<sup><a href="#cite_note-221">[218]</a></sup> Moore conducted the funeral service at <a href="/wiki/Trinity_Church_(Manhattan)">Trinity Church</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-papers-v26-217">[214]</a></sup> Gouverneur Morris gave the eulogy and secretly established a fund to support his widow and children.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow712-713-725-222">[219]</a></sup> Hamilton was buried in the <a href="/wiki/Trinity_Church_Cemetery">church's cemetery</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-223">[220]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Religion</h2>
<p>Hamilton's birthplace had a large <a href="/wiki/Jewish">Jewish</a> community, constituting one quarter of Charlestown's white population by the 1720s.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow17-2">[2]</a></sup> His degree of respect for Jews was described by Chernow as "a life-long reverence".<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow18-224">[221]</a></sup> He came into contact with Jews on a regular basis, having been tutored by a Jewish schoolmistress. As a small boy, he learned to recite the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments">Ten Commandments</a> in <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-jch-life-225">[222]</a></sup> and he believed that Jewish achievement was a result of <a href="/wiki/Divine_providence">divine providence</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-jch-711-226">[223]</a></sup> Some evidence suggests that Hamilton was born and raised Jewish,<sup><a href="#cite_note-227">[224]</a></sup> but little is known for certain.<sup><a href="#cite_note-228">[225]</a></sup>
</p><p>As a youth in the West Indies, Hamilton was an orthodox and conventional Presbyterian of the <a href="/wiki/Old_and_New_Lights">New Lights</a>; he was taught there by a student of <a href="/wiki/John_Witherspoon">John Witherspoon</a>, a moderate of the New School.<sup><a href="#cite_note-229">[226]</a></sup> He wrote two or three <a href="/wiki/Hymns">hymns</a>, which were published in the local newspaper.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow38-230">[227]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Troup">Robert Troup</a>, his college roommate, noted that Hamilton was "in the habit of praying on his knees night and morning".<sup><a href="#cite_note-jch-life-225">[222]</a></sup><sup>: 10 </sup>
</p><p>According to Gordon Wood, Hamilton dropped his youthful religiosity during the Revolution and became "a conventional liberal with theistic inclinations who was an irregular churchgoer at best"; however, he returned to religion in his last years.<sup><a href="#cite_note-231">[228]</a></sup> Chernow wrote that Hamilton was nominally an <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_Church_(United_States)">Episcopalian</a>, but:
</p>
<blockquote><p>[H]e was not clearly affiliated with the denomination and did not seem to attend church regularly or take communion. Like Adams, Franklin, and Jefferson, Hamilton had probably fallen under the sway of <a href="/wiki/Deism">deism</a>, which sought to substitute reason for revelation and dropped the notion of an active God who intervened in human affairs. At the same time, he never doubted God's existence, embracing Christianity as a system of morality and cosmic justice.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow205-232">[229]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>Stories were circulated that Hamilton had made two quips about God at the time of the Constitutional Convention in 1787.<sup><a href="#cite_note-adair1955-233">[230]</a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution">French Revolution</a>, he displayed a utilitarian approach to using religion for political ends, such as by maligning Jefferson as "the atheist", and insisting that Christianity and Jeffersonian democracy were incompatible.<sup><a href="#cite_note-adair1955-233">[230]</a></sup><sup>: 316 </sup> After 1801, Hamilton further attested his belief in Christianity, proposing a Christian Constitutional Society in 1802 to take hold of "some strong feeling of the mind" to elect "<i>fit</i> men" to office, and advocating "Christian welfare societies" for the poor. After being shot, Hamilton spoke of his belief in God's mercy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-234">[d]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Legacy</h2>
<h3>Constitution</h3>
<p>Hamilton's interpretations of the Constitution set forth in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i> remain highly influential, as seen in scholarly studies and court decisions.<sup><a href="#cite_note-235">[231]</a></sup> Although the Constitution was ambiguous as to the exact balance of power between national and state governments, Hamilton consistently took the side of greater federal power at the expense of the states.<sup><a href="#cite_note-236">[232]</a></sup> As secretary of the treasury, he established—against the intense opposition of Secretary of State Jefferson—the country's first de facto central bank. Hamilton justified the creation of this bank, and other federal powers, under Congress's constitutional authority to issue currency, regulate interstate commerce, and do anything else that would be "necessary and proper" to enact the provisions of the Constitution.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Thomas_Frederick_Wilson_1992_94-237">[233]</a></sup>
</p><p>On the other hand, Jefferson took a stricter view of the Constitution. Parsing the text carefully, he found no specific authorization for a national bank. This controversy was eventually settled in <i><a href="/wiki/McCulloch_v._Maryland">McCulloch v. Maryland</a></i>, which essentially adopted Hamilton's view, granting the federal government broad freedom to select the best means to execute its constitutionally enumerated powers, essentially confirming the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Implied_powers">implied powers</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Thomas_Frederick_Wilson_1992_94-237">[233]</a></sup> Nevertheless, the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War">American Civil War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era">Progressive Era</a> demonstrated the sorts of crises and politics Hamilton's administrative republic sought to avoid.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Tulis1987-238">[234]</a></sup><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify">how?</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Hamilton's policies have greatly affected the United States government. His constitutional interpretation, particularly of the Necessary and Proper Clause, set precedents for federal authority that are still used by the courts and are considered an authority on constitutional interpretation. French diplomat <a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurice_de_Talleyrand-P%C3%A9rigord">Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord</a>, who spent 1794 in the United States, wrote, "I consider <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_I_of_France">Napoleon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_James_Fox">Fox</a>, and Hamilton the three greatest men of our epoch, and if I were forced to decide between the three, I would give without hesitation the first place to Hamilton," adding that Hamilton had intuited the problems of European conservatives.<sup><a href="#cite_note-239">[235]</a></sup>
</p><p>Opinions of Hamilton have run the gamut as both Adams and Jefferson viewed him as unprincipled and dangerously aristocratic. Hamilton's reputation was mostly negative in the eras of <a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy">Jeffersonian democracy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy">Jacksonian democracy</a>. The older Jeffersonian view attacked Hamilton as a centralizer, sometimes to the point of accusations that he advocated monarchy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow397-398-240">[236]</a></sup> By the Progressive Era, <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Croly">Herbert Croly</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge">Henry Cabot Lodge</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> praised his leadership of a strong government. Several <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republican_Party_(United_States)">Republicans in 19th and 20th centuries</a> entered politics by writing laudatory biographies of Hamilton.<sup><a href="#cite_note-241">[237]</a></sup>
</p><p>According to Sean Wilentz, more recent views of Hamilton and his reputation have been favorable among scholars, who portray him as the visionary architect of the modern liberal capitalist economy and of a dynamic federal government headed by an energetic executive.<sup><a href="#cite_note-wilentz-242">[238]</a></sup> Conversely, modern scholars favoring Hamilton have portrayed Jefferson and his allies as naïve, dreamy idealists.<sup><a href="#cite_note-wilentz-242">[238]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Slavery</h3>
<p>Hamilton is not known to have ever owned slaves, although members of his family were slave owners. At the time of her death, Hamilton's mother owned two slaves and wrote a will leaving them to her sons. However, due to their illegitimacy, Hamilton and his brother were held ineligible to inherit her property and never took ownership of the slaves.<sup><a href="#cite_note-New-York_Journal-243">[239]</a></sup><sup>: 17 </sup> Later, as a youth in Saint Croix, Hamilton worked for a company trading in commodities that included slaves.<sup><a href="#cite_note-New-York_Journal-243">[239]</a></sup><sup>: 17 </sup> He occasionally handled slave transactions as the legal representative of his own family members and one of his grandsons interpreted some of these journal entries as being purchases for himself.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Allan_McLane_Hamilton-244">[240]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-245">[241]</a></sup> In 1840, his son John maintained that his father "never owned a slave; but on the contrary, having learned that a domestic whom he had hired was about to be sold by her master, he immediately purchased her freedom."<sup><a href="#cite_note-246">[242]</a></sup>
</p><p>By the time of Hamilton's early participation in the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution">American Revolution</a>, his abolitionist sensibilities had become evident. He was active during the Revolutionary War in trying to raise black troops for the army with the promise of freedom. In the 1780s and 1790s, Hamilton generally opposed pro-slavery southern interests, which he saw as hypocritical to the values of the revolution. In 1785, he joined his close associate John Jay in founding the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Manumission_Society">New York Manumission Society</a>, which successfully promoted the abolition of the international slave trade in New York City and passed a state law to end slavery in New York through a decades-long process of emancipation with a final end to slavery in the state on July 4, 1827.<sup><a href="#cite_note-New-York_Journal-243">[239]</a></sup>
</p><p>At a time when most white leaders doubted the capacity of blacks, Hamilton believed slavery was morally wrong and wrote that "their natural faculties are as good as ours."<sup><a href="#cite_note-247">[243]</a></sup> Unlike contemporaries such as Jefferson, who considered the removal of freed slaves to a western territory, West Indies, or Africa to be essential to any plan for emancipation, Hamilton pressed for emancipation without such provisions.<sup><a href="#cite_note-New-York_Journal-243">[239]</a></sup><sup>: 22 </sup> Hamilton and other Federalists supported the <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution">Haitian Revolution</a>, which had originated as a slave revolt.<sup><a href="#cite_note-New-York_Journal-243">[239]</a></sup><sup>: 23 </sup> His suggestions helped shape the <a href="/wiki/Haitian_constitution">Haitian constitution</a>. In 1804, when Haiti became an independent state with a majority Black population, Hamilton urged closer economic and diplomatic ties.<sup><a href="#cite_note-New-York_Journal-243">[239]</a></sup><sup>: 23 </sup>
</p>
<h3>Economics</h3>
<p>Hamilton has been portrayed as the "patron saint"<sup><a href="#cite_note-:0-248">[244]</a></sup> of the <a href="/wiki/American_School_(economics)">American School</a> economic philosophy that, according to one historian, later dominated American economic policy after 1861.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:0-248">[244]</a></sup> His ideas and work influenced the 19th century German economist <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_List">Friedrich List</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-249">[245]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>'s chief economic advisor, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Charles_Carey">Henry Charles Carey</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-250">[246]</a></sup>
</p><p>As early as the fall of 1781, Hamilton firmly supported government intervention in favor of business after the manner of <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Colbert">Jean-Baptiste Colbert</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow170-251">[247]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-252">[248]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-253">[249]</a></sup> In contrast to the British policy of international <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism">mercantilism</a>, which he believed skewed benefits to colonial and imperial powers, Hamilton was a pioneering advocate of <a href="/wiki/Protectionism">protectionism</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-254">[250]</a></sup> He is credited with the idea that industrialization would only be possible with <a href="/wiki/Tariff">tariffs</a> to protect the "<a href="/wiki/Infant_industries">infant industries</a>" of an emerging nation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Bairoch-143">[140]</a></sup>
</p><p>Political theorists credit Hamilton with the creation of the modern administrative state, citing his arguments in favor of a strong executive, linked to the support of the people, as the linchpin of an administrative republic.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Green2002-255">[251]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDerthick1999122-256">[252]</a></sup> The dominance of executive leadership in the formulation and carrying out of policy was, in his view, essential to resist the deterioration of a republican government.<sup><a href="#cite_note-257">[253]</a></sup> Some scholars have raised similarities between Hamiltonian recommendations and the development of <a href="/wiki/Meiji_Japan">Meiji Japan</a> as evidence of the global influence of Hamilton's theory.<sup><a href="#cite_note-258">[254]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>References</h2>
<h3>Notes</h3>
<div>
<ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b> It is unclear whether Hamilton was born in 1755 or 1757.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow17-2">[2]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Logan2018-3">[3]</a></sup> Most historical evidence supports the idea that he was born in 1757,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Brookhiser16-4">[4]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Newton19-5">[5]</a></sup> though he celebrated his birthday on January 11. In his later life, Hamilton tended to give his age in round figures. Historians accepted 1757 as his birth year until the 1930s when additional documentation was published, including a 1768 probate paper from Saint Croix listing him as thirteen years old. Since then, some historians favored 1755.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow17-2">[2]</a></sup> If he was born in 1757, the probate paper may either have included an error or Hamilton gave his age as thirteen to appear older and more employable. Historians have pointed out other proven inaccuracies in the paper, demonstrating its unreliability.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Brookhiser16-4">[4]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b> Primary sources disagree on the spelling of Hamilton's mother's surname.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Newton2019-115-8">[7]</a></sup> Hamilton's grandfather signed his name "John Faucett" on a legal document dated May 31, 1720, which some historians consider authoritative.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Newton2019-28-9">[8]</a></sup> Hamilton himself spelled the surname as Faucette in a letter dated August 26, 1800, which was corrected to Faucett in a footnote by the editor of Hamilton's papers.<sup><a href="#cite_note-HamPapers1800-10">[9]</a></sup> Hamilton's son, <a href="/wiki/John_Church_Hamilton">John</a>, wrote Faucette.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Hamilton1879-11">[10]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ron_Chernow">Ron Chernow</a> and many early historians followed Hamilton by writing Faucette,<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow8-9-12">[11]</a></sup> while another group of historians adopted the anglicized name Fawcett, reflecting an absence of consensus.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Newton2015-10-13">[12]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b> Although there are persistent claims that Hamilton's mother was of mixed race, this is not substantiated by any verifiable evidence. Rachel Faucette was listed as white on tax rolls.<sup><a href="#cite_note-chernow9-734-15">[13]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Owens2004-16">[14]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a></b> Adair and Harvey, "Christian Statesman?"; Quotes on the Christian Constitutional Society are from Hamilton's letter to James A. Bayard of April 1802, quoted by Adair and Harvey. McDonald, says p. 356, that Hamilton's faith "had not entirely departed" him before the crisis of 1801. 
</li>
</ol></div>
<h3>Citations</h3>
<div>
<ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://npg.si.edu/object/npg_NPG.79.216?destination=portraits">"Alexander Hamilton"</a>. <i>npg.si.edu</i>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-chernow17_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow17_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow17_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow17_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow17_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/17">p. 17</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Logan2018_3-0">^</a></b> <cite>Logan, Erin B. (July 12, 2018). <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/retropolis/wp/2018/07/12/alexander-hamilton-immigrant-and-statesman-dies-at-47-or-49/">"Alexander Hamilton, immigrant and statesman, dies at 47 — or 49"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post">The Washington Post</a></i>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brookhiser16_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brookhiser16_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Brookhiser, Richard (2000). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KNqw3yCfG5YC&amp;pg=PA16"><i>Alexander Hamilton, American</i></a>. Simon and Schuster. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-43913-545-7"><bdi>978-1-43913-545-7</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Newton19_5-0">^</a></b> Newton (2015), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9GvpCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA19">pp. 19–30</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-ramsing_7-0">^</a></b> <cite>Ramsing, Holger Utke (1939). "Alexander Hamilton". <i>Personalhistorisk Tidsskrift</i> (in Danish): 225–70.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Newton2019-115_8-0">^</a></b> <cite>Newton, Michael E. (2019). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5oOiDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA115"><i>Discovering Hamilton: New Discoveries in the Lives of Alexander Hamilton, His Family, Friends, and Colleagues, from Various Archives Around the World</i></a>. Eleftheria Publishing. p. 115. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9826040-4-5"><bdi>978-0-9826040-4-5</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Newton2019-28_9-0">^</a></b> Newton (2019), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5oOiDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA28">p. 28</a>.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-HamPapers1800_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HamPapers1800_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Hamilton, Alexander (August 26, 1800). <a href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-25-02-0068#ARHN-01-25-02-0068-fn-0004">"From Alexander Hamilton to William Jackson"</a>. <i>Founders Online</i> (Letter). National Archives.</cite> Archived from <cite>Syrett, Harold C., ed. (1977) [July 1800 – April 1802]. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rbL7xJhUIVoC&amp;pg=PA91&amp;dq=faucett&amp;q=faucett"><i>The Papers of Alexander Hamilton</i></a>. Vol. 25. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 88–91 &amp; n.4.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hamilton1879_11-0">^</a></b> <cite>Hamilton, John Church (1879). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1FQSAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA41"><i>Life of Alexander Hamilton: A History of the Republic of the United States of America, as Traced in His Writings and in Those of His Contemporaries</i></a>. Houghton, Osgood and Company. p. 41.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-chernow8-9_12-0">^</a></b> Chernow, pp. <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/8/mode/2up">8–9</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Newton2015-10_13-0">^</a></b> <cite>Newton, Michael E. (2015). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9GvpCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA10"><i>Alexander Hamilton: The Formative Years</i></a>. Eleftheria Publishing. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9826040-3-8"><bdi>978-0-9826040-3-8</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-chernow9-734_15-0">^</a></b> Chernow, pp. <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/9">9</a>, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/734">734–35</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Owens2004_16-0">^</a></b> <cite>Owens, Mitchell (January 8, 2004). <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2004/01/08/garden/surprises-in-the-family-tree.html">"Surprises in the Family Tree"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. Appended correction dated January 15, 2004. Retrieved November 15, 2016. <q>While there have been suggestions that the mother, Rachel Faucett or Fawcett—and therefore Hamilton himself—was of mixed ancestry, it is not an established fact.</q></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b> <a href="#chernow">Chernow, 2005</a>, p. 8.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Randall1_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Randall1_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Randall1_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Randall, Willard Sterne (2004). Foreword. <i>Practical Proceedings in the Supreme Court of the State of New York</i>. By Hamilton, Alexander. New York: New York Law Journal. p. ix.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-chernow10-12_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow10-12_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow10-12_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/10">pp. 10–12</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brookhiser15_21-0">^</a></b> <cite>Brookhiser, Richard (2000). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KNqw3yCfG5YC&amp;pg=PA15"><i>Alexander Hamilton, American</i></a>. Simon and Schuster. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-43913-545-7"><bdi>978-1-43913-545-7</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Newton14_22-0">^</a></b> Newton (2015), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9GvpCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA14">p. 14</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lewisohn_23-0">^</a></b> <cite>Lewisohn, Florence (1975). <i>What So Proudly We Hail-Alexander Hamilton's West Indian Boyhood</i>. <i>American Revolution Bicentennial Commission of the Virgin Islands</i>. St. Croix. pp. 17–30.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-chernow24_24-0">^</a></b> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/24">p. 24</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b> <cite>Brockenbrough, Martha (2017). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FKAvDwAAQBAJ"><i>Alexander Hamilton, Revolutionary</i></a>. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-250-12319-0"><bdi>978-1-250-12319-0</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b> E.g., Flexner, <i>passim</i>.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-chernow25-30_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow25-30_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/25">pp. 25–30</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b> Chernow, <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4z5eL5SGjEoC&amp;pg=PA29">p. 29</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b> <cite>Cissel, William. <a href="http://www.virginislandspace.org/Division%20of%20Libraries/cisselpaper.pdf">"<i>The West Indian Founding Father, 2004</i>"</a> (PDF). <a href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.virginislandspace.org/Division%20of%20Libraries/cisselpaper.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Founders1771_30-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-01-02-0004">"To Alexander Hamilton from Walton and Cruger, [19 October 1771]"</a>. <i>Founders Online</i> (Letter). National Archives. fn. 1.</cite> Archived from <cite>Syrett, Harold C., ed. (1961) [1768–1778]. <i>The Papers of Alexander Hamilton</i>. Vol. 1. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 8 n.1.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Letter_by_Alexander_Hamilton_on_the_hurricane_of_August_1772">"Letter on the hurricane of August 1772"</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-chernow37_32-0">^</a></b> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/37">p. 37</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-gordon_33-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/John_Steele_Gordon">Gordon, John Steele</a> (April–May 2004). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081119235829/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/2004/2/2004_2_42.shtml">"The Self Made Founder"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Heritage_(magazine)">American Heritage</a></i>. Archived from <a href="http://americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/2004/2/2004_2_42.shtml">the original</a> on November 19, 2008.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-OBrien-Mulligan_34-0">^</a></b> <cite>O'Brien, Michael J. (1916) [October 30, 1915]. <a href="https://archive.org/stream/journalofamerica15amer_0#page/n291/mode/2up/search/Mulligan">"Field Day of the American Irish Historical Society Held in New York City"</a>. <i>The Journal of the American Irish Historical Society</i> (transcript of address). <b>1</b> (1): 144.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Newton64_35-0">^</a></b> Newton (2015), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9GvpCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA64">p. 64</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Newton2019-227_36-0">^</a></b> Newton (2019), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5oOiDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA227">pp. 227–228</a>. "Thus, when Alexander Hamilton arrived in Elizabethtown in October 1772 and moved in with the Livingstons, they lived in this house rented from Jacob De Hart."
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b> Adair and Harvey.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b> <cite>Cornfield, Josh (July 7, 2016). <a href="https://www.bostonglobe.com/arts/theater-dance/2016/07/07/group-upset-that-hamilton-alleges-martha-washington-named-tomcat-after-him/XSoUG3OaDUtbxxu1plxbyJ/story.html">"Did Martha Washington Really Name a Cat After Alexander Hamilton?"</a>. <i>Boston Globe</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171201043151/https://www.bostonglobe.com/arts/theater-dance/2016/07/07/group-upset-that-hamilton-alleges-martha-washington-named-tomcat-after-him/XSoUG3OaDUtbxxu1plxbyJ/story.html">Archived</a> from the original on December 1, 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Newton69_39-0">^</a></b> Newton (2015), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9GvpCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA69">p. 69</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b> Randall, p. 78.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-chernow53_41-0">^</a></b> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/53">p. 53</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cardozo1902_42-0">^</a></b> <cite>Cardozo, Ernest Abraham (1902). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q8aEAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PT23"><i>A History of the Philolexian Society of Columbia University from 1802–1902</i></a>. New York: Philolexian Society. p. 23.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b> Miller, p. 9.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b> Mitchell 1:65–73; Miller, p. 19.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Newton116-117_45-0">^</a></b> Newton (2015), pp. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9GvpCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA116">116</a>, <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9GvpCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA117">117</a>, 573.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b> Mitchell, I:74–75.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_47-0">^</a></b> Robert Troup "Memoir of General Hamilton", March 22, 1810
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b> Chernow, Ron. <i>Alexander Hamilton</i>. Penguin Press, (2004) (<a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59420-009-2">1-59420-009-2</a>).
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Newton127_49-0">^</a></b> Newton (2015), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9GvpCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA127">pp. 127–128</a>.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-McDonald_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McDonald_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McDonald_50-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McDonald_50-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McDonald_50-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McDonald_50-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McDonald_50-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McDonald_50-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McDonald_50-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McDonald_50-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McDonald_50-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McDonald_50-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McDonald_50-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McDonald_50-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McDonald_50-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McDonald_50-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McDonald_50-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McDonald_50-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McDonald_50-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McDonald_50-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McDonald_50-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McDonald_50-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McDonald_50-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McDonald_50-23"><sup><i><b>x</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McDonald_50-24"><sup><i><b>y</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McDonald_50-25"><sup><i><b>z</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McDonald_50-26"><sup><i><b>aa</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McDonald_50-27"><sup><i><b>ab</b></i></sup></a> <cite>McDonald, Forrest (1982). <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00forr"><i>Alexander Hamilton: A Biography</i></a>. W. W. Norton Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-30048-2"><bdi>978-0-393-30048-2</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-chernow72_51-0">^</a></b> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n87">p. 72</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-stryker158_52-0">^</a></b> <cite>Stryker, William S. (1898). <a href="https://archive.org/stream/battlesoftrenton00stry#page/158/mode/2up"><i>The Battles of Trenton and Princeton</i></a> (page image). Boston: Houghton, Mifflin &amp; Co. pp. 158–9.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-ketchum361-64_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ketchum361-64_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Ketchum, Richard (1999). <i>The Winter Soldiers: The Battles for Trenton and Princeton</i> (1st Owl Books ed.). Holt Paperbacks. p. 310. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-6098-0"><bdi>978-0-8050-6098-0</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-stryker290_54-0">^</a></b> <cite>Stryker, William S. (1898). <a href="https://archive.org/stream/battlesoftrenton00stry#page/290/mode/2up"><i>The Battles of Trenton and Princeton</i></a> (page image). Boston: Houghton, Mifflin &amp; Co. p. 290.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-chernow128-129_55-0">^</a></b> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n145">pp. 128–29</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-chernow654-655_56-0">^</a></b> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n689">pp. 654–55</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b> <a href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1878/09/26/86541502.pdf">James Alexander Hamilton obituary</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times">The New York Times</a></i>, September 26, 1878.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/655807/alexander-hamilton-children">"The Rundown on Alexander Hamilton's 8 Children"</a>. <i>Mental Floss</i>. March 7, 2022. Retrieved January 13, 2023.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Newton189-190_59-0">^</a></b> Newton (2015), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9GvpCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA189">pp. 189–190</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b> Lefkowitz, Arthur S., <i>George Washington's Indispensable Men: The 32 Aides-de-Camp Who Helped Win the Revolution</i>, Stackpole Books, 2003, pp. 15, 108.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b> <cite>Hendrickson, Robert (1976). <a href="https://archive.org/details/hamilton0000hend"><i>Hamilton I (1757–1789)</i></a>. New York: Mason/Charter. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/hamilton0000hend/page/119">119</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780884051398"><bdi>9780884051398</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-chernow90_62-0">^</a></b> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n105">p. 90</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b> Lodge, pp. 1:15–20
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b> Miller, pp. 23–26.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b> Flexner, <i>Young Hamilton</i>, p. 316.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b> Trees, Andrew S., "The Importance of Being Alexander Hamilton", <i>Reviews in American History</i> 2005, pp. 33(1):8–14, finding Chernow's inferences to be overreading the contemporary style.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b> <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Ned_Katz">Katz, Jonathan Ned</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Gay_American_History:_Lesbians_and_Gay_Men_in_the_U.S.A.">Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the U.S.A.</a></i>, Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1976, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-690-01164-7">978-0-690-01164-7</a>, p. 445.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b> Gregory D. Massey, <i>John Laurens and the American Revolution</i>; University of South Carolina Press, 2000.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b> Chernow 2004, pp. 151–152
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b> Chernow 2004, pp. 153–159
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b> Murray, p. 69.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b> Mitchell, pp. I:254–60.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Morris1970_73-0">^</a></b> <cite>Morris, Richard Brandon (1970). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-tS4twEACAAJ"><i>The Peacemakers: The Great Powers and American Independence</i></a>. Harper &amp; Row.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Murray2007_74-0">^</a></b> <cite>Murray, Joseph A. (2007). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2If-6zJM8VIC&amp;pg=PT74"><i>Alexander Hamilton: America's Forgotten Founder</i></a>. Algora Publishing. p. 74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87586-502-7"><bdi>978-0-87586-502-7</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b> Chernow, pp. 165–171
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b> Syrett, p. III:117; for a one-year term beginning the "first Monday in November next", arrived in Philadelphia between November 18 and 25, and resigned July 1783.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b> Hamilton, Alexander. <i>Alexander Hamilton: Writings</i>. Compiled by <a href="/wiki/Joanne_B._Freeman">Joanne B. Freeman</a>. New York: Literary Classics of the United States, Inc., 2001. pp. 70–71
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b> Kohn; Brant, p. 45; Rakove, p. 324.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-chernow176_79-0">^</a></b> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n195">p. 176</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b> Brant, p. 100
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b> Martin and Lender, pp. 109, 160: at first for seven years, increased to life after Arnold's treason.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tucker15_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tucker15_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Tucker, p. 470.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-ellis141_83-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ellis141_83-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Kohn; Ellis 2004, pp. 141–44.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b> Kohn, p. 196.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-chernow177_85-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow177_85-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow177_85-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n196">pp. 177–80</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b> Hamilton's letter of February 13, 1783; Syrett, pp. III:253–55.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b> Washington to Hamilton, March 4 and 12, 1783; Kohn; Martin and Lender, pp. 189–90.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Washington1783_88-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-03-02-0202">"To Alexander Hamilton from George Washington, 4 April 1783"</a>. <i>Founders Online</i>. National Archives. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160319223520/http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-03-02-0202">Archived</a> from the original on March 19, 2016. Retrieved June 25, 2018.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b> Rakove, pp. 322, 325.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b> Brant, p. 108.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-chernow182_91-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow182_91-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n201">pp. 182–83</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.loc.gov/collections/alexander-hamilton-papers/articles-and-essays/timeline/">"Timeline | Articles and Essays | Alexander Hamilton Papers | Digital Collections | Library of Congress"</a>. <i>Library of Congress</i>. Retrieved July 4, 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-chernow197-199_93-0">^</a></b> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n216">pp. 197–99</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Globe2011_94-0">^</a></b> <cite>Wallack, Todd (December 20, 2011). <a href="https://www.bostonglobe.com/business/2011/12/20/oldest-bank-america-accounts-vary/WAqvIlmipfFhyKsx8bhgAJ/story.html">"Which bank is the oldest? Accounts vary"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Boston_Globe">The Boston Globe</a></i>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Morris1988_95-0">^</a></b> <cite>Morris, Richard B. (1988). <a href="https://archive.org/details/forgingofunion00morr_0"><i>The Forging of the Union, 1781–1789</i></a>. Harper &amp; Row. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/forgingofunion00morr_0/page/255">255</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-015733-3"><bdi>978-0-06-015733-3</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-05-02-0012-0088">"Founders Online: From Alexander Hamilton to Nathaniel Chipman, 22 July 1788"</a>. <i>founders.archives.gov</i>. Retrieved January 25, 2023.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b> <cite>Editors, History com. <a href="https://www.history.com/topics/us-states/vermont">"Vermont"</a>. <i>HISTORY</i>. Retrieved January 25, 2023.</cite> 
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-23"><sup><i><b>x</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-24"><sup><i><b>y</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-25"><sup><i><b>z</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-26"><sup><i><b>aa</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-27"><sup><i><b>ab</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-28"><sup><i><b>ac</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-29"><sup><i><b>ad</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-30"><sup><i><b>ae</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-31"><sup><i><b>af</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-32"><sup><i><b>ag</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-33"><sup><i><b>ah</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-34"><sup><i><b>ai</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-35"><sup><i><b>aj</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-36"><sup><i><b>ak</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-37"><sup><i><b>al</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-38"><sup><i><b>am</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schachner_98-39"><sup><i><b>an</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Schachner, Nathan (1946). <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto0000scha_p8e9"><i>Alexander Hamilton</i></a>. New York: D. Appleton Century Co. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)">ASIN</a> <a href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0006AQUG2">B0006AQUG2</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b> Morton, p. 169.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-chernow227-228_100-0">^</a></b> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n246">pp. 227–28</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Morton15_101-0">^</a></b> Morton, p. 131.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-chernow232_102-0">^</a></b> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n251">p. 232</a>.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-LarsonWinship2005_103-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LarsonWinship2005_103-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Madison, James (2005). Larson, Edward J.; Winship, Michael P. (eds.). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MKk_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA50"><i>The Constitutional Convention: A Narrative History from the Notes of James Madison</i></a>. New York: Modern Library. pp. 50–1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8129-7517-8"><bdi>978-0-8129-7517-8</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b> <a href="#stewart">Stewart, 2016</a>, p. 33
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b> Mitchell, pp. I:397 ff.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b> Brant, p. 195.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Denboer15_107-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Denboer15_107-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Denboer, p. 196.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kaplan15_108-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kaplan15_108-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Kaplan, p. 75.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b> Denboer, p. 197.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-chernow247_110-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow247_110-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n266">pp. 247–48</a>.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-chernow252-257_111-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow252-257_111-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow252-257_111-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow252-257_111-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n271">pp. 252–57</a>.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Murray121_112-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Murray121_112-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Murray, p. 121.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-chernow296-299_113-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow296-299_113-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow296-299_113-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow296-299_113-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n315">pp. 296–99</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-chernow121_114-0">^</a></b> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n136">p. 121</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b> Murray, p. 124.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-chernow300-305_116-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow300-305_116-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow300-305_116-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow300-305_116-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow300-305_116-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow300-305_116-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n319">pp. 300–05</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-chernow307_117-0">^</a></b> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n326">p. 307</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b> Kaplan, p. 21.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cooke82_119-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cooke82_119-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cooke82_119-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> Cooke, p. 88.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b> <cite>Sylla, Richard; Wright, Robert E; Cowen, David J (2009). <a href="https://archive.org/details/sim_business-history-review_2009_spring_83_1/page/61">"Alexander Hamilton, Central Banker: Crisis Management during the U.S. Financial Panic of 1792"</a>. <i>Business History Review</i>. <b>83</b> (1): 61–86. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0007680500000209">10.1017/s0007680500000209</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0007-6805">0007-6805</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153842455">153842455</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b> Cooke, p. 89.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b> Cooke, p. 90.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b> <cite>Bogin, Ruth (July 1988). <a href="https://archive.org/details/sim_william-and-mary-quarterly_1988-07_45_3/page/392">"Petitioning and the New Moral Economy of Post-Revolutionary America"</a>. <i>The William and Mary Quarterly</i>. <b>45</b> (3): 392–425. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1923642">10.2307/1923642</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0043-5597">0043-5597</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1923642">1923642</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b> Mitchell, p. 118.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b> Engerman; Gallman, p. 644.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Studentski_126-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Studentski_126-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Studentski_126-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> Studentski; Krooss, p. 62.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-nussbaum_127-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Nussbaum">Nussbaum, Arthur</a> (November 1937). "The Law of the Dollar". <i><a href="/wiki/Columbia_Law_Review">Columbia Law Review</a></i> (citing 2 Annals of Cong. 2115 (1789–1791)). <b>37</b> (7): 1057–91. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1116782">10.2307/1116782</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1116782">1116782</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b> Cooke, p. 87.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b> Engerman; Gallman, pp. 644–45.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b> James Ferguson, John Catanzariti, Elizabeth M. Nuxoll and Mary Gallagher, eds. <i>The Papers of Robert Morris</i>, University of Pittsburgh Press, 1973–1999 (Volume 7, pp. 682–713)
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gibowicz07_131-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibowicz07_131-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibowicz07_131-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> Gibowicz, p. 256.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-chernow340_132-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow340_132-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow340_132-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow340_132-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n359">p. 340</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-chernow32_133-0">^</a></b> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n47">p. 32</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b> Gibowicz, pp. 256–57.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b> Storbridge, p. 2.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b> Stockwell, p. 357.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-chernow342-343_137-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow342-343_137-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow342-343_137-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow342-343_137-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow342-343_137-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n361">pp. 342–43</a>.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Murray141_138-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Murray141_138-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Murray141_138-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> Murray, p. 141.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Murray40_139-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Murray40_139-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Murray, pp. 141–42.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-chernow468_140-0">^</a></b> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n503">p. 468</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b> Mitchell, I:308–31.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b> Cooke, p. 100.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bairoch_143-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bairoch_143-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Bairoch, Paul (1995). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LaF_cCknJScC&amp;pg=PA33"><i>Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. p. 33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-03463-8"><bdi>978-0-226-03463-8</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cooke101_144-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cooke101_144-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cooke101_144-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> Cooke, p. 101.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b> Mitchell, p. 145.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b> Stephen F. Knott, <i>Alexander Hamilton and the Persistence of Myth</i> (2002), pp. 43, 54, 56, 83, 108.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Shriner_147-0">^</a></b> <cite>Shriner, Charles Anthony (December 29, 2017). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MtQwAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA59">"Four Chapters of Paterson History"</a>. Lont &amp; Overkamp Publishing Company.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cooke103_148-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cooke103_148-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Cooke, p. 103.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cooke102_149-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cooke102_149-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Cooke, p. 102.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Matson_150-0">^</a></b> <cite>Matson, Cathy (2010). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160409230828/http://www.common-place-archives.org/vol-10/no-03/matson/">"Flimsy Fortunes: Americans' Old Relationship with Paper Speculation and Panic"</a>. <i>Common-place</i>. <b>10</b> (4). Archived from <a href="http://www.common-place-archives.org/vol-10/no-03/matson/">the original</a> on April 9, 2016. Retrieved May 2, 2018.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Elkins_McK_151-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Elkins_McK_151-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Elkins_McK_151-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Elkins, Stanley M.; McKitrick, Eric (1994). <a href="https://archive.org/details/ageoffederalism00elki"><i>The Age of Federalism: The Early American Republic, 1788–1800</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-506890-0"><bdi>978-0-19-506890-0</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b> <cite>Estes, Todd (2000). "Shaping the Politics of Public Opinion: Federalists and the Jay Treaty Debate". <i>Journal of the Early Republic</i>. <b>20</b> (3): 393–422. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3125063">10.2307/3125063</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/3125063">3125063</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b> <cite>Herring, George C. (2008). <a href="https://archive.org/details/fromcolonytosupe1776herr"><i>From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations since 1776</i></a>. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/fromcolonytosupe1776herr/page/n98">80</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507822-0"><bdi>978-0-19-507822-0</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b> <cite>Bemis, Samuel Flagg (April 1922). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3mMSAAAAYAAJ">"Jay's Treaty and the Northwest Boundary Gap"</a>. <i>The American Historical Review</i>. <b>27</b> (3): 465–84. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1837800">10.2307/1837800</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)">hdl</a>:<a href="//hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fhvd.32044020001764">2027/hvd.32044020001764</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1837800">1837800</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b> <cite>Knox, Henry. <a href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-17-02-0369">"Letter from Henry Knox to Alexander Hamilton, 24 November 1794"</a>. <i>Founders Online</i>. National Archives.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chernow478_156-0">^</a></b> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n513">p. 478</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b> <cite>Hamilton, Alexander. <a href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-17-02-0392">"Letter from Alexander Hamilton to George Washington, 1 December 1794"</a>. <i>Founders Online</i>. National Archives.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-chernow480_158-0">^</a></b> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n515">p. 480</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b> <cite>Hamilton, Alexander. <a href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-18-02-0181">"Letter from Alexander Hamilton to Angelica Schuyler Church, 6 March 1795"</a>. <i>Founders Online</i>. National Archives.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Henretta2011_160-0">^</a></b> <cite>Henretta, James A.; et al. (2011). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5PmY3sBubw8C&amp;pg=PA207"><i>America's History, Volume 1: To 1877</i></a>. pp. 207–08. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-38791-4"><bdi>978-0-312-38791-4</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mjm&amp;fileName=05/mjm05.db&amp;recNum=591">"Madison to Jefferson"</a>. March 2, 1794. Retrieved October 14, 2006. <q>I see by a paper of last evening that even in New York a meeting of the people has taken place, at the instance of the Republican party, and that a committee is appointed for the like purpose</q></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Smith832_162-0">^</a></b> See also Smith (2004), p. 832.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Young2011_163-0">^</a></b> <cite>Young, Christopher J. (Fall 2011). "Connecting the President and the People: Washington's Neutrality, Genet's Challenge, and Hamilton's Fight for Public Support". <i>Journal of the Early Republic</i>. <b>31</b> (3): 435–66. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjer.2011.0040">10.1353/jer.2011.0040</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144349420">144349420</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cook2014_164-0">^</a></b> <cite>Cook, Brian J. (October 9, 2014). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AUxjBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA56"><i>Bureaucracy and Self-Government</i></a>. JHU Press. pp. 56 ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-1552-9"><bdi>978-1-4214-1552-9</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b> Balogh 2009, 72–110
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nevins1922_166-0">^</a></b> Allan Nevins, <i>The Evening Post: A Century of Journalism</i> (1922) <a href="https://archive.org/details/eveningpostacen00nevigoog">ch. 1 online</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b> Cooke, pp. 109–10
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b> Lomask, pp. 139–40, 216–17, 220.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b> Garrity and Spalding, pp. 47, 50–55.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b> Murray, p. 207.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-chernow117_171-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow117_171-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n132">p. 117</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-chernow510_172-0">^</a></b> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n545">p. 510</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b> Elkins and McKitrick; <i>Age of Federalism</i>, pp. 523–28, 859. Rutledge had his own plan, to have Pinckney win with Jefferson as Vice President.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b> Elkins and McKitrick, p. 515.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brookhiser3_175-0">^</a></b> <cite>Brookhiser, Richard (2011). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KNqw3yCfG5YC&amp;pg=PA3"><i>Alexander Hamilton, American</i></a>. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4391-3545-7"><bdi>978-1-4391-3545-7</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Reynolds_Pamphlet_176-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reynolds_Pamphlet_176-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reynolds_Pamphlet_176-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Hamilton, Alexander. <a href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-21-02-0138-0002">"Printed Version of the "Reynolds Pamphlet", 1797"</a>. <i>Founders Online</i>. National Archives. Retrieved July 17, 2016.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFreeman2001">Freeman 2001</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b> <cite>Reynolds, James. <a href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-10-02-0045">"Letter from James Reynolds to Alexander Hamilton, 19 December 1791"</a>. <i>Founders Online</i>. National Archives.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b> <cite>Reynolds, James. <a href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-10-02-0106">"Letter from James Reynolds to Alexander Hamilton, 17 January 1792"</a>. <i>Founders Online</i>. National Archives.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b> Murray, p. 165.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b> <cite>Reynolds, James. <a href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-11-02-0284">"Letter from James Reynolds to Alexander Hamilton, 2 May 1792"</a>. <i>Founders Online</i>. National Archives.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a></b> <cite>Chernow (December 26, 2004). "Epilogue". <i>Alexander Hamilton</i> (Audiobook). Event occurs at 12:58.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-chernow558-560_183-0">^</a></b> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n593">pp. 558–60</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b> Kaplan, pp. 147–49
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b> Morison and Commager, p. 327; Mitchell II:445.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Joseph_J._Ellis">Ellis, Joseph J.</a> (2004). <i>His Excellency</i>. Vintage Books. pp. 250–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-3253-2"><bdi>978-1-4000-3253-2</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b> Newman, pp. 72–73.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b> Kaplan, p. 155.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b> Newman, pp. 44, 76–78.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b> <cite>Hamilton, Neil A. (2010). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hikn4BGc2nUC&amp;pg=PA18"><i>Presidents: A Biographical Dictionary</i></a>. Infobase. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-2751-4"><bdi>978-1-4381-2751-4</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b> Mitchell II:483
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a></b> <cite>Parsons, Lynn H. (2011). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9lkWDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA17"><i>The Birth of Modern Politics: Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, and the Election of 1828</i></a>. Oxford UP. p. 17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-975424-3"><bdi>978-0-19-975424-3</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a></b> James Morton Smith, <i>Freedom's Fetters: The Alien and Sedition Laws and American Civil Liberties</i> (Ithaca, repr. 1966), pp. 400–17.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a></b> Monaghan, pp. 419–21.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a></b> Harper, p. 259.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a></b> Isenberg, Nancy. <i>Fallen Founder: The Life of Aaron Burr</i>, New York: Penguin Books, 2007, pp. 211–12.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a></b> <cite>Roberts, Cokie (2008), <i>Ladies of Liberty</i></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a></b> <cite>Thomas Jefferson Encyclopedia. <a href="https://www.monticello.org/site/research-and-collections/aaron-burr">"Aaron Burr"</a>. <i>Monticello.org</i>. Thomas Jefferson Foundation. Retrieved December 3, 2019.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a></b> ANB, "Aaron Burr".
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-jbf_200-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jbf_200-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Freeman, Joanne B. (April 1996). <a href="https://archive.org/details/sim_william-and-mary-quarterly_1996-04_53_2/page/289">"Dueling as Politics: Reinterpreting the Burr–Hamilton Duel"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/William_and_Mary_Quarterly">William and Mary Quarterly</a></i> (subscription). Third Series. <b>53</b> (2): 289–318. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2947402">10.2307/2947402</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/2947402">2947402</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a></b> Kennedy, <i>Burr, Hamilton, and Jefferson</i>, p. 72.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-chernow680-681_202-0">^</a></b> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n715">pp. 680–81</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a></b> <cite>Trees, Andrew S. (2004). <i>The Founding Fathers and the Politics of Character</i>. Princeton University Press. p. 169.</cite>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-chernow-interview_204-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow-interview_204-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Jackson, Kenneth T.; Paley, Virginia (Spring 2004). <a href="http://www.alexanderhamiltonexhibition.org/about/Ron%20Chernow%20Interview.pdf">"An Interview with Ron Chernow"</a> (PDF). <i>The New-York Journal of American History</i>: 59–65. <a href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.alexanderhamiltonexhibition.org/about/Ron%20Chernow%20Interview.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved April 12, 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a></b> <cite>Hamilton, Alexander. <a href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-26-02-0001-0241">"Statement on Impending Duel with Aaron Burr, (28 June – 10 July 1804)"</a>. <i>Founders Online</i>. National Archives.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a></b> <cite>Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, ed. (April 1955), "What Was Hamilton's "Favorite Song"?", <i>The William and Mary Quarterly</i> (in German), Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 298–307, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1920510">10.2307/1920510</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1920510">1920510</a></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a></b> Adams, pp. 93–4.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a></b> <cite>Roberts, Warren (2010). <i>A Place In History: Albany In The Age Of Revolution</i>. Albany, NY: Excelsior Editions/State University of New York Press. p. 135. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-3329-5"><bdi>978-1-4384-3329-5</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a></b> Winfield, Charles H. (1874). <i>History of the County of Hudson, New Jersey from Its Earliest Settlement to the Present Time</i>. New York: Kennard and Hay. Chapter 8,"<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070703220610/http://duel2004.weehawkenhistory.org/winfieldch8duels.pdf">Duels</a>." pp. p.219
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a></b> Fleming, p. 323
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brookhiser212_211-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brookhiser212_211-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Brookhiser, Richard (2000). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KNqw3yCfG5YC&amp;pg=PA212"><i>Alexander Hamilton, American</i></a>. Simon and Schuster. p. 212. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-43913-545-7"><bdi>978-1-43913-545-7</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a></b> Fleming, p. 345
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a></b> Emery, p. 243
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-chernow704_214-0">^</a></b> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n739">p. 704</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a></b> Cooke, p. 242
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-chernow705_216-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chernow705_216-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n740">pp. 705–08</a>.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-papers-v26_217-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-papers-v26_217-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Moore, Benjamin (1979) [July 12, 1804]. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=La4WnvtSBzkC&amp;pg=PA316">"Letter to William Coleman (Editor, <i>New-York Evening Post</i>)"</a>. In Syrett, Harold Coffin (ed.). <i>The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, Vol. 26</i>. Columbia University Press. pp. 314–6, 328. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-08925-8"><bdi>978-0-231-08925-8</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-fleming_218-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fleming_218-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Fleming, Thomas (1999). <a href="https://archive.org/details/duelalexanderham00flem"><i>Duel: Alexander Hamilton, Aaron Burr and the Future of America</i></a>. New York: Basic Books. pp. <a href="https://archive.org/details/duelalexanderham00flem/page/328">328</a>–9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780465017362"><bdi>9780465017362</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-jch836_219-0">^</a></b> <cite>Hamilton, John Church (1879). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7lYSAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA836"><i>Life of Alexander Hamilton: A History of the Republic of the United States of America, as Traced in His Writings and in Those of His Contemporaries, Volume VII</i></a>. Boston: Houghton, Osgood and Company. p. 836. <q>At two in the afternoon, my father died.</q></cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Miller1990_220-0">^</a></b> <cite>Miller, Terry (1990). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0sZ4AAAAMAAJ&amp;q=%22present+Gansevoort%22&amp;pg=PA164"><i>Greenwich Village and How It Got That Way</i></a>. Crown Publishers. p. 164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-517-57322-8"><bdi>978-0-517-57322-8</bdi></a>.</cite> Cited in <cite>Pollak, Michael (July 8, 2011). <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/10/nyregion/answers-to-questions-about-new-york.html">"F.Y.I.: Answers to Questions About New York"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170719130201/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/10/nyregion/answers-to-questions-about-new-york.html">Archived</a> from the original on July 19, 2017.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-26-02-0001-0271">"Founders Online: The Funeral, [14 July 1804]"</a>. <i>founders.archives.gov</i>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-chernow712-713-725_222-0">^</a></b> Chernow, pp. <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n747">712–13</a>, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n760">725</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a></b> <cite>Keister, Doug (2011). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AkNldfGIyCcC&amp;pg=PA127"><i>Stories in Stone New York: A Field Guide to New York City Area Cemeteries &amp; Their Residents</i></a>. Gibbs Smith. p. 127. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4236-2102-7"><bdi>978-1-4236-2102-7</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-chernow18_224-0">^</a></b> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n33">p. 18</a>.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-jch-life_225-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jch-life_225-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Hamilton, John Church (1834). <a href="https://archive.org/details/lifealexanderha05hamigoog"><i>The Life of Alexander Hamilton, Vol. 1</i></a>. New York: Halsted &amp; Voorhies. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/lifealexanderha05hamigoog/page/n16">3</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-jch-711_226-0">^</a></b> <cite>Hamilton, John Church (1879). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7lYSAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA711"><i>Life of Alexander Hamilton: A History of the Republic of the United States of America, as Traced in His Writings and in Those of His Contemporaries, Volume VII</i></a>. Boston: Houghton, Osgood and Company. p. 711.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a></b> <cite>Porwancher, Andrew (2021). <i>The Jewish World of Alexander Hamilton</i>. Princeton. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-21115-2"><bdi>978-0-691-21115-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/1240494084">1240494084</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a></b> <cite>Cohen Ioannides, Mara (September 2022). <a href="https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=58207">"Review of Porwancher, Andrew, The Jewish World of Alexander Hamilton"</a>. H-Early-America, H-Net Reviews. Retrieved December 27, 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a></b> McDonald, <i>Alexander Hamilton</i> p. 11; Adair and Harvey (1974)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-chernow38_230-0">^</a></b> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n53">p. 38</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a></b> Wood, Gordon. <i>Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789–1815</i> (2009) pp. 589–90
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-chernow205_232-0">^</a></b> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n224">p. 205</a>.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-adair1955_233-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-adair1955_233-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Adair, Douglass; Harvey, Marvin (April 1955). "Was Alexander Hamilton a Christian Statesman?". <i>The William and Mary Quarterly</i>. <b>12</b> (2). pp. 308–29 at 315 n.8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1920511">10.2307/1920511</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1920511">1920511</a>. <q>The first story alleges [that he was asked] why God had not been suitably recognized in the Constitution. 'Indeed, Doctor,' Hamilton is supposed to have replied, 'we forgot it.' ... The second story [is of a] purported remark on the Convention floor, when Franklin moved that each session in the future be opened with prayer. Hamilton is supposed to have replied that there was no need for calling in 'foreign aid.'</q></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a></b> Susan Welch, John Gruhl and John Comer, <i>Understanding American Government</i> (2011) p. 70
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a></b> Melvyn R. Durchslag, <i>State sovereign immunity: a reference guide to the United States Constitution</i> (2002) p xix
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Thomas_Frederick_Wilson_1992_94_237-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thomas_Frederick_Wilson_1992_94_237-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Wilson, Thomas Frederick (1992). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VIAbb1cKqp4C&amp;pg=PA94"><i>The Power "to Coin" Money: The Exercise of Monetary Powers by the Congress</i></a>. M.E. Sharpe. p. 94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87332-795-4"><bdi>978-0-87332-795-4</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tulis1987_238-0">^</a></b> <cite>Tulis, Jeffrey (1987). <a href="https://archive.org/details/rhetoricalpresid0000tuli"><i>The Rhetorical Presidency</i></a>. Princeton University Press. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/rhetoricalpresid0000tuli/page/31">31</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02295-6"><bdi>978-0-691-02295-6</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a></b> <cite>Kaplan, Lawrence S. (1998). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m9AXpiJXw48C&amp;pg=PA284"><i>Thomas Jefferson: Westward the Course of Empire</i></a>. Rowman &amp; Littlefield. p. 284. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4616-4618-1"><bdi>978-1-4616-4618-1</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-chernow397-398_240-0">^</a></b> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n416">pp. 397–98</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a></b> Before they became senators, Lodge and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_H._Vandenberg">Arthur H. Vandenberg</a> wrote highly favorable biographies. See also <cite><a href="/wiki/Merrill_D._Peterson">Peterson, Merrill D.</a> (1960). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0QNrZoAgGAsC"><i>The Jefferson Image in the American Mind</i></a>. pp. 114, 278–80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8139-1851-8"><bdi>978-0-8139-1851-8</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-wilentz_242-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wilentz_242-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Wilentz, Sean (September 2010). <a href="https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-american-history_2010-09_97_2/page/476">"Book Reviews"</a>. <i>Journal of American History</i>. <b>97</b> (2): 476.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-New-York_Journal_243-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-New-York_Journal_243-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-New-York_Journal_243-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-New-York_Journal_243-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-New-York_Journal_243-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-New-York_Journal_243-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Horton, James Oliver (2004). <a href="http://www.alexanderhamiltonexhibition.org/about/Horton%20-%20Hamiltsvery_Race.pdf">"Alexander Hamilton: slavery and race in a revolutionary generation"</a> (PDF). <i>New-York Journal of American History</i>. <b>65</b>: 16–24. Retrieved April 2, 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Allan_McLane_Hamilton_244-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Allan_McLane_Hamilton">Hamilton, Allan McLane</a> (1910). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YmgoAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA268">"Friends and Enemies"</a>. <i>The Intimate Life of Alexander Hamilton: Based Chiefly Upon Original Family Letters and Other Documents, Many of Which Have Never Been Published</i>. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 268. Retrieved October 13, 2016. <q>It has been stated that Hamilton never owned a negro slave, but this is untrue. We find that in his books there are entries showing that he purchased them for himself and for others.</q></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a></b> <cite>McDonald, Forrest (1982). <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00forr"><i>Alexander Hamilton: A Biography</i></a>. W.W. Norton &amp; Company. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00forr/page/373">373</a> (<i>Footnotes</i>). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780393300482"><bdi>9780393300482</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a></b> Hamilton, John C., The Life of Alexander Hamilton, D. Appleton &amp; Co., New York, 1834–1840, vol. 2, p. 280
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a></b> <cite>Miller, John Chester (1964). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nWRbVDAUP2gC&amp;pg=PA41"><i>Alexander Hamilton and the Growth of the New Nation</i></a>. Transaction. pp. 41–2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4128-1675-5"><bdi>978-1-4128-1675-5</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_248-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_248-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Lind, Michael, <i>Hamilton's Republic</i>, 1997, pp. xiv–xv, 229–30.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a></b> <cite>Notz, William (1926). <a href="https://archive.org/details/sim_american-economic-review_1926-06_16_2/page/248">"Friedrich List in America"</a>. <i>American Economic Review</i>. <b>16</b> (2): 248–65. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1805356">1805356</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a></b> <cite>Levermore, Charles H. <i>Henry C. Carey and his Social System</i>. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2139529">https://www.jstor.org/stable/2139529</a>: The Academy of Political Science. p. 561.</cite> CS1 maint: location (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location">link</a>)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-chernow170_251-0">^</a></b> Chernow, <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher/page/n189">p. 170</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a></b> <i>Continentalist</i> V, April 1782 (but written in fall 1781).
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a></b> Syrett, p. 3:77.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a></b> Bairoch, pp. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LaF_cCknJScC&amp;pg=PA17">17</a>, <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LaF_cCknJScC&amp;pg=PA33">33</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Green2002_255-0">^</a></b> <cite>Green, Richard T. (November 2002). <a href="https://archive.org/details/sim_administration-society_2002-11_34_5/page/541">"Alexander Hamilton: Founder of the American Public Administration"</a>. <i>Administration &amp; Society</i>. <b>34</b> (5): 541–62. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F009539902237275">10.1177/009539902237275</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145232233">145232233</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDerthick1999122_256-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDerthick1999">Derthick 1999</a>, p. 122.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a></b> Harvey Flaumenhaft, "Hamilton's Administrative Republic and the American Presidency", in Joseph M. Bessette and Jeffrey Tulis, <i>The Presidency in the Constitutional Order</i> (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a></b> Austin, pp. 261–62.
</li>
</ol></div>
<h3>Bibliography</h3>
<div>
<ul><li><cite>Ambrose, Douglas; Martin, Robert W.T. (2006). <a href="https://archive.org/details/manyfacesofalexa0000unse"><i>The Many Faces of Alexander Hamilton: The Life &amp; Legacy of America's Most Elusive Founding Father</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/NYU_Press">NYU Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-0714-2"><bdi>978-0-8147-0714-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Bailey, Ralph Edward (1933). <a href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.59580"><i>An American Colossus: The Singular Career of Alexander Hamilton</i></a>. Lothrop, Lee &amp; Shepard Co.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Richard_Brookhiser">Brookhiser, Richard</a> (2000). <i>Alexander Hamilton, American</i>. Simon &amp; Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-86331-3"><bdi>978-0-684-86331-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Ron_Chernow">Chernow, Ron</a> (2005). <i>Alexander Hamilton</i>. <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Press">Penguin Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-303475-9"><bdi>978-0-14-303475-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)">OL</a> <a href="//openlibrary.org/books/OL35261741M">35261741M</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Cooke, Jacob Ernest (1982). <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cook"><i>Alexander Hamilton</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Charles_Scribner%27s_Sons">Charles Scribner's Sons</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-17344-3"><bdi>978-0-684-17344-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Ellis">Ellis, Joseph J.</a> (2002). <a href="https://archive.org/details/foundingbrothers0000elli"><i>Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation</i></a>. Vintage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-375-70524-3"><bdi>978-0-375-70524-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Ellis, Joseph J. (2005). <i>His Excellency: George Washington</i>. Vintage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-3253-2"><bdi>978-1-4000-3253-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Emery, Noemie (1982). <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00emer"><i>Alexander Hamilton: An intimate portrait</i></a>. Putnam. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-399-12681-9"><bdi>978-0-399-12681-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Flaumenhaft, Harvey (1980). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xJh2HwAACAAJ"><i>The Administrative Republic of Alexander Hamilton</i></a>. University of Chicago, Department of Political Science.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Fleming, Thomas (2000). <a href="https://archive.org/details/duelalexanderham00flem"><i>Duel: Alexander Hamilton, Aaron Burr, and the Future of America</i></a>. Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-01737-9"><bdi>978-0-465-01737-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/James_Thomas_Flexner">Flexner, James Thomas</a> (1997). <i>The Young Hamilton: A Biography</i>. <a href="/wiki/Fordham_University">Fordham University</a> Press (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8232-1790-8"><bdi>978-0-8232-1790-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Hendrickson, Robert (1976). <a href="https://archive.org/details/hamilton0000hend"><i>Hamilton I (1757–1789)</i></a>. Mason/Charter, 1976. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780884051398"><bdi>9780884051398</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>McDonald, Forrest (1982). <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00forr"><i>Alexander Hamilton: A Biography</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/W._W._Norton_Company">W. W. Norton Company</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-30048-2"><bdi>978-0-393-30048-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Miller, John Chester (1959). <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto0000mill"><i>Alexander Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Harper_%26_Row">Harper &amp; Row</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-012975-0"><bdi>978-0-06-012975-0</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Mitchell, Broadus (1957). <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto0001mitc"><i>Alexander Hamilton: Youth to Maturity (1755–1788), Volume 1</i></a>. Macmillan.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Mitchell, Broadus (1957). <i>Alexander Hamilton: The National Adventure (1788–1804), Volume 2</i>. Macmillan.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Murray, Joseph A. (2007). <i>Alexander Hamilton: America's Forgotten Founder</i>. Algora. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87586-501-0"><bdi>978-0-87586-501-0</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Newton, Michael E. (2015). <i>Alexander Hamilton: The Formative Years</i>. Eleftheria Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9826040-3-8"><bdi>978-0-9826040-3-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)">OL</a> <a href="//openlibrary.org/books/OL28143176M">28143176M</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Randall, William Sterne (2015). <i>Alexander Hamilton: A Life</i>. <a href="/wiki/HarperCollins">HarperCollins</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-0620-1532-7"><bdi>978-0-0620-1532-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)">OL</a> <a href="//openlibrary.org/books/OL35758376M">35758376M</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Schachner, Nathan (1946). <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto0000scha_p8e9"><i>Alexander Hamilton</i></a>. New York City: D. Appleton Century Co. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)">ASIN</a> <a href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0006AQUG2">B0006AQUG2</a>.</cite></li></ul>
</div>
<h3>Studies</h3>
<div>
<ul><li><cite>Adair, Douglas &amp; Harvey, Marvin (1955). <a href="https://archive.org/details/sim_william-and-mary-quarterly_1955-04_12_2/page/308">"Was Alexander Hamilton a Christian Statesman?"</a>. <i>William and Mary Quarterly</i>. <b>12</b> (2): 308–29. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1920511">10.2307/1920511</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1920511">1920511</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Austin, Ian Patrick (2009). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Rmg3gNJ5L44C&amp;pg=PR7"><i>Common Foundations of American and East Asian Modernisation: From Alexander Hamilton to Junichero Koizumi</i></a>. Singapore: Select Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-4022-52-1"><bdi>978-981-4022-52-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Bailey, Jeremy D. (2008). <a href="https://zenodo.org/record/894750">"The New Unitary Executive and Democratic Theory: The Problem of Alexander Hamilton"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Political_Science_Review">American Political Science Review</a></i>. <b>102</b> (4): 453–65. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0003055408080337">10.1017/S0003055408080337</a>.</cite></li>
<li>Balogh, Brian. 2009. <i>A Government out of Sight: The Mystery of National Authority in Nineteenth Century American</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press.</li>
<li>Bordewich, Fergus M. <i>The First Congress: How James Madison, George Washington, and a Group of Extraordinary Men Invented the Government</i> (2016) on 1789–91.</li>
<li><cite>Brant, Irving (1970). <a href="https://archive.org/details/fourthpresidentl00bran"><i>The Fourth President: a Life of James Madison</i></a>. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merill.</cite> A one-volume recasting of Brant's six-volume life.</li>
<li><cite>Burns, Eric (2007). <a href="https://archive.org/details/infamousscribble00burn"><i>Infamous Scribblers: The Founding Fathers and the Rowdy Beginnings of American Journalism</i></a>. New York: PublicAffairs. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58648-428-6"><bdi>978-1-58648-428-6</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Chan, Michael D. (2004). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs003467050003727x">"Alexander Hamilton on Slavery"</a>. <i>Review of Politics</i>. <b>66</b> (2): 207–31. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs003467050003727x">10.1017/s003467050003727x</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1408953">1408953</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Denboer, Gordon R. (1987). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rklx9c7MJFoC&amp;pg=PA196"><i>The Documentary History of the First Federal Elections, 1788–1790, Volume III</i></a>. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-10650-8"><bdi>978-0-299-10650-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Derthick, Martha (June 13, 1999). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X11p-A_vbpoC"><i>Dilemmas of Scale in America's Federal Democracy</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64039-8"><bdi>978-0-521-64039-8</bdi></a>. Retrieved March 6, 2015.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Elkins, Stanley; McKitrick, Eric (1993). <a href="https://www.questia.com/library/book/the-age-of-federalism-by-stanley-elkins-eric-mckitrick.jsp"><i>Age of Federalism</i></a> (online edition). New York: Oxford University Press.</cite> Detailed political history of the 1790s; <a href="https://archive.org/details/ageoffederalism00elki">online free</a></li>
<li><cite>Engerman, Stanley L.; Gallman, Robert E. (2000). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6sDXBGMbrWkC&amp;pg=PA644"><i>The Cambridge Economic History of the United States</i></a>. Cambridge University Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55307-0"><bdi>978-0-521-55307-0</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Fatovic, Clement (2004). <a href="https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-political-science_2004-07_48_3/page/429">"Constitutionalism and Presidential Prerogative: Jeffersonian and Hamiltonian Perspectives"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Political_Science">American Journal of Political Science</a></i>. <b>48</b> (3): 429–44. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.0092-5853.2004.00079.x">10.1111/j.0092-5853.2004.00079.x</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Federici, Michael P. (2012). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m6-sfIjGNDQC&amp;pg=PA33"><i>The Political Philosophy of Alexander Hamilton</i></a>. Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-0539-1"><bdi>978-1-4214-0539-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Flaumenhaft, Harvey (1992). <i>The Effective Republic: Administration and Constitution in the Thought of Alexander Hamilton</i>. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-1214-7"><bdi>978-0-8223-1214-7</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Flexner, James Thomas (1965–1972). <i>George Washington</i>. Little Brown.</cite>. Four volumes, with various subtitles, cited as "Flexner, <i>Washington</i>". Vol. IV. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-316-28602-2">978-0-316-28602-2</a>.</li>
<li><cite>Garrity, Patrick J.; Spalding, Matthew (2000). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q4axDZ5OMdcC&amp;pg=PA196"><i>A Sacred Union of Citizens: George Washington's Farewell Address and the American Character</i></a>. Rowman and Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-8262-1"><bdi>978-0-8476-8262-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li>Gaspar, Vitor. "The making of a continental financial system: Lessons for Europe from early American history." <i>Journal of European Integration</i> 37.7 (2015): 847–859, summarizes Hamilton's achievements in Atlantic perspective.</li>
<li><cite>Gibowicz, Charles J. (2007). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0Vo62GFJlpoC&amp;pg=PA256"><i>Mess Night Traditions</i></a>. Author House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4259-8446-5"><bdi>978-1-4259-8446-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Harper, John Lamberton (2004). <i>American Machiavelli: Alexander Hamilton and the Origins of US Foreign Policy</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83485-8"><bdi>978-0-521-83485-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Horton, James Oliver (2004). <a href="http://www.alexanderhamiltonexhibition.org/about/Horton%20-%20Hamiltsvery_Race.pdf">"Alexander Hamilton: Slavery and Race in a Revolutionary Generation"</a> (PDF). <i>New York Journal of American History</i>. <b>65</b> (3): 16–24.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Kaplan, Edward (1999). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WLX8Q_pXSagC&amp;pg=PA21"><i>The Bank of the United States and the American Economy</i></a>. Westport, CT: Praeger. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-30866-6"><bdi>978-0-313-30866-6</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Kaplan, Lawrence S. (2001). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WUY3zsMtIB0C&amp;pg=PA155"><i>Alexander Hamilton: Ambivalent Anglophile</i></a>. Rowman and Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8420-2878-3"><bdi>978-0-8420-2878-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Keister, Doug (2011). <i>Stories in Stone New York: A Field Guide to New York City Area Cemeteries &amp; Their Residents</i>. Gibbs Smith. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4236-2102-7"><bdi>978-1-4236-2102-7</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Kennedy, Roger G. (2000). <a href="https://archive.org/details/burrhamiltonjeff00kenn_0"><i>Burr, Hamilton, and Jefferson: A Study in Character</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513055-3"><bdi>978-0-19-513055-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li>Knott, Stephen F. "The Four Faces of Alexander Hamilton: Jefferson’s Hamilton, Hollywood’s Hamilton, Miranda’s Hamilton, and the Real Hamilton." <i>American Political Thought</i> 7.4 (2018): 543-564.</li>
<li><cite>Knott, Stephen F. (2002). <i>Alexander Hamilton and the Persistence of Myth</i>. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-1157-7"><bdi>978-0-7006-1157-7</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Kohn, Richard H. (1970). <a href="https://archive.org/details/sim_william-and-mary-quarterly_1970-04_27_2/page/188">"The Inside History of the Newburgh Conspiracy: America and the Coup d'Etat"</a>. <i>The William and Mary Quarterly</i>. <b>27</b> (2): 188–220. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1918650">10.2307/1918650</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1918650">1918650</a>.</cite> A review of the evidence on Newburgh; despite the title, Kohn is doubtful that a <i>coup d'état</i> was ever seriously attempted.</li>
<li><cite>Larsen, Harold (1952). "Alexander Hamilton: The Fact and Fiction of His Early Years". <i>William and Mary Quarterly</i>. <b>9</b> (2): 139–51. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1925345">10.2307/1925345</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1925345">1925345</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Levine, Yitzchok (May 2, 2007). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110615161002/http://www.jewishpress.com/pageroute.do/21464">"The Jews of Nevis And Alexander Hamilton"</a>. <i>Glimpses into American Jewish History</i>. The Jewish Press. Archived from <a href="http://www.jewishpress.com/pageroute.do/21464">the original</a> on June 15, 2011.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Michael_Lind">Lind, Michael</a> (1994). <a href="https://archive.org/details/sim_wilson-quarterly_summer-1994_18_3/page/40">"Hamilton's Legacy"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wilson_Quarterly">The Wilson Quarterly</a></i>. <b>18</b> (3): 40–52. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/40258878">40258878</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Littlefield, Daniel C. (2000). <a href="https://archive.org/details/sim_new-york-history_2000-01_81_1/page/91">"John Jay, the Revolutionary Generation, and Slavery"</a>. <i>New York History</i>. <b>81</b> (1): 91–132. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0146-437X">0146-437X</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Lomask, Milton (1979). <a href="https://archive.org/details/aaronburr0000loma"><i>Aaron Burr, the Years from Princeton to Vice President, 1756–1805</i></a>. New York: Farrar, Straus &amp; Giroux. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-374-10016-2"><bdi>978-0-374-10016-2</bdi></a>.</cite> First volume of two, contains Hamilton's lifetime.</li>
<li><cite>Martin, Robert W. T. (2005). <a href="https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-early-republic_spring-2005_25_1/page/21">"Reforming Republicanism: Alexander Hamilton's Theory of Republican Citizenship and Press Liberty"</a>. <i>Journal of the Early Republic</i>. <b>25</b> (1): 21–46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjer.2005.0012">10.1353/jer.2005.0012</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143255588">143255588</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Matson, Cathy (2010). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160409230828/http://www.common-place-archives.org/vol-10/no-03/matson/">"Flimsy Fortunes: Americans' Old Relationship with Paper Speculation and Panic"</a>. <i>Common-place</i>. <b>10</b> (4). Archived from <a href="http://www.common-place-archives.org/vol-10/no-03/matson/">the original</a> on April 9, 2016. Retrieved May 2, 2018.</cite> Summarizes speculations of William Duer and others in the context of the national economy.</li>
<li><cite>McCraw, Thomas K. (2012). <i>The Founders and Finance: How Hamilton, Gallatin, and Other Immigrants Forged a New Economy</i>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>McManus, Edgar J. (1966). <a href="https://archive.org/details/historyofnegrosl0000mcma"><i>History of Negro Slavery in New York</i></a>. Syracuse University Press.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Mitchell, Broadus (1951). "The man who 'discovered' Alexander Hamilton". <i>Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Society</i>. <b>69</b>: 88–115.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Monaghan, Frank (1935). <i>John Jay</i>. Bobbs-Merrill.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Morgan, Philip D. &amp; O'Shaughnessy, A. J. (2006). "Arming Slaves in the American Revolution". In Brown, Christopher Leslie &amp; Morgan, Philip D. (eds.). <a href="https://archive.org/details/armingslavesfrom00brow_039"><i>Arming Slaves: From Classical Times to the Modern Age</i></a>. New York: Yale University Press. pp. <a href="https://archive.org/details/armingslavesfrom00brow_039/page/n194">180</a>–208. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10900-9"><bdi>978-0-300-10900-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Nester, William (June 2012). <i>The Hamiltonian Vision, 1789-1800: The Art of American Power During the Early Republic</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59797-675-6"><bdi>978-1-59797-675-6</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Nettels, Curtis P. (1962). <a href="https://archive.org/details/emergenceofnatio0000nett"><i>The Emergence of a National Economy, 1775–1815</i></a>. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Newman, Paul Douglas (2004). <i>Fries's Rebellion: The Enduring Struggle for the American Revolution</i>. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-3815-0"><bdi>978-0-8122-3815-0</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Newton, Michael E. (2019). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5oOiDwAAQBAJ"><i>Discovering Hamilton: New Discoveries in the Lives of Alexander Hamilton, His Family, Friends, and Colleagues, from Various Archives Around the World</i></a>. Eleftheria Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9826040-4-5"><bdi>978-0-9826040-4-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Northup, Cynthia Clark; Turney, Elaine C. Prange; Stockwell, Mary (2003). <i>Encyclopedia of Tariffs and Trade in U.S. History</i>. Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-31943-3"><bdi>978-0-313-31943-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Norton, Joseph (2005). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8zcjYPZxPV0C&amp;pg=PA131"><i>Shapers of the Great Debate at the Constitutional Convention of 1787: A Biographical Dictionary (Shapers of the Great American Debates)</i></a>. Greenwood; annotated edition. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33021-6"><bdi>978-0-313-33021-6</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Rakove, Jack N. (1979). <a href="https://archive.org/details/beginningsofnati00jack"><i>The beginnings of National Politics: an interpretive history of the Continental Congress</i></a>. New York: Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-42370-8"><bdi>978-0-394-42370-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Rossiter, Clinton (1964). <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00ross"><i>Alexander Hamilton and the Constitution</i></a>. New York: Harcourt, Brace &amp; World.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Sharp, James (1995). <a href="https://archive.org/details/americanpolitics0000shar_g0z6"><i>American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis</i></a>. New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-06519-0"><bdi>978-0-300-06519-0</bdi></a>.</cite> Survey of politics in the 1790s.</li>
<li><cite>Sheehan, Colleen (2004). "Madison v. Hamilton: The Battle Over Republicanism and the Role of Public Opinion". <i>American Political Science Review</i>. <b>98</b> (3): 405–24. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0003055404001248">10.1017/S0003055404001248</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145693742">145693742</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Smith, Robert W. (2004). <i>Keeping the Republic: Ideology and Early American Diplomacy</i>. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87580-326-5"><bdi>978-0-87580-326-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Staloff, Darren (2005). <a href="https://archive.org/details/hamiltonadamsjef00stal"><i>Hamilton, Adams, Jefferson: The Politics of Enlightenment and the American Founding</i></a>. New York: Hill and Wang. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8090-7784-7"><bdi>978-0-8090-7784-7</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Steward, David O. (2016). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=poGMCwAAQBAJ"><i>Madison's Gift: Five Partnerships That Built America</i></a>. imon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4516-8859-7"><bdi>978-1-4516-8859-7</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Storbridge, Truman R.; Noble, Dennis L. (1999). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VSx7-ZqB1C0C&amp;pg=PA2"><i>Alaska and the U. S. Revenue Cutter Service: 1867–1915</i></a>. Naval Institute Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55750-845-4"><bdi>978-1-55750-845-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Stourzh, Gerald (1970). <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto0000stou"><i>Alexander Hamilton and the Idea of Republican Government</i></a>. Stanford: Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-0724-4"><bdi>978-0-8047-0724-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Stryker, William S. (1898). <a href="https://archive.org/stream/battlesoftrenton00stry"><i>The Battles of Trenton and Princeton</i></a>. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin &amp; Co.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Studenski, Paul; Krooss, Herman Edward (2003). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_0UqxH-5fdkC&amp;pg=PA62"><i>Financial History of the United States</i></a> (5th ed.). Frederick, Md.: Beard Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58798-175-3"><bdi>978-1-58798-175-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Sylla, Richard; Wright, Robert E. &amp; Cowen, David J. (2009). <a href="https://archive.org/details/sim_business-history-review_2009_spring_83_1/page/61">"Alexander Hamilton, Central Banker: Crisis Management during the US Financial Panic of 1792"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Business_History_Review">Business History Review</a></i>. <b>83</b> (1): 61–86. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0007680500000209">10.1017/s0007680500000209</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153842455">153842455</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Thomas, Charles Marion (1931). <i>American neutrality in 1793; a study in cabinet government</i>. New York: Columbia University Press.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Trees, Andrew S. (2005). "The Importance of Being Alexander Hamilton". <i>Reviews in American History</i>. <b>33</b> (1): 8–14. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Frah.2005.0019">10.1353/rah.2005.0019</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143944159">143944159</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Trees, Andrew S. (2004). <i>The Founding Fathers and the Politics of Character</i>. Princeton: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11552-8"><bdi>978-0-691-11552-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Tucker, Spencer C. (2014). <i>The Encyclopedia of the Wars of the Early American Republic, 1783–1812 [three volumes]: A Political, Social, and Military History</i>. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-156-5"><bdi>978-1-59884-156-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Wallace, David Duncan (1915). <a href="https://archive.org/details/lifeofhenrylaure00walluoft"><i>Life of Henry Laurens, with a sketch of the life of Lieutenant-Colonel John Laurens</i></a>. New York: Putnam.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Weston, Rob N. (1994). "Alexander Hamilton and the Abolition of Slavery in New York". <i>Afro-Americans in New York Life and History</i>. <b>18</b> (1): 31–45. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0364-2437">0364-2437</a>.</cite> An undergraduate paper, which concludes that Hamilton was ambivalent about slavery.</li>
<li><cite>White, Leonard D. (1949). <i>The Federalists</i>. New York: Macmillan.</cite> Coverage of how the Treasury and other departments were created and operated.</li>
<li><cite>White, Richard D. (2000). "Exploring the Origins of the American Administrative State: Recent Writings on the Ambiguous Legacy of Alexander Hamilton". <i>Public Administration Review</i>. <b>60</b> (2): 186–90. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F0033-3352.00077">10.1111/0033-3352.00077</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Wood, Gordon S. (2009). <a href="https://archive.org/details/empireoflibertyh00wood"><i>Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789–1815</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-503914-6"><bdi>978-0-19-503914-6</bdi></a>.</cite> The most recent synthesis of the era.</li>
<li><cite>Wright, Robert E. (2002). <i>Hamilton Unbound: Finance and the Creation of the American Republic</i>. Westport: Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32397-3"><bdi>978-0-313-32397-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>——— (2008). <a href="https://archive.org/details/onenationunderde0000wrig"><i>One Nation Under Debt: Hamilton, Jefferson, and the History of What We Owe</i></a>. New York: McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-154393-4"><bdi>978-0-07-154393-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li></ul>
</div>
<h3>Sources</h3>
<div>
<ul><li>Cooke, Jacob E., ed. <i>Alexander Hamilton: A Profile</i>. 1967. (short excerpts from Hamilton and his critics)</li>
<li>Cunningham, Noble E. <i>Jefferson vs. Hamilton: Confrontations that Shaped a Nation</i>. 2000. (short collection of primary sources, with commentary)</li>
<li><cite>Freeman, Joanne B., ed. (2001). <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00alex_0/page/1108"><i>Alexander Hamilton: Writings</i></a>. The Library of America. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00alex_0/page/1108">1108</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-931082-04-4"><bdi>978-1-931082-04-4</bdi></a>.</cite> (all of Hamilton's major writings and many of his letters)</li>
<li>Freeman, Joanne B., ed., <i>The Essential Hamilton: Letters &amp; Other Writings</i> (Library of America, 2017) 424 pp. (abridged ed.)</li>
<li>Frisch, Morton J., ed. <i>Selected Writings and Speeches of Alexander Hamilton.</i> 1985.</li>
<li>Goebel, Julius, Jr., and Joseph H. Smith, eds. <i>The Law Practice of Alexander Hamilton</i>. 5 vols. Columbia University Press, 1964–80. (comprehensive edition of Hamilton's legal papers)</li>
<li>Hamilton, Alexander. <i><a href="/wiki/Report_on_Manufactures">Report on Manufactures</a></i>. (economic program for the United States)</li>
<li>Hamilton, Alexander. <i><a href="/wiki/Report_on_Public_Credit">Report on Public Credit</a></i>. (financial program for the United States)</li>
<li>Hamilton, Alexander; <a href="/wiki/John_Church_Hamilton">Hamilton, John Church</a>. <i>The Works of Alexander Hamilton: Miscellanies, 1789–1795: France; Duties on imports; National bank; Manufactures; Revenue circulars; Reports on claims</i>. 1850. John F. Trow, printer. (<a href="https://books.google.com/?id=75YoAQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA149">free online e-book edition</a>)</li>
<li>Hamilton, Alexander; <a href="/wiki/James_Madison">Madison, James</a>; <a href="/wiki/John_Jay">Jay, John</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i>. (published under the shared pseudonym "Publius")</li>
<li><cite>Lodge, Henry Cabot, ed. (1904). <a href="https://archive.org/details/worksalexanderh10hamigoog"><i>The Works of Alexander Hamilton, 10 vols</i></a> (full text online at Internet Archive). New York, London, G.P. Putnam's Sons.</cite></li>
<li>Morris, Richard, ed. <i>Alexander Hamilton and the Founding of the Nation</i>. 1957. (excerpts from Hamilton's writings)</li>
<li>National Archives, <a href="https://founders.archives.gov/about">Founders Online</a> – searchable edition</li>
<li>Sylla, Richard and David J. Cowen, eds. <i>Alexander Hamilton on Finance, Credit, and Debt</i> (Columbia UP, 2018) 346 pp. (partly abridged version of key documents; <a href="http://eh.net/?s=Sylla+Cowen%2C">online review</a>)</li>
<li>Syrett, Harold C., Jacob E. Cooke, and Barbara Chernow, eds. <i>The Papers of Alexander Hamilton</i>. 27 vols. Columbia University Press, 1961–87. (Includes all letters and writings by Hamilton, and all important letters written to him; the definitive edition of Hamilton's works, intensively annotated)</li>
<li>Taylor, George Rogers, ed. <i>Hamilton and the National Debt</i>. 1950. (excerpts from 1790s writings representing all sides)</li></ul>
</div>
<h2>External links</h2>
<div><p></p><p><a href="/wiki/File:En_Alexander_Hamilton-article.ogg">This audio file</a> was created from a revision of this article dated 11 July 2020, and does not reflect subsequent edits.</p></div>
<ul><li><a href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/hamilton/">Alexander Hamilton: A Resource Guide</a> from the Library of Congress</li>
<li><a href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Hamilton%2C%20Alexander%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Alexander%20Hamilton%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Hamilton%2C%20Alexander%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Alexander%20Hamilton%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Hamilton%2C%20A%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Alexander%20Hamilton%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Hamilton%2C%20Alexander%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Alexander%20Hamilton%22%29%20OR%20%28%221757-1804%22%20AND%20Hamilton%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Alexander Hamilton</a> at <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive">Internet Archive</a></li>
<li><a href="https://librivox.org/author/4266">Works by Alexander Hamilton</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) </li></ul>
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 Contents

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 * (Top)
 * 1 Early life and education
 * 2 Revolutionary War (1775–1782)
 + 2.1 Early military career
 + 2.2 George Washington's staff
 + 2.3 Field command
 * 3 Return to civilian life (1782–1789)
 + 3.1 Congress of the Confederation
 + 3.2 Congress and the army
 + 3.3 Return to New York
 + 3.4 Constitution and The Federalist Papers
 o 3.4.1 The Federalist Papers
 * 4 Treasury secretaryship (1789–1795)
 + 4.1 Report on Public Credit
 + 4.2 Report on a National Bank
 + 4.3 Establishing the mint
 + 4.4 Revenue Cutter Service
 + 4.5 Whiskey as tax revenue
 + 4.6 Manufacturing and industry
 + 4.7 Jay Treaty
 + 4.8 Resignation from public office
 + 4.9 Emergence of political parties
 * 5 Post-secretaryship (1795–1804)
 + 5.1 1796 presidential election
 + 5.2 Reynolds affair
 + 5.3 Quasi-War
 + 5.4 1800 presidential election
 + 5.5 Duel with Burr and death
 * 6 Religion
 * 7 Legacy
 + 7.1 Constitution
 + 7.2 Slavery
 + 7.3 Economics
 * 8 References
 + 8.1 Notes
 + 8.2 Citations
 + 8.3 Bibliography
 + 8.4 Studies
 + 8.5 Sources
 * 9 External links
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 Alexander Hamilton

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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 For other uses, see Alexander Hamilton (disambiguation).

 Alexander Hamilton 
 Portrait by John Trumbull, 1806[1] 
  
 1st United States Secretary of the Treasury 
 In office 
 September 11, 1789 – January 31, 1795 
 President George Washington 
 Preceded by Office established 
 Succeeded by Oliver Wolcott Jr. 
 Senior Officer of the United States Army 
 In office 
 December 14, 1799 – June 15, 1800 
 President John Adams 
 Preceded by George Washington 
 Succeeded by James Wilkinson[ citation needed ] 
 Delegate to the 
 Congress of the Confederation 
 from New York 
 In office 
 November 3, 1788 – March 2, 1789[ citation needed ]
 Preceded by Egbert Benson[ citation needed ] 
 Succeeded by Seat abolished 
 In office 
 November 4, 1782 – June 21, 1783[ citation needed ]
 Preceded by Seat established 
 Succeeded by Seat abolished 
  
 Personal details 
  January 11, 1755 or 1757 
 Born Charlestown, Nevis, British Leeward Islands
  (now Saint Kitts and Nevis) 
 Died July 12, 1804 (aged 47 or 49) 
  Manhattan, New York, U.S. 
 Cause of death Gunshot wound 
 Resting place Trinity Church Cemetery 
 Political party Federalist 
 Spouse Elizabeth Schuyler ​(m. 1780 )​ 
  * Philip 
  * Angelica 
  * Alexander 
 Children * James 
  * John 
  * William 
  * Eliza 
  * Philip 
 Parent(s) James A. Hamilton 
  Rachel Faucette 
 Relatives Hamilton family 
 Education Elizabethtown Academy 
 Alma mater Columbia College (MA) 
 Signature  
 Military service 
 Allegiance New York (1775–1777) 
  United States (1777–1800) 
  New York Provincial Company of Artillery 
 Branch/service Continental Army 
  United States Army 
  1775–1776 (Militia) 
 Years of service 1776–1782 
  1798–1800 
 Rank Major general 
 Commands U.S. Army Senior Officer 
  * American Revolutionary War 
  + Battle of Harlem Heights 
  + Battle of White Plains 
  + Battle of Trenton 
 Battles/wars + Battle of Princeton 
  + Battle of Brandywine 
  + Battle of Germantown 
  + Battle of Monmouth 
  + Siege of Yorktown 
  * Quasi-War 
  
 

 Alexander Hamilton (January 11, 1755 or 1757[a] – July 12, 1804) was a Nevisian-born American military officer, statesman, and Founding Father who served as the first United States secretary of the treasury from 1789 to 1795.

 Born out of wedlock in Charlestown, Nevis, Hamilton was orphaned as a child and taken in by a prosperous merchant. He pursued his education in New York where, despite his age, he was a prolific and widely read pamphleteer advocating for the American revolutionary cause, though an anonymous one. He then served as an artillery officer in the American Revolutionary War, where he saw action in the New York and New Jersey campaign, served for years as an aide to General George Washington, and helped secure American victory at the climactic Siege of Yorktown. After the war, Hamilton served as a delegate from New York to the Congress of the Confederation. He resigned to practice law and founded the Bank of New York. In 1786, Hamilton led the Annapolis Convention to replace the Articles of Confederation with the Constitution of the United States, which he helped ratify by writing 51 of the 85 installments of The Federalist Papers.

 As a trusted member of President Washington's first cabinet, Hamilton led the Department of the Treasury. He envisioned a central government led by an energetic president, a strong national defense, and an industrial economy. He successfully argued that the implied powers of the Constitution provided the legal authority to fund the national debt, assume the states' debts, and create the First Bank of the United States, which was funded by a tariff on imports and a whiskey tax. He opposed American entanglement with the succession of unstable French Revolutionary governments and pushed for the Jay Treaty, which resumed friendly trade relations with Great Britain. He also persuaded Congress to establish the Revenue Cutter Service. Hamilton's views became the basis for the Federalist Party, which was opposed by the Democratic-Republican Party led by Thomas Jefferson.

 After resigning from the secretaryship, Hamilton resumed his legal and business activities. He was a leader in the abolition of the international slave trade. In the Quasi-War, Hamilton called for mobilization against France and President John Adams appointed him as major general, but the army did not see combat. Outraged by the president's response to the crisis, Hamilton opposed Adams' re-election campaign. Jefferson and Aaron Burr tied for the presidency in the electoral college and, despite philosophical differences, Hamilton endorsed Jefferson to defeat Burr, whom he found unprincipled. Vice President Burr ran for governor of New York in 1804 and Hamilton campaigned against him as unworthy. Taking offense, Burr challenged him to a duel in which Burr shot Hamilton, who died the next day.

 Scholars generally regard Hamilton as an astute and intellectually brilliant administrator, politician, and financier, if often impetuous. His ideas are credited with laying the foundation for American government and finance.

 Early life and education

 Alexander Hamilton was born and spent part of his childhood in Charlestown, the capital of the island of Nevis in the British Leeward Islands. Hamilton and his older brother James Jr.[6] were born out of wedlock to Rachel Faucette,[b] a married woman of half-British and half-French Huguenot descent,[c][15] and James A. Hamilton, a Scotsman who was the fourth son of Alexander Hamilton, the laird of Grange, Ayrshire.[16]

 Hamilton's mother had been married previously on Saint Croix,[17] then ruled by Denmark, to Danish[9] or German merchant[18][19] Johann Michael Lavien. They had one son, Peter Lavien.[17] In 1750, Faucette left her husband and first son before travelling to Saint Kitts, where she met James Hamilton.[17] Hamilton and Faucette moved together to Nevis, her birthplace, where she had inherited a seaside lot in town from her father.[2] The Church of England denied membership and education to Alexander and James Jr. because their parents were not legally married. While their mother lived, they received "individual tutoring"[2] and classes in a private school led by a Jewish headmistress.[20] Alexander supplemented his education with a family library of 34 books.[21]

 James Hamilton later abandoned Rachel Faucette and their two sons, allegedly to "spar[e] [her] a charge of bigamy... after finding out that her first husband intend[ed] to divorce her under Danish law on grounds of adultery and desertion."[16] Thereafter, Rachel moved with her two children to Saint Croix, where she supported them by keeping a small store in Christiansted. She contracted yellow fever and died on February 19, 1768, leaving Hamilton orphaned.[22] This may have had severe emotional consequences for him, even by the standards of an 18th-century childhood.[23] In probate court, Faucette's "first husband seized her estate"[16] and obtained the few valuables that she had owned, including some household silver. Many items were auctioned off, but a friend purchased the family's books and returned them to Hamilton.[24]

 Hamilton became a clerk at Beekman and Cruger, a local import-export firm that traded with New York and New England.[25] He and James Jr. were briefly taken in by their cousin Peter Lytton. However, Lytton took his own life in July 1769, leaving his property to his mistress and their son, and the Hamilton brothers were subsequently separated.[24] James Jr. apprenticed with a local carpenter, while Alexander was given a home by Thomas Stevens, a merchant from Nevis.[26]

 Hamilton, despite being only in his teenage years, proved capable enough as a trader to be left in charge of the firm for five months in 1771 while the owner was at sea.[27] He remained an avid reader and later developed an interest in writing. He began to desire a life outside the island where he lived. He wrote a letter to his father that was a detailed account of a hurricane that had devastated Christiansted on August 30, 1772.[28] The Presbyterian Reverend Hugh Knox, a tutor and mentor to Hamilton, submitted the letter for publication in the Royal Danish-American Gazette. Biographer Ron Chernow found the letter astounding because "for all its bombastic excesses, it does seem wondrous [that a] self-educated clerk could write with such verve and gusto" and that a teenage boy produced an apocalyptic "fire-and-brimstone sermon" viewing the hurricane as a "divine rebuke to human vanity and pomposity."[29] The essay impressed community leaders, who collected a fund to send Hamilton to the North American colonies for his education.[30]

 In October 1772, Hamilton arrived by ship in Boston and proceeded from there to New York City. He took lodgings with the Irish-born Hercules Mulligan who, as the brother of a trader known to Hamilton's benefactors, assisted Hamilton in selling cargo that was to pay for his education and support.[31][32] Later that year, in preparation for college work, Hamilton began to fill gaps in his education at the Elizabethtown Academy, a preparatory school run by Francis Barber in Elizabethtown, New Jersey. He there came under the influence of William Livingston, a local leading intellectual and revolutionary, with whom he lived for a time.[33][34][35]

 Hamilton entered Mulligan's alma mater King's College in New York City in the autumn of 1773 as a private student, again boarding with Mulligan until officially matriculating in May 1774.[36] His college roommate and lifelong friend Robert Troup spoke glowingly of Hamilton's clarity in concisely explaining the patriots' case against the British in what is credited as Hamilton's first public appearance on July 6.[37] Hamilton, Troup, and four other undergraduates formed an unnamed literary society that is regarded as a precursor of the Philolexian Society.[38][39]

 Church of England clergyman Samuel Seabury published a series of pamphlets promoting the Loyalist cause in 1774, to which Hamilton responded anonymously with his first political writings, A Full Vindication of the Measures of Congress and The Farmer Refuted. Seabury essentially tried to provoke fear in the colonies, and his main objective was to stop the potential union among the colonies.[40] Hamilton published two additional pieces attacking the Quebec Act,[41] and may have also authored the fifteen anonymous installments of "The Monitor" for Holt's New York Journal.[42] Hamilton was a supporter of the Revolutionary cause before war began, although he did not approve of mob reprisals against Loyalists. On May 10, 1775, Hamilton won credit for saving his college's president, Loyalist Myles Cooper, from an angry mob by speaking to the crowd long enough for Cooper to escape.[43]

 Hamilton was forced to discontinue his studies before graduating when the college closed its doors during the British occupation of the city.[44]

 Revolutionary War (1775–1782)

 Early military career

 Further information: Hearts of Oak (New York militia) and New York and New Jersey campaign
 Alexander Hamilton in the Uniform of the New York Artillery by Alonzo Chappel

 In 1775, after the first engagement of American troops with the British at Lexington and Concord, Hamilton and other King's College students joined a New York volunteer militia company called the Corsicans, whose name reflected the Corsican Republic that was suppressed six years earlier and young American patriots would regard as a model to be emulated.[45]

 He drilled with the company, before classes, in the graveyard of nearby St. Paul's Chapel. Hamilton studied military history and tactics on his own and was soon recommended for promotion.[46] Under fire from HMS Asia, he led his newly renamed unit the "Hearts of Oak" with support from Hercules Mulligan and the Sons of Liberty on a successful raid for British cannons in the Battery, the capture of which resulted in the unit becoming an artillery company thereafter.[47] : 13

 Through his connections with influential New York patriots such as Alexander McDougall and John Jay, Hamilton raised the New York Provincial Company of Artillery of 60 men in 1776, and was elected captain.[48] The company took part in the campaign of 1776 in and around New York City; as rearguard of the Continental Army's retreat up Manhattan, serving at the Battle of Harlem Heights shortly after, as well as at the Battle of White Plains a month later. At the Battle of Trenton, it was stationed at the high point of town, the meeting of the present Warren and Broad streets, to keep the Hessians pinned in the Trenton Barracks.[49][50]

 Hamilton participated in the Battle of Princeton on January 3, 1777. After an initial setback, Washington rallied the American troops and led them in a successful charge against the British forces. After making a brief stand, the British fell back, some leaving Princeton, and others taking up refuge in Nassau Hall. Hamilton brought three cannons up and had them fire upon the building. Then some Americans rushed the front door, and broke it down. The British subsequently put a white flag outside one of the windows;[50] 194 British soldiers walked out of the building and laid down their arms, thus ending the battle in an American victory.[51]

 While being stationed in Morristown, New Jersey from December 1779 to March 1780, Hamilton met Elizabeth Schuyler, a daughter of General Philip Schuyler and Catherine Van Rensselaer. They married on December 14, 1780, at the Schuyler Mansion in Albany, New York.[52] They had eight children, Philip,[53] Angelica, Alexander, James,[54] John, William, Eliza, and another Philip.[55]

 George Washington's staff

 Further information: Washington's aides-de-camp

 Hamilton was invited to become an aide to William Alexander, Lord Stirling, and another general, perhaps Nathanael Greene or Alexander McDougall.[56] He declined these invitations, believing his best chance for improving his station in life was glory on the battlefield. Hamilton eventually received an invitation he felt he could not refuse: to serve as Washington's aide, with the rank of lieutenant colonel.[57] Washington believed that "Aides de camp are persons in whom entire confidence must be placed and it requires men of abilities to execute the duties with propriety and dispatch."[58]

 Hamilton served four years as Washington's chief staff aide. He handled letters to Congress, state governors, and the most powerful generals of the Continental Army; he drafted many of Washington's orders and letters at the latter's direction; he eventually issued orders from Washington over Hamilton's own signature.[59] Hamilton was involved in a wide variety of high-level duties, including intelligence, diplomacy, and negotiation with senior army officers as Washington's emissary.[60][61]

 During the war, Hamilton became the close friend of several fellow officers. His letters to the Marquis de Lafayette[62] and to John Laurens, employing the sentimental literary conventions of the late eighteenth century and alluding to Greek history and mythology,[63] have been read by Jonathan Ned Katz as revelatory of a homosocial or even homosexual relationship.[64] Biographer Gregory D. Massey amongst others, by contrast, dismisses all such speculation as unsubstantiated, describing their friendship as purely platonic camaraderie instead and placing their correspondence in the context of the flowery diction of the time.[65]

 Field command

 Further information: Yorktown campaign

 While on Washington's staff, Hamilton long sought command and a return to active combat. As the war drew nearer to an end, he knew that opportunities for military glory were diminishing. On February 15, 1781, Hamilton was reprimanded by Washington after a minor misunderstanding. Although Washington quickly tried to mend their relationship, Hamilton insisted on leaving his staff.[66] He officially left in March, and settled with his new wife Elizabeth Schuyler close to Washington's headquarters. He continued to repeatedly ask Washington and others for a field command. Washington continued to demur, citing the need to appoint men of higher rank. This continued until early July 1781, when Hamilton submitted a letter to Washington with his commission enclosed, "thus tacitly threatening to resign if he didn't get his desired command."[67]

 On July 31, Washington relented and assigned Hamilton as commander of a battalion of light infantry companies of the 1st and 2nd New York Regiments and two provisional companies from Connecticut.[68] In the planning for the assault on Yorktown, Hamilton was given command of three battalions, which were to fight in conjunction with the allied French troops in taking Redoubts No. 9 and No. 10 of the British fortifications at Yorktown. Hamilton and his battalions took Redoubt No. 10 with bayonets in a nighttime action, as planned. The French also suffered heavy casualties and took Redoubt No. 9. These actions forced the British surrender of an entire army at Yorktown, marking the de facto end of the war, although small battles continued for two more years until the signing of the Treaty of Paris and the departure of the last British troops.[69][70]

 Return to civilian life (1782–1789)

 Congress of the Confederation

 Main article: Congress of the Confederation

 After Yorktown, Hamilton returned to New York and resigned his commission in March 1782. He passed the bar in July after six months of self-directed education and, in October, was licensed to argue cases before the Supreme Court of the State of New York.[71] He also accepted an offer from Robert Morris to become receiver of continental taxes for the State of New York.[72] Hamilton was appointed in July 1782 to the Congress of the Confederation as a New York representative for the term beginning in November 1782.[73] Before his appointment to Congress in 1782, Hamilton was already sharing his criticisms of Congress. He expressed these criticisms in his letter to James Duane dated September 3, 1780: "The fundamental defect is a want of power in Congress... the confederation itself is defective and requires to be altered; it is neither fit for war, nor peace."[74]

 While on Washington's staff, Hamilton had become frustrated with the decentralized nature of the wartime Continental Congress, particularly its dependence upon the states for voluntary financial support that was not often forthcoming. Under the Articles of Confederation, Congress had no power to collect taxes or to demand money from the states. This lack of a stable source of funding had made it difficult for the Continental Army both to obtain its necessary provisions and to pay its soldiers. During the war, and for some time after, Congress obtained what funds it could from subsidies from the King of France, European loans, and aid requested from the several states, which were often unable or unwilling to contribute.[75]

 An amendment to the Articles had been proposed by Thomas Burke, in February 1781, to give Congress the power to collect a five percent impost, or duty on all imports, but this required ratification by all states; securing its passage as law proved impossible after it was rejected by Rhode Island in November 1782. James Madison joined Hamilton in influencing Congress to send a delegation to persuade Rhode Island to change its mind. Their report recommending the delegation argued the national government needed not just some level of financial autonomy, but also the ability to make laws that superseded those of the individual states. Hamilton transmitted a letter arguing that Congress already had the power to tax, since it had the power to fix the sums due from the several states; but Virginia's rescission of its own ratification of this amendment ended the Rhode Island negotiations.[76][77]

 Congress and the army

 Further information: Newburgh Conspiracy

 While Hamilton was in Congress, discontented soldiers began to pose a danger to the young United States. Most of the army was then posted at Newburgh, New York. Those in the army were funding much of their own supplies, and they had not been paid in eight months. Furthermore, after Valley Forge, the Continental officers had been promised in May 1778 a pension of half their pay when they were discharged.[78] By the early 1780s, due to the structure of the government under the Articles of Confederation, it had no power to tax to either raise revenue or pay its soldiers.[79] In 1782, after several months without pay, a group of officers organized to send a delegation to lobby Congress, led by Captain Alexander McDougall. The officers had three demands: the army's pay, their own pensions, and commutation of those pensions into a lump-sum payment if Congress were unable to afford the half-salary pensions for life. Congress rejected the proposal.[79]

 Several congressmen, including Hamilton, Robert Morris, and Gouverneur Morris, attempted to use the so-called Newburgh Conspiracy as leverage to secure support from the states and in Congress for funding of the national government. They encouraged MacDougall to continue his aggressive approach, implying unknown consequences if their demands were not met, and defeated proposals designed to end the crisis without establishing general taxation: that the states assume the debt to the army, or that an impost be established dedicated to the sole purpose of paying that debt.[80]

 Hamilton suggested using the Army's claims to prevail upon the states for the proposed national funding system.[81] The Morrises and Hamilton contacted General Henry Knox to suggest he and the officers defy civil authority, at least by not disbanding if the army were not satisfied. Hamilton wrote Washington to suggest that Hamilton covertly "take direction" of the officers' efforts to secure redress, to secure continental funding but keep the army within the limits of moderation.[82][83] Washington wrote Hamilton back, declining to introduce the army.[84] After the crisis had ended, Washington warned of the dangers of using the army as leverage to gain support for the national funding plan.[82][85]

 On March 15, Washington defused the Newburgh situation by addressing the officers personally.[80] Congress ordered the Army officially disbanded in April 1783. In the same month, Congress passed a new measure for a 25-year impost—which Hamilton voted against[86]—that again required the consent of all the states; it also approved a commutation of the officers' pensions to five years of full pay. Rhode Island again opposed these provisions, and Hamilton's robust assertions of national prerogatives in his previous letter were widely held to be excessive.[87]

 In June 1783, a different group of disgruntled soldiers from Lancaster, Pennsylvania sent Congress a petition demanding their back pay. When they began to march toward Philadelphia, Congress charged Hamilton and two others with intercepting the mob.[82] Hamilton requested militia from Pennsylvania's Supreme Executive Council, but was turned down. Hamilton instructed Assistant Secretary of War William Jackson to intercept the men. Jackson was unsuccessful. The mob arrived in Philadelphia, and the soldiers proceeded to harangue Congress for their pay. Hamilton argued that Congress ought to adjourn to Princeton, New Jersey. Congress agreed, and relocated there.[88] Frustrated with the weakness of the central government, Hamilton while in Princeton, drafted a call to revise the Articles of Confederation. This resolution contained many features of the future Constitution of the United States, including a strong federal government with the ability to collect taxes and raise an army. It also included the separation of powers into the legislative, executive, and judicial branches.[88]

 Return to New York

 Further information: Annapolis Convention (1786)

 Hamilton resigned from Congress in 1783.[89] When the British left New York in 1783, he practiced there in partnership with Richard Harison. He specialized in defending Tories and British subjects, as in Rutgers v. Waddington, in which he defeated a claim for damages done to a brewery by the Englishmen who held it during the military occupation of New York. He pleaded for the mayor's court to interpret state law consistent with the 1783 Treaty of Paris, which had ended the Revolutionary War.[90][47] : 64–69

 In 1784, Hamilton founded the Bank of New York.[91]

 Long dissatisfied with the Articles of Confederation as too weak to be effective, Hamilton played a major leadership role at the 1786 Annapolis Convention. He drafted its resolution for a constitutional convention, and in doing so brought one step closer to reality his longtime desire to have a more effectual, more financially self-sufficient federal government.[92]

 As a member of the legislature of New York, Hamilton argued forcefully and at length in favor of a bill to recognize the sovereignty of the State of Vermont, against numerous objections to its constitutionality and policy. Consideration of the bill was deferred to a later date. From 1787 to 1789, Hamilton exchanged letters with Nathaniel Chipman, a lawyer representing Vermont. After the Constitution of the United States went into effect, Hamilton said, "One of the first subjects of deliberation with the new Congress will be the independence of Kentucky, for which the southern states will be anxious. The northern will be glad to send a counterpoise in Vermont."[93] Vermont was admitted to the Union in 1791.[94]

 In 1788, he was awarded a Master of Arts degree from King's College, now reconstituted as Columbia College, for his work in reopening the college and placing it on firm financial footing.[ citation needed ]

 Constitution and The Federalist Papers

 Main articles: United States Constitution and The Federalist Papers
 Hamilton authoring the first draft of the U.S. Constitution, 1787

 In 1787, Hamilton served as assemblyman from New York County in the New York State Legislature and was chosen as a delegate for the Constitutional Convention by his father-in-law Philip Schuyler.[95] : 191 [96] Even though Hamilton had been a leader in calling for a new Constitutional Convention, his direct influence at the Convention itself was quite limited. Governor George Clinton's faction in the New York legislature had chosen New York's other two delegates, John Lansing Jr. and Robert Yates, and both of them opposed Hamilton's goal of a strong national government.[97][98] Thus, whenever the other two members of the New York delegation were present, they decided New York's vote, to ensure that there were no major alterations to the Articles of Confederation.[95] : 195

 Early in the Convention Hamilton made a speech proposing a President-for-Life; it had no effect upon the deliberations of the convention. He proposed to have an elected president and elected senators who would serve for life, contingent upon "good behavior" and subject to removal for corruption or abuse; this idea contributed later to the hostile view of Hamilton as a monarchist sympathizer, held by James Madison.[99] According to Madison's notes, Hamilton said in regards to the executive, "The English model was the only good one on this subject. The hereditary interest of the king was so interwoven with that of the nation, and his personal emoluments so great, that he was placed above the danger of being corrupted from abroad... Let one executive be appointed for life who dares execute his powers."[100]

 Hamilton argued, "And let me observe that an executive is less dangerous to the liberties of the people when in office during life than for seven years. It may be said this constitutes as an elective monarchy... But by making the executive subject to impeachment, the term 'monarchy' cannot apply..."[100] In his notes of the convention, Madison interpreted Hamilton's proposal as claiming power for the "rich and well born". Madison's perspective all but isolated Hamilton from his fellow delegates and others who felt they did not reflect the ideas of revolution and liberty.[101]

 During the convention, Hamilton constructed a draft for the Constitution based on the convention debates, but he never presented it. This draft had most of the features of the actual Constitution. In this draft, the Senate was to be elected in proportion to the population, being two-fifths the size of the House, and the President and Senators were to be elected through complex multistage elections, in which chosen electors would elect smaller bodies of electors; they would hold office for life, but were removable for misconduct. The President would have an absolute veto. The Supreme Court was to have immediate jurisdiction over all lawsuits involving the United States, and state governors were to be appointed by the federal government.[102]

 At the end of the convention, Hamilton was still not content with the final Constitution, but signed it anyway as a vast improvement over the Articles of Confederation, and urged his fellow delegates to do so also.[103] Since the other two members of the New York delegation, Lansing and Yates, had already withdrawn, Hamilton was the only New York signer to the United States Constitution.[95] : 206 He then took a highly active part in the successful campaign for the document's ratification in New York in 1788, which was a crucial step in its national ratification. He first used the popularity of the Constitution by the masses to compel George Clinton to sign, but was unsuccessful. The state convention in Poughkeepsie in June 1788 pitted Hamilton, Jay, James Duane, Robert Livingston, and Richard Morris against the Clintonian faction led by Melancton Smith, Lansing, Yates, and Gilbert Livingston.[104]

 Members of Hamilton's faction were against any conditional ratification, under the impression that New York would not be accepted into the Union, while Clinton's faction wanted to amend the Constitution, while maintaining the state's right to secede if their attempts failed. During the state convention, New Hampshire and Virginia becoming the ninth and tenth states to ratify the Constitution, respectively, had ensured any adjournment would not happen and a compromise would have to be reached.[104][105] Hamilton's arguments used for the ratifications were largely iterations of work from The Federalist Papers, and Smith eventually went for ratification, though it was more out of necessity than Hamilton's rhetoric.[105] The vote in the state convention was ratified 30 to 27, on July 26, 1788.[106]

 The Federalist Papers

 Hamilton recruited John Jay and James Madison to write The Federalist Papers, a series of essays, to defend the proposed Constitution. He made the largest contribution to that effort, writing 51 of the 85 essays published. Hamilton supervised the entire project, enlisted the participants, wrote the majority of the essays, and oversaw the publication. During the project, each person was responsible for their areas of expertise. Jay covered foreign relations. Madison covered the history of republics and confederacies, along with the anatomy of the new government. Hamilton covered the branches of government most pertinent to him: the executive and judicial branches, with some aspects of the Senate, as well as covering military matters and taxation.[107] The papers first appeared in The Independent Journal on October 27, 1787.[107]

 Hamilton wrote the first paper signed as Publius, and all of the subsequent papers were signed under the name.[95] : 210 Jay wrote the next four papers to elaborate on the confederation's weakness and the need for unity against foreign aggression and against splitting into rival confederacies, and, except for No. 64, was not further involved.[108][95] : 211 Hamilton's highlights included discussion that although republics have been culpable for disorders in the past, advances in the "science of politics" had fostered principles that ensured that those abuses could be prevented, such as the division of powers, legislative checks and balances, an independent judiciary, and legislators that were represented by electors (No. 7–9).[108] Hamilton also wrote an extensive defense of the constitution (No. 23–36), and discussed the Senate and executive and judicial branches (No. 65–85). Hamilton and Madison worked to describe the anarchic state of the confederation (No. 15–22), and the two have been described as not being significantly different in thought during this time period—in contrast to their stark opposition later in life.[108] Subtle differences appeared with the two when discussing the necessity of standing armies.[108]

 Treasury secretaryship (1789–1795)

 A statue of Hamilton on the south patio of the Treasury Building

 Report on Public Credit

 Main article: First Report on the Public Credit

 Before the adjournment of the House in September 1789, they requested Hamilton to make a report on suggestions to improve the public credit by January 1790.[109] Hamilton had written to Robert Morris as early as 1781, that fixing the public credit will win their objective of independence.[109] The sources that Hamilton used ranged from Frenchmen such as Jacques Necker and Montesquieu to British writers such as Hume, Hobbes, and Malachy Postlethwayt.[110] While writing the report he also sought out suggestions from contemporaries such as John Witherspoon and Madison. Although they agreed on additional taxes such as distilleries and duties on imported liquors and land taxes, Madison feared that the securities from the government debt would fall into foreign hands.[111][95] : 244–45

 In the report, Hamilton felt that the securities should be paid at full value to their legitimate owners, including those who took the financial risk of buying government bonds that most experts thought would never be redeemed. He argued that liberty and property security were inseparable and that the government should honor the contracts, as they formed the basis of public and private morality. To Hamilton, the proper handling of the government debt would also allow America to borrow at affordable interest rates and would also be a stimulant to the economy.[110]

 Hamilton divided the debt into national and state, and further divided the national debt into foreign and domestic debt. While there was agreement on how to handle the foreign debt, especially with France, there was not with regards to the national debt held by domestic creditors. During the Revolutionary War, affluent citizens had invested in bonds, and war veterans had been paid with promissory notes and IOUs that plummeted in price during the Confederation. In response, the war veterans sold the securities to speculators for as little as fifteen to twenty cents on the dollar.[110][112]

 Hamilton felt the money from the bonds should not go to the soldiers who had shown little faith in the country's future, but the speculators that had bought the bonds from the soldiers. The process of attempting to track down the original bondholders along with the government showing discrimination among the classes of holders if the war veterans were to be compensated also weighed in as factors for Hamilton. As for the state debts, Hamilton suggested consolidating them with the national debt and label it as federal debt, for the sake of efficiency on a national scale.[110]

 The last portion of the report dealt with eliminating the debt by utilizing a sinking fund that would retire five percent of the debt annually until it was paid off. Due to the bonds being traded well below their face value, the purchases would benefit the government as the securities rose in price.[113] : 300 When the report was submitted to the House of Representatives, detractors soon began to speak against it. Some of the negative views expressed in the House were that the notion of programs that resembled British practice were wicked, and that the balance of power would be shifted away from the representatives to the executive branch. William Maclay suspected that several congressmen were involved in government securities, seeing Congress in an unholy league with New York speculators.[113] : 302 Congressman James Jackson also spoke against New York, with allegations of speculators attempting to swindle those who had not yet heard about Hamilton's report.[113] : 303

 The involvement of those in Hamilton's circle such as Schuyler, William Duer, James Duane, Gouverneur Morris, and Rufus King as speculators was not favorable to those against the report, either, though Hamilton personally did not own or deal a share in the debt.[113] : 304 [95] : 250 Madison eventually spoke against it by February 1790. Although he was not against current holders of government debt to profit, he wanted the windfall to go to the original holders. Madison did not feel that the original holders had lost faith in the government, but sold their securities out of desperation.[113] : 305 The compromise was seen as egregious to both Hamiltonians and their dissidents such as Maclay, and Madison's vote was defeated 36 votes to 13 on February 22.[113] : 305 [95] : 255

 The fight for the national government to assume state debt was a longer issue, and lasted over four months. During the period, the resources that Hamilton was to apply to the payment of state debts was requested by Alexander White, and was rejected due to Hamilton's not being able to prepare information by March 3, and was even postponed by his own supporters in spite of configuring a report the next day, which consisted of a series of additional duties to meet the interest on the state debts.[95] : 297–98 Duer resigned as Assistant Secretary of the Treasury, and the vote of assumption was voted down 31 votes to 29 on April 12.[95] : 258–59

 During this period, Hamilton bypassed the rising issue of slavery in Congress, after Quakers petitioned for its abolition, returning to the issue the following year.[114]

 Another issue in which Hamilton played a role was the temporary location of the capital from New York City. Tench Coxe was sent to speak to Maclay to bargain about the capital being temporarily located to Philadelphia, as a single vote in the Senate was needed and five in the House for the bill to pass.[95] : 263 Thomas Jefferson wrote years afterward that Hamilton had a discussion with him, around this time period, about the capital of the United States being relocated to Virginia by means of a "pill" that "would be peculiarly bitter to the Southern States, and that some concomitant measure should be adopted to sweeten it a little to them".[95] : 263 The bill passed in the Senate on July 21 and in the House 34 votes to 28 on July 26, 1790.[95] : 263

 Report on a National Bank

 Further information: History of central banking in the United States
 The First Bank of the United States in Philadelphia, commissioned by Hamilton when the nation adopted a single currency

 Hamilton's Report on a National Bank was a projection from the first Report on the Public Credit. Although Hamilton had been forming ideas of a national bank as early as 1779,[95] : 268 he had gathered ideas in various ways over the past eleven years. These included theories from Adam Smith,[115] extensive studies on the Bank of England, the blunders of the Bank of North America and his experience in establishing the Bank of New York.[116] He also used American records from James Wilson, Pelatiah Webster, Gouverneur Morris, and from his assistant treasury secretary Tench Coxe.[116] He thought that this plan for a National Bank could help in any sort of financial crisis.[117]

 Hamilton suggested that Congress should charter the national bank with a capitalization of $10 million, one-fifth of which would be handled by the government. Since the government did not have the money, it would borrow the money from the bank itself, and repay the loan in ten even annual installments.[47] : 194 The rest was to be available to individual investors.[118] The bank was to be governed by a twenty-five-member board of directors that was to represent a large majority of the private shareholders, which Hamilton considered essential for his being under a private direction.[95] : 268 Hamilton's bank model had many similarities to that of the Bank of England, except Hamilton wanted to exclude the government from being involved in public debt, but provide a large, firm, and elastic money supply for the functioning of normal businesses and usual economic development, among other differences.[47] : 194–95 The tax revenue to initiate the bank was the same as he had previously proposed, increases on imported spirits: rum, liquor, and whiskey.[47] : 195–96

 The bill passed through the Senate practically without a problem, but objections to the proposal increased by the time it reached the House of Representatives. It was generally held by critics that Hamilton was serving the interests of the Northeast by means of the bank,[119] and those of the agrarian lifestyle would not benefit from it.[95] : 270 Among those critics was James Jackson of Georgia, who also attempted to refute the report by quoting from The Federalist Papers.[95] : 270 Madison and Jefferson also opposed the bank bill. The potential of the capital not being moved to the Potomac if the bank was to have a firm establishment in Philadelphia was a more significant reason, and actions that Pennsylvania members of Congress took to keep the capital there made both men anxious.[47] : 199–200 The Whiskey Rebellion also showed how in other financial plans, there was a distance between the classes as the wealthy profited from the taxes.[120]

 Madison warned the Pennsylvania congress members that he would attack the bill as unconstitutional in the House, and followed up on his threat.[47] : 200 Madison argued his case of where the power of a bank could be established within the Constitution, but he failed to sway members of the House, and his authority on the constitution was questioned by a few members.[47] : 200–01 The bill eventually passed in an overwhelming fashion 39 to 20, on February 8, 1791.[95] : 271

 Washington hesitated to sign the bill, as he received suggestions from Attorney General Edmund Randolph and Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson dismissed the Necessary and Proper Clause as reasoning for the creation of a national bank, stating that the enumerated powers "can all be carried into execution without a bank."[95] : 271–72 Along with Randolph and Jefferson's objections, Washington's involvement in the movement of the capital from Philadelphia is also thought to be a reason for his hesitation.[47] : 202–03 In response to the objection of the clause, Hamilton stated that "Necessary often means no more than needful, requisite, incidental, useful, or conductive to", and the bank was a "convenient species of medium in which [taxes] are to be paid."[95] : 272–73 Washington would eventually sign the bill into law.[95] : 272–73

 Establishing the mint

 Main article: United States Mint
 The Turban Head eagle was one of the first gold coins minted under the Coinage Act of 1792.

 In 1791, Hamilton submitted the Report on the Establishment of a Mint to the House of Representatives. Many of Hamilton's ideas for this report were from European economists, resolutions from the 1785 and 1786 Continental Congress meetings, and people such as Robert Morris, Gouverneur Morris and Thomas Jefferson.[47] : 197 [121]

 Because the most circulated coins in the United States at the time were Spanish currency, Hamilton proposed that minting a United States dollar weighing almost as much as the Spanish peso would be the simplest way to introduce a national currency.[122] Hamilton differed from European monetary policymakers in his desire to overprice gold relative to silver, on the grounds that the United States would always receive an influx of silver from the West Indies.[47] : 197 Despite his own preference for a monometallic gold standard,[123] he ultimately issued a bimetallic currency at a fixed 15:1 ratio of silver to gold.[47] : 197 [124][125]

 Hamilton proposed that the U.S. dollar should have fractional coins using decimals, rather than eighths like the Spanish coinage.[126] This innovation was originally suggested by Superintendent of Finance Robert Morris, with whom Hamilton corresponded after examining one of Morris's Nova Constellatio coins in 1783.[127] He also desired the minting of small value coins, such as silver ten-cent and copper cent and half-cent pieces, for reducing the cost of living for the poor.[47] : 198 [116] One of his main objectives was for the general public to become accustomed to handling money on a frequent basis.[47] : 198

 By 1792, Hamilton's principles were adopted by Congress, resulting in the Coinage Act of 1792, and the creation of the mint. There was to be a ten-dollar Gold Eagle coin, a silver dollar, and fractional money ranging from one-half to fifty cents.[123] The coining of silver and gold was issued by 1795.[123]

 Revenue Cutter Service

 Main article: United States Revenue Cutter Service
 Contemporary painting of a Revenue Marine cutter, which may be of either the USRC Massachusetts, or its replacement, the Massachusetts II.

 Smuggling off American coasts was an issue before the Revolutionary War, and after the Revolution it was more problematic. Along with smuggling, lack of shipping control, pirating, and a revenue unbalance were also major problems.[128] In response, Hamilton proposed to Congress to enact a naval police force called revenue cutters in order to patrol the waters and assist the custom collectors with confiscating contraband.[129] This idea was also proposed to assist in tariff controlling, boosting the American economy, and promote the merchant marine.[128] It is thought that his experience obtained during his apprenticeship with Nicholas Kruger was influential in his decision-making.[130]

 Concerning some of the details of the System of Cutters,[131] Hamilton wanted the first ten cutters in different areas in the United States, from New England to Georgia.[129][132] Each of those cutters was to be armed with ten muskets and bayonets, twenty pistols, two chisels, one broad-ax and two lanterns. The fabric of the sails was to be domestically manufactured;[129] and provisions were made for the employees' food supply and etiquette when boarding ships.[129] Congress established the Revenue Cutter Service on August 4, 1790, which is viewed as the birth of the United States Coast Guard.[128]

 Whiskey as tax revenue

 See also: Whiskey Rebellion

 One of the principal sources of revenue Hamilton prevailed upon Congress to approve was an excise tax on whiskey. In his first Tariff Bill in January 1790, Hamilton proposed to raise the three million dollars needed to pay for government operating expenses and interest on domestic and foreign debts by means of an increase on duties on imported wines, distilled spirits, tea, coffee, and domestic spirits. It failed, with Congress complying with most recommendations excluding the excise tax on whiskey. The same year, Madison modified Hamilton's tariff to involve only imported duties; it was passed in September.[133]

 In response of diversifying revenues, as three-fourths of revenue gathered was from commerce with Great Britain, Hamilton attempted once again during his Report on Public Credit when presenting it in 1790 to implement an excise tax on both imported and domestic spirits.[134][135] The taxation rate was graduated in proportion to the whiskey proof, and Hamilton intended to equalize the tax burden on imported spirits with imported and domestic liquor.[135] In lieu of the excise on production citizens could pay 60 cents by the gallon of dispensing capacity, along with an exemption on small stills used exclusively for domestic consumption.[135] He realized the loathing that the tax would receive in rural areas, but thought of the taxing of spirits more reasonable than land taxes.[134]

 Opposition initially came from Pennsylvania's House of Representatives protesting the tax. William Maclay had noted that not even the Pennsylvanian legislators had been able to enforce excise taxes in the western regions of the state.[134] Hamilton was aware of the potential difficulties and proposed inspectors the ability to search buildings that distillers were designated to store their spirits, and would be able to search suspected illegal storage facilities to confiscate contraband with a warrant.[136] Although the inspectors were not allowed to search houses and warehouses, they were to visit twice a day and file weekly reports in extensive detail.[134] Hamilton cautioned against expedited judicial means, and favored a jury trial with potential offenders.[136] As soon as 1791, locals began to shun or threaten inspectors, as they felt the inspection methods were intrusive.[134] Inspectors were also tarred and feathered, blindfolded, and whipped. Hamilton had attempted to appease the opposition with lowered tax rates, but it did not suffice.[137]

 Strong opposition to the whiskey tax by cottage producers in remote, rural regions erupted into the Whiskey Rebellion in 1794; in Western Pennsylvania and western Virginia, whiskey was the basic export product and was fundamental to the local economy. In response to the rebellion, believing compliance with the laws was vital to the establishment of federal authority, Hamilton accompanied to the rebellion's site President Washington, General Henry "Light Horse Harry" Lee, and more federal troops than were ever assembled in one place during the Revolution. This overwhelming display of force intimidated the leaders of the insurrection, ending the rebellion virtually without bloodshed.[138]

 Manufacturing and industry

 Further information: Report on Manufactures
 The Great Falls of the Passaic River in Paterson, New Jersey, which Hamilton envisioned using to power new factories

 Hamilton's next report was his Report on Manufactures. Although he was requested by Congress on January 15, 1790, for a report for manufacturing that would expand the United States' independence, the report was not submitted until December 5, 1791.[95] : 274, 277 In the report, Hamilton quoted from Wealth of Nations and used the French physiocrats as an example for rejecting agrarianism and the physiocratic theory, respectively.[47] : 233 Hamilton also refuted Smith's ideas of government noninterference, as it would have been detrimental for trade with other countries.[47] : 244 Hamilton also thought that the United States, being a primarily agrarian country, would be at a disadvantage in dealing with Europe.[139] In response to the agrarian detractors, Hamilton stated that the agriculturists' interest would be advanced by manufactures,[95] : 276 and that agriculture was just as productive as manufacturing.[47] : 233 [95] : 276

 Hamilton argued that developing an industrial economy is impossible without protective tariffs.[140] Among the ways that the government should assist manufacturing, Hamilton argued for government assistance to "infant industries" so they can achieve economies of scale, by levying protective duties on imported foreign goods that were also manufactured in the United States,[141] for withdrawing duties levied on raw materials needed for domestic manufacturing,[95] : 277 [141] and pecuniary boundaries.[95] : 277 He also called for encouraging immigration for people to better themselves in similar employment opportunities.[141][142] Congress shelved the report without much debate, except for Madison's objection to Hamilton's formulation of the general welfare clause, which Hamilton construed liberally as a legal basis for his extensive programs.[143]

 In 1791, Hamilton, along with Coxe and several entrepreneurs from New York and Philadelphia formed the Society for the Establishment of Useful Manufactures, a private industrial corporation. In May 1792, the directors decided to examine The Passaic Falls as a possible location for a manufacturing center. On July 4, 1792, the society directors met Philip Schuyler at Abraham Godwin's hotel on the Passaic River, where they would lead a tour prospecting the area for the national manufactory. It was originally suggested that they dig mile-long trenches and build the factories away from the falls, but Hamilton argued that it would be too costly and laborious.[144]

 The location at Great Falls of the Passaic River in New Jersey was selected due to access to raw materials, it being densely inhabited, and having access to water power from the falls of the Passaic.[47] : 231 The factory town was named Paterson after New Jersey's Governor William Paterson, who signed the charter.[47] : 232 [145] The profits were to derive from specific corporates rather than the benefits to be conferred to the nation and the citizens, which was unlike the report.[146] Hamilton also suggested the first stock to be offered at $500,000 and to eventually increase to $1 million, and welcomed state and federal government subscriptions alike.[95] : 280 [146] The company was never successful: numerous shareholders reneged on stock payments, some members soon went bankrupt, and William Duer, the governor of the program, was sent to debtors' prison where he died.[147] In spite of Hamilton's efforts to mend the disaster, the company folded.[145]

 Jay Treaty

 Main article: Jay Treaty

 When France and Britain went to war in early 1793, all four members of the Cabinet were consulted on what to do. They and Washington unanimously agreed to remain neutral, and to have the French ambassador who was raising privateers and mercenaries on American soil, Edmond-Charles Genêt, recalled.[148] : 336–41 However, in 1794, policy toward Britain became a major point of contention between the two parties. Hamilton and the Federalists wished for more trade with Britain, the largest trading partner of the newly formed United States. The Republicans saw monarchist Britain as the main threat to republicanism and proposed instead to start a trade war.[95] : 327–28

 To avoid war, Washington sent Chief Justice John Jay to negotiate with the British, with Hamilton largely writing Jay's instructions. The result was a treaty denounced by the Republicans, but Hamilton mobilized support throughout the land.[149] The Jay Treaty passed the Senate in 1795 by exactly the required two-thirds majority. The treaty resolved issues remaining from the Revolution, averted war, and made possible ten years of peaceful trade between the United States and Britain.[148] : Ch 9 Historian George Herring notes the "remarkable and fortuitous economic and diplomatic gains" produced by the Treaty.[150]

 Several European states had formed the Second League of Armed Neutrality against incursions on their neutral rights; the cabinet was also consulted on whether the United States should join the alliance, and decided not to. It kept that decision secret, but Hamilton revealed it in private to George Hammond, the British minister to the United States, without telling Jay or anyone else. His act remained unknown until Hammond's dispatches were read in the 1920s. This revelation may have had limited effect on the negotiations; Jay did threaten to join the League at one point, but the British had other reasons not to view the alliance as a serious threat.[148] : 411 ff [151]

 Resignation from public office

 See also: Second Report on Public Credit

 Hamilton's wife suffered a miscarriage[152] while he was absent during his armed repression of the Whiskey Rebellion.[153] In the wake of this, Hamilton tendered his resignation from office on December 1, 1794, giving Washington two months' notice,[154] Before leaving his post on January 31, 1795, Hamilton submitted the Report on a Plan for the Further Support of Public Credit to Congress to curb the debt problem. Hamilton grew dissatisfied with what he viewed as a lack of a comprehensive plan to fix the public debt. He wished to have new taxes passed with older ones made permanent and stated that any surplus from the excise tax on liquor would be pledged to lower public debt. His proposals were included in a bill by Congress within slightly over a month after his departure as treasury secretary.[155] Some months later, Hamilton resumed his law practice in New York to remain closer to his family.[156]

 Emergence of political parties

 Further information: Federalist Party and Democratic-Republican Party
 1791 portrait of Hamilton's rival, Thomas Jefferson

 Hamilton's vision was challenged by Virginia agrarians Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, who formed the Democratic-Republican Party. They favored strong state governments based in rural America and protected by state militias as opposed to a strong national government supported by a national army and navy. They denounced Hamilton as insufficiently devoted to republicanism, too friendly toward corrupt Britain and the monarchy in general, and too oriented toward cities, business and banking.[157]

 The two-party system began to emerge as political parties coalesced around competing interests. A congressional caucus, led by Madison, Jefferson, and William Branch Giles, began as an opposition group to Hamilton's financial programs. Hamilton and his allies began to call themselves the Federalists.[158][159]

 Hamilton assembled a nationwide coalition to garner support for the administration, including the expansive financial programs Hamilton had made administration policy and especially the president's policy of neutrality in the European war between Britain and France. Hamilton publicly denounced French minister Genêt, who commissioned American privateers and recruited Americans for private militias to attack British ships and colonial possessions of British allies. Eventually, even Jefferson joined Hamilton in seeking Genêt's recall.[160] If Hamilton's administrative republic was to succeed, Americans had to see themselves first as citizens of a nation, and experience an administration that proved firm and demonstrated the concepts found within the Constitution.[161] The Federalists did impose some internal direct taxes, but they departed from most implications of Hamilton's administrative republic as risky.[162]

 The Republicans opposed banks and cities, and favored the series of unstable revolutionary governments in France. They built their own national coalition to oppose the Federalists. Both sides gained the support of local political factions, and each side developed its own partisan newspapers. Noah Webster, John Fenno, and William Cobbett were energetic editors for the Federalists, while Benjamin Franklin Bache and Philip Freneau were fiery Republican editors. All of their newspapers were characterized by intense personal attacks, major exaggerations, and invented claims. In 1801, Hamilton established a daily newspaper, the New York Evening Post, and brought in William Coleman as its editor.[163] Hamilton's and Jefferson's incompatibility was heightened by the unavowed wish of each to be Washington's principal and most trusted advisor.[164]

 An additional partisan irritant to Hamilton was the 1791 United States Senate election in New York, which resulted in the election of Democratic-Republican candidate Aaron Burr over Federalist candidate Philip Schuyler, the incumbent and Hamilton's father-in-law. Hamilton blamed Burr personally for this outcome, and negative characterizations of Burr began to appear in his correspondence thereafter. The two men did work together from time to time thereafter on various projects, including Hamilton's army of 1798 and the Manhattan Water Company.[165]

 Post-secretaryship (1795–1804)

 1796 presidential election

 Main article: 1796 United States presidential election

 Hamilton's resignation as secretary of the treasury in 1795 did not remove him from public life. With the resumption of his law practice, he remained close to Washington as an advisor and friend. Hamilton influenced Washington in the composition of his farewell address by writing drafts for Washington to compare with the latter's draft, although when Washington contemplated retirement in 1792, he had consulted Madison for a draft that was used in a similar manner to Hamilton's.[166][167]

 In the election of 1796, under the Constitution as it stood then, each of the presidential electors had two votes, which they were to cast for different men from different states. The one who received the most votes would become president, the second-most, vice president. This system was not designed with the operation of parties in mind, as they had been thought disreputable and factious. The Federalists planned to deal with this by having all their electors vote for John Adams, then vice president, and all but a few for Thomas Pinckney.[168]

 Adams resented Hamilton's influence with Washington and considered him overambitious and scandalous in his private life; Hamilton compared Adams unfavorably with Washington and thought him too emotionally unstable to be president.[169] Hamilton took the election as an opportunity: he urged all the northern electors to vote for Adams and Pinckney, lest Jefferson get in; but he cooperated with Edward Rutledge to have South Carolina's electors vote for Jefferson and Pinckney. If all this worked, Pinckney would have more votes than Adams, Pinckney would become president, and Adams would remain vice president, but it did not work. The Federalists found out about it and northern Federalists voted for Adams but not for Pinckney, in sufficient numbers that Pinckney came in third and Jefferson became vice president.[170] Adams resented the intrigue since he felt his service to the nation was much more extensive than Pinckney's.[171]

 Reynolds affair

 Main article: Hamilton–Reynolds affair

 In the summer of 1797, Hamilton became the first major American politician publicly involved in a sex scandal.[172] Six years earlier, in the summer of 1791, 34-year-old Hamilton became involved in an affair with 23-year-old Maria Reynolds. According to Hamilton's account Maria approached him at his house in Philadelphia, claiming that her husband James Reynolds was abusive and had abandoned her, and she wished to return to her relatives in New York but lacked the means.[95] : 366–69 Hamilton recorded her address and subsequently delivered $30 personally to her boarding house, where she led him into her bedroom and "Some conversation ensued from which it was quickly apparent that other than pecuniary consolation would be acceptable". The two began an intermittent illicit affair that lasted approximately until June 1792.[173]

 Over the course of that year, while the affair was taking place, James Reynolds was well aware of his wife's infidelity, and likely orchestrated it from the beginning. He continually supported their relationship to extort blackmail money regularly from Hamilton. The common practice of the day for men of equal social standing was for the wronged husband to seek retribution in a duel, but Reynolds, of a lower social status and realizing how much Hamilton had to lose if his activity came into public view, resorted to extortion.[174] After an initial request of $1,000[175] to which Hamilton complied, Reynolds invited Hamilton to renew his visits to his wife "as a friend"[176] only to extort forced "loans" after each visit that, most likely in collusion, Maria solicited with her letters. In the end, the blackmail payments totaled over $1,300 including the initial extortion.[95] : 369 Hamilton at this point may have been aware of both spouses being involved in the blackmail,[177] and he welcomed and strictly complied with James Reynolds' request to end the affair.[173][178]

 In November 1792, James Reynolds and his associate Jacob Clingman were arrested for counterfeiting and speculating in Revolutionary War veterans' unpaid back wages. Clingman was released on bail and relayed information to Democratic-Republican congressman James Monroe that Reynolds had evidence incriminating Hamilton in illicit activity as Treasury Secretary. Monroe consulted with congressmen Muhlenberg and Venable on what actions to take and the congressmen confronted Hamilton on December 15, 1792.[173] Hamilton refuted the suspicions of speculation by exposing his affair with Maria and producing as evidence the letters by both of the Reynolds, proving that his payments to James Reynolds related to blackmail over his adultery, and not to treasury misconduct. The trio agreed on their honor to keep the documents privately with the utmost confidence.[95] : 366–69

 In the summer of 1797, however, the "notoriously scurrilous" journalist James T. Callender published A History of the United States for the Year 1796.[47] : 334 The pamphlet contained accusations, based on documents from the confrontation of December 15, 1792, taken out of context, that James Reynolds had been an agent of Hamilton. On July 5, 1797, Hamilton wrote to Monroe, Muhlenberg, and Venable, asking them to confirm that there was nothing that would damage the perception of his integrity while Secretary of Treasury. All but Monroe complied with Hamilton's request. Hamilton then published a 100-page booklet, later usually referred to as the Reynolds Pamphlet, and discussed the affair in indelicate detail for the time. Hamilton's wife Elizabeth eventually forgave him, but never forgave Monroe.[179] Although Hamilton faced ridicule from the Democratic-Republican faction, he maintained his availability for public service.[47] : 334–36

 Quasi-War

 Main article: Quasi-War

 During the military build-up of the Quasi-War, and with the strong endorsement of Washington, Adams reluctantly appointed Hamilton a major general of the army. At Washington's insistence, Hamilton was made the senior major general, prompting Continental Army major general Henry Knox to decline the appointment to serve as Hamilton's junior, believing it would be degrading to serve beneath him.[180][181]

 Hamilton served as inspector general of the United States Army from July 18, 1798, to June 15, 1800. Because Washington was unwilling to leave Mount Vernon unless it were to command an army in the field, Hamilton was the de facto head of the army, to Adams's considerable displeasure. If full-scale war broke out with France, Hamilton argued that the army should conquer the North American colonies of France's ally, Spain, bordering the United States.[182] Hamilton was prepared to march the army through the Southern United States if necessary.[183]

 To fund this army, Hamilton wrote regularly to Oliver Wolcott Jr., his successor at the treasury, Representative William Loughton Smith, and U.S. Senator Theodore Sedgwick. He urged them to pass a direct tax to fund the war. Smith resigned in July 1797, as Hamilton complained to him for slowness, and urged Wolcott to tax houses instead of land.[184] The eventual program included taxes on land, houses, and slaves, calculated at different rates in different states and requiring assessment of houses, and a stamp act like that of the British before the Revolution, though this time Americans were taxing themselves through their own representatives.[185] This provoked resistance in southeastern Pennsylvania nevertheless, led primarily by men such as John Fries who had marched with Washington against the Whiskey Rebellion.[186]

 Hamilton aided in all areas of the army's development, and after Washington's death he was by default the senior officer of the United States Army from December 14, 1799, to June 15, 1800. The army was to guard against invasion from France. Adams, however, derailed all plans for war by opening negotiations with France that led to peace.[187] There was no longer a direct threat for the army Hamilton was commanding to respond to.[188] Adams discovered that key members of his cabinet, namely Secretary of State Timothy Pickering and Secretary of War James McHenry, were more loyal to Hamilton than himself; Adams fired them in May 1800.[189]

 1800 presidential election

 Main article: 1800 United States presidential election
 Prior to running for governor of New York, Aaron Burr would be shut out of President Jefferson's administration and the Democratic-Republican Party.

 In November 1799, the Alien and Sedition Acts had left one Democratic-Republican newspaper functioning in New York City. When the last newspaper, the New Daily Advertiser, reprinted an article saying that Hamilton had attempted to purchase the Philadelphia Aurora to close it down, Hamilton had the publisher prosecuted for seditious libel, and the prosecution compelled the owner to close the paper.[190]

 In the 1800 election, Hamilton worked to defeat not only the Democratic-Republicans, but also his party's own nominee, John Adams.[95] : 392–99 Aaron Burr had won New York for Jefferson in May; now Hamilton proposed a rerun of the election under different rules—with carefully drawn districts and each choosing an elector—such that the Federalists would split the electoral vote of New York. Jay, who had resigned from the Supreme Court to be governor of New York, wrote on the back of a letter, "Proposing a measure for party purposes which it would not become me to adopt," and declined to reply.[191]

 Adams was running this time with Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, the elder brother of former vice presidential candidate Thomas. Hamilton toured New England, again urging northern electors to hold firm for Pinckney in the renewed hope of making Pinckney president; and he again intrigued in South Carolina.[47] : 350–51 Hamilton's ideas involved coaxing middle-state Federalists to assert their non-support for Adams if there was no support for Pinckney and writing to more of the modest supports of Adams concerning his supposed misconduct while president.[47] : 350–51 Hamilton expected to see southern states such as the Carolinas cast their votes for Pinckney and Jefferson, and would result in the former being ahead of both Adams and Jefferson.[95] : 394–95

 In accordance with the second of the aforementioned plans, and a recent personal rift with Adams,[47] : 351 Hamilton wrote a pamphlet called Letter from Alexander Hamilton, Concerning the Public Conduct and Character of John Adams, Esq. President of the United States that was highly critical of him, though it closed with a tepid endorsement.[95] : 396 He mailed this to two hundred leading Federalists; when a copy fell into the Democratic-Republicans' hands, they printed it. This hurt Adams's re-election campaign and split the Federalist Party, virtually assuring the victory of the Democratic-Republican Party, led by Jefferson, in the election of 1800; it diminished Hamilton's position among many Federalists.[ citation needed ]

 Jefferson had beaten Adams, but both he and Aaron Burr had received 73 votes in the Electoral College. With Jefferson and Burr tied, the House of Representatives had to choose between the two men.[47] : 352 [95] : 399 Several Federalists who opposed Jefferson supported Burr, and for the first 35 ballots, Jefferson was denied a majority. Before the 36th ballot, Hamilton threw his weight behind Jefferson, supporting the arrangement reached by James A. Bayard of Delaware, in which five Federalist representatives from Maryland and Vermont abstained from voting, allowing those states' delegations to go for Jefferson, ending the impasse and electing Jefferson president rather than Burr.[47] : 350–51

 Even though Hamilton did not like Jefferson and disagreed with him on many issues, he viewed Jefferson as the lesser of two evils. Hamilton spoke of Jefferson as being "by far not so a dangerous man" and of Burr as a "mischievous enemy" to the principal measure of the past administration.[192] It was for that reason, along with the fact that Burr was a northerner and not a Virginian, that many Federalist representatives voted for him.[193][ contradictory ]

 Hamilton wrote many letters to friends in Congress to convince the members to see otherwise.[47] : 352 [95] : 401 The Federalists rejected Hamilton's diatribe as reasons to not vote for Burr,[47] : 353 [95] : 401 although historian Cokie Roberts claimed that Hamilton's campaign against Burr was a major reason Burr failed to win in the end.[194] Nevertheless, Burr would become vice president after losing to Jefferson. When it became clear that Jefferson had developed his own concerns about Burr and would not support his return to the vice presidency,[195] Burr sought the New York governorship in 1804 with Federalist support, against the Jeffersonian Morgan Lewis, but was defeated by forces including Hamilton.[196]

 Duel with Burr and death

 Main article: Burr–Hamilton duel
 1901 illustration of Burr wounding Hamilton in their 1804 duel in Weehawken, New Jersey

 Soon after Lewis' gubernatorial victory, the Albany Register published Charles D. Cooper's letters, citing Hamilton's opposition to Burr and alleging that Hamilton had expressed "a still more despicable opinion" of the vice president at an upstate New York dinner party.[197][198] Cooper claimed that the letter was intercepted after relaying the information, but stated he was "unusually cautious" in recollecting the information from the dinner.[199]

 Burr, sensing an attack on his honor, and recovering from his defeat, demanded an apology in the form of a letter. Hamilton wrote a letter in response and ultimately refused because he could not recall the instance of insulting Burr. Hamilton would also have been accused of recanting Cooper's letter out of cowardice.[95] : 423–24 After a series of attempts to reconcile were to no avail, a duel was arranged through liaisons on June 27, 1804.[95] : 426

 The concept of honor was fundamental to Hamilton's vision of himself and of the nation.[200] Historians have noted, as evidence of the importance that honor held in Hamilton's value system, that Hamilton had previously been a party to seven "affairs of honor" as a principal, and to three as an advisor or second.[201] Such affairs of honor were often concluded prior to reaching their final stage, i.e. a duel.[201]

 Before the duel, Hamilton wrote an explanation of his decision to participate while at the same time intending to "throw away" his shot.[202] His desire to be available for future political matters also played a factor.[197] A week before the duel, at an annual Independence Day dinner of the Society of the Cincinnati, both Hamilton and Burr were in attendance. Separate accounts confirm that Hamilton was uncharacteristically effusive while Burr was, by contrast, uncharacteristically withdrawn. Accounts also agree that Burr became roused when Hamilton, again uncharacteristically, sang a favorite song, which recent scholarship indicates that it was "How Stands the Glass Around", an anthem sung by military troops about fighting and dying in war.[203]

 The duel began at dawn on July 11, 1804, along the west bank of the Hudson River on a rocky ledge in Weehawken, New Jersey.[204] Both opponents were rowed over from Manhattan separately from different locations, as the spot was not accessible from the west due to the steepness of the adjoining cliffs. Coincidentally, the duel took place relatively close to the location of the duel that had ended the life of Hamilton's eldest son, Philip, three years earlier.[205] Lots were cast for the choice of position and which second should start the duel. Both were won by Hamilton's second, who chose the upper edge of the ledge for Hamilton facing the city to the east, toward the rising sun.[206] After the seconds had measured the paces Hamilton, according to both William P. Van Ness and Burr, raised his pistol "as if to try the light" and had to wear his glasses to prevent his vision from being obscured.[207] Hamilton also refused the more sensitive hairspring setting for the dueling pistols offered by Nathaniel Pendleton.[208]

 Vice President Burr shot Hamilton, delivering what proved to be a fatal wound. Hamilton's shot broke a tree branch directly above Burr's head.[168] Neither of the seconds, Pendleton nor Van Ness, could determine who fired first,[209] as each claimed that the other man had fired first.[208]

 Soon after, they measured and triangulated the shooting, but could not determine from which angle Hamilton had fired. Burr's shot hit Hamilton in the lower abdomen above his right hip. The bullet ricocheted off Hamilton's second or third false rib, fracturing it and causing considerable damage to his internal organs, particularly his liver and diaphragm, before becoming lodged in his first or second lumbar vertebra.[95] : 429 [210] The biographer Ron Chernow considers the circumstances to indicate that, after taking deliberate aim, Burr fired second,[211] while the biographer James Earnest Cooke suggests that Burr took careful aim and shot first, and Hamilton fired while falling, after being struck by Burr's bullet.[212]

 The paralyzed Hamilton was immediately attended by the same surgeon who tended Phillip Hamilton, and ferried to the Greenwich Village boarding house of his friend William Bayard Jr., who had been waiting on the dock.[213] On his deathbed, Hamilton asked the Episcopal Bishop of New York, Benjamin Moore, to give him holy communion.[214] Moore initially declined to do so on the grounds that participating in a duel was a mortal sin and that Hamilton, although undoubtedly sincere in his faith, was not a member of the Episcopalian denomination.[215] After leaving, Moore was persuaded to return that afternoon by the urgent pleas of Hamilton's friends. Upon receiving Hamilton's solemn assurance that he repented for his part in the duel, Moore gave him communion.[215]

 Hamilton's tomb in the Trinity Church Cemetery in Lower Manhattan

 After final visits from his family, friends, and considerable suffering for at least 31 hours, Hamilton died at two o'clock the following afternoon, July 12, 1804,[213][216] at Bayard's home just below the present Gansevoort Street.[217] The city fathers halted all business at noon two days later for Hamilton's funeral. The procession route of about two miles organized by the Society of the Cincinnati had so many participants of every class of citizen that it took hours to complete and was widely reported nationwide by newspapers.[218] Moore conducted the funeral service at Trinity Church.[214] Gouverneur Morris gave the eulogy and secretly established a fund to support his widow and children.[219] Hamilton was buried in the church's cemetery.[220]

 Religion

 Hamilton's birthplace had a large Jewish community, constituting one quarter of Charlestown's white population by the 1720s.[2] His degree of respect for Jews was described by Chernow as "a life-long reverence".[221] He came into contact with Jews on a regular basis, having been tutored by a Jewish schoolmistress. As a small boy, he learned to recite the Ten Commandments in Biblical Hebrew,[222] and he believed that Jewish achievement was a result of divine providence.[223] Some evidence suggests that Hamilton was born and raised Jewish,[224] but little is known for certain.[225]

 As a youth in the West Indies, Hamilton was an orthodox and conventional Presbyterian of the New Lights; he was taught there by a student of John Witherspoon, a moderate of the New School.[226] He wrote two or three hymns, which were published in the local newspaper.[227] Robert Troup, his college roommate, noted that Hamilton was "in the habit of praying on his knees night and morning".[222] : 10

 According to Gordon Wood, Hamilton dropped his youthful religiosity during the Revolution and became "a conventional liberal with theistic inclinations who was an irregular churchgoer at best"; however, he returned to religion in his last years.[228] Chernow wrote that Hamilton was nominally an Episcopalian, but:

 [H]e was not clearly affiliated with the denomination and did not seem to attend church regularly or take communion. Like Adams, Franklin, and Jefferson, Hamilton had probably fallen under the sway of deism, which sought to substitute reason for revelation and dropped the notion of an active God who intervened in human affairs. At the same time, he never doubted God's existence, embracing Christianity as a system of morality and cosmic justice.[229]

 Stories were circulated that Hamilton had made two quips about God at the time of the Constitutional Convention in 1787.[230] During the French Revolution, he displayed a utilitarian approach to using religion for political ends, such as by maligning Jefferson as "the atheist", and insisting that Christianity and Jeffersonian democracy were incompatible.[230] : 316 After 1801, Hamilton further attested his belief in Christianity, proposing a Christian Constitutional Society in 1802 to take hold of "some strong feeling of the mind" to elect "fit men" to office, and advocating "Christian welfare societies" for the poor. After being shot, Hamilton spoke of his belief in God's mercy.[d]

 Legacy

 See also: List of things named after Alexander Hamilton and Cultural depictions of Alexander Hamilton

 Constitution

 Hamilton's interpretations of the Constitution set forth in The Federalist Papers remain highly influential, as seen in scholarly studies and court decisions.[231] Although the Constitution was ambiguous as to the exact balance of power between national and state governments, Hamilton consistently took the side of greater federal power at the expense of the states.[232] As secretary of the treasury, he established—against the intense opposition of Secretary of State Jefferson—the country's first de facto central bank. Hamilton justified the creation of this bank, and other federal powers, under Congress's constitutional authority to issue currency, regulate interstate commerce, and do anything else that would be "necessary and proper" to enact the provisions of the Constitution.[233]

 On the other hand, Jefferson took a stricter view of the Constitution. Parsing the text carefully, he found no specific authorization for a national bank. This controversy was eventually settled in McCulloch v. Maryland, which essentially adopted Hamilton's view, granting the federal government broad freedom to select the best means to execute its constitutionally enumerated powers, essentially confirming the doctrine of implied powers.[233] Nevertheless, the American Civil War and the Progressive Era demonstrated the sorts of crises and politics Hamilton's administrative republic sought to avoid.[234][ how? ]

 Hamilton's policies have greatly affected the United States government. His constitutional interpretation, particularly of the Necessary and Proper Clause, set precedents for federal authority that are still used by the courts and are considered an authority on constitutional interpretation. French diplomat Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord, who spent 1794 in the United States, wrote, "I consider Napoleon, Fox, and Hamilton the three greatest men of our epoch, and if I were forced to decide between the three, I would give without hesitation the first place to Hamilton," adding that Hamilton had intuited the problems of European conservatives.[235]

 Opinions of Hamilton have run the gamut as both Adams and Jefferson viewed him as unprincipled and dangerously aristocratic. Hamilton's reputation was mostly negative in the eras of Jeffersonian democracy and Jacksonian democracy. The older Jeffersonian view attacked Hamilton as a centralizer, sometimes to the point of accusations that he advocated monarchy.[236] By the Progressive Era, Herbert Croly, Henry Cabot Lodge, and Theodore Roosevelt praised his leadership of a strong government. Several Republicans in 19th and 20th centuries entered politics by writing laudatory biographies of Hamilton.[237]

 According to Sean Wilentz, more recent views of Hamilton and his reputation have been favorable among scholars, who portray him as the visionary architect of the modern liberal capitalist economy and of a dynamic federal government headed by an energetic executive.[238] Conversely, modern scholars favoring Hamilton have portrayed Jefferson and his allies as naïve, dreamy idealists.[238]

 Slavery

 Hamilton is not known to have ever owned slaves, although members of his family were slave owners. At the time of her death, Hamilton's mother owned two slaves and wrote a will leaving them to her sons. However, due to their illegitimacy, Hamilton and his brother were held ineligible to inherit her property and never took ownership of the slaves.[239] : 17 Later, as a youth in Saint Croix, Hamilton worked for a company trading in commodities that included slaves.[239] : 17 He occasionally handled slave transactions as the legal representative of his own family members and one of his grandsons interpreted some of these journal entries as being purchases for himself.[240][241] In 1840, his son John maintained that his father "never owned a slave; but on the contrary, having learned that a domestic whom he had hired was about to be sold by her master, he immediately purchased her freedom."[242]

 By the time of Hamilton's early participation in the American Revolution, his abolitionist sensibilities had become evident. He was active during the Revolutionary War in trying to raise black troops for the army with the promise of freedom. In the 1780s and 1790s, Hamilton generally opposed pro-slavery southern interests, which he saw as hypocritical to the values of the revolution. In 1785, he joined his close associate John Jay in founding the New York Manumission Society, which successfully promoted the abolition of the international slave trade in New York City and passed a state law to end slavery in New York through a decades-long process of emancipation with a final end to slavery in the state on July 4, 1827.[239]

 At a time when most white leaders doubted the capacity of blacks, Hamilton believed slavery was morally wrong and wrote that "their natural faculties are as good as ours."[243] Unlike contemporaries such as Jefferson, who considered the removal of freed slaves to a western territory, West Indies, or Africa to be essential to any plan for emancipation, Hamilton pressed for emancipation without such provisions.[239] : 22 Hamilton and other Federalists supported the Haitian Revolution, which had originated as a slave revolt.[239] : 23 His suggestions helped shape the Haitian constitution. In 1804, when Haiti became an independent state with a majority Black population, Hamilton urged closer economic and diplomatic ties.[239] : 23

 Economics

 Hamilton has been portrayed as the "patron saint"[244] of the American School economic philosophy that, according to one historian, later dominated American economic policy after 1861.[244] His ideas and work influenced the 19th century German economist Friedrich List[245] and Abraham Lincoln's chief economic advisor, Henry Charles Carey.[246]

 As early as the fall of 1781, Hamilton firmly supported government intervention in favor of business after the manner of Jean-Baptiste Colbert.[247][248][249] In contrast to the British policy of international mercantilism, which he believed skewed benefits to colonial and imperial powers, Hamilton was a pioneering advocate of protectionism.[250] He is credited with the idea that industrialization would only be possible with tariffs to protect the "infant industries" of an emerging nation.[140]

 Political theorists credit Hamilton with the creation of the modern administrative state, citing his arguments in favor of a strong executive, linked to the support of the people, as the linchpin of an administrative republic.[251][252] The dominance of executive leadership in the formulation and carrying out of policy was, in his view, essential to resist the deterioration of a republican government.[253] Some scholars have raised similarities between Hamiltonian recommendations and the development of Meiji Japan as evidence of the global influence of Hamilton's theory.[254]

 References

 Notes

 1. ^ It is unclear whether Hamilton was born in 1755 or 1757. [2][3] Most historical evidence supports the idea that he was born in 1757, [4][5] though he celebrated his birthday on January 11. In his later life, Hamilton tended to give his age in round figures. Historians accepted 1757 as his birth year until the 1930s when additional documentation was published, including a 1768 probate paper from Saint Croix listing him as thirteen years old. Since then, some historians favored 1755. [2] If he was born in 1757, the probate paper may either have included an error or Hamilton gave his age as thirteen to appear older and more employable. Historians have pointed out other proven inaccuracies in the paper, demonstrating its unreliability. [4]
 2. ^ Primary sources disagree on the spelling of Hamilton's mother's surname. [7] Hamilton's grandfather signed his name "John Faucett" on a legal document dated May 31, 1720, which some historians consider authoritative. [8] Hamilton himself spelled the surname as Faucette in a letter dated August 26, 1800, which was corrected to Faucett in a footnote by the editor of Hamilton's papers. [9] Hamilton's son, John , wrote Faucette. [10] Ron Chernow and many early historians followed Hamilton by writing Faucette, [11] while another group of historians adopted the anglicized name Fawcett, reflecting an absence of consensus. [12]
 3. ^ Although there are persistent claims that Hamilton's mother was of mixed race, this is not substantiated by any verifiable evidence. Rachel Faucette was listed as white on tax rolls. [13][14]
 4. ^ Adair and Harvey, "Christian Statesman?"; Quotes on the Christian Constitutional Society are from Hamilton's letter to James A. Bayard of April 1802, quoted by Adair and Harvey. McDonald, says p. 356, that Hamilton's faith "had not entirely departed" him before the crisis of 1801.

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 5. ^ Newton (2015), pp. 19–30 .
 6. ^ Ramsing, Holger Utke (1939). "Alexander Hamilton". Personalhistorisk Tidsskrift (in Danish): 225–70.
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 110. ^ a b c d Chernow, pp. 296–99 .
 111. ^ Chernow, p. 121 .
 112. ^ Murray, p. 124.
 113. ^ a b c d e f Chernow, pp. 300–05 .
 114. ^ Chernow, p. 307 .
 115. ^ Kaplan, p. 21.
 116. ^ a b c Cooke, p. 88.
 117. ^ Sylla, Richard; Wright, Robert E; Cowen, David J (2009). "Alexander Hamilton, Central Banker: Crisis Management during the U.S. Financial Panic of 1792". Business History Review. 83 (1): 61–86. doi:10.1017/s0007680500000209. ISSN 0007-6805. S2CID 153842455.
 118. ^ Cooke, p. 89.
 119. ^ Cooke, p. 90.
 120. ^ Bogin, Ruth (July 1988). "Petitioning and the New Moral Economy of Post-Revolutionary America". The William and Mary Quarterly. 45 (3): 392–425. doi:10.2307/1923642. ISSN 0043-5597. JSTOR 1923642.
 121. ^ Mitchell, p. 118.
 122. ^ Engerman; Gallman, p. 644.
 123. ^ a b c Studentski; Krooss, p. 62.
 124. ^ Nussbaum, Arthur (November 1937). "The Law of the Dollar". Columbia Law Review (citing 2 Annals of Cong. 2115 (1789–1791)). 37 (7): 1057–91. doi:10.2307/1116782. JSTOR 1116782.
 125. ^ Cooke, p. 87.
 126. ^ Engerman; Gallman, pp. 644–45.
 127. ^ James Ferguson, John Catanzariti, Elizabeth M. Nuxoll and Mary Gallagher, eds. The Papers of Robert Morris , University of Pittsburgh Press, 1973–1999 (Volume 7, pp. 682–713)
 128. ^ a b c Gibowicz, p. 256.
 129. ^ a b c d Chernow, p. 340 .
 130. ^ Chernow, p. 32 .
 131. ^ Gibowicz, pp. 256–57.
 132. ^ Storbridge, p. 2.
 133. ^ Stockwell, p. 357.
 134. ^ a b c d e Chernow, pp. 342–43 .
 135. ^ a b c Murray, p. 141.
 136. ^ a b Murray, pp. 141–42.
 137. ^ Chernow, p. 468 .
 138. ^ Mitchell, I:308–31.
 139. ^ Cooke, p. 100.
 140. ^ a b Bairoch, Paul (1995). Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes. University of Chicago Press. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-226-03463-8.
 141. ^ a b c Cooke, p. 101.
 142. ^ Mitchell, p. 145.
 143. ^ Stephen F. Knott, Alexander Hamilton and the Persistence of Myth (2002), pp. 43, 54, 56, 83, 108.
 144. ^ Shriner, Charles Anthony (December 29, 2017). "Four Chapters of Paterson History". Lont & Overkamp Publishing Company.
 145. ^ a b Cooke, p. 103.
 146. ^ a b Cooke, p. 102.
 147. ^ Matson, Cathy (2010). "Flimsy Fortunes: Americans' Old Relationship with Paper Speculation and Panic". Common-place. 10 (4). Archived from the original on April 9, 2016 . Retrieved May 2, 2018 .
 148. ^ a b c Elkins, Stanley M.; McKitrick, Eric (1994). The Age of Federalism: The Early American Republic, 1788–1800. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-506890-0.
 149. ^ Estes, Todd (2000). "Shaping the Politics of Public Opinion: Federalists and the Jay Treaty Debate". Journal of the Early Republic. 20 (3): 393–422. doi:10.2307/3125063. JSTOR 3125063.
 150. ^ Herring, George C. (2008). From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations since 1776. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-19-507822-0.
 151. ^ Bemis, Samuel Flagg (April 1922). "Jay's Treaty and the Northwest Boundary Gap". The American Historical Review. 27 (3): 465–84. doi:10.2307/1837800. hdl:2027/hvd.32044020001764. JSTOR 1837800.
 152. ^ Knox, Henry. "Letter from Henry Knox to Alexander Hamilton, 24 November 1794". Founders Online. National Archives.
 153. ^ Chernow, p. 478 .
 154. ^ Hamilton, Alexander. "Letter from Alexander Hamilton to George Washington, 1 December 1794". Founders Online. National Archives.
 155. ^ Chernow, p. 480 .
 156. ^ Hamilton, Alexander. "Letter from Alexander Hamilton to Angelica Schuyler Church, 6 March 1795". Founders Online. National Archives.
 157. ^ Henretta, James A.; et al. (2011). America's History, Volume 1: To 1877. pp. 207–08. ISBN 978-0-312-38791-4.
 158. ^ "Madison to Jefferson". March 2, 1794 . Retrieved October 14, 2006 . "I see by a paper of last evening that even in New York a meeting of the people has taken place, at the instance of the Republican party, and that a committee is appointed for the like purpose"
 159. ^ See also Smith (2004), p. 832.
 160. ^ Young, Christopher J. (Fall 2011). "Connecting the President and the People: Washington's Neutrality, Genet's Challenge, and Hamilton's Fight for Public Support". Journal of the Early Republic. 31 (3): 435–66. doi:10.1353/jer.2011.0040. S2CID 144349420.
 161. ^ Cook, Brian J. (October 9, 2014). Bureaucracy and Self-Government. JHU Press. pp. 56 ff. ISBN 978-1-4214-1552-9.
 162. ^ Balogh 2009, 72–110
 163. ^ Allan Nevins, The Evening Post: A Century of Journalism (1922) ch. 1 online
 164. ^ Cooke, pp. 109–10
 165. ^ Lomask, pp. 139–40, 216–17, 220.
 166. ^ Garrity and Spalding, pp. 47, 50–55.
 167. ^ Murray, p. 207.
 168. ^ a b Chernow, p. 117 .
 169. ^ Chernow, p. 510 .
 170. ^ Elkins and McKitrick; Age of Federalism , pp. 523–28, 859. Rutledge had his own plan, to have Pinckney win with Jefferson as Vice President.
 171. ^ Elkins and McKitrick, p. 515.
 172. ^ Brookhiser, Richard (2011). Alexander Hamilton, American. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-4391-3545-7.
 173. ^ a b c Hamilton, Alexander. "Printed Version of the "Reynolds Pamphlet", 1797". Founders Online. National Archives . Retrieved July 17, 2016 .
 174. ^ Freeman 2001
 175. ^ Reynolds, James. "Letter from James Reynolds to Alexander Hamilton, 19 December 1791". Founders Online. National Archives.
 176. ^ Reynolds, James. "Letter from James Reynolds to Alexander Hamilton, 17 January 1792". Founders Online. National Archives.
 177. ^ Murray, p. 165.
 178. ^ Reynolds, James. "Letter from James Reynolds to Alexander Hamilton, 2 May 1792". Founders Online. National Archives.
 179. ^ Chernow (December 26, 2004). "Epilogue". Alexander Hamilton (Audiobook). Event occurs at 12:58.
 180. ^ Chernow, pp. 558–60 .
 181. ^ Kaplan, pp. 147–49
 182. ^ Morison and Commager, p. 327; Mitchell II:445.
 183. ^ Ellis, Joseph J. (2004). His Excellency. Vintage Books. pp. 250–5. ISBN 978-1-4000-3253-2.
 184. ^ Newman, pp. 72–73.
 185. ^ Kaplan, p. 155.
 186. ^ Newman, pp. 44, 76–78.
 187. ^ Hamilton, Neil A. (2010). Presidents: A Biographical Dictionary. Infobase. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-4381-2751-4.
 188. ^ Mitchell II:483
 189. ^ Parsons, Lynn H. (2011). The Birth of Modern Politics: Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, and the Election of 1828. Oxford UP. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-19-975424-3.
 190. ^ James Morton Smith, Freedom's Fetters: The Alien and Sedition Laws and American Civil Liberties (Ithaca, repr. 1966), pp. 400–17.
 191. ^ Monaghan, pp. 419–21.
 192. ^ Harper, p. 259.
 193. ^ Isenberg, Nancy. Fallen Founder: The Life of Aaron Burr , New York: Penguin Books, 2007, pp. 211–12.
 194. ^ Roberts, Cokie (2008), Ladies of Liberty
 195. ^ Thomas Jefferson Encyclopedia. "Aaron Burr". Monticello.org. Thomas Jefferson Foundation . Retrieved December 3, 2019 .
 196. ^ ANB, "Aaron Burr".
 197. ^ a b Freeman, Joanne B. (April 1996). "Dueling as Politics: Reinterpreting the Burr–Hamilton Duel". William and Mary Quarterly (subscription). Third Series. 53 (2): 289–318. doi:10.2307/2947402. JSTOR 2947402.
 198. ^ Kennedy, Burr, Hamilton, and Jefferson , p. 72.
 199. ^ Chernow, pp. 680–81 .
 200. ^ Trees, Andrew S. (2004). The Founding Fathers and the Politics of Character. Princeton University Press. p. 169.
 201. ^ a b Jackson, Kenneth T.; Paley, Virginia (Spring 2004). "An Interview with Ron Chernow" (PDF) . The New-York Journal of American History: 59–65. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022 . Retrieved April 12, 2017 .
 202. ^ Hamilton, Alexander. "Statement on Impending Duel with Aaron Burr, (28 June – 10 July 1804)". Founders Online. National Archives.
 203. ^ Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, ed. (April 1955), "What Was Hamilton's "Favorite Song"?", The William and Mary Quarterly (in German), Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 298–307, doi:10.2307/1920510, JSTOR 1920510
 204. ^ Adams, pp. 93–4.
 205. ^ Roberts, Warren (2010). A Place In History: Albany In The Age Of Revolution. Albany, NY: Excelsior Editions/State University of New York Press. p. 135. ISBN 978-1-4384-3329-5.
 206. ^ Winfield, Charles H. (1874). History of the County of Hudson, New Jersey from Its Earliest Settlement to the Present Time . New York: Kennard and Hay. Chapter 8," Duels ." pp. p.219
 207. ^ Fleming, p. 323
 208. ^ a b Brookhiser, Richard (2000). Alexander Hamilton, American. Simon and Schuster. p. 212. ISBN 978-1-43913-545-7 – via Google Books.
 209. ^ Fleming, p. 345
 210. ^ Emery, p. 243
 211. ^ Chernow, p. 704 .
 212. ^ Cooke, p. 242
 213. ^ a b Chernow, pp. 705–08 .
 214. ^ a b Moore, Benjamin (1979) [July 12, 1804]. "Letter to William Coleman (Editor, New-York Evening Post)". In Syrett, Harold Coffin (ed.). The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, Vol. 26. Columbia University Press. pp. 314–6, 328. ISBN 978-0-231-08925-8.
 215. ^ a b Fleming, Thomas (1999). Duel: Alexander Hamilton, Aaron Burr and the Future of America. New York: Basic Books. pp. 328–9. ISBN 9780465017362.
 216. ^ Hamilton, John Church (1879). Life of Alexander Hamilton: A History of the Republic of the United States of America, as Traced in His Writings and in Those of His Contemporaries, Volume VII. Boston: Houghton, Osgood and Company. p. 836. "At two in the afternoon, my father died."
 217. ^ Miller, Terry (1990). Greenwich Village and How It Got That Way. Crown Publishers. p. 164. ISBN 978-0-517-57322-8. Cited in Pollak, Michael (July 8, 2011). "F.Y.I.: Answers to Questions About New York". The New York Times. Archived from the original on July 19, 2017.
 218. ^ "Founders Online: The Funeral, [14 July 1804]". founders.archives.gov.
 219. ^ Chernow, pp. 712–13 , 725 .
 220. ^ Keister, Doug (2011). Stories in Stone New York: A Field Guide to New York City Area Cemeteries & Their Residents. Gibbs Smith. p. 127. ISBN 978-1-4236-2102-7.
 221. ^ Chernow, p. 18 .
 222. ^ a b Hamilton, John Church (1834). The Life of Alexander Hamilton, Vol. 1. New York: Halsted & Voorhies. p. 3.
 223. ^ Hamilton, John Church (1879). Life of Alexander Hamilton: A History of the Republic of the United States of America, as Traced in His Writings and in Those of His Contemporaries, Volume VII. Boston: Houghton, Osgood and Company. p. 711.
 224. ^ Porwancher, Andrew (2021). The Jewish World of Alexander Hamilton. Princeton. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-691-21115-2. OCLC 1240494084.
 225. ^ Cohen Ioannides, Mara (September 2022). "Review of Porwancher, Andrew, The Jewish World of Alexander Hamilton". H-Early-America, H-Net Reviews . Retrieved December 27, 2022 .
 226. ^ McDonald, Alexander Hamilton p. 11; Adair and Harvey (1974)
 227. ^ Chernow, p. 38 .
 228. ^ Wood, Gordon. Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789–1815 (2009) pp. 589–90
 229. ^ Chernow, p. 205 .
 230. ^ a b Adair, Douglass; Harvey, Marvin (April 1955). "Was Alexander Hamilton a Christian Statesman?". The William and Mary Quarterly. 12 (2). pp. 308–29 at 315 n.8. doi:10.2307/1920511. JSTOR 1920511. "The first story alleges [that he was asked] why God had not been suitably recognized in the Constitution. 'Indeed, Doctor,' Hamilton is supposed to have replied, 'we forgot it.' ... The second story [is of a] purported remark on the Convention floor, when Franklin moved that each session in the future be opened with prayer. Hamilton is supposed to have replied that there was no need for calling in 'foreign aid.'"
 231. ^ Susan Welch, John Gruhl and John Comer, Understanding American Government (2011) p. 70
 232. ^ Melvyn R. Durchslag, State sovereign immunity: a reference guide to the United States Constitution (2002) p xix
 233. ^ a b Wilson, Thomas Frederick (1992). The Power "to Coin" Money: The Exercise of Monetary Powers by the Congress. M.E. Sharpe. p. 94. ISBN 978-0-87332-795-4.
 234. ^ Tulis, Jeffrey (1987). The Rhetorical Presidency. Princeton University Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-691-02295-6.
 235. ^ Kaplan, Lawrence S. (1998). Thomas Jefferson: Westward the Course of Empire. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 284. ISBN 978-1-4616-4618-1.
 236. ^ Chernow, pp. 397–98 .
 237. ^ Before they became senators, Lodge and Arthur H. Vandenberg wrote highly favorable biographies. See also Peterson, Merrill D. (1960). The Jefferson Image in the American Mind. pp. 114, 278–80. ISBN 978-0-8139-1851-8.
 238. ^ a b Wilentz, Sean (September 2010). "Book Reviews". Journal of American History. 97 (2): 476.
 239. ^ a b c d e f Horton, James Oliver (2004). "Alexander Hamilton: slavery and race in a revolutionary generation" (PDF) . New-York Journal of American History. 65: 16–24 . Retrieved April 2, 2017 .
 240. ^ Hamilton, Allan McLane (1910). "Friends and Enemies". The Intimate Life of Alexander Hamilton: Based Chiefly Upon Original Family Letters and Other Documents, Many of Which Have Never Been Published. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 268 . Retrieved October 13, 2016 . "It has been stated that Hamilton never owned a negro slave, but this is untrue. We find that in his books there are entries showing that he purchased them for himself and for others."
 241. ^ McDonald, Forrest (1982). Alexander Hamilton: A Biography. W.W. Norton & Company. p. 373 (Footnotes). ISBN 9780393300482.
 242. ^ Hamilton, John C., The Life of Alexander Hamilton, D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1834–1840, vol. 2, p. 280
 243. ^ Miller, John Chester (1964). Alexander Hamilton and the Growth of the New Nation. Transaction. pp. 41–2. ISBN 978-1-4128-1675-5.
 244. ^ a b Lind, Michael, Hamilton's Republic , 1997, pp. xiv–xv, 229–30.
 245. ^ Notz, William (1926). "Friedrich List in America". American Economic Review. 16 (2): 248–65. JSTOR 1805356.
 246. ^ Levermore, Charles H. Henry C. Carey and his Social System. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2139529: The Academy of Political Science. p. 561. {{cite book}} : External link in |location= ( help ) CS1 maint: location ( link )
 247. ^ Chernow, p. 170 .
 248. ^ Continentalist V, April 1782 (but written in fall 1781).
 249. ^ Syrett, p. 3:77.
 250. ^ Bairoch, pp. 17 , 33 .
 251. ^ Green, Richard T. (November 2002). "Alexander Hamilton: Founder of the American Public Administration". Administration & Society. 34 (5): 541–62. doi:10.1177/009539902237275. S2CID 145232233.
 252. ^ Derthick 1999 , p. 122.
 253. ^ Harvey Flaumenhaft, "Hamilton's Administrative Republic and the American Presidency", in Joseph M. Bessette and Jeffrey Tulis, The Presidency in the Constitutional Order (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981)
 254. ^ Austin, pp. 261–62.

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 Studies

 * Adair, Douglas & Harvey, Marvin (1955). "Was Alexander Hamilton a Christian Statesman?". William and Mary Quarterly. 12 (2): 308–29. doi:10.2307/1920511. JSTOR 1920511.
 * Austin, Ian Patrick (2009). Common Foundations of American and East Asian Modernisation: From Alexander Hamilton to Junichero Koizumi. Singapore: Select Books. ISBN 978-981-4022-52-1.
 * Bailey, Jeremy D. (2008). "The New Unitary Executive and Democratic Theory: The Problem of Alexander Hamilton". American Political Science Review. 102 (4): 453–65. doi:10.1017/S0003055408080337.
 * Balogh, Brian. 2009. A Government out of Sight: The Mystery of National Authority in Nineteenth Century American. New York: Cambridge University Press.
 * Bordewich, Fergus M. The First Congress: How James Madison, George Washington, and a Group of Extraordinary Men Invented the Government (2016) on 1789–91.
 * Brant, Irving (1970). The Fourth President: a Life of James Madison. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merill. A one-volume recasting of Brant's six-volume life.
 * Burns, Eric (2007). Infamous Scribblers: The Founding Fathers and the Rowdy Beginnings of American Journalism. New York: PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1-58648-428-6.
 * Chan, Michael D. (2004). "Alexander Hamilton on Slavery". Review of Politics. 66 (2): 207–31. doi:10.1017/s003467050003727x. JSTOR 1408953.
 * Denboer, Gordon R. (1987). The Documentary History of the First Federal Elections, 1788–1790, Volume III. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-10650-8.
 * Derthick, Martha (June 13, 1999). Dilemmas of Scale in America's Federal Democracy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-64039-8 . Retrieved March 6, 2015 .
 * Elkins, Stanley; McKitrick, Eric (1993). Age of Federalism (online edition). New York: Oxford University Press. Detailed political history of the 1790s; online free
 * Engerman, Stanley L.; Gallman, Robert E. (2000). The Cambridge Economic History of the United States. Cambridge University Books. ISBN 978-0-521-55307-0.
 * Fatovic, Clement (2004). "Constitutionalism and Presidential Prerogative: Jeffersonian and Hamiltonian Perspectives". American Journal of Political Science. 48 (3): 429–44. doi:10.1111/j.0092-5853.2004.00079.x.
 * Federici, Michael P. (2012). The Political Philosophy of Alexander Hamilton. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-0539-1.
 * Flaumenhaft, Harvey (1992). The Effective Republic: Administration and Constitution in the Thought of Alexander Hamilton. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-1214-7.
 * Flexner, James Thomas (1965–1972). George Washington. Little Brown.. Four volumes, with various subtitles, cited as "Flexner, Washington". Vol. IV. ISBN 978-0-316-28602-2.
 * Garrity, Patrick J.; Spalding, Matthew (2000). A Sacred Union of Citizens: George Washington's Farewell Address and the American Character. Rowman and Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-8476-8262-1.
 * Gaspar, Vitor. "The making of a continental financial system: Lessons for Europe from early American history." Journal of European Integration 37.7 (2015): 847–859, summarizes Hamilton's achievements in Atlantic perspective.
 * Gibowicz, Charles J. (2007). Mess Night Traditions. Author House. ISBN 978-1-4259-8446-5.
 * Harper, John Lamberton (2004). American Machiavelli: Alexander Hamilton and the Origins of US Foreign Policy. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-83485-8.
 * Horton, James Oliver (2004). "Alexander Hamilton: Slavery and Race in a Revolutionary Generation" (PDF) . New York Journal of American History. 65 (3): 16–24.
 * Kaplan, Edward (1999). The Bank of the United States and the American Economy. Westport, CT: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-313-30866-6.
 * Kaplan, Lawrence S. (2001). Alexander Hamilton: Ambivalent Anglophile. Rowman and Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-8420-2878-3.
 * Keister, Doug (2011). Stories in Stone New York: A Field Guide to New York City Area Cemeteries & Their Residents. Gibbs Smith. ISBN 978-1-4236-2102-7.
 * Kennedy, Roger G. (2000). Burr, Hamilton, and Jefferson: A Study in Character. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513055-3.
 * Knott, Stephen F. "The Four Faces of Alexander Hamilton: Jefferson’s Hamilton, Hollywood’s Hamilton, Miranda’s Hamilton, and the Real Hamilton." American Political Thought 7.4 (2018): 543-564.
 * Knott, Stephen F. (2002). Alexander Hamilton and the Persistence of Myth. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-1157-7.
 * Kohn, Richard H. (1970). "The Inside History of the Newburgh Conspiracy: America and the Coup d'Etat". The William and Mary Quarterly. 27 (2): 188–220. doi:10.2307/1918650. JSTOR 1918650. A review of the evidence on Newburgh; despite the title, Kohn is doubtful that a coup d'état was ever seriously attempted.
 * Larsen, Harold (1952). "Alexander Hamilton: The Fact and Fiction of His Early Years". William and Mary Quarterly. 9 (2): 139–51. doi:10.2307/1925345. JSTOR 1925345.
 * Levine, Yitzchok (May 2, 2007). "The Jews of Nevis And Alexander Hamilton". Glimpses into American Jewish History. The Jewish Press. Archived from the original on June 15, 2011.
 * Lind, Michael (1994). "Hamilton's Legacy". The Wilson Quarterly. 18 (3): 40–52. JSTOR 40258878.
 * Littlefield, Daniel C. (2000). "John Jay, the Revolutionary Generation, and Slavery". New York History. 81 (1): 91–132. ISSN 0146-437X.
 * Lomask, Milton (1979). Aaron Burr, the Years from Princeton to Vice President, 1756–1805. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. ISBN 978-0-374-10016-2. First volume of two, contains Hamilton's lifetime.
 * Martin, Robert W. T. (2005). "Reforming Republicanism: Alexander Hamilton's Theory of Republican Citizenship and Press Liberty". Journal of the Early Republic. 25 (1): 21–46. doi:10.1353/jer.2005.0012. S2CID 143255588.
 * Matson, Cathy (2010). "Flimsy Fortunes: Americans' Old Relationship with Paper Speculation and Panic". Common-place. 10 (4). Archived from the original on April 9, 2016 . Retrieved May 2, 2018 . Summarizes speculations of William Duer and others in the context of the national economy.
 * McCraw, Thomas K. (2012). The Founders and Finance: How Hamilton, Gallatin, and Other Immigrants Forged a New Economy.
 * McManus, Edgar J. (1966). History of Negro Slavery in New York. Syracuse University Press.
 * Mitchell, Broadus (1951). "The man who 'discovered' Alexander Hamilton". Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Society. 69: 88–115.
 * Monaghan, Frank (1935). John Jay. Bobbs-Merrill.
 * Morgan, Philip D. & O'Shaughnessy, A. J. (2006). "Arming Slaves in the American Revolution". In Brown, Christopher Leslie & Morgan, Philip D. (eds.). Arming Slaves: From Classical Times to the Modern Age. New York: Yale University Press. pp. 180–208. ISBN 978-0-300-10900-9.
 * Nester, William (June 2012). The Hamiltonian Vision, 1789-1800: The Art of American Power During the Early Republic. ISBN 978-1-59797-675-6.
 * Nettels, Curtis P. (1962). The Emergence of a National Economy, 1775–1815. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
 * Newman, Paul Douglas (2004). Fries's Rebellion: The Enduring Struggle for the American Revolution. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-3815-0.
 * Newton, Michael E. (2019). Discovering Hamilton: New Discoveries in the Lives of Alexander Hamilton, His Family, Friends, and Colleagues, from Various Archives Around the World. Eleftheria Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9826040-4-5.
 * Northup, Cynthia Clark; Turney, Elaine C. Prange; Stockwell, Mary (2003). Encyclopedia of Tariffs and Trade in U.S. History. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-31943-3.
 * Norton, Joseph (2005). Shapers of the Great Debate at the Constitutional Convention of 1787: A Biographical Dictionary (Shapers of the Great American Debates). Greenwood; annotated edition. ISBN 978-0-313-33021-6.
 * Rakove, Jack N. (1979). The beginnings of National Politics: an interpretive history of the Continental Congress. New York: Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-42370-8.
 * Rossiter, Clinton (1964). Alexander Hamilton and the Constitution. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World.
 * Sharp, James (1995). American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-06519-0. Survey of politics in the 1790s.
 * Sheehan, Colleen (2004). "Madison v. Hamilton: The Battle Over Republicanism and the Role of Public Opinion". American Political Science Review. 98 (3): 405–24. doi:10.1017/S0003055404001248. S2CID 145693742.
 * Smith, Robert W. (2004). Keeping the Republic: Ideology and Early American Diplomacy. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press. ISBN 978-0-87580-326-5.
 * Staloff, Darren (2005). Hamilton, Adams, Jefferson: The Politics of Enlightenment and the American Founding. New York: Hill and Wang. ISBN 978-0-8090-7784-7.
 * Steward, David O. (2016). Madison's Gift: Five Partnerships That Built America. imon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4516-8859-7.
 * Storbridge, Truman R.; Noble, Dennis L. (1999). Alaska and the U. S. Revenue Cutter Service: 1867–1915. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-55750-845-4.
 * Stourzh, Gerald (1970). Alexander Hamilton and the Idea of Republican Government. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-0724-4.
 * Stryker, William S. (1898). The Battles of Trenton and Princeton. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
 * Studenski, Paul; Krooss, Herman Edward (2003). Financial History of the United States (5th ed.). Frederick, Md.: Beard Books. ISBN 978-1-58798-175-3.
 * Sylla, Richard; Wright, Robert E. & Cowen, David J. (2009). "Alexander Hamilton, Central Banker: Crisis Management during the US Financial Panic of 1792". Business History Review. 83 (1): 61–86. doi:10.1017/s0007680500000209. S2CID 153842455.
 * Thomas, Charles Marion (1931). American neutrality in 1793; a study in cabinet government. New York: Columbia University Press.
 * Trees, Andrew S. (2005). "The Importance of Being Alexander Hamilton". Reviews in American History. 33 (1): 8–14. doi:10.1353/rah.2005.0019. S2CID 143944159.
 * Trees, Andrew S. (2004). The Founding Fathers and the Politics of Character. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-11552-8.
 * Tucker, Spencer C. (2014). The Encyclopedia of the Wars of the Early American Republic, 1783–1812 [three volumes]: A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-59884-156-5.
 * Wallace, David Duncan (1915). Life of Henry Laurens, with a sketch of the life of Lieutenant-Colonel John Laurens. New York: Putnam.
 * Weston, Rob N. (1994). "Alexander Hamilton and the Abolition of Slavery in New York". Afro-Americans in New York Life and History. 18 (1): 31–45. ISSN 0364-2437. An undergraduate paper, which concludes that Hamilton was ambivalent about slavery.
 * White, Leonard D. (1949). The Federalists. New York: Macmillan. Coverage of how the Treasury and other departments were created and operated.
 * White, Richard D. (2000). "Exploring the Origins of the American Administrative State: Recent Writings on the Ambiguous Legacy of Alexander Hamilton". Public Administration Review. 60 (2): 186–90. doi:10.1111/0033-3352.00077.
 * Wood, Gordon S. (2009). Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789–1815. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-503914-6. The most recent synthesis of the era.
 * Wright, Robert E. (2002). Hamilton Unbound: Finance and the Creation of the American Republic. Westport: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-32397-3.
 * ——— (2008). One Nation Under Debt: Hamilton, Jefferson, and the History of What We Owe. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-154393-4.

 Sources

 * Cooke, Jacob E., ed. Alexander Hamilton: A Profile. 1967. (short excerpts from Hamilton and his critics)
 * Cunningham, Noble E. Jefferson vs. Hamilton: Confrontations that Shaped a Nation. 2000. (short collection of primary sources, with commentary)
 * Freeman, Joanne B., ed. (2001). Alexander Hamilton: Writings. The Library of America. p. 1108. ISBN 978-1-931082-04-4. (all of Hamilton's major writings and many of his letters)
 * Freeman, Joanne B., ed., The Essential Hamilton: Letters & Other Writings (Library of America, 2017) 424 pp. (abridged ed.)
 * Frisch, Morton J., ed. Selected Writings and Speeches of Alexander Hamilton. 1985.
 * Goebel, Julius, Jr., and Joseph H. Smith, eds. The Law Practice of Alexander Hamilton. 5 vols. Columbia University Press, 1964–80. (comprehensive edition of Hamilton's legal papers)
 * Hamilton, Alexander. Report on Manufactures. (economic program for the United States)
 * Hamilton, Alexander. Report on Public Credit. (financial program for the United States)
 * Hamilton, Alexander; Hamilton, John Church. The Works of Alexander Hamilton: Miscellanies, 1789–1795: France; Duties on imports; National bank; Manufactures; Revenue circulars; Reports on claims. 1850. John F. Trow, printer. (free online e-book edition)
 * Hamilton, Alexander; Madison, James; Jay, John. The Federalist Papers. (published under the shared pseudonym "Publius")
 * Lodge, Henry Cabot, ed. (1904). The Works of Alexander Hamilton, 10 vols (full text online at Internet Archive). New York, London, G.P. Putnam's Sons.
 * Morris, Richard, ed. Alexander Hamilton and the Founding of the Nation. 1957. (excerpts from Hamilton's writings)
 * National Archives, Founders Online – searchable edition
 * Sylla, Richard and David J. Cowen, eds. Alexander Hamilton on Finance, Credit, and Debt (Columbia UP, 2018) 346 pp. (partly abridged version of key documents; online review)
 * Syrett, Harold C., Jacob E. Cooke, and Barbara Chernow, eds. The Papers of Alexander Hamilton. 27 vols. Columbia University Press, 1961–87. (Includes all letters and writings by Hamilton, and all important letters written to him; the definitive edition of Hamilton's works, intensively annotated)
 * Taylor, George Rogers, ed. Hamilton and the National Debt. 1950. (excerpts from 1790s writings representing all sides)

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Alexander Hamilton        Portrait by John Trumbull, 1806 [1]           1st United States Secretary of the Treasury     In office September 11, 1789 – January 31, 1795   President  George Washington    Preceded by  Office established    Succeeded by  Oliver Wolcott Jr.     Senior Officer of the United States Army     In office December 14, 1799 – June 15, 1800   President  John Adams    Preceded by George Washington   Succeeded by  James Wilkinson [ citation needed ]    Delegate to the Congress of the Confederation from New York     In office November 3, 1788 – March 2, 1789[ citation needed ]    Preceded by  Egbert Benson [ citation needed ]    Succeeded by  Seat abolished     In office November 4, 1782 – June 21, 1783[ citation needed ]    Preceded by  Seat established    Succeeded by  Seat abolished    Personal details   Born January 11, 1755 or 1757 Charlestown, Nevis, British Leeward Islands  (now Saint Kitts and Nevis)   Died July 12, 1804 (aged 47 or 49) Manhattan, New York, U.S.   Cause of death  Gunshot wound    Resting place  Trinity Church Cemetery    Political party  Federalist    Spouse     Elizabeth Schuyler   ​ (m. ) ​     Children     Philip   Angelica   Alexander   James   John   William   Eliza   Philip       Parent(s) James A. HamiltonRachel Faucette   Relatives  Hamilton family    Education  Elizabethtown Academy     Alma mater   Columbia College (MA)   Signature       Military service   Allegiance  New York (1775–1777)United States (1777–1800)   Branch/service  New York Provincial Company of Artillery  Continental Army  United States Army    Years of service 1775–1776 (Militia)1776–17821798–1800   Rank  Major general    Commands  U.S. Army Senior Officer    Battles/wars  
  American Revolutionary War
  Battle of Harlem Heights 
 Battle of White Plains 
 Battle of Trenton 
 Battle of Princeton 
 Battle of Brandywine 
 Battle of Germantown 
 Battle of Monmouth 
 Siege of Yorktown   
 Quasi-War  
        
 Alexander Hamilton (January 11, 1755 or 1757 [a]  – July 12, 1804) was a Nevisian-born American military officer, statesman, and Founding Father who served as the first United States secretary of the treasury from 1789 to 1795.
 Born out of wedlock in Charlestown, Nevis, Hamilton was orphaned as a child and taken in by a prosperous merchant. He pursued his education in New York where, despite his age, he was a prolific and widely read pamphleteer advocating for the American revolutionary cause, though an anonymous one. He then served as an artillery officer in the American Revolutionary War, where he saw action in the New York and New Jersey campaign, served for years as an aide to General George Washington, and helped secure American victory at the climactic Siege of Yorktown. After the war, Hamilton served as a delegate from New York to the Congress of the Confederation. He resigned to practice law and founded the Bank of New York. In 1786, Hamilton led the Annapolis Convention to replace the Articles of Confederation with the Constitution of the United States, which he helped ratify by writing 51 of the 85 installments of  The Federalist Papers .
 As a trusted member of President Washington's first cabinet, Hamilton led the Department of the Treasury. He envisioned a central government led by an energetic president, a strong national defense, and an industrial economy. He successfully argued that the implied powers of the Constitution provided the legal authority to fund the national debt, assume the states' debts, and create the First Bank of the United States, which was funded by a tariff on imports and a whiskey tax. He opposed American entanglement with the succession of unstable French Revolutionary governments and pushed for the Jay Treaty, which resumed friendly trade relations with Great Britain. He also persuaded Congress to establish the Revenue Cutter Service. Hamilton's views became the basis for the Federalist Party, which was opposed by the Democratic-Republican Party led by Thomas Jefferson.
 After resigning from the secretaryship, Hamilton resumed his legal and business activities. He was a leader in the abolition of the international slave trade. In the Quasi-War, Hamilton called for mobilization against France and President John Adams appointed him as major general, but the army did not see combat. Outraged by the president's response to the crisis, Hamilton opposed Adams' re-election campaign. Jefferson and Aaron Burr tied for the presidency in the electoral college and, despite philosophical differences, Hamilton endorsed Jefferson to defeat Burr, whom he found unprincipled. Vice President Burr ran for governor of New York in 1804 and Hamilton campaigned against him as unworthy. Taking offense, Burr challenged him to a duel in which Burr shot Hamilton, who died the next day.
 Scholars generally regard Hamilton as an astute and intellectually brilliant administrator, politician, and financier, if often impetuous. His ideas are credited with laying the foundation for American government and finance.
Early life and education
Alexander Hamilton was born and spent part of his childhood in Charlestown, the capital of the island of Nevis in the British Leeward Islands. Hamilton and his older brother James Jr. [6]  were born out of wedlock to Rachel Faucette, [b]  a married woman of half-British and half-French Huguenot descent, [c]   [15]  and James A. Hamilton, a Scotsman who was the fourth son of Alexander Hamilton, the laird of Grange, Ayrshire. [16] 
 Hamilton's mother had been married previously on Saint Croix, [17]  then ruled by Denmark, to Danish [9]  or German merchant [18]   [19]  Johann Michael Lavien. They had one son, Peter Lavien. [17]  In 1750, Faucette left her husband and first son before travelling to Saint Kitts, where she met James Hamilton. [17]  Hamilton and Faucette moved together to Nevis, her birthplace, where she had inherited a seaside lot in town from her father. [2]  The Church of England denied membership and education to Alexander and James Jr. because their parents were not legally married. While their mother lived, they received "individual tutoring" [2]  and classes in a private school led by a Jewish headmistress. [20]  Alexander supplemented his education with a family library of 34 books. [21] 
 James Hamilton later abandoned Rachel Faucette and their two sons, allegedly to "spar[e] [her] a charge of bigamy... after finding out that her first husband intend[ed] to divorce her under Danish law on grounds of adultery and desertion." [16]  Thereafter, Rachel moved with her two children to Saint Croix, where she supported them by keeping a small store in Christiansted. She contracted yellow fever and died on February 19, 1768, leaving Hamilton orphaned. [22]  This may have had severe emotional consequences for him, even by the standards of an 18th-century childhood. [23]  In probate court, Faucette's "first husband seized her estate" [16]  and obtained the few valuables that she had owned, including some household silver. Many items were auctioned off, but a friend purchased the family's books and returned them to Hamilton. [24] 
 Hamilton became a clerk at Beekman and Cruger, a local import-export firm that traded with New York and New England. [25]  He and James Jr. were briefly taken in by their cousin Peter Lytton. However, Lytton took his own life in July 1769, leaving his property to his mistress and their son, and the Hamilton brothers were subsequently separated. [24]  James Jr. apprenticed with a local carpenter, while Alexander was given a home by Thomas Stevens, a merchant from Nevis. [26] 
 Hamilton, despite being only in his teenage years, proved capable enough as a trader to be left in charge of the firm for five months in 1771 while the owner was at sea. [27]  He remained an avid reader and later developed an interest in writing. He began to desire a life outside the island where he lived. He wrote a letter to his father that was a detailed account of a hurricane that had devastated Christiansted on August 30, 1772. [28]  The Presbyterian Reverend Hugh Knox, a tutor and mentor to Hamilton, submitted the letter for publication in the Royal Danish-American Gazette. Biographer Ron Chernow found the letter astounding because "for all its bombastic excesses, it does seem wondrous [that a] self-educated clerk could write with such verve and gusto" and that a teenage boy produced an apocalyptic "fire-and-brimstone sermon" viewing the hurricane as a "divine rebuke to human vanity and pomposity." [29]  The essay impressed community leaders, who collected a fund to send Hamilton to the North American colonies for his education. [30] 
 In October 1772, Hamilton arrived by ship in Boston and proceeded from there to New York City. He took lodgings with the Irish-born Hercules Mulligan who, as the brother of a trader known to Hamilton's benefactors, assisted Hamilton in selling cargo that was to pay for his education and support. [31]   [32]  Later that year, in preparation for college work, Hamilton began to fill gaps in his education at the Elizabethtown Academy, a preparatory school run by Francis Barber in Elizabethtown, New Jersey. He there came under the influence of William Livingston, a local leading intellectual and revolutionary, with whom he lived for a time. [33]   [34]   [35] 
 Hamilton entered Mulligan's alma mater King's College in New York City in the autumn of 1773 as a private student, again boarding with Mulligan until officially matriculating in May 1774. [36]  His college roommate and lifelong friend Robert Troup spoke glowingly of Hamilton's clarity in concisely explaining the patriots' case against the British in what is credited as Hamilton's first public appearance on July 6. [37]  Hamilton, Troup, and four other undergraduates formed an unnamed literary society that is regarded as a precursor of the Philolexian Society. [38]   [39] 
  Church of England clergyman Samuel Seabury published a series of pamphlets promoting the Loyalist cause in 1774, to which Hamilton responded anonymously with his first political writings,  A Full Vindication of the Measures of Congress  and  The Farmer Refuted. Seabury essentially tried to provoke fear in the colonies, and his main objective was to stop the potential union among the colonies. [40]  Hamilton published two additional pieces attacking the Quebec Act, [41]  and may have also authored the fifteen anonymous installments of "The Monitor" for Holt's New York Journal. [42]  Hamilton was a supporter of the Revolutionary cause before war began, although he did not approve of mob reprisals against Loyalists. On May 10, 1775, Hamilton won credit for saving his college's president, Loyalist Myles Cooper, from an angry mob by speaking to the crowd long enough for Cooper to escape. [43] 
 Hamilton was forced to discontinue his studies before graduating when the college closed its doors during the British occupation of the city. [44] 
Revolutionary War (1775–1782)
Early military career
       Alexander Hamilton in the Uniform of the New York Artillery by Alonzo Chappel   
In 1775, after the first engagement of American troops with the British at Lexington and Concord, Hamilton and other King's College students joined a New York volunteer militia company called the Corsicans, whose name reflected the Corsican Republic that was suppressed six years earlier and young American patriots would regard as a model to be emulated. [45] 
 He drilled with the company, before classes, in the graveyard of nearby St. Paul's Chapel. Hamilton studied military history and tactics on his own and was soon recommended for promotion. [46]  Under fire from HMS Asia , he led his newly renamed unit the "Hearts of Oak" with support from Hercules Mulligan and the Sons of Liberty on a successful raid for British cannons in the Battery, the capture of which resulted in the unit becoming an artillery company thereafter. [47]  : 13 
 Through his connections with influential New York patriots such as Alexander McDougall and John Jay, Hamilton raised the New York Provincial Company of Artillery of 60 men in 1776, and was elected captain. [48]  The company took part in the campaign of 1776 in and around New York City; as rearguard of the Continental Army's retreat up Manhattan, serving at the Battle of Harlem Heights shortly after, as well as at the Battle of White Plains a month later. At the Battle of Trenton, it was stationed at the high point of town, the meeting of the present Warren and Broad streets, to keep the Hessians pinned in the Trenton Barracks. [49]   [50] 
 Hamilton participated in the Battle of Princeton on January 3, 1777. After an initial setback, Washington rallied the American troops and led them in a successful charge against the British forces. After making a brief stand, the British fell back, some leaving Princeton, and others taking up refuge in Nassau Hall. Hamilton brought three cannons up and had them fire upon the building. Then some Americans rushed the front door, and broke it down. The British subsequently put a white flag outside one of the windows; [50]  194 British soldiers walked out of the building and laid down their arms, thus ending the battle in an American victory. [51] 
 While being stationed in Morristown, New Jersey from December 1779 to March 1780, Hamilton met Elizabeth Schuyler, a daughter of General Philip Schuyler and Catherine Van Rensselaer. They married on December 14, 1780, at the Schuyler Mansion in Albany, New York. [52]  They had eight children, Philip, [53]  Angelica, Alexander, James, [54]  John, William, Eliza, and another Philip. [55] 
George Washington's staff
Hamilton was invited to become an aide to William Alexander, Lord Stirling, and another general, perhaps Nathanael Greene or Alexander McDougall. [56]  He declined these invitations, believing his best chance for improving his station in life was glory on the battlefield. Hamilton eventually received an invitation he felt he could not refuse: to serve as Washington's aide, with the rank of lieutenant colonel. [57]  Washington believed that "Aides de camp are persons in whom entire confidence must be placed and it requires men of abilities to execute the duties with propriety and dispatch." [58] 
 Hamilton served four years as Washington's chief staff aide. He handled letters to Congress, state governors, and the most powerful generals of the Continental Army; he drafted many of Washington's orders and letters at the latter's direction; he eventually issued orders from Washington over Hamilton's own signature. [59]  Hamilton was involved in a wide variety of high-level duties, including intelligence, diplomacy, and negotiation with senior army officers as Washington's emissary. [60]   [61] 
 During the war, Hamilton became the close friend of several fellow officers. His letters to the Marquis de Lafayette  [62]  and to John Laurens, employing the sentimental literary conventions of the late eighteenth century and alluding to Greek history and mythology, [63]  have been read by Jonathan Ned Katz as revelatory of a homosocial or even homosexual relationship. [64]  Biographer Gregory D. Massey amongst others, by contrast, dismisses all such speculation as unsubstantiated, describing their friendship as purely platonic camaraderie instead and placing their correspondence in the context of the flowery diction of the time. [65] 
Field command
While on Washington's staff, Hamilton long sought command and a return to active combat. As the war drew nearer to an end, he knew that opportunities for military glory were diminishing. On February 15, 1781, Hamilton was reprimanded by Washington after a minor misunderstanding. Although Washington quickly tried to mend their relationship, Hamilton insisted on leaving his staff. [66]  He officially left in March, and settled with his new wife Elizabeth Schuyler close to Washington's headquarters. He continued to repeatedly ask Washington and others for a field command. Washington continued to demur, citing the need to appoint men of higher rank. This continued until early July 1781, when Hamilton submitted a letter to Washington with his commission enclosed, "thus tacitly threatening to resign if he didn't get his desired command." [67] 
 On July 31, Washington relented and assigned Hamilton as commander of a battalion of light infantry companies of the 1st and 2nd New York Regiments and two provisional companies from Connecticut. [68]  In the planning for the assault on Yorktown, Hamilton was given command of three battalions, which were to fight in conjunction with the allied French troops in taking Redoubts No. 9 and No. 10 of the British fortifications at Yorktown. Hamilton and his battalions took Redoubt No. 10 with bayonets in a nighttime action, as planned. The French also suffered heavy casualties and took Redoubt No. 9. These actions forced the British surrender of an entire army at Yorktown, marking the de facto end of the war, although small battles continued for two more years until the signing of the Treaty of Paris and the departure of the last British troops. [69]   [70] 
Return to civilian life (1782–1789)
Congress of the Confederation
After Yorktown, Hamilton returned to New York and resigned his commission in March 1782. He passed the bar in July after six months of self-directed education and, in October, was licensed to argue cases before the Supreme Court of the State of New York. [71]  He also accepted an offer from Robert Morris to become receiver of continental taxes for the State of New York. [72]  Hamilton was appointed in July 1782 to the Congress of the Confederation as a New York representative for the term beginning in November 1782. [73]  Before his appointment to Congress in 1782, Hamilton was already sharing his criticisms of Congress. He expressed these criticisms in his letter to James Duane dated September 3, 1780: "The fundamental defect is a want of power in Congress... the confederation itself is defective and requires to be altered; it is neither fit for war, nor peace." [74] 
 While on Washington's staff, Hamilton had become frustrated with the decentralized nature of the wartime Continental Congress, particularly its dependence upon the states for voluntary financial support that was not often forthcoming. Under the Articles of Confederation, Congress had no power to collect taxes or to demand money from the states. This lack of a stable source of funding had made it difficult for the Continental Army both to obtain its necessary provisions and to pay its soldiers. During the war, and for some time after, Congress obtained what funds it could from subsidies from the King of France, European loans, and aid requested from the several states, which were often unable or unwilling to contribute. [75] 
 An amendment to the Articles had been proposed by Thomas Burke, in February 1781, to give Congress the power to collect a five percent impost, or duty on all imports, but this required ratification by all states; securing its passage as law proved impossible after it was rejected by Rhode Island in November 1782. James Madison joined Hamilton in influencing Congress to send a delegation to persuade Rhode Island to change its mind. Their report recommending the delegation argued the national government needed not just some level of financial autonomy, but also the ability to make laws that superseded those of the individual states. Hamilton transmitted a letter arguing that Congress already had the power to tax, since it had the power to fix the sums due from the several states; but Virginia's rescission of its own ratification of this amendment ended the Rhode Island negotiations. [76]   [77] 
Congress and the army
While Hamilton was in Congress, discontented soldiers began to pose a danger to the young United States. Most of the army was then posted at Newburgh, New York. Those in the army were funding much of their own supplies, and they had not been paid in eight months. Furthermore, after Valley Forge, the Continental officers had been promised in May 1778 a pension of half their pay when they were discharged. [78]  By the early 1780s, due to the structure of the government under the Articles of Confederation, it had no power to tax to either raise revenue or pay its soldiers. [79]  In 1782, after several months without pay, a group of officers organized to send a delegation to lobby Congress, led by Captain Alexander McDougall. The officers had three demands: the army's pay, their own pensions, and commutation of those pensions into a lump-sum payment if Congress were unable to afford the half-salary pensions for life. Congress rejected the proposal. [79] 
 Several congressmen, including Hamilton, Robert Morris, and Gouverneur Morris, attempted to use the so-called Newburgh Conspiracy as leverage to secure support from the states and in Congress for funding of the national government. They encouraged MacDougall to continue his aggressive approach, implying unknown consequences if their demands were not met, and defeated proposals designed to end the crisis without establishing general taxation: that the states assume the debt to the army, or that an impost be established dedicated to the sole purpose of paying that debt. [80] 
 Hamilton suggested using the Army's claims to prevail upon the states for the proposed national funding system. [81]  The Morrises and Hamilton contacted General Henry Knox to suggest he and the officers defy civil authority, at least by not disbanding if the army were not satisfied. Hamilton wrote Washington to suggest that Hamilton covertly "take direction" of the officers' efforts to secure redress, to secure continental funding but keep the army within the limits of moderation. [82]   [83]  Washington wrote Hamilton back, declining to introduce the army. [84]  After the crisis had ended, Washington warned of the dangers of using the army as leverage to gain support for the national funding plan. [82]   [85] 
 On March 15, Washington defused the Newburgh situation by addressing the officers personally. [80]  Congress ordered the Army officially disbanded in April 1783. In the same month, Congress passed a new measure for a 25-year impost—which Hamilton voted against [86] —that again required the consent of all the states; it also approved a commutation of the officers' pensions to five years of full pay. Rhode Island again opposed these provisions, and Hamilton's robust assertions of national prerogatives in his previous letter were widely held to be excessive. [87] 
 In June 1783, a different group of disgruntled soldiers from Lancaster, Pennsylvania sent Congress a petition demanding their back pay. When they began to march toward Philadelphia, Congress charged Hamilton and two others with intercepting the mob. [82]  Hamilton requested militia from Pennsylvania's Supreme Executive Council, but was turned down. Hamilton instructed Assistant Secretary of War William Jackson to intercept the men. Jackson was unsuccessful. The mob arrived in Philadelphia, and the soldiers proceeded to harangue Congress for their pay. Hamilton argued that Congress ought to adjourn to Princeton, New Jersey. Congress agreed, and relocated there. [88]  Frustrated with the weakness of the central government, Hamilton while in Princeton, drafted a call to revise the Articles of Confederation. This resolution contained many features of the future Constitution of the United States, including a strong federal government with the ability to collect taxes and raise an army. It also included the separation of powers into the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. [88] 
Return to New York
Hamilton resigned from Congress in 1783. [89]  When the British left New York in 1783, he practiced there in partnership with Richard Harison. He specialized in defending Tories and British subjects, as in  Rutgers v. Waddington , in which he defeated a claim for damages done to a brewery by the Englishmen who held it during the military occupation of New York. He pleaded for the mayor's court to interpret state law consistent with the 1783 Treaty of Paris, which had ended the Revolutionary War. [90]   [47]  : 64–69 
 In 1784, Hamilton founded the Bank of New York. [91] 
 Long dissatisfied with the Articles of Confederation as too weak to be effective, Hamilton played a major leadership role at the 1786 Annapolis Convention. He drafted its resolution for a constitutional convention, and in doing so brought one step closer to reality his longtime desire to have a more effectual, more financially self-sufficient federal government. [92] 
 As a member of the legislature of New York, Hamilton argued forcefully and at length in favor of a bill to recognize the sovereignty of the State of Vermont, against numerous objections to its constitutionality and policy. Consideration of the bill was deferred to a later date. From 1787 to 1789, Hamilton exchanged letters with Nathaniel Chipman, a lawyer representing Vermont. After the Constitution of the United States went into effect, Hamilton said, "One of the first subjects of deliberation with the new Congress will be the independence of Kentucky, for which the southern states will be anxious. The northern will be glad to send a counterpoise in Vermont." [93]  Vermont was admitted to the Union in 1791. [94] 
 In 1788, he was awarded a Master of Arts degree from King's College, now reconstituted as Columbia College, for his work in reopening the college and placing it on firm financial footing.[ citation needed ]
Constitution and The Federalist Papers 
     
In 1787, Hamilton served as assemblyman from New York County in the New York State Legislature and was chosen as a delegate for the Constitutional Convention by his father-in-law Philip Schuyler. [95]  : 191   [96]  Even though Hamilton had been a leader in calling for a new Constitutional Convention, his direct influence at the Convention itself was quite limited. Governor George Clinton's faction in the New York legislature had chosen New York's other two delegates, John Lansing Jr. and Robert Yates, and both of them opposed Hamilton's goal of a strong national government. [97]   [98]  Thus, whenever the other two members of the New York delegation were present, they decided New York's vote, to ensure that there were no major alterations to the Articles of Confederation. [95]  : 195 
 Early in the Convention Hamilton made a speech proposing a President-for-Life; it had no effect upon the deliberations of the convention. He proposed to have an elected president and elected senators who would serve for life, contingent upon "good behavior" and subject to removal for corruption or abuse; this idea contributed later to the hostile view of Hamilton as a monarchist sympathizer, held by James Madison. [99]  According to Madison's notes, Hamilton said in regards to the executive, "The English model was the only good one on this subject. The hereditary interest of the king was so interwoven with that of the nation, and his personal emoluments so great, that he was placed above the danger of being corrupted from abroad... Let one executive be appointed for life who dares execute his powers." [100] 
 Hamilton argued, "And let me observe that an executive is less dangerous to the liberties of the people when in office during life than for seven years. It may be said this constitutes as an elective monarchy... But by making the executive subject to impeachment, the term 'monarchy' cannot apply..." [100]  In his notes of the convention, Madison interpreted Hamilton's proposal as claiming power for the "rich and well born". Madison's perspective all but isolated Hamilton from his fellow delegates and others who felt they did not reflect the ideas of revolution and liberty. [101] 
 During the convention, Hamilton constructed a draft for the Constitution based on the convention debates, but he never presented it. This draft had most of the features of the actual Constitution. In this draft, the Senate was to be elected in proportion to the population, being two-fifths the size of the House, and the President and Senators were to be elected through complex multistage elections, in which chosen electors would elect smaller bodies of electors; they would hold office for life, but were removable for misconduct. The President would have an absolute veto. The Supreme Court was to have immediate jurisdiction over all lawsuits involving the United States, and state governors were to be appointed by the federal government. [102] 
 At the end of the convention, Hamilton was still not content with the final Constitution, but signed it anyway as a vast improvement over the Articles of Confederation, and urged his fellow delegates to do so also. [103]  Since the other two members of the New York delegation, Lansing and Yates, had already withdrawn, Hamilton was the only New York signer to the United States Constitution. [95]  : 206  He then took a highly active part in the successful campaign for the document's ratification in New York in 1788, which was a crucial step in its national ratification. He first used the popularity of the Constitution by the masses to compel George Clinton to sign, but was unsuccessful. The state convention in Poughkeepsie in June 1788 pitted Hamilton, Jay, James Duane, Robert Livingston, and Richard Morris against the Clintonian faction led by Melancton Smith, Lansing, Yates, and Gilbert Livingston. [104] 
 Members of Hamilton's faction were against any conditional ratification, under the impression that New York would not be accepted into the Union, while Clinton's faction wanted to amend the Constitution, while maintaining the state's right to secede if their attempts failed. During the state convention, New Hampshire and Virginia becoming the ninth and tenth states to ratify the Constitution, respectively, had ensured any adjournment would not happen and a compromise would have to be reached. [104]   [105]  Hamilton's arguments used for the ratifications were largely iterations of work from The Federalist Papers, and Smith eventually went for ratification, though it was more out of necessity than Hamilton's rhetoric. [105]  The vote in the state convention was ratified 30 to 27, on July 26, 1788. [106] 
 The Federalist Papers 
Hamilton recruited John Jay and James Madison to write  The Federalist Papers , a series of essays, to defend the proposed Constitution. He made the largest contribution to that effort, writing 51 of the 85 essays published. Hamilton supervised the entire project, enlisted the participants, wrote the majority of the essays, and oversaw the publication. During the project, each person was responsible for their areas of expertise. Jay covered foreign relations. Madison covered the history of republics and confederacies, along with the anatomy of the new government. Hamilton covered the branches of government most pertinent to him: the executive and judicial branches, with some aspects of the Senate, as well as covering military matters and taxation. [107]  The papers first appeared in  The Independent Journal  on October 27, 1787. [107] 
 Hamilton wrote the first paper signed as Publius, and all of the subsequent papers were signed under the name. [95]  : 210  Jay wrote the next four papers to elaborate on the confederation's weakness and the need for unity against foreign aggression and against splitting into rival confederacies, and, except for No. 64, was not further involved. [108]   [95]  : 211  Hamilton's highlights included discussion that although republics have been culpable for disorders in the past, advances in the "science of politics" had fostered principles that ensured that those abuses could be prevented, such as the division of powers, legislative checks and balances, an independent judiciary, and legislators that were represented by electors (No. 7–9). [108]  Hamilton also wrote an extensive defense of the constitution (No. 23–36), and discussed the Senate and executive and judicial branches (No. 65–85). Hamilton and Madison worked to describe the anarchic state of the confederation (No. 15–22), and the two have been described as not being significantly different in thought during this time period—in contrast to their stark opposition later in life. [108]  Subtle differences appeared with the two when discussing the necessity of standing armies. [108] 
Treasury secretaryship (1789–1795)
     
Report on Public Credit
Before the adjournment of the House in September 1789, they requested Hamilton to make a report on suggestions to improve the public credit by January 1790. [109]  Hamilton had written to Robert Morris as early as 1781, that fixing the public credit will win their objective of independence. [109]  The sources that Hamilton used ranged from Frenchmen such as Jacques Necker and Montesquieu to British writers such as Hume, Hobbes, and Malachy Postlethwayt. [110]  While writing the report he also sought out suggestions from contemporaries such as John Witherspoon and Madison. Although they agreed on additional taxes such as distilleries and duties on imported liquors and land taxes, Madison feared that the securities from the government debt would fall into foreign hands. [111]   [95]  : 244–45 
 In the report, Hamilton felt that the securities should be paid at full value to their legitimate owners, including those who took the financial risk of buying government bonds that most experts thought would never be redeemed. He argued that liberty and property security were inseparable and that the government should honor the contracts, as they formed the basis of public and private morality. To Hamilton, the proper handling of the government debt would also allow America to borrow at affordable interest rates and would also be a stimulant to the economy. [110] 
 Hamilton divided the debt into national and state, and further divided the national debt into foreign and domestic debt. While there was agreement on how to handle the foreign debt, especially with France, there was not with regards to the national debt held by domestic creditors. During the Revolutionary War, affluent citizens had invested in bonds, and war veterans had been paid with promissory notes and IOUs that plummeted in price during the Confederation. In response, the war veterans sold the securities to speculators for as little as fifteen to twenty cents on the dollar. [110]   [112] 
 Hamilton felt the money from the bonds should not go to the soldiers who had shown little faith in the country's future, but the speculators that had bought the bonds from the soldiers. The process of attempting to track down the original bondholders along with the government showing discrimination among the classes of holders if the war veterans were to be compensated also weighed in as factors for Hamilton. As for the state debts, Hamilton suggested consolidating them with the national debt and label it as federal debt, for the sake of efficiency on a national scale. [110] 
 The last portion of the report dealt with eliminating the debt by utilizing a  sinking fund  that would retire five percent of the debt annually until it was paid off. Due to the bonds being traded well below their face value, the purchases would benefit the government as the securities rose in price. [113]  : 300  When the report was submitted to the House of Representatives, detractors soon began to speak against it. Some of the negative views expressed in the House were that the notion of programs that resembled British practice were wicked, and that the balance of power would be shifted away from the representatives to the executive branch. William Maclay suspected that several congressmen were involved in government securities, seeing Congress in an unholy league with New York speculators. [113]  : 302  Congressman James Jackson also spoke against New York, with allegations of speculators attempting to swindle those who had not yet heard about Hamilton's report. [113]  : 303 
 The involvement of those in Hamilton's circle such as Schuyler, William Duer, James Duane, Gouverneur Morris, and Rufus King as speculators was not favorable to those against the report, either, though Hamilton personally did not own or deal a share in the debt. [113]  : 304   [95]  : 250  Madison eventually spoke against it by February 1790. Although he was not against current holders of government debt to profit, he wanted the windfall to go to the original holders. Madison did not feel that the original holders had lost faith in the government, but sold their securities out of desperation. [113]  : 305  The compromise was seen as egregious to both Hamiltonians and their dissidents such as Maclay, and Madison's vote was defeated 36 votes to 13 on February 22. [113]  : 305   [95]  : 255 
 The fight for the national government to assume state debt was a longer issue, and lasted over four months. During the period, the resources that Hamilton was to apply to the payment of state debts was requested by Alexander White, and was rejected due to Hamilton's not being able to prepare information by March 3, and was even postponed by his own supporters in spite of configuring a report the next day, which consisted of a series of additional duties to meet the interest on the state debts. [95]  : 297–98  Duer resigned as Assistant Secretary of the Treasury, and the vote of assumption was voted down 31 votes to 29 on April 12. [95]  : 258–59 
 During this period, Hamilton bypassed the rising issue of slavery in Congress, after Quakers petitioned for its abolition, returning to the issue the following year. [114] 
 Another issue in which Hamilton played a role was the temporary location of the capital from New York City. Tench Coxe was sent to speak to Maclay to bargain about the capital being temporarily located to Philadelphia, as a single vote in the Senate was needed and five in the House for the bill to pass. [95]  : 263  Thomas Jefferson wrote years afterward that Hamilton had a discussion with him, around this time period, about the capital of the United States being relocated to Virginia by means of a "pill" that "would be peculiarly bitter to the Southern States, and that some concomitant measure should be adopted to sweeten it a little to them". [95]  : 263  The bill passed in the Senate on July 21 and in the House 34 votes to 28 on July 26, 1790. [95]  : 263 
Report on a National Bank
     
Hamilton's Report on a National Bank was a projection from the first Report on the Public Credit. Although Hamilton had been forming ideas of a national bank as early as 1779, [95]  : 268  he had gathered ideas in various ways over the past eleven years. These included theories from Adam Smith, [115]  extensive studies on the Bank of England, the blunders of the Bank of North America and his experience in establishing the Bank of New York. [116]  He also used American records from James Wilson, Pelatiah Webster, Gouverneur Morris, and from his assistant treasury secretary Tench Coxe. [116]  He thought that this plan for a National Bank could help in any sort of financial crisis. [117] 
 Hamilton suggested that Congress should charter the national bank with a capitalization of $10 million, one-fifth of which would be handled by the government. Since the government did not have the money, it would borrow the money from the bank itself, and repay the loan in ten even annual installments. [47]  : 194  The rest was to be available to individual investors. [118]  The bank was to be governed by a twenty-five-member board of directors that was to represent a large majority of the private shareholders, which Hamilton considered essential for his being under a private direction. [95]  : 268  Hamilton's bank model had many similarities to that of the Bank of England, except Hamilton wanted to exclude the government from being involved in public debt, but provide a large, firm, and elastic money supply for the functioning of normal businesses and usual economic development, among other differences. [47]  : 194–95  The tax revenue to initiate the bank was the same as he had previously proposed, increases on imported spirits: rum, liquor, and whiskey. [47]  : 195–96 
 The bill passed through the Senate practically without a problem, but objections to the proposal increased by the time it reached the House of Representatives. It was generally held by critics that Hamilton was serving the interests of the Northeast by means of the bank, [119]  and those of the agrarian lifestyle would not benefit from it. [95]  : 270  Among those critics was James Jackson of Georgia, who also attempted to refute the report by quoting from The Federalist Papers. [95]  : 270  Madison and Jefferson also opposed the bank bill. The potential of the capital not being moved to the Potomac if the bank was to have a firm establishment in Philadelphia was a more significant reason, and actions that Pennsylvania members of Congress took to keep the capital there made both men anxious. [47]  : 199–200  The Whiskey Rebellion also showed how in other financial plans, there was a distance between the classes as the wealthy profited from the taxes. [120] 
 Madison warned the Pennsylvania congress members that he would attack the bill as unconstitutional in the House, and followed up on his threat. [47]  : 200  Madison argued his case of where the power of a bank could be established within the Constitution, but he failed to sway members of the House, and his authority on the constitution was questioned by a few members. [47]  : 200–01  The bill eventually passed in an overwhelming fashion 39 to 20, on February 8, 1791. [95]  : 271 
 Washington hesitated to sign the bill, as he received suggestions from Attorney General Edmund Randolph and Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson dismissed the Necessary and Proper Clause as reasoning for the creation of a national bank, stating that the enumerated powers "can all be carried into execution without a bank." [95]  : 271–72  Along with Randolph and Jefferson's objections, Washington's involvement in the movement of the capital from Philadelphia is also thought to be a reason for his hesitation. [47]  : 202–03  In response to the objection of the clause, Hamilton stated that "Necessary often means no more than needful, requisite, incidental, useful, or conductive to", and the bank was a "convenient species of medium in which [taxes] are to be paid." [95]  : 272–73  Washington would eventually sign the bill into law. [95]  : 272–73 
Establishing the mint
     
In 1791, Hamilton submitted the Report on the Establishment of a Mint to the House of Representatives. Many of Hamilton's ideas for this report were from European economists, resolutions from the 1785 and 1786 Continental Congress meetings, and people such as Robert Morris, Gouverneur Morris and Thomas Jefferson. [47]  : 197   [121] 
 Because the most circulated coins in the United States at the time were Spanish currency, Hamilton proposed that minting a United States dollar weighing almost as much as the Spanish peso would be the simplest way to introduce a national currency. [122]  Hamilton differed from European monetary policymakers in his desire to overprice gold relative to silver, on the grounds that the United States would always receive an influx of silver from the West Indies. [47]  : 197  Despite his own preference for a monometallic gold standard, [123]  he ultimately issued a bimetallic currency at a fixed 15:1 ratio of silver to gold. [47]  : 197   [124]   [125] 
 Hamilton proposed that the U.S. dollar should have fractional coins using decimals, rather than eighths like the Spanish coinage. [126]  This innovation was originally suggested by Superintendent of Finance Robert Morris, with whom Hamilton corresponded after examining one of Morris's Nova Constellatio coins in 1783. [127]  He also desired the minting of small value coins, such as silver ten-cent and copper cent and half-cent pieces, for reducing the cost of living for the poor. [47]  : 198   [116]  One of his main objectives was for the general public to become accustomed to handling money on a frequent basis. [47]  : 198 
 By 1792, Hamilton's principles were adopted by Congress, resulting in the Coinage Act of 1792, and the creation of the mint. There was to be a ten-dollar Gold Eagle coin, a silver dollar, and fractional money ranging from one-half to fifty cents. [123]  The coining of silver and gold was issued by 1795. [123] 
Revenue Cutter Service
      Contemporary painting of a Revenue Marine cutter, which may be of either the USRC Massachusetts , or its replacement, the Massachusetts II.  
Smuggling off American coasts was an issue before the Revolutionary War, and after the Revolution it was more problematic. Along with smuggling, lack of shipping control, pirating, and a revenue unbalance were also major problems. [128]  In response, Hamilton proposed to Congress to enact a naval police force called revenue cutters in order to patrol the waters and assist the custom collectors with confiscating contraband. [129]  This idea was also proposed to assist in tariff controlling, boosting the American economy, and promote the merchant marine. [128]  It is thought that his experience obtained during his apprenticeship with Nicholas Kruger was influential in his decision-making. [130] 
 Concerning some of the details of the System of Cutters, [131]  Hamilton wanted the first ten cutters in different areas in the United States, from New England to Georgia. [129]   [132]  Each of those cutters was to be armed with ten muskets and bayonets, twenty pistols, two chisels, one broad-ax and two lanterns. The fabric of the sails was to be domestically manufactured; [129]  and provisions were made for the employees' food supply and etiquette when boarding ships. [129]  Congress established the Revenue Cutter Service on August 4, 1790, which is viewed as the birth of the United States Coast Guard. [128] 
Whiskey as tax revenue
One of the principal sources of revenue Hamilton prevailed upon Congress to approve was an excise tax on whiskey. In his first Tariff Bill in January 1790, Hamilton proposed to raise the three million dollars needed to pay for government operating expenses and interest on domestic and foreign debts by means of an increase on duties on imported wines, distilled spirits, tea, coffee, and domestic spirits. It failed, with Congress complying with most recommendations excluding the excise tax on whiskey. The same year, Madison modified Hamilton's tariff to involve only imported duties; it was passed in September. [133] 
 In response of diversifying revenues, as three-fourths of revenue gathered was from commerce with Great Britain, Hamilton attempted once again during his Report on Public Credit when presenting it in 1790 to implement an excise tax on both imported and domestic spirits. [134]   [135]  The taxation rate was graduated in proportion to the whiskey proof, and Hamilton intended to equalize the tax burden on imported spirits with imported and domestic liquor. [135]  In lieu of the excise on production citizens could pay 60 cents by the gallon of dispensing capacity, along with an exemption on small stills used exclusively for domestic consumption. [135]  He realized the loathing that the tax would receive in rural areas, but thought of the taxing of spirits more reasonable than land taxes. [134] 
 Opposition initially came from Pennsylvania's House of Representatives protesting the tax. William Maclay had noted that not even the Pennsylvanian legislators had been able to enforce excise taxes in the western regions of the state. [134]  Hamilton was aware of the potential difficulties and proposed inspectors the ability to search buildings that distillers were designated to store their spirits, and would be able to search suspected illegal storage facilities to confiscate contraband with a warrant. [136]  Although the inspectors were not allowed to search houses and warehouses, they were to visit twice a day and file weekly reports in extensive detail. [134]  Hamilton cautioned against expedited judicial means, and favored a jury trial with potential offenders. [136]  As soon as 1791, locals began to shun or threaten inspectors, as they felt the inspection methods were intrusive. [134]  Inspectors were also tarred and feathered, blindfolded, and whipped. Hamilton had attempted to appease the opposition with lowered tax rates, but it did not suffice. [137] 
 Strong opposition to the whiskey tax by cottage producers in remote, rural regions erupted into the  Whiskey Rebellion  in 1794; in Western Pennsylvania and western Virginia, whiskey was the basic export product and was fundamental to the local economy. In response to the rebellion, believing compliance with the laws was vital to the establishment of federal authority, Hamilton accompanied to the rebellion's site President Washington, General Henry "Light Horse Harry" Lee, and more federal troops than were ever assembled in one place during the Revolution. This overwhelming display of force intimidated the leaders of the insurrection, ending the rebellion virtually without bloodshed. [138] 
Manufacturing and industry
     
Hamilton's next report was his Report on Manufactures. Although he was requested by Congress on January 15, 1790, for a report for manufacturing that would expand the United States' independence, the report was not submitted until December 5, 1791. [95]  : 274, 277  In the report, Hamilton quoted from Wealth of Nations and used the French physiocrats as an example for rejecting agrarianism and the physiocratic theory, respectively. [47]  : 233  Hamilton also refuted Smith's ideas of government noninterference, as it would have been detrimental for trade with other countries. [47]  : 244  Hamilton also thought that the United States, being a primarily agrarian country, would be at a disadvantage in dealing with Europe. [139]  In response to the agrarian detractors, Hamilton stated that the agriculturists' interest would be advanced by manufactures, [95]  : 276  and that agriculture was just as productive as manufacturing. [47]  : 233   [95]  : 276 
 Hamilton argued that developing an industrial economy is impossible without protective tariffs. [140]  Among the ways that the government should assist manufacturing, Hamilton argued for government assistance to "infant industries" so they can achieve economies of scale, by levying protective duties on imported foreign goods that were also manufactured in the United States, [141]  for withdrawing duties levied on raw materials needed for domestic manufacturing, [95]  : 277   [141]  and pecuniary boundaries. [95]  : 277  He also called for encouraging immigration for people to better themselves in similar employment opportunities. [141]   [142]  Congress shelved the report without much debate, except for Madison's objection to Hamilton's formulation of the general welfare clause, which Hamilton construed liberally as a legal basis for his extensive programs. [143] 
 In 1791, Hamilton, along with Coxe and several entrepreneurs from New York and Philadelphia formed the  Society for the Establishment of Useful Manufactures , a private industrial corporation. In May 1792, the directors decided to examine The Passaic Falls as a possible location for a manufacturing center. On July 4, 1792, the society directors met Philip Schuyler at Abraham Godwin's hotel on the Passaic River, where they would lead a tour prospecting the area for the national manufactory. It was originally suggested that they dig mile-long trenches and build the factories away from the falls, but Hamilton argued that it would be too costly and laborious. [144] 
 The location at Great Falls of the Passaic River in New Jersey was selected due to access to raw materials, it being densely inhabited, and having access to water power from the falls of the Passaic. [47]  : 231  The factory town was named Paterson after New Jersey's Governor William Paterson, who signed the charter. [47]  : 232   [145]  The profits were to derive from specific corporates rather than the benefits to be conferred to the nation and the citizens, which was unlike the report. [146]  Hamilton also suggested the first stock to be offered at $500,000 and to eventually increase to $1 million, and welcomed state and federal government subscriptions alike. [95]  : 280   [146]  The company was never successful: numerous shareholders reneged on stock payments, some members soon went bankrupt, and William Duer, the governor of the program, was sent to debtors' prison where he died. [147]  In spite of Hamilton's efforts to mend the disaster, the company folded. [145] 
Jay Treaty
When France and Britain went to war in early 1793, all four members of the Cabinet were consulted on what to do. They and Washington unanimously agreed to remain neutral, and to have the French ambassador who was raising privateers and mercenaries on American soil, Edmond-Charles Genêt, recalled. [148]  : 336–41  However, in 1794, policy toward Britain became a major point of contention between the two parties. Hamilton and the Federalists wished for more trade with Britain, the largest trading partner of the newly formed United States. The Republicans saw monarchist Britain as the main threat to republicanism and proposed instead to start a trade war. [95]  : 327–28 
 To avoid war, Washington sent Chief Justice John Jay to negotiate with the British, with Hamilton largely writing Jay's instructions. The result was a treaty denounced by the Republicans, but Hamilton mobilized support throughout the land. [149]  The Jay Treaty passed the Senate in 1795 by exactly the required two-thirds majority. The treaty resolved issues remaining from the Revolution, averted war, and made possible ten years of peaceful trade between the United States and Britain. [148]  : Ch 9  Historian George Herring notes the "remarkable and fortuitous economic and diplomatic gains" produced by the Treaty. [150] 
 Several European states had formed the Second League of Armed Neutrality against incursions on their neutral rights; the cabinet was also consulted on whether the United States should join the alliance, and decided not to. It kept that decision secret, but Hamilton revealed it in private to George Hammond, the British minister to the United States, without telling Jay or anyone else. His act remained unknown until Hammond's dispatches were read in the 1920s. This revelation may have had limited effect on the negotiations; Jay did threaten to join the League at one point, but the British had other reasons not to view the alliance as a serious threat. [148]  : 411 ff   [151] 
Resignation from public office
Hamilton's wife suffered a miscarriage [152]  while he was absent during his armed repression of the Whiskey Rebellion. [153]  In the wake of this, Hamilton tendered his resignation from office on December 1, 1794, giving Washington two months' notice, [154]  Before leaving his post on January 31, 1795, Hamilton submitted the  Report on a Plan for the Further Support of Public Credit  to Congress to curb the debt problem. Hamilton grew dissatisfied with what he viewed as a lack of a comprehensive plan to fix the public debt. He wished to have new taxes passed with older ones made permanent and stated that any surplus from the excise tax on liquor would be pledged to lower public debt. His proposals were included in a bill by Congress within slightly over a month after his departure as treasury secretary. [155]  Some months later, Hamilton resumed his law practice in New York to remain closer to his family. [156] 
Emergence of political parties
     
Hamilton's vision was challenged by Virginia agrarians Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, who formed the Democratic-Republican Party. They favored strong state governments based in rural America and protected by state militias as opposed to a strong national government supported by a national army and navy. They denounced Hamilton as insufficiently devoted to republicanism, too friendly toward corrupt Britain and the monarchy in general, and too oriented toward cities, business and banking. [157] 
 The two-party system began to emerge as political parties coalesced around competing interests. A congressional caucus, led by Madison, Jefferson, and William Branch Giles, began as an opposition group to Hamilton's financial programs. Hamilton and his allies began to call themselves the Federalists. [158]   [159] 
 Hamilton assembled a nationwide coalition to garner support for the administration, including the expansive financial programs Hamilton had made administration policy and especially the president's policy of neutrality in the European war between Britain and France. Hamilton publicly denounced French minister Genêt, who commissioned American privateers and recruited Americans for private militias to attack British ships and colonial possessions of British allies. Eventually, even Jefferson joined Hamilton in seeking Genêt's recall. [160]  If Hamilton's administrative republic was to succeed, Americans had to see themselves first as citizens of a nation, and experience an administration that proved firm and demonstrated the concepts found within the Constitution. [161]  The Federalists did impose some internal direct taxes, but they departed from most implications of Hamilton's administrative republic as risky. [162] 
 The Republicans opposed banks and cities, and favored the series of unstable revolutionary governments in France. They built their own national coalition to oppose the Federalists. Both sides gained the support of local political factions, and each side developed its own partisan newspapers. Noah Webster, John Fenno, and William Cobbett were energetic editors for the Federalists, while Benjamin Franklin Bache and Philip Freneau were fiery Republican editors. All of their newspapers were characterized by intense personal attacks, major exaggerations, and invented claims. In 1801, Hamilton established a daily newspaper, the  New York Evening Post , and brought in William Coleman as its editor. [163]  Hamilton's and Jefferson's incompatibility was heightened by the unavowed wish of each to be Washington's principal and most trusted advisor. [164] 
 An additional partisan irritant to Hamilton was the 1791 United States Senate election in New York, which resulted in the election of Democratic-Republican candidate Aaron Burr over Federalist candidate Philip Schuyler, the incumbent and Hamilton's father-in-law. Hamilton blamed Burr personally for this outcome, and negative characterizations of Burr began to appear in his correspondence thereafter. The two men did work together from time to time thereafter on various projects, including Hamilton's army of 1798 and the Manhattan Water Company. [165] 
Post-secretaryship (1795–1804)
1796 presidential election
Hamilton's resignation as secretary of the treasury in 1795 did not remove him from public life. With the resumption of his law practice, he remained close to Washington as an advisor and friend. Hamilton influenced Washington in the composition of his farewell address by writing drafts for Washington to compare with the latter's draft, although when Washington contemplated retirement in 1792, he had consulted Madison for a draft that was used in a similar manner to Hamilton's. [166]   [167] 
 In the election of 1796, under the Constitution as it stood then, each of the presidential electors had two votes, which they were to cast for different men from different states. The one who received the most votes would become president, the second-most, vice president. This system was not designed with the operation of parties in mind, as they had been thought disreputable and factious. The Federalists planned to deal with this by having all their electors vote for John Adams, then vice president, and all but a few for Thomas Pinckney. [168] 
 Adams resented Hamilton's influence with Washington and considered him overambitious and scandalous in his private life; Hamilton compared Adams unfavorably with Washington and thought him too emotionally unstable to be president. [169]  Hamilton took the election as an opportunity: he urged all the northern electors to vote for Adams and Pinckney, lest Jefferson get in; but he cooperated with Edward Rutledge to have South Carolina's electors vote for Jefferson and Pinckney. If all this worked, Pinckney would have more votes than Adams, Pinckney would become president, and Adams would remain vice president, but it did not work. The Federalists found out about it and northern Federalists voted for Adams but not for Pinckney, in sufficient numbers that Pinckney came in third and Jefferson became vice president. [170]  Adams resented the intrigue since he felt his service to the nation was much more extensive than Pinckney's. [171] 
Reynolds affair
In the summer of 1797, Hamilton became the first major American politician publicly involved in a sex scandal. [172]  Six years earlier, in the summer of 1791, 34-year-old Hamilton became involved in an affair with 23-year-old Maria Reynolds. According to Hamilton's account Maria approached him at his house in Philadelphia, claiming that her husband James Reynolds was abusive and had abandoned her, and she wished to return to her relatives in New York but lacked the means. [95]  : 366–69  Hamilton recorded her address and subsequently delivered $30 personally to her boarding house, where she led him into her bedroom and "Some conversation ensued from which it was quickly apparent that other than pecuniary consolation would be acceptable". The two began an intermittent illicit affair that lasted approximately until June 1792. [173] 
 Over the course of that year, while the affair was taking place, James Reynolds was well aware of his wife's infidelity, and likely orchestrated it from the beginning. He continually supported their relationship to extort blackmail money regularly from Hamilton. The common practice of the day for men of equal social standing was for the wronged husband to seek retribution in a duel, but Reynolds, of a lower social status and realizing how much Hamilton had to lose if his activity came into public view, resorted to extortion. [174]  After an initial request of $1,000 [175]  to which Hamilton complied, Reynolds invited Hamilton to renew his visits to his wife "as a friend" [176]  only to extort forced "loans" after each visit that, most likely in collusion, Maria solicited with her letters. In the end, the blackmail payments totaled over $1,300 including the initial extortion. [95]  : 369  Hamilton at this point may have been aware of both spouses being involved in the blackmail, [177]  and he welcomed and strictly complied with James Reynolds' request to end the affair. [173]   [178] 
 In November 1792, James Reynolds and his associate Jacob Clingman were arrested for counterfeiting and speculating in Revolutionary War veterans' unpaid back wages. Clingman was released on bail and relayed information to Democratic-Republican congressman James Monroe that Reynolds had evidence incriminating Hamilton in illicit activity as Treasury Secretary. Monroe consulted with congressmen Muhlenberg and Venable on what actions to take and the congressmen confronted Hamilton on December 15, 1792. [173]  Hamilton refuted the suspicions of speculation by exposing his affair with Maria and producing as evidence the letters by both of the Reynolds, proving that his payments to James Reynolds related to blackmail over his adultery, and not to treasury misconduct. The trio agreed on their honor to keep the documents privately with the utmost confidence. [95]  : 366–69 
 In the summer of 1797, however, the "notoriously scurrilous" journalist James T. Callender published A History of the United States for the Year 1796. [47]  : 334  The pamphlet contained accusations, based on documents from the confrontation of December 15, 1792, taken out of context, that James Reynolds had been an agent of Hamilton. On July 5, 1797, Hamilton wrote to Monroe, Muhlenberg, and Venable, asking them to confirm that there was nothing that would damage the perception of his integrity while Secretary of Treasury. All but Monroe complied with Hamilton's request. Hamilton then published a 100-page booklet, later usually referred to as the  Reynolds Pamphlet , and discussed the affair in indelicate detail for the time. Hamilton's wife Elizabeth eventually forgave him, but never forgave Monroe. [179]  Although Hamilton faced ridicule from the Democratic-Republican faction, he maintained his availability for public service. [47]  : 334–36 
Quasi-War
During the military build-up of the Quasi-War, and with the strong endorsement of Washington, Adams reluctantly appointed Hamilton a major general of the army. At Washington's insistence, Hamilton was made the senior major general, prompting Continental Army major general Henry Knox to decline the appointment to serve as Hamilton's junior, believing it would be degrading to serve beneath him. [180]   [181] 
 Hamilton served as inspector general of the United States Army from July 18, 1798, to June 15, 1800. Because Washington was unwilling to leave Mount Vernon unless it were to command an army in the field, Hamilton was the de facto head of the army, to Adams's considerable displeasure. If full-scale war broke out with France, Hamilton argued that the army should conquer the North American colonies of France's ally, Spain, bordering the United States. [182]  Hamilton was prepared to march the army through the Southern United States if necessary. [183] 
 To fund this army, Hamilton wrote regularly to Oliver Wolcott Jr., his successor at the treasury, Representative William Loughton Smith, and U.S. Senator Theodore Sedgwick. He urged them to pass a direct tax to fund the war. Smith resigned in July 1797, as Hamilton complained to him for slowness, and urged Wolcott to tax houses instead of land. [184]  The eventual program included taxes on land, houses, and slaves, calculated at different rates in different states and requiring assessment of houses, and a stamp act like that of the British before the Revolution, though this time Americans were taxing themselves through their own representatives. [185]  This provoked resistance in southeastern Pennsylvania nevertheless, led primarily by men such as John Fries who had marched with Washington against the Whiskey Rebellion. [186] 
 Hamilton aided in all areas of the army's development, and after Washington's death he was by default the senior officer of the United States Army from December 14, 1799, to June 15, 1800. The army was to guard against invasion from France. Adams, however, derailed all plans for war by opening negotiations with France that led to peace. [187]  There was no longer a direct threat for the army Hamilton was commanding to respond to. [188]  Adams discovered that key members of his cabinet, namely Secretary of State Timothy Pickering and Secretary of War James McHenry, were more loyal to Hamilton than himself; Adams fired them in May 1800. [189] 
1800 presidential election
     
In November 1799, the Alien and Sedition Acts had left one Democratic-Republican newspaper functioning in New York City. When the last newspaper, the New Daily Advertiser, reprinted an article saying that Hamilton had attempted to purchase the  Philadelphia Aurora  to close it down, Hamilton had the publisher prosecuted for seditious libel, and the prosecution compelled the owner to close the paper. [190] 
 In the 1800 election, Hamilton worked to defeat not only the Democratic-Republicans, but also his party's own nominee, John Adams. [95]  : 392–99  Aaron Burr had won New York for Jefferson in May; now Hamilton proposed a rerun of the election under different rules—with carefully drawn districts and each choosing an elector—such that the Federalists would split the electoral vote of New York. Jay, who had resigned from the Supreme Court to be governor of New York, wrote on the back of a letter, "Proposing a measure for party purposes which it would not become me to adopt," and declined to reply. [191] 
 Adams was running this time with Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, the elder brother of former vice presidential candidate Thomas. Hamilton toured New England, again urging northern electors to hold firm for Pinckney in the renewed hope of making Pinckney president; and he again intrigued in South Carolina. [47]  : 350–51  Hamilton's ideas involved coaxing middle-state Federalists to assert their non-support for Adams if there was no support for Pinckney and writing to more of the modest supports of Adams concerning his supposed misconduct while president. [47]  : 350–51  Hamilton expected to see southern states such as the Carolinas cast their votes for Pinckney and Jefferson, and would result in the former being ahead of both Adams and Jefferson. [95]  : 394–95 
 In accordance with the second of the aforementioned plans, and a recent personal rift with Adams, [47]  : 351  Hamilton wrote a pamphlet called Letter from Alexander Hamilton, Concerning the Public Conduct and Character of John Adams, Esq. President of the United States that was highly critical of him, though it closed with a tepid endorsement. [95]  : 396  He mailed this to two hundred leading Federalists; when a copy fell into the Democratic-Republicans' hands, they printed it. This hurt Adams's re-election campaign and split the Federalist Party, virtually assuring the victory of the Democratic-Republican Party, led by Jefferson, in the election of 1800; it diminished Hamilton's position among many Federalists.[ citation needed ]
 Jefferson had beaten Adams, but both he and Aaron Burr had received 73 votes in the Electoral College. With Jefferson and Burr tied, the House of Representatives had to choose between the two men. [47]  : 352   [95]  : 399  Several Federalists who opposed Jefferson supported Burr, and for the first 35 ballots, Jefferson was denied a majority. Before the 36th ballot, Hamilton threw his weight behind Jefferson, supporting the arrangement reached by James A. Bayard of Delaware, in which five Federalist representatives from Maryland and Vermont abstained from voting, allowing those states' delegations to go for Jefferson, ending the impasse and electing Jefferson president rather than Burr. [47]  : 350–51 
 Even though Hamilton did not like Jefferson and disagreed with him on many issues, he viewed Jefferson as the lesser of two evils. Hamilton spoke of Jefferson as being "by far not so a dangerous man" and of Burr as a "mischievous enemy" to the principal measure of the past administration. [192]  It was for that reason, along with the fact that Burr was a northerner and not a Virginian, that many Federalist representatives voted for him. [193]  [ contradictory ]
 Hamilton wrote many letters to friends in Congress to convince the members to see otherwise. [47]  : 352   [95]  : 401  The Federalists rejected Hamilton's diatribe as reasons to not vote for Burr, [47]  : 353   [95]  : 401  although historian Cokie Roberts claimed that Hamilton's campaign against Burr was a major reason Burr failed to win in the end. [194]  Nevertheless, Burr would become vice president after losing to Jefferson. When it became clear that Jefferson had developed his own concerns about Burr and would not support his return to the vice presidency, [195]  Burr sought the New York governorship in 1804 with Federalist support, against the Jeffersonian Morgan Lewis, but was defeated by forces including Hamilton. [196] 
Duel with Burr and death
     
Soon after Lewis' gubernatorial victory, the Albany Register published Charles D. Cooper's letters, citing Hamilton's opposition to Burr and alleging that Hamilton had expressed "a still more despicable opinion" of the vice president at an upstate New York dinner party. [197]   [198]  Cooper claimed that the letter was intercepted after relaying the information, but stated he was "unusually cautious" in recollecting the information from the dinner. [199] 
 Burr, sensing an attack on his honor, and recovering from his defeat, demanded an apology in the form of a letter. Hamilton wrote a letter in response and ultimately refused because he could not recall the instance of insulting Burr. Hamilton would also have been accused of recanting Cooper's letter out of cowardice. [95]  : 423–24  After a series of attempts to reconcile were to no avail, a duel was arranged through liaisons on June 27, 1804. [95]  : 426 
 The concept of honor was fundamental to Hamilton's vision of himself and of the nation. [200]  Historians have noted, as evidence of the importance that honor held in Hamilton's value system, that Hamilton had previously been a party to seven "affairs of honor" as a principal, and to three as an advisor or second. [201]  Such affairs of honor were often concluded prior to reaching their final stage, i.e. a duel. [201] 
 Before the duel, Hamilton wrote an explanation of his decision to participate while at the same time intending to "throw away" his shot. [202]  His desire to be available for future political matters also played a factor. [197]  A week before the duel, at an annual Independence Day dinner of the Society of the Cincinnati, both Hamilton and Burr were in attendance. Separate accounts confirm that Hamilton was uncharacteristically effusive while Burr was, by contrast, uncharacteristically withdrawn. Accounts also agree that Burr became roused when Hamilton, again uncharacteristically, sang a favorite song, which recent scholarship indicates that it was "How Stands the Glass Around", an anthem sung by military troops about fighting and dying in war. [203] 
 The duel began at dawn on July 11, 1804, along the west bank of the Hudson River on a rocky ledge in Weehawken, New Jersey. [204]  Both opponents were rowed over from Manhattan separately from different locations, as the spot was not accessible from the west due to the steepness of the adjoining cliffs. Coincidentally, the duel took place relatively close to the location of the duel that had ended the life of Hamilton's eldest son, Philip, three years earlier. [205]  Lots were cast for the choice of position and which second should start the duel. Both were won by Hamilton's second, who chose the upper edge of the ledge for Hamilton facing the city to the east, toward the rising sun. [206]  After the seconds had measured the paces Hamilton, according to both William P. Van Ness and Burr, raised his pistol "as if to try the light" and had to wear his glasses to prevent his vision from being obscured. [207]  Hamilton also refused the more sensitive hairspring setting for the dueling pistols offered by Nathaniel Pendleton. [208] 
 Vice President Burr shot Hamilton, delivering what proved to be a fatal wound. Hamilton's shot broke a tree branch directly above Burr's head. [168]  Neither of the seconds, Pendleton nor Van Ness, could determine who fired first, [209]  as each claimed that the other man had fired first. [208] 
 Soon after, they measured and triangulated the shooting, but could not determine from which angle Hamilton had fired. Burr's shot hit Hamilton in the lower abdomen above his right hip. The bullet ricocheted off Hamilton's second or third false rib, fracturing it and causing considerable damage to his internal organs, particularly his liver and diaphragm, before becoming lodged in his first or second lumbar vertebra. [95]  : 429   [210]  The biographer Ron Chernow considers the circumstances to indicate that, after taking deliberate aim, Burr fired second, [211]  while the biographer James Earnest Cooke suggests that Burr took careful aim and shot first, and Hamilton fired while falling, after being struck by Burr's bullet. [212] 
 The paralyzed Hamilton was immediately attended by the same surgeon who tended Phillip Hamilton, and ferried to the Greenwich Village boarding house of his friend William Bayard Jr., who had been waiting on the dock. [213]  On his deathbed, Hamilton asked the Episcopal Bishop of New York, Benjamin Moore, to give him holy communion. [214]  Moore initially declined to do so on the grounds that participating in a duel was a mortal sin and that Hamilton, although undoubtedly sincere in his faith, was not a member of the Episcopalian denomination. [215]  After leaving, Moore was persuaded to return that afternoon by the urgent pleas of Hamilton's friends. Upon receiving Hamilton's solemn assurance that he repented for his part in the duel, Moore gave him communion. [215] 
     
After final visits from his family, friends, and considerable suffering for at least 31 hours, Hamilton died at two o'clock the following afternoon, July 12, 1804, [213]   [216]  at Bayard's home just below the present Gansevoort Street. [217]  The city fathers halted all business at noon two days later for Hamilton's funeral. The procession route of about two miles organized by the Society of the Cincinnati had so many participants of every class of citizen that it took hours to complete and was widely reported nationwide by newspapers. [218]  Moore conducted the funeral service at Trinity Church. [214]  Gouverneur Morris gave the eulogy and secretly established a fund to support his widow and children. [219]  Hamilton was buried in the church's cemetery. [220] 
Religion
Hamilton's birthplace had a large Jewish community, constituting one quarter of Charlestown's white population by the 1720s. [2]  His degree of respect for Jews was described by Chernow as "a life-long reverence". [221]  He came into contact with Jews on a regular basis, having been tutored by a Jewish schoolmistress. As a small boy, he learned to recite the Ten Commandments in Biblical Hebrew, [222]  and he believed that Jewish achievement was a result of divine providence. [223]  Some evidence suggests that Hamilton was born and raised Jewish, [224]  but little is known for certain. [225] 
 As a youth in the West Indies, Hamilton was an orthodox and conventional Presbyterian of the New Lights; he was taught there by a student of John Witherspoon, a moderate of the New School. [226]  He wrote two or three hymns, which were published in the local newspaper. [227]  Robert Troup, his college roommate, noted that Hamilton was "in the habit of praying on his knees night and morning". [222]  : 10 
 According to Gordon Wood, Hamilton dropped his youthful religiosity during the Revolution and became "a conventional liberal with theistic inclinations who was an irregular churchgoer at best"; however, he returned to religion in his last years. [228]  Chernow wrote that Hamilton was nominally an Episcopalian, but:
 [H]e was not clearly affiliated with the denomination and did not seem to attend church regularly or take communion. Like Adams, Franklin, and Jefferson, Hamilton had probably fallen under the sway of deism, which sought to substitute reason for revelation and dropped the notion of an active God who intervened in human affairs. At the same time, he never doubted God's existence, embracing Christianity as a system of morality and cosmic justice. [229]   
Stories were circulated that Hamilton had made two quips about God at the time of the Constitutional Convention in 1787. [230]  During the French Revolution, he displayed a utilitarian approach to using religion for political ends, such as by maligning Jefferson as "the atheist", and insisting that Christianity and Jeffersonian democracy were incompatible. [230]  : 316  After 1801, Hamilton further attested his belief in Christianity, proposing a Christian Constitutional Society in 1802 to take hold of "some strong feeling of the mind" to elect "fit men" to office, and advocating "Christian welfare societies" for the poor. After being shot, Hamilton spoke of his belief in God's mercy. [d] 
Legacy
Constitution
Hamilton's interpretations of the Constitution set forth in  The Federalist Papers  remain highly influential, as seen in scholarly studies and court decisions. [231]  Although the Constitution was ambiguous as to the exact balance of power between national and state governments, Hamilton consistently took the side of greater federal power at the expense of the states. [232]  As secretary of the treasury, he established—against the intense opposition of Secretary of State Jefferson—the country's first de facto central bank. Hamilton justified the creation of this bank, and other federal powers, under Congress's constitutional authority to issue currency, regulate interstate commerce, and do anything else that would be "necessary and proper" to enact the provisions of the Constitution. [233] 
 On the other hand, Jefferson took a stricter view of the Constitution. Parsing the text carefully, he found no specific authorization for a national bank. This controversy was eventually settled in  McCulloch v. Maryland , which essentially adopted Hamilton's view, granting the federal government broad freedom to select the best means to execute its constitutionally enumerated powers, essentially confirming the doctrine of implied powers. [233]  Nevertheless, the American Civil War and the Progressive Era demonstrated the sorts of crises and politics Hamilton's administrative republic sought to avoid. [234]  [ how? ]
 Hamilton's policies have greatly affected the United States government. His constitutional interpretation, particularly of the Necessary and Proper Clause, set precedents for federal authority that are still used by the courts and are considered an authority on constitutional interpretation. French diplomat Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord, who spent 1794 in the United States, wrote, "I consider Napoleon, Fox, and Hamilton the three greatest men of our epoch, and if I were forced to decide between the three, I would give without hesitation the first place to Hamilton," adding that Hamilton had intuited the problems of European conservatives. [235] 
 Opinions of Hamilton have run the gamut as both Adams and Jefferson viewed him as unprincipled and dangerously aristocratic. Hamilton's reputation was mostly negative in the eras of Jeffersonian democracy and Jacksonian democracy. The older Jeffersonian view attacked Hamilton as a centralizer, sometimes to the point of accusations that he advocated monarchy. [236]  By the Progressive Era, Herbert Croly, Henry Cabot Lodge, and Theodore Roosevelt praised his leadership of a strong government. Several Republicans in 19th and 20th centuries entered politics by writing laudatory biographies of Hamilton. [237] 
 According to Sean Wilentz, more recent views of Hamilton and his reputation have been favorable among scholars, who portray him as the visionary architect of the modern liberal capitalist economy and of a dynamic federal government headed by an energetic executive. [238]  Conversely, modern scholars favoring Hamilton have portrayed Jefferson and his allies as naïve, dreamy idealists. [238] 
Slavery
Hamilton is not known to have ever owned slaves, although members of his family were slave owners. At the time of her death, Hamilton's mother owned two slaves and wrote a will leaving them to her sons. However, due to their illegitimacy, Hamilton and his brother were held ineligible to inherit her property and never took ownership of the slaves. [239]  : 17  Later, as a youth in Saint Croix, Hamilton worked for a company trading in commodities that included slaves. [239]  : 17  He occasionally handled slave transactions as the legal representative of his own family members and one of his grandsons interpreted some of these journal entries as being purchases for himself. [240]   [241]  In 1840, his son John maintained that his father "never owned a slave; but on the contrary, having learned that a domestic whom he had hired was about to be sold by her master, he immediately purchased her freedom." [242] 
 By the time of Hamilton's early participation in the American Revolution, his abolitionist sensibilities had become evident. He was active during the Revolutionary War in trying to raise black troops for the army with the promise of freedom. In the 1780s and 1790s, Hamilton generally opposed pro-slavery southern interests, which he saw as hypocritical to the values of the revolution. In 1785, he joined his close associate John Jay in founding the New York Manumission Society, which successfully promoted the abolition of the international slave trade in New York City and passed a state law to end slavery in New York through a decades-long process of emancipation with a final end to slavery in the state on July 4, 1827. [239] 
 At a time when most white leaders doubted the capacity of blacks, Hamilton believed slavery was morally wrong and wrote that "their natural faculties are as good as ours." [243]  Unlike contemporaries such as Jefferson, who considered the removal of freed slaves to a western territory, West Indies, or Africa to be essential to any plan for emancipation, Hamilton pressed for emancipation without such provisions. [239]  : 22  Hamilton and other Federalists supported the Haitian Revolution, which had originated as a slave revolt. [239]  : 23  His suggestions helped shape the Haitian constitution. In 1804, when Haiti became an independent state with a majority Black population, Hamilton urged closer economic and diplomatic ties. [239]  : 23 
Economics
Hamilton has been portrayed as the "patron saint" [244]  of the American School economic philosophy that, according to one historian, later dominated American economic policy after 1861. [244]  His ideas and work influenced the 19th century German economist Friedrich List  [245]  and Abraham Lincoln's chief economic advisor, Henry Charles Carey. [246] 
 As early as the fall of 1781, Hamilton firmly supported government intervention in favor of business after the manner of Jean-Baptiste Colbert. [247]   [248]   [249]  In contrast to the British policy of international mercantilism, which he believed skewed benefits to colonial and imperial powers, Hamilton was a pioneering advocate of protectionism. [250]  He is credited with the idea that industrialization would only be possible with tariffs to protect the "infant industries" of an emerging nation. [140] 
 Political theorists credit Hamilton with the creation of the modern administrative state, citing his arguments in favor of a strong executive, linked to the support of the people, as the linchpin of an administrative republic. [251]   [252]  The dominance of executive leadership in the formulation and carrying out of policy was, in his view, essential to resist the deterioration of a republican government. [253]  Some scholars have raised similarities between Hamiltonian recommendations and the development of Meiji Japan as evidence of the global influence of Hamilton's theory. [254] 
References
Notes
  ^  It is unclear whether Hamilton was born in 1755 or 1757. [2]   [3]  Most historical evidence supports the idea that he was born in 1757, [4]   [5]  though he celebrated his birthday on January 11. In his later life, Hamilton tended to give his age in round figures. Historians accepted 1757 as his birth year until the 1930s when additional documentation was published, including a 1768 probate paper from Saint Croix listing him as thirteen years old. Since then, some historians favored 1755. [2]  If he was born in 1757, the probate paper may either have included an error or Hamilton gave his age as thirteen to appear older and more employable. Historians have pointed out other proven inaccuracies in the paper, demonstrating its unreliability. [4] 
  ^  Primary sources disagree on the spelling of Hamilton's mother's surname. [7]  Hamilton's grandfather signed his name "John Faucett" on a legal document dated May 31, 1720, which some historians consider authoritative. [8]  Hamilton himself spelled the surname as Faucette in a letter dated August 26, 1800, which was corrected to Faucett in a footnote by the editor of Hamilton's papers. [9]  Hamilton's son, John, wrote Faucette. [10]  Ron Chernow and many early historians followed Hamilton by writing Faucette, [11]  while another group of historians adopted the anglicized name Fawcett, reflecting an absence of consensus. [12] 
  ^  Although there are persistent claims that Hamilton's mother was of mixed race, this is not substantiated by any verifiable evidence. Rachel Faucette was listed as white on tax rolls. [13]   [14] 
  ^  Adair and Harvey, "Christian Statesman?"; Quotes on the Christian Constitutional Society are from Hamilton's letter to James A. Bayard of April 1802, quoted by Adair and Harvey. McDonald, says p. 356, that Hamilton's faith "had not entirely departed" him before the crisis of 1801. 
 
Citations
  ^   "Alexander Hamilton". npg.si.edu.
^    a       b       c       d       e    Chernow, p. 17.
  ^  Logan, Erin B. (July 12, 2018). "Alexander Hamilton, immigrant and statesman, dies at 47 — or 49".  The Washington Post .
^    a       b    Brookhiser, Richard (2000).  Alexander Hamilton, American . Simon and Schuster. p. 16. ISBN  978-1-43913-545-7 .
  ^  Newton (2015), pp. 19–30.
  ^  Ramsing, Holger Utke (1939). "Alexander Hamilton". Personalhistorisk Tidsskrift (in Danish): 225–70.
  ^  Newton, Michael E. (2019).  Discovering Hamilton: New Discoveries in the Lives of Alexander Hamilton, His Family, Friends, and Colleagues, from Various Archives Around the World . Eleftheria Publishing. p. 115. ISBN  978-0-9826040-4-5 .
  ^  Newton (2019), p. 28.
^    a       b    Hamilton, Alexander (August 26, 1800). "From Alexander Hamilton to William Jackson". Founders Online (Letter). National Archives. Archived from Syrett, Harold C., ed. (1977) [July 1800 – April 1802].  The Papers of Alexander Hamilton . Vol. 25. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 88–91 &amp; n.4.
  ^  Hamilton, John Church (1879).  Life of Alexander Hamilton: A History of the Republic of the United States of America, as Traced in His Writings and in Those of His Contemporaries . Houghton, Osgood and Company. p. 41.
  ^  Chernow, pp. 8–9
  ^  Newton, Michael E. (2015).  Alexander Hamilton: The Formative Years . Eleftheria Publishing. p. 10. ISBN  978-0-9826040-3-8 .
  ^  Chernow, pp. 9, 734–35.
  ^  Owens, Mitchell (January 8, 2004). "Surprises in the Family Tree". The New York Times. Appended correction dated January 15, 2004. Retrieved November 15, 2016. While there have been suggestions that the mother, Rachel Faucett or Fawcett—and therefore Hamilton himself—was of mixed ancestry, it is not an established fact. 
  ^  Chernow, 2005, p. 8.
^    a       b       c    Randall, Willard Sterne (2004). Foreword. Practical Proceedings in the Supreme Court of the State of New York. By Hamilton, Alexander. New York: New York Law Journal. p. ix.
^    a       b       c    Chernow, pp. 10–12.
  ^  Brookhiser, Richard (2000).  Alexander Hamilton, American . Simon and Schuster. p. 15. ISBN  978-1-43913-545-7 .
  ^  Newton (2015), p. 14.
  ^  Lewisohn, Florence (1975). What So Proudly We Hail-Alexander Hamilton's West Indian Boyhood. American Revolution Bicentennial Commission of the Virgin Islands. St. Croix. pp. 17–30.
  ^  Chernow, p. 24.
  ^  Brockenbrough, Martha (2017).  Alexander Hamilton, Revolutionary . p. 19. ISBN  978-1-250-12319-0 .
  ^  E.g., Flexner, passim.
^    a       b    Chernow, pp. 25–30.
  ^  Chernow, p. 29.
  ^  Cissel, William. "The West Indian Founding Father, 2004" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
  ^   "To Alexander Hamilton from Walton and Cruger, [19 October 1771]". Founders Online (Letter). National Archives. fn. 1. Archived from Syrett, Harold C., ed. (1961) [1768–1778]. The Papers of Alexander Hamilton. Vol. 1. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 8 n.1.
  ^   "Letter on the hurricane of August 1772".
  ^  Chernow, p. 37.
  ^   Gordon, John Steele (April–May 2004). "The Self Made Founder".  American Heritage . Archived from the original on November 19, 2008.
  ^  O'Brien, Michael J. (1916) [October 30, 1915]. "Field Day of the American Irish Historical Society Held in New York City". The Journal of the American Irish Historical Society (transcript of address). 1 (1): 144.
  ^  Newton (2015), p. 64.
  ^  Newton (2019), pp. 227–228. "Thus, when Alexander Hamilton arrived in Elizabethtown in October 1772 and moved in with the Livingstons, they lived in this house rented from Jacob De Hart."
  ^  Adair and Harvey.
  ^  Cornfield, Josh (July 7, 2016). "Did Martha Washington Really Name a Cat After Alexander Hamilton?". Boston Globe. Archived from the original on December 1, 2017.
  ^  Newton (2015), p. 69.
  ^  Randall, p. 78.
  ^  Chernow, p. 53.
  ^  Cardozo, Ernest Abraham (1902).  A History of the Philolexian Society of Columbia University from 1802–1902 . New York: Philolexian Society. p. 23.
  ^  Miller, p. 9.
  ^  Mitchell 1:65–73; Miller, p. 19.
  ^  Newton (2015), pp. 116, 117, 573.
  ^  Mitchell, I:74–75.
  ^  Robert Troup "Memoir of General Hamilton", March 22, 1810
  ^  Chernow, Ron. Alexander Hamilton. Penguin Press, (2004) (ISBN 1-59420-009-2).
  ^  Newton (2015), pp. 127–128.
^    a       b       c       d       e       f       g       h       i       j       k       l       m       n       o       p       q       r       s       t       u       v       w       x       y       z       aa       ab    McDonald, Forrest (1982).  Alexander Hamilton: A Biography . W. W. Norton Company. ISBN  978-0-393-30048-2 .
  ^  Chernow, p. 72.
  ^  Stryker, William S. (1898).  The Battles of Trenton and Princeton  (page image). Boston: Houghton, Mifflin &amp; Co. pp. 158–9.
^    a       b    Ketchum, Richard (1999). The Winter Soldiers: The Battles for Trenton and Princeton (1st Owl Books ed.). Holt Paperbacks. p. 310. ISBN  978-0-8050-6098-0 .
  ^  Stryker, William S. (1898).  The Battles of Trenton and Princeton  (page image). Boston: Houghton, Mifflin &amp; Co. p. 290.
  ^  Chernow, pp. 128–29.
  ^  Chernow, pp. 654–55.
  ^  James Alexander Hamilton obituary,  The New York Times , September 26, 1878.
  ^   "The Rundown on Alexander Hamilton's 8 Children". Mental Floss. March 7, 2022. Retrieved January 13, 2023.
  ^  Newton (2015), pp. 189–190.
  ^  Lefkowitz, Arthur S., George Washington's Indispensable Men: The 32 Aides-de-Camp Who Helped Win the Revolution, Stackpole Books, 2003, pp. 15, 108.
  ^  Hendrickson, Robert (1976).  Hamilton I (1757–1789) . New York: Mason/Charter. p. 119. ISBN  9780884051398 .
  ^  Chernow, p. 90.
  ^  Lodge, pp. 1:15–20
  ^  Miller, pp. 23–26.
  ^  Flexner, Young Hamilton, p. 316.
  ^  Trees, Andrew S., "The Importance of Being Alexander Hamilton", Reviews in American History 2005, pp. 33(1):8–14, finding Chernow's inferences to be overreading the contemporary style.
  ^  Katz, Jonathan Ned,  Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the U.S.A. , Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1976, ISBN 978-0-690-01164-7, p. 445.
  ^  Gregory D. Massey, John Laurens and the American Revolution; University of South Carolina Press, 2000.
  ^  Chernow 2004, pp. 151–152
  ^  Chernow 2004, pp. 153–159
  ^  Murray, p. 69.
  ^  Mitchell, pp. I:254–60.
  ^  Morris, Richard Brandon (1970).  The Peacemakers: The Great Powers and American Independence . Harper &amp; Row.
  ^  Murray, Joseph A. (2007).  Alexander Hamilton: America's Forgotten Founder . Algora Publishing. p. 74. ISBN  978-0-87586-502-7 .
  ^  Chernow, pp. 165–171
  ^  Syrett, p. III:117; for a one-year term beginning the "first Monday in November next", arrived in Philadelphia between November 18 and 25, and resigned July 1783.
  ^  Hamilton, Alexander. Alexander Hamilton: Writings. Compiled by Joanne B. Freeman. New York: Literary Classics of the United States, Inc., 2001. pp. 70–71
  ^  Kohn; Brant, p. 45; Rakove, p. 324.
  ^  Chernow, p. 176.
  ^  Brant, p. 100
  ^  Martin and Lender, pp. 109, 160: at first for seven years, increased to life after Arnold's treason.
^    a       b    Tucker, p. 470.
^    a       b    Kohn; Ellis 2004, pp. 141–44.
  ^  Kohn, p. 196.
^    a       b       c    Chernow, pp. 177–80.
  ^  Hamilton's letter of February 13, 1783; Syrett, pp. III:253–55.
  ^  Washington to Hamilton, March 4 and 12, 1783; Kohn; Martin and Lender, pp. 189–90.
  ^   "To Alexander Hamilton from George Washington, 4 April 1783". Founders Online. National Archives. Archived from the original on March 19, 2016. Retrieved June 25, 2018.
  ^  Rakove, pp. 322, 325.
  ^  Brant, p. 108.
^    a       b    Chernow, pp. 182–83.
  ^   "Timeline | Articles and Essays | Alexander Hamilton Papers | Digital Collections | Library of Congress". Library of Congress. Retrieved July 4, 2020.
  ^  Chernow, pp. 197–99.
  ^  Wallack, Todd (December 20, 2011). "Which bank is the oldest? Accounts vary".  The Boston Globe .
  ^  Morris, Richard B. (1988).  The Forging of the Union, 1781–1789 . Harper &amp; Row. p. 255. ISBN  978-0-06-015733-3 .
  ^   "Founders Online: From Alexander Hamilton to Nathaniel Chipman, 22 July 1788". founders.archives.gov. Retrieved January 25, 2023.
  ^  Editors, History com. "Vermont". HISTORY. Retrieved January 25, 2023. 
^    a       b       c       d       e       f       g       h       i       j       k       l       m       n       o       p       q       r       s       t       u       v       w       x       y       z       aa       ab       ac       ad       ae       af       ag       ah       ai       aj       ak       al       am       an    Schachner, Nathan (1946).  Alexander Hamilton . New York: D. Appleton Century Co. ASIN B0006AQUG2.
  ^  Morton, p. 169.
  ^  Chernow, pp. 227–28.
  ^  Morton, p. 131.
  ^  Chernow, p. 232.
^    a       b    Madison, James (2005). Larson, Edward J.; Winship, Michael P. (eds.).  The Constitutional Convention: A Narrative History from the Notes of James Madison . New York: Modern Library. pp. 50–1. ISBN  978-0-8129-7517-8 .
  ^  Stewart, 2016, p. 33
  ^  Mitchell, pp. I:397 ff.
  ^  Brant, p. 195.
^    a       b    Denboer, p. 196.
^    a       b    Kaplan, p. 75.
  ^  Denboer, p. 197.
^    a       b    Chernow, pp. 247–48.
^    a       b       c       d    Chernow, pp. 252–57.
^    a       b    Murray, p. 121.
^    a       b       c       d    Chernow, pp. 296–99.
  ^  Chernow, p. 121.
  ^  Murray, p. 124.
^    a       b       c       d       e       f    Chernow, pp. 300–05.
  ^  Chernow, p. 307.
  ^  Kaplan, p. 21.
^    a       b       c    Cooke, p. 88.
  ^  Sylla, Richard; Wright, Robert E; Cowen, David J (2009). "Alexander Hamilton, Central Banker: Crisis Management during the U.S. Financial Panic of 1792". Business History Review. 83 (1): 61–86. doi:10.1017/s0007680500000209. ISSN 0007-6805. S2CID 153842455.
  ^  Cooke, p. 89.
  ^  Cooke, p. 90.
  ^  Bogin, Ruth (July 1988). "Petitioning and the New Moral Economy of Post-Revolutionary America". The William and Mary Quarterly. 45 (3): 392–425. doi:10.2307/1923642. ISSN 0043-5597. JSTOR 1923642.
  ^  Mitchell, p. 118.
  ^  Engerman; Gallman, p. 644.
^    a       b       c    Studentski; Krooss, p. 62.
  ^   Nussbaum, Arthur (November 1937). "The Law of the Dollar".  Columbia Law Review  (citing 2 Annals of Cong. 2115 (1789–1791)). 37 (7): 1057–91. doi:10.2307/1116782. JSTOR 1116782.
  ^  Cooke, p. 87.
  ^  Engerman; Gallman, pp. 644–45.
  ^  James Ferguson, John Catanzariti, Elizabeth M. Nuxoll and Mary Gallagher, eds. The Papers of Robert Morris, University of Pittsburgh Press, 1973–1999 (Volume 7, pp. 682–713)
^    a       b       c    Gibowicz, p. 256.
^    a       b       c       d    Chernow, p. 340.
  ^  Chernow, p. 32.
  ^  Gibowicz, pp. 256–57.
  ^  Storbridge, p. 2.
  ^  Stockwell, p. 357.
^    a       b       c       d       e    Chernow, pp. 342–43.
^    a       b       c    Murray, p. 141.
^    a       b    Murray, pp. 141–42.
  ^  Chernow, p. 468.
  ^  Mitchell, I:308–31.
  ^  Cooke, p. 100.
^    a       b    Bairoch, Paul (1995).  Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes . University of Chicago Press. p. 33. ISBN  978-0-226-03463-8 .
^    a       b       c    Cooke, p. 101.
  ^  Mitchell, p. 145.
  ^  Stephen F. Knott, Alexander Hamilton and the Persistence of Myth (2002), pp. 43, 54, 56, 83, 108.
  ^  Shriner, Charles Anthony (December 29, 2017). "Four Chapters of Paterson History". Lont &amp; Overkamp Publishing Company.
^    a       b    Cooke, p. 103.
^    a       b    Cooke, p. 102.
  ^  Matson, Cathy (2010). "Flimsy Fortunes: Americans' Old Relationship with Paper Speculation and Panic". Common-place. 10 (4). Archived from the original on April 9, 2016. Retrieved May 2, 2018.
^    a       b       c    Elkins, Stanley M.; McKitrick, Eric (1994).  The Age of Federalism: The Early American Republic, 1788–1800 . Oxford University Press. ISBN  978-0-19-506890-0 .
  ^  Estes, Todd (2000). "Shaping the Politics of Public Opinion: Federalists and the Jay Treaty Debate". Journal of the Early Republic. 20 (3): 393–422. doi:10.2307/3125063. JSTOR 3125063.
  ^  Herring, George C. (2008).  From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations since 1776 . p. 80. ISBN  978-0-19-507822-0 .
  ^  Bemis, Samuel Flagg (April 1922). "Jay's Treaty and the Northwest Boundary Gap". The American Historical Review. 27 (3): 465–84. doi:10.2307/1837800. hdl:2027/hvd.32044020001764. JSTOR 1837800.
  ^  Knox, Henry. "Letter from Henry Knox to Alexander Hamilton, 24 November 1794". Founders Online. National Archives.
  ^  Chernow, p. 478.
  ^  Hamilton, Alexander. "Letter from Alexander Hamilton to George Washington, 1 December 1794". Founders Online. National Archives.
  ^  Chernow, p. 480.
  ^  Hamilton, Alexander. "Letter from Alexander Hamilton to Angelica Schuyler Church, 6 March 1795". Founders Online. National Archives.
  ^  Henretta, James A.; et al. (2011).  America's History, Volume 1: To 1877 . pp. 207–08. ISBN  978-0-312-38791-4 .
  ^   "Madison to Jefferson". March 2, 1794. Retrieved October 14, 2006. I see by a paper of last evening that even in New York a meeting of the people has taken place, at the instance of the Republican party, and that a committee is appointed for the like purpose 
  ^  See also Smith (2004), p. 832.
  ^  Young, Christopher J. (Fall 2011). "Connecting the President and the People: Washington's Neutrality, Genet's Challenge, and Hamilton's Fight for Public Support". Journal of the Early Republic. 31 (3): 435–66. doi:10.1353/jer.2011.0040. S2CID 144349420.
  ^  Cook, Brian J. (October 9, 2014).  Bureaucracy and Self-Government . JHU Press. pp. 56 ff. ISBN  978-1-4214-1552-9 .
  ^  Balogh 2009, 72–110
  ^  Allan Nevins, The Evening Post: A Century of Journalism (1922) ch. 1 online
  ^  Cooke, pp. 109–10
  ^  Lomask, pp. 139–40, 216–17, 220.
  ^  Garrity and Spalding, pp. 47, 50–55.
  ^  Murray, p. 207.
^    a       b    Chernow, p. 117.
  ^  Chernow, p. 510.
  ^  Elkins and McKitrick; Age of Federalism, pp. 523–28, 859. Rutledge had his own plan, to have Pinckney win with Jefferson as Vice President.
  ^  Elkins and McKitrick, p. 515.
  ^  Brookhiser, Richard (2011).  Alexander Hamilton, American . p. 3. ISBN  978-1-4391-3545-7 .
^    a       b       c    Hamilton, Alexander. "Printed Version of the "Reynolds Pamphlet", 1797". Founders Online. National Archives. Retrieved July 17, 2016.
  ^  Freeman 2001
  ^  Reynolds, James. "Letter from James Reynolds to Alexander Hamilton, 19 December 1791". Founders Online. National Archives.
  ^  Reynolds, James. "Letter from James Reynolds to Alexander Hamilton, 17 January 1792". Founders Online. National Archives.
  ^  Murray, p. 165.
  ^  Reynolds, James. "Letter from James Reynolds to Alexander Hamilton, 2 May 1792". Founders Online. National Archives.
  ^  Chernow (December 26, 2004). "Epilogue". Alexander Hamilton (Audiobook). Event occurs at 12:58.
  ^  Chernow, pp. 558–60.
  ^  Kaplan, pp. 147–49
  ^  Morison and Commager, p. 327; Mitchell II:445.
  ^   Ellis, Joseph J. (2004). His Excellency. Vintage Books. pp. 250–5. ISBN  978-1-4000-3253-2 .
  ^  Newman, pp. 72–73.
  ^  Kaplan, p. 155.
  ^  Newman, pp. 44, 76–78.
  ^  Hamilton, Neil A. (2010).  Presidents: A Biographical Dictionary . Infobase. p. 18. ISBN  978-1-4381-2751-4 .
  ^  Mitchell II:483
  ^  Parsons, Lynn H. (2011).  The Birth of Modern Politics: Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, and the Election of 1828 . Oxford UP. p. 17. ISBN  978-0-19-975424-3 .
  ^  James Morton Smith, Freedom's Fetters: The Alien and Sedition Laws and American Civil Liberties (Ithaca, repr. 1966), pp. 400–17.
  ^  Monaghan, pp. 419–21.
  ^  Harper, p. 259.
  ^  Isenberg, Nancy. Fallen Founder: The Life of Aaron Burr, New York: Penguin Books, 2007, pp. 211–12.
  ^  Roberts, Cokie (2008), Ladies of Liberty 
  ^  Thomas Jefferson Encyclopedia. "Aaron Burr". Monticello.org. Thomas Jefferson Foundation. Retrieved December 3, 2019.
  ^  ANB, "Aaron Burr".
^    a       b    Freeman, Joanne B. (April 1996). "Dueling as Politics: Reinterpreting the Burr–Hamilton Duel".  William and Mary Quarterly  (subscription). Third Series. 53 (2): 289–318. doi:10.2307/2947402. JSTOR 2947402.
  ^  Kennedy, Burr, Hamilton, and Jefferson, p. 72.
  ^  Chernow, pp. 680–81.
  ^  Trees, Andrew S. (2004). The Founding Fathers and the Politics of Character. Princeton University Press. p. 169.
^    a       b    Jackson, Kenneth T.; Paley, Virginia (Spring 2004). "An Interview with Ron Chernow" (PDF). The New-York Journal of American History: 59–65. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved April 12, 2017.
  ^  Hamilton, Alexander. "Statement on Impending Duel with Aaron Burr, (28 June – 10 July 1804)". Founders Online. National Archives.
  ^  Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, ed. (April 1955), "What Was Hamilton's "Favorite Song"?", The William and Mary Quarterly (in German), Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 298–307, doi:10.2307/1920510, JSTOR 1920510 
  ^  Adams, pp. 93–4.
  ^  Roberts, Warren (2010). A Place In History: Albany In The Age Of Revolution. Albany, NY: Excelsior Editions/State University of New York Press. p. 135. ISBN  978-1-4384-3329-5 .
  ^  Winfield, Charles H. (1874). History of the County of Hudson, New Jersey from Its Earliest Settlement to the Present Time. New York: Kennard and Hay. Chapter 8,"Duels." pp. p.219
  ^  Fleming, p. 323
^    a       b    Brookhiser, Richard (2000).  Alexander Hamilton, American . Simon and Schuster. p. 212. ISBN  978-1-43913-545-7  – via Google Books.
  ^  Fleming, p. 345
  ^  Emery, p. 243
  ^  Chernow, p. 704.
  ^  Cooke, p. 242
^    a       b    Chernow, pp. 705–08.
^    a       b    Moore, Benjamin (1979) [July 12, 1804]. "Letter to William Coleman (Editor, New-York Evening Post)". In Syrett, Harold Coffin (ed.). The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, Vol. 26. Columbia University Press. pp. 314–6, 328. ISBN  978-0-231-08925-8 .
^    a       b    Fleming, Thomas (1999).  Duel: Alexander Hamilton, Aaron Burr and the Future of America . New York: Basic Books. pp. 328–9. ISBN  9780465017362 .
  ^  Hamilton, John Church (1879).  Life of Alexander Hamilton: A History of the Republic of the United States of America, as Traced in His Writings and in Those of His Contemporaries, Volume VII . Boston: Houghton, Osgood and Company. p. 836. At two in the afternoon, my father died. 
  ^  Miller, Terry (1990).  Greenwich Village and How It Got That Way . Crown Publishers. p. 164. ISBN  978-0-517-57322-8 . Cited in Pollak, Michael (July 8, 2011). "F.Y.I.: Answers to Questions About New York". The New York Times. Archived from the original on July 19, 2017.
  ^   "Founders Online: The Funeral, [14 July 1804]". founders.archives.gov.
  ^  Chernow, pp. 712–13, 725.
  ^  Keister, Doug (2011).  Stories in Stone New York: A Field Guide to New York City Area Cemeteries &amp; Their Residents . Gibbs Smith. p. 127. ISBN  978-1-4236-2102-7 .
  ^  Chernow, p. 18.
^    a       b    Hamilton, John Church (1834).  The Life of Alexander Hamilton, Vol. 1 . New York: Halsted &amp; Voorhies. p. 3.
  ^  Hamilton, John Church (1879).  Life of Alexander Hamilton: A History of the Republic of the United States of America, as Traced in His Writings and in Those of His Contemporaries, Volume VII . Boston: Houghton, Osgood and Company. p. 711.
  ^  Porwancher, Andrew (2021). The Jewish World of Alexander Hamilton. Princeton. p. 1. ISBN  978-0-691-21115-2 . OCLC 1240494084.
  ^  Cohen Ioannides, Mara (September 2022). "Review of Porwancher, Andrew, The Jewish World of Alexander Hamilton". H-Early-America, H-Net Reviews. Retrieved December 27, 2022.
  ^  McDonald, Alexander Hamilton p. 11; Adair and Harvey (1974)
  ^  Chernow, p. 38.
  ^  Wood, Gordon. Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789–1815 (2009) pp. 589–90
  ^  Chernow, p. 205.
^    a       b    Adair, Douglass; Harvey, Marvin (April 1955). "Was Alexander Hamilton a Christian Statesman?". The William and Mary Quarterly. 12 (2). pp. 308–29 at 315 n.8. doi:10.2307/1920511. JSTOR 1920511. The first story alleges [that he was asked] why God had not been suitably recognized in the Constitution. 'Indeed, Doctor,' Hamilton is supposed to have replied, 'we forgot it.' ... The second story [is of a] purported remark on the Convention floor, when Franklin moved that each session in the future be opened with prayer. Hamilton is supposed to have replied that there was no need for calling in 'foreign aid.' 
  ^  Susan Welch, John Gruhl and John Comer, Understanding American Government (2011) p. 70
  ^  Melvyn R. Durchslag, State sovereign immunity: a reference guide to the United States Constitution (2002) p xix
^    a       b    Wilson, Thomas Frederick (1992).  The Power "to Coin" Money: The Exercise of Monetary Powers by the Congress . M.E. Sharpe. p. 94. ISBN  978-0-87332-795-4 .
  ^  Tulis, Jeffrey (1987).  The Rhetorical Presidency . Princeton University Press. p. 31. ISBN  978-0-691-02295-6 .
  ^  Kaplan, Lawrence S. (1998).  Thomas Jefferson: Westward the Course of Empire . Rowman &amp; Littlefield. p. 284. ISBN  978-1-4616-4618-1 .
  ^  Chernow, pp. 397–98.
  ^  Before they became senators, Lodge and Arthur H. Vandenberg wrote highly favorable biographies. See also  Peterson, Merrill D. (1960).  The Jefferson Image in the American Mind . pp. 114, 278–80. ISBN  978-0-8139-1851-8 .
^    a       b    Wilentz, Sean (September 2010). "Book Reviews". Journal of American History. 97 (2): 476.
^    a       b       c       d       e       f    Horton, James Oliver (2004). "Alexander Hamilton: slavery and race in a revolutionary generation" (PDF). New-York Journal of American History. 65: 16–24. Retrieved April 2, 2017.
  ^   Hamilton, Allan McLane (1910). "Friends and Enemies". The Intimate Life of Alexander Hamilton: Based Chiefly Upon Original Family Letters and Other Documents, Many of Which Have Never Been Published. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 268. Retrieved October 13, 2016. It has been stated that Hamilton never owned a negro slave, but this is untrue. We find that in his books there are entries showing that he purchased them for himself and for others. 
  ^  McDonald, Forrest (1982).  Alexander Hamilton: A Biography . W.W. Norton &amp; Company. p. 373 (Footnotes). ISBN  9780393300482 .
  ^  Hamilton, John C., The Life of Alexander Hamilton, D. Appleton &amp; Co., New York, 1834–1840, vol. 2, p. 280
  ^  Miller, John Chester (1964).  Alexander Hamilton and the Growth of the New Nation . Transaction. pp. 41–2. ISBN  978-1-4128-1675-5 .
^    a       b    Lind, Michael, Hamilton's Republic, 1997, pp. xiv–xv, 229–30.
  ^  Notz, William (1926). "Friedrich List in America". American Economic Review. 16 (2): 248–65. JSTOR 1805356.
  ^  Levermore, Charles H. Henry C. Carey and his Social System. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2139529: The Academy of Political Science. p. 561. CS1 maint: location (link)
  ^  Chernow, p. 170.
  ^  Continentalist V, April 1782 (but written in fall 1781).
  ^  Syrett, p. 3:77.
  ^  Bairoch, pp. 17, 33.
  ^  Green, Richard T. (November 2002). "Alexander Hamilton: Founder of the American Public Administration". Administration &amp; Society. 34 (5): 541–62. doi:10.1177/009539902237275. S2CID 145232233.
  ^  Derthick 1999, p. 122.
  ^  Harvey Flaumenhaft, "Hamilton's Administrative Republic and the American Presidency", in Joseph M. Bessette and Jeffrey Tulis, The Presidency in the Constitutional Order (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981)
  ^  Austin, pp. 261–62.
 
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Studies
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Hamilton, Alexander.  Report on Public Credit . (financial program for the United States)
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Morris, Richard, ed. Alexander Hamilton and the Founding of the Nation. 1957. (excerpts from Hamilton's writings)
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Sylla, Richard and David J. Cowen, eds. Alexander Hamilton on Finance, Credit, and Debt (Columbia UP, 2018) 346 pp. (partly abridged version of key documents; online review)
Syrett, Harold C., Jacob E. Cooke, and Barbara Chernow, eds. The Papers of Alexander Hamilton. 27 vols. Columbia University Press, 1961–87. (Includes all letters and writings by Hamilton, and all important letters written to him; the definitive edition of Hamilton's works, intensively annotated)
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External links
    This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 11 July 2020, and does not reflect subsequent edits. 
  Alexander Hamilton: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress
 Works by or about Alexander Hamilton at Internet Archive 
 Works by Alexander Hamilton at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Alexander Hamilton - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_von_Br%C3%BChl
Heinrich von Brühl
2004-04-09
Authority control databases
<div><div>
<p>From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</p>
</div><div>
<table><tbody><tr><th><p><small>Count</small><br/>Heinrich von Brühl</p></th></tr><tr><td><p>Heinrich von Brühl in a Polish costume by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacciarelli">Bacciarelli</a></p></td></tr><tr><th>Born</th><td><p>Heinrich von Brühl</p><br/>13 August 1700<br/><div><p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangloffs%C3%B6mmern">Gangloffsömmern</a></p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Died</th><td>28 October 1763 (aged 63)<br/><div><p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dresden">Dresden</a></p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Nationality</th><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germans">Saxon</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_people">Polish</a></td></tr><tr><th>Occupation(s)</th><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplomat">Diplomat</a>, statesman at the court of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electorate_of_Saxony">Saxony</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></td></tr><tr><th>Spouse</th><td>Countess Franziska von <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolowrat_family">Kolowrat-Krakowska</a></td></tr><tr><th>Parent</th><td>Johann Moritz von Brühl</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Heinrich, Count von Brühl</b> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language">Polish</a>: <i>Henryk Brühl</i>, 13 August 1700 – 28 October 1763), was a Polish-Saxon statesman at the court of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electorate_of_Saxony">Saxony</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> and a member of the powerful German <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Br%C3%BChl">von Brühl</a> family. The incumbency of this ambitious politician coincided with the decline of both states. Brühl was a skillful diplomat and cunning strategist, who managed to attain control over of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxony">Saxony</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth">Poland</a>, partly by controlling its king, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus_III_of_Poland">Augustus III</a>, who ultimately could only be accessed through Brühl himself.
</p><p>Polish historian and writer <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Ignacy_Kraszewski">Józef Ignacy Kraszewski</a> wrote a novel under the title <i>Count Brühl</i>, in which he described Heinrich as an oppressive and stubborn dictator, who, with greed, but also great determination, unsuccessfully attempted to gain control of the entire nation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup>
</p><p>It is widely believed that Brühl had Europe's largest collection of watches and military vests; attributed to him was also a vast collection of ceremonial wigs, hats and the largest collection of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meissen_porcelain">Meissen porcelain</a> in the world. He had also one of the biggest collection of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabbalah">kabbala</a> books in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe">Europe</a>.
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<h2></h2>
<figure><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CWA_Seiler_Count_Br%C3%BChl_Goat_VA.jpg"></a><figcaption><i>Count Brühl's Goat</i> by Carl Seiler depicting Brühl showing off his extravagant Meissen porcelain. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_and_Albert_Museum">Victoria and Albert Museum</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>Brühl was born in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangloffs%C3%B6mmern">Gangloffsömmern</a> the son of Johann Moritz von Brühl, a noble who held the office of the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hofmarschall">Oberhofmarschall</a></i> at the court of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxe-Weissenfels">Saxe-Weissenfels</a> (ruled by a cadet branch of the Albertine <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Wettin">House of Wettin</a>), by his first wife Erdmuth Sophie v. d. Heide. His father was ruined and compelled to part with his family estate, which passed into the hands of the prince. Under Duke <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian,_Duke_of_Saxe-Weissenfels">Christian of Saxe-Weissenfels</a> von Brühl was first placed as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Page_(occupation)">page</a> with the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dowager">dowager</a> duchess, and was then received at her recommendation into the court of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electorate_of_Saxony">Electorate of Saxony</a> at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dresden">Dresden</a> as a <i>Silberpage</i> on 16 April 1719. He rapidly acquired the favour of the Elector <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus_II_the_Strong">Frederick Augustus I of Wettin</a>, surnamed the Strong, who, in 1697, had been <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_elections_in_Poland">elected</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polish_monarchs">King of Poland</a> (as Augustus II). Brühl was largely employed in procuring money for his extravagant master. He became Chief Receiver of Taxes and Minister of the Interior of Saxony in 1731.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911-2">[2]</a></sup>
</p><p>He was at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw">Warsaw</a> when his master died in 1733, and obtained the confidence of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince-Elector">Prince-Elector</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus_III_of_Poland">Frederick Augustus II</a>, who was at Dresden at the time, by acquiring the papers and jewels of his late father and bringing them promptly to his successor.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911-2">[2]</a></sup> Von Brühl raised money to secure the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_elections_in_Poland">election</a> of Frederick Augustus II as Polish king (Augustus III the Saxon), who in the following <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_the_Polish_Succession">War of the Polish Succession</a> prevailed against his rival <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_I">Stanisław I</a>.
</p><p>During most of the thirty years of the ineffective reign of August III the Saxon, he was the major confidant of the king and the <i>de facto</i> head of the Saxon court. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichsgraf">Reichsgraf</a> since 27 November 1737, he had to acquiesce to the influence of old servants of the electoral house for a time, but after 1738 he was in effect sole minister, a position for which he actually had neither the skills nor the knowledge. The title of a Prime Minister was created for him in 1746, but as a classic court <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Favourite">favourite</a> his power extended beyond that office. Besides securing huge grants of land for himself, he acquired numerous titles, and he drew the combined salaries of these offices.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911-2">[2]</a></sup> He also worked closely with Bishop <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kajetan_So%C5%82tyk">Kajetan Sołtyk</a> of Kraków.
</p>
<figure><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Meissen-Porcelain-Taylor-on-Goat-Rau.jpg"></a><figcaption>Count Brühl's Tailor on a Goat - satirical porcelain figure by Meissen</figcaption></figure>
<p>Brühl had cunning and skill sufficient to govern his master and get rid of his rivals and succeeded in keeping everybody at a distance from the king. No servant entered the king's service without the consent of Brühl, and even when the king went to the chapel all approach to him was prevented. A typical interaction of the king with Brühl has the king loitering about smoking, and asking, without looking at his favorite, "Brühl, have I any money?" "Yes, sire," was the continual answer, and to satisfy the king's demands, Brühl exhausted the state, plunged the country into debts and greatly reduced the army.
</p><p>Brühl kept 200 domestics; his guards were better paid than those of the king himself, and his table more sumptuous. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_the_Great">Frederick II</a> said of him, "Brühl had more garments, watches, laces, boots, shoes and slippers, than any man of the age. Caesar would have counted him among those curled and perfumed heads which he did not fear."
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<h2></h2>
<figure><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bacciarelli_Heinrich_von_Br%C3%BChl.jpg"></a><figcaption>Heinrich von Brühl by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcello_Bacciarelli">Marcello Bacciarelli</a> (1758-1763), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum,_Warsaw">National Museum</a> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw">Warsaw</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>Brühl was a capable diplomat, who played a vital role in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplomatic_Revolution">Diplomatic Revolution</a> of 1756 and the convergence of Habsburg and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Modern_France">France</a>. However he was wholly responsible for a ruinous fiscal policy which decisively weakened the position of Saxony within the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> between 1733 and 1763; for the mistaken ambition which led Frederick Augustus II to become a candidate for the throne of Poland, which led to a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_the_Polish_Succession">civil war</a> and did sustainable damage to the Polish sovereignty; for the engagements into which he entered in order to secure the support of Emperor <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_VI,_Holy_Roman_Emperor">Charles VI of Habsburg</a>; for the shameless and ill-timed tergiversations of Saxony during the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_the_Austrian_Succession">War of the Austrian Succession</a>; for the intrigues which entangled the Electorate in the alliance against King <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_II_of_Prussia">Frederick II of Prussia</a>, which led to the outbreak of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War">Seven Years' War</a>; and for the waste and want of foresight which left the bankrupt country utterly unprepared to resist the immediate attack of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia">Prussian</a> king.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911-2">[2]</a></sup>
</p><p>At the beginning of the Seven Years' War the Saxon army comprised but 17,000 men. After a few weeks, the decimated army, under <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Augustus_Rutowsky">Frederick Augustus Rutowsky</a>, was compelled to surrender at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirna">Pirna</a> from want of the necessary supplies. The army was dissolved, while Saxony remained a war theatre.
</p><p>Brühl was not only without political or military capacity, but was so garrulous that he could not keep a secret. His indiscretion was repeatedly responsible for the king of Prussia's discoveries of the plans laid against him. Nothing could shake the confidence of his master, which survived the ignominious flight into <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohemia">Bohemia</a>, into which he was trapped by Brühl at the time of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Kesselsdorf">Battle of Kesselsdorf</a>, and all the miseries of the Seven Years' War.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911-2">[2]</a></sup> They fled with the pictures and the china, but the archives of the state were left to the victor.
</p><p>The favourite abused the confidence of his master shamelessly. Not content with the 67,000 <i>talers</i> a month which he drew as salary for his innumerable offices, he was found when an inquiry was held in the next reign to have abstracted more than five million <i>talers</i> of public money for his private use. He left the work of the government offices to be done by his lackeys, whom he did not even supervise.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911-2">[2]</a></sup>
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<h2></h2>
<figure><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pa%C5%82ac_Br%C3%BChla_w_Warszawie_04.jpg"></a><figcaption><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Br%C3%BChl_Palace,_Warsaw">Brühl Palace in Warsaw</a>, one of the largest palaces and one of the finest examples of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rococo_architecture">rococo architecture</a> in pre-war Poland</figcaption></figure>
<p>Brühl died at Dresden on 28 October 1763, having survived his master only for a few weeks. The new elector, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Christian,_Elector_of_Saxony">Frederick Christian</a> caused an inquiry to be held into his administration. His fortune including large palaces at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brody,_%C5%BBary_County">Pförten</a> (present-day Brody), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oberlichtenau">Oberlichtenau</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wachau,_Saxony">Wachau</a>-Seifersdorf was found to amount to a million and a half <i>talers</i>, and was sequestered but afterwards restored to his family.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911-2">[2]</a></sup> The inquiry showed that Brühl owed his immense fortune to the prodigality of the king rather than to unlawful means of accumulation.
</p><p>His profusion was often beneficial to the arts and sciences. The famous <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meissen_porcelain">Meissen porcelain</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swan_Service">Swan Service</a> was made for him, with over 2,200 pieces, now dispersed to collections around the world. In 1736 the architect Johann Christoph Knöffel had begun to build a city palace and terrace for the count on the bank of the Elbe in the heart of Dresden. This was originally called "Brühl's Garden" and is today known as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Br%C3%BChl%27s_Terrace">Brühl's Terrace</a>. The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Br%C3%BChl_Palace,_Warsaw">Brühl Palace</a> at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw">Warsaw</a> was rebuilt according to the designs by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joachim_Daniel_von_Jauch">Joachim Daniel von Jauch</a> from 1754 to 1759.
Brühl was a dedicated collector and protector of the arts - <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Algarotti">Francesco Algarotti</a> called him a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maecenas">Maecenas</a>. He owned a large gallery of pictures, which was bought by Empress <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_II_of_Russia">Catherine II of Russia</a> in 1768, and his library of 70,000 volumes was one of the biggest private libraries in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>.
</p><p>Brühl was portrayed by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Riemann">Johannes Riemann</a> in the 1941 film <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedemann_Bach_(film)">Friedemann Bach</a></i>.
</p>
<h2></h2>
<p>He married countess Franziska von <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolowrat_family">Kolowrat-Krakowska</a> on 29 April 1734. She was born into one of the most powerful noble houses of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohemia">Bohemian</a> origin and was a favourite of the wife of Frederick Augustus. Four sons and a daughter survived him. His eldest son, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alois_Friedrich_von_Br%C3%BChl">Alois Friedrich von Brühl</a>, was also a Saxon politician, and a soldier and dramatist as well. His daughter <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Amalia_Mniszchowa">Maria Amalia</a> married Polish count, Jerzy August <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mniszech">Mniszech</a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dukla">Dukla</a>. His youngest son, Hans Moritz von Brühl (1746–1811), was before the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolution">Revolution of 1789</a> a colonel in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_of_France">French service</a>, and afterwards general inspector of roads in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margraviate_of_Brandenburg">Brandenburg</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Pomerania">Pomerania</a>. By his wife Margarethe Schleierweber, the daughter of a French corporal, and renowned for her beauty and intellectual gifts, he was the father of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_von_Br%C3%BChl">Carl von Brühl</a> who as intendant-general of the Prussian royal theatres was of some importance in the history of the development of drama in Germany.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911-2">[2]</a></sup> Another granddaughter was <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_von_Br%C3%BChl">Marie von Brühl</a>, who married <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_von_Clausewitz">Carl von Clausewitz</a>.
</p><p>Heinrich von Brühl also had a nephew named <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Moritz_von_Br%C3%BChl">Hans Moritz von Brühl</a>, the same as that of his youngest son. The nephew was a diplomat and astronomer, and lived much of his life in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England">England</a>.
</p>
<h2></h2>
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Repnin">Nicholas Repnin</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Count_Wenzel_Anton_Kaunitz-Rietberg">Count Wenzel Anton Kaunitz-Rietberg</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Br%C3%BChl_(disambiguation)">Brühl (disambiguation)</a></li></ul>
<h2></h2>
<div><ol>
<li> 
</li>
<li> 
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2></h2>
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harald_Marx&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1">Harald Marx</a> (Ed.): <i>Dresde ou le rêve des Princes. La Galerie de Peintures au XVIIIe siècle</i>. Dijon 2001</li></ul>
<p><b>Attribution:</b>
</p>
<ul><li>This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain">public domain</a>: <cite><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Br%C3%BChl,_Heinrich,_Count_von">Brühl, Heinrich, Count von</a>". <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 679.</cite> This publication in turn cites:
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._G._H._von_Justi">J. G. H. von Justi</a>: <i>Leben und Charakter des Grafen von Brühl.</i> Göttingen, 1760–1761</li></ul></li>
<li>This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain">public domain</a>: <cite>Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1920). . <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_Americana">Encyclopedia Americana</a></i>.</cite></li></ul>
<h2></h2>
<div>
<p></p>
</div>
<ul><li> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Graf_von_Br%C3%BChl">Heinrich Graf von Brühl</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul>
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 * 1 Career
 * 2 Politics
 * 3 Legacy
 * 4 Family
 * 5 See also
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 Heinrich von Brühl

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 Count 
 Heinrich von Brühl 
 Heinrich von Brühl in a Polish costume by Bacciarelli
  Heinrich von Brühl 
 Born 13 August 1700  
  Gangloffsömmern  
 Died 28 October 1763 (aged 63) 
  Dresden  
 Nationality Saxon, Polish  
 Occupation(s) Diplomat, statesman at the court of Saxony and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
 Spouse Countess Franziska von Kolowrat-Krakowska 
 Parent Johann Moritz von Brühl 
 

 Heinrich, Count von Brühl (Polish: Henryk Brühl, 13 August 1700 – 28 October 1763), was a Polish-Saxon statesman at the court of Saxony and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and a member of the powerful German von Brühl family. The incumbency of this ambitious politician coincided with the decline of both states. Brühl was a skillful diplomat and cunning strategist, who managed to attain control over of Saxony and Poland, partly by controlling its king, Augustus III, who ultimately could only be accessed through Brühl himself.

 Polish historian and writer Józef Ignacy Kraszewski wrote a novel under the title Count Brühl, in which he described Heinrich as an oppressive and stubborn dictator, who, with greed, but also great determination, unsuccessfully attempted to gain control of the entire nation.[1]

 It is widely believed that Brühl had Europe's largest collection of watches and military vests; attributed to him was also a vast collection of ceremonial wigs, hats and the largest collection of Meissen porcelain in the world. He had also one of the biggest collection of kabbala books in Europe.

 Career [ edit ]

 Count Brühl's Goat by Carl Seiler depicting Brühl showing off his extravagant Meissen porcelain. Victoria and Albert Museum

 Brühl was born in Gangloffsömmern the son of Johann Moritz von Brühl, a noble who held the office of the Oberhofmarschall at the court of Saxe-Weissenfels (ruled by a cadet branch of the Albertine House of Wettin), by his first wife Erdmuth Sophie v. d. Heide. His father was ruined and compelled to part with his family estate, which passed into the hands of the prince. Under Duke Christian of Saxe-Weissenfels von Brühl was first placed as page with the dowager duchess, and was then received at her recommendation into the court of the Electorate of Saxony at Dresden as a Silberpage on 16 April 1719. He rapidly acquired the favour of the Elector Frederick Augustus I of Wettin, surnamed the Strong, who, in 1697, had been elected King of Poland (as Augustus II). Brühl was largely employed in procuring money for his extravagant master. He became Chief Receiver of Taxes and Minister of the Interior of Saxony in 1731.[2]

 He was at Warsaw when his master died in 1733, and obtained the confidence of the Prince-Elector Frederick Augustus II, who was at Dresden at the time, by acquiring the papers and jewels of his late father and bringing them promptly to his successor.[2] Von Brühl raised money to secure the election of Frederick Augustus II as Polish king (Augustus III the Saxon), who in the following War of the Polish Succession prevailed against his rival Stanisław I.

 During most of the thirty years of the ineffective reign of August III the Saxon, he was the major confidant of the king and the de facto head of the Saxon court. Reichsgraf since 27 November 1737, he had to acquiesce to the influence of old servants of the electoral house for a time, but after 1738 he was in effect sole minister, a position for which he actually had neither the skills nor the knowledge. The title of a Prime Minister was created for him in 1746, but as a classic court favourite his power extended beyond that office. Besides securing huge grants of land for himself, he acquired numerous titles, and he drew the combined salaries of these offices.[2] He also worked closely with Bishop Kajetan Sołtyk of Kraków.

 Count Brühl's Tailor on a Goat - satirical porcelain figure by Meissen

 Brühl had cunning and skill sufficient to govern his master and get rid of his rivals and succeeded in keeping everybody at a distance from the king. No servant entered the king's service without the consent of Brühl, and even when the king went to the chapel all approach to him was prevented. A typical interaction of the king with Brühl has the king loitering about smoking, and asking, without looking at his favorite, "Brühl, have I any money?" "Yes, sire," was the continual answer, and to satisfy the king's demands, Brühl exhausted the state, plunged the country into debts and greatly reduced the army.

 Brühl kept 200 domestics; his guards were better paid than those of the king himself, and his table more sumptuous. Frederick II said of him, "Brühl had more garments, watches, laces, boots, shoes and slippers, than any man of the age. Caesar would have counted him among those curled and perfumed heads which he did not fear."

 Politics [ edit ]

 Heinrich von Brühl by Marcello Bacciarelli (1758-1763), National Museum in Warsaw

 Brühl was a capable diplomat, who played a vital role in the Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 and the convergence of Habsburg and France. However he was wholly responsible for a ruinous fiscal policy which decisively weakened the position of Saxony within the Holy Roman Empire between 1733 and 1763; for the mistaken ambition which led Frederick Augustus II to become a candidate for the throne of Poland, which led to a civil war and did sustainable damage to the Polish sovereignty; for the engagements into which he entered in order to secure the support of Emperor Charles VI of Habsburg; for the shameless and ill-timed tergiversations of Saxony during the War of the Austrian Succession; for the intrigues which entangled the Electorate in the alliance against King Frederick II of Prussia, which led to the outbreak of the Seven Years' War; and for the waste and want of foresight which left the bankrupt country utterly unprepared to resist the immediate attack of the Prussian king.[2]

 At the beginning of the Seven Years' War the Saxon army comprised but 17,000 men. After a few weeks, the decimated army, under Frederick Augustus Rutowsky, was compelled to surrender at Pirna from want of the necessary supplies. The army was dissolved, while Saxony remained a war theatre.

 Brühl was not only without political or military capacity, but was so garrulous that he could not keep a secret. His indiscretion was repeatedly responsible for the king of Prussia's discoveries of the plans laid against him. Nothing could shake the confidence of his master, which survived the ignominious flight into Bohemia, into which he was trapped by Brühl at the time of the Battle of Kesselsdorf, and all the miseries of the Seven Years' War.[2] They fled with the pictures and the china, but the archives of the state were left to the victor.

 The favourite abused the confidence of his master shamelessly. Not content with the 67,000 talers a month which he drew as salary for his innumerable offices, he was found when an inquiry was held in the next reign to have abstracted more than five million talers of public money for his private use. He left the work of the government offices to be done by his lackeys, whom he did not even supervise.[2]

 Legacy [ edit ]

 Brühl Palace in Warsaw, one of the largest palaces and one of the finest examples of rococo architecture in pre-war Poland

 Brühl died at Dresden on 28 October 1763, having survived his master only for a few weeks. The new elector, Frederick Christian caused an inquiry to be held into his administration. His fortune including large palaces at Pförten (present-day Brody), Oberlichtenau and Wachau-Seifersdorf was found to amount to a million and a half talers, and was sequestered but afterwards restored to his family.[2] The inquiry showed that Brühl owed his immense fortune to the prodigality of the king rather than to unlawful means of accumulation.

 His profusion was often beneficial to the arts and sciences. The famous Meissen porcelain Swan Service was made for him, with over 2,200 pieces, now dispersed to collections around the world. In 1736 the architect Johann Christoph Knöffel had begun to build a city palace and terrace for the count on the bank of the Elbe in the heart of Dresden. This was originally called "Brühl's Garden" and is today known as Brühl's Terrace. The Brühl Palace at Warsaw was rebuilt according to the designs by Joachim Daniel von Jauch from 1754 to 1759. Brühl was a dedicated collector and protector of the arts - Francesco Algarotti called him a Maecenas. He owned a large gallery of pictures, which was bought by Empress Catherine II of Russia in 1768, and his library of 70,000 volumes was one of the biggest private libraries in the Holy Roman Empire.

 Brühl was portrayed by Johannes Riemann in the 1941 film Friedemann Bach.

 Family [ edit ]

 He married countess Franziska von Kolowrat-Krakowska on 29 April 1734. She was born into one of the most powerful noble houses of Bohemian origin and was a favourite of the wife of Frederick Augustus. Four sons and a daughter survived him. His eldest son, Alois Friedrich von Brühl, was also a Saxon politician, and a soldier and dramatist as well. His daughter Maria Amalia married Polish count, Jerzy August Mniszech of Dukla. His youngest son, Hans Moritz von Brühl (1746–1811), was before the Revolution of 1789 a colonel in the French service, and afterwards general inspector of roads in Brandenburg and Pomerania. By his wife Margarethe Schleierweber, the daughter of a French corporal, and renowned for her beauty and intellectual gifts, he was the father of Carl von Brühl who as intendant-general of the Prussian royal theatres was of some importance in the history of the development of drama in Germany.[2] Another granddaughter was Marie von Brühl, who married Carl von Clausewitz.

 Heinrich von Brühl also had a nephew named Hans Moritz von Brühl, the same as that of his youngest son. The nephew was a diplomat and astronomer, and lived much of his life in England.

 See also [ edit ]

 * Nicholas Repnin
 * Count Wenzel Anton Kaunitz-Rietberg
 * Brühl (disambiguation)

 Notes [ edit ]

 1. ^ "Count Brühl". BRENTANO'S . Retrieved 8 March 2014 .
 2. ^ a b c d e f g h Chisholm 1911 .

 References [ edit ]

 * Harald Marx (Ed.): Dresde ou le rêve des Princes. La Galerie de Peintures au XVIIIe siècle. Dijon 2001

 Attribution:

 * This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Brühl, Heinrich, Count von". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 679. This publication in turn cites:
 + J. G. H. von Justi: Leben und Charakter des Grafen von Brühl. Göttingen, 1760–1761
 * This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1920). "Brühl, Heinrich, Count von" . Encyclopedia Americana.

 External links [ edit ]

 Wikisource has the text of the Nuttall Encyclopædia article Brühl, Heinrich, Count von.
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 
     Count Heinrich von Brühl     Heinrich von Brühl in a Polish costume by Bacciarelli     Born  Heinrich von Brühl 13 August 1700   Gangloffsömmern      Died 28 October 1763 (aged 63)   Dresden      Nationality  Saxon, Polish    Occupation(s)  Diplomat, statesman at the court of Saxony and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth    Spouse Countess Franziska von Kolowrat-Krakowska    Parent Johann Moritz von Brühl   
 Heinrich, Count von Brühl (Polish: Henryk Brühl, 13 August 1700 – 28 October 1763), was a Polish-Saxon statesman at the court of Saxony and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and a member of the powerful German von Brühl family. The incumbency of this ambitious politician coincided with the decline of both states. Brühl was a skillful diplomat and cunning strategist, who managed to attain control over of Saxony and Poland, partly by controlling its king, Augustus III, who ultimately could only be accessed through Brühl himself.
 Polish historian and writer Józef Ignacy Kraszewski wrote a novel under the title Count Brühl, in which he described Heinrich as an oppressive and stubborn dictator, who, with greed, but also great determination, unsuccessfully attempted to gain control of the entire nation. [1] 
 It is widely believed that Brühl had Europe's largest collection of watches and military vests; attributed to him was also a vast collection of ceremonial wigs, hats and the largest collection of Meissen porcelain in the world. He had also one of the biggest collection of kabbala books in Europe.
 
    Count Brühl's Goat by Carl Seiler depicting Brühl showing off his extravagant Meissen porcelain. Victoria and Albert Museum  
Brühl was born in Gangloffsömmern the son of Johann Moritz von Brühl, a noble who held the office of the  Oberhofmarschall  at the court of Saxe-Weissenfels (ruled by a cadet branch of the Albertine House of Wettin), by his first wife Erdmuth Sophie v. d. Heide. His father was ruined and compelled to part with his family estate, which passed into the hands of the prince. Under Duke Christian of Saxe-Weissenfels von Brühl was first placed as page with the dowager duchess, and was then received at her recommendation into the court of the Electorate of Saxony at Dresden as a Silberpage on 16 April 1719. He rapidly acquired the favour of the Elector Frederick Augustus I of Wettin, surnamed the Strong, who, in 1697, had been elected King of Poland (as Augustus II). Brühl was largely employed in procuring money for his extravagant master. He became Chief Receiver of Taxes and Minister of the Interior of Saxony in 1731. [2] 
 He was at Warsaw when his master died in 1733, and obtained the confidence of the Prince-Elector Frederick Augustus II, who was at Dresden at the time, by acquiring the papers and jewels of his late father and bringing them promptly to his successor. [2]  Von Brühl raised money to secure the election of Frederick Augustus II as Polish king (Augustus III the Saxon), who in the following War of the Polish Succession prevailed against his rival Stanisław I.
 During most of the thirty years of the ineffective reign of August III the Saxon, he was the major confidant of the king and the de facto head of the Saxon court. Reichsgraf since 27 November 1737, he had to acquiesce to the influence of old servants of the electoral house for a time, but after 1738 he was in effect sole minister, a position for which he actually had neither the skills nor the knowledge. The title of a Prime Minister was created for him in 1746, but as a classic court favourite his power extended beyond that office. Besides securing huge grants of land for himself, he acquired numerous titles, and he drew the combined salaries of these offices. [2]  He also worked closely with Bishop Kajetan Sołtyk of Kraków.
   Count Brühl's Tailor on a Goat - satirical porcelain figure by Meissen 
Brühl had cunning and skill sufficient to govern his master and get rid of his rivals and succeeded in keeping everybody at a distance from the king. No servant entered the king's service without the consent of Brühl, and even when the king went to the chapel all approach to him was prevented. A typical interaction of the king with Brühl has the king loitering about smoking, and asking, without looking at his favorite, "Brühl, have I any money?" "Yes, sire," was the continual answer, and to satisfy the king's demands, Brühl exhausted the state, plunged the country into debts and greatly reduced the army.
 Brühl kept 200 domestics; his guards were better paid than those of the king himself, and his table more sumptuous. Frederick II said of him, "Brühl had more garments, watches, laces, boots, shoes and slippers, than any man of the age. Caesar would have counted him among those curled and perfumed heads which he did not fear."
 
   Heinrich von Brühl by Marcello Bacciarelli (1758-1763), National Museum in Warsaw  
Brühl was a capable diplomat, who played a vital role in the Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 and the convergence of Habsburg and France. However he was wholly responsible for a ruinous fiscal policy which decisively weakened the position of Saxony within the Holy Roman Empire between 1733 and 1763; for the mistaken ambition which led Frederick Augustus II to become a candidate for the throne of Poland, which led to a civil war and did sustainable damage to the Polish sovereignty; for the engagements into which he entered in order to secure the support of Emperor Charles VI of Habsburg; for the shameless and ill-timed tergiversations of Saxony during the War of the Austrian Succession; for the intrigues which entangled the Electorate in the alliance against King Frederick II of Prussia, which led to the outbreak of the Seven Years' War; and for the waste and want of foresight which left the bankrupt country utterly unprepared to resist the immediate attack of the Prussian king. [2] 
 At the beginning of the Seven Years' War the Saxon army comprised but 17,000 men. After a few weeks, the decimated army, under Frederick Augustus Rutowsky, was compelled to surrender at Pirna from want of the necessary supplies. The army was dissolved, while Saxony remained a war theatre.
 Brühl was not only without political or military capacity, but was so garrulous that he could not keep a secret. His indiscretion was repeatedly responsible for the king of Prussia's discoveries of the plans laid against him. Nothing could shake the confidence of his master, which survived the ignominious flight into Bohemia, into which he was trapped by Brühl at the time of the Battle of Kesselsdorf, and all the miseries of the Seven Years' War. [2]  They fled with the pictures and the china, but the archives of the state were left to the victor.
 The favourite abused the confidence of his master shamelessly. Not content with the 67,000 talers a month which he drew as salary for his innumerable offices, he was found when an inquiry was held in the next reign to have abstracted more than five million talers of public money for his private use. He left the work of the government offices to be done by his lackeys, whom he did not even supervise. [2] 
 
    Brühl Palace in Warsaw, one of the largest palaces and one of the finest examples of rococo architecture in pre-war Poland 
Brühl died at Dresden on 28 October 1763, having survived his master only for a few weeks. The new elector, Frederick Christian caused an inquiry to be held into his administration. His fortune including large palaces at Pförten (present-day Brody), Oberlichtenau and Wachau-Seifersdorf was found to amount to a million and a half talers, and was sequestered but afterwards restored to his family. [2]  The inquiry showed that Brühl owed his immense fortune to the prodigality of the king rather than to unlawful means of accumulation.
 His profusion was often beneficial to the arts and sciences. The famous Meissen porcelain Swan Service was made for him, with over 2,200 pieces, now dispersed to collections around the world. In 1736 the architect Johann Christoph Knöffel had begun to build a city palace and terrace for the count on the bank of the Elbe in the heart of Dresden. This was originally called "Brühl's Garden" and is today known as Brühl's Terrace. The Brühl Palace at Warsaw was rebuilt according to the designs by Joachim Daniel von Jauch from 1754 to 1759.
Brühl was a dedicated collector and protector of the arts - Francesco Algarotti called him a Maecenas. He owned a large gallery of pictures, which was bought by Empress Catherine II of Russia in 1768, and his library of 70,000 volumes was one of the biggest private libraries in the Holy Roman Empire.
 Brühl was portrayed by Johannes Riemann in the 1941 film  Friedemann Bach .
 
He married countess Franziska von Kolowrat-Krakowska on 29 April 1734. She was born into one of the most powerful noble houses of Bohemian origin and was a favourite of the wife of Frederick Augustus. Four sons and a daughter survived him. His eldest son, Alois Friedrich von Brühl, was also a Saxon politician, and a soldier and dramatist as well. His daughter Maria Amalia married Polish count, Jerzy August Mniszech of Dukla. His youngest son, Hans Moritz von Brühl (1746–1811), was before the Revolution of 1789 a colonel in the French service, and afterwards general inspector of roads in Brandenburg and Pomerania. By his wife Margarethe Schleierweber, the daughter of a French corporal, and renowned for her beauty and intellectual gifts, he was the father of Carl von Brühl who as intendant-general of the Prussian royal theatres was of some importance in the history of the development of drama in Germany. [2]  Another granddaughter was Marie von Brühl, who married Carl von Clausewitz.
 Heinrich von Brühl also had a nephew named Hans Moritz von Brühl, the same as that of his youngest son. The nephew was a diplomat and astronomer, and lived much of his life in England.
 
  Nicholas Repnin 
 Count Wenzel Anton Kaunitz-Rietberg 
 Brühl (disambiguation)  
 
 
 
 
 
 
  Harald Marx (Ed.): Dresde ou le rêve des Princes. La Galerie de Peintures au XVIIIe siècle. Dijon 2001 
 Attribution:
 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Brühl, Heinrich, Count von".  Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 679. This publication in turn cites:
  J. G. H. von Justi: Leben und Charakter des Grafen von Brühl. Göttingen, 1760–1761  
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1920). .  Encyclopedia Americana .  
 
 
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Robert E. Lee - Wikipedia
2001-11-01
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<div><div>
<table><tbody><tr><th><div><p><a href="/wiki/General_officers_in_the_Confederate_States_Army">General</a></p></div><p>Robert E. Lee</p></th></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_Edward_Lee.jpg"></a><p>Lee in March 1864</p></td></tr><tr><th>Birth name</th><td>Robert Edward Lee</td></tr><tr><th>Nickname(s)</th><td><div><ul><li>Uncle Robert</li><li>Marse Robert</li><li>King of Spades</li><li>Marble Man</li><li>Granny Lee (by Union)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Born</th><td>January 19, 1807<br /><a href="/wiki/Stratford_Hall_(plantation)">Stratford Hall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Westmoreland_County,_Virginia">Westmoreland County, Virginia</a>, U.S.</td></tr><tr><th>Died</th><td>October 12, 1870 (aged 63)<br /><a href="/wiki/Lexington,_Virginia">Lexington, Virginia</a>, U.S.</td></tr><tr><th>Buried</th><td><div><p><a href="/wiki/University_Chapel">University Chapel</a> at <a href="/wiki/Washington_and_Lee_University">Washington and Lee University</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lexington,_Virginia">Lexington, Virginia</a>, U.S.</p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Allegiance</th><td> <a href="/wiki/United_States">United States of America</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America">Confederate States of America</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Virginia">Commonwealth of Virginia</a></td></tr><tr><th>Service/<wbr></wbr>branch</th><td><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Board_of_War_and_Ordnance.png"></a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army">United States Army</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Army">Confederate States Army</a></td></tr><tr><th>Years of service</th><td><div><ul><li>1829–1861 (U.S.)</li><li>1861–1865 (C.S.)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Rank</th><td><a href="/wiki/File:Union_Army_colonel_rank_insignia.png"></a> <a href="/wiki/Colonel_(United_States)">Colonel</a> 
(U.S.)<br /><a href="/wiki/File:Confederate_States_of_America_General-collar.svg"></a> <a href="/wiki/General_officers_in_the_Confederate_States_Army">General</a> (C.S.)</td></tr><tr><th>Commands held</th><td><div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_in_Chief_of_the_Armies_of_the_Confederate_States">General in Chief of the Armies of the Confederate States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Academy">U.S. Military Academy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_Northern_Virginia">Army of Northern Virginia</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Battles/wars</th><td><div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War">Mexican–American War</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_Raid_on_Harpers_Ferry">John Brown's raid</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War">American Civil War</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/Alma_mater">Alma mater</a></th><td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Academy">United States Military Academy</a></td></tr><tr><th>Spouse(s)</th><td><div><div><p><a href="/wiki/Mary_Anna_Custis_Lee">Mary Anna Randolph Custis</a></p></div>
 <p>​</p> <p>​</p><p>(<abbr>m.</abbr> 1831)<wbr></wbr>​</p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Children</th><td><div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Custis_Lee">George</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Custis_Lee">Mary</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Fitzhugh_Lee">William</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee_Jr.">Robert Jr.</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Carter_Lee">Anne</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Agnes_Lee">Eleanor</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Mildred_Childe_Lee">Mildred</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Relations</th><td><div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Lee_III">Henry Lee III</a> (father)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Hill_Carter_Lee">Anne Hill Carter Lee</a> (mother)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Signature</th><td><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_E_Lee_Signature.svg"></a></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/General_in_Chief_of_the_Armies_of_the_Confederate_States">General in Chief of the Armies of the Confederate States</a></th></tr><tr><td><b>In office</b><br />February 6, 1865 – April 12, 1865</td></tr><tr><th>Preceded by</th><td><i>Position established</i></td></tr><tr><th>Succeeded by</th><td><i>Position abolished</i></td></tr><tr><th>1st <a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Washington_and_Lee_University">President of Washington and Lee University</a></th></tr><tr><td><b>In office</b><br />1865–1870</td></tr><tr><th>Preceded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/George_Junkin">George Junkin</a> (Washington College)</td></tr><tr><th>Succeeded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Custis_Lee">Custis Lee</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/Superintendent_of_the_United_States_Military_Academy">Superintendent of the United States Military Academy</a></th></tr><tr><td><b>In office</b><br />1852–1855</td></tr><tr><th>Preceded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/Henry_Brewerton">Henry Brewerton</a></td></tr><tr><th>Succeeded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/John_G._Barnard">John G. Barnard</a></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Robert Edward Lee</b> (January 19, 1807 – October 12, 1870) was a <a href="/wiki/General_officers_in_the_Confederate_States_Army">Confederate general</a> during the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War">American Civil War</a>, towards the end of which he was appointed the <a href="/wiki/General_in_Chief_of_the_Armies_of_the_Confederate_States">overall commander</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Army">Confederate States Army</a>. He led the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_Northern_Virginia">Army of Northern Virginia</a>—the Confederacy's most powerful army—from 1862 until its surrender in 1865, earning a reputation as a skilled tactician.
</p><p>A son of Revolutionary War officer <a href="/wiki/Henry_Lee_III">Henry "Light Horse Harry" Lee III</a>, Lee was a top graduate of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Academy">United States Military Academy</a> and an exceptional officer and <a href="/wiki/Military_engineering">military engineer</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army">United States Army</a> for 32 years. He served across the United States, distinguished himself extensively during the <a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War">Mexican–American War</a>, and was <a href="/wiki/Superintendent_of_the_United_States_Military_Academy">Superintendent of the United States Military Academy</a>. He married <a href="/wiki/Mary_Anna_Custis_Lee">Mary Anna Custis Lee</a>, great-granddaughter of <a href="/wiki/George_Washington">George Washington</a>'s wife <a href="/wiki/Martha_Washington">Martha</a>. While he opposed <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States">slavery</a> from a philosophical perspective, he supported its legality and held hundreds of slaves. When Virginia <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Secession_Convention_of_1861">declared</a> secession from the <a href="/wiki/Union_(American_Civil_War)">Union</a> in 1861, Lee chose to follow his home state, despite his desire for the country to remain intact and an offer of a senior Union command. During the first year of the Civil War, he served in minor combat operations and as a senior military adviser to <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Confederate_States_of_America">Confederate President</a> <a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Davis">Jefferson Davis</a>.
</p><p>Lee took command of the Army of Northern Virginia in June 1862 during the <a href="/wiki/Peninsula_Campaign">Peninsula Campaign</a> following the wounding of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._Johnston">Joseph E. Johnston</a>. He succeeded in driving the Union <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Potomac">Army of the Potomac</a> under <a href="/wiki/George_B._McClellan">George B. McClellan</a> away from the Confederate capital of <a href="/wiki/Richmond,_Virginia">Richmond</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Days_Battles">Seven Days Battles</a>, although he was unable to destroy McClellan's army. Lee then overcame Union forces under <a href="/wiki/John_Pope_(military_officer)">John Pope</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Bull_Run">Second Battle of Bull Run</a> in August. His <a href="/wiki/Maryland_Campaign">invasion of Maryland</a> that September ended with the inconclusive <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Antietam">Battle of Antietam</a>, after which he retreated to Virginia. Lee won two of his most decisive victories at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fredericksburg">Fredericksburg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chancellorsville">Chancellorsville</a> before launching a <a href="/wiki/Gettysburg_Campaign">second invasion of the North</a> in the summer of 1863, where he was decisively defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gettysburg">Battle of Gettysburg</a> by the Army of the Potomac under <a href="/wiki/George_Meade">George Meade</a>. He led his army in the minor and inconclusive <a href="/wiki/Bristoe_Campaign">Bristoe Campaign</a> that fall before General <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a> took command of Union armies in the spring of 1864. Grant engaged Lee's army in bloody but inconclusive battles at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Wilderness">Wilderness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Spotsylvania_Court_House">Spotsylvania</a> before the lengthy <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Petersburg">Siege of Petersburg</a>, which was followed in April 1865 by the capture of Richmond and the destruction of most of Lee's army, which he finally surrendered to Grant at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Appomattox_Court_House">Appomattox Court House</a>.
</p><p>In 1865, Lee became president of Washington College (later <a href="/wiki/Washington_and_Lee_University">Washington and Lee University</a>) in <a href="/wiki/Lexington,_Virginia">Lexington, Virginia</a>; in that position, he supported reconciliation between North and South. Lee accepted the extinction of slavery provided for by the <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment</a>, but opposed <a href="/wiki/Racial_equality">racial equality</a> for <a href="/wiki/African_American">African Americans</a>. After his death in 1870, Lee became a cultural icon in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States">South</a> and is largely hailed as one of the Civil War's greatest generals. As commander of the Army of Northern Virginia, he fought most of his battles against armies of significantly larger size, and managed to win many of them. Lee built up a collection of talented subordinates, most notably <a href="/wiki/James_Longstreet">James Longstreet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stonewall_Jackson">Stonewall Jackson</a>, and <a href="/wiki/J._E._B._Stuart">J. E. B. Stuart</a>, who along with Lee were critical to the Confederacy's battlefield success.<sup><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> In spite of his success, his two major strategic offensives into Union territory both ended in failure. Lee's aggressive and risky tactics, especially at Gettysburg, which resulted in high casualties at a time when the Confederacy had a shortage of manpower, have come under criticism.<sup><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Early life and education</h2>
<p>Lee was born at <a href="/wiki/Stratford_Hall_Plantation">Stratford Hall Plantation</a> in <a href="/wiki/Westmoreland_County,_Virginia">Westmoreland County, Virginia</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Henry_Lee_III">Henry Lee III</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anne_Hill_Carter_Lee">Anne Hill Carter Lee</a> on January 19, 1807.<sup><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> His ancestor, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Lee_I">Richard Lee I</a>, emigrated from <a href="/wiki/Shropshire">Shropshire</a>, <a href="/wiki/England">England</a>, to Virginia in 1639.<sup><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup>
</p><p>
Lee's father suffered severe financial reverses from failed investments<sup><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup> and was put in <a href="/wiki/Debtors%27_prison">debtors' prison</a>. Soon after his release the following year, the family moved to the city of <a href="/wiki/Alexandria,_Virginia">Alexandria</a> which at the time was still part of the <a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia">District of Columbia</a> (it <a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_retrocession">retroceded back to Virginia</a> in 1847), both because there were then high quality local schools there, and because several members of Anne's extended family lived nearby. In 1811, the family, including the newly born sixth child, Mildred, moved to a house on Oronoco Street.<sup><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup></p><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Lee_Fendall_House_from_the_street.JPG"></a></p><p>Oronoco Street, Alexandria, Virginia<br />"<a href="/wiki/Lee_Corner">Lee Corner</a>" properties</p></div><p>In 1812 Lee's father moved permanently to the <a href="/wiki/West_Indies">West Indies</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> Lee attended Eastern View, a school for young gentlemen, in <a href="/wiki/Fauquier_County,_Virginia">Fauquier County, Virginia</a>, and then at the Alexandria Academy, free for local boys, where he showed an aptitude for mathematics. Although brought up to be a practicing <a href="/wiki/Christians">Christian</a>, he was not confirmed in the <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_Church_(United_States)">Episcopal Church</a> until age 46.<sup><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup>
</p><p>Anne Lee's family was often supported by a relative, <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Fitzhugh">William Henry Fitzhugh</a>, who owned the Oronoco Street house and allowed the Lees to stay at his country home <a href="/wiki/Ravensworth_(plantation)">Ravensworth</a>. Fitzhugh wrote to <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War">United States Secretary of War</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_C._Calhoun">John C. Calhoun</a>, urging that Robert be given an appointment to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Academy">United States Military Academy</a> at West Point. Fitzhugh had young Robert deliver the letter.<sup><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup> Lee entered West Point in the summer of 1825. At the time, the focus of the curriculum was engineering; the head of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers">United States Army Corps of Engineers</a> supervised the school and the superintendent was an engineering officer. Cadets were not permitted leave until they finished two years of study and were rarely allowed off the academy grounds. Lee graduated second in his class behind <a href="/wiki/Charles_Mason_(Iowa_judge)">Charles Mason</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-Davis21-11">[11]</a></sup> (who resigned from the Army a year after graduation). Lee did not incur any demerits during his four-year course of study, a distinction shared by only five of his 45 classmates. In June 1829, Lee was commissioned a <a href="/wiki/Brevet_(military)">brevet</a> second lieutenant in the Corps of Engineers.<sup><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup> After graduation, while awaiting assignment, he returned to Virginia to find his mother on her deathbed; she died at Ravensworth on July 26, 1829.<sup><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Military engineer career</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_E_Lee_1838.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Lee at age 31 in 1838, as a Lieutenant of Engineers in the U.S. Army</p></div></div>
<p>On August 11, 1829, Brigadier General <a href="/wiki/Charles_Gratiot">Charles Gratiot</a> ordered Lee to <a href="/wiki/Cockspur_Island">Cockspur Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)">Georgia</a>. The plan was to build a fort on the marshy island which would command the outlet of the <a href="/wiki/Savannah_River">Savannah River</a>. Lee was involved in the early stages of construction as the island was being drained and built up.<sup><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> In 1831, it became apparent that the existing plan to build what became known as <a href="/wiki/Fort_Pulaski">Fort Pulaski</a> would have to be revamped, and Lee was transferred to <a href="/wiki/Fort_Monroe">Fort Monroe</a> at the tip of the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Peninsula">Virginia Peninsula</a> (today in <a href="/wiki/Hampton,_Virginia">Hampton, Virginia</a>).<sup><a href="#cite_note-bunker-15">[15]</a></sup><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Template:Harvard_citation_documentation#Wikilink_to_citation_does_not_work">citation not found</a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>While home in the summer of 1829, Lee had apparently courted <a href="/wiki/Mary_Anna_Custis_Lee">Mary Custis</a> whom he had known as a child. Lee obtained permission to write to her before leaving for Georgia, though Mary Custis warned Lee to be "discreet" in his writing, as her mother read her letters, especially from men.<sup><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup> Custis refused Lee the first time he asked to marry her; her father did not believe the son of the disgraced Light-Horse Harry Lee was a suitable man for his daughter.<sup><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup> She accepted him with her father's consent in September 1830, while he was on summer leave,<sup><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup> and the two were wed on June 30, 1831.<sup><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup>
</p><p>Lee's duties at Fort Monroe were varied, typical for a junior officer, and ranged from budgeting to designing buildings.<sup><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Template:Harvard_citation_documentation#Wikilink_to_citation_does_not_work">citation not found</a></i>]</sup> Although Mary Lee accompanied her husband to <a href="/wiki/Hampton_Roads">Hampton Roads</a>, she spent about a third of her time at Arlington, though the couple's first son, <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Custis_Lee">Custis Lee</a> was born at Fort Monroe. Although the two were by all accounts devoted to each other, they were different in character: Robert Lee was tidy and punctual, qualities his wife lacked. Mary Lee also had trouble transitioning from being a rich man's daughter to having to manage a household with only one or two slaves.<sup><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup> Beginning in 1832, Robert Lee had a close but platonic relationship with Harriett Talcott, wife of his fellow officer <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Talcott">Andrew Talcott</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup>
</p>
<p>Life at Fort Monroe was marked by conflicts between artillery and engineering officers. Eventually, the War Department transferred all engineering officers away from Fort Monroe, except Lee, who was ordered to take up residence on the artificial island of <a href="/wiki/Rip_Raps">Rip Raps</a> across the river from Fort Monroe, where <a href="/wiki/Fort_Wool">Fort Wool</a> would eventually rise, and continue work to improve the island. Lee duly moved there, then discharged all workers and informed the War Department he could not maintain laborers without the facilities of the fort.<sup><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1834, Lee was transferred to Washington as General Gratiot's assistant.<sup><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup> Lee had hoped to rent a house in Washington for his family, but was not able to find one; the family lived at Arlington, though Lieutenant Lee rented a room at a Washington boarding house for when the roads were impassable.<sup><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Template:Harvard_citation_documentation#Wikilink_to_citation_does_not_work">citation not found</a></i>]</sup> In mid-1835, Lee was assigned to assist Andrew Talcott in surveying the southern border of Michigan.<sup><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup> While on that expedition, he responded to a letter from an ill Mary Lee, which had requested he come to Arlington, "But why do you urge my <i>immediate</i> return, &amp; tempt one in the <i>strongest</i> manner[?] ... I rather require to be strengthened &amp; encouraged to the <i>full</i> performance of what I am called on to execute."<sup><a href="#cite_note-bunker-15">[15]</a></sup> Lee completed the assignment and returned to his post in Washington, finding his wife ill at Ravensworth. Mary Lee, who had recently given birth to their second child, remained bedridden for several months. In October 1836, Lee was promoted to first lieutenant.<sup><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup>
</p><p>Lee served as an assistant in the chief engineer's office in Washington, D.C. from 1834 to 1837, but spent the summer of 1835 helping to lay out the state line between <a href="/wiki/Ohio">Ohio</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michigan">Michigan</a>. As a <a href="/wiki/First_Lieutenant_(United_States)">first lieutenant</a> of engineers in 1837, he supervised the engineering work for <a href="/wiki/St._Louis,_Missouri">St. Louis</a> harbor and for the upper <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River">Mississippi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Missouri_River">Missouri</a> rivers. Among his projects was the mapping of the <a href="/wiki/Des_Moines_Rapids">Des Moines Rapids</a> on the Mississippi above <a href="/wiki/Keokuk,_Iowa">Keokuk, Iowa</a>, where the Mississippi's mean depth of 2.4 feet (0.7 m) was the upper limit of steamboat traffic on the river. His work there earned him a promotion to <a href="/wiki/Captain_(United_States_O-3)">captain</a>. Around 1842, Captain Robert E. Lee arrived as <a href="/wiki/Fort_Hamilton">Fort Hamilton</a>'s post engineer.<sup><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Marriage and family</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_E_Lee_1845.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>While Lee was stationed at Fort Monroe, he married <a href="/wiki/Mary_Anna_Custis_Lee">Mary Anna Randolph Custis</a> (1808–1873), great-granddaughter of <a href="/wiki/Martha_Washington">Martha Washington</a> by her first husband <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Parke_Custis">Daniel Parke Custis</a>, and step-great-granddaughter of <a href="/wiki/George_Washington">George Washington</a>, the first president of the United States. Mary was the only surviving child of <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Parke_Custis">George Washington Parke Custis</a>, George Washington's stepgrandson, and <a href="/wiki/Mary_Lee_Fitzhugh_Custis">Mary Lee Fitzhugh Custis</a>, daughter of <a href="/wiki/William_Fitzhugh">William Fitzhugh</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Ann_Bolling_Randolph_Fitzhugh">Ann Bolling Randolph</a>. Robert and Mary married on June 30, 1831, at <a href="/wiki/Arlington_House,_The_Robert_E._Lee_Memorial">Arlington House</a>, her parents' house just across the Potomac from Washington. The 3rd U.S. Artillery served as honor guard at the marriage. They eventually had seven children, three boys and four girls:<sup><a href="#cite_note-PryorLee2007-30">[30]</a></sup>
</p>
<ol><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Custis_Lee">George Washington Custis Lee</a> (Custis, "Boo"); 1832–1913; served as major general in the Confederate Army and aide-de-camp to President Jefferson Davis, captured during the Battle of Sailor's Creek; unmarried</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Custis_Lee">Mary Custis Lee</a> (Mary, "Daughter"); 1835–1918; unmarried</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Fitzhugh_Lee">William Henry Fitzhugh Lee</a> ("Rooney"); 1837–1891; served as major general in the Confederate Army (cavalry); married twice; surviving children by second marriage</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Carter_Lee">Anne Carter Lee</a> (Annie); June 18, 1839 – October 20, 1862; died of <a href="/wiki/Typhoid_fever">typhoid fever</a>, unmarried</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Agnes_Lee">Eleanor Agnes Lee</a> (Agnes); 1841 – October 15, 1873; died of <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>, unmarried</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Edward_Lee,_Jr.">Robert Edward Lee, Jr.</a> (Rob); 1843–1914; served in the Confederate Army, first as a private in the <a href="/wiki/1st_Rockbridge_Artillery">Rockbridge Artillery</a>, later as a Captain on the staff of his brother Rooney; married twice; surviving children by second marriage</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mildred_Childe_Lee">Mildred Childe Lee</a> (Milly, "Precious Life"); 1846–1905; unmarried</li></ol>
<p>All the children survived him except for Annie, who died in 1862. They are all buried with their parents in the crypt of the <a href="/wiki/University_Chapel">University Chapel</a> at <a href="/wiki/Washington_and_Lee_University">Washington and Lee University</a> in Lexington, Virginia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-WashingtonLee2020-31">[31]</a></sup>
</p><p>Lee is a great-great-great-grandson of <a href="/wiki/William_Randolph">William Randolph</a> and a great-great-grandson of <a href="/wiki/Richard_Bland_(burgess)">Richard Bland</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Dillon-32">[32]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Fitzhugh_Lee">Fitzhugh Lee</a> (1835–1905), a Confederate general and later a United States Army general in the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War">Spanish–American War</a>, is Lee's nephew. Lee is a second cousin of <a href="/wiki/Helen_Keller">Helen Keller</a>'s grandmother,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Keller2005-33">[33]</a></sup> and is a distant relative of Admiral <a href="/wiki/Willis_Augustus_Lee">Willis Augustus Lee</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Olympedia2020-34">[34]</a></sup>
</p><p>On May 1, 1864, General Lee was present at the baptism of General <a href="/wiki/A.P._Hill">A.P. Hill</a>'s daughter, Lucy Lee Hill, to serve as her godfather. This is referenced in the painting <i>Tender is the Heart</i> by <a href="/wiki/Mort_K%C3%BCnstler">Mort Künstler</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup> He was also the godfather of actress and writer <a href="/wiki/Odette_Tyler">Odette Tyler</a>, the daughter of Brigadier General <a href="/wiki/William_Whedbee_Kirkland">William Whedbee Kirkland</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:02-36">[36]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Mexican–American War</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_E_Lee_1851.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Robert E. Lee around age 43, when he was a brevet lieutenant-colonel of engineers, c. 1850</p></div></div>
<p>Lee distinguished himself in the <a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War">Mexican–American War</a> (1846–1848). He was one of <a href="/wiki/Winfield_Scott">Winfield Scott</a>'s chief aides in the march from <a href="/wiki/Veracruz_(city)">Veracruz</a> to Mexico City.<sup><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup> He was instrumental in several American victories through his personal reconnaissance as a staff officer; he found routes of attack that the <a href="/wiki/Mexico">Mexicans</a> had not defended because they thought the terrain was impassable.
</p><p>He was promoted to <a href="/wiki/Brevet_(military)">brevet</a> major after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cerro_Gordo">Battle of Cerro Gordo</a> on April 18, 1847.<sup><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup> He also fought at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Contreras">Contreras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Churubusco">Churubusco</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chapultepec">Chapultepec</a> and was wounded at the last. By the end of the war, he had received additional brevet promotions to lieutenant colonel and colonel, but his permanent rank was still captain of engineers, and he would remain a captain until his transfer to the <a href="/wiki/Cavalry">cavalry</a> in 1855.
</p><p>For the first time, Robert E. Lee and <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a> met and worked with each other during the Mexican–American War. Close observations of their commanders constituted a learning process for both Lee and Grant.<sup><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup> The Mexican–American War concluded on February 2, 1848.
</p><p>After the Mexican War, Lee spent three years at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Carroll">Fort Carroll</a> in <a href="/wiki/Baltimore">Baltimore</a> harbor. During this time, his service was interrupted by other duties, among them surveying and updating maps in Florida. Cuban revolutionary <a href="/wiki/Narciso_L%C3%B3pez">Narciso López</a> intended to forcibly liberate Cuba from Spanish rule. In 1849, searching for a leader for his <a href="/wiki/Filibuster_(military)">filibuster</a> expedition, he approached Jefferson Davis, then a United States senator. Davis declined and suggested Lee, who also declined. Both decided it was inconsistent with their duties.<sup><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Early 1850s: West Point and Texas</h2>
<p>The 1850s were a difficult time for Lee, with his long absences from home, the increasing disability of his wife, troubles in taking over the management of a large slave plantation, and his often morbid concern with his personal failures.<sup><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1852, Lee was appointed Superintendent of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Academy">Military Academy at West Point</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Davis111-43">[43]</a></sup> He was reluctant to enter what he called a "snake pit", but the War Department insisted and he obeyed. His wife occasionally came to visit. During his three years at West Point, Brevet Colonel Robert E. Lee improved the buildings and courses and spent much time with the cadets. Lee's oldest son, George Washington Custis Lee, attended West Point during his tenure. Custis Lee graduated in 1854, first in his class.<sup><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup>
</p><p>Lee was enormously relieved to receive a long-awaited promotion as second-in-command of the <a href="/wiki/5th_Cavalry_Regiment">2nd Cavalry Regiment</a> in Texas in 1855. It meant leaving the Engineering Corps and its sequence of staff jobs for the combat command he truly wanted. He served under Colonel <a href="/wiki/Albert_Sidney_Johnston">Albert Sidney Johnston</a> at <a href="/wiki/Camp_Cooper">Camp Cooper</a>, Texas; their mission was to protect settlers from attacks by the <a href="/wiki/Apache">Apache</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Comanche">Comanche</a>.
</p>
<h2>Late 1850s: Arlington plantation and the Custis slaves</h2>
<p>In 1857, his father-in-law <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Parke_Custis">George Washington Parke Custis</a> died, creating a serious crisis when Lee took on the burden of executing the will. Custis's will encompassed vast landholdings and hundreds of slaves balanced against massive debts, and required Custis's former slaves "to be emancipated by my executors in such manner as to my executors may seem most expedient and proper, the said emancipation to be accomplished in not exceeding five years from the time of my decease."<sup><a href="#cite_note-nathanielturner.com-45">[45]</a></sup> The estate was in disarray, and the plantations had been poorly managed and were losing money.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McElya2016-46">[46]</a></sup>
Lee tried to hire an overseer to handle the plantation in his absence, writing to his cousin, "I wish to get an energetic honest farmer, who while he will be considerate &amp; kind to the negroes, will be firm &amp; make them do their duty."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Fellman65-47">[47]</a></sup> But Lee failed to find a man for the job, and had to take a two-year leave of absence from the army in order to run the plantation himself.
</p><p>Lee's more strict expectations and harsher punishments of the slaves on Arlington plantation nearly led to a slave revolt, since many of the slaves had been given to understand that they were to be made free as soon as Custis died, and protested angrily at the delay.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Blassingame467to468-48">[48]</a></sup> In May 1858, Lee wrote to his son Rooney, "I have had some trouble with some of the people. Reuben, Parks &amp; Edward, in the beginning of the previous week, rebelled against my authority—refused to obey my orders, &amp; said they were as free as I was, etc., etc.—I succeeded in capturing them &amp; lodging them in jail. They resisted till overpowered &amp; called upon the other people to rescue them."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Fellman65-47">[47]</a></sup> Less than two months after they were sent to the <a href="/wiki/Alexandria,_Virginia">Alexandria</a> jail, Lee decided to remove these three men and three female house slaves from Arlington, and sent them under lock and key to the slave-trader William Overton Winston in <a href="/wiki/Richmond,_Virginia">Richmond</a>, who was instructed to keep them in jail until he could find "good &amp; responsible" slaveholders to work them until the end of the five-year period.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Fellman65-47">[47]</a></sup>
</p><p>By 1860 only one slave family was left intact on the estate. Some of the families had been together since their time at Mount Vernon.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Elizabeth_Brown_Pryor-49">[49]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>The Norris case</h3>
<p>In 1859, three of the Arlington slaves—Wesley Norris, his sister Mary, and a cousin of theirs—fled for the North, but were captured a few miles from the <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a> border and forced to return to Arlington. On June 24, 1859, the anti-slavery newspaper <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Tribune">New York Daily Tribune</a></i> published two anonymous letters (dated June 19, 1859<sup><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup> and June 21, 1859<sup><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup>), each claiming to have heard that Lee had the Norrises whipped, and each going so far as to claim that the overseer refused to whip the woman but that Lee took the whip and flogged her personally. Lee privately wrote to his son Custis that "The N. Y. Tribune has attacked me for my treatment of your grandfather's slaves, but I shall not reply. He has left me an unpleasant legacy."<sup><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup>
</p><p>Wesley Norris himself spoke out about the incident after the war, in an 1866 interview printed in an abolitionist newspaper, the <i><a href="/wiki/National_Anti-Slavery_Standard">National Anti-Slavery Standard</a></i>. Norris stated that after they had been captured, and forced to return to Arlington, Lee told them that "he would teach us a lesson we would not soon forget." According to Norris, Lee then had the three of them firmly tied to posts by the overseer, and ordered them whipped with fifty lashes for the men and twenty for Mary Norris. Norris claimed that Lee encouraged the whipping, and that when the overseer refused to do it, called in the county constable to do it instead. Unlike the anonymous letter writers, he does not state that Lee himself whipped any of the slaves. According to Norris, Lee "frequently enjoined [Constable] Williams to 'lay it on well,' an injunction which he did not fail to heed; not satisfied with simply lacerating our naked flesh, Gen. Lee then ordered the overseer to thoroughly wash our backs with <a href="/wiki/Brine">brine</a>, which was done."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Blassingame467to468-48">[48]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Norris men were then sent by Lee's agent to work on the railroads in Virginia and <a href="/wiki/Alabama">Alabama</a>. According to the interview, Norris was sent to Richmond in January 1863 "from which place I finally made my escape through the rebel lines to freedom." But Federal authorities reported that Norris came within their lines on September 5, 1863, and that he "left Richmond ... with a pass from General Custis Lee."<sup><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup> Lee freed the Custis slaves, including Wesley Norris, after the end of the five-year period in the winter of 1862, filing the deed of <a href="/wiki/Manumission">manumission</a> on December 29, 1862.<sup><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup>
</p><p>Biographers of Lee have differed over the credibility of the account of the punishment as described in the letters in the <i>Tribune</i> and in Norris's personal account. They broadly agree that Lee had a group of escaped slaves recaptured, and that, after recapturing them, he hired them out off of the Arlington plantation as a punishment; however, they disagree over the likelihood that Lee flogged them, and over the charge that he personally whipped Mary Norris. In 1934, <a href="/wiki/Douglas_S._Freeman">Douglas S. Freeman</a> described them as "Lee's first experience with the extravagance of irresponsible antislavery agitators" and asserted that "There is no evidence, direct or indirect, that Lee ever had them or any other Negroes flogged. The usage at Arlington and elsewhere in Virginia among people of Lee's station forbade such a thing."<sup><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 2000, Michael Fellman, in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Making_of_Robert_E._Lee">The Making of Robert E. Lee</a></i>, found the claims that Lee had personally whipped Mary Norris "extremely unlikely," but found it not at all unlikely that Lee had ordered the runaways whipped: "corporal punishment (for which Lee substituted the euphemism 'firmness') was (believed to be) an intrinsic and necessary part of slave discipline. Although it was supposed to be applied only in a calm and rational manner, overtly physical domination of slaves, unchecked by law, was always brutal and potentially savage."<sup><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 2003, Bernice-Marie Yates's <i>The Perfect Gentleman</i>, cited Freeman's denial and followed his account in holding that, because of Lee's family connections to George Washington, he "was a prime target for abolitionists who lacked all the facts of the situation."<sup><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup>
</p><p>Lee biographer Elizabeth Brown Pryor concluded in 2008 that "the facts are verifiable," based on "the consistency of the five extant descriptions of the episode (the only element that is not repeatedly corroborated is the allegation that Lee gave the beatings himself), as well as the existence of an account book that indicates the constable received compensation from Lee on the date that this event occurred."<sup><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 2014, Michael Korda wrote that "Although these letters are dismissed by most of Lee's biographers as exaggerated, or simply as unfounded abolitionist propaganda, it is hard to ignore them. ... It seems incongruously out of character for Lee to have whipped a slave woman himself, particularly one stripped to the waist, and that charge may have been a flourish added by the two correspondents; it was not repeated by Wesley Norris when his account of the incident was published in 1866. ... [A]lthough it seems unlikely that he would have done any of the whipping himself, he may not have flinched from observing it to make sure his orders were carried out exactly."<sup><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Lee's views on race and slavery</h3>
<p>Several historians have noted what they consider the contradictory nature of Lee's beliefs and actions concerning race and slavery. While Lee protested he had sympathetic feelings for blacks, they were subordinate to his own racial identity.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Fellman73–74-64">[64]</a></sup> While Lee held slavery to be an evil institution, he also saw some benefit to blacks held in slavery.<sup><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup> While Lee helped assist individual slaves to freedom in Liberia, and provided for their emancipation in his own will,<sup><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup> he believed the enslaved should be eventually freed in a general way only at some unspecified future date as a part of God's purpose.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Fellman73–74-64">[64]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-:80-67">[67]</a></sup> Slavery for Lee was a moral and religious issue, and not one that would yield to political solutions.<sup><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></sup> Emancipation would sooner come from Christian impulse among slave masters before "storms and tempests of fiery controversy" such as was occurring in "<a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a>".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Fellman73–74-64">[64]</a></sup> Countering Southerners who argued for <a href="/wiki/Slavery_as_a_positive_good_in_the_United_States">slavery as a positive good</a>, Lee in his well-known analysis of slavery from an 1856 letter (<i>see below</i>) called it a moral and political evil. While both Lee and his wife were disgusted with slavery, they also defended it against <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism">abolitionist</a> demands for immediate emancipation for all enslaved.<sup><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></sup>
</p><p>Lee argued that slavery was bad for white people,<sup><a href="#cite_note-:2-70">[70]</a></sup> claiming that he found slavery bothersome and time-consuming as an everyday institution to run. In an 1856 letter to his wife, he maintained that slavery was a great evil, but primarily due to adverse impact that it had on white people:<sup><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></sup>
</p>
<blockquote><p>In this enlightened age, there are few I believe, but what will acknowledge, that slavery as an institution, is a moral &amp; political evil in any Country. It is useless to expatiate on its disadvantages. I think it however a greater evil to the white man than to the black race, &amp; while my feelings are strongly enlisted in behalf of the latter, my sympathies are more strong for the former. The blacks are immeasurably better off here than in Africa, morally, socially &amp; physically. The painful discipline they are undergoing, is necessary for their instruction as a race, &amp; I hope will prepare &amp; lead them to better things. How long their subjugation may be necessary is known &amp; ordered by a wise Merciful Providence.<sup><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>Before leaving to serve in Mexico, Lee had written a will providing for the <a href="/wiki/Manumission">manumission</a> of the slaves he owned, "a woman and her children inherited from his mother and apparently leased to his father-in-law and later sold to him."<sup><a href="#cite_note-McCaslin_2001_66-73">[73]</a></sup> Lee's father-in-law, <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Parke_Custis">G. W. Parke Custis</a>, was a member of the <a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society">American Colonization Society</a>, which was formed to gradually end slavery by establishing a free republic in <a href="/wiki/Liberia">Liberia</a> for African-Americans, and Lee assisted several ex-slaves to emigrate there. Also, according to historian Richard B. McCaslin, Lee was a gradual emancipationist, denouncing extremist proposals for the immediate abolition of slavery. Lee rejected what he called evilly motivated political passion, fearing a civil and servile war from precipitous emancipation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></sup>
</p><p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Brown_Pryor">Elizabeth Brown Pryor</a> offered an alternative interpretation of Lee's voluntary manumission of slaves in his will, and assisting slaves to a life of freedom in Liberia, seeing Lee as conforming to a "primacy of slave law". She wrote that Lee's private views on race and slavery,
</p>
<dl><dd>"which today seem startling, were entirely unremarkable in Lee's world. No visionary, Lee nearly always tried to conform to accepted opinions. His assessment of black inferiority, of the necessity of racial stratification, the primacy of slave law, and even a divine sanction for it all, was in keeping with the prevailing views of other moderate slaveholders and a good many prominent Northerners."<sup><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<p>In 1857, George Custis died, leaving Robert Lee as the executor of his estate, which included nearly 200 slaves.<sup><a href="#cite_note-acwm.org-76">[76]</a></sup> In his will, Custis stated the slaves were to be freed within five years of his death. On taking on the role of administrator for the Parke Custis will, Lee used a provision to retain them in slavery to produce income for the estate to retire debt.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McCaslin_2001_57-77">[77]</a></sup> Lee did not welcome the role of planter while administering the Custis properties at Romancoke, another nearby the Pamunkey River and Arlington; he rented the estate's mill. While all the estates prospered under his administration, Lee was unhappy at direct participation in slavery as a hated institution.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McCaslin_2001_58-78">[78]</a></sup>
</p><p>Even before what Michael Fellman called a "sorry involvement in actual slave management", Lee judged the experience of white mastery to be a greater moral evil to the white man than blacks suffering under the "painful discipline" of slavery which introduced Christianity, literacy and a work ethic to the "heathen African".<sup><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></sup> Columbia University historian <a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner">Eric Foner</a> notes that:
</p>
<dl><dd>Lee "was not a pro-slavery ideologue. But I think equally important is that, unlike some white southerners, he never spoke out against slavery"<sup><a href="#cite_note-:3-80">[80]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<p>By the time of Lee's career in the U.S. Army, the officers of West Point stood aloof from political-party and sectional strife on such issues as slavery, as a matter of principle, and Lee adhered to the precedent.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Skelton-81">[81]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></sup> He considered it his patriotic duty to be apolitical while in active Army service,<sup><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></sup> and Lee did not speak out publicly on the subject of slavery prior to the Civil War.<sup><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a></sup> Before the outbreak of the War, in 1860, Lee voted for <a href="/wiki/John_C._Breckinridge">John C. Breckinridge</a>, who was the extreme pro-slavery candidate in the 1860 presidential election, not <a href="/wiki/John_Bell_(Tennessee_politician)">John Bell</a>, the more moderate Southerner who won Virginia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Foner-88">[88]</a></sup>
</p><p>Lee himself owned a small number of slaves in his lifetime and considered himself a paternalistic master.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Foner-88">[88]</a></sup> There are various historical and newspaper hearsay accounts of Lee personally whipping a slave, but they are not direct eyewitness accounts. He was definitely involved in administering the day-to-day operations of a plantation and was involved in the recapture of runaway slaves.<sup><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a></sup> One historian noted that Lee separated slave families, something that prominent slave-holding families in Virginia such as Washington and Custis did not do.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:2-70">[70]</a></sup> On December 29, 1862, Lee freed all the slaves his wife had inherited from George Custis, but this was in accordance with the Custis will, as that was the last day he was allowed to legally retain them.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:1-90">[90]</a></sup> Prior to this, Lee had petitioned the courts to keep the Custis slaves longer than the five years allotted in Custis' will, since the estate was still in debt, but the courts rejected his appeals.<sup><a href="#cite_note-acwm.org-76">[76]</a></sup> In 1866, one of Lee's former slaves, Wesley Norris, charged that Lee personally beat him and other slaves harshly after they had tried to run away from Arlington.<sup><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></sup> Lee never publicly responded to this charge, but privately told a friend "There is not a word of truth in it . . . No servant, soldier, or citizen, that was ever employed by me can with truth charge me with bad treatment.”<sup><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a></sup>
</p><p>Foner writes that "Lee's code of gentlemanly conduct did not seem to apply to blacks" during the War, as he did not stop his soldiers from kidnapping free black farmers and selling them into slavery.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:3-80">[80]</a></sup> Princeton University historian <a href="/wiki/James_M._McPherson">James M. McPherson</a> noted that Lee initially rejected a <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_prison_camps#Prisoner_exchanges">prisoner exchange between the Confederacy and the Union</a> when the Union demanded that black Union soldiers be included.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:2-70">[70]</a></sup> Lee did not accept the swap until a few months before the Confederacy's surrender.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:2-70">[70]</a></sup> He also called the <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a> "a savage and brutal policy...which leaves us no alternative but success or degradation worse than death."<sup><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a></sup>
</p><p>As the war dragged on and Lee's losses mounted, he eventually advocated enlisting slaves in the Confederate army in exchange for freedom. However, he came to this position with great reluctance. In an 1865 letter to his friend <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Hunter_(lawyer)">Andrew Hunter</a>, he wrote "Considering the relation of master and slave, controlled by humane laws and influenced by Christianity and an enlightened public sentiment, as the best that can exist between the white and black races while intermingled as at present in this country, I would deprecate any sudden disturbance of that relation unless it be necessary to avert a greater calamity to both. I should therefore prefer to rely upon our white population to preserve the ratio between our forces and those of the enemy, which experience has shown to be safe. But in view of the preparations of our enemies, it is our duty to provide for continued war and not for a battle or a campaign, and I fear that we cannot accomplish this without overtaxing the capacity of our white population."<sup><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a></sup>
</p><p>After the War, Lee told a congressional committee that blacks were "not disposed to work" and did not possess the intellectual capacity to vote and participate in politics.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:1-90">[90]</a></sup> Lee also said to the committee that he hoped that Virginia could "get rid of them," referring to blacks.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:1-90">[90]</a></sup> While not politically active, Lee defended Lincoln's successor <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a>'s approach to Reconstruction, which according to Foner, "abandoned the former slaves to the mercy of governments controlled by their former owners."<sup><a href="#cite_note-:4-95">[95]</a></sup> According to Foner, "A word from Lee might have encouraged white Southerners to accord blacks equal rights and inhibited the violence against the freed people that swept the region during Reconstruction, but he chose to remain silent."<sup><a href="#cite_note-:1-90">[90]</a></sup> Lee was also urged to condemn the white-supremacy<sup><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a></sup> organization <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a>, but opted to remain silent.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Foner-88">[88]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the generation following the war, Lee, though he died just a few years later, became a central figure in the <a href="/wiki/Lost_Cause_of_the_Confederacy">Lost Cause</a> interpretation of the war. The argument that Lee had always somehow opposed slavery, and freed his wife's slaves, helped maintain his stature as a symbol of Southern honor and national reconciliation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Foner-88">[88]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Harpers Ferry and return to Texas, 1859–1861</h2>
<p>Both <a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry">Harpers Ferry</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Texas_in_the_American_Civil_War">secession of Texas</a> were monumental events leading up to the Civil War. Robert E. Lee was at both events. Lee initially remained loyal to the Union after Texas seceded.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Melton2012-97">[97]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Harpers Ferry</h3>
<p><a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionist)">John Brown</a> led a band of 21 abolitionists who seized the <a href="/wiki/Harpers_Ferry_Armory">federal arsenal</a> at <a href="/wiki/Harpers_Ferry,_West_Virginia">Harpers Ferry</a>, Virginia, in October 1859, hoping to incite a slave rebellion. President <a href="/wiki/James_Buchanan">James Buchanan</a> gave Lee command of detachments of militia, soldiers, and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Marines">United States Marines</a>, to suppress the uprising and arrest its leaders.<sup><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></sup> By the time Lee arrived that night, the militia on the site had surrounded Brown and his hostages. At dawn, Brown refused the demand for surrender. Lee attacked, and Brown and his followers were captured after three minutes of fighting. Lee's summary report of the episode shows Lee believed it "was the attempt of a fanatic or madman". Lee said Brown achieved "temporary success" by creating panic and confusion and by "magnifying" the number of participants involved in the raid.<sup><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Texas</h3>
<p>In 1860, Lt. Col. Robert E. Lee relieved Major <a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Heintzelman">Heintzelman</a> at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Brown,_Texas">Fort Brown</a>, and the Mexican authorities offered to restrain "their citizens from making predatory descents upon the territory and people of Texas ... this was the last active operation of the <a href="/wiki/Cortina_War">Cortina War</a>". <a href="/wiki/Rip_Ford">Rip Ford</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Texas_Rangers_Division">Texas Ranger</a> at the time, described Lee as "dignified without hauteur, grand without pride ... he evinced an imperturbable self-possession, and a complete control of his passions ... possessing the capacity to accomplish great ends and the gift of controlling and leading men."<sup><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></sup>
</p><p>When Texas seceded from the <a href="/wiki/Union_(American_Civil_War)">Union</a> in February 1861, General <a href="/wiki/David_E._Twiggs">David E. Twiggs</a> surrendered all the American forces (about 4,000 men, including Lee, and commander of the Department of Texas) to the Texans. Twiggs immediately resigned from the U.S. Army and was made a Confederate general. Lee went back to Washington and was appointed Colonel of the First Regiment of Cavalry in March 1861. Lee's colonelcy was signed by the new president, Abraham Lincoln. Three weeks after his promotion, Colonel Lee was offered a senior command (with the rank of Major General) in the expanding Army to fight the Southern States that had left the Union. <a href="/wiki/Fort_Mason_(Texas)">Fort Mason, Texas</a>, was Lee's last command with the United States Army.<sup><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Civil War</h2>
<h3>Resignation from United States Army</h3>
<p>Unlike many Southerners who expected a glorious war, Lee correctly predicted it as protracted and devastating.<sup><a href="#cite_note-pryor20110419-102">[102]</a></sup> He privately opposed the new <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America">Confederate States of America</a> in letters in early 1861, denouncing secession as "nothing but revolution" and an unconstitutional betrayal of the efforts of the <a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers">Founding Fathers</a>. Writing to George Washington Custis in January, Lee stated:
</p>
<blockquote><p>The South, in my opinion, has been aggrieved by the acts of the North, as you say. I feel the aggression, and am willing to take every proper step for redress. It is the principle I contend for, not individual or private benefit. As an American citizen, I take great pride in my country, her prosperity and institutions, and would defend any State if her rights were invaded. But I can anticipate no greater calamity for the country than a dissolution of the Union. It would be an accumulation of all the evils we complain of, and I am willing to sacrifice everything but honor for its preservation. I hope, therefore, that all constitutional means will be exhausted before there is a resort to force. Secession is nothing but revolution. The framers of our Constitution never exhausted so much labor, wisdom, and forbearance in its formation, and surrounded it with so many guards and securities, if it was intended to be broken by every member of the Confederacy at will. It was intended for "perpetual union," so expressed in the preamble, and for the establishment of a government, not a compact, which can only be dissolved by revolution, or the consent of all the people in convention assembled.<sup><a href="#cite_note-auto2-103">[103]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_E_Lee_in_1863.png"></a></p></div>
<p>Despite opposing secession, Lee said in January that "we can with a clear conscience separate" if all peaceful means failed. He agreed with secessionists in most areas, rejecting the Northern abolitionists' criticisms and their prevention of the expansion of slavery to the new western territories, and fear of the North's larger population. Lee supported the <a href="/wiki/Crittenden_Compromise">Crittenden Compromise</a>, which would have constitutionally protected slavery.<sup><a href="#cite_note-test-104">[104]</a></sup>
</p><p>Lee's objection to secession was ultimately outweighed by a sense of personal honor, reservations about the legitimacy of a strife-ridden "Union that can only be maintained by swords and bayonets", and his duty to defend his native Virginia if attacked.<sup><a href="#cite_note-auto2-103">[103]</a></sup> He was asked while leaving Texas by a lieutenant if he intended to fight for the Confederacy or the Union, to which Lee replied, "I shall never bear arms against the Union, but it may be necessary for me to carry a musket in the defense of my native state, Virginia, in which case I shall not prove recreant to my duty".<sup><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-test-104">[104]</a></sup>
</p><p>Although Virginia had the most slaves of any state, it was more similar to Maryland, which stayed in the Union, than to the Deep South; a convention voted against secession in early 1861. Scott, commanding general of the Union Army and Lee's mentor, told Lincoln he wanted him for a top command, telling Secretary of War <a href="/wiki/Simon_Cameron">Simon Cameron</a> that he had "entire confidence" in Lee. Lee accepted a promotion to colonel of the <a href="/wiki/1st_Cavalry_Regiment_(United_States)">1st Cavalry Regiment</a> on March 28, again swearing an oath to the United States.<sup><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-test-104">[104]</a></sup> Meanwhile, Lee ignored an offer of command from the Confederacy. After Lincoln's call for troops to put down the rebellion, a second Virginia convention in Richmond voted to secede<sup><a href="#cite_note-kearns-107">[107]</a></sup> on April 17, and a May 23 referendum would likely ratify the decision. That night Lee dined with brother <a href="/wiki/Sydney_Smith_Lee">Smith</a> and cousin <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Phillips_Lee">Phillips</a>, naval officers. Because of Lee's indecision, Phillips went to the War Department the next morning to warn that the Union might lose his cousin if the government did not act quickly.<sup><a href="#cite_note-test-104">[104]</a></sup>
</p><p>In Washington that day,<sup><a href="#cite_note-pryor20110419-102">[102]</a></sup> Lee was offered by presidential advisor <a href="/wiki/Francis_P._Blair">Francis P. Blair</a> a role as major general to command the <a href="/wiki/Civil_War_Defenses_of_Washington">defense of the national capital</a>. He replied:
</p>
<blockquote><p>Mr. Blair, I look upon secession as anarchy. If I owned the four millions of slaves in the South I would sacrifice them all to the Union; but how can I draw my sword upon Virginia, my native state?<sup><a href="#cite_note-kearns-107">[107]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>Lee immediately went to Scott, who tried to persuade him that Union forces would be large enough to prevent the South from fighting, so he would not have to oppose his state; Lee disagreed. When Lee asked if he could go home and not fight, the fellow Virginian said that the army did not need equivocal soldiers and that if he wanted to resign, he should do so before receiving official orders. Scott told him that Lee had made "the greatest mistake of your life".<sup><a href="#cite_note-test-104">[104]</a></sup>
</p><p>Lee agreed that to avoid dishonor he had to resign before receiving unwanted orders. While historians have usually called his decision inevitable ("the answer he was born to make", wrote <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Southall_Freeman">Douglas Southall Freeman</a>; another called it a "no-brainer") given the ties to family and state, an 1871 letter from his eldest daughter, Mary Custis Lee, to a biographer described Lee as "worn and harassed" yet calm as he deliberated alone in his office. People on the street noticed Lee's grim face as he tried to decide over the next two days, and he later said that he kept the resignation letter for a day before sending it on April 20. Two days later the Richmond convention invited Lee to the city. It elected him as commander of Virginia state forces before his arrival on April 23, and almost immediately gave him George Washington's sword as symbol of his appointment; whether he was told of a decision he did not want without time to decide, or did want the excitement and opportunity of command, is unclear.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Davis21-11">[11]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-test-104">[104]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-pryor20110419-102">[102]</a></sup>
</p><p>A cousin on Scott's staff told the family that Lee's decision so upset Scott that he collapsed on a sofa and mourned as if he had lost a son, and asked to not hear Lee's name. When Lee told family his decision, he said "I suppose you will all think I have done very wrong", as the others were mostly pro-Union; only Mary Custis was a secessionist, and her mother especially wanted to choose the Union, but told her husband that she would support whatever he decided. Many younger men like nephew <a href="/wiki/Fitzhugh_Lee">Fitzhugh</a> wanted to support the Confederacy, but Lee's three sons joined the Confederate military only after their father's decision.<sup><a href="#cite_note-test-104">[104]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-pryor20110419-102">[102]</a></sup>
</p><p>Most family members, like brother Smith, also reluctantly chose the South, but Smith's wife and Anne, Lee's sister, still supported the Union; Anne's son joined the Union Army, and no one in his family ever spoke to Lee again. Many cousins fought for the Confederacy, but Phillips and John Fitzgerald told Lee in person that they would uphold their oaths; <a href="/wiki/John_H._Upshur">John H. Upshur</a> stayed with the Union military despite much family pressure; <a href="/wiki/Roger_Jones_(Inspector_General)">Roger Jones</a> stayed in the Union army after Lee refused to advise him on what to do; and two of <a href="/wiki/Philip_Richard_Fendall_II">Philip Fendall</a>'s sons fought for the Union. Forty percent of Virginian officers stayed with the North.<sup><a href="#cite_note-test-104">[104]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-pryor20110419-102">[102]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Early role</h3>
<p>At the outbreak of war, Lee was appointed to command all of Virginia's forces, which then encompassed the <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Army_of_Virginia">Provisional Army of Virginia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_State_Navy">Virginia State Navy</a>. He was appointed a Major General by the Virginia Governor, but upon the formation of the Confederate States Army, he was named one of its first five <a href="/wiki/Full_General_(CSA)">full generals</a>. Lee did not wear the insignia of a Confederate general, but only the three stars of a Confederate colonel, equivalent to his last U.S. Army rank.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Davis49-108">[108]</a></sup> He did not intend to wear a general's insignia until the Civil War had been won and he could be promoted, in peacetime, to general in the Confederate Army.
</p><p>Lee's first field assignment was commanding Confederate forces in western Virginia, where he was defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cheat_Mountain">Battle of Cheat Mountain</a> and was widely blamed for Confederate setbacks.<sup><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a></sup> He was then sent to organize the coastal defenses along the Carolina and Georgia seaboard, appointed commander, "Department of South Carolina, Georgia and Florida" on November 5, 1861. Between then and the fall of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Pulaski">Fort Pulaski</a>, April 11, 1862, he put in place a defense of Savannah that proved successful in blocking Federal advance on Savannah. Confederate fort and naval gunnery dictated nighttime movement and construction by the besiegers. Federal preparations required four months. In those four months, Lee developed a defense in depth. Behind Fort Pulaski on the Savannah River, <a href="/wiki/Fort_James_Jackson">Fort Jackson</a> was improved, and two additional batteries covered river approaches.<sup><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a></sup> In the face of the Union superiority in naval, artillery and infantry deployment, Lee was able to block any Federal advance on Savannah, and at the same time, well-trained Georgia troops were released in time to meet McClellan's Peninsula Campaign. The city of Savannah would not fall until <a href="/wiki/Sherman%27s_March_to_the_Sea">Sherman's approach from the interior</a> at the end of 1864.
</p><p>At first, the press spoke to the disappointment of losing Fort Pulaski. Surprised by the effectiveness of large caliber Parrott Rifles in their first deployment, it was widely speculated that only betrayal could have brought overnight surrender to a <a href="/wiki/Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States">Third System Fort</a>. Lee was said to have failed to get effective support in the Savannah River from the three sidewheeler gunboats of the Georgia Navy. Although again blamed by the press for Confederate reverses, he was appointed military adviser to <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Confederate_States">Confederate President</a> <a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Davis">Jefferson Davis</a>, the former <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War">U.S. Secretary of War</a>. While in <a href="/wiki/Richmond,_Virginia">Richmond</a>, Lee was ridiculed as the 'King of Spades' for his excessive digging of trenches around the capitol. These trenches would later play a pivotal role in battles near the end of the war.<sup><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Commander, Army of Northern Virginia (June 1862 – June 1863)</h3>
<p>In the spring of 1862, during the <a href="/wiki/Peninsula_Campaign">Peninsula Campaign</a>, the Union <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Potomac">Army of the Potomac</a> under General <a href="/wiki/George_B._McClellan">George B. McClellan</a> advanced on Richmond from <a href="/wiki/Fort_Monroe">Fort Monroe</a>. Progressing up the Peninsula, McClellan forced Gen. <a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._Johnston">Joseph E. Johnston</a> and the Army of Virginia to retreat to a point just north and east of the Confederate capital.
</p><p>Johnston was wounded at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Seven_Pines">Battle of Seven Pines</a>, on June 1, 1862, giving Lee his first opportunity to lead an army in the field – the force he renamed the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_Northern_Virginia">Army of <i>Northern</i> Virginia</a>, signalling confidence that the Union army could be driven away from Richmond. Early in the war, Lee had been called "Granny Lee" for his allegedly timid style of command.<sup><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></sup> Confederate newspaper editorials objected to him replacing Johnston, opining that Lee would be passive, waiting for Union attack. This seemed true, initially; for the first three weeks of June, Lee did not show aggression, instead strengthening Richmond's defenses.
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:General_R._E._Lee_and_Traveler.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>However, on June 25, he surprised the Army of the Potomac and launched a rapid series of bold attacks: the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Days_Battles">Seven Days Battles</a>. Despite superior Union numbers and some clumsy tactical performances by his subordinates, Lee's attacks derailed McClellan's plans and drove back most of his forces. Confederate casualties were heavy, but an unnerved McClellan, famed for his caution, retreated 25 miles (40 km) to the lower <a href="/wiki/James_River_(Virginia)">James River</a>, and abandoned the Peninsula completely in August. This success changed Confederate morale and the public's regard for Lee. After the Seven Days Battles, and until the end of the war, his men called him “Marse Robert", a term of respect and affection.<sup><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a></sup>
</p><p>The setback, and the resulting drop in Union morale, impelled Lincoln to adopt a new policy of relentless, committed warfare.<sup><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a></sup> After the Seven Days, Lincoln decided he had to move to emancipate most Confederate slaves by executive order, as a military act, using his authority as commander-in-chief.<sup><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a></sup> To make this possible, he needed a Union victory.
</p><p>Wheeling to the north, Lee marched rapidly towards Washington, D.C. and defeated another Union army under Gen. <a href="/wiki/John_Pope_(military_officer)">John Pope</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Bull_Run">Second Battle of Bull Run</a> in late August. He eliminated Pope before reinforcements from McClellan arrived, knocking out an entire field command before another could arrive to support it. In less than 90 days, Lee had run McClellan off the Peninsula, defeated Pope, and moved the battle lines 82 miles (132 km) north, from 6 miles (9.7 km) north of Richmond to 20 miles (32 km) south of Washington.
</p><p>Lee chose to take the battle off southern ground and invaded Maryland and Pennsylvania, hoping to collect supplies in Union territory, and possibly win a victory that would sway <a href="/wiki/United_States_elections,_1862">the upcoming Union elections</a> in favor of ending the war. This was sent amiss when McClellan's men found a lost Confederate dispatch, <a href="/wiki/Special_Order_191">Special Order 191</a>, revealing Lee's plans and movements. McClellan always exaggerated Lee's numerical strength, but now he knew the Confederate army was divided and could be destroyed in detail. Still, in a characteristic manner, McClellan moved slowly; he failed to realize a spy had informed Lee that he possessed the plans. Lee quickly concentrated his forces west of Antietam Creek, near <a href="/wiki/Sharpsburg,_Maryland">Sharpsburg, Maryland</a>, where McClellan attacked on September 17. The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Antietam">Battle of Antietam</a> was the single bloodiest day of the war, with both sides suffering enormous losses. Lee's army barely withstood the Union assaults, and retreated to Virginia the next day. The narrow Confederate defeat gave President <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> the opportunity to issue his <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a></sup> which put the Confederacy on the diplomatic and moral defensive.<sup><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a></sup>
</p><p>Disappointed by McClellan's failure to destroy Lee's army, Lincoln named <a href="/wiki/Ambrose_Burnside">Ambrose Burnside</a> the commander of the Army of the Potomac. Burnside ordered an attack across the <a href="/wiki/Rappahannock_River">Rappahannock River</a> at <a href="/wiki/Fredericksburg,_Virginia">Fredericksburg, Virginia</a>. Delays in bridging the river allowed Lee's army ample time to organize strong defenses, and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fredericksburg">the Union frontal assault</a> on December 13, 1862, was a disaster. There were 12,600 Union casualties to 5,000 Confederate, making the engagement one of the most one-sided battles in the Civil War.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Fellman124-125-119">[119]</a></sup> After this victory, Lee reportedly said, "It is well that war is so terrible, else we should grow too fond of it."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Fellman124-125-119">[119]</a></sup> At Fredericksburg, according to historian Michael Fellman, Lee had completely entered into the "spirit of war, where destructiveness took on its own beauty."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Fellman124-125-119">[119]</a></sup>
</p><p>The bitter Union defeat at Fredericksburg prompted President Lincoln to appoint <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hooker">Joseph Hooker</a> as the next commander of the Army of the Potomac. In May 1863, Hooker maneuvered to attack Lee's army by crossing the Rapahannock further upriver and positioning himself at the <a href="/wiki/Chancellorsville,_Virginia">Chancellorsville crossroads</a>. Doing this could give him an opportunity to strike Lee in the rear, but the Confederate General barely managed to pivot his forces in time to face an attack. Hooker's command was nearly twice the size of Lee's but he nonetheless <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chancellorsville">was beaten</a> after Lee performed a daring movement that broke all terms of conventional warfare: dividing his army. Lee sent <a href="/wiki/Stonewall_Jackson">Stonewall Jackson</a>'s corps to attack Hooker's exposed flank, on the opposite side of the battlefield. The decisive victory that followed came with a price. Among the heavy casualties was Jackson, his finest corps commander, accidentally fired on by his own troops.<sup><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a></sup>
</p><p>Even though he scored another impressive victory over an enemy army much larger than his own, Lee felt unsatisfied by the fact that he had made little territorial gains up to that point. Things were going poorly for the Confederacy in the West, and Lee started to grow restless; he devised a plan to once again invade the North, for similar reasons to before: relieve Virginia and its citizens of the weariness of battle, and potentially march on the Federal Capital and force terms of peace.
</p>
<h3>Battle of Gettysburg</h3>
<p>Critical decisions came in May–June 1863, after Lee's smashing victory at the Battle of Chancellorsville. The western front was crumbling, as multiple uncoordinated Confederate armies were unable to handle General <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a>'s campaign against Vicksburg. The top military advisers wanted to save Vicksburg, but Lee persuaded Davis to overrule them and authorize yet another invasion of the North. The immediate goal was to acquire urgently needed supplies from the rich farming districts of Pennsylvania; a long-term goal was to stimulate peace activity in the North by demonstrating the power of the South to invade. Lee's decision proved a significant strategic blunder and cost the Confederacy control of its western regions, and nearly cost Lee his own army as Union forces cut him off from the South.<sup><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Thure_de_Thulstrup_-_L._Prang_and_Co._-_Battle_of_Gettysburg_-_Restoration_by_Adam_Cuerden.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Lee launched the <a href="/wiki/Gettysburg_Campaign">Gettysburg Campaign</a> when he abandoned his position on the Rapahannock and crossed the Potomac River into Maryland in June. Hooker mobilized his men and pursued, but was replaced by Gen. <a href="/wiki/George_G._Meade">George G. Meade</a> on June 28, a few days before the two armies <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gettysburg">clashed</a> at the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania in early July; the battle produced the largest number of casualties in the American Civil War. Some of Lee's subordinates were new and inexperienced to their commands, and <a href="/wiki/J.E.B._Stuart">J.E.B. Stuart</a>’s cavalry failed to perform effective reconnaissance. The first day was a surprise affair for both sides, and the Confederates managed to rally their forces first, pushing the panicked Union troops away from town, and towards key terrain that should have been taken by <a href="/wiki/Richard_S._Ewell">General Ewell</a>, but was not. The second day unfolded differently for the Confederates. They took too much time to assemble, and launched repeated failed assaults against the Union left flank over difficult terrain. Lee's decision on the third day, going against the advice of his best corps commander, Gen. <a href="/wiki/James_Longstreet">James Longstreet</a>, to launch a massive frontal assault on the center of the Union line, was disastrous. It was carried out over a wide field, and has come to be known commonly as <a href="/wiki/Pickett%27s_Charge">Pickett's Charge</a>. Easily repulsed, Pickett’s Charge, named after the <a href="/wiki/George_Pickett">general</a> whose division participated, resulted in severe Confederate losses. Lee rode out to meet the remains of the division and proclaimed, "All this has been my fault."<sup><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a></sup> He had no choice but to withdraw, and he escaped Meade's ineffective pursuit, slipping back into Virginia.
</p><p>Following his defeat at Gettysburg, Lee sent a letter of resignation to President Davis on August 8, 1863, but Davis refused Lee's pleads to retire. That fall, Lee and Meade met again in two minor campaigns, <a href="/wiki/Bristoe_Campaign">Bristoe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mine_Run_Campaign">Mine Run</a>, that did little to change the strategic standoff. The Confederate Army never fully recovered from the substantial losses incurred during the three-day battle in southern Pennsylvania. Civil War Historian <a href="/wiki/Shelby_Foote">Shelby Foote</a> once stated, "Gettysburg was the price the South paid for having Robert E. Lee as commander."<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h3>Ulysses S. Grant and the Union offensive</h3>
<p>In 1864 the new Union general-in-chief, Lt. Gen. <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a>, sought to use his large advantages in manpower and material resources to destroy Lee's army by <a href="/wiki/Attrition_warfare">attrition</a>, pinning Lee against his capital of Richmond. Lee successfully stopped each attack, but Grant with his superior numbers kept pushing each time a bit farther to the southeast. These battles in the <a href="/wiki/Overland_Campaign">Overland Campaign</a> included the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Wilderness">Wilderness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Spotsylvania_Court_House">Spotsylvania Court House</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cold_Harbor">Cold Harbor</a>.
</p><p>Grant eventually was able to stealthily move his army across the <a href="/wiki/James_River_(Virginia)">James River</a>. After stopping a Union attempt to capture <a href="/wiki/Petersburg,_Virginia">Petersburg, Virginia</a>, a vital railroad link supplying Richmond, Lee's men built elaborate trenches and were besieged in Petersburg, a development which presaged the <a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare">trench warfare</a> of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I">World War I</a>. Lee attempted to break the stalemate by sending <a href="/wiki/Jubal_A._Early">Jubal A. Early</a> on a raid through the <a href="/wiki/Shenandoah_Valley">Shenandoah Valley</a> to Washington, D.C., but Early was defeated early on by the superior forces of <a href="/wiki/Philip_Sheridan">Philip Sheridan</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Petersburg">Siege of Petersburg</a> lasted from June 1864 until March 1865, with Lee's outnumbered and poorly supplied army shrinking daily because of desertions by disheartened Confederates.
</p>
<h3>General in Chief</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Robt_E_Lee_%26_Staff_by_Brady,_1865.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>On February 6, 1865, Lee was appointed <a href="/wiki/General_in_Chief_of_the_Armies_of_the_Confederate_States">General in Chief of the Armies of the Confederate States</a>.
</p><p>As the South ran out of manpower the issue of arming the slaves became paramount. Lee explained, "We should employ them without delay ... [along with] gradual and general emancipation". The first units were in training as the war ended.<sup><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Davis61-124">[124]</a></sup> As the Confederate army was devastated by casualties, disease and desertion, the Union attack on <a href="/wiki/Petersburg,_Virginia">Petersburg</a> succeeded on April 2, 1865. Lee abandoned Richmond and retreated west. Lee then made an attempt to escape to the southwest and join up with Joseph E. Johnston's Army of Tennessee in North Carolina. However, his forces were soon surrounded and he surrendered them to Grant on April 9, 1865, at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Appomattox_Court_House">Battle of Appomattox Court House</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Davis233-125">[125]</a></sup> Other Confederate armies followed suit and the war ended. The day after his surrender, Lee issued his <a href="/wiki/Lee%27s_Farewell_Address">Farewell Address</a> to his army.
</p><p>Lee resisted calls by some officers to reject surrender and allow small units to melt away into the mountains, setting up a lengthy guerrilla war. He insisted the war was over and energetically campaigned for inter-sectional reconciliation. "So far from engaging in a war to perpetuate slavery, I am rejoiced that slavery is abolished. I believe it will be greatly for the interests of the South."<sup><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Summaries of Lee's Civil War battles</h2>
<p>The following are summaries of Civil War campaigns and major battles where Robert E. Lee was the commanding officer:<sup><a href="#cite_note-americancivilwar1-127">[127]</a></sup>
</p>
<table>
<tbody><tr>
<th><small>Battle</small></th>
<th><small>Date</small></th>
<th><small>Result</small></th>
<th><small>Opponent</small></th>
<th><small>Confederate troop strength</small></th>
<th><small>Union troop strength</small></th>
<th><small>Confederate casualties</small></th>
<th><small>Union casualties</small></th>
<th><small>Notes</small>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cheat_Mountain">Cheat Mountain</a></td>
<td>September 11–13, 1861</td>
<td><b>Defeat</b></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Joseph_J._Reynolds">Reynolds</a></td>
<td>5,000</td>
<td>3,000</td>
<td>~90</td>
<td>88</td>
<td>Lee's first battle of the Civil War. Severely criticized, Lee was nicknamed "Granny Lee". Lee was sent to SC and GA to supervise fortifications.<sup><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a></sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Seven_Days_Battle">Seven Days</a></td>
<td>June 25 – July 1, 1862</td>
<td><b>Tactically Inconclusive</b>; <b>Strategic Confederate Victory</b>
<ul><li>Oak Grove: Stalemate (Union withdrawal)</li>
<li>Beaver Dam Creek: Union victory</li>
<li>Gaine's Mill: Confederate victory</li>
<li>Savage's Station: Stalemate</li>
<li>Glendale: Stalemate (Union withdrawal)</li>
<li>Malvern Hill: Union victory</li></ul>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/George_B._McClellan">McClellan</a></td>
<td>95,000</td>
<td>91,000</td>
<td>20,614</td>
<td>15,849</td>
<td>Tactically Inconclusive, but Strategic Confederate Victory, as McPherson's retreat to Harrison's Landing ended the Peninsula Campaign.<sup><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a></sup> Lee acquitted himself well, and remained in field command for the duration of the war under the direction of Jefferson Davis. Union troops remained on the Lower Peninsula and at Fortress Monroe, which became a terminus on the Underground Railroad, and the site terming escaped slaves as "contribands", no longer returned to their rebel owners.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Bull_Run">Second Manassas</a></td>
<td>August 28–30, 1862</td>
<td><b>Victory</b></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/John_Pope_(military_officer)">Pope</a></td>
<td>50,000</td>
<td>77,000</td>
<td>7,298</td>
<td>14,462</td>
<td>Union forces continued to occupy parts of northern Virginia but were unable to expand further.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Mountain">South Mountain</a></td>
<td>September 14, 1862</td>
<td><b>Defeat</b></td>
<td>McClellan</td>
<td>18,000</td>
<td>28,000</td>
<td>2,685</td>
<td>2,325</td>
<td>Confederates lost control of westernmost Virginian congressional districts which would later be the core counties of West Virginia.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Antietam">Antietam</a></td>
<td>September 16–18, 1862</td>
<td><b>Inconclusive</b></td>
<td>McClellan</td>
<td>52,000</td>
<td>75,000</td>
<td>13,724</td>
<td>12,410</td>
<td>Tactically inconclusive but strategically a Union victory. The Confederates lost an opportunity to gain foreign recognition, Lincoln moved forward on his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fredericksburg">Fredericksburg</a></td>
<td>December 11, 1862</td>
<td><b>Victory</b></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Ambrose_Burnside">Burnside</a></td>
<td>72,000</td>
<td>114,000</td>
<td>5,309</td>
<td>12,653</td>
<td>With Lee's troops and supplies depleted, Confederates remained in place south of the Rappahannock. Union forces did not withdraw from northern Virginia.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chancellorsville">Chancellorsville</a></td>
<td>May 1, 1863</td>
<td><b>Victory</b></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hooker">Hooker</a></td>
<td>60,298</td>
<td>105,000</td>
<td>12,764</td>
<td>16,792</td>
<td>Union forces withdrew to ring of defenses around Washington, DC.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gettysburg">Gettysburg</a></td>
<td>July 1, 1863</td>
<td><b>Defeat</b></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/George_Meade">Meade</a></td>
<td>75,000</td>
<td>83,000</td>
<td>23,231<br />–28,063</td>
<td>23,049</td>
<td>The Confederate army was physically and spiritually exhausted. Meade was criticized for not immediately pursuing Lee's army. This battle become known as the High Water Mark of the Confederacy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a></sup> Lee would never personally invade the North again after this battle. Rather he was determined to defend Richmond and eventually Petersburg at all costs.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Wilderness">Wilderness</a></td>
<td>May 5, 1864</td>
<td><b>Inconclusive</b></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant">Grant</a></td>
<td>61,000</td>
<td>102,000</td>
<td>11,033</td>
<td>17,666</td>
<td>Grant disengaged and continued his offensive, circling east and south advancing on Richmond and Petersburg
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Spotsylvania">Spotsylvania</a></td>
<td>May 12, 1864</td>
<td><b>Inconclusive</b><sup><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a></sup></td>
<td>Grant</td>
<td>52,000</td>
<td>100,000</td>
<td>12,687</td>
<td>18,399</td>
<td>Although beaten and unable to take Lee's defenses, Grant continued the Union offensive, circling east and south advancing on Richmond and Petersburg
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_North_Anna">North Anna</a></td>
<td>May 23–26, 1864</td>
<td><b>Inconclusive</b></td>
<td>Grant</td>
<td>50,000–53,000</td>
<td>67,000–100,000</td>
<td>1,552</td>
<td>3,986</td>
<td>North Anna had proved to be a relatively minor affair when compared to other Civil War battles.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Totopotomoy_Creek">Totopotomoy Creek</a></td>
<td>May 28–30, 1864</td>
<td><b>Inconclusive</b></td>
<td>Grant</td>
<td>N/A
</td>
<td>N/A
</td>
<td>1,593</td>
<td>731</td>
<td>As Grant continued his attempts to maneuver around Lee's right flank and lure him into a general battle in the open.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cold_Harbor">Cold Harbor</a></td>
<td>June 1, 1864</td>
<td><b>Victory</b></td>
<td>Grant</td>
<td>62,000</td>
<td>108,000</td>
<td>5,287</td>
<td>12,000</td>
<td>Although Grant was able to continue his offensive, Grant referred to the Cold Harbor assault as his "greatest regret" of the war in his memoirs.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Deep_Bottom">Fussell's Mill</a></td>
<td>August 14, 1864</td>
<td><b>Inconclusive</b></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Winfield_Scott_Hancock">Hancock</a></td>
<td>20,000</td>
<td>28,000</td>
<td>1,700</td>
<td>2,901</td>
<td>Union attempt to break Confederate siege lines at Richmond, the Confederate capital
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Appomattox_Campaign">Appomattox Campaign</a></td>
<td>March 29, 1865</td>
<td><b>Defeat</b></td>
<td>Grant</td>
<td>56,000</td>
<td>114,000</td>
<td>~25,000 General Lee surrenders</td>
<td>~9,700</td>
<td>General Robert E. Lee surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant.<sup><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a></sup> After the surrender Grant gave Lee's army much-needed food rations; they were paroled to return to their homes, never again to take up arms against the Union.
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h2>Postbellum life</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Levin_C._Handy_-_General_Robert_E._Lee_in_May_1869.jpg"></a></p></div>
<table><tbody><tr><th>External video</th></tr><tr><td> <a href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?66914-1/robert-e-lee-biography"><i>Booknotes</i> interview with Emory Thomas on <i>Robert E. Lee: A Biography</i>, September 10, 1995</a>, <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>After the war, Lee was not arrested or punished (although he was indicted), <sup><a href="#cite_note-:5-133">[133]</a></sup> but he did lose the right to vote as well as some property. Lee's prewar family home, the <a href="/wiki/Arlington_House,_The_Robert_E._Lee_Memorial">Custis-Lee Mansion</a>, was seized by Union forces during the war and turned into <a href="/wiki/Arlington_National_Cemetery">Arlington National Cemetery</a>, and his family was not compensated until more than a decade after his death.<sup><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1866, Lee counseled southerners not to resume fighting, of which Grant said Lee was "setting an example of forced acquiescence so grudging and pernicious in its effects as to be hardly realized".<sup><a href="#cite_note-serwer-135">[135]</a></sup> Lee joined with Democrats in opposing the Radical Republicans, who demanded punitive measures against the South, distrusted the South's commitment to the abolition of slavery, and, indeed, distrusted the region's loyalty to the United States.<sup><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a></sup> Lee supported a system of free public schools for blacks but forthrightly opposed allowing blacks to vote: "My own opinion is that, at this time, they [black Southerners] cannot vote intelligently, and that giving them the [vote] would lead to a great deal of demagogism, and lead to embarrassments in various ways."<sup><a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Emory_Thomas">Emory Thomas</a> says Lee had become a suffering Christ-like icon for ex-Confederates. President Grant invited him to the White House in 1869, and he went. Nationally he became an icon of reconciliation between the North and South, and the reintegration of former Confederates into the national fabric.<sup><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_E_Lee_with_his_Generals,_1869.jpg"></a></p><div><p>General Lee and his Confederate officers in their first meeting since Appomattox, August 1869.</p></div></div>
<p>Lee hoped to retire to a farm of his own, but he was too much a regional symbol to live in obscurity. From April to June 1865, he and his family resided in Richmond at the <a href="/wiki/Stewart-Lee_House">Stewart-Lee House</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-VAnom-140">[140]</a></sup> He accepted an offer to serve as the president of Washington College (now <a href="/wiki/Washington_and_Lee_University">Washington and Lee University</a>) in <a href="/wiki/Lexington,_Virginia">Lexington, Virginia</a>, and served from October 1865 until his death. The Trustees used his famous name in large-scale fund-raising appeals and Lee transformed Washington College into a leading Southern college, expanding its offerings significantly, adding programs in commerce and journalism, and incorporating the <a href="/wiki/Washington_and_Lee_University_School_of_Law">Lexington Law School</a>. Lee was well liked by the students, which enabled him to announce an "<a href="/wiki/Honor_system">honor system</a>" like that of West Point, explaining that "we have but one rule here, and it is that every student be a <a href="/wiki/Gentleman#Robert_E._Lee">gentleman</a>." To speed up national reconciliation Lee recruited students from the North and made certain they were well treated on campus and in town.<sup><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a></sup>
</p><p>Several glowing appraisals of Lee's tenure as college president have survived, depicting the dignity and respect he commanded among all. Previously, most students had been obliged to occupy the campus dormitories, while only the most mature were allowed to live off-campus. Lee quickly reversed this rule, requiring most students to board off-campus, and allowing only the most mature to live in the dorms as a mark of privilege; the results of this policy were considered a success. A typical account by a professor there states that "the students fairly worshipped him, and deeply dreaded his displeasure; yet so kind, affable, and gentle was he toward them that all loved to approach him. ... No student would have dared to violate General Lee's expressed wish or appeal."<sup><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a></sup>
</p><p>While at Washington College, Lee told a colleague that the greatest mistake of his life was taking a military education.<sup><a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a></sup> He also defended his father in a biographical sketch.<sup><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>President Johnson's amnesty pardons</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_E_Lee%27s_Amnesty_Oath_1865.gif"></a></p><div><p>Oath of <a href="/wiki/Amnesty">amnesty</a> submitted by Robert E. Lee in 1865</p></div></div>
<p>On May 29, 1865, President <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a> issued a Proclamation of <a href="/wiki/Amnesty">Amnesty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pardon">Pardon</a> to persons who had participated in the <a href="/wiki/Rebellion">rebellion</a> against the United States. There were fourteen excepted classes, though, and members of those classes had to make special application to the president. Lee sent an application to Grant and wrote to President Johnson on June 13, 1865:
</p>
<blockquote><p>Being excluded from the provisions of amnesty &amp; pardon contained in the proclamation of the 29th Ulto; I hereby apply for the benefits, &amp; full restoration of all rights &amp; privileges extended to those included in its terms. I graduated at the Mil. Academy at West Point in June 1829. Resigned from the U.S. Army April '61. Was a General in the Confederate Army, &amp; included in the surrender of the Army of N. Virginia 9 April '65.<sup><a href="#cite_note-archives.gov-145">[145]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>On October 2, 1865, the same day that Lee was inaugurated as president of <a href="/wiki/Washington_and_Lee_University">Washington College</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lexington,_Virginia">Lexington, Virginia</a>, he signed his Amnesty Oath, thereby complying fully with the provision of Johnson's proclamation. Lee was not pardoned, nor was his citizenship restored.<sup><a href="#cite_note-archives.gov-145">[145]</a></sup>
</p><p>Three years later, on December 25, 1868, Johnson proclaimed a second amnesty which removed previous exceptions, such as the one that affected Lee.<sup><a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Postwar politics</h3>
<p>Lee, who had opposed secession and remained mostly indifferent to politics before the Civil War, supported President <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a>'s plan of Presidential <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era_of_the_United_States">Reconstruction</a> that took effect in 1865–66. However, he opposed the Congressional Republican program that took effect in 1867. In February 1866, he was called to testify before the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress_Joint_Committee_on_Reconstruction">Joint Congressional Committee on Reconstruction</a> in Washington, where he expressed support for Johnson's plans for quick restoration of the former Confederate states, and argued that restoration should return, as far as possible, to the <i><a href="/wiki/Status_quo_ante_bellum">status quo ante</a></i> in the Southern states' governments (with the exception of slavery).<sup><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_E_Lee_Edward_Caledon_Bruce_1865.jpeg"></a></p></div>
<p>Lee told the committee that "every one with whom I associate expresses kind feelings towards the freedmen. They wish to see them get on in the world, and particularly to take up some occupation for a living, and to turn their hands to some work." Lee also expressed his "willingness that blacks should be educated, and ... that it would be better for the blacks and for the whites." Lee forthrightly opposed allowing blacks to vote: "My own opinion is that, at this time, they [black Southerners] cannot vote intelligently, and that giving them the [vote] would lead to a great deal of demagogism, and lead to embarrassments in various ways."<sup><a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a></sup>
</p><p>In an interview in May 1866, Lee said: "The Radical party are likely to do a great deal of harm, for we wish now for good feeling to grow up between North and South, and the President, Mr. Johnson, has been doing much to strengthen the feeling in favor of the Union among us. The relations between the Negroes and the whites were friendly formerly, and would remain so if legislation be not passed in favor of the blacks, in a way that will only do them harm."<sup><a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1868, Lee's ally <a href="/wiki/Alexander_H._H._Stuart">Alexander H. H. Stuart</a> drafted a public letter of endorsement for the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Democratic_Party">Democratic Party's</a> <a href="/wiki/1868_United_States_presidential_election">presidential campaign</a>, in which <a href="/wiki/Horatio_Seymour">Horatio Seymour</a> ran against Lee's old foe Republican Grant. Lee signed it along with thirty-one other ex-Confederates. The Democratic campaign, eager to publicize the endorsement, published the statement widely in newspapers.<sup><a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a></sup> Their letter claimed paternalistic concern for the welfare of freed Southern blacks, stating that "The idea that the Southern people are hostile to the negroes and would oppress them, if it were in their power to do so, is entirely unfounded. They have grown up in our midst, and we have been accustomed from childhood to look upon them with kindness."<sup><a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a></sup> However, it also called for the restoration of white political rule, arguing that "It is true that the people of the South, in common with a large majority of the people of the North and West, are, for obvious reasons, inflexibly opposed to any system of laws that would place the political power of the country in the hands of the negro race. But this opposition springs from no feeling of enmity, but from a deep-seated conviction that, at present, the negroes have neither the intelligence nor the other qualifications which are necessary to make them safe depositories of political power."<sup><a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a></sup>
</p><p>In his public statements and private correspondence, Lee argued that a tone of reconciliation and patience would further the interests of white Southerners better than hotheaded antagonism to federal authority or the use of violence. Lee repeatedly expelled white students from Washington College for violent attacks on local black men, and publicly urged obedience to the authorities and respect for law and order.<sup><a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a></sup> He privately chastised fellow ex-Confederates such as Davis and <a href="/wiki/Jubal_Early">Jubal Early</a> for their frequent, angry responses to perceived Northern insults, writing in private to them as he had written to a magazine editor in 1865, that "It should be the object of all to avoid controversy, to allay passion, give full scope to reason and to every kindly feeling. By doing this and encouraging our citizens to engage in the duties of life with all their heart and mind, with a determination not to be turned aside by thoughts of the past and fears of the future, our country will not only be restored in material prosperity, but will be advanced in science, in virtue and in religion."<sup><a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Illness and death</h2>
<div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_E_Lee_deathmask.jpg"></a></p></div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:RobertLeeMonument.jpg"></a></p></div></div>
<p>On September 28, 1870, Lee suffered a stroke. He died two weeks later, shortly after 9 a.m. on October 12, 1870, in <a href="/wiki/Lexington,_Virginia">Lexington, Virginia</a>, from the effects of <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>. According to one account, his last words on the day of his death, were "Tell <a href="/wiki/A._P._Hill">Hill</a> he <i>must</i> come up! Strike the tent",<sup><a href="#cite_note-WallensteinWyatt-Brown2005-156">[156]</a></sup> but this is debatable because of conflicting accounts and because Lee's stroke had resulted in <a href="/wiki/Aphasia">aphasia</a>, possibly rendering him unable to speak.<sup><a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a></sup>
</p><p>At first no suitable coffin for the body could be located. The muddy roads were too flooded for anyone to get in or out of the town of Lexington. An undertaker had ordered three from Richmond that had reached Lexington, but due to unprecedented flooding from long-continued heavy rains, the caskets were washed down the <a href="/wiki/Maury_River">Maury River</a>. Two neighborhood boys, C.G. Chittum and Robert E. Hillis, found one of the coffins that had been swept ashore. Undamaged, it was used for the General's body, though it was a bit short for him. As a result, Lee was buried without shoes.<sup><a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a></sup> He was buried underneath the college chapel now known as <a href="/wiki/University_Chapel">University Chapel</a> at <a href="/wiki/Washington_and_Lee_University">Washington and Lee University</a>, where his body remains.<sup><a href="#cite_note-WashingtonLee2020-31">[31]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Seidule2021-159">[159]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Legacy</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_Edward_Lee_in_art_at_the_Battle_of_Chancellorsville_in_a_stained_glass_window_of_the_Washington_National_Cathedral,_from-_Robert_E_Lee_Stain_Glass_(cropped).JPG"></a></p><div><p>Robert Edward Lee in art at the Battle of Chancellorsville in a stained glass window of the Washington National Cathedral</p></div></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Generals_Lee_and_Jackson-1937_Issue-4c.jpg"></a></p><p>Robert E. Lee, Stonewall Jackson and Stratford Hall, Army Issue of 1936</p></div>
<div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Washington_and_Lee_U._1948_U.S._stamp.1.jpg"></a></p><p>Washington and Lee University Issue of 1948</p></div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Stone_Mountain_Memorial_6c_1970_issue.JPG"></a></p><p>Robert E. Lee, Jefferson Davis, Stonewall Jackson. Stone Mountain Issue of 1970</p></div></div>
<p>Among the supporters of the Confederacy, Lee came to be even more revered after his surrender than he had been during the war, when <a href="/wiki/Stonewall_Jackson">Stonewall Jackson</a> had been the great Confederate hero. In an 1874 address before the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Historical_Society">Southern Historical Society</a> in <a href="/wiki/Atlanta">Atlanta</a>, Georgia, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harvey_Hill">Benjamin Harvey Hill</a> described Lee in this way:
</p>
<blockquote><p>He was a foe without hate; a friend without treachery; a soldier without cruelty; a victor without oppression, and a victim without murmuring. He was a public officer without vices; a private citizen without wrong; a neighbour without reproach; a Christian without hypocrisy, and a man without guile. He was a <a href="/wiki/Caesar">Caesar</a>, without his ambition; <a href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great">Frederick</a>, without his tyranny; <a href="/wiki/Napoleon">Napoleon</a>, without his selfishness, and <a href="/wiki/George_Washington">Washington</a>, without his reward.<sup><a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>By the end of the 19th century, Lee's popularity had spread to the North.<sup><a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a></sup> Lee's admirers have pointed to his character and devotion to duty, and his occasional tactical successes in battles against a stronger foe.
</p>
<blockquote><p>According to my notion of military history there is as much instruction both in strategy and in tactics to be gleaned from General Lee's operations of 1862 as there is to be found in Napoleon's campaigns of 1796.</p></blockquote>
<p>Military historians continue to pay attention to his battlefield tactics and maneuvering, though many think he should have designed better strategic plans for the Confederacy. He was not given full direction of the Southern war effort until late in the conflict.
</p><p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner">Eric Foner</a> writes that at the end of his life,
</p>
<dl><dd>"Lee had become the embodiment of the Southern cause. A generation later, he was a national hero. The 1890s and early 20th century witnessed the consolidation of white supremacy in the post-Reconstruction South and widespread acceptance in the North of Southern racial attitudes."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Foner-88">[88]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<p>Robert E. Lee has been commemorated on U.S. postage stamps at least five times, the first one being a commemorative stamp that also honored <a href="/wiki/Stonewall_Jackson">Stonewall Jackson</a>, issued in 1936. A second "regular-issue" stamp was issued in 1955. He was commemorated with a 32-cent stamp issued in the American Civil War Issue of June 29, 1995. His horse Traveller is pictured in the background.<sup><a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a></sup>
</p><p>Washington and Lee University in Lexington, Virginia was commemorated on its 200th anniversary on November 23, 1948, with a 3-cent postage stamp. The central design is a view of the university, flanked by portraits of generals George Washington and Robert E. Lee.<sup><a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a></sup> Lee was again commemorated on a commemorative stamp in 1970, along with Jefferson Davis and Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson, depicted on horseback on the 6-cent Stone Mountain Memorial commemorative issue, modeled after the actual <a href="/wiki/Stone_Mountain_Memorial">Stone Mountain Memorial</a> carving in Georgia. The stamp was issued on September 19, 1970, in conjunction with the dedication of the Stone Mountain Confederate Memorial in Georgia on May 9, 1970. The design of the stamp replicates the memorial, the largest high relief sculpture in the world. It is carved on the side of Stone Mountain 400 feet above the ground.<sup><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Photograph_of_President_Gerald_R._Ford_Signing_Joint_Resolution_23,_Restoration_of_the_Citizenship_Rights_to_the_Late_Robert_E._Lee,_at_the_Custis_Lee_Mansion_in_Arlington_National_Cemetery_in_Arlington,_Virginia_-_NARA_-_7462033.jpg"></a></p><div><p>President Gerald Ford signs Joint Resolution 23 at Arlington National Cemetery on August 5, 1975, restoring the citizenship rights of Robert E. Lee</p></div></div>
<p>Stone Mountain also led to Lee's appearance on a <a href="/wiki/Early_United_States_commemorative_coins">commemorative coin</a>, the 1925 <a href="/wiki/Stone_Mountain_Memorial_half_dollar">Stone Mountain Memorial half dollar</a>. During the 1920s and '30s dozens of specially designed half dollars were struck to raise money for various events and causes. This issue had a particularly wide distribution, with 1,314,709 minted. Unlike some of the other issues it remains a very common coin.
</p><p>In 1865, after the war, Lee was paroled and signed an <a href="/wiki/Loyalty_oath">oath of allegiance</a>, asking to have his <a href="/wiki/Citizenship_of_the_United_States">citizenship of the United States</a> restored. However, his application was not processed by Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/William_Seward">William Seward</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Radical_Republican">radical Republican</a> and firm opponent of slavery, and as a result Lee did not receive a pardon and his citizenship was not restored.<sup><a href="#cite_note-politico-166">[166]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Parole-167">[167]</a></sup> On January 30, 1975, Senate Joint Resolution 23, <i>A joint resolution to restore posthumously full rights of citizenship to General R. E. Lee</i> was introduced into the Senate by Senator <a href="/wiki/Harry_F._Byrd_Jr.">Harry F. Byrd Jr.</a> (I-VA), the result of a five-year campaign to accomplish this. Proponents portrayed the lack of pardon as a mere clerical error. The resolution, which enacted Public Law 94–67, was passed, and the bill was signed by President <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Ford">Gerald Ford</a> on August 5.<sup><a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-GettysburgTimes-169">[169]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Congress.gov-170">[170]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Monuments, memorials and commemorations</h3>
<p>Lee opposed the construction of public memorials to Confederate rebellion on the grounds that they would prevent the healing of wounds inflicted during the war.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Romero-171">[171]</a></sup> Nevertheless, after his death, he became an icon used by promoters of "<a href="/wiki/Lost_Cause_of_the_Confederacy">Lost Cause</a>" mythology, who sought to romanticize the Confederate cause and strengthen <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy">white supremacy</a> in the South.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Romero-171">[171]</a></sup> Later in the 20th century, particularly following the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement">civil rights movement</a>, historians reassessed Lee; his reputation fell based on his failure to support rights for <a href="/wiki/Freedman">freedmen</a> after the war, and even his strategic choices as a military leader fell under scrutiny.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Foner-88">[88]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Arlington_House_front_view.JPG"></a></p><div><p>Facade view of Arlington House, the Robert E. Lee Memorial — at Arlington National Cemetery, in Virginia, pictured in 2006</p></div></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Arlington_House,_The_Robert_E._Lee_Memorial">Arlington House, The Robert E. Lee Memorial</a>, also known as the Custis–Lee Mansion,<sup><a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a></sup> is a <a href="/wiki/Greek_Revival_architecture">Greek revival</a> mansion in Arlington, Virginia, that was once Lee's home. It overlooks the <a href="/wiki/Potomac_River">Potomac River</a> and the <a href="/wiki/National_Mall">National Mall</a> in Washington, D.C. During the Civil War, the grounds of the mansion were selected as the site of <a href="/wiki/Arlington_National_Cemetery">Arlington National Cemetery</a>, in part to ensure that Lee would never again be able to return to his home. The United States designated the mansion as a <a href="/wiki/National_Memorial_(United_States)">National Memorial</a> to Lee in 1955, a mark of widespread respect for him in both the <a href="/wiki/Northern_United_States">North</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States">South</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:1890_Lee_statue_unveiling.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Unveiling of the Equestrian Statue of Robert E. Lee, May 29, 1890, Richmond, Virginia</p></div></div>
<p>In Richmond, Virginia, a <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee_Monument_(Richmond,_Virginia)">large equestrian statue of Lee</a> by French sculptor <a href="/wiki/Jean_Antonin_Merci%C3%A9">Jean Antonin Mercié</a> was the centerpiece of <a href="/wiki/Monument_Avenue">Monument Avenue</a>, along with four other statues of Confederates. This monument to Lee was unveiled on May 29, 1890; over 100,000 people attended this dedication. That has been described as "the day white Virginia stopped admiring Gen. Robert E. Lee and started worshiping him".<sup><a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a></sup> The four other Confederate statues were removed in 2020, and the equestrian statue of Lee was removed on September 8, 2021 at the direction of the state government.<sup><a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a></sup>
</p><p>Lee is also shown mounted on Traveller in <a href="/wiki/Gettysburg_National_Military_Park">Gettysburg National Military Park</a> on top of the Virginia Monument; he is facing roughly in the direction of <a href="/wiki/Pickett%27s_Charge">Pickett's Charge</a>. Lee's portrayal on a mural on Richmond's <a href="/wiki/Flood_wall">flood wall</a> on the <a href="/wiki/James_River">James River</a>, considered offensive by some, was removed in the late 1990s, but currently is back on the flood wall.
</p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Baltimore">Baltimore</a>'s Wyman Park, a large double equestrian statue of Lee and Jackson is located directly across from the Baltimore Museum of Art. Designed by Laura Gardin Fraser and dedicated in 1948, Lee is depicted astride his horse Traveller next to Stonewall Jackson who is mounted on "Little Sorrel." Architect John Russell Pope created the base, which was dedicated on the anniversary of the eve of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chancellorsville">Battle of Chancellorsville</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a></sup> The Baltimore area of <a href="/wiki/Maryland">Maryland</a> is also home to a large nature park called <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee_Memorial_Park">Robert E. Lee Memorial Park</a>.
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Stone_mountain_closeup_mosaic_crop.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>A statue of Robert E. Lee was one of the two statues (the other is George Washington) representing <a href="/wiki/Virginia">Virginia</a> in <a href="/wiki/National_Statuary_Hall">Statuary Hall</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol">U.S. Capitol</a> in Washington, D.C. It was removed from the Capitol on December 21, 2020, after a state commission voted to replace it with a statue of Civil Rights activist <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Rose_Johns">Barbara Rose Johns</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a></sup> Lee is one of the figures depicted in <a href="/wiki/Bas-relief">bas-relief</a> carved into <a href="/wiki/Stone_Mountain">Stone Mountain</a> near <a href="/wiki/Atlanta">Atlanta</a>. Accompanying him on horseback in the relief are Stonewall Jackson and Jefferson Davis.<sup><a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a></sup>
</p><p>The birthday of Robert E. Lee is celebrated or commemorated in several states. In Texas, he is celebrated as part of <a href="/wiki/Confederate_Memorial_Day">Confederate Heroes Day</a> on January 19, Lee's birthday.<sup><a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a></sup> In Alabama and Mississippi, his birthday is celebrated on the same day as Martin Luther King, Jr. Day,<sup><a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a></sup> while in Georgia, this occurred on the day after Thanksgiving before 2016, when the state stopped officially recognizing the holiday.<sup><a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a></sup> In Virginia, <a href="/wiki/Lee%E2%80%93Jackson_Day">Lee–Jackson Day</a> was celebrated on the Friday preceding <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr._Day">Martin Luther King, Jr. Day</a> which is the third Monday in January,<sup><a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a></sup> until 2020, when the Virginia legislature eliminated the holiday, making Election Day a state holiday instead.<sup><a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a></sup>
</p><p>One United States college and one junior college are named for Lee: <a href="/wiki/Washington_and_Lee_University">Washington and Lee University</a> in Lexington, Virginia; and <a href="/wiki/Lee_College">Lee College</a> in Baytown, Texas, respectively. <a href="/wiki/University_Chapel">University Chapel</a> at Washington and Lee University marks Lee's final resting place. Throughout the South, many primary and secondary schools were also named for him as well as private schools such as <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee_Academy">Robert E. Lee Academy</a> in Bishopville, South Carolina.
</p><p>Lee is featured on the 1925 <a href="/wiki/Stone_Mountain_Memorial_half_dollar">Stone Mountain Memorial half dollar</a>.
</p>
<ul>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Lee_r.jpg"></a></p></div></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Robert-E-Lee-by-Sievers.jpg"></a></p></div></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Monument_Ave_Robert_E._Lee.jpg"></a></p></div></li>
	<li></li>
	<li></li>
	<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Lee_Chapel.jpg"></a></p></div></li>
</ul>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:CSSRobertELee.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>In 1862, the newly formed Confederate Navy purchased a 642-ton iron-hulled side-wheel gunboat, built in at Glasgow, Scotland, and gave her the name of <a href="/wiki/CSS_Robert_E._Lee">CSS <i>Robert E. Lee</i></a> in honor of this Confederate General. During the next year, she became one of the South's most famous <a href="/wiki/Blockade_runners_of_the_American_Civil_War">Confederate blockade runners</a>, successfully making more than twenty runs through the Union blockade.<sup><a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River">Mississippi River</a> <a href="/wiki/Steamboat">steamboat</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee_(steamboat)">Robert E. Lee</a></i> was named for Lee after the Civil War. It was the participant in an 1870 <a href="/wiki/St._Louis">St. Louis</a> – <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans">New Orleans</a> race with the <i>Natchez VI</i>, which was featured in a <a href="/wiki/Currier_and_Ives">Currier and Ives</a> lithograph. The <i>Robert E. Lee</i> won the race.<sup><a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a></sup> The steamboat inspired the 1912 song <i>Waiting for the Robert E. Lee</i> by <a href="/wiki/Lewis_F._Muir">Lewis F. Muir</a> and <a href="/wiki/L._Wolfe_Gilbert">L. Wolfe Gilbert</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a></sup> In more modern times, the <a href="/wiki/USS_Robert_E._Lee_(SSBN-601)">USS <i>Robert E. Lee</i></a>, a <a href="/wiki/George_Washington-class_submarine"><i> George Washington</i>-class</a> <a href="/wiki/Submarine">submarine</a> built in 1958, was named for Lee,<sup><a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a></sup> as was the <a href="/wiki/M3_Lee">M3 Lee</a> tank, produced in 1941 and 1942.
</p><p>The Commonwealth of <a href="/wiki/Virginia">Virginia</a> issues an optional <a href="/wiki/License_plate">license plate</a> honoring Lee, making reference to him as 'The Virginia Gentleman'.<sup><a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a></sup> In February 2014, a road at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Bliss">Fort Bliss</a> previously named for Lee was renamed to honor <a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Soldier">Buffalo Soldiers</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a></sup>
</p><p>A recent biographer, Jonathan Horn, outlines the unsuccessful efforts in Washington to memorialize Lee in the naming of the <a href="/wiki/Arlington_Memorial_Bridge">Arlington Memorial Bridge</a> after both Grant and Lee.<sup><a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Unite the Right rally</h4>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Lee_Removal.jpg"></a></p><div><p>The removal of Lee's statue from <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee_Monument_(New_Orleans,_Louisiana)">a monument</a> in New Orleans</p></div></div>
<p>In February 2017, the City Council of <a href="/wiki/Charlottesville,_Virginia">Charlottesville</a>, <a href="/wiki/Virginia">Virginia</a>, voted to remove a <a href="/wiki/Robert_Edward_Lee_(sculpture)">sculpture of Lee</a>, who has no historical link to the city, as well as one of Stonewall Jackson. This was temporarily stayed by court action, though the city did rename Lee Park: first to Emancipation Park, then later to Market Street Park.<sup><a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a></sup> The prospect of the statues being removed and the parks being renamed brought many out-of-towners, described as <a href="/wiki/White_supremacist">white supremacist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alt-right">alt-right</a>, to Charlottesville in the <a href="/wiki/Unite_the_Right_rally">Unite the Right rally</a> of August 2017, in which 3 people died. As of July 2021, the statue <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee_Monument_(Charlottesville,_Virginia)#Removal">has been permanently removed</a>.
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_E_Lee_Stain_Glass.JPG"></a></p></div>
<p>Several other statues and monuments to Lee were removed in the aftermath of the incident, including:
</p>
<ul><li>A 60-foot (18 m)-tall <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee_Monument_(New_Orleans,_Louisiana)">monument</a> in the center of <a href="/wiki/Lee_Circle">Lee Circle</a> (formerly Tivoli Circle) in <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans">New Orleans</a>. Installed in 1884, it featured a 16.5-foot (5.0 m) bronze statue of Lee on a marble column. Former Confederate soldier <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Cable">George Washington Cable</a> described it in a tribute: "His arms are folded on that breast that never knew fear, and his calm, dauntless gaze meets the morning sun as it rises."<sup><a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a></sup> The statue was removed on May 19, 2017, the last of four Confederate monuments in New Orleans to be taken down.<sup><a href="#cite_note-guardian-19may2017-197">[197]</a></sup></li>
<li>A <a href="/wiki/Stained-glass_window">stained-glass window</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Washington_National_Cathedral">Washington National Cathedral</a>, showing Lee on horseback at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chancellorsville">Chancellorsville</a>, as well as one in honor of Stonewall Jackson.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Boorstein-198">[198]</a></sup> Sponsored by the <a href="/wiki/United_Daughters_of_the_Confederacy">United Daughters of the Confederacy</a>, they were installed in 1953 and removed in September 2017.<sup><a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a></sup> The cathedral plans to keep the windows and eventually display them in historical context.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Boorstein-198">[198]</a></sup></li>
<li>A bust of Lee in the <a href="/wiki/Hall_of_Fame_for_Great_Americans">Hall of Fame for Great Americans</a> (the first Hall of Fame in the United States, completed 1900), in what is now <a href="/wiki/Bronx_Community_College">Bronx Community College</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Robert_E._Lee_(Austin,_Texas)">A bronze statue of Lee</a> which had been on display at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Austin">University of Texas at Austin</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee_(Proctor)">another</a>, with his horse Traveller, in Robert E. Lee Park in <a href="/wiki/Dallas">Dallas</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a></sup></li></ul>
<h3>Biographies</h3>
<p><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Southall_Freeman">Douglas Southall Freeman</a>'s Pulitzer prize-winning four-volume <i>R. E. Lee: A Biography</i> (1936), which was for a long period considered the definitive work on Lee, downplayed his involvement in slavery and emphasized Lee as a virtuous person. Eric Foner, who describes Freeman's volume as a "<a href="/wiki/Hagiography">hagiography</a>", notes that on the whole, Freeman "displayed little interest in Lee's relationship to slavery. The index to his four volumes contained 22 entries for 'devotion to duty', 19 for 'kindness', 53 for Lee's celebrated horse, <a href="/wiki/Traveller_(horse)">Traveller</a>. But 'slavery', 'slave emancipation' and 'slave insurrection' together received five. Freeman observed, without offering details, that slavery in Virginia represented the system 'at its best'. He ignored the postwar testimony of Lee's former slave Wesley Norris about the brutal treatment to which he had been subjected."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Foner-88">[88]</a></sup>
</p><p>More recent biographies offer a broader variety of perspectives. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_L._Connelly">Thomas L. Connelly</a>’s <i>The Marble Man: Robert E. Lee and His Image in American Society</i> (1977) was an iconoclastic revision of Lee's mythical status in the South. <i>Robert E. Lee: A Biography</i> (1995) by <a href="/wiki/Emory_M._Thomas">Emory M. Thomas</a> attempted a "post-revisionist" compromise between the traditional and more recent views.<sup><a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a></sup> <i>Robert E. Lee: A Life</i> (2021) by <a href="/wiki/Allen_C._Guelzo">Allen C. Guelzo</a> focuses on a study of Lee's character.<sup><a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Dates of rank</h2>
<table>
<caption>
</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Rank</th>
<th>Date</th>
<th>Unit</th>
<th>Component
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Union_army_2nd_lt_rank_insignia.jpg"></a> <a href="/wiki/Second_lieutenant#United_States">Second Lieutenant</a></td>
<td>July 1, 1829<sup><a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a></sup></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers">Corps of Engineers</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army">United States Army</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Union_army_1st_lt_rank_insignia.jpg"></a> <a href="/wiki/First_lieutenant#United_States">First Lieutenant</a></td>
<td>September 21, 1836<sup><a href="#cite_note-auto-208">[208]</a></sup></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers">Corps of Engineers</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army">United States Army</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Union_army_cpt_rank_insignia.jpg"></a> <a href="/wiki/Captain_(United_States_O-3)">Captain</a></td>
<td>August 7, 1838<sup><a href="#cite_note-auto-208">[208]</a></sup></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers">Corps of Engineers</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army">United States Army</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Union_army_maj_rank_insignia.jpg"></a> <a href="/wiki/Brevet_(military)#United_States">Brevet Major</a> §</td>
<td>April 18, 1847<sup><a href="#cite_note-auto-208">[208]</a></sup></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers">Corps of Engineers</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army">United States Army</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Union_Army_LTC_rank_insignia.png"></a> <a href="/wiki/Brevet_(military)#United_States">Brevet Lieutenant Colonel</a> †</td>
<td>August 20, 1847<sup><a href="#cite_note-auto-208">[208]</a></sup></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers">Corps of Engineers</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army">United States Army</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Union_Army_colonel_rank_insignia.png"></a> <a href="/wiki/Brevet_(military)#United_States">Brevet Colonel</a> ‡</td>
<td>September 13, 1847<sup><a href="#cite_note-auto1-209">[209]</a></sup></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers">Corps of Engineers</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army">United States Army</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Union_Army_LTC_rank_insignia.png"></a> <a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel_(United_States)">Lieutenant Colonel</a></td>
<td>March 3, 1855<sup><a href="#cite_note-auto1-209">[209]</a></sup></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/5th_Cavalry_Regiment">2nd Cavalry Regiment</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army">United States Army</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Union_Army_colonel_rank_insignia.png"></a> <a href="/wiki/Colonel_(United_States)">Colonel</a></td>
<td>March 16, 1861<sup><a href="#cite_note-auto1-209">[209]</a></sup></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/1st_Cavalry_Regiment_(United_States)">1st Cavalry Regiment</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army">United States Army</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Union_Army_major_general_rank_insignia.svg"></a> <a href="/wiki/Major_general_(United_States)">Major General</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-210">[a]</a></sup></td>
<td>April 22, 1861<sup><a href="#cite_note-211">[210]</a></sup></td>
<td></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Army_of_Virginia">Provisional Army of Virginia</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Confederate_States_of_America_General-collar.svg"></a> <a href="/wiki/General_officers_in_the_Confederate_States_Army#Brigadier_general">Brigadier General</a></td>
<td>May 14, 1861<sup><a href="#cite_note-212">[211]</a></sup></td>
<td></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Army">Confederate States Army</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Confederate_States_of_America_Colonel.png"></a><sup><a href="#cite_note-213">[b]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/General_officers_in_the_Confederate_States_Army#General_(Full_general)">General</a></td>
<td>June 14, 1861<sup><a href="#cite_note-214">[212]</a></sup></td>
<td></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Army">Confederate States Army</a>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<ul><li>§ Breveted for conduct in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cerro_Gordo">Battle of Cerro Gordo</a></li>
<li>† Breveted for conduct in Battles of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Contreras">Contreras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Churubusco">Churubusco</a></li>
<li>‡ Breveted for conduct in <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chapultepec">Battle of Chapultepec</a></li></ul>
<h2>In popular culture</h2>
<p>Lee is a main character in the Shaara Family novels <i><a href="/wiki/The_Killer_Angels">The Killer Angels</a></i> (1974), <i><a href="/wiki/Gods_and_Generals_(novel)">Gods and Generals</a></i> (1996), and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Last_Full_Measure_(novel)">The Last Full Measure</a></i> (2000), as well as the film adaptations of <i><a href="/wiki/Gettysburg_(1993_film)">Gettysburg</a></i> (1993) and <i><a href="/wiki/Gods_and_Generals_(film)">Gods and Generals</a></i> (2003). He is played by <a href="/wiki/Martin_Sheen">Martin Sheen</a> in the former and by Lee's descendant <a href="/wiki/Robert_Duvall">Robert Duvall</a> in the latter. Lee is portrayed as a hero in the historical children's novel <i><a href="/wiki/Lee_and_Grant_at_Appomattox">Lee and Grant at Appomattox</a></i> (1950) by <a href="/wiki/MacKinlay_Kantor">MacKinlay Kantor</a>. His part in the Civil War is told from the perspective of his horse in <a href="/wiki/Richard_Adams">Richard Adams</a>'s book <i><a href="/wiki/Traveller_(novel)">Traveller</a></i> (1988).
</p><p>Lee is an obvious subject for <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_alternate_histories">American Civil War alternate histories</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ward_Moore">Ward Moore</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Bring_the_Jubilee">Bring the Jubilee</a></i> (1953), <a href="/wiki/MacKinlay_Kantor">MacKinlay Kantor</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/If_the_South_Had_Won_the_Civil_War">If the South Had Won the Civil War</a></i> (1960), and <a href="/wiki/Harry_Turtledove">Harry Turtledove</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guns_of_the_South">The Guns of the South</a></i> (1992), all have Lee ending up as president of a victorious Confederacy and freeing the slaves (or laying the groundwork for the slaves to be freed in a later decade). Although Moore and Kantor's novels relegate him to a set of passing references, Lee is more of a main character in Turtledove's <i>Guns</i>. He is also the prime character of Turtledove's "Lee at the Alamo".<sup><a href="#cite_note-215">[213]</a></sup> Turtledove's "<a href="/wiki/War_Between_the_Provinces">War Between the Provinces</a>" series is an allegory of the Civil War told in the language of fairy tales, with Lee appearing as a <a href="/wiki/Knight">knight</a> named "Duke Edward of Arlington". Lee is also a knight in "The Charge of Lee's Brigade" in <i>Alternate Generals</i> volume 1, written by Turtledove's friend <a href="/wiki/S._M._Stirling">S. M. Stirling</a> and featuring Lee, whose <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Virginia">Virginia</a> is still a loyal <a href="/wiki/British_Empire">British</a> colony, fighting for the <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria">Crown</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire">Russians</a> in <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War">Crimea</a>. In Lee Allred's "East of Appomattox" in <i><a href="/wiki/Alternate_Generals_III">Alternate Generals</a></i> volume 3, Lee is the Confederate Minister to <a href="/wiki/London">London</a> circa 1868, desperately seeking help for a CSA which has turned out poorly suited to independence. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Skimin">Robert Skimin</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Grey_Victory">Grey Victory</a></i> features Lee as a supporting character preparing to run for the presidency in 1867.
</p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Connie_Willis">Connie Willis</a>' 1987 novel <i><a href="/wiki/Lincoln%27s_Dreams">Lincoln's Dreams</a></i>, a research assistant meets a young woman who dreams about the Civil War from Robert E. Lee's point of view.
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Dodge_Charger">Dodge Charger</a> featured in the CBS television series <i><a href="/wiki/The_Dukes_of_Hazzard">The Dukes of Hazzard</a></i> (1979–1985) was named <a href="/wiki/General_Lee_(car)">The General Lee</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-216">[214]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-217">[215]</a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/The_Dukes_of_Hazzard_(film)">the 2005 film based on this series</a>, the car is driven past a statue of Lee, while the car's occupants salute him.
</p>
<h2>See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_American_Civil_War_generals_(Confederate)">List of American Civil War generals (Confederate)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_Robert_E._Lee">List of memorials to Robert E. Lee</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Removal_of_Confederate_monuments_and_memorials">Removal of Confederate monuments and memorials</a></li></ul>
<h2>References</h2>
<div><ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b> <cite>Bunting, Josiah (2004). <a href="https://archive.org/details/ulyssessgrant00bunt/page/62"><i>Ulysses S. Grant</i></a>. New York: Time Books. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/ulyssessgrant00bunt/page/62">62</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-6949-5"><bdi>978-0-8050-6949-5</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b> Jay Luvaas, "Lee and the Operational Art: The Right Place, the Right Time," <i>Parameters: US Army War College</i>, September 1992, Vol. 22#3 pp. 2-18
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b> <cite>Bonekemper, Edward (2014). <i>Grant and Lee</i>. Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publishing. p. xiv. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62157-302-9"><bdi>978-1-62157-302-9</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b> Pryor, Elizabeth Brown (October 29, 2009). <a href="http://encyclopediavirginia.org/Lee_Robert_Edward_1807-1870">"Robert E. Lee (ca. 1806–1870)"</a>. <a href="http://encyclopediavirginia.org/">Encyclopedia Virginia</a>. Retrieved February 18, 2011.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b> Harrison Dwight Cavanagh, <i>Colonial Chesapeake Families: British Origins and Descendants</i>, Vol. 2 (Dallas, Tex.: p. p., 2014), 118-125, esp. 119.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b> <cite>Davis, William C.; Pohanka, Brian C.; Troiani, Don (1997). <a href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781558534384"><i>Civil War Journal, The Leaders</i></a>. Rutledge Hill Press. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781558534384/page/135">135</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-517-22193-8"><bdi>978-0-517-22193-8</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFThomas1997">Thomas 1997</a>, pp. 30–32
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFThomas1997">Thomas 1997</a>, pp. 32–34
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFThomas1997">Thomas 1997</a>, pp. 38–45
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFellman2000">Fellman 2000</a>, pp. 13–14
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davis21_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davis21_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFDavis1999">Davis 1999</a>, p. 21
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFThomas1997">Thomas 1997</a>, pp. 48–54
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFThomas1997">Thomas 1997</a>, p. 56
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFThomas1997">Thomas 1997</a>, pp. 57–58
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-bunker_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bunker_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFFreeman1997">Freeman 1997</a>, pp. 25–26
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFThomas1997">Thomas 1997</a>, p. 57
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFellman2000">Fellman 2000</a>, p. 33
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFThomas1997">Thomas 1997</a>, p. 62
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFThomas1997">Thomas 1997</a>, pp. 64–65
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFreeman1997">Freeman 1997</a>, p. 31
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFellman2000">Fellman 2000</a>, pp. 24–25
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFThomas1997">Thomas 1997</a>, p. 72
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFThomas1997">Thomas 1997</a>, p. 75
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFThomas1997">Thomas 1997</a>, pp. 74–75
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFreeman1997">Freeman 1997</a>, pp. 33–34
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFThomas1997">Thomas 1997</a>, p. 81
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFThomas1997">Thomas 1997</a>, pp. 83–84
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110723015836/http://www.nad.usace.army.mil/fh.htm">"Welcome to Fort Hamilton"</a>. United States Army Corps of Engineers. Archived from <a href="http://www.nad.usace.army.mil/fh.htm">the original</a> on July 23, 2011. Retrieved October 16, 2010.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.nps.gov/frsp/fitzchm.htm">"William Fitzhugh"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Fredericksburg_and_Spotsylvania_National_Military_Park">Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania National Military Park</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service">National Park Service</a>. Retrieved July 13, 2009.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-PryorLee2007_30-0">^</a></b> <cite>Elizabeth Brown Pryor; Robert Edward Lee (2007). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8oLT37IFiIQC&amp;pg=PA95"><i>Reading the Man: A Portrait of Robert E. Lee Through His Private letters</i></a>. Viking Penguin. p. 95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-03829-9"><bdi>978-0-670-03829-9</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-WashingtonLee2020_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WashingtonLee2020_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210613233813/https://my.wlu.edu/university-chapel-and-museum/about-the-chapel/history">"About the Chapel : Washington and Lee University"</a>. <i>my.wlu.edu</i>. 2020. Archived from <a href="https://my.wlu.edu/university-chapel-and-museum/about-the-chapel/history">the original</a> on June 13, 2021. Retrieved June 13, 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dillon_32-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/John_Forrest_Dillon">Dillon, John Forrest</a>, ed. (1903). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XHlAAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR54">"Introduction"</a>. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XHlAAAAAYAAJ"><i>John Marshall; life, character and judicial services as portrayed in the centenary and memorial addresses and proceedings throughout the United States on Marshall day, 1901, and in the classic orations of Binney, Story, Phelps, Waite and Rawle</i></a>. Chicago: Callaghan &amp; Company. pp. liv–lv. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780722291474"><bdi>9780722291474</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Keller2005_33-0">^</a></b> <cite>Helen Keller (2005). Nielsen, Kim E. (ed.). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wec2LqDoSagC&amp;pg=PA28"><i>Helen Keller: selected writings</i></a>. New York: New York University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780814758298"><bdi>9780814758298</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Olympedia2020_34-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210327010147/https://www.olympedia.org/athletes/44708">"Olympedia – Willis Lee"</a>. <i>www.olympedia.org</i>. Archived from <a href="http://www.olympedia.org/athletes/44708">the original</a> on June 6, 2020. Retrieved June 14, 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.mortkunstler.com/html/art-original-masterworks.asp?action=view&amp;ID=425&amp;cat=132">"Tender is the Heart"</a>. Mort Künstler. Retrieved June 12, 2014.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-:02_36-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6MgRAAAAYAAJ&amp;dq=Odette%20Tyler&amp;pg=PA492"><i>'The Gay Parisians' Leading Woman</i></a>. <i>Munsey's Magazine</i>. January 1896. p. 492.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFThomas1997">Thomas 1997</a>, pp. pages=118–121
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFreeman1934">Freeman 1934</a>, p. 248
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140714233050/http://www.vahistorical.org/collections-and-resources/virginia-history-explorer/lee-and-grant/war?legacy=true">"Lee and Grant | Before the War"</a>. Virginia Historical Society. Archived from <a href="http://www.vahistorical.org/collections-and-resources/virginia-history-explorer/lee-and-grant/war?legacy=true">the original</a> on July 14, 2014. Retrieved October 15, 2010.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFThomas1997">Thomas 1997</a>, p. 148
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b> <cite>Thomson, Janice E. (1996). <i>Mercenaries, Pirates and Sovereigns</i>. Princeton University Press. p. 121.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b> <cite>Connelly, Thomas Lawrence (1977). <a href="https://archive.org/details/marbleman00thom/page/176"><i>The Marble Man: Robert E. Lee and His Image in American society</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Alfred_A._Knopf">Alfred A. Knopf</a>. pp. <a href="https://archive.org/details/marbleman00thom/page/176">176–82</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-47179-2"><bdi>978-0-394-47179-2</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Davis111_43-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDavis1999">Davis 1999</a>, p. 111
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFThomas1997">Thomas 1997</a>, pp. 152–62
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-nathanielturner.com_45-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.nathanielturner.com/willofgeorgewashingtonparkecustis.htm">"Will of George Washington Parke Custis"</a>. ChickenBones: A Journal for Literary &amp; Artistic African-American Themes.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-McElya2016_46-0">^</a></b> <cite>Micki McElya (August 15, 2016). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iHbEDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT24"><i>The Politics of Mourning</i></a>. Harvard University Press. pp. 24–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-97406-7"><bdi>978-0-674-97406-7</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fellman65_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fellman65_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fellman65_47-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFFellman2000">Fellman 2000</a>, p. 65
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Blassingame467to468_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blassingame467to468_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Wesley Norris, <a href="http://fair-use.org/national-anti-slavery-standard/1866/04/14/robert-e-lee-his-brutality-to-his-slaves">interview</a> in <i>National Anti-Slavery Standard</i> (April 14, 1866) 4, reprinted in <a href="#CITEREFBlassingame1977">Blassingame 1977</a>, pp. 467–468
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Elizabeth_Brown_Pryor_49-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8oLT37IFiIQC"><i>Reading the Man: A Portrait of Robert E. Lee Through His Private Letters</i></a>. Penguin. 2007. p. 264. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780670038299"><bdi>9780670038299</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b> <a href="http://fair-use.org/new-york-tribune/1859/06/24/letter-from-a-citizen">Letter from "A Citizen,"</a> <i>New York Tribune</i>, June 24, 1859. <a href="#CITEREFFreeman1934">Freeman 1934</a>, p. 393
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b> <a href="http://fair-use.org/new-york-tribune/1859/06/24/some-facts-that-should-come-to-light">"Some Facts That Should Come To Light,"</a> <i>New York Tribune</i>, June 24, 1859. <a href="#CITEREFFreeman1934">Freeman 1934</a>, pp. 390–393
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFreeman1934">Freeman 1934</a>, pp. 390–392
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b> Wesley Norris, <a href="http://fair-use.org/wesley-norris/testimony-of-wesley-norris">"Testimony of Wesley Norris"</a>, <i>National Anti-Slavery Standard</i>, April 14, 1866.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b> <i>War of the Rebellion: Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies</i>, Series 1, Volume 29, part 2, pp.158–159 (Meade to Halleck, September 6, 1863--4 p.m.). <a href="http://ebooks.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=moawar;cc=moawar;q1=wesley;q2=norris;op2=near;op3=near;rgn=full%20text;amt2=40;amt3=40;idno=waro0049;didno=waro0049;view=image;seq=160;page=root;size=100">[1]</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b> Monte Akers, <i>Year of Desperate Struggle: Jeb Stuart and His Cavalry, from Gettysburg to Yellow Tavern, 1863–1864</i>, p.102 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ifuxBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA102&amp;dq=norris+pass+%22g.w.+custis+lee%22&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=0ahUKEwjVlM_3puHMAhVDzSYKHcH8D7oQ6AEIHTAA#v=onepage&amp;q=norris%20pass%20%22g.w.%20custis%20lee%22&amp;f=false">[2]</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFreeman1934">Freeman 1934</a>, p. 476
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b> List of Slaves Emancipated in the Will of George W. P. Custis, December 29, 1862 ("Sally Norris [and] Len Norris and their three children: Mary, Sally and Wesley") <a href="http://www.ccharity.com/contents/transcriptions-wills-property-tax-rolls-inventory-lists-and-newspaper-clippings-contributed-website/list-slaves-emancipated-will-george-w-p-custis-december-29-1862/">[3]</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160801195433/http://www.ccharity.com/contents/transcriptions-wills-property-tax-rolls-inventory-lists-and-newspaper-clippings-contributed-website/list-slaves-emancipated-will-george-w-p-custis-december-29-1862/">Archived</a> August 1, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFreeman1934">Freeman 1934</a>, p. 390
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFellman2000">Fellman 2000</a>, p. 67
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b> <cite>Bernice-Marie Yates (2003). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MZqqkgDWiUAC&amp;pg=PA181"><i>The Perfect Gentleman</i></a>. Xulon Press. pp. 181–83. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781591604525"><bdi>9781591604525</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b> Elizabeth Brown Pryor, Reading the Man: A Portrait of Robert E. Lee Through His Private Letters (New York: Penguin, 2008), chapter 16.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b> Ariel Burriss, <a href="http://www.crossroadsofwar.org/wp-content/uploads/CWS_Robert-E.-Lees-Slaves.pdf">"The Fugitive Slaves of Robert E. Lee: From Arlington to Westminster"</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKorda2014">Korda 2014</a>, p. 208
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fellman73–74_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fellman73–74_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fellman73–74_64-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFFellman2000">Fellman 2000</a>, pp. 73–74
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b> Cox, R. David. The Religious Life of Robert E. Lee 2017, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-7482-5">978-0-8028-7482-5</a>, p. 157
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMcCaslin2001">McCaslin 2001</a>, pp. 57–58
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-:80_67-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.eerdword.com/2017/05/18/robert-e-lee-slavery-and-the-problem-of-providence/">"Robert E. Lee, Slavery, and the Problem of Providence"</a>. <i>EerdWord (publisher blog)</i>. May 18, 2017. Retrieved May 15, 2019.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFKorda2014">Korda 2014</a>, p. 196
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFellman2000">Fellman 2000</a>, pp. 72–73
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_70-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_70-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Serwer, Adam. <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2017/06/the-myth-of-the-kindly-general-lee/529038/">"The Myth of the Kindly General Lee"</a>. <i>The Atlantic</i>. Retrieved August 29, 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.latimes.com/nation/la-na-washington-and-lee-20170817-htmlstory.html">"Robert E. Lee was not the George Washington of his time. But a lot ties them together"</a>. <i>Los Angeles Times</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0458-3035">0458-3035</a>. Retrieved August 29, 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFThomas1997">Thomas 1997</a>, p. 173
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-McCaslin_2001_66_73-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMcCaslin2001">McCaslin 2001</a>, p. PT 66
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMcCaslin2001">McCaslin 2001</a>, pp. 58–59
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b> Pryor, Elizabeth Brown. <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Reading-Man-Portrait-Through-Private/dp/0143113909">Reading the Man: A Portrait of Robert E. Lee through his private letters</a> (2008), p. 151.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-acwm.org_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-acwm.org_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="https://acwm.org/blog/myths-misunderstandings-lee-slaveholder/">"Myths &amp; Misunderstandings | Lee as a slaveholder"</a>. October 4, 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-McCaslin_2001_57_77-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMcCaslin2001">McCaslin 2001</a>, p. 57
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-McCaslin_2001_58_78-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMcCaslin2001">McCaslin 2001</a>, p. 58
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFellman2000">Fellman 2000</a>, p. 73
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_80-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_80-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Fortin, Jacey (August 18, 2017). <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/18/us/robert-e-lee-slaves.html">"What Robert E. Lee Wrote to <i>The Times</i> about Slavery in 1858"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. Retrieved November 2, 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Skelton_81-0">^</a></b> Skelton, William B., <a href="https://archive.org/details/americanprofessi00skel">An American Profession of Arms: the Army Officer Corps, 1784–1861</a>, 1992, p. 285. "Officers developed a conception of the army as an apolitical instrument of public policy. As servants of the nation, they should stand aloof from party and sectional strife" and avoid taking public positions on controversial issues such as slavery.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b> Davis, William. <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Crucible-Command-Ulysses-Robert-Lee/dp/0306822458/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&amp;ie=UTF8&amp;qid=1511772719&amp;sr=1-1&amp;keywords=Crucible+of+Command%3A+Ulysses+S.+Grant+and+Robert+E.+Lee">Crucible of Command: Ulysses S. Grant and Robert E. Lee</a> (2015), p. 46. "From early manhood Lee held a low opinion of politicians, and believed military men should stay out of politics."
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFellman2000">Fellman 2000</a>, p. 137. In 1863, even before Chancellorsville, Lee began to advance, "for the first time, a political understanding of the war, quite unlike his previous apolitical belief in duty".
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b> Taylor, John. <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Duty-Faithfully-Performed-Robert-Critics/dp/157488297X">Duty Faithfully Performed: Robert E. Lee and His Critics</a>, 1999, p. 223. "He epitomized the nonpolitical tradition in the U.S. military, and his lifelong attempt to remain aloof from the political turmoil about him would be emulated by twentieth-century soldiers ..."
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b> Pryor, Elizabeth Brown. <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Reading-Man-Portrait-Through-Private/dp/0143113909">Reading the Man: A Portrait of Roberty E. Lee</a>, 2008, p. 284. Pryor notes in describing Lee's public silence on controversial sectional issues such as slavery, that the regular army "was an apolitical institution, which discouraged displays of partisan sentiment and muted any parochialism in its officers. At the military academy a cadet was 'taught that he belongs no longer to section or party but, in his life and all his faculties, to his country'."
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b> Foner, Eric quoted in Fortin, Jacey. <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/18/us/robert-e-lee-slaves.html">"What Robert E. Lee Wrote to the Times About Slavery in 1858"</a>, NYT Aug 18, "unlike some white southerners, [Lee] never spoke out against slavery."
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFellman2000">Fellman 2000</a>, pp. 76, 137. "Lee believed in God's time, not man's, and God's disposition, not human politics. So when it came to grappling with the issue of slavery, he could not comprehend why men could not leave well enough alone. ... on major public conflicts, Lee had no active position."
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Foner_88-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Foner_88-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Foner_88-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Foner_88-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Foner_88-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Foner_88-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Foner_88-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner">Foner, Eric</a> (August 28, 2017). <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/28/books/review/eric-foner-robert-e-lee.html">"The Making and the Breaking of the Legend of Robert E. Lee"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.latimes.com/nation/la-na-washington-and-lee-20170817-htmlstory.html">"Robert E. Lee was not the George Washington of his time. But a lot ties them together"</a>. <i>Los Angeles Times</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0458-3035">0458-3035</a>. Retrieved November 2, 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_90-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_90-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_90-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_90-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Foner, Eric; Foner, Eric (May 30, 2014). <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/book-review-clouds-of-glory-the-life-and-legend-of-robert-e-lee-by-michael-korda/2014/05/30/cba1d004-c973-11e3-95f7-7ecdde72d2ea_story.html">"Book review: 'Clouds of Glory: the Life and Legend of Robert E. Lee' by Michael Korda"</a>. <i>The Washington Post</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0190-8286">0190-8286</a>. Retrieved August 29, 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://fair-use.org/wesley-norris/testimony-of-wesley-norris">"Testimony of Wesley Norris. In NATIONAL ANTI-SLAVERY STANDARD (1866-04-14)"</a>. April 14, 1866.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.nps.gov/arho/learn/historyculture/an-unpleasant-legacy.htm">"An Unpleasant Legacy - Arlington House, the Robert e. Lee Memorial (U.S. National Park Service)"</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.historynet.com/a-question-of-loyalty-why-did-robert-e-lee-join-the-confederacy/">"A Question of Loyalty: Why Did Robert e. Lee Join the Confederacy"</a>. April 27, 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://teachingamericanhistory.org/document/letter-to-andrew-hunter-on-employing-negro-troops/">"Letter to Andrew Hunter on Employing Negro Troops"</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-:4_95-0">^</a></b> <cite>Fortin, Jacey (August 18, 2017). <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/18/us/robert-e-lee-slaves.html">"What Robert E. Lee Wrote to <i>The Times</i> about Slavery in 1858"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. Retrieved August 29, 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://isbn.nu/toc/9780807119532">"<i>White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction</i> by Allen W. Trelease"</a>. Louisiana State University Press. 1995.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Melton2012_97-0">^</a></b> <cite>Brian C. Melton (April 6, 2012). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7S9XHroBFjAC&amp;pg=PA38"><i>Robert E. Lee: A Biography: A Biography</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. pp. 38–41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-38437-0"><bdi>978-0-313-38437-0</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFreeman1934">Freeman 1934</a>, pp. 394–395
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100722154442/http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/johnbrown/leereport.html">"Col. Robert E. Lee's Report Concerning the Attack at Harper's Ferry"</a>. University of Missouri – Kansas City School of Law. October 18, 1959. Archived from <a href="http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/FTRIALS/johnbrown/leereport.html">the original</a> on July 22, 2010. Retrieved October 15, 2010.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b> <cite>Ford, John Salmon (1963). <i>Rip Ford's Texas</i>. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 305–306.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b> <cite>"Texas Forts Trails". <i>Texas Monthly</i>. June 1991. p. 72.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-pryor20110419_102-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pryor20110419_102-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pryor20110419_102-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pryor20110419_102-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pryor20110419_102-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Pryor, Elizabeth Brown (April 19, 2011). <a href="http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/04/19/the-general-in-his-study">"The General in His Study"</a>. <i>Disunion</i>. Retrieved April 19, 2011.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_103-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_103-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="/wiki/J._William_Jones">J. William Jones</a> (1906). <a href="https://loa-shared.s3.amazonaws.com/static/pdf/Lee_Evils_of_Anarchy.pdf">"Robert E. Lee to George Washington Custis Lee"</a> (PDF). <i>The Civil War: The First Year Told By Those Who Lived It</i>. The Library of America, 2011. Retrieved November 19, 2016.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-test_104-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-test_104-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-test_104-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-test_104-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-test_104-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-test_104-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-test_104-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-test_104-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Pryor, Elizabeth Brown (2008). <a href="http://www.americanheritage.com/content/robert-e-lee%E2%80%99s-%E2%80%9Cseverest-struggle%E2%80%9D">"Robert E. Lee's 'Severest Struggle'"</a>. American Heritage.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFreeman1934">Freeman 1934</a>, p. 425
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFreeman1934">Freeman 1934</a>, pp. 431–447
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-kearns_107-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kearns_107-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Goodwin, Doris Kearns (2005). <a href="https://archive.org/details/teamofrivalspoli00good"><i>Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln</i></a>. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/teamofrivalspoli00good/page/350">350</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781416549833"><bdi>9781416549833</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Davis49_108-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDavis1999">Davis 1999</a>, p. 49
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFellman2000">Fellman 2000</a>, § 6
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b> Fort Pulaski's masonry was impervious to round shot, but it was penetrated in 30 hours by <a href="/wiki/Parrott_rifle">Parrott rifle</a> guns, much to the surprise of senior commanders of both sides. In the future, Confederate breastworks defending coastal areas were successfully protected against rifle-fired explosive projectiles with banks of dirt and sand such as at Fort McAllister. Later, holding the city of Savannah would allow two additional attempts at breaking the Union blockade with ironclads <a href="/wiki/USS_Atlanta_(1861)"><i>CSS Atlanta</i></a> (1862) and <a href="/wiki/CSS_Savannah_(ironclad)"><i>CSS Savannah</i></a> (1863).
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b> <i>Foot Soldier: The Rebels.</i> Prod. A&amp;E Television Network. Karn, Richard. The History Channel. 1998. DVD. A&amp;E Television Networks, 2008.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFreeman1934">Freeman 1934</a>, p. 602
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b> <cite>Stiles, Robert (1903). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PPcLAAAAIAAJ&amp;q=marse+robert"><i>Four Years under Marse Robert</i></a>. New York: Neale Publishing Company. pp. 17–20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780722282922"><bdi>9780722282922</bdi></a>. Retrieved March 6, 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson2008">McPherson 2008</a>, p. 99
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson2008">McPherson 2008</a>, pp. 106–107
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson2008">McPherson 2008</a>, p. 108
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson2008">McPherson 2008</a>, p. 129
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherson2008">McPherson 2008</a>, pp. 104–105
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fellman124-125_119-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fellman124-125_119-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fellman124-125_119-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFFellman2000">Fellman 2000</a>, pp. 124–125
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b> <cite>Zongker, Brett. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140714212404/http://bigstory.ap.org/article/surgeon-stonewall-jackson-death-likely-pneumonia-0">"Surgeon: Stonewall Jackson death likely pneumonia"</a>. Associated Press. Archived from <a href="http://bigstory.ap.org/article/surgeon-stonewall-jackson-death-likely-pneumonia-0">the original</a> on July 14, 2014. Retrieved June 13, 2014.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b> Stephen W. Sears, "'We Should Assume the Aggressive': Origins of the Gettysburg Campaign," <i>North and South: The Official Magazine of the Civil War Society</i>, March 2002, Vol. 5#4 pp. 58–66; Donald Stoker, <i>The Grand Design: Strategy and the U.S. Civil War</i> (2010) p. 295 says that "attacking Grant would have been the wiser choice" for Lee.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b> <cite>Fremantle, Arthur James Lyon. <a href="http://docsouth.unc.edu/imls/fremantle/fremantle.html#p135">"Three Months in the Southern States"</a>. University of North Carolina. Retrieved October 15, 2010.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFNolan1991">Nolan 1991</a>, pp. 21–22
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Davis61_124-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDavis1999">Davis 1999</a>, p. 61
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Davis233_125-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDavis1999">Davis 1999</a>, p. 233
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFNolan1991">Nolan 1991</a>, p. 24
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-americancivilwar1_127-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://americancivilwar.com/cwstats.html">"Civil War Casualties Battle Statistics and Commanders"</a>. Americancivilwar.com. Retrieved October 15, 2010.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110621220704/http://civilwar.bluegrass.net/battles-campaigns/1861/610911-13.html">"Battle of Cheat Mountain"</a>. Civilwar.bluegrass.net. Archived from <a href="http://civilwar.bluegrass.net/battles-campaigns/1861/610911-13.html">the original</a> on June 21, 2011. Retrieved October 15, 2010.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b> McPherson 2003, p.470
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://americancivilwar.com/getty.html">"Gettysburg Battle American Civil War July 1863"</a>. Americancivilwar.com. Retrieved October 15, 2010.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b> <cite>McFeely, William S. (1981). <a href="https://archive.org/details/grantbiography00mcfe/page/169"><i>Grant: A Biography</i></a>. New York: Norton. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/grantbiography00mcfe/page/169">169</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-01372-6"><bdi>978-0-393-01372-6</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://americancivilwar.com/appo.html">"Appomattox Courthouse Robert E. Lee surrenders to Ulysses S. Grant"</a>. Americancivilwar.com. Retrieved October 15, 2010.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-:5_133-0">^</a></b> <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hOTK_dvNzf8&amp;t=4m">The Lost Indictment of Robert E. Lee: The Forgotten Case against an American Icon</a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube">YouTube</a>, lecture given by historian John Reeves at the <a href="/wiki/U.S._National_Archives_and_Records_Administration">U.S. National Archives and Records Administration</a> on June 13, 2018
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b> In December 1882, the U.S. Supreme Court returned the property to Lee's son because it had been confiscated without due process of law. In 1883, the government paid the Lee family US$150,000 (equivalent to $4,362,321 in 2021). <cite><a href="http://www.arlingtoncemetery.mil/History/Facts/ArlingtonHouse.aspx">"Arlington House, The Robert E. Lee Memorial"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Arlington_National_Cemetery">Arlington National Cemetery</a>. (Official website). Retrieved May 20, 2008.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-serwer_135-0">^</a></b> <cite>Serwer, Adam (June 2017). <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2017/06/the-myth-of-the-kindly-general-lee/529038/">"The Myth of the Kindly General Lee"</a>. <i>The Atlantic</i>. Retrieved August 27, 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFellman2000">Fellman 2000</a>, pp. 265–94
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFThomas1997">Thomas 1997</a>, pp. 380–92
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFellman2000">Fellman 2000</a>, p. 268
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFThomas1997">Thomas 1997</a>, pp. 391–92, 416
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-VAnom_140-0">^</a></b> <cite>Virginia Historic Landmarks Commission Staff (October 1971). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120927041441/http://www.dhr.virginia.gov/registers/Cities/Richmond/127-0064_Stewart-Lee_House_1972_Final_Nomination.pdf">"National Register of Historic Places Inventory/Nomination: Stewart-Lee House"</a> (PDF). Virginia Department of Historic Resources. Archived from <a href="http://www.dhr.virginia.gov/registers/Cities/Richmond/127-0064_Stewart-Lee_House_1972_Final_Nomination.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on September 27, 2012. Retrieved December 31, 2013.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFThomas1997">Thomas 1997</a>, pp. 374–402
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b> <cite>Riley, Franklin Lafayette (1922). <a href="https://archive.org/details/generalrobertel01rilegoog"><i>General Robert E. Lee After Appomattox</i></a>. Macmillan. pp. <a href="https://archive.org/details/generalrobertel01rilegoog/page/n52">18</a>–19.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140714150213/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/transcript/lee-transcript/">"Robert E. Lee on American Experience complete transcript"</a>. Corporation for Public Broadcasting. Archived from <a href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/transcript/lee-transcript/">the original</a> on July 14, 2014. Retrieved June 11, 2014.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFellman2000">Fellman 2000</a>, pp. 16–17
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-archives.gov_145-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-archives.gov_145-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2005/spring/piece-lee.html">"General Robert E. Lee's Parole and Citizenship"</a>. United States National Archives. August 5, 1975. Retrieved October 15, 2010.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFellman2000">Fellman 2000</a>, p. 265
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFellman2000">Fellman 2000</a>, pp. 267–268
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Robert_E_Lee_s_Testimony_before_Congress_February_17_1866">"Robert E. Lee's Testimony before Congress (February 17, 1866)"</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFreeman1934">Freeman 1934</a>, p. 301
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFreeman1934">Freeman 1934</a>, pp. 375–377
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFreeman1934">Freeman 1934</a>, pp. 375–376
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFreeman1934">Freeman 1934</a>, p. 376
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFellman2000">Fellman 2000</a>, pp. 258–263
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFFellman2000">Fellman 2000</a>, pp. 275–277
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b> Some sources add "but little studied" before the word "operations".
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b> "32c Robert E. Lee single", Arago: people, postage &amp; the post, National Postal Museum online, viewed May 7, 2014. An image of the stamp is available at Arago, <a href="http://arago.si.edu/index.asp?con=2&amp;cmd=1&amp;id=192339&amp;img=1&amp;mode=2&amp;pg=1&amp;tid=2043413">Robert E. Lee stamp</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140508061547/http://arago.si.edu/index.asp?con=2&amp;cmd=1&amp;id=192339&amp;img=1&amp;mode=2&amp;pg=1&amp;tid=2043413">Archived</a> May 8, 2014, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b> "Stone Mountain Memorial Issue", Arago: people, postage &amp; the post, National Postal Museum online, viewed March 16, 2014.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://charlottesville.granicus.com/MediaPlayer.php?view_id=2&amp;clip_id=1308&amp;meta_id=31074">"City Council Meeting (video)"</a>. July 18, 2018. Retrieved October 25, 2018.</cite><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot">permanent dead link</a></i>]</sup>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-guardian-19may2017_197-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2017/may/19/new-orleans-robert-e-lee-statue-removed-confederacy">"New Orleans removes its final Confederate-era statue"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. Associated Press. May 19, 2017. Retrieved May 22, 2017.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a></b> Bill Chappell, <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2017/09/06/548929726/national-cathedral-is-removing-stained-glass-windows-honoring-confederate-leader">National Cathedral Is Removing Stained-Glass Windows Honoring Confederate Leaders</a>, NPR (September 6, 2017).
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_208-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_208-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_208-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_208-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFCullum1891">Cullum 1891</a>, p. 420
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_209-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_209-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_209-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFCullum1891">Cullum 1891</a>, p. 421
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a></b> <cite>Trudeau, Noah (2009). <a href="https://archive.org/details/roberteleelesson0000trud/page/37"><i>Robert E. Lee: Lessons in Leadership</i></a>. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/roberteleelesson0000trud/page/37">37</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-10344-3"><bdi>978-0-230-10344-3</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a></b> <cite>Eicher, John &amp; David (2001). <i>Civil War High Commands</i>. New York: Stanford University Press. p. 810. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-3641-1"><bdi>978-0-8047-3641-1</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFEicher2001">Eicher 2001</a>, p. 807
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.tor.com/2011/09/07/lee-at-the-alamo/">"Lee at the Alamo"</a>. September 7, 2011.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.edmunds.com/about/press/dukes-of-hazzards-general-lee-tops-edmunds-insidelinecoms-list-of-100-greatest-movie-and-tv-cars-of-all-time.html">""Dukes of Hazzard's" General Lee Tops Edmunds' InsideLine.com's List of 100 Greatest Movie and TV Cars of All Time"</a>. <i>edmunds.com</i>. Retrieved June 3, 2012.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.allmovie.com/movie/the-dukes-of-hazzard-happy-birthday-general-lee-v392976">"The Dukes of Hazzard: Happy Birthday, General Lee"</a>. <i>allmovie</i>. Retrieved June 3, 2012.</cite>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2>Notes</h2>
<div><ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a></b> During his brief tenure as commander of Virginia forces, Robert E. Lee was authorized to wear the insignia of a Major General on the blue Union Army jacket, but continued to wear his U.S. Army Colonel's uniform until the start of 1862. By this time he began wearing the familiar grey Confederate Army coat with Colonel insignia, signifying the last rank he held in the U.S. Army.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a></b> Throughout the Civil War, with only a handful of exceptions, Robert E. Lee wore the insignia of a Confederate colonel, although he held the rank of full general. Lee would later state that he wore a colonel's insignia in homage to his original United States Army rank, which he considered to be the last permanent rank he had legally held. Lee also reportedly disliked the heavy braid and raised collar of the standard Confederate general's uniform.
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2>Bibliography</h2>
<ul><li><cite><a href="/wiki/John_Wesley_Blassingame">Blassingame, John W.</a> (1977). <i>Slave Testimony: Two Centuries of Letters, Speeches, Interviews, and Autobiographies</i>. <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_State_University_Press">Louisiana State University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-0273-2"><bdi>978-0-8071-0273-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/William_C._Davis_(historian)">Davis, William C.</a> (1999). <a href="https://archive.org/details/battlefieldsofci00will"><i>The Commanders of the Civil War</i></a>. London: Salamander Books Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84065-105-8"><bdi>978-1-84065-105-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Michael_Fellman">Fellman, Michael</a> (2000). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x7OOraQWi5wC"><i>The Making of Robert E. Lee</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Random_House">Random House</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-45650-6"><bdi>978-0-679-45650-6</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Douglas_S._Freeman">Freeman, Douglas S.</a> (1934). <a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/People/Robert_E_Lee/FREREL/home.html"><i>R. E. Lee, A Biography</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Charles_Scribner%27s_Sons">Charles Scribner's Sons</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Michael_Korda">Korda, Michael</a> (2014). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qSCSAgAAQBAJ&amp;q=slave"><i>Clouds of Glory: The Life and Legend of Robert E. Lee</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/HarperCollins_Publishers">HarperCollins Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-211629-1"><bdi>978-0-06-211629-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Lee, Edmund Jennings (1983). <i>Lee of Virginia 1642–1892</i>. Genealogical Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8063-0604-9"><bdi>978-0-8063-0604-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>McCaslin, Richard B. (2001). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D6kpG3M1hqYC"><i>Lee In the Shadow of Washington</i></a>. LSU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-807-12959-3"><bdi>978-0-807-12959-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/James_M._McPherson">McPherson, James M.</a> (2003). <i>Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1950-3863-7"><bdi>978-0-1950-3863-7</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/James_M._McPherson">McPherson, James M.</a> (2008). <a href="https://archive.org/details/triedbywarabraha00mcph"><i>Tried by War: Abraham Lincoln as Commander in Chief</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Press">Penguin Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4406-5245-5"><bdi>978-1-4406-5245-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Nolan, Alan T. (1991). <a href="https://archive.org/details/leeconsideredgen00nola"><i>Lee Considered: General Robert E. Lee and Civil War History</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_Press">University of North Carolina Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-4587-5"><bdi>978-0-8078-4587-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Brown_Pryor">Pryor, Elizabeth Brown</a> (2007). <a href="https://archive.org/details/readingmanportra0000pryo"><i>Reading the Man: A Portrait of Robert E. Lee Through His Private Letters</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Viking_Press">Viking Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6700-3829-9"><bdi>978-0-6700-3829-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Emory_M._Thomas">Thomas, Emory M.</a> (1997). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jJWR80JZ_hsC"><i>Robert E. Lee</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/W._W._Norton_%26_Co.">W. W. Norton &amp; Co.</a> <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-31631-5"><bdi>978-0-393-31631-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li></ul>
<h3>Historiography</h3>
<ul><li>Foner, Eric. "The Making and the Breaking of the Legend of Robert E. Lee", <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/28/books/review/eric-foner-robert-e-lee.html?emc=edit_bk_20170915&amp;nl=book-review&amp;nlid=8258846&amp;te=1"><i>New York Times</i> Aug 28, 2017</a></li></ul>
<h2>Further reading</h2>
<ul><li><cite>Adam, Graeme Mercer (1905). <a href="https://archive.org/details/lifeofgeneralrob00adam"><i>The Life of General Robert E. Lee</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/A._L._Burt">A. L. Burt</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Connelly, Thomas L. (June 1969). "Robert E. Lee and the Western Confederacy: A Criticism of Lee's Strategic Ability". <i>Civil War History</i>. <b>15</b> (2): 116–32. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fcwh.1969.0030">10.1353/cwh.1969.0030</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Cox, David R. (2017). <a href="https://www.eerdmans.com/Products/7482/the-religious-life-of-robert-e-lee.aspx"><i>The Religious Life of Robert E. Lee</i></a>. Grand Rapids, Mi.: <a href="/wiki/William_B._Eerdmans_Publishing_Co.">William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.</a></cite></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Allen_C._Guelzo">Guelzo, Allen C.</a> (2021). <i>Robert E. Lee: A Life</i>. New York: Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1101946220">978-1101946220</a></li>
<li><cite>McCabe, James Dabney (1870). <a href="https://archive.org/details/lifecampaignsofg01mcca"><i>Life and Campaigns of General Robert E. Lee</i></a>. Atlanta, Ga. &amp; Philadelphia, Pa.: National publishing Company.</cite></li>
<li><cite>McGuire, Judith W. (1873). <a href="https://archive.org/details/generalrobertele00mcgu"><i>General Robert E. Lee, The Christian Soldier</i></a>. Philadelphia: Claxton, Remsen &amp; Haffelfinger; Richmond: Woodhouse &amp; Parham.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Lee, Robert E. (1897). A. L. Long (ed.). <a href="https://archive.org/details/memoirsofroberte01long"><i>Memoirs of Robert E. Lee: His Military and Personal History</i></a>. New York &amp; Philadelphia: J. M. Stoddart &amp; Company.</cite></li>
<li>Reeves, John (2018). <i>The Lost Indictment of Robert E. Lee: The Forgotten Case Against an American Icon.</i> Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.</li>
<li><cite>Riley, Franklin L. (1922). <a href="https://archive.org/details/generalrobertel01rilegoog"><i>General Robert E. Lee after Appomattox</i></a>. New York: Macmillan Co.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Ty_Seidule">Seidule, Ty</a> (2021). <i>Robert E. Lee and Me: A Southerner's Reckoning with the Myth of the Lost Cause</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/St._Martin%27s_Press">St. Martin's Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1250239266"><bdi>978-1250239266</bdi></a>.</cite></li></ul>
<h2>External links</h2>
<ul><li><cite>Lee, Robert Edward (2000). <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/2323"><i>Recollections and Letters of General Robert E. Lee</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a>.</cite></li>
<li><a href="https://www.robertelee.org/">Biographical article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Stanley_L._Klos">Stanley L. Klos</a></li>
<li><a href="https://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/10/12/oct-12-1870-gen-robert-e-lee-dies">Obituary of Robert E. Lee</a>, from a Northern point of view. <i>The New York Times</i>; October 13, 1870</li>
<li><a href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/films/lee/"><i>Robert E. Lee</i></a> – An <i><a href="/wiki/American_Experience">American Experience</a></i> documentary</li>
<li><a href="http://www.civilwarprofiles.com/dwight-d-eisenhower-in-defense-of-robert-e-lee/">Letter from Dwight Eisenhower about Lee</a></li></ul>
<h3>Primary sources</h3>
<ul><li><a href="https://www.shapell.org/manuscript/general-grant-rejects-general-lee-armistice-proposal/">Original Historical Letters: Lincoln Refuses Lee's Armistice</a> Shapell Manuscript Foundation</li>
<li><a href="http://anthonyworld.org/newmedia/GettysburgProjectMK2.html">Interactive Animation of the Battle of Gettysburg</a> – A chronicle of the 3-day battle, it also touches on Lee's tactical strategies during the American Civil War.</li>
<li><a href="https://digital.lib.miamioh.edu/digital/collection/richey/search/searchterm/robert%20e.%20lee/mode/all/order/datea">Correspondences of Robert E. Lee during the American Civil War</a> – held in the Walter Havighurst Special Collections, Miami University</li>
<li><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/author/Lee,+Robert+E.+(Robert+Edward)">Works by Robert E. Lee</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li>
<li><a href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Lee%2C%20Robert%20Edward%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Lee%2C%20Robert%20E%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Lee%2C%20R%2E%20E%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Robert%20Edward%20Lee%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Robert%20E%2E%20Lee%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22R%2E%20E%2E%20Lee%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Robert%20Edward%20Lee%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Robert%20E%2E%20Lee%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22R%2E%20E%2E%20Lee%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22R%2E%20Edward%20Lee%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Lee%2C%20Robert%20Edward%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Lee%2C%20Robert%20E%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Lee%2C%20R%2E%20E%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Lee%2C%20R%2E%20Edward%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Robert%20Edward%20Lee%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Robert%20E%2E%20Lee%22%20OR%20title%3A%22R%2E%20E%2E%20Lee%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Robert%20Edward%20Lee%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Robert%20E%2E%20Lee%22%20OR%20description%3A%22R%2E%20E%2E%20Lee%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Lee%2C%20Robert%20Edward%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Lee%2C%20Robert%20E%2E%22%29%20OR%20%28%221807-1870%22%20AND%20Lee%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Robert E. Lee</a> at <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive">Internet Archive</a></li>
<li><a href="https://librivox.org/author/2414">Works by Robert E. Lee</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) </li>
<li><a href="https://rose.library.emory.edu/">Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library</a>, Emory University: <a href="https://findingaids.library.emory.edu/documents/lee206/">Robert E. Lee collection, 1835–1869</a></li></ul>
<h3>Monuments and memorials</h3>
<ul><li><a href="https://my.wlu.edu/university-chapel-and-galleries/">University Chapel at Washington and Lee University where Robert E. Lee is buried</a></li></ul>
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 Contents

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 * (Top)
 * 1 Early life and education
 * 2 Military engineer career
 * 3 Marriage and family
 * 4 Mexican–American War
 * 5 Early 1850s: West Point and Texas
 * 6 Late 1850s: Arlington plantation and the Custis slaves
 + 6.1 The Norris case
 + 6.2 Lee's views on race and slavery
 * 7 Harpers Ferry and return to Texas, 1859–1861
 + 7.1 Harpers Ferry
 + 7.2 Texas
 * 8 Civil War
 + 8.1 Resignation from United States Army
 + 8.2 Early role
 + 8.3 Commander, Army of Northern Virginia (June 1862 – June 1863)
 + 8.4 Battle of Gettysburg
 + 8.5 Ulysses S. Grant and the Union offensive
 + 8.6 General in Chief
 * 9 Summaries of Lee's Civil War battles
 * 10 Postbellum life
 + 10.1 President Johnson's amnesty pardons
 + 10.2 Postwar politics
 * 11 Illness and death
 * 12 Legacy
 + 12.1 Monuments, memorials and commemorations
 o 12.1.1 Unite the Right rally
 + 12.2 Biographies
 * 13 Dates of rank
 * 14 In popular culture
 * 15 See also
 * 16 References
 * 17 Notes
 * 18 Bibliography
 + 18.1 Historiography
 * 19 Further reading
 * 20 External links
 + 20.1 Primary sources
 + 20.2 Monuments and memorials
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 Robert E. Lee

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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 "General Lee" redirects here. For other uses, see General Lee (disambiguation) and Robert E. Lee (disambiguation).

 General 
 Robert E. Lee 
 Lee in March 1864 
 Birth name Robert Edward Lee 
  * Uncle Robert 
  * Marse Robert 
 Nickname(s) * King of Spades 
  * Marble Man 
  * Granny Lee (by Union) 
 Born January 19, 1807 
  Stratford Hall, Westmoreland County, Virginia, U.S. 
 Died October 12, 1870 (aged 63) 
  Lexington, Virginia, U.S. 
 Buried University Chapel at Washington and Lee University, Lexington, Virginia, U.S.
  United States of America 
 Allegiance Confederate States of America 
  Commonwealth of Virginia 
 Service/branch United States Army 
  Confederate States Army 
 Years of service * 1829–1861 (U.S.) 
  * 1861–1865 (C.S.) 
 Rank Colonel (U.S.) 
  General (C.S.) 
  * General in Chief of the Armies of the Confederate States 
 Commands held * U.S. Military Academy 
  * Army of Northern Virginia 
  * Mexican–American War 
 Battles/wars * John Brown's raid 
  * American Civil War 
 Alma mater United States Military Academy 
  Mary Anna Randolph Custis 
 Spouse(s) ​  
  ​(m. 1831)​  
  * George  
  * Mary  
  * William 
 Children * Robert Jr. 
  * Anne  
  * Eleanor 
  * Mildred 
 Relations * Henry Lee III (father) 
  * Anne Hill Carter Lee (mother) 
 Signature  
  
  
 General in Chief of the Armies of the Confederate States
 In office 
 February 6, 1865 – April 12, 1865 
 Preceded by Position established 
 Succeeded by Position abolished 
 1st President of Washington and Lee University 
 In office 
 1865–1870 
 Preceded by George Junkin (Washington College) 
 Succeeded by Custis Lee  
 Superintendent of the United States Military Academy 
 In office 
 1852–1855 
 Preceded by Henry Brewerton 
 Succeeded by John G. Barnard 
  
  
  
 

 Robert Edward Lee (January 19, 1807 – October 12, 1870) was a Confederate general during the American Civil War, towards the end of which he was appointed the overall commander of the Confederate States Army. He led the Army of Northern Virginia—the Confederacy's most powerful army—from 1862 until its surrender in 1865, earning a reputation as a skilled tactician.

 A son of Revolutionary War officer Henry "Light Horse Harry" Lee III, Lee was a top graduate of the United States Military Academy and an exceptional officer and military engineer in the United States Army for 32 years. He served across the United States, distinguished himself extensively during the Mexican–American War, and was Superintendent of the United States Military Academy. He married Mary Anna Custis Lee, great-granddaughter of George Washington's wife Martha. While he opposed slavery from a philosophical perspective, he supported its legality and held hundreds of slaves. When Virginia declared secession from the Union in 1861, Lee chose to follow his home state, despite his desire for the country to remain intact and an offer of a senior Union command. During the first year of the Civil War, he served in minor combat operations and as a senior military adviser to Confederate President Jefferson Davis.

 Lee took command of the Army of Northern Virginia in June 1862 during the Peninsula Campaign following the wounding of Joseph E. Johnston. He succeeded in driving the Union Army of the Potomac under George B. McClellan away from the Confederate capital of Richmond during the Seven Days Battles, although he was unable to destroy McClellan's army. Lee then overcame Union forces under John Pope at the Second Battle of Bull Run in August. His invasion of Maryland that September ended with the inconclusive Battle of Antietam, after which he retreated to Virginia. Lee won two of his most decisive victories at Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville before launching a second invasion of the North in the summer of 1863, where he was decisively defeated at the Battle of Gettysburg by the Army of the Potomac under George Meade. He led his army in the minor and inconclusive Bristoe Campaign that fall before General Ulysses S. Grant took command of Union armies in the spring of 1864. Grant engaged Lee's army in bloody but inconclusive battles at the Wilderness and Spotsylvania before the lengthy Siege of Petersburg, which was followed in April 1865 by the capture of Richmond and the destruction of most of Lee's army, which he finally surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Court House.

 In 1865, Lee became president of Washington College (later Washington and Lee University) in Lexington, Virginia; in that position, he supported reconciliation between North and South. Lee accepted the extinction of slavery provided for by the Thirteenth Amendment, but opposed racial equality for African Americans. After his death in 1870, Lee became a cultural icon in the South and is largely hailed as one of the Civil War's greatest generals. As commander of the Army of Northern Virginia, he fought most of his battles against armies of significantly larger size, and managed to win many of them. Lee built up a collection of talented subordinates, most notably James Longstreet, Stonewall Jackson, and J. E. B. Stuart, who along with Lee were critical to the Confederacy's battlefield success.[1][2] In spite of his success, his two major strategic offensives into Union territory both ended in failure. Lee's aggressive and risky tactics, especially at Gettysburg, which resulted in high casualties at a time when the Confederacy had a shortage of manpower, have come under criticism.[3]

 Early life and education

 Lee was born at Stratford Hall Plantation in Westmoreland County, Virginia, to Henry Lee III and Anne Hill Carter Lee on January 19, 1807.[4] His ancestor, Richard Lee I, emigrated from Shropshire, England, to Virginia in 1639.[5]

 Lee's father suffered severe financial reverses from failed investments[6] and was put in debtors' prison. Soon after his release the following year, the family moved to the city of Alexandria which at the time was still part of the District of Columbia (it retroceded back to Virginia in 1847), both because there were then high quality local schools there, and because several members of Anne's extended family lived nearby. In 1811, the family, including the newly born sixth child, Mildred, moved to a house on Oronoco Street.[7]

 Stratford Hall, Westmoreland County
 the family seat, Lee's birthplace
 Oronoco Street, Alexandria, Virginia
 "Lee Corner" properties

 In 1812 Lee's father moved permanently to the West Indies.[8] Lee attended Eastern View, a school for young gentlemen, in Fauquier County, Virginia, and then at the Alexandria Academy, free for local boys, where he showed an aptitude for mathematics. Although brought up to be a practicing Christian, he was not confirmed in the Episcopal Church until age 46.[9]

 Anne Lee's family was often supported by a relative, William Henry Fitzhugh, who owned the Oronoco Street house and allowed the Lees to stay at his country home Ravensworth. Fitzhugh wrote to United States Secretary of War, John C. Calhoun, urging that Robert be given an appointment to the United States Military Academy at West Point. Fitzhugh had young Robert deliver the letter.[10] Lee entered West Point in the summer of 1825. At the time, the focus of the curriculum was engineering; the head of the United States Army Corps of Engineers supervised the school and the superintendent was an engineering officer. Cadets were not permitted leave until they finished two years of study and were rarely allowed off the academy grounds. Lee graduated second in his class behind Charles Mason[11] (who resigned from the Army a year after graduation). Lee did not incur any demerits during his four-year course of study, a distinction shared by only five of his 45 classmates. In June 1829, Lee was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the Corps of Engineers.[12] After graduation, while awaiting assignment, he returned to Virginia to find his mother on her deathbed; she died at Ravensworth on July 26, 1829.[13]

 Military engineer career

 Lee at age 31 in 1838, as a Lieutenant of Engineers in the U.S. Army

 On August 11, 1829, Brigadier General Charles Gratiot ordered Lee to Cockspur Island, Georgia. The plan was to build a fort on the marshy island which would command the outlet of the Savannah River. Lee was involved in the early stages of construction as the island was being drained and built up.[14] In 1831, it became apparent that the existing plan to build what became known as Fort Pulaski would have to be revamped, and Lee was transferred to Fort Monroe at the tip of the Virginia Peninsula (today in Hampton, Virginia).[15][ citation not found ]

 While home in the summer of 1829, Lee had apparently courted Mary Custis whom he had known as a child. Lee obtained permission to write to her before leaving for Georgia, though Mary Custis warned Lee to be "discreet" in his writing, as her mother read her letters, especially from men.[16] Custis refused Lee the first time he asked to marry her; her father did not believe the son of the disgraced Light-Horse Harry Lee was a suitable man for his daughter.[17] She accepted him with her father's consent in September 1830, while he was on summer leave,[18] and the two were wed on June 30, 1831.[19]

 Lee's duties at Fort Monroe were varied, typical for a junior officer, and ranged from budgeting to designing buildings.[20][ citation not found ] Although Mary Lee accompanied her husband to Hampton Roads, she spent about a third of her time at Arlington, though the couple's first son, Custis Lee was born at Fort Monroe. Although the two were by all accounts devoted to each other, they were different in character: Robert Lee was tidy and punctual, qualities his wife lacked. Mary Lee also had trouble transitioning from being a rich man's daughter to having to manage a household with only one or two slaves.[21] Beginning in 1832, Robert Lee had a close but platonic relationship with Harriett Talcott, wife of his fellow officer Andrew Talcott.[22]

 Fort Monroe, Hampton
 Lee's early duty station
 Fort Des Moines, Montrose
 Lee's hand-drawn sketch

 Life at Fort Monroe was marked by conflicts between artillery and engineering officers. Eventually, the War Department transferred all engineering officers away from Fort Monroe, except Lee, who was ordered to take up residence on the artificial island of Rip Raps across the river from Fort Monroe, where Fort Wool would eventually rise, and continue work to improve the island. Lee duly moved there, then discharged all workers and informed the War Department he could not maintain laborers without the facilities of the fort.[23]

 In 1834, Lee was transferred to Washington as General Gratiot's assistant.[24] Lee had hoped to rent a house in Washington for his family, but was not able to find one; the family lived at Arlington, though Lieutenant Lee rented a room at a Washington boarding house for when the roads were impassable.[25][ citation not found ] In mid-1835, Lee was assigned to assist Andrew Talcott in surveying the southern border of Michigan.[26] While on that expedition, he responded to a letter from an ill Mary Lee, which had requested he come to Arlington, "But why do you urge my immediate return, & tempt one in the strongest manner[?] ... I rather require to be strengthened & encouraged to the full performance of what I am called on to execute."[15] Lee completed the assignment and returned to his post in Washington, finding his wife ill at Ravensworth. Mary Lee, who had recently given birth to their second child, remained bedridden for several months. In October 1836, Lee was promoted to first lieutenant.[27]

 Lee served as an assistant in the chief engineer's office in Washington, D.C. from 1834 to 1837, but spent the summer of 1835 helping to lay out the state line between Ohio and Michigan. As a first lieutenant of engineers in 1837, he supervised the engineering work for St. Louis harbor and for the upper Mississippi and Missouri rivers. Among his projects was the mapping of the Des Moines Rapids on the Mississippi above Keokuk, Iowa, where the Mississippi's mean depth of 2.4 feet (0.7 m) was the upper limit of steamboat traffic on the river. His work there earned him a promotion to captain. Around 1842, Captain Robert E. Lee arrived as Fort Hamilton's post engineer.[28]

 Marriage and family

 Robert E. Lee, around age 38, and his son William Henry Fitzhugh Lee, around age 8, c.1845

 While Lee was stationed at Fort Monroe, he married Mary Anna Randolph Custis (1808–1873), great-granddaughter of Martha Washington by her first husband Daniel Parke Custis, and step-great-granddaughter of George Washington, the first president of the United States. Mary was the only surviving child of George Washington Parke Custis, George Washington's stepgrandson, and Mary Lee Fitzhugh Custis, daughter of William Fitzhugh[29] and Ann Bolling Randolph. Robert and Mary married on June 30, 1831, at Arlington House, her parents' house just across the Potomac from Washington. The 3rd U.S. Artillery served as honor guard at the marriage. They eventually had seven children, three boys and four girls:[30]

 1. George Washington Custis Lee (Custis, "Boo"); 1832–1913; served as major general in the Confederate Army and aide-de-camp to President Jefferson Davis, captured during the Battle of Sailor's Creek; unmarried
 2. Mary Custis Lee (Mary, "Daughter"); 1835–1918; unmarried
 3. William Henry Fitzhugh Lee ("Rooney"); 1837–1891; served as major general in the Confederate Army (cavalry); married twice; surviving children by second marriage
 4. Anne Carter Lee (Annie); June 18, 1839 – October 20, 1862; died of typhoid fever, unmarried
 5. Eleanor Agnes Lee (Agnes); 1841 – October 15, 1873; died of tuberculosis, unmarried
 6. Robert Edward Lee, Jr. (Rob); 1843–1914; served in the Confederate Army, first as a private in the Rockbridge Artillery, later as a Captain on the staff of his brother Rooney; married twice; surviving children by second marriage
 7. Mildred Childe Lee (Milly, "Precious Life"); 1846–1905; unmarried

 All the children survived him except for Annie, who died in 1862. They are all buried with their parents in the crypt of the University Chapel at Washington and Lee University in Lexington, Virginia.[31]

 Lee is a great-great-great-grandson of William Randolph and a great-great-grandson of Richard Bland.[32] Fitzhugh Lee (1835–1905), a Confederate general and later a United States Army general in the Spanish–American War, is Lee's nephew. Lee is a second cousin of Helen Keller's grandmother,[33] and is a distant relative of Admiral Willis Augustus Lee.[34]

 On May 1, 1864, General Lee was present at the baptism of General A.P. Hill's daughter, Lucy Lee Hill, to serve as her godfather. This is referenced in the painting Tender is the Heart by Mort Künstler.[35] He was also the godfather of actress and writer Odette Tyler, the daughter of Brigadier General William Whedbee Kirkland.[36]

 Mexican–American War

 Robert E. Lee around age 43, when he was a brevet lieutenant-colonel of engineers, c. 1850

 Lee distinguished himself in the Mexican–American War (1846–1848). He was one of Winfield Scott's chief aides in the march from Veracruz to Mexico City.[37] He was instrumental in several American victories through his personal reconnaissance as a staff officer; he found routes of attack that the Mexicans had not defended because they thought the terrain was impassable.

 He was promoted to brevet major after the Battle of Cerro Gordo on April 18, 1847.[38] He also fought at Contreras, Churubusco, and Chapultepec and was wounded at the last. By the end of the war, he had received additional brevet promotions to lieutenant colonel and colonel, but his permanent rank was still captain of engineers, and he would remain a captain until his transfer to the cavalry in 1855.

 For the first time, Robert E. Lee and Ulysses S. Grant met and worked with each other during the Mexican–American War. Close observations of their commanders constituted a learning process for both Lee and Grant.[39] The Mexican–American War concluded on February 2, 1848.

 After the Mexican War, Lee spent three years at Fort Carroll in Baltimore harbor. During this time, his service was interrupted by other duties, among them surveying and updating maps in Florida. Cuban revolutionary Narciso López intended to forcibly liberate Cuba from Spanish rule. In 1849, searching for a leader for his filibuster expedition, he approached Jefferson Davis, then a United States senator. Davis declined and suggested Lee, who also declined. Both decided it was inconsistent with their duties.[40][41]

 Early 1850s: West Point and Texas

 The 1850s were a difficult time for Lee, with his long absences from home, the increasing disability of his wife, troubles in taking over the management of a large slave plantation, and his often morbid concern with his personal failures.[42]

 In 1852, Lee was appointed Superintendent of the Military Academy at West Point.[43] He was reluctant to enter what he called a "snake pit", but the War Department insisted and he obeyed. His wife occasionally came to visit. During his three years at West Point, Brevet Colonel Robert E. Lee improved the buildings and courses and spent much time with the cadets. Lee's oldest son, George Washington Custis Lee, attended West Point during his tenure. Custis Lee graduated in 1854, first in his class.[44]

 Lee was enormously relieved to receive a long-awaited promotion as second-in-command of the 2nd Cavalry Regiment in Texas in 1855. It meant leaving the Engineering Corps and its sequence of staff jobs for the combat command he truly wanted. He served under Colonel Albert Sidney Johnston at Camp Cooper, Texas; their mission was to protect settlers from attacks by the Apache and the Comanche.

 Late 1850s: Arlington plantation and the Custis slaves

 Arlington House, Arlington
 Mary Custis's inheritance in 1857
 Christ Church, Alexandria, where the Lees worshiped

 In 1857, his father-in-law George Washington Parke Custis died, creating a serious crisis when Lee took on the burden of executing the will. Custis's will encompassed vast landholdings and hundreds of slaves balanced against massive debts, and required Custis's former slaves "to be emancipated by my executors in such manner as to my executors may seem most expedient and proper, the said emancipation to be accomplished in not exceeding five years from the time of my decease."[45] The estate was in disarray, and the plantations had been poorly managed and were losing money.[46] Lee tried to hire an overseer to handle the plantation in his absence, writing to his cousin, "I wish to get an energetic honest farmer, who while he will be considerate & kind to the negroes, will be firm & make them do their duty."[47] But Lee failed to find a man for the job, and had to take a two-year leave of absence from the army in order to run the plantation himself.

 Lee's more strict expectations and harsher punishments of the slaves on Arlington plantation nearly led to a slave revolt, since many of the slaves had been given to understand that they were to be made free as soon as Custis died, and protested angrily at the delay.[48] In May 1858, Lee wrote to his son Rooney, "I have had some trouble with some of the people. Reuben, Parks & Edward, in the beginning of the previous week, rebelled against my authority—refused to obey my orders, & said they were as free as I was, etc., etc.—I succeeded in capturing them & lodging them in jail. They resisted till overpowered & called upon the other people to rescue them."[47] Less than two months after they were sent to the Alexandria jail, Lee decided to remove these three men and three female house slaves from Arlington, and sent them under lock and key to the slave-trader William Overton Winston in Richmond, who was instructed to keep them in jail until he could find "good & responsible" slaveholders to work them until the end of the five-year period.[47]

 By 1860 only one slave family was left intact on the estate. Some of the families had been together since their time at Mount Vernon.[49]

 The Norris case

 In 1859, three of the Arlington slaves—Wesley Norris, his sister Mary, and a cousin of theirs—fled for the North, but were captured a few miles from the Pennsylvania border and forced to return to Arlington. On June 24, 1859, the anti-slavery newspaper New York Daily Tribune published two anonymous letters (dated June 19, 1859[50] and June 21, 1859[51]), each claiming to have heard that Lee had the Norrises whipped, and each going so far as to claim that the overseer refused to whip the woman but that Lee took the whip and flogged her personally. Lee privately wrote to his son Custis that "The N. Y. Tribune has attacked me for my treatment of your grandfather's slaves, but I shall not reply. He has left me an unpleasant legacy."[52]

 Wesley Norris himself spoke out about the incident after the war, in an 1866 interview printed in an abolitionist newspaper, the National Anti-Slavery Standard. Norris stated that after they had been captured, and forced to return to Arlington, Lee told them that "he would teach us a lesson we would not soon forget." According to Norris, Lee then had the three of them firmly tied to posts by the overseer, and ordered them whipped with fifty lashes for the men and twenty for Mary Norris. Norris claimed that Lee encouraged the whipping, and that when the overseer refused to do it, called in the county constable to do it instead. Unlike the anonymous letter writers, he does not state that Lee himself whipped any of the slaves. According to Norris, Lee "frequently enjoined [Constable] Williams to 'lay it on well,' an injunction which he did not fail to heed; not satisfied with simply lacerating our naked flesh, Gen. Lee then ordered the overseer to thoroughly wash our backs with brine, which was done."[48][53]

 The Norris men were then sent by Lee's agent to work on the railroads in Virginia and Alabama. According to the interview, Norris was sent to Richmond in January 1863 "from which place I finally made my escape through the rebel lines to freedom." But Federal authorities reported that Norris came within their lines on September 5, 1863, and that he "left Richmond ... with a pass from General Custis Lee."[54][55] Lee freed the Custis slaves, including Wesley Norris, after the end of the five-year period in the winter of 1862, filing the deed of manumission on December 29, 1862.[56][57]

 Biographers of Lee have differed over the credibility of the account of the punishment as described in the letters in the Tribune and in Norris's personal account. They broadly agree that Lee had a group of escaped slaves recaptured, and that, after recapturing them, he hired them out off of the Arlington plantation as a punishment; however, they disagree over the likelihood that Lee flogged them, and over the charge that he personally whipped Mary Norris. In 1934, Douglas S. Freeman described them as "Lee's first experience with the extravagance of irresponsible antislavery agitators" and asserted that "There is no evidence, direct or indirect, that Lee ever had them or any other Negroes flogged. The usage at Arlington and elsewhere in Virginia among people of Lee's station forbade such a thing."[58]

 In 2000, Michael Fellman, in The Making of Robert E. Lee, found the claims that Lee had personally whipped Mary Norris "extremely unlikely," but found it not at all unlikely that Lee had ordered the runaways whipped: "corporal punishment (for which Lee substituted the euphemism 'firmness') was (believed to be) an intrinsic and necessary part of slave discipline. Although it was supposed to be applied only in a calm and rational manner, overtly physical domination of slaves, unchecked by law, was always brutal and potentially savage."[59]

 In 2003, Bernice-Marie Yates's The Perfect Gentleman, cited Freeman's denial and followed his account in holding that, because of Lee's family connections to George Washington, he "was a prime target for abolitionists who lacked all the facts of the situation."[60]

 Lee biographer Elizabeth Brown Pryor concluded in 2008 that "the facts are verifiable," based on "the consistency of the five extant descriptions of the episode (the only element that is not repeatedly corroborated is the allegation that Lee gave the beatings himself), as well as the existence of an account book that indicates the constable received compensation from Lee on the date that this event occurred."[61][62]

 In 2014, Michael Korda wrote that "Although these letters are dismissed by most of Lee's biographers as exaggerated, or simply as unfounded abolitionist propaganda, it is hard to ignore them. ... It seems incongruously out of character for Lee to have whipped a slave woman himself, particularly one stripped to the waist, and that charge may have been a flourish added by the two correspondents; it was not repeated by Wesley Norris when his account of the incident was published in 1866. ... [A]lthough it seems unlikely that he would have done any of the whipping himself, he may not have flinched from observing it to make sure his orders were carried out exactly."[63]

 Lee's views on race and slavery

 Several historians have noted what they consider the contradictory nature of Lee's beliefs and actions concerning race and slavery. While Lee protested he had sympathetic feelings for blacks, they were subordinate to his own racial identity.[64] While Lee held slavery to be an evil institution, he also saw some benefit to blacks held in slavery.[65] While Lee helped assist individual slaves to freedom in Liberia, and provided for their emancipation in his own will,[66] he believed the enslaved should be eventually freed in a general way only at some unspecified future date as a part of God's purpose.[64][67] Slavery for Lee was a moral and religious issue, and not one that would yield to political solutions.[68] Emancipation would sooner come from Christian impulse among slave masters before "storms and tempests of fiery controversy" such as was occurring in "Bleeding Kansas".[64] Countering Southerners who argued for slavery as a positive good, Lee in his well-known analysis of slavery from an 1856 letter (see below) called it a moral and political evil. While both Lee and his wife were disgusted with slavery, they also defended it against abolitionist demands for immediate emancipation for all enslaved.[69]

 Lee argued that slavery was bad for white people,[70] claiming that he found slavery bothersome and time-consuming as an everyday institution to run. In an 1856 letter to his wife, he maintained that slavery was a great evil, but primarily due to adverse impact that it had on white people:[71]

 In this enlightened age, there are few I believe, but what will acknowledge, that slavery as an institution, is a moral & political evil in any Country. It is useless to expatiate on its disadvantages. I think it however a greater evil to the white man than to the black race, & while my feelings are strongly enlisted in behalf of the latter, my sympathies are more strong for the former. The blacks are immeasurably better off here than in Africa, morally, socially & physically. The painful discipline they are undergoing, is necessary for their instruction as a race, & I hope will prepare & lead them to better things. How long their subjugation may be necessary is known & ordered by a wise Merciful Providence.[72]

 Before leaving to serve in Mexico, Lee had written a will providing for the manumission of the slaves he owned, "a woman and her children inherited from his mother and apparently leased to his father-in-law and later sold to him."[73] Lee's father-in-law, G. W. Parke Custis, was a member of the American Colonization Society, which was formed to gradually end slavery by establishing a free republic in Liberia for African-Americans, and Lee assisted several ex-slaves to emigrate there. Also, according to historian Richard B. McCaslin, Lee was a gradual emancipationist, denouncing extremist proposals for the immediate abolition of slavery. Lee rejected what he called evilly motivated political passion, fearing a civil and servile war from precipitous emancipation.[74]

 Historian Elizabeth Brown Pryor offered an alternative interpretation of Lee's voluntary manumission of slaves in his will, and assisting slaves to a life of freedom in Liberia, seeing Lee as conforming to a "primacy of slave law". She wrote that Lee's private views on race and slavery,

 "which today seem startling, were entirely unremarkable in Lee's world. No visionary, Lee nearly always tried to conform to accepted opinions. His assessment of black inferiority, of the necessity of racial stratification, the primacy of slave law, and even a divine sanction for it all, was in keeping with the prevailing views of other moderate slaveholders and a good many prominent Northerners."[75]

 In 1857, George Custis died, leaving Robert Lee as the executor of his estate, which included nearly 200 slaves.[76] In his will, Custis stated the slaves were to be freed within five years of his death. On taking on the role of administrator for the Parke Custis will, Lee used a provision to retain them in slavery to produce income for the estate to retire debt.[77] Lee did not welcome the role of planter while administering the Custis properties at Romancoke, another nearby the Pamunkey River and Arlington; he rented the estate's mill. While all the estates prospered under his administration, Lee was unhappy at direct participation in slavery as a hated institution.[78]

 Even before what Michael Fellman called a "sorry involvement in actual slave management", Lee judged the experience of white mastery to be a greater moral evil to the white man than blacks suffering under the "painful discipline" of slavery which introduced Christianity, literacy and a work ethic to the "heathen African".[79] Columbia University historian Eric Foner notes that:

 Lee "was not a pro-slavery ideologue. But I think equally important is that, unlike some white southerners, he never spoke out against slavery"[80]

 By the time of Lee's career in the U.S. Army, the officers of West Point stood aloof from political-party and sectional strife on such issues as slavery, as a matter of principle, and Lee adhered to the precedent.[81][82] He considered it his patriotic duty to be apolitical while in active Army service,[83][84][85] and Lee did not speak out publicly on the subject of slavery prior to the Civil War.[86][87] Before the outbreak of the War, in 1860, Lee voted for John C. Breckinridge, who was the extreme pro-slavery candidate in the 1860 presidential election, not John Bell, the more moderate Southerner who won Virginia.[88]

 Lee himself owned a small number of slaves in his lifetime and considered himself a paternalistic master.[88] There are various historical and newspaper hearsay accounts of Lee personally whipping a slave, but they are not direct eyewitness accounts. He was definitely involved in administering the day-to-day operations of a plantation and was involved in the recapture of runaway slaves.[89] One historian noted that Lee separated slave families, something that prominent slave-holding families in Virginia such as Washington and Custis did not do.[70] On December 29, 1862, Lee freed all the slaves his wife had inherited from George Custis, but this was in accordance with the Custis will, as that was the last day he was allowed to legally retain them.[90] Prior to this, Lee had petitioned the courts to keep the Custis slaves longer than the five years allotted in Custis' will, since the estate was still in debt, but the courts rejected his appeals.[76] In 1866, one of Lee's former slaves, Wesley Norris, charged that Lee personally beat him and other slaves harshly after they had tried to run away from Arlington.[91] Lee never publicly responded to this charge, but privately told a friend "There is not a word of truth in it . . . No servant, soldier, or citizen, that was ever employed by me can with truth charge me with bad treatment.”[92]

 Foner writes that "Lee's code of gentlemanly conduct did not seem to apply to blacks" during the War, as he did not stop his soldiers from kidnapping free black farmers and selling them into slavery.[80] Princeton University historian James M. McPherson noted that Lee initially rejected a prisoner exchange between the Confederacy and the Union when the Union demanded that black Union soldiers be included.[70] Lee did not accept the swap until a few months before the Confederacy's surrender.[70] He also called the Emancipation Proclamation "a savage and brutal policy...which leaves us no alternative but success or degradation worse than death."[93]

 As the war dragged on and Lee's losses mounted, he eventually advocated enlisting slaves in the Confederate army in exchange for freedom. However, he came to this position with great reluctance. In an 1865 letter to his friend Andrew Hunter, he wrote "Considering the relation of master and slave, controlled by humane laws and influenced by Christianity and an enlightened public sentiment, as the best that can exist between the white and black races while intermingled as at present in this country, I would deprecate any sudden disturbance of that relation unless it be necessary to avert a greater calamity to both. I should therefore prefer to rely upon our white population to preserve the ratio between our forces and those of the enemy, which experience has shown to be safe. But in view of the preparations of our enemies, it is our duty to provide for continued war and not for a battle or a campaign, and I fear that we cannot accomplish this without overtaxing the capacity of our white population."[94]

 After the War, Lee told a congressional committee that blacks were "not disposed to work" and did not possess the intellectual capacity to vote and participate in politics.[90] Lee also said to the committee that he hoped that Virginia could "get rid of them," referring to blacks.[90] While not politically active, Lee defended Lincoln's successor Andrew Johnson's approach to Reconstruction, which according to Foner, "abandoned the former slaves to the mercy of governments controlled by their former owners."[95] According to Foner, "A word from Lee might have encouraged white Southerners to accord blacks equal rights and inhibited the violence against the freed people that swept the region during Reconstruction, but he chose to remain silent."[90] Lee was also urged to condemn the white-supremacy[96] organization Ku Klux Klan, but opted to remain silent.[88]

 In the generation following the war, Lee, though he died just a few years later, became a central figure in the Lost Cause interpretation of the war. The argument that Lee had always somehow opposed slavery, and freed his wife's slaves, helped maintain his stature as a symbol of Southern honor and national reconciliation.[88]

 Harpers Ferry and return to Texas, 1859–1861

 Both Harpers Ferry and the secession of Texas were monumental events leading up to the Civil War. Robert E. Lee was at both events. Lee initially remained loyal to the Union after Texas seceded.[97]

 Harpers Ferry

 John Brown led a band of 21 abolitionists who seized the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia, in October 1859, hoping to incite a slave rebellion. President James Buchanan gave Lee command of detachments of militia, soldiers, and United States Marines, to suppress the uprising and arrest its leaders.[98] By the time Lee arrived that night, the militia on the site had surrounded Brown and his hostages. At dawn, Brown refused the demand for surrender. Lee attacked, and Brown and his followers were captured after three minutes of fighting. Lee's summary report of the episode shows Lee believed it "was the attempt of a fanatic or madman". Lee said Brown achieved "temporary success" by creating panic and confusion and by "magnifying" the number of participants involved in the raid.[99]

 Texas

 In 1860, Lt. Col. Robert E. Lee relieved Major Heintzelman at Fort Brown, and the Mexican authorities offered to restrain "their citizens from making predatory descents upon the territory and people of Texas ... this was the last active operation of the Cortina War". Rip Ford, a Texas Ranger at the time, described Lee as "dignified without hauteur, grand without pride ... he evinced an imperturbable self-possession, and a complete control of his passions ... possessing the capacity to accomplish great ends and the gift of controlling and leading men."[100]

 When Texas seceded from the Union in February 1861, General David E. Twiggs surrendered all the American forces (about 4,000 men, including Lee, and commander of the Department of Texas) to the Texans. Twiggs immediately resigned from the U.S. Army and was made a Confederate general. Lee went back to Washington and was appointed Colonel of the First Regiment of Cavalry in March 1861. Lee's colonelcy was signed by the new president, Abraham Lincoln. Three weeks after his promotion, Colonel Lee was offered a senior command (with the rank of Major General) in the expanding Army to fight the Southern States that had left the Union. Fort Mason, Texas, was Lee's last command with the United States Army.[101]

 Civil War

 Resignation from United States Army

 Unlike many Southerners who expected a glorious war, Lee correctly predicted it as protracted and devastating.[102] He privately opposed the new Confederate States of America in letters in early 1861, denouncing secession as "nothing but revolution" and an unconstitutional betrayal of the efforts of the Founding Fathers. Writing to George Washington Custis in January, Lee stated:

 The South, in my opinion, has been aggrieved by the acts of the North, as you say. I feel the aggression, and am willing to take every proper step for redress. It is the principle I contend for, not individual or private benefit. As an American citizen, I take great pride in my country, her prosperity and institutions, and would defend any State if her rights were invaded. But I can anticipate no greater calamity for the country than a dissolution of the Union. It would be an accumulation of all the evils we complain of, and I am willing to sacrifice everything but honor for its preservation. I hope, therefore, that all constitutional means will be exhausted before there is a resort to force. Secession is nothing but revolution. The framers of our Constitution never exhausted so much labor, wisdom, and forbearance in its formation, and surrounded it with so many guards and securities, if it was intended to be broken by every member of the Confederacy at will. It was intended for "perpetual union," so expressed in the preamble, and for the establishment of a government, not a compact, which can only be dissolved by revolution, or the consent of all the people in convention assembled.[103]

 Lee in uniform, 1863

 Despite opposing secession, Lee said in January that "we can with a clear conscience separate" if all peaceful means failed. He agreed with secessionists in most areas, rejecting the Northern abolitionists' criticisms and their prevention of the expansion of slavery to the new western territories, and fear of the North's larger population. Lee supported the Crittenden Compromise, which would have constitutionally protected slavery.[104]

 Lee's objection to secession was ultimately outweighed by a sense of personal honor, reservations about the legitimacy of a strife-ridden "Union that can only be maintained by swords and bayonets", and his duty to defend his native Virginia if attacked.[103] He was asked while leaving Texas by a lieutenant if he intended to fight for the Confederacy or the Union, to which Lee replied, "I shall never bear arms against the Union, but it may be necessary for me to carry a musket in the defense of my native state, Virginia, in which case I shall not prove recreant to my duty".[105][104]

 Although Virginia had the most slaves of any state, it was more similar to Maryland, which stayed in the Union, than to the Deep South; a convention voted against secession in early 1861. Scott, commanding general of the Union Army and Lee's mentor, told Lincoln he wanted him for a top command, telling Secretary of War Simon Cameron that he had "entire confidence" in Lee. Lee accepted a promotion to colonel of the 1st Cavalry Regiment on March 28, again swearing an oath to the United States.[106][104] Meanwhile, Lee ignored an offer of command from the Confederacy. After Lincoln's call for troops to put down the rebellion, a second Virginia convention in Richmond voted to secede[107] on April 17, and a May 23 referendum would likely ratify the decision. That night Lee dined with brother Smith and cousin Phillips, naval officers. Because of Lee's indecision, Phillips went to the War Department the next morning to warn that the Union might lose his cousin if the government did not act quickly.[104]

 In Washington that day,[102] Lee was offered by presidential advisor Francis P. Blair a role as major general to command the defense of the national capital. He replied:

 Mr. Blair, I look upon secession as anarchy. If I owned the four millions of slaves in the South I would sacrifice them all to the Union; but how can I draw my sword upon Virginia, my native state?[107]

 Lee immediately went to Scott, who tried to persuade him that Union forces would be large enough to prevent the South from fighting, so he would not have to oppose his state; Lee disagreed. When Lee asked if he could go home and not fight, the fellow Virginian said that the army did not need equivocal soldiers and that if he wanted to resign, he should do so before receiving official orders. Scott told him that Lee had made "the greatest mistake of your life".[104]

 Lee agreed that to avoid dishonor he had to resign before receiving unwanted orders. While historians have usually called his decision inevitable ("the answer he was born to make", wrote Douglas Southall Freeman; another called it a "no-brainer") given the ties to family and state, an 1871 letter from his eldest daughter, Mary Custis Lee, to a biographer described Lee as "worn and harassed" yet calm as he deliberated alone in his office. People on the street noticed Lee's grim face as he tried to decide over the next two days, and he later said that he kept the resignation letter for a day before sending it on April 20. Two days later the Richmond convention invited Lee to the city. It elected him as commander of Virginia state forces before his arrival on April 23, and almost immediately gave him George Washington's sword as symbol of his appointment; whether he was told of a decision he did not want without time to decide, or did want the excitement and opportunity of command, is unclear.[11][104][102]

 A cousin on Scott's staff told the family that Lee's decision so upset Scott that he collapsed on a sofa and mourned as if he had lost a son, and asked to not hear Lee's name. When Lee told family his decision, he said "I suppose you will all think I have done very wrong", as the others were mostly pro-Union; only Mary Custis was a secessionist, and her mother especially wanted to choose the Union, but told her husband that she would support whatever he decided. Many younger men like nephew Fitzhugh wanted to support the Confederacy, but Lee's three sons joined the Confederate military only after their father's decision.[104][102]

 Most family members, like brother Smith, also reluctantly chose the South, but Smith's wife and Anne, Lee's sister, still supported the Union; Anne's son joined the Union Army, and no one in his family ever spoke to Lee again. Many cousins fought for the Confederacy, but Phillips and John Fitzgerald told Lee in person that they would uphold their oaths; John H. Upshur stayed with the Union military despite much family pressure; Roger Jones stayed in the Union army after Lee refused to advise him on what to do; and two of Philip Fendall's sons fought for the Union. Forty percent of Virginian officers stayed with the North.[104][102]

 Early role

 At the outbreak of war, Lee was appointed to command all of Virginia's forces, which then encompassed the Provisional Army of Virginia and the Virginia State Navy. He was appointed a Major General by the Virginia Governor, but upon the formation of the Confederate States Army, he was named one of its first five full generals. Lee did not wear the insignia of a Confederate general, but only the three stars of a Confederate colonel, equivalent to his last U.S. Army rank.[108] He did not intend to wear a general's insignia until the Civil War had been won and he could be promoted, in peacetime, to general in the Confederate Army.

 Lee's first field assignment was commanding Confederate forces in western Virginia, where he was defeated at the Battle of Cheat Mountain and was widely blamed for Confederate setbacks.[109] He was then sent to organize the coastal defenses along the Carolina and Georgia seaboard, appointed commander, "Department of South Carolina, Georgia and Florida" on November 5, 1861. Between then and the fall of Fort Pulaski, April 11, 1862, he put in place a defense of Savannah that proved successful in blocking Federal advance on Savannah. Confederate fort and naval gunnery dictated nighttime movement and construction by the besiegers. Federal preparations required four months. In those four months, Lee developed a defense in depth. Behind Fort Pulaski on the Savannah River, Fort Jackson was improved, and two additional batteries covered river approaches.[110] In the face of the Union superiority in naval, artillery and infantry deployment, Lee was able to block any Federal advance on Savannah, and at the same time, well-trained Georgia troops were released in time to meet McClellan's Peninsula Campaign. The city of Savannah would not fall until Sherman's approach from the interior at the end of 1864.

 At first, the press spoke to the disappointment of losing Fort Pulaski. Surprised by the effectiveness of large caliber Parrott Rifles in their first deployment, it was widely speculated that only betrayal could have brought overnight surrender to a Third System Fort. Lee was said to have failed to get effective support in the Savannah River from the three sidewheeler gunboats of the Georgia Navy. Although again blamed by the press for Confederate reverses, he was appointed military adviser to Confederate President Jefferson Davis, the former U.S. Secretary of War. While in Richmond, Lee was ridiculed as the 'King of Spades' for his excessive digging of trenches around the capitol. These trenches would later play a pivotal role in battles near the end of the war.[111]

 Commander, Army of Northern Virginia (June 1862 – June 1863)

 In the spring of 1862, during the Peninsula Campaign, the Union Army of the Potomac under General George B. McClellan advanced on Richmond from Fort Monroe. Progressing up the Peninsula, McClellan forced Gen. Joseph E. Johnston and the Army of Virginia to retreat to a point just north and east of the Confederate capital.

 Johnston was wounded at the Battle of Seven Pines, on June 1, 1862, giving Lee his first opportunity to lead an army in the field – the force he renamed the Army of Northern Virginia, signalling confidence that the Union army could be driven away from Richmond. Early in the war, Lee had been called "Granny Lee" for his allegedly timid style of command.[112] Confederate newspaper editorials objected to him replacing Johnston, opining that Lee would be passive, waiting for Union attack. This seemed true, initially; for the first three weeks of June, Lee did not show aggression, instead strengthening Richmond's defenses.

 Lee mounted on Traveller (September 1866)

 However, on June 25, he surprised the Army of the Potomac and launched a rapid series of bold attacks: the Seven Days Battles. Despite superior Union numbers and some clumsy tactical performances by his subordinates, Lee's attacks derailed McClellan's plans and drove back most of his forces. Confederate casualties were heavy, but an unnerved McClellan, famed for his caution, retreated 25 miles (40 km) to the lower James River, and abandoned the Peninsula completely in August. This success changed Confederate morale and the public's regard for Lee. After the Seven Days Battles, and until the end of the war, his men called him “Marse Robert", a term of respect and affection.[113]

 The setback, and the resulting drop in Union morale, impelled Lincoln to adopt a new policy of relentless, committed warfare.[114][115] After the Seven Days, Lincoln decided he had to move to emancipate most Confederate slaves by executive order, as a military act, using his authority as commander-in-chief.[116] To make this possible, he needed a Union victory.

 Wheeling to the north, Lee marched rapidly towards Washington, D.C. and defeated another Union army under Gen. John Pope at the Second Battle of Bull Run in late August. He eliminated Pope before reinforcements from McClellan arrived, knocking out an entire field command before another could arrive to support it. In less than 90 days, Lee had run McClellan off the Peninsula, defeated Pope, and moved the battle lines 82 miles (132 km) north, from 6 miles (9.7 km) north of Richmond to 20 miles (32 km) south of Washington.

 Lee chose to take the battle off southern ground and invaded Maryland and Pennsylvania, hoping to collect supplies in Union territory, and possibly win a victory that would sway the upcoming Union elections in favor of ending the war. This was sent amiss when McClellan's men found a lost Confederate dispatch, Special Order 191, revealing Lee's plans and movements. McClellan always exaggerated Lee's numerical strength, but now he knew the Confederate army was divided and could be destroyed in detail. Still, in a characteristic manner, McClellan moved slowly; he failed to realize a spy had informed Lee that he possessed the plans. Lee quickly concentrated his forces west of Antietam Creek, near Sharpsburg, Maryland, where McClellan attacked on September 17. The Battle of Antietam was the single bloodiest day of the war, with both sides suffering enormous losses. Lee's army barely withstood the Union assaults, and retreated to Virginia the next day. The narrow Confederate defeat gave President Abraham Lincoln the opportunity to issue his Emancipation Proclamation,[117] which put the Confederacy on the diplomatic and moral defensive.[118]

 Disappointed by McClellan's failure to destroy Lee's army, Lincoln named Ambrose Burnside the commander of the Army of the Potomac. Burnside ordered an attack across the Rappahannock River at Fredericksburg, Virginia. Delays in bridging the river allowed Lee's army ample time to organize strong defenses, and the Union frontal assault on December 13, 1862, was a disaster. There were 12,600 Union casualties to 5,000 Confederate, making the engagement one of the most one-sided battles in the Civil War.[119] After this victory, Lee reportedly said, "It is well that war is so terrible, else we should grow too fond of it."[119] At Fredericksburg, according to historian Michael Fellman, Lee had completely entered into the "spirit of war, where destructiveness took on its own beauty."[119]

 The bitter Union defeat at Fredericksburg prompted President Lincoln to appoint Joseph Hooker as the next commander of the Army of the Potomac. In May 1863, Hooker maneuvered to attack Lee's army by crossing the Rapahannock further upriver and positioning himself at the Chancellorsville crossroads. Doing this could give him an opportunity to strike Lee in the rear, but the Confederate General barely managed to pivot his forces in time to face an attack. Hooker's command was nearly twice the size of Lee's but he nonetheless was beaten after Lee performed a daring movement that broke all terms of conventional warfare: dividing his army. Lee sent Stonewall Jackson's corps to attack Hooker's exposed flank, on the opposite side of the battlefield. The decisive victory that followed came with a price. Among the heavy casualties was Jackson, his finest corps commander, accidentally fired on by his own troops.[120]

 Even though he scored another impressive victory over an enemy army much larger than his own, Lee felt unsatisfied by the fact that he had made little territorial gains up to that point. Things were going poorly for the Confederacy in the West, and Lee started to grow restless; he devised a plan to once again invade the North, for similar reasons to before: relieve Virginia and its citizens of the weariness of battle, and potentially march on the Federal Capital and force terms of peace.

 Battle of Gettysburg

 Critical decisions came in May–June 1863, after Lee's smashing victory at the Battle of Chancellorsville. The western front was crumbling, as multiple uncoordinated Confederate armies were unable to handle General Ulysses S. Grant's campaign against Vicksburg. The top military advisers wanted to save Vicksburg, but Lee persuaded Davis to overrule them and authorize yet another invasion of the North. The immediate goal was to acquire urgently needed supplies from the rich farming districts of Pennsylvania; a long-term goal was to stimulate peace activity in the North by demonstrating the power of the South to invade. Lee's decision proved a significant strategic blunder and cost the Confederacy control of its western regions, and nearly cost Lee his own army as Union forces cut him off from the South.[121]

 Battle of Gettysburg, by Thure de Thulstrup

 Lee launched the Gettysburg Campaign when he abandoned his position on the Rapahannock and crossed the Potomac River into Maryland in June. Hooker mobilized his men and pursued, but was replaced by Gen. George G. Meade on June 28, a few days before the two armies clashed at the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania in early July; the battle produced the largest number of casualties in the American Civil War. Some of Lee's subordinates were new and inexperienced to their commands, and J.E.B. Stuart’s cavalry failed to perform effective reconnaissance. The first day was a surprise affair for both sides, and the Confederates managed to rally their forces first, pushing the panicked Union troops away from town, and towards key terrain that should have been taken by General Ewell, but was not. The second day unfolded differently for the Confederates. They took too much time to assemble, and launched repeated failed assaults against the Union left flank over difficult terrain. Lee's decision on the third day, going against the advice of his best corps commander, Gen. James Longstreet, to launch a massive frontal assault on the center of the Union line, was disastrous. It was carried out over a wide field, and has come to be known commonly as Pickett's Charge. Easily repulsed, Pickett’s Charge, named after the general whose division participated, resulted in severe Confederate losses. Lee rode out to meet the remains of the division and proclaimed, "All this has been my fault."[122] He had no choice but to withdraw, and he escaped Meade's ineffective pursuit, slipping back into Virginia.

 Following his defeat at Gettysburg, Lee sent a letter of resignation to President Davis on August 8, 1863, but Davis refused Lee's pleads to retire. That fall, Lee and Meade met again in two minor campaigns, Bristoe and Mine Run, that did little to change the strategic standoff. The Confederate Army never fully recovered from the substantial losses incurred during the three-day battle in southern Pennsylvania. Civil War Historian Shelby Foote once stated, "Gettysburg was the price the South paid for having Robert E. Lee as commander."[ citation needed ]

 Ulysses S. Grant and the Union offensive

 In 1864 the new Union general-in-chief, Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, sought to use his large advantages in manpower and material resources to destroy Lee's army by attrition, pinning Lee against his capital of Richmond. Lee successfully stopped each attack, but Grant with his superior numbers kept pushing each time a bit farther to the southeast. These battles in the Overland Campaign included the Wilderness, Spotsylvania Court House and Cold Harbor.

 Grant eventually was able to stealthily move his army across the James River. After stopping a Union attempt to capture Petersburg, Virginia, a vital railroad link supplying Richmond, Lee's men built elaborate trenches and were besieged in Petersburg, a development which presaged the trench warfare of World War I. Lee attempted to break the stalemate by sending Jubal A. Early on a raid through the Shenandoah Valley to Washington, D.C., but Early was defeated early on by the superior forces of Philip Sheridan. The Siege of Petersburg lasted from June 1864 until March 1865, with Lee's outnumbered and poorly supplied army shrinking daily because of desertions by disheartened Confederates.

 General in Chief

 Lee with son Custis (left) and aide Walter H. Taylor (right) by Brady, April 16, 1865

 On February 6, 1865, Lee was appointed General in Chief of the Armies of the Confederate States.

 As the South ran out of manpower the issue of arming the slaves became paramount. Lee explained, "We should employ them without delay ... [along with] gradual and general emancipation". The first units were in training as the war ended.[123][124] As the Confederate army was devastated by casualties, disease and desertion, the Union attack on Petersburg succeeded on April 2, 1865. Lee abandoned Richmond and retreated west. Lee then made an attempt to escape to the southwest and join up with Joseph E. Johnston's Army of Tennessee in North Carolina. However, his forces were soon surrounded and he surrendered them to Grant on April 9, 1865, at the Battle of Appomattox Court House.[125] Other Confederate armies followed suit and the war ended. The day after his surrender, Lee issued his Farewell Address to his army.

 Lee resisted calls by some officers to reject surrender and allow small units to melt away into the mountains, setting up a lengthy guerrilla war. He insisted the war was over and energetically campaigned for inter-sectional reconciliation. "So far from engaging in a war to perpetuate slavery, I am rejoiced that slavery is abolished. I believe it will be greatly for the interests of the South."[126]

 Summaries of Lee's Civil War battles

 The following are summaries of Civil War campaigns and major battles where Robert E. Lee was the commanding officer:[127]

 Battle Date Result Opponent Confederate troop strength Union troop strength Confederate casualties Union casualties Notes        
 Cheat Mountain September 11–13, 1861 Defeat Reynolds 5,000 3,000 ~90 88 Lee's first battle of the Civil War. Severely criticized, Lee was nicknamed "Granny Lee". Lee was sent to SC and GA to supervise fortifications.[128]      
 Tactically Inconclusive; Strategic Confederate Victory          
 * Oak Grove: Stalemate (Union withdrawal)          
 * Beaver Dam Creek: Union victory          
 Seven Days June 25 – July 1, 1862 * Gaine's Mill: Confederate victory McClellan 95,000 91,000 20,614 15,849 Tactically Inconclusive, but Strategic Confederate Victory, as McPherson's retreat to Harrison's Landing ended the Peninsula Campaign.[129] Lee acquitted himself well, and remained in field command for the duration of the war under the direction of Jefferson Davis. Union troops remained on the Lower Peninsula and at Fortress Monroe, which became a terminus on the Underground Railroad, and the site terming escaped slaves as "contribands", no longer returned to their rebel owners.
 * Savage's Station: Stalemate          
 * Glendale: Stalemate (Union withdrawal)          
 * Malvern Hill: Union victory          
 Second Manassas August 28–30, 1862 Victory Pope 50,000 77,000 7,298 14,462 Union forces continued to occupy parts of northern Virginia but were unable to expand further.       
 South Mountain September 14, 1862 Defeat McClellan 18,000 28,000 2,685 2,325 Confederates lost control of westernmost Virginian congressional districts which would later be the core counties of West Virginia.      
 Antietam September 16–18, 1862 Inconclusive McClellan 52,000 75,000 13,724 12,410 Tactically inconclusive but strategically a Union victory. The Confederates lost an opportunity to gain foreign recognition, Lincoln moved forward on his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation.     
 Fredericksburg December 11, 1862 Victory Burnside 72,000 114,000 5,309 12,653 With Lee's troops and supplies depleted, Confederates remained in place south of the Rappahannock. Union forces did not withdraw from northern Virginia.      
 Chancellorsville May 1, 1863 Victory Hooker 60,298 105,000 12,764 16,792 Union forces withdrew to ring of defenses around Washington, DC.       
 Gettysburg July 1, 1863 Defeat Meade 75,000 83,000 23,231 23,049 The Confederate army was physically and spiritually exhausted. Meade was criticized for not immediately pursuing Lee's army. This battle become known as the High Water Mark of the Confederacy.[130] Lee would never personally invade the North again after this battle. Rather he was determined to defend Richmond and eventually Petersburg at all costs.   
   –28,063         
 Wilderness May 5, 1864 Inconclusive Grant 61,000 102,000 11,033 17,666 Grant disengaged and continued his offensive, circling east and south advancing on Richmond and Petersburg      
 Spotsylvania May 12, 1864 Inconclusive[131] Grant 52,000 100,000 12,687 18,399 Although beaten and unable to take Lee's defenses, Grant continued the Union offensive, circling east and south advancing on Richmond and Petersburg      
 North Anna May 23–26, 1864 Inconclusive Grant 50,000–53,000 67,000–100,000 1,552 3,986 North Anna had proved to be a relatively minor affair when compared to other Civil War battles.       
 Totopotomoy Creek May 28–30, 1864 Inconclusive Grant N/A N/A 1,593 731 As Grant continued his attempts to maneuver around Lee's right flank and lure him into a general battle in the open.      
 Cold Harbor June 1, 1864 Victory Grant 62,000 108,000 5,287 12,000 Although Grant was able to continue his offensive, Grant referred to the Cold Harbor assault as his "greatest regret" of the war in his memoirs.      
 Fussell's Mill August 14, 1864 Inconclusive Hancock 20,000 28,000 1,700 2,901 Union attempt to break Confederate siege lines at Richmond, the Confederate capital       
 Appomattox Campaign March 29, 1865 Defeat Grant 56,000 114,000 ~25,000 General Lee surrenders ~9,700 General Robert E. Lee surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant.[132] After the surrender Grant gave Lee's army much-needed food rations; they were paroled to return to their homes, never again to take up arms against the Union.     
 

 Postbellum life

 Lee in 1869 (photo by Levin C. Handy)
 External video  
 Booknotes interview with Emory Thomas on Robert E. Lee: A Biography, September 10, 1995, C-SPAN
 

 After the war, Lee was not arrested or punished (although he was indicted), [133] but he did lose the right to vote as well as some property. Lee's prewar family home, the Custis-Lee Mansion, was seized by Union forces during the war and turned into Arlington National Cemetery, and his family was not compensated until more than a decade after his death.[134]

 In 1866, Lee counseled southerners not to resume fighting, of which Grant said Lee was "setting an example of forced acquiescence so grudging and pernicious in its effects as to be hardly realized".[135] Lee joined with Democrats in opposing the Radical Republicans, who demanded punitive measures against the South, distrusted the South's commitment to the abolition of slavery, and, indeed, distrusted the region's loyalty to the United States.[136][137] Lee supported a system of free public schools for blacks but forthrightly opposed allowing blacks to vote: "My own opinion is that, at this time, they [black Southerners] cannot vote intelligently, and that giving them the [vote] would lead to a great deal of demagogism, and lead to embarrassments in various ways."[138] Emory Thomas says Lee had become a suffering Christ-like icon for ex-Confederates. President Grant invited him to the White House in 1869, and he went. Nationally he became an icon of reconciliation between the North and South, and the reintegration of former Confederates into the national fabric.[139]

 General Lee and his Confederate officers in their first meeting since Appomattox, August 1869.

 Lee hoped to retire to a farm of his own, but he was too much a regional symbol to live in obscurity. From April to June 1865, he and his family resided in Richmond at the Stewart-Lee House.[140] He accepted an offer to serve as the president of Washington College (now Washington and Lee University) in Lexington, Virginia, and served from October 1865 until his death. The Trustees used his famous name in large-scale fund-raising appeals and Lee transformed Washington College into a leading Southern college, expanding its offerings significantly, adding programs in commerce and journalism, and incorporating the Lexington Law School. Lee was well liked by the students, which enabled him to announce an "honor system" like that of West Point, explaining that "we have but one rule here, and it is that every student be a gentleman." To speed up national reconciliation Lee recruited students from the North and made certain they were well treated on campus and in town.[141]

 Several glowing appraisals of Lee's tenure as college president have survived, depicting the dignity and respect he commanded among all. Previously, most students had been obliged to occupy the campus dormitories, while only the most mature were allowed to live off-campus. Lee quickly reversed this rule, requiring most students to board off-campus, and allowing only the most mature to live in the dorms as a mark of privilege; the results of this policy were considered a success. A typical account by a professor there states that "the students fairly worshipped him, and deeply dreaded his displeasure; yet so kind, affable, and gentle was he toward them that all loved to approach him. ... No student would have dared to violate General Lee's expressed wish or appeal."[142]

 While at Washington College, Lee told a colleague that the greatest mistake of his life was taking a military education.[143] He also defended his father in a biographical sketch.[144]

 President Johnson's amnesty pardons

 Oath of amnesty submitted by Robert E. Lee in 1865

 On May 29, 1865, President Andrew Johnson issued a Proclamation of Amnesty and Pardon to persons who had participated in the rebellion against the United States. There were fourteen excepted classes, though, and members of those classes had to make special application to the president. Lee sent an application to Grant and wrote to President Johnson on June 13, 1865:

 Being excluded from the provisions of amnesty & pardon contained in the proclamation of the 29th Ulto; I hereby apply for the benefits, & full restoration of all rights & privileges extended to those included in its terms. I graduated at the Mil. Academy at West Point in June 1829. Resigned from the U.S. Army April '61. Was a General in the Confederate Army, & included in the surrender of the Army of N. Virginia 9 April '65.[145]

 On October 2, 1865, the same day that Lee was inaugurated as president of Washington College in Lexington, Virginia, he signed his Amnesty Oath, thereby complying fully with the provision of Johnson's proclamation. Lee was not pardoned, nor was his citizenship restored.[145]

 Three years later, on December 25, 1868, Johnson proclaimed a second amnesty which removed previous exceptions, such as the one that affected Lee.[146]

 Postwar politics

 Lee, who had opposed secession and remained mostly indifferent to politics before the Civil War, supported President Andrew Johnson's plan of Presidential Reconstruction that took effect in 1865–66. However, he opposed the Congressional Republican program that took effect in 1867. In February 1866, he was called to testify before the Joint Congressional Committee on Reconstruction in Washington, where he expressed support for Johnson's plans for quick restoration of the former Confederate states, and argued that restoration should return, as far as possible, to the status quo ante in the Southern states' governments (with the exception of slavery).[147]

 Robert E. Lee, oil on canvas, Edward Calledon Bruce, 1865. Virginia Historical Society

 Lee told the committee that "every one with whom I associate expresses kind feelings towards the freedmen. They wish to see them get on in the world, and particularly to take up some occupation for a living, and to turn their hands to some work." Lee also expressed his "willingness that blacks should be educated, and ... that it would be better for the blacks and for the whites." Lee forthrightly opposed allowing blacks to vote: "My own opinion is that, at this time, they [black Southerners] cannot vote intelligently, and that giving them the [vote] would lead to a great deal of demagogism, and lead to embarrassments in various ways."[148][149]

 In an interview in May 1866, Lee said: "The Radical party are likely to do a great deal of harm, for we wish now for good feeling to grow up between North and South, and the President, Mr. Johnson, has been doing much to strengthen the feeling in favor of the Union among us. The relations between the Negroes and the whites were friendly formerly, and would remain so if legislation be not passed in favor of the blacks, in a way that will only do them harm."[150]

 In 1868, Lee's ally Alexander H. H. Stuart drafted a public letter of endorsement for the Democratic Party's presidential campaign, in which Horatio Seymour ran against Lee's old foe Republican Grant. Lee signed it along with thirty-one other ex-Confederates. The Democratic campaign, eager to publicize the endorsement, published the statement widely in newspapers.[151] Their letter claimed paternalistic concern for the welfare of freed Southern blacks, stating that "The idea that the Southern people are hostile to the negroes and would oppress them, if it were in their power to do so, is entirely unfounded. They have grown up in our midst, and we have been accustomed from childhood to look upon them with kindness."[152] However, it also called for the restoration of white political rule, arguing that "It is true that the people of the South, in common with a large majority of the people of the North and West, are, for obvious reasons, inflexibly opposed to any system of laws that would place the political power of the country in the hands of the negro race. But this opposition springs from no feeling of enmity, but from a deep-seated conviction that, at present, the negroes have neither the intelligence nor the other qualifications which are necessary to make them safe depositories of political power."[153]

 In his public statements and private correspondence, Lee argued that a tone of reconciliation and patience would further the interests of white Southerners better than hotheaded antagonism to federal authority or the use of violence. Lee repeatedly expelled white students from Washington College for violent attacks on local black men, and publicly urged obedience to the authorities and respect for law and order.[154] He privately chastised fellow ex-Confederates such as Davis and Jubal Early for their frequent, angry responses to perceived Northern insults, writing in private to them as he had written to a magazine editor in 1865, that "It should be the object of all to avoid controversy, to allay passion, give full scope to reason and to every kindly feeling. By doing this and encouraging our citizens to engage in the duties of life with all their heart and mind, with a determination not to be turned aside by thoughts of the past and fears of the future, our country will not only be restored in material prosperity, but will be advanced in science, in virtue and in religion."[155]

 Illness and death

 Lee's death mask
 "Recumbent Statue" of Robert E. Lee asleep on the battlefield, University Chapel, Lexington, Virginia.

 On September 28, 1870, Lee suffered a stroke. He died two weeks later, shortly after 9 a.m. on October 12, 1870, in Lexington, Virginia, from the effects of pneumonia. According to one account, his last words on the day of his death, were "Tell Hill he must come up! Strike the tent",[156] but this is debatable because of conflicting accounts and because Lee's stroke had resulted in aphasia, possibly rendering him unable to speak.[157]

 At first no suitable coffin for the body could be located. The muddy roads were too flooded for anyone to get in or out of the town of Lexington. An undertaker had ordered three from Richmond that had reached Lexington, but due to unprecedented flooding from long-continued heavy rains, the caskets were washed down the Maury River. Two neighborhood boys, C.G. Chittum and Robert E. Hillis, found one of the coffins that had been swept ashore. Undamaged, it was used for the General's body, though it was a bit short for him. As a result, Lee was buried without shoes.[158] He was buried underneath the college chapel now known as University Chapel at Washington and Lee University, where his body remains.[31][159]

 Legacy

 Robert Edward Lee in art at the Battle of Chancellorsville in a stained glass window of the Washington National Cathedral
 Robert E. Lee, Stonewall Jackson and Stratford Hall, Army Issue of 1936
 Robert E. Lee, Liberty Issue of 1955
 Washington and Lee University Issue of 1948
 Robert E. Lee, Jefferson Davis, Stonewall Jackson. Stone Mountain Issue of 1970

 Among the supporters of the Confederacy, Lee came to be even more revered after his surrender than he had been during the war, when Stonewall Jackson had been the great Confederate hero. In an 1874 address before the Southern Historical Society in Atlanta, Georgia, Benjamin Harvey Hill described Lee in this way:

 He was a foe without hate; a friend without treachery; a soldier without cruelty; a victor without oppression, and a victim without murmuring. He was a public officer without vices; a private citizen without wrong; a neighbour without reproach; a Christian without hypocrisy, and a man without guile. He was a Caesar, without his ambition; Frederick, without his tyranny; Napoleon, without his selfishness, and Washington, without his reward.[160]

 By the end of the 19th century, Lee's popularity had spread to the North.[161] Lee's admirers have pointed to his character and devotion to duty, and his occasional tactical successes in battles against a stronger foe.

 According to my notion of military history there is as much instruction both in strategy and in tactics to be gleaned from General Lee's operations of 1862 as there is to be found in Napoleon's campaigns of 1796.

 — Field Marshal Garnet Wolseley[162]

 Military historians continue to pay attention to his battlefield tactics and maneuvering, though many think he should have designed better strategic plans for the Confederacy. He was not given full direction of the Southern war effort until late in the conflict.

 Historian Eric Foner writes that at the end of his life,

 "Lee had become the embodiment of the Southern cause. A generation later, he was a national hero. The 1890s and early 20th century witnessed the consolidation of white supremacy in the post-Reconstruction South and widespread acceptance in the North of Southern racial attitudes."[88]

 Robert E. Lee has been commemorated on U.S. postage stamps at least five times, the first one being a commemorative stamp that also honored Stonewall Jackson, issued in 1936. A second "regular-issue" stamp was issued in 1955. He was commemorated with a 32-cent stamp issued in the American Civil War Issue of June 29, 1995. His horse Traveller is pictured in the background.[163]

 Washington and Lee University in Lexington, Virginia was commemorated on its 200th anniversary on November 23, 1948, with a 3-cent postage stamp. The central design is a view of the university, flanked by portraits of generals George Washington and Robert E. Lee.[164] Lee was again commemorated on a commemorative stamp in 1970, along with Jefferson Davis and Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson, depicted on horseback on the 6-cent Stone Mountain Memorial commemorative issue, modeled after the actual Stone Mountain Memorial carving in Georgia. The stamp was issued on September 19, 1970, in conjunction with the dedication of the Stone Mountain Confederate Memorial in Georgia on May 9, 1970. The design of the stamp replicates the memorial, the largest high relief sculpture in the world. It is carved on the side of Stone Mountain 400 feet above the ground.[165]

 President Gerald Ford signs Joint Resolution 23 at Arlington National Cemetery on August 5, 1975, restoring the citizenship rights of Robert E. Lee

 Stone Mountain also led to Lee's appearance on a commemorative coin, the 1925 Stone Mountain Memorial half dollar. During the 1920s and '30s dozens of specially designed half dollars were struck to raise money for various events and causes. This issue had a particularly wide distribution, with 1,314,709 minted. Unlike some of the other issues it remains a very common coin.

 In 1865, after the war, Lee was paroled and signed an oath of allegiance, asking to have his citizenship of the United States restored. However, his application was not processed by Secretary of State William Seward, a radical Republican and firm opponent of slavery, and as a result Lee did not receive a pardon and his citizenship was not restored.[166][167] On January 30, 1975, Senate Joint Resolution 23, A joint resolution to restore posthumously full rights of citizenship to General R. E. Lee was introduced into the Senate by Senator Harry F. Byrd Jr. (I-VA), the result of a five-year campaign to accomplish this. Proponents portrayed the lack of pardon as a mere clerical error. The resolution, which enacted Public Law 94–67, was passed, and the bill was signed by President Gerald Ford on August 5.[168][169][170]

 Monuments, memorials and commemorations

 See also: List of memorials to Robert E. Lee

 Lee opposed the construction of public memorials to Confederate rebellion on the grounds that they would prevent the healing of wounds inflicted during the war.[171] Nevertheless, after his death, he became an icon used by promoters of "Lost Cause" mythology, who sought to romanticize the Confederate cause and strengthen white supremacy in the South.[171] Later in the 20th century, particularly following the civil rights movement, historians reassessed Lee; his reputation fell based on his failure to support rights for freedmen after the war, and even his strategic choices as a military leader fell under scrutiny.[88][172]

 Facade view of Arlington House, the Robert E. Lee Memorial — at Arlington National Cemetery, in Virginia, pictured in 2006

 Arlington House, The Robert E. Lee Memorial, also known as the Custis–Lee Mansion,[173] is a Greek revival mansion in Arlington, Virginia, that was once Lee's home. It overlooks the Potomac River and the National Mall in Washington, D.C. During the Civil War, the grounds of the mansion were selected as the site of Arlington National Cemetery, in part to ensure that Lee would never again be able to return to his home. The United States designated the mansion as a National Memorial to Lee in 1955, a mark of widespread respect for him in both the North and South.[174]

 Unveiling of the Equestrian Statue of Robert E. Lee, May 29, 1890, Richmond, Virginia

 In Richmond, Virginia, a large equestrian statue of Lee by French sculptor Jean Antonin Mercié was the centerpiece of Monument Avenue, along with four other statues of Confederates. This monument to Lee was unveiled on May 29, 1890; over 100,000 people attended this dedication. That has been described as "the day white Virginia stopped admiring Gen. Robert E. Lee and started worshiping him".[175] The four other Confederate statues were removed in 2020, and the equestrian statue of Lee was removed on September 8, 2021 at the direction of the state government.[176]

 Lee is also shown mounted on Traveller in Gettysburg National Military Park on top of the Virginia Monument; he is facing roughly in the direction of Pickett's Charge. Lee's portrayal on a mural on Richmond's flood wall on the James River, considered offensive by some, was removed in the late 1990s, but currently is back on the flood wall.

 In Baltimore's Wyman Park, a large double equestrian statue of Lee and Jackson is located directly across from the Baltimore Museum of Art. Designed by Laura Gardin Fraser and dedicated in 1948, Lee is depicted astride his horse Traveller next to Stonewall Jackson who is mounted on "Little Sorrel." Architect John Russell Pope created the base, which was dedicated on the anniversary of the eve of the Battle of Chancellorsville.[177] The Baltimore area of Maryland is also home to a large nature park called Robert E. Lee Memorial Park.

 Jefferson Davis, Lee, and Stonewall Jackson at Stone Mountain

 A statue of Robert E. Lee was one of the two statues (the other is George Washington) representing Virginia in Statuary Hall in the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C. It was removed from the Capitol on December 21, 2020, after a state commission voted to replace it with a statue of Civil Rights activist Barbara Rose Johns.[178] Lee is one of the figures depicted in bas-relief carved into Stone Mountain near Atlanta. Accompanying him on horseback in the relief are Stonewall Jackson and Jefferson Davis.[179]

 The birthday of Robert E. Lee is celebrated or commemorated in several states. In Texas, he is celebrated as part of Confederate Heroes Day on January 19, Lee's birthday.[180] In Alabama and Mississippi, his birthday is celebrated on the same day as Martin Luther King, Jr. Day,[181][182] while in Georgia, this occurred on the day after Thanksgiving before 2016, when the state stopped officially recognizing the holiday.[183][184] In Virginia, Lee–Jackson Day was celebrated on the Friday preceding Martin Luther King, Jr. Day which is the third Monday in January,[185] until 2020, when the Virginia legislature eliminated the holiday, making Election Day a state holiday instead.[186]

 One United States college and one junior college are named for Lee: Washington and Lee University in Lexington, Virginia; and Lee College in Baytown, Texas, respectively. University Chapel at Washington and Lee University marks Lee's final resting place. Throughout the South, many primary and secondary schools were also named for him as well as private schools such as Robert E. Lee Academy in Bishopville, South Carolina.

 Lee is featured on the 1925 Stone Mountain Memorial half dollar.

 * Robert E. Lee, National Statuary Hall, Washington, D.C. Edward Virginius Valentine, sculptor, 1909

 * Robert E Lee, Virginia Monument, Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, Frederick William Sievers, sculptor, 1917

 * Robert E. Lee Monument by Mercié, Monument Avenue, Richmond, Virginia, 1890

 * Statue of Lee at the Confederate War Memorial, Dallas, 1896

 * Statue of Lee in Murray, Kentucky

 * University Chapel on the campus of Washington and Lee University

 CSS Robert E. Lee

 In 1862, the newly formed Confederate Navy purchased a 642-ton iron-hulled side-wheel gunboat, built in at Glasgow, Scotland, and gave her the name of CSS Robert E. Lee in honor of this Confederate General. During the next year, she became one of the South's most famous Confederate blockade runners, successfully making more than twenty runs through the Union blockade.[187]

 The Mississippi River steamboat Robert E. Lee was named for Lee after the Civil War. It was the participant in an 1870 St. Louis – New Orleans race with the Natchez VI, which was featured in a Currier and Ives lithograph. The Robert E. Lee won the race.[188] The steamboat inspired the 1912 song Waiting for the Robert E. Lee by Lewis F. Muir and L. Wolfe Gilbert.[189] In more modern times, the USS Robert E. Lee, a George Washington-class submarine built in 1958, was named for Lee,[190] as was the M3 Lee tank, produced in 1941 and 1942.

 The Commonwealth of Virginia issues an optional license plate honoring Lee, making reference to him as 'The Virginia Gentleman'.[191] In February 2014, a road at Fort Bliss previously named for Lee was renamed to honor Buffalo Soldiers.[192][193]

 A recent biographer, Jonathan Horn, outlines the unsuccessful efforts in Washington to memorialize Lee in the naming of the Arlington Memorial Bridge after both Grant and Lee.[194]

 Unite the Right rally

 The removal of Lee's statue from a monument in New Orleans

 In February 2017, the City Council of Charlottesville, Virginia, voted to remove a sculpture of Lee, who has no historical link to the city, as well as one of Stonewall Jackson. This was temporarily stayed by court action, though the city did rename Lee Park: first to Emancipation Park, then later to Market Street Park.[195] The prospect of the statues being removed and the parks being renamed brought many out-of-towners, described as white supremacist and alt-right, to Charlottesville in the Unite the Right rally of August 2017, in which 3 people died. As of July 2021, the statue has been permanently removed.

 Stained glass of Lee's life in the National Cathedral

 Several other statues and monuments to Lee were removed in the aftermath of the incident, including:

 * A 60-foot (18 m)-tall monument in the center of Lee Circle (formerly Tivoli Circle) in New Orleans. Installed in 1884, it featured a 16.5-foot (5.0 m) bronze statue of Lee on a marble column. Former Confederate soldier George Washington Cable described it in a tribute: "His arms are folded on that breast that never knew fear, and his calm, dauntless gaze meets the morning sun as it rises."[196] The statue was removed on May 19, 2017, the last of four Confederate monuments in New Orleans to be taken down.[197]
 * A stained-glass window in the Washington National Cathedral, showing Lee on horseback at Chancellorsville, as well as one in honor of Stonewall Jackson.[198] Sponsored by the United Daughters of the Confederacy, they were installed in 1953 and removed in September 2017.[199] The cathedral plans to keep the windows and eventually display them in historical context.[198]
 * A bust of Lee in the Hall of Fame for Great Americans (the first Hall of Fame in the United States, completed 1900), in what is now Bronx Community College.[200][201]
 * A bronze statue of Lee which had been on display at the University of Texas at Austin,[202][203] and another, with his horse Traveller, in Robert E. Lee Park in Dallas.[204]

 Biographies

 Douglas Southall Freeman's Pulitzer prize-winning four-volume R. E. Lee: A Biography (1936), which was for a long period considered the definitive work on Lee, downplayed his involvement in slavery and emphasized Lee as a virtuous person. Eric Foner, who describes Freeman's volume as a "hagiography", notes that on the whole, Freeman "displayed little interest in Lee's relationship to slavery. The index to his four volumes contained 22 entries for 'devotion to duty', 19 for 'kindness', 53 for Lee's celebrated horse, Traveller. But 'slavery', 'slave emancipation' and 'slave insurrection' together received five. Freeman observed, without offering details, that slavery in Virginia represented the system 'at its best'. He ignored the postwar testimony of Lee's former slave Wesley Norris about the brutal treatment to which he had been subjected."[88]

 More recent biographies offer a broader variety of perspectives. Thomas L. Connelly’s The Marble Man: Robert E. Lee and His Image in American Society (1977) was an iconoclastic revision of Lee's mythical status in the South. Robert E. Lee: A Biography (1995) by Emory M. Thomas attempted a "post-revisionist" compromise between the traditional and more recent views.[205] Robert E. Lee: A Life (2021) by Allen C. Guelzo focuses on a study of Lee's character.[206]

 Dates of rank

 Rank Date Unit Component 
 Second Lieutenant July 1, 1829[207] Corps of Engineers United States Army 
 First Lieutenant September 21, 1836[208] Corps of Engineers United States Army 
 Captain August 7, 1838[208] Corps of Engineers United States Army 
 Brevet Major § April 18, 1847[208] Corps of Engineers United States Army 
 Brevet Lieutenant Colonel † August 20, 1847[208] Corps of Engineers United States Army 
 Brevet Colonel ‡ September 13, 1847[209] Corps of Engineers United States Army 
 Lieutenant Colonel March 3, 1855[209] 2nd Cavalry Regiment United States Army 
 Colonel March 16, 1861[209] 1st Cavalry Regiment United States Army 
 Major General[a] April 22, 1861[210] Provisional Army of Virginia
 Brigadier General May 14, 1861[211] Confederate States Army 
 [b] General June 14, 1861[212] Confederate States Army 
 
 * § Breveted for conduct in the Battle of Cerro Gordo
 * † Breveted for conduct in Battles of Contreras and Churubusco
 * ‡ Breveted for conduct in Battle of Chapultepec

 In popular culture

 Lee is a main character in the Shaara Family novels The Killer Angels (1974), Gods and Generals (1996), and The Last Full Measure (2000), as well as the film adaptations of Gettysburg (1993) and Gods and Generals (2003). He is played by Martin Sheen in the former and by Lee's descendant Robert Duvall in the latter. Lee is portrayed as a hero in the historical children's novel Lee and Grant at Appomattox (1950) by MacKinlay Kantor. His part in the Civil War is told from the perspective of his horse in Richard Adams's book Traveller (1988).

 Lee is an obvious subject for American Civil War alternate histories. Ward Moore's Bring the Jubilee (1953), MacKinlay Kantor's If the South Had Won the Civil War (1960), and Harry Turtledove's The Guns of the South (1992), all have Lee ending up as president of a victorious Confederacy and freeing the slaves (or laying the groundwork for the slaves to be freed in a later decade). Although Moore and Kantor's novels relegate him to a set of passing references, Lee is more of a main character in Turtledove's Guns. He is also the prime character of Turtledove's "Lee at the Alamo".[213] Turtledove's "War Between the Provinces" series is an allegory of the Civil War told in the language of fairy tales, with Lee appearing as a knight named "Duke Edward of Arlington". Lee is also a knight in "The Charge of Lee's Brigade" in Alternate Generals volume 1, written by Turtledove's friend S. M. Stirling and featuring Lee, whose Virginia is still a loyal British colony, fighting for the Crown against the Russians in Crimea. In Lee Allred's "East of Appomattox" in Alternate Generals volume 3, Lee is the Confederate Minister to London circa 1868, desperately seeking help for a CSA which has turned out poorly suited to independence. Robert Skimin's Grey Victory features Lee as a supporting character preparing to run for the presidency in 1867.

 In Connie Willis' 1987 novel Lincoln's Dreams, a research assistant meets a young woman who dreams about the Civil War from Robert E. Lee's point of view.

 The Dodge Charger featured in the CBS television series The Dukes of Hazzard (1979–1985) was named The General Lee.[214][215] In the 2005 film based on this series, the car is driven past a statue of Lee, while the car's occupants salute him.

 See also

 * American Civil War portal
 * Biography portal
 * List of American Civil War generals (Confederate)
 * List of memorials to Robert E. Lee
 * Removal of Confederate monuments and memorials

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 162. ^ Some sources add "but little studied" before the word "operations".
 163. ^ "32c Robert E. Lee single", Arago: people, postage & the post, National Postal Museum online, viewed May 7, 2014. An image of the stamp is available at Arago, Robert E. Lee stamp Archived May 8, 2014, at the Wayback Machine .
 164. ^ Rod, Steven J., "Landing of the Pilgrims Issue", Arago: people, postage & the post, National Postal Museum. Viewed March 19, 2014.
 165. ^ "Stone Mountain Memorial Issue", Arago: people, postage & the post, National Postal Museum online, viewed March 16, 2014.
 166. ^ "House votes to restore citizenship to Gen. Robert E. Lee, July 22, 1975". Politico.
 167. ^ General Robert E. Lee's Parole and Citizenship , Prologue , Spring 2005, Vol. 37, No. 1.
 168. ^ "President Gerald R. Ford's Remarks Upon Signing a Bill Restoring Rights of Citizenship to General Robert E. Lee". Gerald R. Ford Library & Museum. August 5, 1975.
 169. ^ "Citizenship For R. E. Lee". The Gettysburg Times. August 7, 1975. Ten objecting Congressmen argued the resolution should include amnesty for Vietnam war draft dodgers , subsequently granted in 1977.
 170. ^ "S.J.Res.23 – A joint resolution to restore posthumously full rights of citizenship to General R. E. Lee". United States Library of Congress. Archived from the original on February 11, 2017 . Retrieved August 23, 2016 .
 171. ^ a b Simon Romero, 'The Lees Are Complex': Descendants Grapple With a Rebel General's Legacy , New York Times (August 22, 2017).
 172. ^ Rosenwald, Michael S. (October 8, 2017). "Analysis | The truth about Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee: He wasn't very good at his job". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286 . Retrieved October 9, 2017 .
 173. ^ "Today in History: May 13: Arlington National Cemetery". lcweb2.loc.gov. Library of Congress . Retrieved August 22, 2011 .
 174. ^ "Arlington House". Encyclopedia Virginia . Retrieved June 13, 2014 .
 175. ^ Hendrix, Steve (October 8, 2017). "The day white Virginia stopped admiring Gen. Robert E. Lee and started worshiping him". The Washington Post.
 176. ^ Rankin, Sarah (September 8, 2021). "Statue of Gen. Robert E. Lee comes down in Virginia capital". apnews.com . Retrieved September 8, 2021 .
 177. ^ Kelly, Cindy (2011). Outdoor Sculpture in Baltimore: A Historical Guide to Public Art in the Monumental City. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 198–199. ISBN 9780801897221.
 178. ^ "Robert E. Lee statue removed from U.S. Capitol". NBC News . Retrieved April 3, 2021 .
 179. ^ "Stone Mountain History" (PDF) . Stone Mountain Memorial Association. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 28, 2014 . Retrieved June 13, 2014 .
 180. ^ "CHAPTER 662. HOLIDAYS AND RECOGNITION DAYS, WEEKS, AND MONTHS". Texas Legislature . Retrieved June 11, 2014 .
 181. ^ "Alabama Code – Section 1-3-8". FindLaw . Retrieved June 11, 2014 .
 182. ^ "State Holidays". Mississippi Secretary of State. Archived from the original on June 25, 2014 . Retrieved June 11, 2014 .
 183. ^ "Observing State Holidays". GeorgiaGov. Archived from the original on February 26, 2017 . Retrieved June 11, 2014 .
 184. ^ Gore, Leada (October 16, 2015). "Georgia does away with Confederate Memorial Day, Robert E. Lee Birthday". AL.com . Retrieved August 18, 2017 .
 185. ^ "Virginia creates holiday honoring Dr. Martin Luther King Jr". Archived from the original on July 11, 2010 . Retrieved June 11, 2014 .
 186. ^ Stewart, Caleb. "A roundup of new Virginia laws taking effect in July". WHSV . Retrieved August 3, 2020 .
 187. ^ Konstam, Angus; Bryan, Tony (2004). Confederate Blockade Runner 1861–65. Wisconsin: Osprey Publishing. p. 48. ISBN 9781841766362.
 188. ^ Patterson, Benton Rain (2009). The Great American Steamboat Race: The Natchez and the Robert E. Lee and the Climax of an Era. Jefferson, NC: McFarland and Company. ISBN 978-0-7864-4292-8.
 189. ^ "Waiting for the Robert E. Lee". allmusic . Retrieved June 13, 2014 .
 190. ^ "USS Robert E. Lee Historical Overview". Archived from the original on July 14, 2014 . Retrieved June 13, 2014 .
 191. ^ "Robert E. Lee Commemorative License Plates". Sons of Confederate Veterans, Virginia Division . Retrieved June 12, 2014 .
 192. ^ Burge, David (February 19, 2014). "Fort Bliss to rename Robert E. Lee Road to honor Buffalo Soldiers". El Paso Times. Archived from the original on October 21, 2014 . Retrieved October 21, 2014 .
 193. ^ Polk, Andrew J. (February 20, 2014). "Ft. Bliss renames street Buffalo Soldier Road". Archived from the original on October 21, 2014 . Retrieved October 21, 2014 .
 194. ^ Horn, Jonathan. (2015). The Man who would not be Washington: Robert E. Lee's Civil War and his decision that changed American History . New York: Scribner. p. 249. ISBN 978-1-4767-4856-6
 195. ^ "City Council Meeting (video)". July 18, 2018 . Retrieved October 25, 2018 . [ permanent dead link ]
 196. ^ Silent South , 1885, The Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine
 197. ^ "New Orleans removes its final Confederate-era statue". The Guardian. Associated Press. May 19, 2017 . Retrieved May 22, 2017 .
 198. ^ a b Michelle Boorstein, Washington National Cathedral to remove stained glass windows honoring Robert E. Lee, Stonewall Jackson , Washington Post (September 6, 2017).
 199. ^ Bill Chappell, National Cathedral Is Removing Stained-Glass Windows Honoring Confederate Leaders , NPR (September 6, 2017).
 200. ^ Rosenberg, Zoe (August 16, 2017). "Confederate general busts at Bronx Community College will be removed (updated)". Curbed.
 201. ^ Barron, James (November 5, 2018). "Why the Hall of Fame for Great Americans Is 'At Risk'". The New York Times.
 202. ^ Bromwich, Jonah Engel (August 21, 2017). "University of Texas at Austin Removes Confederate Statues in Overnight Operation". The New York Times . Retrieved August 21, 2017 .
 203. ^ "University of Texas removes four Confederate statues overnight". NBC News. Associated Press. August 21, 2017 . Retrieved August 21, 2017 .
 204. ^ Curry, Rex (September 15, 2017). "Dallas removes Robert E. Lee's statue from city park". Reuters.
 205. ^ Eisenhower, John (August 6, 1995). "The Commander". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved September 28, 2021 .
 206. ^ Goldfield, David (September 28, 2021). "The True Story of Robert E. Lee". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on December 28, 2021 . Retrieved September 28, 2021 .
 207. ^ Cullum, George (1891). Biographical Register of the Officers and Graduates of the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, N.Y. From Its Establishment In 1802 to 1890 with the Early History of the United States Military Academy. New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Company. p. 420.
 208. ^ a b c d Cullum 1891 , p. 420
 209. ^ a b c Cullum 1891 , p. 421
 210. ^ Trudeau, Noah (2009). Robert E. Lee: Lessons in Leadership. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-230-10344-3.
 211. ^ Eicher, John & David (2001). Civil War High Commands. New York: Stanford University Press. p. 810. ISBN 978-0-8047-3641-1.
 212. ^ Eicher 2001 , p. 807
 213. ^ "Lee at the Alamo". September 7, 2011.
 214. ^ ""Dukes of Hazzard's" General Lee Tops Edmunds' InsideLine.com's List of 100 Greatest Movie and TV Cars of All Time". edmunds.com . Retrieved June 3, 2012 .
 215. ^ "The Dukes of Hazzard: Happy Birthday, General Lee". allmovie . Retrieved June 3, 2012 .

 Notes

 1. ^ During his brief tenure as commander of Virginia forces, Robert E. Lee was authorized to wear the insignia of a Major General on the blue Union Army jacket, but continued to wear his U.S. Army Colonel's uniform until the start of 1862. By this time he began wearing the familiar grey Confederate Army coat with Colonel insignia, signifying the last rank he held in the U.S. Army.
 2. ^ Throughout the Civil War, with only a handful of exceptions, Robert E. Lee wore the insignia of a Confederate colonel, although he held the rank of full general. Lee would later state that he wore a colonel's insignia in homage to his original United States Army rank, which he considered to be the last permanent rank he had legally held. Lee also reportedly disliked the heavy braid and raised collar of the standard Confederate general's uniform.

 Bibliography

 * Blassingame, John W. (1977). Slave Testimony: Two Centuries of Letters, Speeches, Interviews, and Autobiographies. Louisiana State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8071-0273-2.
 * Davis, William C. (1999). The Commanders of the Civil War. London: Salamander Books Ltd. ISBN 978-1-84065-105-8.
 * Fellman, Michael (2000). The Making of Robert E. Lee. Random House. ISBN 978-0-679-45650-6.
 * Freeman, Douglas S. (1934). R. E. Lee, A Biography. Charles Scribner's Sons.
 * Korda, Michael (2014). Clouds of Glory: The Life and Legend of Robert E. Lee. HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 978-0-06-211629-1.
 * Lee, Edmund Jennings (1983). Lee of Virginia 1642–1892. Genealogical Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-8063-0604-9.
 * McCaslin, Richard B. (2001). Lee In the Shadow of Washington. LSU Press. ISBN 978-0-807-12959-3.
 * McPherson, James M. (2003). Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-1950-3863-7.
 * McPherson, James M. (2008). Tried by War: Abraham Lincoln as Commander in Chief. Penguin Press. ISBN 978-1-4406-5245-5.
 * Nolan, Alan T. (1991). Lee Considered: General Robert E. Lee and Civil War History. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-4587-5.
 * Pryor, Elizabeth Brown (2007). Reading the Man: A Portrait of Robert E. Lee Through His Private Letters. Viking Press. ISBN 978-0-6700-3829-9.
 * Thomas, Emory M. (1997). Robert E. Lee. W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN 978-0-393-31631-5.

 Historiography

 * Foner, Eric. "The Making and the Breaking of the Legend of Robert E. Lee", New York Times Aug 28, 2017

 Further reading

 * Adam, Graeme Mercer (1905). The Life of General Robert E. Lee. New York: A. L. Burt.
 * Connelly, Thomas L. (June 1969). "Robert E. Lee and the Western Confederacy: A Criticism of Lee's Strategic Ability". Civil War History. 15 (2): 116–32. doi:10.1353/cwh.1969.0030.
 * Cox, David R. (2017). The Religious Life of Robert E. Lee. Grand Rapids, Mi.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.
 * Guelzo, Allen C. (2021). Robert E. Lee: A Life. New York: Knopf. ISBN 978-1101946220
 * McCabe, James Dabney (1870). Life and Campaigns of General Robert E. Lee. Atlanta, Ga. & Philadelphia, Pa.: National publishing Company.
 * McGuire, Judith W. (1873). General Robert E. Lee, The Christian Soldier. Philadelphia: Claxton, Remsen & Haffelfinger; Richmond: Woodhouse & Parham.
 * Lee, Robert E. (1897). A. L. Long (ed.). Memoirs of Robert E. Lee: His Military and Personal History. New York & Philadelphia: J. M. Stoddart & Company.
 * Reeves, John (2018). The Lost Indictment of Robert E. Lee: The Forgotten Case Against an American Icon. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
 * Riley, Franklin L. (1922). General Robert E. Lee after Appomattox. New York: Macmillan Co.
 * Seidule, Ty (2021). Robert E. Lee and Me: A Southerner's Reckoning with the Myth of the Lost Cause. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-1250239266.

 External links

 Wikiquote has quotations related to Robert E. Lee.
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Robert E. Lee .
 Wikisource has original works by or about:
 Robert E. Lee
 * Lee, Robert Edward (2000). Recollections and Letters of General Robert E. Lee. Project Gutenberg.
 * Biographical article by Stanley L. Klos
 * Obituary of Robert E. Lee, from a Northern point of view. The New York Times; October 13, 1870
 * Robert E. Lee – An American Experience documentary
 * Letter from Dwight Eisenhower about Lee

 Primary sources

 * Original Historical Letters: Lincoln Refuses Lee's Armistice Shapell Manuscript Foundation
 * Interactive Animation of the Battle of Gettysburg – A chronicle of the 3-day battle, it also touches on Lee's tactical strategies during the American Civil War.
 * Correspondences of Robert E. Lee during the American Civil War – held in the Walter Havighurst Special Collections, Miami University
 * Works by Robert E. Lee at Project Gutenberg
 * Works by or about Robert E. Lee at Internet Archive
 * Works by Robert E. Lee at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
 * Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library, Emory University: Robert E. Lee collection, 1835–1869

 Monuments and memorials

 Main article: List of memorials to Robert E. Lee
 * University Chapel at Washington and Lee University where Robert E. Lee is buried
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 Preceded by Superintendent of the United States Military Academy Succeeded by 
 Henry Brewerton 1852–1855 John Gross Barnard 
 Preceded by Commanding General of the Army of Northern Virginia Office abolished 
 General Joseph E. Johnston 1862–1865  
 New office General in Chief of the Armies of the Confederate States 
 1865  
 Academic offices  
 Preceded by President of Washington and Lee University Succeeded by 
 George Junkin 1865–1870 George Washington Custis Lee
   
 
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General   Robert E. Lee       Lee in March 1864    Birth name Robert Edward Lee   Nickname(s)    Uncle Robert Marse Robert King of Spades Marble Man Granny Lee (by Union)      Born January 19, 1807 Stratford Hall, Westmoreland County, Virginia, U.S.   Died October 12, 1870 (aged 63) Lexington, Virginia, U.S.   Buried    University Chapel at Washington and Lee University, Lexington, Virginia, U.S.     Allegiance  United States of America  Confederate States of America  Commonwealth of Virginia    Service/ branch    United States Army  Confederate States Army    Years of service    1829–1861 (U.S.) 1861–1865 (C.S.)      Rank    Colonel 
(U.S.)   General (C.S.)   Commands held     General in Chief of the Armies of the Confederate States   U.S. Military Academy   Army of Northern Virginia       Battles/wars     Mexican–American War   John Brown's raid   American Civil War        Alma mater   United States Military Academy    Spouse(s)     Mary Anna Randolph Custis  
 ​ ​ (m. 1831) ​     Children     George   Mary   William   Robert Jr.   Anne   Eleanor   Mildred       Relations     Henry Lee III (father)  Anne Hill Carter Lee (mother)      Signature                General in Chief of the Armies of the Confederate States     In office February 6, 1865 – April 12, 1865   Preceded by  Position established    Succeeded by  Position abolished    1st President of Washington and Lee University     In office 1865–1870   Preceded by  George Junkin (Washington College)   Succeeded by  Custis Lee     Superintendent of the United States Military Academy     In office 1852–1855   Preceded by  Henry Brewerton    Succeeded by  John G. Barnard        
 Robert Edward Lee (January 19, 1807 – October 12, 1870) was a Confederate general during the American Civil War, towards the end of which he was appointed the overall commander of the Confederate States Army. He led the Army of Northern Virginia—the Confederacy's most powerful army—from 1862 until its surrender in 1865, earning a reputation as a skilled tactician.
 A son of Revolutionary War officer Henry "Light Horse Harry" Lee III, Lee was a top graduate of the United States Military Academy and an exceptional officer and military engineer in the United States Army for 32 years. He served across the United States, distinguished himself extensively during the Mexican–American War, and was Superintendent of the United States Military Academy. He married Mary Anna Custis Lee, great-granddaughter of George Washington's wife Martha. While he opposed slavery from a philosophical perspective, he supported its legality and held hundreds of slaves. When Virginia declared secession from the Union in 1861, Lee chose to follow his home state, despite his desire for the country to remain intact and an offer of a senior Union command. During the first year of the Civil War, he served in minor combat operations and as a senior military adviser to Confederate President Jefferson Davis.
 Lee took command of the Army of Northern Virginia in June 1862 during the Peninsula Campaign following the wounding of Joseph E. Johnston. He succeeded in driving the Union Army of the Potomac under George B. McClellan away from the Confederate capital of Richmond during the Seven Days Battles, although he was unable to destroy McClellan's army. Lee then overcame Union forces under John Pope at the Second Battle of Bull Run in August. His invasion of Maryland that September ended with the inconclusive Battle of Antietam, after which he retreated to Virginia. Lee won two of his most decisive victories at Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville before launching a second invasion of the North in the summer of 1863, where he was decisively defeated at the Battle of Gettysburg by the Army of the Potomac under George Meade. He led his army in the minor and inconclusive Bristoe Campaign that fall before General Ulysses S. Grant took command of Union armies in the spring of 1864. Grant engaged Lee's army in bloody but inconclusive battles at the Wilderness and Spotsylvania before the lengthy Siege of Petersburg, which was followed in April 1865 by the capture of Richmond and the destruction of most of Lee's army, which he finally surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Court House.
 In 1865, Lee became president of Washington College (later Washington and Lee University) in Lexington, Virginia; in that position, he supported reconciliation between North and South. Lee accepted the extinction of slavery provided for by the Thirteenth Amendment, but opposed racial equality for African Americans. After his death in 1870, Lee became a cultural icon in the South and is largely hailed as one of the Civil War's greatest generals. As commander of the Army of Northern Virginia, he fought most of his battles against armies of significantly larger size, and managed to win many of them. Lee built up a collection of talented subordinates, most notably James Longstreet, Stonewall Jackson, and J. E. B. Stuart, who along with Lee were critical to the Confederacy's battlefield success. [1]   [2]  In spite of his success, his two major strategic offensives into Union territory both ended in failure. Lee's aggressive and risky tactics, especially at Gettysburg, which resulted in high casualties at a time when the Confederacy had a shortage of manpower, have come under criticism. [3] 
Early life and education
Lee was born at Stratford Hall Plantation in Westmoreland County, Virginia, to Henry Lee III and Anne Hill Carter Lee on January 19, 1807. [4]  His ancestor, Richard Lee I, emigrated from Shropshire, England, to Virginia in 1639. [5] 
 
Lee's father suffered severe financial reverses from failed investments [6]  and was put in debtors' prison. Soon after his release the following year, the family moved to the city of Alexandria which at the time was still part of the District of Columbia (it retroceded back to Virginia in 1847), both because there were then high quality local schools there, and because several members of Anne's extended family lived nearby. In 1811, the family, including the newly born sixth child, Mildred, moved to a house on Oronoco Street. [7]        Oronoco Street, Alexandria, Virginia"Lee Corner" properties  In 1812 Lee's father moved permanently to the West Indies. [8]  Lee attended Eastern View, a school for young gentlemen, in Fauquier County, Virginia, and then at the Alexandria Academy, free for local boys, where he showed an aptitude for mathematics. Although brought up to be a practicing Christian, he was not confirmed in the Episcopal Church until age 46. [9] 
 Anne Lee's family was often supported by a relative, William Henry Fitzhugh, who owned the Oronoco Street house and allowed the Lees to stay at his country home Ravensworth. Fitzhugh wrote to United States Secretary of War, John C. Calhoun, urging that Robert be given an appointment to the United States Military Academy at West Point. Fitzhugh had young Robert deliver the letter. [10]  Lee entered West Point in the summer of 1825. At the time, the focus of the curriculum was engineering; the head of the United States Army Corps of Engineers supervised the school and the superintendent was an engineering officer. Cadets were not permitted leave until they finished two years of study and were rarely allowed off the academy grounds. Lee graduated second in his class behind Charles Mason  [11]  (who resigned from the Army a year after graduation). Lee did not incur any demerits during his four-year course of study, a distinction shared by only five of his 45 classmates. In June 1829, Lee was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the Corps of Engineers. [12]  After graduation, while awaiting assignment, he returned to Virginia to find his mother on her deathbed; she died at Ravensworth on July 26, 1829. [13] 
Military engineer career
      Lee at age 31 in 1838, as a Lieutenant of Engineers in the U.S. Army  
On August 11, 1829, Brigadier General Charles Gratiot ordered Lee to Cockspur Island, Georgia. The plan was to build a fort on the marshy island which would command the outlet of the Savannah River. Lee was involved in the early stages of construction as the island was being drained and built up. [14]  In 1831, it became apparent that the existing plan to build what became known as Fort Pulaski would have to be revamped, and Lee was transferred to Fort Monroe at the tip of the Virginia Peninsula (today in Hampton, Virginia). [15]  [ citation not found ]
 While home in the summer of 1829, Lee had apparently courted Mary Custis whom he had known as a child. Lee obtained permission to write to her before leaving for Georgia, though Mary Custis warned Lee to be "discreet" in his writing, as her mother read her letters, especially from men. [16]  Custis refused Lee the first time he asked to marry her; her father did not believe the son of the disgraced Light-Horse Harry Lee was a suitable man for his daughter. [17]  She accepted him with her father's consent in September 1830, while he was on summer leave, [18]  and the two were wed on June 30, 1831. [19] 
 Lee's duties at Fort Monroe were varied, typical for a junior officer, and ranged from budgeting to designing buildings. [20]  [ citation not found ] Although Mary Lee accompanied her husband to Hampton Roads, she spent about a third of her time at Arlington, though the couple's first son, Custis Lee was born at Fort Monroe. Although the two were by all accounts devoted to each other, they were different in character: Robert Lee was tidy and punctual, qualities his wife lacked. Mary Lee also had trouble transitioning from being a rich man's daughter to having to manage a household with only one or two slaves. [21]  Beginning in 1832, Robert Lee had a close but platonic relationship with Harriett Talcott, wife of his fellow officer Andrew Talcott. [22] 
Life at Fort Monroe was marked by conflicts between artillery and engineering officers. Eventually, the War Department transferred all engineering officers away from Fort Monroe, except Lee, who was ordered to take up residence on the artificial island of Rip Raps across the river from Fort Monroe, where Fort Wool would eventually rise, and continue work to improve the island. Lee duly moved there, then discharged all workers and informed the War Department he could not maintain laborers without the facilities of the fort. [23] 
 In 1834, Lee was transferred to Washington as General Gratiot's assistant. [24]  Lee had hoped to rent a house in Washington for his family, but was not able to find one; the family lived at Arlington, though Lieutenant Lee rented a room at a Washington boarding house for when the roads were impassable. [25]  [ citation not found ] In mid-1835, Lee was assigned to assist Andrew Talcott in surveying the southern border of Michigan. [26]  While on that expedition, he responded to a letter from an ill Mary Lee, which had requested he come to Arlington, "But why do you urge my immediate return, &amp; tempt one in the strongest manner[?] ... I rather require to be strengthened &amp; encouraged to the full performance of what I am called on to execute." [15]  Lee completed the assignment and returned to his post in Washington, finding his wife ill at Ravensworth. Mary Lee, who had recently given birth to their second child, remained bedridden for several months. In October 1836, Lee was promoted to first lieutenant. [27] 
 Lee served as an assistant in the chief engineer's office in Washington, D.C. from 1834 to 1837, but spent the summer of 1835 helping to lay out the state line between Ohio and Michigan. As a first lieutenant of engineers in 1837, he supervised the engineering work for St. Louis harbor and for the upper Mississippi and Missouri rivers. Among his projects was the mapping of the Des Moines Rapids on the Mississippi above Keokuk, Iowa, where the Mississippi's mean depth of 2.4 feet (0.7 m) was the upper limit of steamboat traffic on the river. His work there earned him a promotion to captain. Around 1842, Captain Robert E. Lee arrived as Fort Hamilton's post engineer. [28] 
Marriage and family
     
While Lee was stationed at Fort Monroe, he married Mary Anna Randolph Custis (1808–1873), great-granddaughter of Martha Washington by her first husband Daniel Parke Custis, and step-great-granddaughter of George Washington, the first president of the United States. Mary was the only surviving child of George Washington Parke Custis, George Washington's stepgrandson, and Mary Lee Fitzhugh Custis, daughter of William Fitzhugh  [29]  and Ann Bolling Randolph. Robert and Mary married on June 30, 1831, at Arlington House, her parents' house just across the Potomac from Washington. The 3rd U.S. Artillery served as honor guard at the marriage. They eventually had seven children, three boys and four girls: [30] 
  George Washington Custis Lee (Custis, "Boo"); 1832–1913; served as major general in the Confederate Army and aide-de-camp to President Jefferson Davis, captured during the Battle of Sailor's Creek; unmarried
 Mary Custis Lee (Mary, "Daughter"); 1835–1918; unmarried
 William Henry Fitzhugh Lee ("Rooney"); 1837–1891; served as major general in the Confederate Army (cavalry); married twice; surviving children by second marriage
 Anne Carter Lee (Annie); June 18, 1839 – October 20, 1862; died of typhoid fever, unmarried
 Eleanor Agnes Lee (Agnes); 1841 – October 15, 1873; died of tuberculosis, unmarried
 Robert Edward Lee, Jr. (Rob); 1843–1914; served in the Confederate Army, first as a private in the Rockbridge Artillery, later as a Captain on the staff of his brother Rooney; married twice; surviving children by second marriage
 Mildred Childe Lee (Milly, "Precious Life"); 1846–1905; unmarried 
All the children survived him except for Annie, who died in 1862. They are all buried with their parents in the crypt of the University Chapel at Washington and Lee University in Lexington, Virginia. [31] 
 Lee is a great-great-great-grandson of William Randolph and a great-great-grandson of Richard Bland. [32]  Fitzhugh Lee (1835–1905), a Confederate general and later a United States Army general in the Spanish–American War, is Lee's nephew. Lee is a second cousin of Helen Keller's grandmother, [33]  and is a distant relative of Admiral Willis Augustus Lee. [34] 
 On May 1, 1864, General Lee was present at the baptism of General A.P. Hill's daughter, Lucy Lee Hill, to serve as her godfather. This is referenced in the painting Tender is the Heart by Mort Künstler. [35]  He was also the godfather of actress and writer Odette Tyler, the daughter of Brigadier General William Whedbee Kirkland. [36] 
Mexican–American War
      Robert E. Lee around age 43, when he was a brevet lieutenant-colonel of engineers, c. 1850  
Lee distinguished himself in the Mexican–American War (1846–1848). He was one of Winfield Scott's chief aides in the march from Veracruz to Mexico City. [37]  He was instrumental in several American victories through his personal reconnaissance as a staff officer; he found routes of attack that the Mexicans had not defended because they thought the terrain was impassable.
 He was promoted to brevet major after the Battle of Cerro Gordo on April 18, 1847. [38]  He also fought at Contreras, Churubusco, and Chapultepec and was wounded at the last. By the end of the war, he had received additional brevet promotions to lieutenant colonel and colonel, but his permanent rank was still captain of engineers, and he would remain a captain until his transfer to the cavalry in 1855.
 For the first time, Robert E. Lee and Ulysses S. Grant met and worked with each other during the Mexican–American War. Close observations of their commanders constituted a learning process for both Lee and Grant. [39]  The Mexican–American War concluded on February 2, 1848.
 After the Mexican War, Lee spent three years at Fort Carroll in Baltimore harbor. During this time, his service was interrupted by other duties, among them surveying and updating maps in Florida. Cuban revolutionary Narciso López intended to forcibly liberate Cuba from Spanish rule. In 1849, searching for a leader for his filibuster expedition, he approached Jefferson Davis, then a United States senator. Davis declined and suggested Lee, who also declined. Both decided it was inconsistent with their duties. [40]   [41] 
Early 1850s: West Point and Texas
The 1850s were a difficult time for Lee, with his long absences from home, the increasing disability of his wife, troubles in taking over the management of a large slave plantation, and his often morbid concern with his personal failures. [42] 
 In 1852, Lee was appointed Superintendent of the Military Academy at West Point. [43]  He was reluctant to enter what he called a "snake pit", but the War Department insisted and he obeyed. His wife occasionally came to visit. During his three years at West Point, Brevet Colonel Robert E. Lee improved the buildings and courses and spent much time with the cadets. Lee's oldest son, George Washington Custis Lee, attended West Point during his tenure. Custis Lee graduated in 1854, first in his class. [44] 
 Lee was enormously relieved to receive a long-awaited promotion as second-in-command of the 2nd Cavalry Regiment in Texas in 1855. It meant leaving the Engineering Corps and its sequence of staff jobs for the combat command he truly wanted. He served under Colonel Albert Sidney Johnston at Camp Cooper, Texas; their mission was to protect settlers from attacks by the Apache and the Comanche.
Late 1850s: Arlington plantation and the Custis slaves
In 1857, his father-in-law George Washington Parke Custis died, creating a serious crisis when Lee took on the burden of executing the will. Custis's will encompassed vast landholdings and hundreds of slaves balanced against massive debts, and required Custis's former slaves "to be emancipated by my executors in such manner as to my executors may seem most expedient and proper, the said emancipation to be accomplished in not exceeding five years from the time of my decease." [45]  The estate was in disarray, and the plantations had been poorly managed and were losing money. [46] 
Lee tried to hire an overseer to handle the plantation in his absence, writing to his cousin, "I wish to get an energetic honest farmer, who while he will be considerate &amp; kind to the negroes, will be firm &amp; make them do their duty." [47]  But Lee failed to find a man for the job, and had to take a two-year leave of absence from the army in order to run the plantation himself.
 Lee's more strict expectations and harsher punishments of the slaves on Arlington plantation nearly led to a slave revolt, since many of the slaves had been given to understand that they were to be made free as soon as Custis died, and protested angrily at the delay. [48]  In May 1858, Lee wrote to his son Rooney, "I have had some trouble with some of the people. Reuben, Parks &amp; Edward, in the beginning of the previous week, rebelled against my authority—refused to obey my orders, &amp; said they were as free as I was, etc., etc.—I succeeded in capturing them &amp; lodging them in jail. They resisted till overpowered &amp; called upon the other people to rescue them." [47]  Less than two months after they were sent to the Alexandria jail, Lee decided to remove these three men and three female house slaves from Arlington, and sent them under lock and key to the slave-trader William Overton Winston in Richmond, who was instructed to keep them in jail until he could find "good &amp; responsible" slaveholders to work them until the end of the five-year period. [47] 
 By 1860 only one slave family was left intact on the estate. Some of the families had been together since their time at Mount Vernon. [49] 
The Norris case
In 1859, three of the Arlington slaves—Wesley Norris, his sister Mary, and a cousin of theirs—fled for the North, but were captured a few miles from the Pennsylvania border and forced to return to Arlington. On June 24, 1859, the anti-slavery newspaper  New York Daily Tribune  published two anonymous letters (dated June 19, 1859 [50]  and June 21, 1859 [51] ), each claiming to have heard that Lee had the Norrises whipped, and each going so far as to claim that the overseer refused to whip the woman but that Lee took the whip and flogged her personally. Lee privately wrote to his son Custis that "The N. Y. Tribune has attacked me for my treatment of your grandfather's slaves, but I shall not reply. He has left me an unpleasant legacy." [52] 
 Wesley Norris himself spoke out about the incident after the war, in an 1866 interview printed in an abolitionist newspaper, the  National Anti-Slavery Standard . Norris stated that after they had been captured, and forced to return to Arlington, Lee told them that "he would teach us a lesson we would not soon forget." According to Norris, Lee then had the three of them firmly tied to posts by the overseer, and ordered them whipped with fifty lashes for the men and twenty for Mary Norris. Norris claimed that Lee encouraged the whipping, and that when the overseer refused to do it, called in the county constable to do it instead. Unlike the anonymous letter writers, he does not state that Lee himself whipped any of the slaves. According to Norris, Lee "frequently enjoined [Constable] Williams to 'lay it on well,' an injunction which he did not fail to heed; not satisfied with simply lacerating our naked flesh, Gen. Lee then ordered the overseer to thoroughly wash our backs with brine, which was done." [48]   [53] 
 The Norris men were then sent by Lee's agent to work on the railroads in Virginia and Alabama. According to the interview, Norris was sent to Richmond in January 1863 "from which place I finally made my escape through the rebel lines to freedom." But Federal authorities reported that Norris came within their lines on September 5, 1863, and that he "left Richmond ... with a pass from General Custis Lee." [54]   [55]  Lee freed the Custis slaves, including Wesley Norris, after the end of the five-year period in the winter of 1862, filing the deed of manumission on December 29, 1862. [56]   [57] 
 Biographers of Lee have differed over the credibility of the account of the punishment as described in the letters in the Tribune and in Norris's personal account. They broadly agree that Lee had a group of escaped slaves recaptured, and that, after recapturing them, he hired them out off of the Arlington plantation as a punishment; however, they disagree over the likelihood that Lee flogged them, and over the charge that he personally whipped Mary Norris. In 1934, Douglas S. Freeman described them as "Lee's first experience with the extravagance of irresponsible antislavery agitators" and asserted that "There is no evidence, direct or indirect, that Lee ever had them or any other Negroes flogged. The usage at Arlington and elsewhere in Virginia among people of Lee's station forbade such a thing." [58] 
 In 2000, Michael Fellman, in  The Making of Robert E. Lee , found the claims that Lee had personally whipped Mary Norris "extremely unlikely," but found it not at all unlikely that Lee had ordered the runaways whipped: "corporal punishment (for which Lee substituted the euphemism 'firmness') was (believed to be) an intrinsic and necessary part of slave discipline. Although it was supposed to be applied only in a calm and rational manner, overtly physical domination of slaves, unchecked by law, was always brutal and potentially savage." [59] 
 In 2003, Bernice-Marie Yates's The Perfect Gentleman, cited Freeman's denial and followed his account in holding that, because of Lee's family connections to George Washington, he "was a prime target for abolitionists who lacked all the facts of the situation." [60] 
 Lee biographer Elizabeth Brown Pryor concluded in 2008 that "the facts are verifiable," based on "the consistency of the five extant descriptions of the episode (the only element that is not repeatedly corroborated is the allegation that Lee gave the beatings himself), as well as the existence of an account book that indicates the constable received compensation from Lee on the date that this event occurred." [61]   [62] 
 In 2014, Michael Korda wrote that "Although these letters are dismissed by most of Lee's biographers as exaggerated, or simply as unfounded abolitionist propaganda, it is hard to ignore them. ... It seems incongruously out of character for Lee to have whipped a slave woman himself, particularly one stripped to the waist, and that charge may have been a flourish added by the two correspondents; it was not repeated by Wesley Norris when his account of the incident was published in 1866. ... [A]lthough it seems unlikely that he would have done any of the whipping himself, he may not have flinched from observing it to make sure his orders were carried out exactly." [63] 
Lee's views on race and slavery
Several historians have noted what they consider the contradictory nature of Lee's beliefs and actions concerning race and slavery. While Lee protested he had sympathetic feelings for blacks, they were subordinate to his own racial identity. [64]  While Lee held slavery to be an evil institution, he also saw some benefit to blacks held in slavery. [65]  While Lee helped assist individual slaves to freedom in Liberia, and provided for their emancipation in his own will, [66]  he believed the enslaved should be eventually freed in a general way only at some unspecified future date as a part of God's purpose. [64]   [67]  Slavery for Lee was a moral and religious issue, and not one that would yield to political solutions. [68]  Emancipation would sooner come from Christian impulse among slave masters before "storms and tempests of fiery controversy" such as was occurring in "Bleeding Kansas". [64]  Countering Southerners who argued for slavery as a positive good, Lee in his well-known analysis of slavery from an 1856 letter (see below) called it a moral and political evil. While both Lee and his wife were disgusted with slavery, they also defended it against abolitionist demands for immediate emancipation for all enslaved. [69] 
 Lee argued that slavery was bad for white people, [70]  claiming that he found slavery bothersome and time-consuming as an everyday institution to run. In an 1856 letter to his wife, he maintained that slavery was a great evil, but primarily due to adverse impact that it had on white people: [71] 
 In this enlightened age, there are few I believe, but what will acknowledge, that slavery as an institution, is a moral &amp; political evil in any Country. It is useless to expatiate on its disadvantages. I think it however a greater evil to the white man than to the black race, &amp; while my feelings are strongly enlisted in behalf of the latter, my sympathies are more strong for the former. The blacks are immeasurably better off here than in Africa, morally, socially &amp; physically. The painful discipline they are undergoing, is necessary for their instruction as a race, &amp; I hope will prepare &amp; lead them to better things. How long their subjugation may be necessary is known &amp; ordered by a wise Merciful Providence. [72]   
Before leaving to serve in Mexico, Lee had written a will providing for the manumission of the slaves he owned, "a woman and her children inherited from his mother and apparently leased to his father-in-law and later sold to him." [73]  Lee's father-in-law, G. W. Parke Custis, was a member of the American Colonization Society, which was formed to gradually end slavery by establishing a free republic in Liberia for African-Americans, and Lee assisted several ex-slaves to emigrate there. Also, according to historian Richard B. McCaslin, Lee was a gradual emancipationist, denouncing extremist proposals for the immediate abolition of slavery. Lee rejected what he called evilly motivated political passion, fearing a civil and servile war from precipitous emancipation. [74] 
 Historian Elizabeth Brown Pryor offered an alternative interpretation of Lee's voluntary manumission of slaves in his will, and assisting slaves to a life of freedom in Liberia, seeing Lee as conforming to a "primacy of slave law". She wrote that Lee's private views on race and slavery,
 "which today seem startling, were entirely unremarkable in Lee's world. No visionary, Lee nearly always tried to conform to accepted opinions. His assessment of black inferiority, of the necessity of racial stratification, the primacy of slave law, and even a divine sanction for it all, was in keeping with the prevailing views of other moderate slaveholders and a good many prominent Northerners." [75]   
In 1857, George Custis died, leaving Robert Lee as the executor of his estate, which included nearly 200 slaves. [76]  In his will, Custis stated the slaves were to be freed within five years of his death. On taking on the role of administrator for the Parke Custis will, Lee used a provision to retain them in slavery to produce income for the estate to retire debt. [77]  Lee did not welcome the role of planter while administering the Custis properties at Romancoke, another nearby the Pamunkey River and Arlington; he rented the estate's mill. While all the estates prospered under his administration, Lee was unhappy at direct participation in slavery as a hated institution. [78] 
 Even before what Michael Fellman called a "sorry involvement in actual slave management", Lee judged the experience of white mastery to be a greater moral evil to the white man than blacks suffering under the "painful discipline" of slavery which introduced Christianity, literacy and a work ethic to the "heathen African". [79]  Columbia University historian Eric Foner notes that:
 Lee "was not a pro-slavery ideologue. But I think equally important is that, unlike some white southerners, he never spoke out against slavery" [80]   
By the time of Lee's career in the U.S. Army, the officers of West Point stood aloof from political-party and sectional strife on such issues as slavery, as a matter of principle, and Lee adhered to the precedent. [81]   [82]  He considered it his patriotic duty to be apolitical while in active Army service, [83]   [84]   [85]  and Lee did not speak out publicly on the subject of slavery prior to the Civil War. [86]   [87]  Before the outbreak of the War, in 1860, Lee voted for John C. Breckinridge, who was the extreme pro-slavery candidate in the 1860 presidential election, not John Bell, the more moderate Southerner who won Virginia. [88] 
 Lee himself owned a small number of slaves in his lifetime and considered himself a paternalistic master. [88]  There are various historical and newspaper hearsay accounts of Lee personally whipping a slave, but they are not direct eyewitness accounts. He was definitely involved in administering the day-to-day operations of a plantation and was involved in the recapture of runaway slaves. [89]  One historian noted that Lee separated slave families, something that prominent slave-holding families in Virginia such as Washington and Custis did not do. [70]  On December 29, 1862, Lee freed all the slaves his wife had inherited from George Custis, but this was in accordance with the Custis will, as that was the last day he was allowed to legally retain them. [90]  Prior to this, Lee had petitioned the courts to keep the Custis slaves longer than the five years allotted in Custis' will, since the estate was still in debt, but the courts rejected his appeals. [76]  In 1866, one of Lee's former slaves, Wesley Norris, charged that Lee personally beat him and other slaves harshly after they had tried to run away from Arlington. [91]  Lee never publicly responded to this charge, but privately told a friend "There is not a word of truth in it . . . No servant, soldier, or citizen, that was ever employed by me can with truth charge me with bad treatment.” [92] 
 Foner writes that "Lee's code of gentlemanly conduct did not seem to apply to blacks" during the War, as he did not stop his soldiers from kidnapping free black farmers and selling them into slavery. [80]  Princeton University historian James M. McPherson noted that Lee initially rejected a prisoner exchange between the Confederacy and the Union when the Union demanded that black Union soldiers be included. [70]  Lee did not accept the swap until a few months before the Confederacy's surrender. [70]  He also called the Emancipation Proclamation "a savage and brutal policy...which leaves us no alternative but success or degradation worse than death." [93] 
 As the war dragged on and Lee's losses mounted, he eventually advocated enlisting slaves in the Confederate army in exchange for freedom. However, he came to this position with great reluctance. In an 1865 letter to his friend Andrew Hunter, he wrote "Considering the relation of master and slave, controlled by humane laws and influenced by Christianity and an enlightened public sentiment, as the best that can exist between the white and black races while intermingled as at present in this country, I would deprecate any sudden disturbance of that relation unless it be necessary to avert a greater calamity to both. I should therefore prefer to rely upon our white population to preserve the ratio between our forces and those of the enemy, which experience has shown to be safe. But in view of the preparations of our enemies, it is our duty to provide for continued war and not for a battle or a campaign, and I fear that we cannot accomplish this without overtaxing the capacity of our white population." [94] 
 After the War, Lee told a congressional committee that blacks were "not disposed to work" and did not possess the intellectual capacity to vote and participate in politics. [90]  Lee also said to the committee that he hoped that Virginia could "get rid of them," referring to blacks. [90]  While not politically active, Lee defended Lincoln's successor Andrew Johnson's approach to Reconstruction, which according to Foner, "abandoned the former slaves to the mercy of governments controlled by their former owners." [95]  According to Foner, "A word from Lee might have encouraged white Southerners to accord blacks equal rights and inhibited the violence against the freed people that swept the region during Reconstruction, but he chose to remain silent." [90]  Lee was also urged to condemn the white-supremacy [96]  organization Ku Klux Klan, but opted to remain silent. [88] 
 In the generation following the war, Lee, though he died just a few years later, became a central figure in the Lost Cause interpretation of the war. The argument that Lee had always somehow opposed slavery, and freed his wife's slaves, helped maintain his stature as a symbol of Southern honor and national reconciliation. [88] 
Harpers Ferry and return to Texas, 1859–1861
Both Harpers Ferry and the secession of Texas were monumental events leading up to the Civil War. Robert E. Lee was at both events. Lee initially remained loyal to the Union after Texas seceded. [97] 
Harpers Ferry
 John Brown led a band of 21 abolitionists who seized the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia, in October 1859, hoping to incite a slave rebellion. President James Buchanan gave Lee command of detachments of militia, soldiers, and United States Marines, to suppress the uprising and arrest its leaders. [98]  By the time Lee arrived that night, the militia on the site had surrounded Brown and his hostages. At dawn, Brown refused the demand for surrender. Lee attacked, and Brown and his followers were captured after three minutes of fighting. Lee's summary report of the episode shows Lee believed it "was the attempt of a fanatic or madman". Lee said Brown achieved "temporary success" by creating panic and confusion and by "magnifying" the number of participants involved in the raid. [99] 
Texas
In 1860, Lt. Col. Robert E. Lee relieved Major Heintzelman at Fort Brown, and the Mexican authorities offered to restrain "their citizens from making predatory descents upon the territory and people of Texas ... this was the last active operation of the Cortina War". Rip Ford, a Texas Ranger at the time, described Lee as "dignified without hauteur, grand without pride ... he evinced an imperturbable self-possession, and a complete control of his passions ... possessing the capacity to accomplish great ends and the gift of controlling and leading men." [100] 
 When Texas seceded from the Union in February 1861, General David E. Twiggs surrendered all the American forces (about 4,000 men, including Lee, and commander of the Department of Texas) to the Texans. Twiggs immediately resigned from the U.S. Army and was made a Confederate general. Lee went back to Washington and was appointed Colonel of the First Regiment of Cavalry in March 1861. Lee's colonelcy was signed by the new president, Abraham Lincoln. Three weeks after his promotion, Colonel Lee was offered a senior command (with the rank of Major General) in the expanding Army to fight the Southern States that had left the Union. Fort Mason, Texas, was Lee's last command with the United States Army. [101] 
Civil War
Resignation from United States Army
Unlike many Southerners who expected a glorious war, Lee correctly predicted it as protracted and devastating. [102]  He privately opposed the new Confederate States of America in letters in early 1861, denouncing secession as "nothing but revolution" and an unconstitutional betrayal of the efforts of the Founding Fathers. Writing to George Washington Custis in January, Lee stated:
 The South, in my opinion, has been aggrieved by the acts of the North, as you say. I feel the aggression, and am willing to take every proper step for redress. It is the principle I contend for, not individual or private benefit. As an American citizen, I take great pride in my country, her prosperity and institutions, and would defend any State if her rights were invaded. But I can anticipate no greater calamity for the country than a dissolution of the Union. It would be an accumulation of all the evils we complain of, and I am willing to sacrifice everything but honor for its preservation. I hope, therefore, that all constitutional means will be exhausted before there is a resort to force. Secession is nothing but revolution. The framers of our Constitution never exhausted so much labor, wisdom, and forbearance in its formation, and surrounded it with so many guards and securities, if it was intended to be broken by every member of the Confederacy at will. It was intended for "perpetual union," so expressed in the preamble, and for the establishment of a government, not a compact, which can only be dissolved by revolution, or the consent of all the people in convention assembled. [103]   
     
Despite opposing secession, Lee said in January that "we can with a clear conscience separate" if all peaceful means failed. He agreed with secessionists in most areas, rejecting the Northern abolitionists' criticisms and their prevention of the expansion of slavery to the new western territories, and fear of the North's larger population. Lee supported the Crittenden Compromise, which would have constitutionally protected slavery. [104] 
 Lee's objection to secession was ultimately outweighed by a sense of personal honor, reservations about the legitimacy of a strife-ridden "Union that can only be maintained by swords and bayonets", and his duty to defend his native Virginia if attacked. [103]  He was asked while leaving Texas by a lieutenant if he intended to fight for the Confederacy or the Union, to which Lee replied, "I shall never bear arms against the Union, but it may be necessary for me to carry a musket in the defense of my native state, Virginia, in which case I shall not prove recreant to my duty". [105]   [104] 
 Although Virginia had the most slaves of any state, it was more similar to Maryland, which stayed in the Union, than to the Deep South; a convention voted against secession in early 1861. Scott, commanding general of the Union Army and Lee's mentor, told Lincoln he wanted him for a top command, telling Secretary of War Simon Cameron that he had "entire confidence" in Lee. Lee accepted a promotion to colonel of the 1st Cavalry Regiment on March 28, again swearing an oath to the United States. [106]   [104]  Meanwhile, Lee ignored an offer of command from the Confederacy. After Lincoln's call for troops to put down the rebellion, a second Virginia convention in Richmond voted to secede [107]  on April 17, and a May 23 referendum would likely ratify the decision. That night Lee dined with brother Smith and cousin Phillips, naval officers. Because of Lee's indecision, Phillips went to the War Department the next morning to warn that the Union might lose his cousin if the government did not act quickly. [104] 
 In Washington that day, [102]  Lee was offered by presidential advisor Francis P. Blair a role as major general to command the defense of the national capital. He replied:
 Mr. Blair, I look upon secession as anarchy. If I owned the four millions of slaves in the South I would sacrifice them all to the Union; but how can I draw my sword upon Virginia, my native state? [107]   
Lee immediately went to Scott, who tried to persuade him that Union forces would be large enough to prevent the South from fighting, so he would not have to oppose his state; Lee disagreed. When Lee asked if he could go home and not fight, the fellow Virginian said that the army did not need equivocal soldiers and that if he wanted to resign, he should do so before receiving official orders. Scott told him that Lee had made "the greatest mistake of your life". [104] 
 Lee agreed that to avoid dishonor he had to resign before receiving unwanted orders. While historians have usually called his decision inevitable ("the answer he was born to make", wrote Douglas Southall Freeman; another called it a "no-brainer") given the ties to family and state, an 1871 letter from his eldest daughter, Mary Custis Lee, to a biographer described Lee as "worn and harassed" yet calm as he deliberated alone in his office. People on the street noticed Lee's grim face as he tried to decide over the next two days, and he later said that he kept the resignation letter for a day before sending it on April 20. Two days later the Richmond convention invited Lee to the city. It elected him as commander of Virginia state forces before his arrival on April 23, and almost immediately gave him George Washington's sword as symbol of his appointment; whether he was told of a decision he did not want without time to decide, or did want the excitement and opportunity of command, is unclear. [11]   [104]   [102] 
 A cousin on Scott's staff told the family that Lee's decision so upset Scott that he collapsed on a sofa and mourned as if he had lost a son, and asked to not hear Lee's name. When Lee told family his decision, he said "I suppose you will all think I have done very wrong", as the others were mostly pro-Union; only Mary Custis was a secessionist, and her mother especially wanted to choose the Union, but told her husband that she would support whatever he decided. Many younger men like nephew Fitzhugh wanted to support the Confederacy, but Lee's three sons joined the Confederate military only after their father's decision. [104]   [102] 
 Most family members, like brother Smith, also reluctantly chose the South, but Smith's wife and Anne, Lee's sister, still supported the Union; Anne's son joined the Union Army, and no one in his family ever spoke to Lee again. Many cousins fought for the Confederacy, but Phillips and John Fitzgerald told Lee in person that they would uphold their oaths; John H. Upshur stayed with the Union military despite much family pressure; Roger Jones stayed in the Union army after Lee refused to advise him on what to do; and two of Philip Fendall's sons fought for the Union. Forty percent of Virginian officers stayed with the North. [104]   [102] 
Early role
At the outbreak of war, Lee was appointed to command all of Virginia's forces, which then encompassed the Provisional Army of Virginia and the Virginia State Navy. He was appointed a Major General by the Virginia Governor, but upon the formation of the Confederate States Army, he was named one of its first five full generals. Lee did not wear the insignia of a Confederate general, but only the three stars of a Confederate colonel, equivalent to his last U.S. Army rank. [108]  He did not intend to wear a general's insignia until the Civil War had been won and he could be promoted, in peacetime, to general in the Confederate Army.
 Lee's first field assignment was commanding Confederate forces in western Virginia, where he was defeated at the Battle of Cheat Mountain and was widely blamed for Confederate setbacks. [109]  He was then sent to organize the coastal defenses along the Carolina and Georgia seaboard, appointed commander, "Department of South Carolina, Georgia and Florida" on November 5, 1861. Between then and the fall of Fort Pulaski, April 11, 1862, he put in place a defense of Savannah that proved successful in blocking Federal advance on Savannah. Confederate fort and naval gunnery dictated nighttime movement and construction by the besiegers. Federal preparations required four months. In those four months, Lee developed a defense in depth. Behind Fort Pulaski on the Savannah River, Fort Jackson was improved, and two additional batteries covered river approaches. [110]  In the face of the Union superiority in naval, artillery and infantry deployment, Lee was able to block any Federal advance on Savannah, and at the same time, well-trained Georgia troops were released in time to meet McClellan's Peninsula Campaign. The city of Savannah would not fall until Sherman's approach from the interior at the end of 1864.
 At first, the press spoke to the disappointment of losing Fort Pulaski. Surprised by the effectiveness of large caliber Parrott Rifles in their first deployment, it was widely speculated that only betrayal could have brought overnight surrender to a Third System Fort. Lee was said to have failed to get effective support in the Savannah River from the three sidewheeler gunboats of the Georgia Navy. Although again blamed by the press for Confederate reverses, he was appointed military adviser to Confederate President Jefferson Davis, the former U.S. Secretary of War. While in Richmond, Lee was ridiculed as the 'King of Spades' for his excessive digging of trenches around the capitol. These trenches would later play a pivotal role in battles near the end of the war. [111] 
Commander, Army of Northern Virginia (June 1862 – June 1863)
In the spring of 1862, during the Peninsula Campaign, the Union Army of the Potomac under General George B. McClellan advanced on Richmond from Fort Monroe. Progressing up the Peninsula, McClellan forced Gen. Joseph E. Johnston and the Army of Virginia to retreat to a point just north and east of the Confederate capital.
 Johnston was wounded at the Battle of Seven Pines, on June 1, 1862, giving Lee his first opportunity to lead an army in the field – the force he renamed the Army of Northern Virginia, signalling confidence that the Union army could be driven away from Richmond. Early in the war, Lee had been called "Granny Lee" for his allegedly timid style of command. [112]  Confederate newspaper editorials objected to him replacing Johnston, opining that Lee would be passive, waiting for Union attack. This seemed true, initially; for the first three weeks of June, Lee did not show aggression, instead strengthening Richmond's defenses.
     
However, on June 25, he surprised the Army of the Potomac and launched a rapid series of bold attacks: the Seven Days Battles. Despite superior Union numbers and some clumsy tactical performances by his subordinates, Lee's attacks derailed McClellan's plans and drove back most of his forces. Confederate casualties were heavy, but an unnerved McClellan, famed for his caution, retreated 25 miles (40 km) to the lower James River, and abandoned the Peninsula completely in August. This success changed Confederate morale and the public's regard for Lee. After the Seven Days Battles, and until the end of the war, his men called him “Marse Robert", a term of respect and affection. [113] 
 The setback, and the resulting drop in Union morale, impelled Lincoln to adopt a new policy of relentless, committed warfare. [114]   [115]  After the Seven Days, Lincoln decided he had to move to emancipate most Confederate slaves by executive order, as a military act, using his authority as commander-in-chief. [116]  To make this possible, he needed a Union victory.
 Wheeling to the north, Lee marched rapidly towards Washington, D.C. and defeated another Union army under Gen. John Pope at the Second Battle of Bull Run in late August. He eliminated Pope before reinforcements from McClellan arrived, knocking out an entire field command before another could arrive to support it. In less than 90 days, Lee had run McClellan off the Peninsula, defeated Pope, and moved the battle lines 82 miles (132 km) north, from 6 miles (9.7 km) north of Richmond to 20 miles (32 km) south of Washington.
 Lee chose to take the battle off southern ground and invaded Maryland and Pennsylvania, hoping to collect supplies in Union territory, and possibly win a victory that would sway the upcoming Union elections in favor of ending the war. This was sent amiss when McClellan's men found a lost Confederate dispatch, Special Order 191, revealing Lee's plans and movements. McClellan always exaggerated Lee's numerical strength, but now he knew the Confederate army was divided and could be destroyed in detail. Still, in a characteristic manner, McClellan moved slowly; he failed to realize a spy had informed Lee that he possessed the plans. Lee quickly concentrated his forces west of Antietam Creek, near Sharpsburg, Maryland, where McClellan attacked on September 17. The Battle of Antietam was the single bloodiest day of the war, with both sides suffering enormous losses. Lee's army barely withstood the Union assaults, and retreated to Virginia the next day. The narrow Confederate defeat gave President Abraham Lincoln the opportunity to issue his Emancipation Proclamation, [117]  which put the Confederacy on the diplomatic and moral defensive. [118] 
 Disappointed by McClellan's failure to destroy Lee's army, Lincoln named Ambrose Burnside the commander of the Army of the Potomac. Burnside ordered an attack across the Rappahannock River at Fredericksburg, Virginia. Delays in bridging the river allowed Lee's army ample time to organize strong defenses, and the Union frontal assault on December 13, 1862, was a disaster. There were 12,600 Union casualties to 5,000 Confederate, making the engagement one of the most one-sided battles in the Civil War. [119]  After this victory, Lee reportedly said, "It is well that war is so terrible, else we should grow too fond of it." [119]  At Fredericksburg, according to historian Michael Fellman, Lee had completely entered into the "spirit of war, where destructiveness took on its own beauty." [119] 
 The bitter Union defeat at Fredericksburg prompted President Lincoln to appoint Joseph Hooker as the next commander of the Army of the Potomac. In May 1863, Hooker maneuvered to attack Lee's army by crossing the Rapahannock further upriver and positioning himself at the Chancellorsville crossroads. Doing this could give him an opportunity to strike Lee in the rear, but the Confederate General barely managed to pivot his forces in time to face an attack. Hooker's command was nearly twice the size of Lee's but he nonetheless was beaten after Lee performed a daring movement that broke all terms of conventional warfare: dividing his army. Lee sent Stonewall Jackson's corps to attack Hooker's exposed flank, on the opposite side of the battlefield. The decisive victory that followed came with a price. Among the heavy casualties was Jackson, his finest corps commander, accidentally fired on by his own troops. [120] 
 Even though he scored another impressive victory over an enemy army much larger than his own, Lee felt unsatisfied by the fact that he had made little territorial gains up to that point. Things were going poorly for the Confederacy in the West, and Lee started to grow restless; he devised a plan to once again invade the North, for similar reasons to before: relieve Virginia and its citizens of the weariness of battle, and potentially march on the Federal Capital and force terms of peace.
Battle of Gettysburg
Critical decisions came in May–June 1863, after Lee's smashing victory at the Battle of Chancellorsville. The western front was crumbling, as multiple uncoordinated Confederate armies were unable to handle General Ulysses S. Grant's campaign against Vicksburg. The top military advisers wanted to save Vicksburg, but Lee persuaded Davis to overrule them and authorize yet another invasion of the North. The immediate goal was to acquire urgently needed supplies from the rich farming districts of Pennsylvania; a long-term goal was to stimulate peace activity in the North by demonstrating the power of the South to invade. Lee's decision proved a significant strategic blunder and cost the Confederacy control of its western regions, and nearly cost Lee his own army as Union forces cut him off from the South. [121] 
     
Lee launched the Gettysburg Campaign when he abandoned his position on the Rapahannock and crossed the Potomac River into Maryland in June. Hooker mobilized his men and pursued, but was replaced by Gen. George G. Meade on June 28, a few days before the two armies clashed at the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania in early July; the battle produced the largest number of casualties in the American Civil War. Some of Lee's subordinates were new and inexperienced to their commands, and J.E.B. Stuart’s cavalry failed to perform effective reconnaissance. The first day was a surprise affair for both sides, and the Confederates managed to rally their forces first, pushing the panicked Union troops away from town, and towards key terrain that should have been taken by General Ewell, but was not. The second day unfolded differently for the Confederates. They took too much time to assemble, and launched repeated failed assaults against the Union left flank over difficult terrain. Lee's decision on the third day, going against the advice of his best corps commander, Gen. James Longstreet, to launch a massive frontal assault on the center of the Union line, was disastrous. It was carried out over a wide field, and has come to be known commonly as Pickett's Charge. Easily repulsed, Pickett’s Charge, named after the general whose division participated, resulted in severe Confederate losses. Lee rode out to meet the remains of the division and proclaimed, "All this has been my fault." [122]  He had no choice but to withdraw, and he escaped Meade's ineffective pursuit, slipping back into Virginia.
 Following his defeat at Gettysburg, Lee sent a letter of resignation to President Davis on August 8, 1863, but Davis refused Lee's pleads to retire. That fall, Lee and Meade met again in two minor campaigns, Bristoe and Mine Run, that did little to change the strategic standoff. The Confederate Army never fully recovered from the substantial losses incurred during the three-day battle in southern Pennsylvania. Civil War Historian Shelby Foote once stated, "Gettysburg was the price the South paid for having Robert E. Lee as commander."[ citation needed ]
Ulysses S. Grant and the Union offensive
In 1864 the new Union general-in-chief, Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, sought to use his large advantages in manpower and material resources to destroy Lee's army by attrition, pinning Lee against his capital of Richmond. Lee successfully stopped each attack, but Grant with his superior numbers kept pushing each time a bit farther to the southeast. These battles in the Overland Campaign included the Wilderness, Spotsylvania Court House and Cold Harbor.
 Grant eventually was able to stealthily move his army across the James River. After stopping a Union attempt to capture Petersburg, Virginia, a vital railroad link supplying Richmond, Lee's men built elaborate trenches and were besieged in Petersburg, a development which presaged the trench warfare of World War I. Lee attempted to break the stalemate by sending Jubal A. Early on a raid through the Shenandoah Valley to Washington, D.C., but Early was defeated early on by the superior forces of Philip Sheridan. The Siege of Petersburg lasted from June 1864 until March 1865, with Lee's outnumbered and poorly supplied army shrinking daily because of desertions by disheartened Confederates.
General in Chief
     
On February 6, 1865, Lee was appointed General in Chief of the Armies of the Confederate States.
 As the South ran out of manpower the issue of arming the slaves became paramount. Lee explained, "We should employ them without delay ... [along with] gradual and general emancipation". The first units were in training as the war ended. [123]   [124]  As the Confederate army was devastated by casualties, disease and desertion, the Union attack on Petersburg succeeded on April 2, 1865. Lee abandoned Richmond and retreated west. Lee then made an attempt to escape to the southwest and join up with Joseph E. Johnston's Army of Tennessee in North Carolina. However, his forces were soon surrounded and he surrendered them to Grant on April 9, 1865, at the Battle of Appomattox Court House. [125]  Other Confederate armies followed suit and the war ended. The day after his surrender, Lee issued his Farewell Address to his army.
 Lee resisted calls by some officers to reject surrender and allow small units to melt away into the mountains, setting up a lengthy guerrilla war. He insisted the war was over and energetically campaigned for inter-sectional reconciliation. "So far from engaging in a war to perpetuate slavery, I am rejoiced that slavery is abolished. I believe it will be greatly for the interests of the South." [126] 
Summaries of Lee's Civil War battles
The following are summaries of Civil War campaigns and major battles where Robert E. Lee was the commanding officer: [127] 
 
 Battle 
 Date 
 Result 
 Opponent 
 Confederate troop strength 
 Union troop strength 
 Confederate casualties 
 Union casualties 
 Notes
 
 Cheat Mountain 
September 11–13, 1861
 Defeat 
 Reynolds 
5,000
3,000
~90
88
Lee's first battle of the Civil War. Severely criticized, Lee was nicknamed "Granny Lee". Lee was sent to SC and GA to supervise fortifications. [128] 
 
 Seven Days 
June 25 – July 1, 1862
 Tactically Inconclusive; Strategic Confederate Victory
 Oak Grove: Stalemate (Union withdrawal)
Beaver Dam Creek: Union victory
Gaine's Mill: Confederate victory
Savage's Station: Stalemate
Glendale: Stalemate (Union withdrawal)
Malvern Hill: Union victory 
 McClellan 
95,000
91,000
20,614
15,849
Tactically Inconclusive, but Strategic Confederate Victory, as McPherson's retreat to Harrison's Landing ended the Peninsula Campaign. [129]  Lee acquitted himself well, and remained in field command for the duration of the war under the direction of Jefferson Davis. Union troops remained on the Lower Peninsula and at Fortress Monroe, which became a terminus on the Underground Railroad, and the site terming escaped slaves as "contribands", no longer returned to their rebel owners.
 
 Second Manassas 
August 28–30, 1862
 Victory 
 Pope 
50,000
77,000
7,298
14,462
Union forces continued to occupy parts of northern Virginia but were unable to expand further.
 
 South Mountain 
September 14, 1862
 Defeat 
McClellan
18,000
28,000
2,685
2,325
Confederates lost control of westernmost Virginian congressional districts which would later be the core counties of West Virginia.
 
 Antietam 
September 16–18, 1862
 Inconclusive 
McClellan
52,000
75,000
13,724
12,410
Tactically inconclusive but strategically a Union victory. The Confederates lost an opportunity to gain foreign recognition, Lincoln moved forward on his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation.
 
 Fredericksburg 
December 11, 1862
 Victory 
 Burnside 
72,000
114,000
5,309
12,653
With Lee's troops and supplies depleted, Confederates remained in place south of the Rappahannock. Union forces did not withdraw from northern Virginia.
 
 Chancellorsville 
May 1, 1863
 Victory 
 Hooker 
60,298
105,000
12,764
16,792
Union forces withdrew to ring of defenses around Washington, DC.
 
 Gettysburg 
July 1, 1863
 Defeat 
 Meade 
75,000
83,000
23,231–28,063
23,049
The Confederate army was physically and spiritually exhausted. Meade was criticized for not immediately pursuing Lee's army. This battle become known as the High Water Mark of the Confederacy. [130]  Lee would never personally invade the North again after this battle. Rather he was determined to defend Richmond and eventually Petersburg at all costs.
 
 Wilderness 
May 5, 1864
 Inconclusive 
 Grant 
61,000
102,000
11,033
17,666
Grant disengaged and continued his offensive, circling east and south advancing on Richmond and Petersburg
 
 Spotsylvania 
May 12, 1864
 Inconclusive  [131]  
Grant
52,000
100,000
12,687
18,399
Although beaten and unable to take Lee's defenses, Grant continued the Union offensive, circling east and south advancing on Richmond and Petersburg
 
 North Anna 
May 23–26, 1864
 Inconclusive 
Grant
50,000–53,000
67,000–100,000
1,552
3,986
North Anna had proved to be a relatively minor affair when compared to other Civil War battles.
 
 Totopotomoy Creek 
May 28–30, 1864
 Inconclusive 
Grant
N/A
N/A
1,593
731
As Grant continued his attempts to maneuver around Lee's right flank and lure him into a general battle in the open.
 
 Cold Harbor 
June 1, 1864
 Victory 
Grant
62,000
108,000
5,287
12,000
Although Grant was able to continue his offensive, Grant referred to the Cold Harbor assault as his "greatest regret" of the war in his memoirs.
 
 Fussell's Mill 
August 14, 1864
 Inconclusive 
 Hancock 
20,000
28,000
1,700
2,901
Union attempt to break Confederate siege lines at Richmond, the Confederate capital
 
 Appomattox Campaign 
March 29, 1865
 Defeat 
Grant
56,000
114,000
~25,000 General Lee surrenders
~9,700
General Robert E. Lee surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant. [132]  After the surrender Grant gave Lee's army much-needed food rations; they were paroled to return to their homes, never again to take up arms against the Union.
   
Postbellum life
     
   External video     Booknotes interview with Emory Thomas on Robert E. Lee: A Biography, September 10, 1995, C-SPAN    
After the war, Lee was not arrested or punished (although he was indicted),  [133]  but he did lose the right to vote as well as some property. Lee's prewar family home, the Custis-Lee Mansion, was seized by Union forces during the war and turned into Arlington National Cemetery, and his family was not compensated until more than a decade after his death. [134] 
 In 1866, Lee counseled southerners not to resume fighting, of which Grant said Lee was "setting an example of forced acquiescence so grudging and pernicious in its effects as to be hardly realized". [135]  Lee joined with Democrats in opposing the Radical Republicans, who demanded punitive measures against the South, distrusted the South's commitment to the abolition of slavery, and, indeed, distrusted the region's loyalty to the United States. [136]   [137]  Lee supported a system of free public schools for blacks but forthrightly opposed allowing blacks to vote: "My own opinion is that, at this time, they [black Southerners] cannot vote intelligently, and that giving them the [vote] would lead to a great deal of demagogism, and lead to embarrassments in various ways." [138]  Emory Thomas says Lee had become a suffering Christ-like icon for ex-Confederates. President Grant invited him to the White House in 1869, and he went. Nationally he became an icon of reconciliation between the North and South, and the reintegration of former Confederates into the national fabric. [139] 
      General Lee and his Confederate officers in their first meeting since Appomattox, August 1869.  
Lee hoped to retire to a farm of his own, but he was too much a regional symbol to live in obscurity. From April to June 1865, he and his family resided in Richmond at the Stewart-Lee House. [140]  He accepted an offer to serve as the president of Washington College (now Washington and Lee University) in Lexington, Virginia, and served from October 1865 until his death. The Trustees used his famous name in large-scale fund-raising appeals and Lee transformed Washington College into a leading Southern college, expanding its offerings significantly, adding programs in commerce and journalism, and incorporating the Lexington Law School. Lee was well liked by the students, which enabled him to announce an "honor system" like that of West Point, explaining that "we have but one rule here, and it is that every student be a gentleman." To speed up national reconciliation Lee recruited students from the North and made certain they were well treated on campus and in town. [141] 
 Several glowing appraisals of Lee's tenure as college president have survived, depicting the dignity and respect he commanded among all. Previously, most students had been obliged to occupy the campus dormitories, while only the most mature were allowed to live off-campus. Lee quickly reversed this rule, requiring most students to board off-campus, and allowing only the most mature to live in the dorms as a mark of privilege; the results of this policy were considered a success. A typical account by a professor there states that "the students fairly worshipped him, and deeply dreaded his displeasure; yet so kind, affable, and gentle was he toward them that all loved to approach him. ... No student would have dared to violate General Lee's expressed wish or appeal." [142] 
 While at Washington College, Lee told a colleague that the greatest mistake of his life was taking a military education. [143]  He also defended his father in a biographical sketch. [144] 
President Johnson's amnesty pardons
      Oath of amnesty submitted by Robert E. Lee in 1865  
On May 29, 1865, President Andrew Johnson issued a Proclamation of Amnesty and Pardon to persons who had participated in the rebellion against the United States. There were fourteen excepted classes, though, and members of those classes had to make special application to the president. Lee sent an application to Grant and wrote to President Johnson on June 13, 1865:
 Being excluded from the provisions of amnesty &amp; pardon contained in the proclamation of the 29th Ulto; I hereby apply for the benefits, &amp; full restoration of all rights &amp; privileges extended to those included in its terms. I graduated at the Mil. Academy at West Point in June 1829. Resigned from the U.S. Army April '61. Was a General in the Confederate Army, &amp; included in the surrender of the Army of N. Virginia 9 April '65. [145]   
On October 2, 1865, the same day that Lee was inaugurated as president of Washington College in Lexington, Virginia, he signed his Amnesty Oath, thereby complying fully with the provision of Johnson's proclamation. Lee was not pardoned, nor was his citizenship restored. [145] 
 Three years later, on December 25, 1868, Johnson proclaimed a second amnesty which removed previous exceptions, such as the one that affected Lee. [146] 
Postwar politics
Lee, who had opposed secession and remained mostly indifferent to politics before the Civil War, supported President Andrew Johnson's plan of Presidential Reconstruction that took effect in 1865–66. However, he opposed the Congressional Republican program that took effect in 1867. In February 1866, he was called to testify before the Joint Congressional Committee on Reconstruction in Washington, where he expressed support for Johnson's plans for quick restoration of the former Confederate states, and argued that restoration should return, as far as possible, to the  status quo ante  in the Southern states' governments (with the exception of slavery). [147] 
     
Lee told the committee that "every one with whom I associate expresses kind feelings towards the freedmen. They wish to see them get on in the world, and particularly to take up some occupation for a living, and to turn their hands to some work." Lee also expressed his "willingness that blacks should be educated, and ... that it would be better for the blacks and for the whites." Lee forthrightly opposed allowing blacks to vote: "My own opinion is that, at this time, they [black Southerners] cannot vote intelligently, and that giving them the [vote] would lead to a great deal of demagogism, and lead to embarrassments in various ways." [148]   [149] 
 In an interview in May 1866, Lee said: "The Radical party are likely to do a great deal of harm, for we wish now for good feeling to grow up between North and South, and the President, Mr. Johnson, has been doing much to strengthen the feeling in favor of the Union among us. The relations between the Negroes and the whites were friendly formerly, and would remain so if legislation be not passed in favor of the blacks, in a way that will only do them harm." [150] 
 In 1868, Lee's ally Alexander H. H. Stuart drafted a public letter of endorsement for the Democratic Party's presidential campaign, in which Horatio Seymour ran against Lee's old foe Republican Grant. Lee signed it along with thirty-one other ex-Confederates. The Democratic campaign, eager to publicize the endorsement, published the statement widely in newspapers. [151]  Their letter claimed paternalistic concern for the welfare of freed Southern blacks, stating that "The idea that the Southern people are hostile to the negroes and would oppress them, if it were in their power to do so, is entirely unfounded. They have grown up in our midst, and we have been accustomed from childhood to look upon them with kindness." [152]  However, it also called for the restoration of white political rule, arguing that "It is true that the people of the South, in common with a large majority of the people of the North and West, are, for obvious reasons, inflexibly opposed to any system of laws that would place the political power of the country in the hands of the negro race. But this opposition springs from no feeling of enmity, but from a deep-seated conviction that, at present, the negroes have neither the intelligence nor the other qualifications which are necessary to make them safe depositories of political power." [153] 
 In his public statements and private correspondence, Lee argued that a tone of reconciliation and patience would further the interests of white Southerners better than hotheaded antagonism to federal authority or the use of violence. Lee repeatedly expelled white students from Washington College for violent attacks on local black men, and publicly urged obedience to the authorities and respect for law and order. [154]  He privately chastised fellow ex-Confederates such as Davis and Jubal Early for their frequent, angry responses to perceived Northern insults, writing in private to them as he had written to a magazine editor in 1865, that "It should be the object of all to avoid controversy, to allay passion, give full scope to reason and to every kindly feeling. By doing this and encouraging our citizens to engage in the duties of life with all their heart and mind, with a determination not to be turned aside by thoughts of the past and fears of the future, our country will not only be restored in material prosperity, but will be advanced in science, in virtue and in religion." [155] 
Illness and death
             
On September 28, 1870, Lee suffered a stroke. He died two weeks later, shortly after 9 a.m. on October 12, 1870, in Lexington, Virginia, from the effects of pneumonia. According to one account, his last words on the day of his death, were "Tell Hill he must come up! Strike the tent", [156]  but this is debatable because of conflicting accounts and because Lee's stroke had resulted in aphasia, possibly rendering him unable to speak. [157] 
 At first no suitable coffin for the body could be located. The muddy roads were too flooded for anyone to get in or out of the town of Lexington. An undertaker had ordered three from Richmond that had reached Lexington, but due to unprecedented flooding from long-continued heavy rains, the caskets were washed down the Maury River. Two neighborhood boys, C.G. Chittum and Robert E. Hillis, found one of the coffins that had been swept ashore. Undamaged, it was used for the General's body, though it was a bit short for him. As a result, Lee was buried without shoes. [158]  He was buried underneath the college chapel now known as University Chapel at Washington and Lee University, where his body remains. [31]   [159] 
Legacy
      Robert Edward Lee in art at the Battle of Chancellorsville in a stained glass window of the Washington National Cathedral  
     Robert E. Lee, Stonewall Jackson and Stratford Hall, Army Issue of 1936 
      Washington and Lee University Issue of 1948       Robert E. Lee, Jefferson Davis, Stonewall Jackson. Stone Mountain Issue of 1970  
Among the supporters of the Confederacy, Lee came to be even more revered after his surrender than he had been during the war, when Stonewall Jackson had been the great Confederate hero. In an 1874 address before the Southern Historical Society in Atlanta, Georgia, Benjamin Harvey Hill described Lee in this way:
 He was a foe without hate; a friend without treachery; a soldier without cruelty; a victor without oppression, and a victim without murmuring. He was a public officer without vices; a private citizen without wrong; a neighbour without reproach; a Christian without hypocrisy, and a man without guile. He was a Caesar, without his ambition; Frederick, without his tyranny; Napoleon, without his selfishness, and Washington, without his reward. [160]   
By the end of the 19th century, Lee's popularity had spread to the North. [161]  Lee's admirers have pointed to his character and devotion to duty, and his occasional tactical successes in battles against a stronger foe.
 According to my notion of military history there is as much instruction both in strategy and in tactics to be gleaned from General Lee's operations of 1862 as there is to be found in Napoleon's campaigns of 1796. 
Military historians continue to pay attention to his battlefield tactics and maneuvering, though many think he should have designed better strategic plans for the Confederacy. He was not given full direction of the Southern war effort until late in the conflict.
 Historian Eric Foner writes that at the end of his life,
 "Lee had become the embodiment of the Southern cause. A generation later, he was a national hero. The 1890s and early 20th century witnessed the consolidation of white supremacy in the post-Reconstruction South and widespread acceptance in the North of Southern racial attitudes." [88]   
Robert E. Lee has been commemorated on U.S. postage stamps at least five times, the first one being a commemorative stamp that also honored Stonewall Jackson, issued in 1936. A second "regular-issue" stamp was issued in 1955. He was commemorated with a 32-cent stamp issued in the American Civil War Issue of June 29, 1995. His horse Traveller is pictured in the background. [163] 
 Washington and Lee University in Lexington, Virginia was commemorated on its 200th anniversary on November 23, 1948, with a 3-cent postage stamp. The central design is a view of the university, flanked by portraits of generals George Washington and Robert E. Lee. [164]  Lee was again commemorated on a commemorative stamp in 1970, along with Jefferson Davis and Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson, depicted on horseback on the 6-cent Stone Mountain Memorial commemorative issue, modeled after the actual Stone Mountain Memorial carving in Georgia. The stamp was issued on September 19, 1970, in conjunction with the dedication of the Stone Mountain Confederate Memorial in Georgia on May 9, 1970. The design of the stamp replicates the memorial, the largest high relief sculpture in the world. It is carved on the side of Stone Mountain 400 feet above the ground. [165] 
      President Gerald Ford signs Joint Resolution 23 at Arlington National Cemetery on August 5, 1975, restoring the citizenship rights of Robert E. Lee  
Stone Mountain also led to Lee's appearance on a commemorative coin, the 1925 Stone Mountain Memorial half dollar. During the 1920s and '30s dozens of specially designed half dollars were struck to raise money for various events and causes. This issue had a particularly wide distribution, with 1,314,709 minted. Unlike some of the other issues it remains a very common coin.
 In 1865, after the war, Lee was paroled and signed an oath of allegiance, asking to have his citizenship of the United States restored. However, his application was not processed by Secretary of State William Seward, a radical Republican and firm opponent of slavery, and as a result Lee did not receive a pardon and his citizenship was not restored. [166]   [167]  On January 30, 1975, Senate Joint Resolution 23, A joint resolution to restore posthumously full rights of citizenship to General R. E. Lee was introduced into the Senate by Senator Harry F. Byrd Jr. (I-VA), the result of a five-year campaign to accomplish this. Proponents portrayed the lack of pardon as a mere clerical error. The resolution, which enacted Public Law 94–67, was passed, and the bill was signed by President Gerald Ford on August 5. [168]   [169]   [170] 
Monuments, memorials and commemorations
Lee opposed the construction of public memorials to Confederate rebellion on the grounds that they would prevent the healing of wounds inflicted during the war. [171]  Nevertheless, after his death, he became an icon used by promoters of "Lost Cause" mythology, who sought to romanticize the Confederate cause and strengthen white supremacy in the South. [171]  Later in the 20th century, particularly following the civil rights movement, historians reassessed Lee; his reputation fell based on his failure to support rights for freedmen after the war, and even his strategic choices as a military leader fell under scrutiny. [88]   [172] 
      Facade view of Arlington House, the Robert E. Lee Memorial — at Arlington National Cemetery, in Virginia, pictured in 2006  
 Arlington House, The Robert E. Lee Memorial, also known as the Custis–Lee Mansion, [173]  is a Greek revival mansion in Arlington, Virginia, that was once Lee's home. It overlooks the Potomac River and the National Mall in Washington, D.C. During the Civil War, the grounds of the mansion were selected as the site of Arlington National Cemetery, in part to ensure that Lee would never again be able to return to his home. The United States designated the mansion as a National Memorial to Lee in 1955, a mark of widespread respect for him in both the North and South. [174] 
      Unveiling of the Equestrian Statue of Robert E. Lee, May 29, 1890, Richmond, Virginia  
In Richmond, Virginia, a large equestrian statue of Lee by French sculptor Jean Antonin Mercié was the centerpiece of Monument Avenue, along with four other statues of Confederates. This monument to Lee was unveiled on May 29, 1890; over 100,000 people attended this dedication. That has been described as "the day white Virginia stopped admiring Gen. Robert E. Lee and started worshiping him". [175]  The four other Confederate statues were removed in 2020, and the equestrian statue of Lee was removed on September 8, 2021 at the direction of the state government. [176] 
 Lee is also shown mounted on Traveller in Gettysburg National Military Park on top of the Virginia Monument; he is facing roughly in the direction of Pickett's Charge. Lee's portrayal on a mural on Richmond's flood wall on the James River, considered offensive by some, was removed in the late 1990s, but currently is back on the flood wall.
 In Baltimore's Wyman Park, a large double equestrian statue of Lee and Jackson is located directly across from the Baltimore Museum of Art. Designed by Laura Gardin Fraser and dedicated in 1948, Lee is depicted astride his horse Traveller next to Stonewall Jackson who is mounted on "Little Sorrel." Architect John Russell Pope created the base, which was dedicated on the anniversary of the eve of the Battle of Chancellorsville. [177]  The Baltimore area of Maryland is also home to a large nature park called Robert E. Lee Memorial Park.
     
A statue of Robert E. Lee was one of the two statues (the other is George Washington) representing Virginia in Statuary Hall in the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C. It was removed from the Capitol on December 21, 2020, after a state commission voted to replace it with a statue of Civil Rights activist Barbara Rose Johns. [178]  Lee is one of the figures depicted in bas-relief carved into Stone Mountain near Atlanta. Accompanying him on horseback in the relief are Stonewall Jackson and Jefferson Davis. [179] 
 The birthday of Robert E. Lee is celebrated or commemorated in several states. In Texas, he is celebrated as part of Confederate Heroes Day on January 19, Lee's birthday. [180]  In Alabama and Mississippi, his birthday is celebrated on the same day as Martin Luther King, Jr. Day, [181]   [182]  while in Georgia, this occurred on the day after Thanksgiving before 2016, when the state stopped officially recognizing the holiday. [183]   [184]  In Virginia, Lee–Jackson Day was celebrated on the Friday preceding Martin Luther King, Jr. Day which is the third Monday in January, [185]  until 2020, when the Virginia legislature eliminated the holiday, making Election Day a state holiday instead. [186] 
 One United States college and one junior college are named for Lee: Washington and Lee University in Lexington, Virginia; and Lee College in Baytown, Texas, respectively. University Chapel at Washington and Lee University marks Lee's final resting place. Throughout the South, many primary and secondary schools were also named for him as well as private schools such as Robert E. Lee Academy in Bishopville, South Carolina.
 Lee is featured on the 1925 Stone Mountain Memorial half dollar.
	       
	       
	       
	 
	 
	       
     
In 1862, the newly formed Confederate Navy purchased a 642-ton iron-hulled side-wheel gunboat, built in at Glasgow, Scotland, and gave her the name of CSS Robert E. Lee  in honor of this Confederate General. During the next year, she became one of the South's most famous Confederate blockade runners, successfully making more than twenty runs through the Union blockade. [187] 
 The Mississippi River steamboat  Robert E. Lee  was named for Lee after the Civil War. It was the participant in an 1870 St. Louis – New Orleans race with the Natchez VI, which was featured in a Currier and Ives lithograph. The Robert E. Lee won the race. [188]  The steamboat inspired the 1912 song Waiting for the Robert E. Lee by Lewis F. Muir and L. Wolfe Gilbert. [189]  In more modern times, the USS Robert E. Lee , a   George Washington-class submarine built in 1958, was named for Lee, [190]  as was the M3 Lee tank, produced in 1941 and 1942.
 The Commonwealth of Virginia issues an optional license plate honoring Lee, making reference to him as 'The Virginia Gentleman'. [191]  In February 2014, a road at Fort Bliss previously named for Lee was renamed to honor Buffalo Soldiers. [192]   [193] 
 A recent biographer, Jonathan Horn, outlines the unsuccessful efforts in Washington to memorialize Lee in the naming of the Arlington Memorial Bridge after both Grant and Lee. [194] 
Unite the Right rally
      The removal of Lee's statue from a monument in New Orleans  
In February 2017, the City Council of Charlottesville, Virginia, voted to remove a sculpture of Lee, who has no historical link to the city, as well as one of Stonewall Jackson. This was temporarily stayed by court action, though the city did rename Lee Park: first to Emancipation Park, then later to Market Street Park. [195]  The prospect of the statues being removed and the parks being renamed brought many out-of-towners, described as white supremacist and alt-right, to Charlottesville in the Unite the Right rally of August 2017, in which 3 people died. As of July 2021, the statue has been permanently removed.
     
Several other statues and monuments to Lee were removed in the aftermath of the incident, including:
 A 60-foot (18 m)-tall monument in the center of Lee Circle (formerly Tivoli Circle) in New Orleans. Installed in 1884, it featured a 16.5-foot (5.0 m) bronze statue of Lee on a marble column. Former Confederate soldier George Washington Cable described it in a tribute: "His arms are folded on that breast that never knew fear, and his calm, dauntless gaze meets the morning sun as it rises." [196]  The statue was removed on May 19, 2017, the last of four Confederate monuments in New Orleans to be taken down. [197]  
A stained-glass window in the Washington National Cathedral, showing Lee on horseback at Chancellorsville, as well as one in honor of Stonewall Jackson. [198]  Sponsored by the United Daughters of the Confederacy, they were installed in 1953 and removed in September 2017. [199]  The cathedral plans to keep the windows and eventually display them in historical context. [198]  
A bust of Lee in the Hall of Fame for Great Americans (the first Hall of Fame in the United States, completed 1900), in what is now Bronx Community College. [200]   [201]  
 A bronze statue of Lee which had been on display at the University of Texas at Austin, [202]   [203]  and another, with his horse Traveller, in Robert E. Lee Park in Dallas. [204]   
Biographies
 Douglas Southall Freeman's Pulitzer prize-winning four-volume R. E. Lee: A Biography (1936), which was for a long period considered the definitive work on Lee, downplayed his involvement in slavery and emphasized Lee as a virtuous person. Eric Foner, who describes Freeman's volume as a "hagiography", notes that on the whole, Freeman "displayed little interest in Lee's relationship to slavery. The index to his four volumes contained 22 entries for 'devotion to duty', 19 for 'kindness', 53 for Lee's celebrated horse, Traveller. But 'slavery', 'slave emancipation' and 'slave insurrection' together received five. Freeman observed, without offering details, that slavery in Virginia represented the system 'at its best'. He ignored the postwar testimony of Lee's former slave Wesley Norris about the brutal treatment to which he had been subjected." [88] 
 More recent biographies offer a broader variety of perspectives. Thomas L. Connelly’s The Marble Man: Robert E. Lee and His Image in American Society (1977) was an iconoclastic revision of Lee's mythical status in the South. Robert E. Lee: A Biography (1995) by Emory M. Thomas attempted a "post-revisionist" compromise between the traditional and more recent views. [205]  Robert E. Lee: A Life (2021) by Allen C. Guelzo focuses on a study of Lee's character. [206] 
Dates of rank
 
Rank
Date
Unit
Component
 
   Second Lieutenant 
July 1, 1829 [207]  
 Corps of Engineers 
 United States Army
 
   First Lieutenant 
September 21, 1836 [208]  
 Corps of Engineers 
 United States Army
 
   Captain 
August 7, 1838 [208]  
 Corps of Engineers 
 United States Army
 
   Brevet Major §
April 18, 1847 [208]  
 Corps of Engineers 
 United States Army
 
   Brevet Lieutenant Colonel †
August 20, 1847 [208]  
 Corps of Engineers 
 United States Army
 
   Brevet Colonel ‡
September 13, 1847 [209]  
 Corps of Engineers 
 United States Army
 
   Lieutenant Colonel 
March 3, 1855 [209]  
 2nd Cavalry Regiment 
 United States Army
 
   Colonel 
March 16, 1861 [209]  
 1st Cavalry Regiment 
 United States Army
 
   Major General  [a]  
April 22, 1861 [210]  
 
 Provisional Army of Virginia
 
   Brigadier General 
May 14, 1861 [211]  
 
 Confederate States Army
 
    [b]  General 
June 14, 1861 [212]  
 
 Confederate States Army
 
 
 § Breveted for conduct in the Battle of Cerro Gordo 
† Breveted for conduct in Battles of Contreras and Churubusco 
‡ Breveted for conduct in Battle of Chapultepec  
In popular culture
Lee is a main character in the Shaara Family novels  The Killer Angels  (1974),  Gods and Generals  (1996), and  The Last Full Measure  (2000), as well as the film adaptations of  Gettysburg  (1993) and  Gods and Generals  (2003). He is played by Martin Sheen in the former and by Lee's descendant Robert Duvall in the latter. Lee is portrayed as a hero in the historical children's novel  Lee and Grant at Appomattox  (1950) by MacKinlay Kantor. His part in the Civil War is told from the perspective of his horse in Richard Adams's book  Traveller  (1988).
 Lee is an obvious subject for American Civil War alternate histories. Ward Moore's  Bring the Jubilee  (1953), MacKinlay Kantor's  If the South Had Won the Civil War  (1960), and Harry Turtledove's  The Guns of the South  (1992), all have Lee ending up as president of a victorious Confederacy and freeing the slaves (or laying the groundwork for the slaves to be freed in a later decade). Although Moore and Kantor's novels relegate him to a set of passing references, Lee is more of a main character in Turtledove's Guns. He is also the prime character of Turtledove's "Lee at the Alamo". [213]  Turtledove's "War Between the Provinces" series is an allegory of the Civil War told in the language of fairy tales, with Lee appearing as a knight named "Duke Edward of Arlington". Lee is also a knight in "The Charge of Lee's Brigade" in Alternate Generals volume 1, written by Turtledove's friend S. M. Stirling and featuring Lee, whose Virginia is still a loyal British colony, fighting for the Crown against the Russians in Crimea. In Lee Allred's "East of Appomattox" in  Alternate Generals  volume 3, Lee is the Confederate Minister to London circa 1868, desperately seeking help for a CSA which has turned out poorly suited to independence. Robert Skimin's  Grey Victory  features Lee as a supporting character preparing to run for the presidency in 1867.
 In Connie Willis' 1987 novel  Lincoln's Dreams , a research assistant meets a young woman who dreams about the Civil War from Robert E. Lee's point of view.
 The Dodge Charger featured in the CBS television series  The Dukes of Hazzard  (1979–1985) was named The General Lee. [214]   [215]  In the 2005 film based on this series, the car is driven past a statue of Lee, while the car's occupants salute him.
See also
  List of American Civil War generals (Confederate) 
 List of memorials to Robert E. Lee 
 Removal of Confederate monuments and memorials  
References
 
  ^  Bunting, Josiah (2004).  Ulysses S. Grant . New York: Time Books. p. 62. ISBN  978-0-8050-6949-5 .
  ^  Jay Luvaas, "Lee and the Operational Art: The Right Place, the Right Time," Parameters: US Army War College, September 1992, Vol. 22#3 pp. 2-18
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^    a       b    Davis 1999, p. 21
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^    a       b    Wesley Norris, interview in National Anti-Slavery Standard (April 14, 1866) 4, reprinted in Blassingame 1977, pp. 467–468
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  ^  Freeman 1934, p. 390
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  ^  Ariel Burriss, "The Fugitive Slaves of Robert E. Lee: From Arlington to Westminster".
  ^  Korda 2014, p. 208
^    a       b       c    Fellman 2000, pp. 73–74
  ^  Cox, R. David. The Religious Life of Robert E. Lee 2017, ISBN 978-0-8028-7482-5, p. 157
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^    a       b       c       d    Serwer, Adam. "The Myth of the Kindly General Lee". The Atlantic. Retrieved August 29, 2017.
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^    a       b     "Myths &amp; Misunderstandings | Lee as a slaveholder". October 4, 2017.
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^    a       b    Fortin, Jacey (August 18, 2017). "What Robert E. Lee Wrote to The Times about Slavery in 1858". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved November 2, 2017.
  ^  Skelton, William B., An American Profession of Arms: the Army Officer Corps, 1784–1861, 1992, p. 285. "Officers developed a conception of the army as an apolitical instrument of public policy. As servants of the nation, they should stand aloof from party and sectional strife" and avoid taking public positions on controversial issues such as slavery.
  ^  Davis, William. Crucible of Command: Ulysses S. Grant and Robert E. Lee (2015), p. 46. "From early manhood Lee held a low opinion of politicians, and believed military men should stay out of politics."
  ^  Fellman 2000, p. 137. In 1863, even before Chancellorsville, Lee began to advance, "for the first time, a political understanding of the war, quite unlike his previous apolitical belief in duty".
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  ^  Pryor, Elizabeth Brown. Reading the Man: A Portrait of Roberty E. Lee, 2008, p. 284. Pryor notes in describing Lee's public silence on controversial sectional issues such as slavery, that the regular army "was an apolitical institution, which discouraged displays of partisan sentiment and muted any parochialism in its officers. At the military academy a cadet was 'taught that he belongs no longer to section or party but, in his life and all his faculties, to his country'."
  ^  Foner, Eric quoted in Fortin, Jacey. "What Robert E. Lee Wrote to the Times About Slavery in 1858", NYT Aug 18, "unlike some white southerners, [Lee] never spoke out against slavery."
  ^  Fellman 2000, pp. 76, 137. "Lee believed in God's time, not man's, and God's disposition, not human politics. So when it came to grappling with the issue of slavery, he could not comprehend why men could not leave well enough alone. ... on major public conflicts, Lee had no active position."
^    a       b       c       d       e       f       g     Foner, Eric (August 28, 2017). "The Making and the Breaking of the Legend of Robert E. Lee". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331.
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^    a       b       c       d       e    Pryor, Elizabeth Brown (April 19, 2011). "The General in His Study". Disunion. Retrieved April 19, 2011.
^    a       b     J. William Jones (1906). "Robert E. Lee to George Washington Custis Lee" (PDF). The Civil War: The First Year Told By Those Who Lived It. The Library of America, 2011. Retrieved November 19, 2016.
^    a       b       c       d       e       f       g       h    Pryor, Elizabeth Brown (2008). "Robert E. Lee's 'Severest Struggle'". American Heritage.
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^    a       b    Goodwin, Doris Kearns (2005).  Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln . New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 350. ISBN  9781416549833 .
  ^  Davis 1999, p. 49
  ^  Fellman 2000, § 6
  ^  Fort Pulaski's masonry was impervious to round shot, but it was penetrated in 30 hours by Parrott rifle guns, much to the surprise of senior commanders of both sides. In the future, Confederate breastworks defending coastal areas were successfully protected against rifle-fired explosive projectiles with banks of dirt and sand such as at Fort McAllister. Later, holding the city of Savannah would allow two additional attempts at breaking the Union blockade with ironclads  CSS Atlanta  (1862) and  CSS Savannah  (1863).
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  ^  McPherson 2008, p. 108
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^    a       b       c    Fellman 2000, pp. 124–125
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  ^  Stephen W. Sears, "'We Should Assume the Aggressive': Origins of the Gettysburg Campaign," North and South: The Official Magazine of the Civil War Society, March 2002, Vol. 5#4 pp. 58–66; Donald Stoker, The Grand Design: Strategy and the U.S. Civil War (2010) p. 295 says that "attacking Grant would have been the wiser choice" for Lee.
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  ^  Nolan 1991, pp. 21–22
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  ^  McPherson 2003, p.470
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  ^  The Lost Indictment of Robert E. Lee: The Forgotten Case against an American Icon on YouTube, lecture given by historian John Reeves at the U.S. National Archives and Records Administration on June 13, 2018
  ^  In December 1882, the U.S. Supreme Court returned the property to Lee's son because it had been confiscated without due process of law. In 1883, the government paid the Lee family US$150,000 (equivalent to $4,362,321 in 2021).  "Arlington House, The Robert E. Lee Memorial". Arlington National Cemetery. (Official website). Retrieved May 20, 2008.
  ^  Serwer, Adam (June 2017). "The Myth of the Kindly General Lee". The Atlantic. Retrieved August 27, 2017.
  ^  Fellman 2000, pp. 265–94
  ^  Thomas 1997, pp. 380–92
  ^  Fellman 2000, p. 268
  ^  Thomas 1997, pp. 391–92, 416
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  ^  Freeman 1934, p. 526
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^    a       b       c       d    Cullum 1891, p. 420
^    a       b       c    Cullum 1891, p. 421
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  ^  Eicher 2001, p. 807
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Notes
 
  ^  During his brief tenure as commander of Virginia forces, Robert E. Lee was authorized to wear the insignia of a Major General on the blue Union Army jacket, but continued to wear his U.S. Army Colonel's uniform until the start of 1862. By this time he began wearing the familiar grey Confederate Army coat with Colonel insignia, signifying the last rank he held in the U.S. Army.
  ^  Throughout the Civil War, with only a handful of exceptions, Robert E. Lee wore the insignia of a Confederate colonel, although he held the rank of full general. Lee would later state that he wore a colonel's insignia in homage to his original United States Army rank, which he considered to be the last permanent rank he had legally held. Lee also reportedly disliked the heavy braid and raised collar of the standard Confederate general's uniform.
 
Bibliography
   Blassingame, John W. (1977). Slave Testimony: Two Centuries of Letters, Speeches, Interviews, and Autobiographies. Louisiana State University Press. ISBN  978-0-8071-0273-2 . 
  Davis, William C. (1999).  The Commanders of the Civil War . London: Salamander Books Ltd. ISBN  978-1-84065-105-8 . 
  Fellman, Michael (2000).  The Making of Robert E. Lee . Random House. ISBN  978-0-679-45650-6 . 
  Freeman, Douglas S. (1934).  R. E. Lee, A Biography . Charles Scribner's Sons. 
  Korda, Michael (2014).  Clouds of Glory: The Life and Legend of Robert E. Lee . HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN  978-0-06-211629-1 . 
 Lee, Edmund Jennings (1983). Lee of Virginia 1642–1892. Genealogical Publishing Company. ISBN  978-0-8063-0604-9 . 
 McCaslin, Richard B. (2001).  Lee In the Shadow of Washington . LSU Press. ISBN  978-0-807-12959-3 . 
  McPherson, James M. (2003). Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era. Oxford University Press. ISBN  978-0-1950-3863-7 . 
  McPherson, James M. (2008).  Tried by War: Abraham Lincoln as Commander in Chief . Penguin Press. ISBN  978-1-4406-5245-5 . 
 Nolan, Alan T. (1991).  Lee Considered: General Robert E. Lee and Civil War History . University of North Carolina Press. ISBN  978-0-8078-4587-5 . 
  Pryor, Elizabeth Brown (2007).  Reading the Man: A Portrait of Robert E. Lee Through His Private Letters . Viking Press. ISBN  978-0-6700-3829-9 . 
  Thomas, Emory M. (1997).  Robert E. Lee . W. W. Norton &amp; Co. ISBN  978-0-393-31631-5 .  
Historiography
 Foner, Eric. "The Making and the Breaking of the Legend of Robert E. Lee",  New York Times Aug 28, 2017  
Further reading
  Adam, Graeme Mercer (1905).  The Life of General Robert E. Lee . New York: A. L. Burt. 
 Connelly, Thomas L. (June 1969). "Robert E. Lee and the Western Confederacy: A Criticism of Lee's Strategic Ability". Civil War History. 15 (2): 116–32. doi:10.1353/cwh.1969.0030. 
 Cox, David R. (2017).  The Religious Life of Robert E. Lee . Grand Rapids, Mi.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.  
 Guelzo, Allen C. (2021). Robert E. Lee: A Life. New York: Knopf. ISBN 978-1101946220 
 McCabe, James Dabney (1870).  Life and Campaigns of General Robert E. Lee . Atlanta, Ga. &amp; Philadelphia, Pa.: National publishing Company. 
 McGuire, Judith W. (1873).  General Robert E. Lee, The Christian Soldier . Philadelphia: Claxton, Remsen &amp; Haffelfinger; Richmond: Woodhouse &amp; Parham. 
 Lee, Robert E. (1897). A. L. Long (ed.).  Memoirs of Robert E. Lee: His Military and Personal History . New York &amp; Philadelphia: J. M. Stoddart &amp; Company. 
Reeves, John (2018). The Lost Indictment of Robert E. Lee: The Forgotten Case Against an American Icon. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
 Riley, Franklin L. (1922).  General Robert E. Lee after Appomattox . New York: Macmillan Co. 
  Seidule, Ty (2021). Robert E. Lee and Me: A Southerner's Reckoning with the Myth of the Lost Cause. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN  978-1250239266 .  
External links
  Lee, Robert Edward (2000).  Recollections and Letters of General Robert E. Lee . Project Gutenberg. 
 Biographical article by Stanley L. Klos 
 Obituary of Robert E. Lee, from a Northern point of view. The New York Times; October 13, 1870
  Robert E. Lee  – An  American Experience  documentary
 Letter from Dwight Eisenhower about Lee  
Primary sources
  Original Historical Letters: Lincoln Refuses Lee's Armistice Shapell Manuscript Foundation
 Interactive Animation of the Battle of Gettysburg – A chronicle of the 3-day battle, it also touches on Lee's tactical strategies during the American Civil War.
 Correspondences of Robert E. Lee during the American Civil War – held in the Walter Havighurst Special Collections, Miami University
 Works by Robert E. Lee at Project Gutenberg 
 Works by or about Robert E. Lee at Internet Archive 
 Works by Robert E. Lee at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) 
 Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library, Emory University: Robert E. Lee collection, 1835–1869  
Monuments and memorials
  University Chapel at Washington and Lee University where Robert E. Lee is buried
Robert E. Lee - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_E._Lee
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammurabi
Hammurabi - Wikipedia
2001-12-29
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<table><tbody><tr><th>Hammurabi<br />𒄩𒄠𒈬𒊏𒁉</th></tr><tr><td><i><a href="/wiki/King_of_Babylon">King of Babylon</a><br /><a href="/wiki/King_of_the_Four_Corners_of_the_World">King of the Four Corners of the World</a></i></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg"></a><p>Hammurabi (standing) receiving his royal insignia from <a href="/wiki/Shamash">Shamash</a> (or possibly <a href="/wiki/Marduk">Marduk</a>).<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoux1992between_266–267-1">[1]</a></sup></p></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Babylon">King</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire">Old Babylonian Empire</a></th></tr><tr><th>Reign</th><td><abbr>c.</abbr> 1792 – c. 1750 BC (<a href="/wiki/Middle_chronology">MC</a>)</td></tr><tr><th>Predecessor</th><td><a href="/wiki/Sin-Muballit">Sin-Muballit</a></td></tr><tr><th>Successor</th><td><a href="/wiki/Samsu-iluna">Samsu-iluna</a></td></tr><tr><th></th></tr><tr><th>Born</th><td><abbr>c.</abbr> 1810 BC<br /><a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_Empire">Babylon</a></td></tr><tr><th>Died</th><td><abbr>c.</abbr> 1750 BC (aged <abbr>c.</abbr> 60)<br />Babylon</td></tr><tr><th>Issue</th><td><a href="/wiki/Samsu-iluna">Samsu-iluna</a></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Hammurabi</b> (<a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language">Akkadian</a>: 𒄩𒄠𒈬𒊏𒁉;<sup><a href="#cite_note-3">[a]</a></sup> <abbr>c.</abbr> 1810 – c. 1750 BC) was the sixth <a href="/wiki/Amorites">Amorite</a> king of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire">Old Babylonian Empire</a>, reigning from <abbr>c.</abbr> 1792 to <abbr>c.</abbr> 1750 BC. He was preceded by his father, <a href="/wiki/Sin-Muballit">Sin-Muballit</a>, who abdicated due to failing health. During his reign, he conquered <a href="/wiki/Elam">Elam</a> and the city-states of <a href="/wiki/Larsa">Larsa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eshnunna">Eshnunna</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria">Mari</a>. He ousted <a href="/wiki/Ishme-Dagan_I">Ishme-Dagan I</a>, the king of <a href="/wiki/Assyria">Assyria</a>, and forced his son <a href="/wiki/Mut-Ashkur">Mut-Ashkur</a> to pay tribute, bringing almost all of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> under <a href="/wiki/Babylonia">Babylonian</a> rule.
</p><p>Hammurabi is best known for having issued the <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Hammurabi">Code of Hammurabi</a>, which he claimed to have received from <a href="/wiki/Shamash">Shamash</a>, the Babylonian god of justice. Unlike earlier <a href="/wiki/Sumer">Sumerian</a> law codes, such as the <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Ur-Nammu">Code of Ur-Nammu</a>, which had focused on compensating the victim of the crime, the Law of Hammurabi was one of the first law codes to place greater emphasis on the physical punishment of the perpetrator. It prescribed specific penalties for each crime and is among the first codes to establish the <a href="/wiki/Presumption_of_innocence">presumption of innocence</a>. They were intended to limit what a wronged person was permitted to do in <a href="/wiki/Retributive_justice">retribution</a>. The Code of Hammurabi and the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Moses">Law of Moses</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Torah">Torah</a> contain numerous similarities.
</p><p>Hammurabi was seen by many as a god within his own lifetime. After his death, Hammurabi was revered as a great conqueror who spread civilization and forced all peoples to pay obeisance to <a href="/wiki/Marduk">Marduk</a>, the <a href="/wiki/National_god">national god</a> of the Babylonians. Later, his military accomplishments became de-emphasized and his role as the ideal lawgiver became the primary aspect of his legacy. For later Mesopotamians, Hammurabi's reign became the frame of reference for all events occurring in the distant past. Even after the empire he built collapsed, he was still revered as a model ruler, and many kings across the Near East claimed him as an ancestor. Hammurabi was rediscovered by archaeologists in the late nineteenth century and has since been seen as an important figure in the history of law.
</p>
<h2>Life</h2>
<h3>Background and ascension</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Hammurabi%27s_Babylonia_1.svg"></a></p><div><p>Map showing the Babylonian territory upon Hammurabi's ascension in <abbr>c.</abbr> 1792 BC and upon his death in <abbr>c.</abbr> 1750 BC</p></div></div>
<p>Hammurabi ascended to the throne as the king of a minor kingdom in the midst of a complex <a href="/wiki/Geopolitics">geopolitical</a> situation. Hammurabi was an <a href="/wiki/Amorite">Amorite</a> <a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_dynasty">First Dynasty</a> king of the <a href="/wiki/City-state">city-state</a> of <a href="/wiki/Babylon">Babylon</a>, and inherited the power from his father, <a href="/wiki/Sin-Muballit">Sin-Muballit</a>, in <abbr>c.</abbr> 1792 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop20051-4">[3]</a></sup> Babylon was one of the many largely Amorite ruled city-states that dotted the central and southern Mesopotamian plains and waged war on each other for control of fertile <a href="/wiki/Agriculture">agricultural</a> land.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop20051–2-5">[4]</a></sup> Though many cultures co-existed in Mesopotamia, Babylonian culture gained a degree of prominence among the <a href="/wiki/Literacy">literate</a> classes throughout the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East">Middle East</a> under Hammurabi.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop20053-6">[5]</a></sup> The kings who came before Hammurabi had founded a relatively minor city-state in 1894 BC, which controlled little territory outside of the city itself. Babylon was overshadowed by older, larger, and more powerful kingdoms such as <a href="/wiki/Elam">Elam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assyria">Assyria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isin">Isin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eshnunna">Eshnunna</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Larsa">Larsa</a> for a century or so after its founding. However, his father <a href="/wiki/Sin-Muballit">Sin-Muballit</a> had begun to consolidate rule of a small area of south central Mesopotamia under Babylonian rule and, by the time of his reign, had conquered the minor city-states of <a href="/wiki/Borsippa">Borsippa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)">Kish</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sippar">Sippar</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop20053-6">[5]</a></sup>
</p><p>The powerful kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Eshnunna">Eshnunna</a> controlled the upper Tigris River while <a href="/wiki/Larsa">Larsa</a> controlled the river delta. To the east of Mesopotamia lay the powerful kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Elam">Elam</a>, which regularly invaded and forced tribute upon the small states of southern Mesopotamia. In northern Mesopotamia, the <a href="/wiki/Assyria">Assyrian</a> king <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_I">Shamshi-Adad I</a>, who had already inherited centuries old Assyrian colonies in <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor">Asia Minor</a>, had expanded his territory into the <a href="/wiki/Levant">Levant</a> and central <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop20053–4-7">[6]</a></sup> although his untimely death would somewhat fragment his empire.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop200516-8">[7]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Reign and conquests</h3>
<p>The first few years of Hammurabi's reign were quite peaceful.<sup><a href="#cite_note-9">[8]</a></sup> Hammurabi used his power to undertake a series of public works, including heightening the city walls for defensive purposes, and expanding the temples.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold200543-10">[9]</a></sup> In <abbr>c.</abbr> 1701 BC, the powerful kingdom of Elam, which straddled important trade routes across the <a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a>, invaded the Mesopotamian plain.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop200515–16-11">[10]</a></sup> With allies among the plain states, Elam attacked and destroyed the kingdom of Eshnunna, destroying a number of cities and imposing its rule on portions of the plain for the first time.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop200517-12">[11]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Votive_monument_to_Hammurabi_BM_22454_n01.jpg"></a></p><div><p>A <a href="/wiki/Limestone">limestone</a> votive monument from Sippar, Iraq, dating to <abbr>c.</abbr> 1792 – c. 1750 BC showing King Hammurabi raising his right arm in worship, now held in the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum">British Museum</a></p></div></div>
<p>In order to consolidate its position, Elam tried to start a war between Hammurabi's Babylonian kingdom and the kingdom of Larsa.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop200518-13">[12]</a></sup> Hammurabi and the king of Larsa made an alliance when they discovered this duplicity and were able to crush the Elamites, although Larsa did not contribute greatly to the military effort.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop200518-13">[12]</a></sup> Angered by Larsa's failure to come to his aid, Hammurabi turned on that southern power, thus gaining control of the entirety of the lower Mesopotamian plain by <abbr>c.</abbr> 1763 BC.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop200531-14">[13]</a></sup>
</p><p>As Hammurabi was assisted during the war in the south by his allies from the north such as <a href="/wiki/Yamhad">Yamhad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria">Mari</a>, the absence of soldiers in the north led to unrest.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop200531-14">[13]</a></sup> Continuing his expansion, Hammurabi turned his attention northward, quelling the unrest. Soon after, he destroyed Eshnunna.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop200540–41-15">[14]</a></sup> Next the Babylonian armies conquered the remaining northern states, including Babylon's former ally Mari, although it is possible that the conquest of Mari was a surrender without any actual conflict.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop200554–55,_64–65-16">[15]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold200545-17">[16]</a></sup>
</p><p>Hammurabi entered into a protracted war with <a href="/wiki/Ishme-Dagan_I">Ishme-Dagan I</a> of Assyria for control of Mesopotamia, with both kings making alliances with minor states in order to gain the upper hand. Eventually Hammurabi prevailed, ousting Ishme-Dagan I just before his own death. <a href="/wiki/Mut-Ashkur">Mut-Ashkur</a>, the new king of Assyria, was forced to pay tribute to Hammurabi.<sup><a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a></sup>
</p><p>In just a few years, Hammurabi succeeded in uniting all of Mesopotamia under his rule.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold200545-17">[16]</a></sup> The Assyrian kingdom survived but was forced to pay tribute during his reign, and of the major city-states in the region, only <a href="/wiki/Yamhad">Aleppo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qatna">Qatna</a> to the west in the <a href="/wiki/Levant">Levant</a> maintained their independence.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold200545-17">[16]</a></sup> However, one <a href="/wiki/Stele">stele</a> (stone momument) of Hammurabi has been found as far north as <a href="/wiki/Diyarbekir">Diyarbekir</a>, where he claims the title "King of the Amorites".<sup><a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a></sup>
</p><p>Vast numbers of contract <a href="/wiki/Clay_tablet">tablets</a>, dated to the reigns of Hammurabi and his successors, have been discovered, as well as 55 of his own letters.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreasted2003129-20">[19]</a></sup> These letters give a glimpse into the daily trials of ruling an empire, from dealing with floods and mandating changes to a flawed <a href="/wiki/Calendar">calendar</a>, to taking care of Babylon's massive herds of livestock.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreasted2003129–130-21">[20]</a></sup> Hammurabi died and passed the reins of the empire on to his son <a href="/wiki/Samsu-iluna">Samsu-iluna</a> in <abbr>c.</abbr> 1750 BC, under whose rule the Babylonian empire quickly began to unravel.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold200542-22">[21]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Code of laws</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:P1050763_Louvre_code_Hammurabi_face_rwk.JPG"></a></p></div>
<p>The Code of Hammurabi was a collection of 282 laws dealing with a wide range of issues.<sup><a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a></sup> It is not the earliest surviving law code<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDriverMiles19529-24">[23]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-26">[b]</a></sup> but was proved more influential in world politics and international relations<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreasted2003141-27">[25]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1C4NKp4zgIQCqadulteryinancientSumerpgPA71_71]-28">[26]</a></sup> as instead of focusing on compensating the victim of crime, as in earlier Sumerian law codes, the Code of Hammurabi instead focused on physically punishing the perpetrator.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1C4NKp4zgIQCqadulteryinancientSumerpgPA71_71]-28">[26]</a></sup> It was also one of the first law codes to place restrictions on what a wronged person was allowed to do in <a href="/wiki/Retributive_justice">retribution</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1C4NKp4zgIQCqadulteryinancientSumerpgPA71_71]-28">[26]</a></sup> and one of the earliest examples of the idea of <a href="/wiki/Presumption_of_innocence">presumption of innocence</a>, suggesting that the accused and accuser have the opportunity to provide <a href="/wiki/Evidence">evidence</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-29">[27]</a></sup> The structure of the code is very specific, with each offense receiving a specified punishment. Many offenses resulted in death, disfigurement, or the use of the "<a href="/wiki/Eye_for_an_Eye">Eye for eye, tooth for tooth</a>" (<a href="/wiki/An_eye_for_an_eye">Lex Talionis</a> "Law of Retaliation") philosophy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrince1904606–607-30">[28]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1C4NKp4zgIQCqadulteryinancientSumerpgPA71_71]-28">[26]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Code of Hammurabi was inscribed on a <a href="/wiki/Stele">stele</a> and placed in a public place so that all could see it, although it is thought that few were literate. The stele was later plundered by the Elamites and removed to their capital, <a href="/wiki/Susa">Susa</a>; it was rediscovered there in 1901 in <a href="/wiki/Iran">Iran</a> and is now in the <a href="/wiki/Louvre_Museum">Louvre Museum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Paris">Paris</a>. The code of Hammurabi contains 282 laws, written by <a href="/wiki/Scribe">scribes</a> on 12 tablets.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreasted2003141-27">[25]</a></sup> Unlike earlier laws, it was written in <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language">Akkadian</a>, the daily language of Babylon, and could therefore be read by any literate person in the city. At this time, Akkadian replaced <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language">Sumerian</a>, and Hammurabi began language reforms that would make Akkadian the most common language at this time.<sup><a href="#cite_note-31">[29]</a></sup> A carving at the top of the stele portrays Hammurabi receiving the laws from <a href="/wiki/Shamash">Shamash</a>, the Babylonian god of justice,<sup><a href="#cite_note-32">[30]</a></sup> and the preface states that Hammurabi was chosen by Shamash to bring the laws to the people.<sup><a href="#cite_note-33">[31]</a></sup> 
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Hammurabi_bas-relief_in_the_U.S._House_of_Representatives_chamber.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Bas-relief of Hammurabi in the US Congress</p></div></div>
<p>Because of Hammurabi's reputation as a lawgiver, his depiction can be found law buildings throughout the world. Hammurabi is one of the 23 lawgivers depicted in <a href="/wiki/Marble">marble</a> <a href="/wiki/Bas-relief">bas-reliefs</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol#House_Chamber">chamber</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives">U.S. House of Representatives</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol">United States Capitol</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-34">[32]</a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Frieze">frieze</a> by <a href="/wiki/Adolph_Weinman">Adolph Weinman</a> depicting the "great lawgivers of history", including Hammurabi, is on the south wall of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court_building">U.S. Supreme Court building</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-35">[33]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-36">[34]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Legacy</h2>
<h3>Posthumous commemoration</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Babylonian_tablet_of_Hammurabi.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Tablet of Hammurabi (𒄩𒄠𒈬𒊏𒁉, 4th line from the top), King of Babylon. British Museum.<sup><a href="#cite_note-37">[35]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-38">[36]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-39">[37]</a></sup></p></div></div>
<p>Hammurabi was honored above all other kings of the second millennium BC<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop2005128-40">[38]</a></sup> and he received the unique honor of being declared to be a god within his own lifetime.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop2005127-41">[39]</a></sup> The personal name "Hammurabi-ili" meaning "Hammurabi is my god" became common during and after his reign. In writings from shortly after his death, Hammurabi is commemorated mainly for three achievements: bringing victory in war, bringing peace, and bringing justice.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop2005127-41">[39]</a></sup> Hammurabi's conquests came to be regarded as part of a sacred mission to spread civilization to all nations.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop2005126-42">[40]</a></sup> A stele from Ur glorifies him in his own voice as a mighty ruler who forces evil into submission and compels all peoples to worship <a href="/wiki/Marduk">Marduk</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop2005126–127-43">[41]</a></sup> The stele declares: "The people of Elam, Gutium, Subartu, and Tukrish, whose mountains are distant and whose languages are obscure, I placed into [Marduk's] hand. I myself continued to put straight their confused minds." A later hymn also written in Hammurabi's own voice extols him as a powerful, supernatural force for Marduk:<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop2005126-42">[40]</a></sup>
</p>
<blockquote><p>I am the king, the brace that grasps wrongdoers, that makes people of one mind,<br />
I am the great dragon among kings, who throws their counsel in disarray,<br />
I am the net that is stretched over the enemy,<br />
I am the fear-inspiring, who, when lifting his fierce eyes, gives the disobedient the death sentence,<br />
I am the great net that covers evil intent,<br />
I am the young lion, who breaks nets and scepters,<br />
I am the battle net that catches him who offends me.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop2005126–127-43">[41]</a></sup>
</p></blockquote>
<p>After extolling Hammurabi's military accomplishments, the hymn finally declares: "I am Hammurabi, the king of justice."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop2005127-41">[39]</a></sup> In later commemorations, Hammurabi's role as a great lawgiver came to be emphasized above all his other accomplishments and his military achievements became de-emphasized. Hammurabi's reign became the point of reference for all events in the distant past. A hymn to the goddess <a href="/wiki/Inanna">Ishtar</a>, whose language suggests it was written during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ammi-Saduqa">Ammisaduqa</a>, Hammurabi's fourth successor, declares: "The king who first heard this song as a song of your heroism is Hammurabi. This song for you was composed in his reign. May he be given life forever!"<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop2005128-40">[38]</a></sup> For centuries after his death, Hammurabi's laws continued to be copied by scribes as part of their writing exercises and they were even partially translated into Sumerian.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop2005129-44">[42]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Political legacy</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Babylonian_stele_Louvre_Sb9.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Copy of Hammurabi's stele usurped by <a href="/wiki/Shutruk-Nakhunte">Shutruk-Nahhunte I</a>. The stele was only partially erased and was never re-inscribed.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop2005129–130-45">[43]</a></sup></p></div></div>
<p>During the reign of Hammurabi, Babylon usurped the position of "most holy city" in southern Mesopotamia from its predecessor, <a href="/wiki/Nippur">Nippur</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Schneider-46">[44]</a></sup> Under the rule of Hammurabi's successor <a href="/wiki/Samsu-iluna">Samsu-iluna</a>, the short-lived Babylonian Empire began to collapse. In northern Mesopotamia, both the Amorites and Babylonians were driven from <a href="/wiki/Assyria">Assyria</a> by <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Sin">Puzur-Sin</a> a native <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language">Akkadian</a>-speaking ruler, <abbr>c.</abbr> 1740 BC. Around the same time, native Akkadian speakers threw off Amorite Babylonian rule in the far south of Mesopotamia, creating the <a href="/wiki/Sealand_Dynasty">Sealand Dynasty</a>, in more or less the region of ancient Sumer. Hammurabi's ineffectual successors met with further defeats and loss of territory at the hands of Assyrian kings such as <a href="/wiki/Adasi">Adasi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bel-ibni">Bel-ibni</a>, as well as to the Sealand Dynasty to the south, <a href="/wiki/Elam">Elam</a> to the east, and to the <a href="/wiki/Kassites">Kassites</a> from the northeast. Thus was Babylon quickly reduced to the small and minor state it had once been upon its founding.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoux1992243–246-47">[45]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <i>coup de grace</i> for the Hammurabi's Amorite Dynasty occurred in 1595 BC, when Babylon was sacked and conquered by the powerful <a href="/wiki/Hittite_Empire">Hittite Empire</a>, thereby ending all Amorite political presence in Mesopotamia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeBlois199719-48">[46]</a></sup> However, the Indo-European-speaking Hittites did not remain, turning over Babylon to their <a href="/wiki/Kassites">Kassite</a> allies, a people speaking a <a href="/wiki/Language_isolate">language isolate</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Zagros_mountains">Zagros mountains</a> region. This <a href="/wiki/Kardunia%C5%A1">Kassite Dynasty</a> ruled Babylon for over 400 years and adopted many aspects of the <a href="/wiki/Babylonia">Babylonian</a> <a href="/wiki/Culture">culture</a>, including Hammurabi's code of laws.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeBlois199719-48">[46]</a></sup> Even after the fall of the Amorite Dynasty, however, Hammurabi was still remembered and revered.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop2005129-44">[42]</a></sup> When the Elamite king <a href="/wiki/Shutruk-Nakhunte">Shutruk-Nahhunte I</a> raided Babylon in 1158 BC and carried off many stone monuments, he had most of the inscriptions on these monuments erased and new inscriptions carved into them.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop2005129-44">[42]</a></sup> On the stele containing Hammurabi's laws, however, only four or five columns were wiped out and no new inscription was ever added.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop2005129–130-45">[43]</a></sup> Over a thousand years after Hammurabi's death, the kings of <a href="/wiki/Suhum">Suhu</a>, a land along the Euphrates river, just northwest of Babylon, claimed him as their ancestor.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop2005130-49">[47]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Relationship to Biblical figures and Mosaic law</h3>
<p>In the late nineteenth century, the Code of Hammurabi became a major center of debate in the heated <i>Babel und Bibel</i> ("Babylon and Bible") controversy in Germany over the relationship between the Bible and ancient Babylonian texts.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZiolkowski201225-50">[48]</a></sup> In January 1902, the German Assyriologist <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Delitzsch">Friedrich Delitzsch</a> gave a lecture at the <a href="/wiki/Sing-Akademie_zu_Berlin">Sing-Akademie zu Berlin</a> in front of the <a href="/wiki/Kaiser">Kaiser</a> and his wife, in which he argued that the Mosaic Laws of the Old Testament were directly copied off the Code of Hammurabi.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZiolkowski201223–25-51">[49]</a></sup> Delitzsch's lecture was so controversial that, by September 1903, he had managed to collect 1,350 short articles from newspapers and journals, over 300 longer ones, and twenty-eight pamphlets, all written in response to this lecture, as well as the preceding one about the <a href="/wiki/Gilgamesh_flood_myth">Flood story in the <i>Epic of Gilgamesh</i></a>. These articles were overwhelmingly critical of Delitzsch, though a few were sympathetic. The Kaiser distanced himself from Delitzsch and his radical views and, in fall of 1904, Delitzsch was forced to give his third lecture in <a href="/wiki/Cologne">Cologne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_am_Main">Frankfurt am Main</a> rather than in Berlin.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZiolkowski201225-50">[48]</a></sup> The putative relationship between the Mosaic Law and the Code of Hammurabi later became a major part of Delitzsch's argument in his 1920–21 book <i>Die große Täuschung</i> (<i>The Great Deception</i>) that the Hebrew Bible was irredeemably contaminated by Babylonian influence and that only by eliminating the human Old Testament entirely could Christians finally believe in the true, <a href="/wiki/Aryan">Aryan</a> message of the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament">New Testament</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZiolkowski201223–25-51">[49]</a></sup> In the early twentieth century, many scholars believed that Hammurabi was <a href="/wiki/Amraphel">Amraphel</a>, the King of <a href="/wiki/Shinar">Shinar</a> in the Book of Genesis 14:1.<sup><a href="#cite_note-52">[50]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-53">[51]</a></sup> This view has now been largely rejected,<sup><a href="#cite_note-54">[52]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Granerød2010-55">[53]</a></sup> and Amraphael's existence is not attested in any writings from outside the Bible.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Granerød2010-55">[53]</a></sup>
</p><p>Parallels between this narrative and the giving of the <a href="/wiki/Covenant_Code">Covenant Code</a> to <a href="/wiki/Moses">Moses</a> by <a href="/wiki/Yahweh">Yahweh</a> atop <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Mount_Sinai">Mount Sinai</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Bible">Biblical</a> <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Exodus">Book of Exodus</a> and similarities between the two legal codes suggest a common ancestor in the Semitic background of the two.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Douglas-56">[54]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarton1916406-57">[55]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Unger-58">[56]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Free-59">[57]</a></sup> Nonetheless, fragments of previous law codes have been found and it is unlikely that the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Moses">Mosaic laws</a> were directly inspired by the Code of Hammurabi.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Douglas-56">[54]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarton1916406-57">[55]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Unger-58">[56]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Free-59">[57]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-60">[c]</a></sup> Some scholars have disputed this; David P. Wright argues that the Jewish Covenant Code is "directly, primarily, and throughout" based upon the Laws of Hammurabi.<sup><a href="#cite_note-61">[58]</a></sup> In 2010, a team of archaeologists from <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_University">Hebrew University</a> discovered a cuneiform tablet dating to the eighteenth or seventeenth century BC at <a href="/wiki/Tel_Hazor">Hazor</a> in <a href="/wiki/Israel">Israel</a> containing laws clearly derived from the Code of Hammurabi.<sup><a href="#cite_note-62">[59]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>References</h2>
<h3>Notes</h3>
<div><ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b> Hammurabi, pronounced , is from <i>ʻAmmurāpi</i> ("the kinsman is a healer"), itself from <i>ʻAmmu</i> ("paternal kinsman") and <i>Rāpi</i> ("healer"). The classicist <a href="/wiki/Alan_Millard">Alan Millard</a> insists that <b>Hammurapi</b> is a more correct spelling.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillard2004-2">[2]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b> It is predated by the <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Ur-Nammu">Code of Ur-Nammu</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Laws_of_Eshnunna">Laws of Eshnunna</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Lipit-Ishtar">Code of Lipit-Ishtar</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth199513,_23,_57-25">[24]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b> Barton, a former professor of Semitic languages at the University of Pennsylvania, stated that while there are similarities between the two texts, a study of the entirety of both laws "convinces the student that the laws of the Old Testament are in no essential way dependent upon the Babylonian laws." He states that "such resemblances" arose from "a similarity of antecedents and of general intellectual outlook" between the two cultures, but that "the striking differences show that there was no direct borrowing."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarton1916406-57">[55]</a></sup>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h3>Citations</h3>
<div>
<ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoux1992between_266–267_1-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoux1992">Roux 1992</a>, between 266–267.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillard2004_2-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMillard2004">Millard 2004</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop20051_4-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFVan_De_Mieroop2005">Van De Mieroop 2005</a>, p. 1.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop20051–2_5-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFVan_De_Mieroop2005">Van De Mieroop 2005</a>, pp. 1–2.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop20053_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop20053_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFVan_De_Mieroop2005">Van De Mieroop 2005</a>, p. 3.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop20053–4_7-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFVan_De_Mieroop2005">Van De Mieroop 2005</a>, pp. 3–4.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop200516_8-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFVan_De_Mieroop2005">Van De Mieroop 2005</a>, p. 16.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b> <cite>Adolf, Antony (8 May 2013). <a href="https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Peace/J1kh_7BmkoMC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=hammurabi+peaceful+reign&amp;pg=PT34"><i>Peace: A World History</i></a>. John Wiley &amp; Sons. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-5459-1"><bdi>978-0-7456-5459-1</bdi></a>. <q>An early study claims that 'peace and prosperity prevailed during his reign', though more recent research confines this preponderantly peaceful period to the first two decades Hammurabi ruled.</q></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold200543_10-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFArnold2005">Arnold 2005</a>, p. 43.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop200515–16_11-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFVan_De_Mieroop2005">Van De Mieroop 2005</a>, pp. 15–16.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop200517_12-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFVan_De_Mieroop2005">Van De Mieroop 2005</a>, p. 17.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop200518_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop200518_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFVan_De_Mieroop2005">Van De Mieroop 2005</a>, p. 18.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop200531_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop200531_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFVan_De_Mieroop2005">Van De Mieroop 2005</a>, p. 31.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop200540–41_15-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFVan_De_Mieroop2005">Van De Mieroop 2005</a>, pp. 40–41.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop200554–55,_64–65_16-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFVan_De_Mieroop2005">Van De Mieroop 2005</a>, pp. 54–55, 64–65.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold200545_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold200545_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold200545_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFArnold2005">Arnold 2005</a>, p. 45.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b> <cite>Beck, Roger B.; Black, Linda; Krieger, Larry S.; Naylor, Phillip C.; Shabaka, Dahia Ibo (1999). <a href="https://archive.org/details/mcdougallittellw00beck"><i>World History: Patterns of Interaction</i></a>. Evanston, IL: <a href="/wiki/McDougal_Littell">McDougal Littell</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-395-87274-1"><bdi>978-0-395-87274-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/39762695">39762695</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Albert_Tobias_Clay">Clay, Albert Tobias</a> (1919). <a href="https://archive.org/details/empireofamorites00clayuoft"><i>The Empire of the Amorites</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press">Yale University Press</a>. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/empireofamorites00clayuoft/page/97">97</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreasted2003129_20-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBreasted2003">Breasted 2003</a>, p. 129.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreasted2003129–130_21-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBreasted2003">Breasted 2003</a>, pp. 129–130.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold200542_22-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFArnold2005">Arnold 2005</a>, p. 42.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b> <cite>H. Otto Sommer (1908). <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Laws_of_Hammurabi,_King_of_Babylonia"><i>The Laws of Hammurabi, King of Babylonia</i> </a>. Records of the Past, Volume II, Part III. – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDriverMiles19529_24-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFDriverMiles1952">Driver &amp; Miles (1952)</a>, p. 9.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth199513,_23,_57_25-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoth1995">Roth 1995</a>, pp. 13, 23, 57.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreasted2003141_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreasted2003141_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFBreasted2003">Breasted 2003</a>, p. 141.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBertman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1C4NKp4zgIQCqadulteryinancientSumerpgPA71_71]_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBertman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1C4NKp4zgIQCqadulteryinancientSumerpgPA71_71]_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBertman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1C4NKp4zgIQCqadulteryinancientSumerpgPA71_71]_28-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBertman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1C4NKp4zgIQCqadulteryinancientSumerpgPA71_71]_28-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFBertman2003">Bertman 2003</a>, p. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1C4NKp4zgIQC&amp;q=adultery+in+ancient+Sumer&amp;pg=PA71">71</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b> <i>Victimology: Theories and Applications</i>, <a href="/wiki/Ann_Burgess">Ann Wolbert Burgess</a>, Albert R. Roberts, Cheryl Regehr, <a href="/wiki/Jones_%26_Bartlett_Learning">Jones &amp; Bartlett Learning</a>, 2009, p. 103
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrince1904606–607_30-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPrince1904">Prince 1904</a>, pp. 606–607.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b> <cite>Maher, John C. (2017). <a href="https://www.google.co,/books/edition/Multilingualism/rTPADgAAQBAJ"><i>Multilingualism: A Very Short Introduction</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 108. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-872499-5"><bdi>978-0-19-872499-5</bdi></a>. <q>... Akkadian (Babylonian) replaced Sumerian ... The Code of Hammurabi was written in the daily language of Babylon, Akkadian. Hammurabi (<i>c</i>.1810–1750 BC), the sixth king of the First Babylonian Empire, initiated language reforms to make Akkadian the pre-eminent lingua franca of antiquity; inscriptions have been found on stone, silver and clay artefacts.</q></cite> 
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b> <cite>Kleiner, Fred S. (2010). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mBrvazPDFoYC&amp;q=Hammurabi+code+Shamash&amp;pg=PT61"><i>Gardner's Art through the Ages: The Western Perspective</i></a>. Vol. 1 (Thirteenth ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-495-57360-9"><bdi>978-0-495-57360-9</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140617233155/http://books.google.com/books?id=mBrvazPDFoYC">Archived</a> from the original on 17 June 2014. Retrieved 1 November 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/John_Merlin_Powis_Smith">Smith, J. M. Powis</a> (2005). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NNgR7RjfSs0C&amp;q=Hammurabi+code+Shamash&amp;pg=PA12"><i>The Origin and History of Hebrew Law</i></a>. Clark, New Jersey: The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58477-489-1"><bdi>978-1-58477-489-1</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210415124102/https://books.google.com/books?id=NNgR7RjfSs0C&amp;q=Hammurabi+code+Shamash&amp;pg=PA12">Archived</a> from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 1 November 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.aoc.gov/cc/art/lawgivers/hammurabi.cfm">"Hammurabi"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Architect_of_the_Capitol">Architect of the Capitol</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211122140950/https://www.aoc.gov/explore-capitol-campus/art/hammurabi-relief-portrait">Archived</a> from the original on 22 November 2021. Retrieved 19 May 2008.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100601113942/https://www.supremecourt.gov/about/north%26southwalls.pdf">"Courtroom Friezes"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States">Supreme Court of the United States</a>. Archived from <a href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/about/north&amp;southwalls.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 1 June 2010. Retrieved 19 May 2008.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Joan_Biskupic">Biskupic, Joan</a> (11 March 1998). <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/1998/03/11/lawgivers-from-two-friezes-great-figures-of-legal-history-gaze-upon-the-supreme-court-bench/b9372b89-5b94-4fa2-81d9-300ee24913db/">"Lawgivers: From Two Friezes, Great Figures of Legal History Gaze Upon the Supreme Court Bench"</a>. WP Company LLC. The Washington Post. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200818105814/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/1998/03/11/lawgivers-from-two-friezes-great-figures-of-legal-history-gaze-upon-the-supreme-court-bench/b9372b89-5b94-4fa2-81d9-300ee24913db/">Archived</a> from the original on 18 August 2020. Retrieved 28 November 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.etana.org/sites/default/files/coretexts/17083.pdf"><i>Cuneiform Tablets in the British Museum</i></a> (PDF). British Museum. 1905. pp. Plates 44 and 45. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210129221205/http://www.etana.org/sites/default/files/coretexts/17083.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 29 January 2021. Retrieved 14 March 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/E._A._Wallis_Budge">Budge, E. A. Wallis (Ernest Alfred Wallis)</a>; <a href="/wiki/Leonard_William_King">King, L. W. (Leonard William)</a> (1908). <a href="https://archive.org/details/babylonianassyri00britiala"><i>A guide to the Babylonian and Assyrian antiquities</i></a>. London : Printed by the order of the Trustees. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/babylonianassyri00britiala/page/147">147</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b> For full transcription: <cite><a href="https://cdli.ucla.edu/search/archival_view.php?ObjectID=P365476">"CDLI-Archival View"</a>. <i>cdli.ucla.edu</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211104175904/https://cdli.ucla.edu/search/archival_view.php?ObjectID=P365476">Archived</a> from the original on 4 November 2021. Retrieved 4 November 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop2005128_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop2005128_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFVan_De_Mieroop2005">Van De Mieroop 2005</a>, p. 128.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop2005127_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop2005127_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop2005127_41-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFVan_De_Mieroop2005">Van De Mieroop 2005</a>, p. 127.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop2005126_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop2005126_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFVan_De_Mieroop2005">Van De Mieroop 2005</a>, p. 126.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop2005126–127_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop2005126–127_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFVan_De_Mieroop2005">Van De Mieroop 2005</a>, pp. 126–127.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop2005129_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop2005129_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop2005129_44-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFVan_De_Mieroop2005">Van De Mieroop 2005</a>, p. 129.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop2005129–130_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop2005129–130_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFVan_De_Mieroop2005">Van De Mieroop 2005</a>, pp. 129–130.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schneider_46-0">^</a></b> <cite>Schneider, Tammi J. (2011), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2HfU9gv0fXYC&amp;q=Iconography+of+Enlil&amp;pg=PA58"><i>An Introduction to Ancient Mesopotamian Religion</i></a>, Grand Rapids, Michigan: <a href="/wiki/William_B._Eerdmans_Publishing_Company">William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company</a>, pp. 58–59, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2959-7"><bdi>978-0-8028-2959-7</bdi></a>, <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211112192643/https://books.google.com/books?id=2HfU9gv0fXYC&amp;q=Iconography+of+Enlil&amp;pg=PA58">archived</a> from the original on 12 November 2021, retrieved 1 November 2020</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoux1992243–246_47-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoux1992">Roux 1992</a>, pp. 243–246.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeBlois199719_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeBlois199719_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFDeBlois1997">DeBlois 1997</a>, p. 19.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop2005130_49-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFVan_De_Mieroop2005">Van De Mieroop 2005</a>, p. 130.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiolkowski201225_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiolkowski201225_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFZiolkowski2012">Ziolkowski 2012</a>, p. 25.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiolkowski201223–25_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiolkowski201223–25_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFZiolkowski2012">Ziolkowski 2012</a>, pp. 23–25.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b> <cite>Rogers, Robert W.; <a href="/wiki/Kaufmann_Kohler">Kohler, Kaufmann</a>; <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Jastrow">Jastrow, Marcus</a>. <a href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/1440-amraphel">"Amraphel"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Encyclopedia">The Jewish Encyclopedia</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211122081627/https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/1440-amraphel">Archived</a> from the original on 22 November 2021. Retrieved 24 November 2012.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%2014&amp;version=NIV">"Bible Gateway passage: Genesis 14 - New International Version"</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211120171947/https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%2014&amp;version=NIV">Archived</a> from the original on 20 November 2021. Retrieved 24 November 2012.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b> <cite>North, Robert (1993). "Abraham". In Metzger, Bruce M.; Coogan, Michael D. (eds.). <a href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195046458/page/5"><i>The Oxford Companion to the Bible</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195046458/page/5">5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-504645-8"><bdi>978-0-19-504645-8</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Granerød2010_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Granerød2010_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Granerød, Gard (26 March 2010). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m5mlvNPexSEC&amp;pg=PA114"><i>Abraham and Melchizedek: Scribal Activity of Second Temple Times in Genesis 14 and Psalm 110</i></a>. Berlin, Germany: Walter de Gruyter. p. 120. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-022346-0"><bdi>978-3-11-022346-0</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Douglas_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Douglas_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Douglas, J. D.; <a href="/wiki/Merrill_C._Tenney">Tenney, Merrill C.</a> (2011). <i>Zondervan Illustrated Bible Dictionary</i>. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan. p. 1323. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-310-22983-4"><bdi>978-0-310-22983-4</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarton1916406_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarton1916406_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarton1916406_57-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFBarton1916">Barton 1916</a>, p. 406.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Unger_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Unger_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="/wiki/Merrill_Unger">Unger, M.F.</a>: <i>Archaeology and the Old Testament</i>. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing Co., 1954, pp. 156–157
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Free_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Free_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Free, J.P.: <i>Archaeology and Biblical History</i>. Wheaton: Scripture Press, 1950, 1969, p. 121
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/David_P._Wright">Wright, David P.</a> (2009). <a href="https://archive.org/details/inventinggodslaw00wrig"><i>Inventing God's Law: How the Covenant Code of the Bible Used and Revised the Laws of Hammurabi</i></a>. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. <a href="https://archive.org/details/inventinggodslaw00wrig/page/n17">3</a> and passim. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530475-6"><bdi>978-0-19-530475-6</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/138788">"Tablet Discovered by Hebrew U Matches Code of Hammurabi"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Beit_El">Beit El</a>: HolyLand Holdings, Ltd. <a href="/wiki/Arutz_Sheva">Arutz Sheva</a>. 26 June 2010. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210902083946/https://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/138788">Archived</a> from the original on 2 September 2021. Retrieved 22 November 2017.</cite>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h3>Sources</h3>
<div>
<ul><li><cite>Arnold, Bill T. (2005). <i>Who Were the Babylonians?</i>. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-13071-5"><bdi>978-90-04-13071-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/225281611">225281611</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/George_Aaron_Barton">Barton, George A.</a> (1916). <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/43070/43070-h/43070-h.htm"><i>Archæology and the Bible</i></a>. Philadelphia: <a href="/wiki/InFaith">American Sunday-School Union</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/38608139">38608139</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Bertman, Stephen (2003). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1C4NKp4zgIQC"><i>Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia</i></a>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518364-1"><bdi>978-0-19-518364-1</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414103757/https://books.google.com/books?id=1C4NKp4zgIQC">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 1 November 2020.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Breasted, James Henry (2003). <i>Ancient Time or a History of the Early World, Part 1</i>. Kessinger Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7661-4946-5"><bdi>978-0-7661-4946-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/69651827">69651827</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>DeBlois, Lukas (1997). <i>An Introduction to the Ancient World</i>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-12773-8"><bdi>978-0-415-12773-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/231710353">231710353</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Godfrey_Rolles_Driver">Driver, Godfrey R.</a>; Miles, John C. (1952). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lPFJAwAAQBAJ"><i>The Babylonian Laws: Edited with Translation and Commentary</i></a>. Vol. 1: Legal Commentary. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Clarendon_Press">Clarendon Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55635-229-4"><bdi>978-1-55635-229-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/493362814">493362814</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Alan_Millard">Millard, Alan</a> (2004) [1993]. <a href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780195046458.001.0001/acref-9780195046458-e-0309">"Hammurapi"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Bruce_M._Metzger">Metzger, Bruce M.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Michael_Coogan">Coogan, Michael D.</a> (eds.). <i>The Oxford Companion to the Bible</i>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-504645-8"><bdi>978-0-19-504645-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Prince, J. Dyneley (1904). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F478479">"The Code of Hammurabi"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Journal_of_Theology">The American Journal of Theology</a></i>. <b>8</b> (3): 601–609. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F478479">10.1086/478479</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/3153895">3153895</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Roth, Martha T. (1995). <a href="https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;iel=2;view=toc;idno=heb07775.0001.001"><i>Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor</i></a>. Atlanta: <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Biblical_Literature">Society of Biblical Literature</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7885-0104-3"><bdi>978-0-7885-0104-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Georges_Roux">Roux, Georges</a> (1992) [1864]. <i>Ancient Iraq</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Group">Penguin Group</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-012523-8"><bdi>978-0-14-012523-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Van De Mieroop, Marc (2005). <a href="https://archive.org/details/kinghammurabiofb00marc"><i>King Hammurabi of Babylon: A Biography</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Blackwell_Publishing">Blackwell Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2660-1"><bdi>978-1-4051-2660-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/255676990">255676990</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Ziolkowski, Theodore (2012), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=snz_Wle6zvgC&amp;q=Gilgamesh+epic+controversy&amp;pg=PA28"><i>Gilgamesh among Us: Modern Encounters with the Ancient Epic</i></a>, Ithaca, New York and London, England: Cornell University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-5035-8"><bdi>978-0-8014-5035-8</bdi></a>, <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211009130250/https://books.google.com/books?id=snz_Wle6zvgC&amp;q=Gilgamesh+epic+controversy&amp;pg=PA28">archived</a> from the original on 9 October 2021, retrieved 1 November 2020</cite></li></ul>
</div>
<h2>External links</h2>
<ul><li><a href="http://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/law-code-hammurabi-king-babylon">A Closer Look at the Code of Hammurabi</a> at the Louvre museum</li>
<li><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/7173">Works by Hammurabi</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li>
<li><a href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Hammurabi%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Hammurabi%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Hammurabi%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Hammurabi%22%29%20OR%20%28%221810-1750%22%20AND%20Hammurabi%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Hammurabi</a> at <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive">Internet Archive</a></li></ul>
<table>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Regnal titles
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>Preceded by<div><p><a href="/wiki/Sin-muballit">Sin-muballit</a></p></div>
</td>
<td><b> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Babylon">Kings of Babylon</a> </b><br /><abbr>c.</abbr> 1792 – c. 1750 BC (<a href="/wiki/Middle_chronology">MC</a>)
</td>
<td>Succeeded by<div><p><a href="/wiki/Samsu-iluna">Samsu-iluna</a></p></div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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 Contents

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 * (Top)
 * 1 Life
 + 1.1 Background and ascension
 + 1.2 Reign and conquests
 * 2 Code of laws
 * 3 Legacy
 + 3.1 Posthumous commemoration
 + 3.2 Political legacy
 + 3.3 Relationship to Biblical figures and Mosaic law
 * 4 References
 + 4.1 Notes
 + 4.2 Citations
 + 4.3 Sources
 * 5 External links
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 Hammurabi

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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 For other uses, see Hammurabi (disambiguation) . "Hamurabi" redirects here. For the video game, see Hamurabi (video game) .

 Hammurabi  
 𒄩𒄠𒈬𒊏𒁉  
 King of Babylon  
 King of the Four Corners of the World 
 Hammurabi (standing) receiving his royal insignia from Shamash (or possibly Marduk).[1]
 King of the Old Babylonian Empire 
 Reign  c. 1792 – c. 1750 BC (MC)
 Predecessor  Sin-Muballit 
 Successor  Samsu-iluna 
  
 Born  c. 1810 BC 
  Babylon 
 Died  c. 1750 BC (aged c. 60 ) 
  Babylon 
 Issue  Samsu-iluna 
 

 Hammurabi (Akkadian: 𒄩𒄠𒈬𒊏𒁉 ;[a] c. 1810 – c. 1750 BC ) was the sixth Amorite king of the Old Babylonian Empire, reigning from c. 1792 to c. 1750 BC. He was preceded by his father, Sin-Muballit, who abdicated due to failing health. During his reign, he conquered Elam and the city-states of Larsa, Eshnunna, and Mari. He ousted Ishme-Dagan I, the king of Assyria, and forced his son Mut-Ashkur to pay tribute, bringing almost all of Mesopotamia under Babylonian rule.

 Hammurabi is best known for having issued the Code of Hammurabi, which he claimed to have received from Shamash, the Babylonian god of justice. Unlike earlier Sumerian law codes, such as the Code of Ur-Nammu, which had focused on compensating the victim of the crime, the Law of Hammurabi was one of the first law codes to place greater emphasis on the physical punishment of the perpetrator. It prescribed specific penalties for each crime and is among the first codes to establish the presumption of innocence. They were intended to limit what a wronged person was permitted to do in retribution. The Code of Hammurabi and the Law of Moses in the Torah contain numerous similarities.

 Hammurabi was seen by many as a god within his own lifetime. After his death, Hammurabi was revered as a great conqueror who spread civilization and forced all peoples to pay obeisance to Marduk, the national god of the Babylonians. Later, his military accomplishments became de-emphasized and his role as the ideal lawgiver became the primary aspect of his legacy. For later Mesopotamians, Hammurabi's reign became the frame of reference for all events occurring in the distant past. Even after the empire he built collapsed, he was still revered as a model ruler, and many kings across the Near East claimed him as an ancestor. Hammurabi was rediscovered by archaeologists in the late nineteenth century and has since been seen as an important figure in the history of law.

 Life

 Background and ascension

 Map showing the Babylonian territory upon Hammurabi's ascension in c. 1792 BC and upon his death in c. 1750 BC

 Hammurabi ascended to the throne as the king of a minor kingdom in the midst of a complex geopolitical situation. Hammurabi was an Amorite First Dynasty king of the city-state of Babylon, and inherited the power from his father, Sin-Muballit, in c. 1792 BC .[3] Babylon was one of the many largely Amorite ruled city-states that dotted the central and southern Mesopotamian plains and waged war on each other for control of fertile agricultural land.[4] Though many cultures co-existed in Mesopotamia, Babylonian culture gained a degree of prominence among the literate classes throughout the Middle East under Hammurabi.[5] The kings who came before Hammurabi had founded a relatively minor city-state in 1894 BC, which controlled little territory outside of the city itself. Babylon was overshadowed by older, larger, and more powerful kingdoms such as Elam, Assyria, Isin, Eshnunna, and Larsa for a century or so after its founding. However, his father Sin-Muballit had begun to consolidate rule of a small area of south central Mesopotamia under Babylonian rule and, by the time of his reign, had conquered the minor city-states of Borsippa, Kish, and Sippar.[5]

 The powerful kingdom of Eshnunna controlled the upper Tigris River while Larsa controlled the river delta. To the east of Mesopotamia lay the powerful kingdom of Elam, which regularly invaded and forced tribute upon the small states of southern Mesopotamia. In northern Mesopotamia, the Assyrian king Shamshi-Adad I, who had already inherited centuries old Assyrian colonies in Asia Minor, had expanded his territory into the Levant and central Mesopotamia,[6] although his untimely death would somewhat fragment his empire.[7]

 Reign and conquests

 The first few years of Hammurabi's reign were quite peaceful.[8] Hammurabi used his power to undertake a series of public works, including heightening the city walls for defensive purposes, and expanding the temples.[9] In c. 1701 BC , the powerful kingdom of Elam, which straddled important trade routes across the Zagros Mountains, invaded the Mesopotamian plain.[10] With allies among the plain states, Elam attacked and destroyed the kingdom of Eshnunna, destroying a number of cities and imposing its rule on portions of the plain for the first time.[11]

 A limestone votive monument from Sippar, Iraq, dating to c. 1792 – c. 1750 BC showing King Hammurabi raising his right arm in worship, now held in the British Museum

 In order to consolidate its position, Elam tried to start a war between Hammurabi's Babylonian kingdom and the kingdom of Larsa.[12] Hammurabi and the king of Larsa made an alliance when they discovered this duplicity and were able to crush the Elamites, although Larsa did not contribute greatly to the military effort.[12] Angered by Larsa's failure to come to his aid, Hammurabi turned on that southern power, thus gaining control of the entirety of the lower Mesopotamian plain by c. 1763 BC .[13]

 As Hammurabi was assisted during the war in the south by his allies from the north such as Yamhad and Mari, the absence of soldiers in the north led to unrest.[13] Continuing his expansion, Hammurabi turned his attention northward, quelling the unrest. Soon after, he destroyed Eshnunna.[14] Next the Babylonian armies conquered the remaining northern states, including Babylon's former ally Mari, although it is possible that the conquest of Mari was a surrender without any actual conflict.[15][16]

 Hammurabi entered into a protracted war with Ishme-Dagan I of Assyria for control of Mesopotamia, with both kings making alliances with minor states in order to gain the upper hand. Eventually Hammurabi prevailed, ousting Ishme-Dagan I just before his own death. Mut-Ashkur, the new king of Assyria, was forced to pay tribute to Hammurabi.[17]

 In just a few years, Hammurabi succeeded in uniting all of Mesopotamia under his rule.[16] The Assyrian kingdom survived but was forced to pay tribute during his reign, and of the major city-states in the region, only Aleppo and Qatna to the west in the Levant maintained their independence.[16] However, one stele (stone momument) of Hammurabi has been found as far north as Diyarbekir, where he claims the title "King of the Amorites".[18]

 Vast numbers of contract tablets, dated to the reigns of Hammurabi and his successors, have been discovered, as well as 55 of his own letters.[19] These letters give a glimpse into the daily trials of ruling an empire, from dealing with floods and mandating changes to a flawed calendar, to taking care of Babylon's massive herds of livestock.[20] Hammurabi died and passed the reins of the empire on to his son Samsu-iluna in c. 1750 BC , under whose rule the Babylonian empire quickly began to unravel.[21]

 Code of laws

 Main article: Code of Hammurabi
 Code of Hammurabi stele. Louvre Museum, Paris

 The Code of Hammurabi was a collection of 282 laws dealing with a wide range of issues.[22] It is not the earliest surviving law code[23][b] but was proved more influential in world politics and international relations[25][26] as instead of focusing on compensating the victim of crime, as in earlier Sumerian law codes, the Code of Hammurabi instead focused on physically punishing the perpetrator.[26] It was also one of the first law codes to place restrictions on what a wronged person was allowed to do in retribution[26] and one of the earliest examples of the idea of presumption of innocence, suggesting that the accused and accuser have the opportunity to provide evidence.[27] The structure of the code is very specific, with each offense receiving a specified punishment. Many offenses resulted in death, disfigurement, or the use of the "Eye for eye, tooth for tooth" (Lex Talionis "Law of Retaliation") philosophy.[28][26]

 The Code of Hammurabi was inscribed on a stele and placed in a public place so that all could see it, although it is thought that few were literate. The stele was later plundered by the Elamites and removed to their capital, Susa; it was rediscovered there in 1901 in Iran and is now in the Louvre Museum in Paris. The code of Hammurabi contains 282 laws, written by scribes on 12 tablets.[25] Unlike earlier laws, it was written in Akkadian, the daily language of Babylon, and could therefore be read by any literate person in the city. At this time, Akkadian replaced Sumerian, and Hammurabi began language reforms that would make Akkadian the most common language at this time.[29] A carving at the top of the stele portrays Hammurabi receiving the laws from Shamash, the Babylonian god of justice,[30] and the preface states that Hammurabi was chosen by Shamash to bring the laws to the people.[31]

 Bas-relief of Hammurabi in the US Congress

 Because of Hammurabi's reputation as a lawgiver, his depiction can be found law buildings throughout the world. Hammurabi is one of the 23 lawgivers depicted in marble bas-reliefs in the chamber of the U.S. House of Representatives in the United States Capitol.[32] A frieze by Adolph Weinman depicting the "great lawgivers of history", including Hammurabi, is on the south wall of the U.S. Supreme Court building.[33][34]

 Legacy

 Posthumous commemoration

 Tablet of Hammurabi ( 𒄩𒄠𒈬𒊏𒁉 , 4th line from the top), King of Babylon. British Museum.[35][36][37]

 Hammurabi was honored above all other kings of the second millennium BC[38] and he received the unique honor of being declared to be a god within his own lifetime.[39] The personal name "Hammurabi-ili" meaning "Hammurabi is my god" became common during and after his reign. In writings from shortly after his death, Hammurabi is commemorated mainly for three achievements: bringing victory in war, bringing peace, and bringing justice.[39] Hammurabi's conquests came to be regarded as part of a sacred mission to spread civilization to all nations.[40] A stele from Ur glorifies him in his own voice as a mighty ruler who forces evil into submission and compels all peoples to worship Marduk.[41] The stele declares: "The people of Elam, Gutium, Subartu, and Tukrish, whose mountains are distant and whose languages are obscure, I placed into [Marduk's] hand. I myself continued to put straight their confused minds." A later hymn also written in Hammurabi's own voice extols him as a powerful, supernatural force for Marduk:[40]

 I am the king, the brace that grasps wrongdoers, that makes people of one mind,
 I am the great dragon among kings, who throws their counsel in disarray,
 I am the net that is stretched over the enemy,
 I am the fear-inspiring, who, when lifting his fierce eyes, gives the disobedient the death sentence,
 I am the great net that covers evil intent,
 I am the young lion, who breaks nets and scepters,
 I am the battle net that catches him who offends me.[41]

 After extolling Hammurabi's military accomplishments, the hymn finally declares: "I am Hammurabi, the king of justice."[39] In later commemorations, Hammurabi's role as a great lawgiver came to be emphasized above all his other accomplishments and his military achievements became de-emphasized. Hammurabi's reign became the point of reference for all events in the distant past. A hymn to the goddess Ishtar, whose language suggests it was written during the reign of Ammisaduqa, Hammurabi's fourth successor, declares: "The king who first heard this song as a song of your heroism is Hammurabi. This song for you was composed in his reign. May he be given life forever!"[38] For centuries after his death, Hammurabi's laws continued to be copied by scribes as part of their writing exercises and they were even partially translated into Sumerian.[42]

 Political legacy

 Copy of Hammurabi's stele usurped by Shutruk-Nahhunte I. The stele was only partially erased and was never re-inscribed.[43]

 During the reign of Hammurabi, Babylon usurped the position of "most holy city" in southern Mesopotamia from its predecessor, Nippur.[44] Under the rule of Hammurabi's successor Samsu-iluna, the short-lived Babylonian Empire began to collapse. In northern Mesopotamia, both the Amorites and Babylonians were driven from Assyria by Puzur-Sin a native Akkadian-speaking ruler, c. 1740 BC . Around the same time, native Akkadian speakers threw off Amorite Babylonian rule in the far south of Mesopotamia, creating the Sealand Dynasty, in more or less the region of ancient Sumer. Hammurabi's ineffectual successors met with further defeats and loss of territory at the hands of Assyrian kings such as Adasi and Bel-ibni, as well as to the Sealand Dynasty to the south, Elam to the east, and to the Kassites from the northeast. Thus was Babylon quickly reduced to the small and minor state it had once been upon its founding.[45]

 The coup de grace for the Hammurabi's Amorite Dynasty occurred in 1595 BC, when Babylon was sacked and conquered by the powerful Hittite Empire, thereby ending all Amorite political presence in Mesopotamia.[46] However, the Indo-European-speaking Hittites did not remain, turning over Babylon to their Kassite allies, a people speaking a language isolate, from the Zagros mountains region. This Kassite Dynasty ruled Babylon for over 400 years and adopted many aspects of the Babylonian culture, including Hammurabi's code of laws.[46] Even after the fall of the Amorite Dynasty, however, Hammurabi was still remembered and revered.[42] When the Elamite king Shutruk-Nahhunte I raided Babylon in 1158 BC and carried off many stone monuments, he had most of the inscriptions on these monuments erased and new inscriptions carved into them.[42] On the stele containing Hammurabi's laws, however, only four or five columns were wiped out and no new inscription was ever added.[43] Over a thousand years after Hammurabi's death, the kings of Suhu, a land along the Euphrates river, just northwest of Babylon, claimed him as their ancestor.[47]

 Relationship to Biblical figures and Mosaic law

 In the late nineteenth century, the Code of Hammurabi became a major center of debate in the heated Babel und Bibel ("Babylon and Bible") controversy in Germany over the relationship between the Bible and ancient Babylonian texts.[48] In January 1902, the German Assyriologist Friedrich Delitzsch gave a lecture at the Sing-Akademie zu Berlin in front of the Kaiser and his wife, in which he argued that the Mosaic Laws of the Old Testament were directly copied off the Code of Hammurabi.[49] Delitzsch's lecture was so controversial that, by September 1903, he had managed to collect 1,350 short articles from newspapers and journals, over 300 longer ones, and twenty-eight pamphlets, all written in response to this lecture, as well as the preceding one about the Flood story in the Epic of Gilgamesh. These articles were overwhelmingly critical of Delitzsch, though a few were sympathetic. The Kaiser distanced himself from Delitzsch and his radical views and, in fall of 1904, Delitzsch was forced to give his third lecture in Cologne and Frankfurt am Main rather than in Berlin.[48] The putative relationship between the Mosaic Law and the Code of Hammurabi later became a major part of Delitzsch's argument in his 1920–21 book Die große Täuschung (The Great Deception) that the Hebrew Bible was irredeemably contaminated by Babylonian influence and that only by eliminating the human Old Testament entirely could Christians finally believe in the true, Aryan message of the New Testament.[49] In the early twentieth century, many scholars believed that Hammurabi was Amraphel, the King of Shinar in the Book of Genesis 14:1.[50][51] This view has now been largely rejected,[52][53] and Amraphael's existence is not attested in any writings from outside the Bible.[53]

 Parallels between this narrative and the giving of the Covenant Code to Moses by Yahweh atop Mount Sinai in the Biblical Book of Exodus and similarities between the two legal codes suggest a common ancestor in the Semitic background of the two.[54][55][56][57] Nonetheless, fragments of previous law codes have been found and it is unlikely that the Mosaic laws were directly inspired by the Code of Hammurabi.[54][55][56][57][c] Some scholars have disputed this; David P. Wright argues that the Jewish Covenant Code is "directly, primarily, and throughout" based upon the Laws of Hammurabi.[58] In 2010, a team of archaeologists from Hebrew University discovered a cuneiform tablet dating to the eighteenth or seventeenth century BC at Hazor in Israel containing laws clearly derived from the Code of Hammurabi.[59]


 References

 Notes

 1. ^ Hammurabi, pronounced / ˌ x æ m ʊ ˈ r ɑː b i / , is from ʻAmmurāpi ("the kinsman is a healer"), itself from ʻAmmu ("paternal kinsman") and Rāpi ("healer"). The classicist Alan Millard insists that Hammurapi is a more correct spelling. [2]
 2. ^ It is predated by the Code of Ur-Nammu , the Laws of Eshnunna , and the Code of Lipit-Ishtar . [24]
 3. ^ Barton, a former professor of Semitic languages at the University of Pennsylvania, stated that while there are similarities between the two texts, a study of the entirety of both laws "convinces the student that the laws of the Old Testament are in no essential way dependent upon the Babylonian laws." He states that "such resemblances" arose from "a similarity of antecedents and of general intellectual outlook" between the two cultures, but that "the striking differences show that there was no direct borrowing." [55]

 Citations

 1. ^ Roux 1992 , between 266–267.
 2. ^ Millard 2004 .
 3. ^ Van De Mieroop 2005 , p. 1.
 4. ^ Van De Mieroop 2005 , pp. 1–2.
 5. ^ a b Van De Mieroop 2005 , p. 3.
 6. ^ Van De Mieroop 2005 , pp. 3–4.
 7. ^ Van De Mieroop 2005 , p. 16.
 8. ^ Adolf, Antony (8 May 2013). Peace: A World History. John Wiley & Sons. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-7456-5459-1. "An early study claims that 'peace and prosperity prevailed during his reign', though more recent research confines this preponderantly peaceful period to the first two decades Hammurabi ruled."
 9. ^ Arnold 2005 , p. 43.
 10. ^ Van De Mieroop 2005 , pp. 15–16.
 11. ^ Van De Mieroop 2005 , p. 17.
 12. ^ a b Van De Mieroop 2005 , p. 18.
 13. ^ a b Van De Mieroop 2005 , p. 31.
 14. ^ Van De Mieroop 2005 , pp. 40–41.
 15. ^ Van De Mieroop 2005 , pp. 54–55, 64–65.
 16. ^ a b c Arnold 2005 , p. 45.
 17. ^ Beck, Roger B.; Black, Linda; Krieger, Larry S.; Naylor, Phillip C.; Shabaka, Dahia Ibo (1999). World History: Patterns of Interaction. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell. ISBN 978-0-395-87274-1. OCLC 39762695.
 18. ^ Clay, Albert Tobias (1919). The Empire of the Amorites. Yale University Press. p. 97.
 19. ^ Breasted 2003 , p. 129.
 20. ^ Breasted 2003 , pp. 129–130.
 21. ^ Arnold 2005 , p. 42.
 22. ^ H. Otto Sommer (1908). The Laws of Hammurabi, King of Babylonia . Records of the Past, Volume II, Part III. – via Wikisource.
 23. ^ Driver & Miles (1952) , p. 9.
 24. ^ Roth 1995 , pp. 13, 23, 57.
 25. ^ a b Breasted 2003 , p. 141.
 26. ^ a b c d Bertman 2003 , p. 71 .
 27. ^ Victimology: Theories and Applications , Ann Wolbert Burgess , Albert R. Roberts, Cheryl Regehr, Jones & Bartlett Learning , 2009, p. 103
 28. ^ Prince 1904 , pp. 606–607.
 29. ^ Maher, John C. (2017). Multilingualism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-19-872499-5. "... Akkadian (Babylonian) replaced Sumerian ... The Code of Hammurabi was written in the daily language of Babylon, Akkadian. Hammurabi ("c".1810–1750 " BC "), the sixth king of the First Babylonian Empire, initiated language reforms to make Akkadian the pre-eminent lingua franca of antiquity; inscriptions have been found on stone, silver and clay artefacts." {{cite book}} : Check |url= value ( help )
 30. ^ Kleiner, Fred S. (2010). Gardner's Art through the Ages: The Western Perspective. Vol. 1 (Thirteenth ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-495-57360-9. Archived from the original on 17 June 2014 . Retrieved 1 November 2020 .
 31. ^ Smith, J. M. Powis (2005). The Origin and History of Hebrew Law. Clark, New Jersey: The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-58477-489-1. Archived from the original on 15 April 2021 . Retrieved 1 November 2020 .
 32. ^ "Hammurabi". Architect of the Capitol. Archived from the original on 22 November 2021 . Retrieved 19 May 2008 .
 33. ^ "Courtroom Friezes" (PDF) . Supreme Court of the United States. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 June 2010 . Retrieved 19 May 2008 .
 34. ^ Biskupic, Joan (11 March 1998). "Lawgivers: From Two Friezes, Great Figures of Legal History Gaze Upon the Supreme Court Bench". WP Company LLC. The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 18 August 2020 . Retrieved 28 November 2017 .
 35. ^ Cuneiform Tablets in the British Museum (PDF) . British Museum. 1905. pp. Plates 44 and 45. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 January 2021 . Retrieved 14 March 2020 .
 36. ^ Budge, E. A. Wallis (Ernest Alfred Wallis); King, L. W. (Leonard William) (1908). A guide to the Babylonian and Assyrian antiquities. London : Printed by the order of the Trustees. p. 147.
 37. ^ For full transcription: "CDLI-Archival View". cdli.ucla.edu. Archived from the original on 4 November 2021 . Retrieved 4 November 2021 .
 38. ^ a b Van De Mieroop 2005 , p. 128.
 39. ^ a b c Van De Mieroop 2005 , p. 127.
 40. ^ a b Van De Mieroop 2005 , p. 126.
 41. ^ a b Van De Mieroop 2005 , pp. 126–127.
 42. ^ a b c Van De Mieroop 2005 , p. 129.
 43. ^ a b Van De Mieroop 2005 , pp. 129–130.
 44. ^ Schneider, Tammi J. (2011), An Introduction to Ancient Mesopotamian Religion, Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, pp. 58–59, ISBN 978-0-8028-2959-7, archived from the original on 12 November 2021 , retrieved 1 November 2020
 45. ^ Roux 1992 , pp. 243–246.
 46. ^ a b DeBlois 1997 , p. 19.
 47. ^ Van De Mieroop 2005 , p. 130.
 48. ^ a b Ziolkowski 2012 , p. 25.
 49. ^ a b Ziolkowski 2012 , pp. 23–25.
 50. ^ Rogers, Robert W.; Kohler, Kaufmann; Jastrow, Marcus. "Amraphel". The Jewish Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 22 November 2021 . Retrieved 24 November 2012 .
 51. ^ "Bible Gateway passage: Genesis 14 - New International Version". Archived from the original on 20 November 2021 . Retrieved 24 November 2012 .
 52. ^ North, Robert (1993). "Abraham". In Metzger, Bruce M.; Coogan, Michael D. (eds.). The Oxford Companion to the Bible. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-19-504645-8.
 53. ^ a b Granerød, Gard (26 March 2010). Abraham and Melchizedek: Scribal Activity of Second Temple Times in Genesis 14 and Psalm 110. Berlin, Germany: Walter de Gruyter. p. 120. ISBN 978-3-11-022346-0.
 54. ^ a b Douglas, J. D.; Tenney, Merrill C. (2011). Zondervan Illustrated Bible Dictionary. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan. p. 1323. ISBN 978-0-310-22983-4.
 55. ^ a b c Barton 1916 , p. 406.
 56. ^ a b Unger, M.F. : Archaeology and the Old Testament . Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing Co., 1954, pp. 156–157
 57. ^ a b Free, J.P.: Archaeology and Biblical History . Wheaton: Scripture Press, 1950, 1969, p. 121
 58. ^ Wright, David P. (2009). Inventing God's Law: How the Covenant Code of the Bible Used and Revised the Laws of Hammurabi. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 3 and passim. ISBN 978-0-19-530475-6.
 59. ^ "Tablet Discovered by Hebrew U Matches Code of Hammurabi". Beit El: HolyLand Holdings, Ltd. Arutz Sheva. 26 June 2010. Archived from the original on 2 September 2021 . Retrieved 22 November 2017 .

 Sources

 * Arnold, Bill T. (2005). Who Were the Babylonians?. Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-13071-5. OCLC 225281611.
 * Barton, George A. (1916). Archæology and the Bible. Philadelphia: American Sunday-School Union. OCLC 38608139.
 * Bertman, Stephen (2003). Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518364-1. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021 . Retrieved 1 November 2020 .
 * Breasted, James Henry (2003). Ancient Time or a History of the Early World, Part 1. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7661-4946-5. OCLC 69651827.
 * DeBlois, Lukas (1997). An Introduction to the Ancient World. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-12773-8. OCLC 231710353.
 * Driver, Godfrey R.; Miles, John C. (1952). The Babylonian Laws: Edited with Translation and Commentary. Vol. 1: Legal Commentary. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-1-55635-229-4. OCLC 493362814.
 * Millard, Alan (2004) [1993]. "Hammurapi". In Metzger, Bruce M.; Coogan, Michael D. (eds.). The Oxford Companion to the Bible. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504645-8.
 * Prince, J. Dyneley (1904). "The Code of Hammurabi". The American Journal of Theology. 8 (3): 601–609. doi:10.1086/478479. JSTOR 3153895.
 * Roth, Martha T. (1995). Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. ISBN 978-0-7885-0104-3.
 * Roux, Georges (1992) [1864]. Ancient Iraq. London: Penguin Group. ISBN 978-0-14-012523-8.
 * Van De Mieroop, Marc (2005). King Hammurabi of Babylon: A Biography. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-2660-1. OCLC 255676990.
 * Ziolkowski, Theodore (2012), Gilgamesh among Us: Modern Encounters with the Ancient Epic, Ithaca, New York and London, England: Cornell University Press, ISBN 978-0-8014-5035-8, archived from the original on 9 October 2021 , retrieved 1 November 2020

 External links

 * A Closer Look at the Code of Hammurabi at the Louvre museum
 * Works by Hammurabi at Project Gutenberg
 * Works by or about Hammurabi at Internet Archive
 Regnal titles 
 Preceded by Kings of Babylon Succeeded by 
 Sin-muballit c. 1792 – c. 1750 BC (MC) Samsu-iluna
 
 * v 
 * t 
 * e 
 Kings of Babylon 
 * List of kings of Babylon 
 * Royal titles 
 * Kings ( foreign ruler
 Period Dynasty * vassal king 
 * female ♀ ) 
  
 * Sumu-abum 
 * Sumu-la-El 
 * Sabium 
 * Apil-Sin 
 * Sin-Muballit 
 I * Hammurabi 
 * Samsu-iluna 
 * Abi-Eshuh 
 * Ammi-ditana 
 * Ammi-saduqa 
 * Samsu-Ditana 
 Old Babylonian Empire * Ilum-ma-ili 
 (1894–1595 BC) * Itti-ili-nibi 
 * Unknown king (?) 
 * Damqi-ilishu 
 * Ishkibal 
 * Shushushi 
 II * Gulkishar 
 * mDIŠ+U-EN 
 * Peshgaldaramesh 
 * Ayadaragalama 
 * Akurduana 
 * Melamkurkurra 
 * Ea-gamil 
  
 * Gandash 
 * Agum I 
 * Kashtiliash I 
 * Unknown king 
 * Abi-Rattash 
 * Kashtiliash II 
 * Urzigurumash 
 * Agum II 
 * Harba-Shipak 
 * Shipta'ulzi 
 * Unknown king 
 * Burnaburiash I 
 * Ulamburiash 
 * Kashtiliash III 
 * Agum III 
 * Kadashman-Sah 
 * Karaindash 
 * Kadashman-Harbe I 
 Kassite period III * Kurigalzu I 
 (1729–1157 BC) * Kadashman-Enlil I 
 * Burnaburiash II 
 * Kara-hardash 
 * Nazi-Bugash 
 * Kurigalzu II 
 * Nazi-Maruttash 
 * Kadashman-Turgu 
 * Kadashman-Enlil II 
 * Kudur-Enlil 
 * Shagarakti-Shuriash 
 * Kashtiliash IV 
 * Enlil-nadin-shumi 
 * Kadashman-Harbe II 
 * Adad-shuma-iddina 
 * Adad-shuma-usur 
 * Meli-Shipak 
 * Marduk-apla-iddina I 
 * Zababa-shuma-iddin 
 * Enlil-nadin-ahi 
  
 * Marduk-kabit-ahheshu 
 * Itti-Marduk-balatu 
 * Ninurta-nadin-shumi 
 * Nebuchadnezzar I 
 * Enlil-nadin-apli 
 IV * Marduk-nadin-ahhe 
 * Marduk-shapik-zeri 
 * Adad-apla-iddina 
 * Marduk-ahhe-eriba 
 * Marduk-zer-X 
 * Nabu-shum-libur 
 * Simbar-shipak 
 V * Ea-mukin-zeri 
 * Kashshu-nadin-ahi 
 * Eulmash-shakin-shumi 
 VI * Ninurta-kudurri-usur I 
 * Shirikti-shuqamuna 
 Middle Babylonian period VII * Mar-biti-apla-usur 
 (1157–732 BC) * Nabu-mukin-apli 
 * Ninurta-kudurri-usur II 
 * Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina 
 * Shamash-mudammiq 
 * Nabu-shuma-ukin I 
 * Nabu-apla-iddina 
 * Marduk-zakir-shumi I 
 * Marduk-balassu-iqbi 
 VIII * Baba-aha-iddina 
 * Ninurta-apla-X 
 * Marduk-bel-zeri 
 * Marduk-apla-usur 
 * Eriba-Marduk 
 * Nabu-shuma-ishkun 
 * Nabonassar 
 * Nabu-nadin-zeri 
 * Nabu-shuma-ukin II 
  
 * Nabu-mukin-zeri 
 * Tiglath-Pileser III 
 * Shalmaneser V 
 * Marduk-apla-iddina II 
 * Sargon II 
 * Sennacherib 
 * Marduk-zakir-shumi II 
 * Marduk-apla-iddina II 
 * Bel-ibni 
 Neo-Assyrian period * IX * Ashur-nadin-shumi 
 (732–626 BC) * Nergal-ushezib 
 * Mushezib-Marduk 
 * Sennacherib 
 * Esarhaddon 
 * Ashurbanipal 
 * Shamash-shum-ukin 
 * Ashurbanipal 
 * Kandalanu 
 * Sin-shumu-lishir 
 * Sinsharishkun 
  
 * Nabopolassar 
 * Nebuchadnezzar II 
 Neo-Babylonian Empire X * Amel-Marduk 
 (626–539 BC) * Neriglissar 
 * Labashi-Marduk 
 * Nabonidus 
  
  
 Babylon under foreign rule (539 BC – AD 224) 
 * Cyrus II 
 * Cambyses II 
 * Bardiya 
 * Nebuchadnezzar III 
 * Darius I 
 * Nebuchadnezzar IV 
 * Xerxes I 
 * Shamash-eriba 
 Persian period XI * Bel-shimanni 
 (539–331 BC) * Artaxerxes I 
 * Xerxes II 
 * Sogdianus 
 * Darius II 
 * Artaxerxes II 
 * Artaxerxes III 
 * Artaxerxes IV 
 * Nidin-Bel (?) 
 * Darius III 
  
 * Alexander III 
 XII * Philip III Arrhidaeus 
 * Alexander IV 
 * Antigonus I Monophthalmus 
 * Seleucus I Nicator 
 * Antiochus I Soter 
 * Seleucus 
 * Antiochus II Theos 
 * Seleucus II Callinicus 
 * Seleucus III Ceraunus 
 Hellenistic period * Antiochus III Megas 
 (331–141 BC) * Antiochus 
 XIII * Seleucus IV Philopator 
 * Antiochus IV Epiphanes 
 * Antiochus 
 * Antiochus V Eupator 
 * Demetrius I Soter 
 * Timarchus 
 * Demetrius I Soter 
 * Alexander Balas 
 * Demetrius II Nicator 
  
 * Mithridates I 
 * Phraates II 
 * Rinnu♀ 
 * Antiochus VII Sidetes 
 * Phraates II 
 * Ubulna♀ 
 * Hyspaosines 
 * Artabanus I 
 * Mithridates II 
 * Gotarzes I 
 * Asi'abatar♀ 
 * Orodes I 
 * Ispubarza♀ 
 * Sinatruces 
 * Phraates III 
 * Piriustana♀ 
 * Teleuniqe♀ 
 Parthian period XIV * Orodes II 
 (141 BC – AD 224) * Phraates IV 
 * Phraates V 
 * Orodes III 
 * Vonones I 
 * Artabanus II 
 * Vardanes I 
 * Gotarzes II 
 * Vonones II 
 * Vologases I 
 * Pacorus II 
 * Artabanus III 
 * Osroes I 
 * Vologases III 
 * Parthamaspates 
 * Vologases IV 
 * Vologases V 
 * Vologases VI 
 * Artabanus IV 
  
  
  
 Category 
 
 * v                                    
 * t                                    
 * e                                    
 Rulers of the Ancient Near East                                    
 Territories/                               Kish/   Akshak/  
 dates   Egypt         Canaan       Ebla      Mari       Assur   Akkad Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam
 [1][2][3][4][5]                                    
 4000–3200 BCE   Naqada I         Egypt-Mesopotamia relations       Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE)      Susa I            
    Naqada II                                 
                                     
 Uruk period                                    
 (4000-3100 BCE)   Susa II                                 
                                     
    (Uruk influence or control)                                 
 (Anu Ziggurat, 4000 BCE)                                    
                                     
 (Anonymous "King-priests")                                    
    Proto-Dynastic period                                 
 3200–3100 BCE   (Naqada III)                                 
    Early or legendary kings:                                 
 Upper Egypt   Lower Egypt                                 
 Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes  Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash                                
    Early Dynastic Period                     Proto-Elamite            
 3100–2900 BCE   First Dynasty of Egypt         Canaanites       Jemdet Nasr period      period            
                   (3100-2900 BCE)      (Susa III)            
    Narmer Menes Neithhotep♀ (regent) Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ (regent) DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird                    (3100-2700 BCE)            
    Second Dynasty of Egypt                                 
 2900 BCE            Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE)                        
    Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy                               
             Kish I dynasty                        
 First Eblaite            Jushur, Kullassina-bel                        
 Kingdom   First kingdom of Mari         Nangishlishma,                        
             En-tarah-ana                        
             Babum, Puannum, Kalibum                        
 2800 BCE   Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab                                 
    Mashda Arwium Etana         Uruk I dynasty                        
    Balih En-me-nuna         Mesh-ki-ang-gasher                        
    Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna                                 
 Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta")                                    
 2700 BCE   Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE)                                 
             Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku       Lugalbanda                  
             Iltasadum       Dumuzid, the Fisherman                 
 Enmebaragesi ("made the land of Elam submit")[6]                                   
             Old Elamite period                        
 Aga of Kish   Gilgamesh         (2700–1500 BCE)                        
                                     
             Indus-Mesopotamia relations                        
    Third Dynasty of Egypt                                 
                                     
 2600 BCE   Djoser         Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE)                        
                                     
    (First Egyptian pyramids)                                 
    Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni                                 
 Sagisu                               Ur     
 Abur-lim            Kish II dynasty       Ur-Nungal      Lagash       A-Imdugud     
 Agur-lim            (5 kings)       Udulkalama      En-hegal       Ur-Pabilsag     
 Ibbi-Damu            Uhub       Labashum      Lugal-       Meskalamdug     
 Baba-Damu            Mesilim             shaengur       (Queen Puabi)     
                                Akalamdug     
 Enun-dara-anna   Adab                                 
 Mes-he   Nin-kisalsi                                 
 Melamanna   Me-durba                                 
 Lugal-kitun   Lugal-dalu                                 
    Old Kingdom of Egypt                                 
    Fourth Dynasty of Egypt         Ur I dynasty                        
 2575 BCE   Snefru Khufu         Mesannepada                        
             "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk                        
    Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis                                
             Second kingdom of Mari                        
                                     
             Ikun-Shamash                        
             Iku-Shamagan                       Lagash I dynasty 
                                    A'annepada Awan dynasty 
                   Kish III dynasty      Akshak dynasty       Uruk II dynasty    Umma I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Meskiagnun Peli 
 2500 BCE   Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE)                Ku-Baba♀      Unzi       Ensha-   Mug-si  Elulu Tata 
             Ansud             Undalulu       kushanna    Pabilgagaltuku Balulu Ukkutahesh 
             Sa'umu                       Akurgal Hishur 
             Ishtup-Ishar                        
             Ikun-Mari                        
             Iblul-Il                        
             Nizi                        
    Fifth Dynasty of Egypt         Enar-Damu       Ush                  
 2450 BCE            Ishar-Malik       Enakalle                  
    Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas                                
 Elamite invasions   Shushun-                                 
 (3 kings)[6]   tarana                                 
    Napilhush                                 
 2425 BCE   Kun-Damu         Eannatum                        
             (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam)                        
    Adub-Damu         Kish IV dynasty                      Ur-Lumma Enannatum Ur II dynasty 
 2400 BCE   Igrish-Halam         Puzur-Suen       Urur      Lugal-kinishe-dudu       E-iginimpa'e   Il Entemena Nanni Kiku-siwe-tempti 
    Irkab-Damu         Ur-Zababa             Lugal-kisalsi       Meskigal   Gishakidu Enannatum II Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II 
                                   (Queen Bara-irnun) Enentarzi  
    Sixth Dynasty of Egypt         Adab dynasty                        
 2380 BCE   Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah        Lugalannemundu                        
             "King of the four quarters of the world"                        
             Enna-Dagan       Invasion by Mari             Lugalanda     
 2370 BCE   Isar-Damu         Ikun-Ishar       Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[6]     Ukush       Urukagina   Luh-ishan  
             Ishqi-Mari                        
             Puzur-Nirah       Uruk III dynasty                  
 2350 BCE            Ishu-Il       Lugalzagesi                  
             Shu-Sin       (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer)                 
 2340 BCE            Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE)                        
    Akkadian Governors:                                 
 Akkadian Empire   Eshpum                                 
    Ilshu-rabi                                 
 Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu   Epirmupi                                 
    Ili-ishmani                                 
 2250 BCE   Naram-Sin         Lugal-ushumgal                        
             (vassal of the Akkadians)                        
                   Third kingdom of Mari                  
                   (Shakkanakku                  
    First Intermediate Period                dynasty)                  
 2200 BCE   Seventh Dynasty of Egypt         Second Eblaite                        
    Eighth Dynasty of Egypt         Kingdom       Ididish      Shar-Kali-Sharri            
    Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Ibi Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare             Shu-Dagan                  
                   Ishma-Dagan                  
                   (Vassals of the Akkadians)                 
                   Lagash II dynasty                  
                   Puzer-Mama      Hishep-Ratep            
 Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years)   Uruk IV dynasty                Ur-Ningirsu I      Helu            
 Dudu   Ur-nigin                Pirig-me      Khita            
 Shu-turul   Ur-gigir                Lu-Baba      Puzur-Inshushinak            
                   Lu-gula                  
                   Ka-ku                  
 2150 BCE   Ninth Dynasty of Egypt         Ur III period (2150–2000 BCE)                        
    Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut                                 
 Nûr-Mêr   Gutian dynasty                            Ur-Baba     
 Ishtup-Ilum   (21 kings)         Kuda (Uruk)             Umma II dynasty       Gudea     
             Puzur-ili             Lugalannatum            
 Ishgum-Addu   La-erabum         Ur-Utu             (vassal of the Gutians)       Ur-Ningirsu     
 Apil-kin   Si'um                            Ur-gar     
                                Nam-mahani     
                                     
 Tirigan                                    
    Tenth Dynasty of Egypt                                 
 2125 BCE   Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare         Uruk V dynasty                        
             Utu-hengal                        
                                     
             Iddi-ilum                        
             Ili-Ishar       Ur III dynasty                  
 2100 BCE   (Vassals of UR III)         Tura-Dagan       "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad"                 
             Puzur-Ishtar       Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin                 
             (Vassals of Ur III)[7]                        
 2025-1763 BCE   Amorite invasions         Ibbi-Sin       Elamite invasions                  
                   Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty)                 
 Middle Kingdom of Egypt                                    
 Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt                                    
 Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV                                   
    (Amorite Shakkanakkus)         Old Assyria                        
    Hitial-Erra         Puzur-Ashur I                        
 Third Eblaite   Hanun-Dagan         Shalim-ahum       Isin-Larsa period                  
 Kingdom   (...)         Ilu-shuma       (Amorites)      Sukkalmah dynasty            
 (Amorites)            Erishum I       Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu               
 Ibbit-Lim            Ikunum       Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II    Siwe-Palar-Khuppak            
    Lim Dynasty         Sargon I       Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu                
 Immeya Indilimma   of Mari         Puzur-Ashur II                        
    (Amorites)         Naram-Sin                        
    Yaggid-Lim Yahdun-Lim Yasmah-Adad Zimri-Lim (Queen Shibtu)        Erishum II                        
 Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt                                    
 Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀                                   
                         Old Assyria            
                                     
                         (Shamshi-Adad dynasty            
                         1808–1736 BCE)            
                         (Amorites)       First Babylonian dynasty     
             Abraham             Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi     ("Old Babylonian Period")   Second Babylonian dynasty  
    Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt         (Biblical)       Yamhad             (Amorites)   ("Sealand Dynasty")  
 1800–1595 BCE   Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt         Kings of Byblos       (Yamhad dynasty)      (Non-dynastic usurpers       Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana  Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu  
             Kings of Tyre       (Amorites)      1735–1701 BCE)          Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar  
             Kings of Sidon            Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi      Early Kassite rulers   mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama  
                                   Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil  
                         (Adaside dynasty            
                         1700–722 BCE)            
                         Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II       
                                     
 Second Intermediate Period                                    
 Sixteenth                                    
 Dynasty   Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt         Mitanni                        
 Abydos   ("Hyksos")         (1600–1260 BCE)                        
 Dynasty            Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar                        
 Seventeenth   Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi                                 
 Dynasty                                    
                                     
                   Middle Elamite period                  
                                     
    New Kingdom of Egypt                (1500–1100 BCE)                  
 1531–1155 BCE   Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt         Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites)      Kidinuid dynasty                  
    Ahmose I Amenhotep I         Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Igehalkid dynasty                  
                   Untash-Napirisha                  
                                     
                                     
 Thutmose I Thutmose II Hatshepsut♀ Thutmose III                                   
    Hittite Empire                                 
 Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb                                   
    Ugarit                                 
 Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt   Elamite Empire                                 
 Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀  Shutrukid dynasty                                 
    Shutruk-Nakhunte                                 
    Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt         Phoenicia                        
             Kings of Byblos                        
    Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI        Kings of Tyre                        
             Kings of Sidon                        
 1155–1025 BCE   Third Intermediate Period                Syro-Hittite states      Middle Assyria       Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin")   Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE)  
             Kingdom of Israel            Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur  
    Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt         Saul                        
    Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II        Ish-bosheth                        
             David                        
             Solomon                        
 1025–934 BCE   Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos")                                
    Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli                               
    Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt                                 
    Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV                           Humban-Tahrid dynasty     
                                     
             Kingdom of Samaria                   Urtak     
 911–745 BCE   Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt               Neo-Assyrian Empire      Ninth Babylonian Dynasty       Teumman     
    Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini        Kingdom of Judah       Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat♀ (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V    Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri  Ummanigash     
                                Tammaritu I     
    Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt                            Indabibi     
    Tefnakht Bakenranef                            Humban-haltash III     
                                     
             Neo-Assyrian Empire                        
    Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt                                 
 745–609 BCE   ("Black Pharaohs")         (Sargonid dynasty)                        
    Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun         Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II                    
                                     
 Assyrian conquest of Egypt   Assyrian conquest of Elam                                 
    Late Period         Neo-Babylonian Empire       Median Empire                  
 626–539 BCE   Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt         Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus      Deioces Phraortes Madyes Cyaxares Astyages                 
    Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III                                
    Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt         Kings of Byblos       Achaemenid Empire                  
 539–331 BCE   (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt)         Kings of Tyre       Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III                
             Kings of Sidon                        
 Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt                                    
 Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt                                    
 Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt                                    
 Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt                                    
             Hellenistic Period                        
    Thirty-second Dynasty of Egypt and Thirty-third Dynasty of Egypt        Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus                       
 331–141 BCE   Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetis♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter♀ Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Lathyros Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra V♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Berenice IV Epiphanea♀ Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XV Caesarion Arsinoe IV♀                        
             Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes                     
                                     
 141–30 BCE   Kingdom of Judea         Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus   Parthian Empire                  
    Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra♀ Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias              Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I            
 30 BCE–116 CE   Roman Empire                                 
 (Roman conquest of Egypt)   Judea         Syria                        
 Province of Egypt                                    
 116-117 CE   Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan         Parthamaspates of Parthia                        
 117–224 CE   Syria Palaestina         Province of Mesopotamia       Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV                
    Sasanian Empire                                 
 224–270 CE   Province of Asoristan                                 
    Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm                             
 270–273 CE   Palmyrene Empire                                 
    Vaballathus Zenobia♀ Antiochus                                 
 273–395 CE   Roman Empire                                 
 Province of Egypt   Syria Palaestina         Syria       Province of Mesopotamia                 
 395–618 CE   Byzantine Empire                                 
 Byzantine Egypt   Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda         Byzantine Syria       Byzantine Mesopotamia                  
    (Sasanian conquest of Egypt)         Sasanian Empire                        
 618–628 CE   Province of Egypt         Province of Asoristan                        
    Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz         Khosrow II Kavad II                        
 628–641 CE   Byzantine Empire         Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran♀ Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht♀ Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh                      
 Byzantine Egypt   Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda         Byzantine Syria       Byzantine Mesopotamia                  
 639–651 CE   Muslim conquest of Egypt         Muslim conquest of the Levant       Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia                 
 Chronology of the Neolithic period           Rulers of Ancient Central Asia                        
 1. ^ Rulers with names in italics are considered fictional.                                   
 2. ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49.                                  
 3. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS.                                   
 4. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2.                                  
 5. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7.                                  
 6. ^ a b c Per Sumerian King List                                    
 7. ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4.                                 
                                     
                                     
 
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 Kings of Isin-Larsa
 * Ishbi-Erra 
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 Isin * Bur-Suen 
 1953-1730 BCE (ST) * Lipit-Enlil 
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 1940-1674 BCE (ST) * Sin-Iddinam 
 * Sin-Eribam 
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
	 
   Hammurabi𒄩𒄠𒈬𒊏𒁉     King of Babylon  King of the Four Corners of the World        Hammurabi (standing) receiving his royal insignia from Shamash (or possibly Marduk). [1]       King of the Old Babylonian Empire    Reign  c. 1792 – c. 1750 BC (MC)   Predecessor  Sin-Muballit    Successor  Samsu-iluna        Born  c. 1810 BC Babylon    Died  c. 1750 BC (aged c. 60)Babylon   Issue  Samsu-iluna    
 Hammurabi (Akkadian: 𒄩𒄠𒈬𒊏𒁉; [a]  c. 1810 – c. 1750 BC) was the sixth Amorite king of the Old Babylonian Empire, reigning from c. 1792 to c. 1750 BC. He was preceded by his father, Sin-Muballit, who abdicated due to failing health. During his reign, he conquered Elam and the city-states of Larsa, Eshnunna, and Mari. He ousted Ishme-Dagan I, the king of Assyria, and forced his son Mut-Ashkur to pay tribute, bringing almost all of Mesopotamia under Babylonian rule.
 Hammurabi is best known for having issued the Code of Hammurabi, which he claimed to have received from Shamash, the Babylonian god of justice. Unlike earlier Sumerian law codes, such as the Code of Ur-Nammu, which had focused on compensating the victim of the crime, the Law of Hammurabi was one of the first law codes to place greater emphasis on the physical punishment of the perpetrator. It prescribed specific penalties for each crime and is among the first codes to establish the presumption of innocence. They were intended to limit what a wronged person was permitted to do in retribution. The Code of Hammurabi and the Law of Moses in the Torah contain numerous similarities.
 Hammurabi was seen by many as a god within his own lifetime. After his death, Hammurabi was revered as a great conqueror who spread civilization and forced all peoples to pay obeisance to Marduk, the national god of the Babylonians. Later, his military accomplishments became de-emphasized and his role as the ideal lawgiver became the primary aspect of his legacy. For later Mesopotamians, Hammurabi's reign became the frame of reference for all events occurring in the distant past. Even after the empire he built collapsed, he was still revered as a model ruler, and many kings across the Near East claimed him as an ancestor. Hammurabi was rediscovered by archaeologists in the late nineteenth century and has since been seen as an important figure in the history of law.
Life
Background and ascension
      Map showing the Babylonian territory upon Hammurabi's ascension in c. 1792 BC and upon his death in c. 1750 BC  
Hammurabi ascended to the throne as the king of a minor kingdom in the midst of a complex geopolitical situation. Hammurabi was an Amorite First Dynasty king of the city-state of Babylon, and inherited the power from his father, Sin-Muballit, in c. 1792 BC. [3]  Babylon was one of the many largely Amorite ruled city-states that dotted the central and southern Mesopotamian plains and waged war on each other for control of fertile agricultural land. [4]  Though many cultures co-existed in Mesopotamia, Babylonian culture gained a degree of prominence among the literate classes throughout the Middle East under Hammurabi. [5]  The kings who came before Hammurabi had founded a relatively minor city-state in 1894 BC, which controlled little territory outside of the city itself. Babylon was overshadowed by older, larger, and more powerful kingdoms such as Elam, Assyria, Isin, Eshnunna, and Larsa for a century or so after its founding. However, his father Sin-Muballit had begun to consolidate rule of a small area of south central Mesopotamia under Babylonian rule and, by the time of his reign, had conquered the minor city-states of Borsippa, Kish, and Sippar. [5] 
 The powerful kingdom of Eshnunna controlled the upper Tigris River while Larsa controlled the river delta. To the east of Mesopotamia lay the powerful kingdom of Elam, which regularly invaded and forced tribute upon the small states of southern Mesopotamia. In northern Mesopotamia, the Assyrian king Shamshi-Adad I, who had already inherited centuries old Assyrian colonies in Asia Minor, had expanded his territory into the Levant and central Mesopotamia, [6]  although his untimely death would somewhat fragment his empire. [7] 
Reign and conquests
The first few years of Hammurabi's reign were quite peaceful. [8]  Hammurabi used his power to undertake a series of public works, including heightening the city walls for defensive purposes, and expanding the temples. [9]  In c. 1701 BC, the powerful kingdom of Elam, which straddled important trade routes across the Zagros Mountains, invaded the Mesopotamian plain. [10]  With allies among the plain states, Elam attacked and destroyed the kingdom of Eshnunna, destroying a number of cities and imposing its rule on portions of the plain for the first time. [11] 
      A limestone votive monument from Sippar, Iraq, dating to c. 1792 – c. 1750 BC showing King Hammurabi raising his right arm in worship, now held in the British Museum   
In order to consolidate its position, Elam tried to start a war between Hammurabi's Babylonian kingdom and the kingdom of Larsa. [12]  Hammurabi and the king of Larsa made an alliance when they discovered this duplicity and were able to crush the Elamites, although Larsa did not contribute greatly to the military effort. [12]  Angered by Larsa's failure to come to his aid, Hammurabi turned on that southern power, thus gaining control of the entirety of the lower Mesopotamian plain by c. 1763 BC. [13] 
 As Hammurabi was assisted during the war in the south by his allies from the north such as Yamhad and Mari, the absence of soldiers in the north led to unrest. [13]  Continuing his expansion, Hammurabi turned his attention northward, quelling the unrest. Soon after, he destroyed Eshnunna. [14]  Next the Babylonian armies conquered the remaining northern states, including Babylon's former ally Mari, although it is possible that the conquest of Mari was a surrender without any actual conflict. [15]   [16] 
 Hammurabi entered into a protracted war with Ishme-Dagan I of Assyria for control of Mesopotamia, with both kings making alliances with minor states in order to gain the upper hand. Eventually Hammurabi prevailed, ousting Ishme-Dagan I just before his own death. Mut-Ashkur, the new king of Assyria, was forced to pay tribute to Hammurabi. [17] 
 In just a few years, Hammurabi succeeded in uniting all of Mesopotamia under his rule. [16]  The Assyrian kingdom survived but was forced to pay tribute during his reign, and of the major city-states in the region, only Aleppo and Qatna to the west in the Levant maintained their independence. [16]  However, one stele (stone momument) of Hammurabi has been found as far north as Diyarbekir, where he claims the title "King of the Amorites". [18] 
 Vast numbers of contract tablets, dated to the reigns of Hammurabi and his successors, have been discovered, as well as 55 of his own letters. [19]  These letters give a glimpse into the daily trials of ruling an empire, from dealing with floods and mandating changes to a flawed calendar, to taking care of Babylon's massive herds of livestock. [20]  Hammurabi died and passed the reins of the empire on to his son Samsu-iluna in c. 1750 BC, under whose rule the Babylonian empire quickly began to unravel. [21] 
Code of laws
     
The Code of Hammurabi was a collection of 282 laws dealing with a wide range of issues. [22]  It is not the earliest surviving law code [23]   [b]  but was proved more influential in world politics and international relations [25]   [26]  as instead of focusing on compensating the victim of crime, as in earlier Sumerian law codes, the Code of Hammurabi instead focused on physically punishing the perpetrator. [26]  It was also one of the first law codes to place restrictions on what a wronged person was allowed to do in retribution  [26]  and one of the earliest examples of the idea of presumption of innocence, suggesting that the accused and accuser have the opportunity to provide evidence. [27]  The structure of the code is very specific, with each offense receiving a specified punishment. Many offenses resulted in death, disfigurement, or the use of the "Eye for eye, tooth for tooth" (Lex Talionis "Law of Retaliation") philosophy. [28]   [26] 
 The Code of Hammurabi was inscribed on a stele and placed in a public place so that all could see it, although it is thought that few were literate. The stele was later plundered by the Elamites and removed to their capital, Susa; it was rediscovered there in 1901 in Iran and is now in the Louvre Museum in Paris. The code of Hammurabi contains 282 laws, written by scribes on 12 tablets. [25]  Unlike earlier laws, it was written in Akkadian, the daily language of Babylon, and could therefore be read by any literate person in the city. At this time, Akkadian replaced Sumerian, and Hammurabi began language reforms that would make Akkadian the most common language at this time. [29]  A carving at the top of the stele portrays Hammurabi receiving the laws from Shamash, the Babylonian god of justice, [30]  and the preface states that Hammurabi was chosen by Shamash to bring the laws to the people. [31]  
      Bas-relief of Hammurabi in the US Congress  
Because of Hammurabi's reputation as a lawgiver, his depiction can be found law buildings throughout the world. Hammurabi is one of the 23 lawgivers depicted in marble bas-reliefs in the chamber of the U.S. House of Representatives in the United States Capitol. [32]  A frieze by Adolph Weinman depicting the "great lawgivers of history", including Hammurabi, is on the south wall of the U.S. Supreme Court building. [33]   [34] 
Legacy
Posthumous commemoration
      Tablet of Hammurabi (𒄩𒄠𒈬𒊏𒁉, 4th line from the top), King of Babylon. British Museum. [35]   [36]   [37]    
Hammurabi was honored above all other kings of the second millennium BC [38]  and he received the unique honor of being declared to be a god within his own lifetime. [39]  The personal name "Hammurabi-ili" meaning "Hammurabi is my god" became common during and after his reign. In writings from shortly after his death, Hammurabi is commemorated mainly for three achievements: bringing victory in war, bringing peace, and bringing justice. [39]  Hammurabi's conquests came to be regarded as part of a sacred mission to spread civilization to all nations. [40]  A stele from Ur glorifies him in his own voice as a mighty ruler who forces evil into submission and compels all peoples to worship Marduk. [41]  The stele declares: "The people of Elam, Gutium, Subartu, and Tukrish, whose mountains are distant and whose languages are obscure, I placed into [Marduk's] hand. I myself continued to put straight their confused minds." A later hymn also written in Hammurabi's own voice extols him as a powerful, supernatural force for Marduk: [40] 
 I am the king, the brace that grasps wrongdoers, that makes people of one mind,
I am the great dragon among kings, who throws their counsel in disarray,
I am the net that is stretched over the enemy,
I am the fear-inspiring, who, when lifting his fierce eyes, gives the disobedient the death sentence,
I am the great net that covers evil intent,
I am the young lion, who breaks nets and scepters,
I am the battle net that catches him who offends me. [41] 
 
After extolling Hammurabi's military accomplishments, the hymn finally declares: "I am Hammurabi, the king of justice." [39]  In later commemorations, Hammurabi's role as a great lawgiver came to be emphasized above all his other accomplishments and his military achievements became de-emphasized. Hammurabi's reign became the point of reference for all events in the distant past. A hymn to the goddess Ishtar, whose language suggests it was written during the reign of Ammisaduqa, Hammurabi's fourth successor, declares: "The king who first heard this song as a song of your heroism is Hammurabi. This song for you was composed in his reign. May he be given life forever!" [38]  For centuries after his death, Hammurabi's laws continued to be copied by scribes as part of their writing exercises and they were even partially translated into Sumerian. [42] 
Political legacy
      Copy of Hammurabi's stele usurped by Shutruk-Nahhunte I. The stele was only partially erased and was never re-inscribed. [43]    
During the reign of Hammurabi, Babylon usurped the position of "most holy city" in southern Mesopotamia from its predecessor, Nippur. [44]  Under the rule of Hammurabi's successor Samsu-iluna, the short-lived Babylonian Empire began to collapse. In northern Mesopotamia, both the Amorites and Babylonians were driven from Assyria by Puzur-Sin a native Akkadian-speaking ruler, c. 1740 BC. Around the same time, native Akkadian speakers threw off Amorite Babylonian rule in the far south of Mesopotamia, creating the Sealand Dynasty, in more or less the region of ancient Sumer. Hammurabi's ineffectual successors met with further defeats and loss of territory at the hands of Assyrian kings such as Adasi and Bel-ibni, as well as to the Sealand Dynasty to the south, Elam to the east, and to the Kassites from the northeast. Thus was Babylon quickly reduced to the small and minor state it had once been upon its founding. [45] 
 The coup de grace for the Hammurabi's Amorite Dynasty occurred in 1595 BC, when Babylon was sacked and conquered by the powerful Hittite Empire, thereby ending all Amorite political presence in Mesopotamia. [46]  However, the Indo-European-speaking Hittites did not remain, turning over Babylon to their Kassite allies, a people speaking a language isolate, from the Zagros mountains region. This Kassite Dynasty ruled Babylon for over 400 years and adopted many aspects of the Babylonian culture, including Hammurabi's code of laws. [46]  Even after the fall of the Amorite Dynasty, however, Hammurabi was still remembered and revered. [42]  When the Elamite king Shutruk-Nahhunte I raided Babylon in 1158 BC and carried off many stone monuments, he had most of the inscriptions on these monuments erased and new inscriptions carved into them. [42]  On the stele containing Hammurabi's laws, however, only four or five columns were wiped out and no new inscription was ever added. [43]  Over a thousand years after Hammurabi's death, the kings of Suhu, a land along the Euphrates river, just northwest of Babylon, claimed him as their ancestor. [47] 
Relationship to Biblical figures and Mosaic law
In the late nineteenth century, the Code of Hammurabi became a major center of debate in the heated Babel und Bibel ("Babylon and Bible") controversy in Germany over the relationship between the Bible and ancient Babylonian texts. [48]  In January 1902, the German Assyriologist Friedrich Delitzsch gave a lecture at the Sing-Akademie zu Berlin in front of the Kaiser and his wife, in which he argued that the Mosaic Laws of the Old Testament were directly copied off the Code of Hammurabi. [49]  Delitzsch's lecture was so controversial that, by September 1903, he had managed to collect 1,350 short articles from newspapers and journals, over 300 longer ones, and twenty-eight pamphlets, all written in response to this lecture, as well as the preceding one about the Flood story in the Epic of Gilgamesh . These articles were overwhelmingly critical of Delitzsch, though a few were sympathetic. The Kaiser distanced himself from Delitzsch and his radical views and, in fall of 1904, Delitzsch was forced to give his third lecture in Cologne and Frankfurt am Main rather than in Berlin. [48]  The putative relationship between the Mosaic Law and the Code of Hammurabi later became a major part of Delitzsch's argument in his 1920–21 book Die große Täuschung (The Great Deception) that the Hebrew Bible was irredeemably contaminated by Babylonian influence and that only by eliminating the human Old Testament entirely could Christians finally believe in the true, Aryan message of the New Testament. [49]  In the early twentieth century, many scholars believed that Hammurabi was Amraphel, the King of Shinar in the Book of Genesis 14:1. [50]   [51]  This view has now been largely rejected, [52]   [53]  and Amraphael's existence is not attested in any writings from outside the Bible. [53] 
 Parallels between this narrative and the giving of the Covenant Code to Moses by Yahweh atop Mount Sinai in the Biblical Book of Exodus and similarities between the two legal codes suggest a common ancestor in the Semitic background of the two. [54]   [55]   [56]   [57]  Nonetheless, fragments of previous law codes have been found and it is unlikely that the Mosaic laws were directly inspired by the Code of Hammurabi. [54]   [55]   [56]   [57]   [c]  Some scholars have disputed this; David P. Wright argues that the Jewish Covenant Code is "directly, primarily, and throughout" based upon the Laws of Hammurabi. [58]  In 2010, a team of archaeologists from Hebrew University discovered a cuneiform tablet dating to the eighteenth or seventeenth century BC at Hazor in Israel containing laws clearly derived from the Code of Hammurabi. [59] 
References
Notes
 
  ^  Hammurabi, pronounced , is from ʻAmmurāpi ("the kinsman is a healer"), itself from ʻAmmu ("paternal kinsman") and Rāpi ("healer"). The classicist Alan Millard insists that Hammurapi is a more correct spelling. [2] 
  ^  It is predated by the Code of Ur-Nammu, the Laws of Eshnunna, and the Code of Lipit-Ishtar. [24] 
  ^  Barton, a former professor of Semitic languages at the University of Pennsylvania, stated that while there are similarities between the two texts, a study of the entirety of both laws "convinces the student that the laws of the Old Testament are in no essential way dependent upon the Babylonian laws." He states that "such resemblances" arose from "a similarity of antecedents and of general intellectual outlook" between the two cultures, but that "the striking differences show that there was no direct borrowing." [55] 
 
Citations
  ^  Roux 1992, between 266–267.
  ^  Millard 2004.
  ^  Van De Mieroop 2005, p. 1.
  ^  Van De Mieroop 2005, pp. 1–2.
^    a       b    Van De Mieroop 2005, p. 3.
  ^  Van De Mieroop 2005, pp. 3–4.
  ^  Van De Mieroop 2005, p. 16.
  ^  Adolf, Antony (8 May 2013).  Peace: A World History . John Wiley &amp; Sons. p. 3. ISBN  978-0-7456-5459-1 . An early study claims that 'peace and prosperity prevailed during his reign', though more recent research confines this preponderantly peaceful period to the first two decades Hammurabi ruled. 
  ^  Arnold 2005, p. 43.
  ^  Van De Mieroop 2005, pp. 15–16.
  ^  Van De Mieroop 2005, p. 17.
^    a       b    Van De Mieroop 2005, p. 18.
^    a       b    Van De Mieroop 2005, p. 31.
  ^  Van De Mieroop 2005, pp. 40–41.
  ^  Van De Mieroop 2005, pp. 54–55, 64–65.
^    a       b       c    Arnold 2005, p. 45.
  ^  Beck, Roger B.; Black, Linda; Krieger, Larry S.; Naylor, Phillip C.; Shabaka, Dahia Ibo (1999).  World History: Patterns of Interaction . Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell. ISBN  978-0-395-87274-1 . OCLC 39762695.
  ^   Clay, Albert Tobias (1919).  The Empire of the Amorites . Yale University Press. p. 97.
  ^  Breasted 2003, p. 129.
  ^  Breasted 2003, pp. 129–130.
  ^  Arnold 2005, p. 42.
  ^  H. Otto Sommer (1908).  The Laws of Hammurabi, King of Babylonia . Records of the Past, Volume II, Part III. – via Wikisource.
  ^  Driver &amp; Miles (1952), p. 9.
  ^  Roth 1995, pp. 13, 23, 57.
^    a       b    Breasted 2003, p. 141.
^    a       b       c       d    Bertman 2003, p. 71.
  ^  Victimology: Theories and Applications, Ann Wolbert Burgess, Albert R. Roberts, Cheryl Regehr, Jones &amp; Bartlett Learning, 2009, p. 103
  ^  Prince 1904, pp. 606–607.
  ^  Maher, John C. (2017).  Multilingualism: A Very Short Introduction . Oxford University Press. p. 108. ISBN  978-0-19-872499-5 . ... Akkadian (Babylonian) replaced Sumerian ... The Code of Hammurabi was written in the daily language of Babylon, Akkadian. Hammurabi (c.1810–1750 BC), the sixth king of the First Babylonian Empire, initiated language reforms to make Akkadian the pre-eminent lingua franca of antiquity; inscriptions have been found on stone, silver and clay artefacts.  
  ^  Kleiner, Fred S. (2010).  Gardner's Art through the Ages: The Western Perspective . Vol. 1 (Thirteenth ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. p. 29. ISBN  978-0-495-57360-9 . Archived from the original on 17 June 2014. Retrieved 1 November 2020.
  ^   Smith, J. M. Powis (2005).  The Origin and History of Hebrew Law . Clark, New Jersey: The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd. p. 13. ISBN  978-1-58477-489-1 . Archived from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 1 November 2020.
  ^   "Hammurabi". Architect of the Capitol. Archived from the original on 22 November 2021. Retrieved 19 May 2008.
  ^   "Courtroom Friezes" (PDF). Supreme Court of the United States. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 June 2010. Retrieved 19 May 2008.
  ^   Biskupic, Joan (11 March 1998). "Lawgivers: From Two Friezes, Great Figures of Legal History Gaze Upon the Supreme Court Bench". WP Company LLC. The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 18 August 2020. Retrieved 28 November 2017.
  ^    Cuneiform Tablets in the British Museum  (PDF). British Museum. 1905. pp. Plates 44 and 45. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 January 2021. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  ^   Budge, E. A. Wallis (Ernest Alfred Wallis); King, L. W. (Leonard William) (1908).  A guide to the Babylonian and Assyrian antiquities . London : Printed by the order of the Trustees. p. 147.
  ^  For full transcription:  "CDLI-Archival View". cdli.ucla.edu. Archived from the original on 4 November 2021. Retrieved 4 November 2021.
^    a       b    Van De Mieroop 2005, p. 128.
^    a       b       c    Van De Mieroop 2005, p. 127.
^    a       b    Van De Mieroop 2005, p. 126.
^    a       b    Van De Mieroop 2005, pp. 126–127.
^    a       b       c    Van De Mieroop 2005, p. 129.
^    a       b    Van De Mieroop 2005, pp. 129–130.
  ^  Schneider, Tammi J. (2011),  An Introduction to Ancient Mesopotamian Religion , Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, pp. 58–59, ISBN  978-0-8028-2959-7 , archived from the original on 12 November 2021, retrieved 1 November 2020
  ^  Roux 1992, pp. 243–246.
^    a       b    DeBlois 1997, p. 19.
  ^  Van De Mieroop 2005, p. 130.
^    a       b    Ziolkowski 2012, p. 25.
^    a       b    Ziolkowski 2012, pp. 23–25.
  ^  Rogers, Robert W.; Kohler, Kaufmann; Jastrow, Marcus. "Amraphel".  The Jewish Encyclopedia . Archived from the original on 22 November 2021. Retrieved 24 November 2012.
  ^   "Bible Gateway passage: Genesis 14 - New International Version". Archived from the original on 20 November 2021. Retrieved 24 November 2012.
  ^  North, Robert (1993). "Abraham". In Metzger, Bruce M.; Coogan, Michael D. (eds.).  The Oxford Companion to the Bible . Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 5. ISBN  978-0-19-504645-8 .
^    a       b    Granerød, Gard (26 March 2010).  Abraham and Melchizedek: Scribal Activity of Second Temple Times in Genesis 14 and Psalm 110 . Berlin, Germany: Walter de Gruyter. p. 120. ISBN  978-3-11-022346-0 .
^    a       b    Douglas, J. D.; Tenney, Merrill C. (2011). Zondervan Illustrated Bible Dictionary. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan. p. 1323. ISBN  978-0-310-22983-4 .
^    a       b       c    Barton 1916, p. 406.
^    a       b    Unger, M.F.: Archaeology and the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing Co., 1954, pp. 156–157
^    a       b    Free, J.P.: Archaeology and Biblical History. Wheaton: Scripture Press, 1950, 1969, p. 121
  ^   Wright, David P. (2009).  Inventing God's Law: How the Covenant Code of the Bible Used and Revised the Laws of Hammurabi . Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 3 and passim. ISBN  978-0-19-530475-6 .
  ^   "Tablet Discovered by Hebrew U Matches Code of Hammurabi". Beit El: HolyLand Holdings, Ltd. Arutz Sheva. 26 June 2010. Archived from the original on 2 September 2021. Retrieved 22 November 2017.
 
Sources
  Arnold, Bill T. (2005). Who Were the Babylonians?. Brill Publishers. ISBN  978-90-04-13071-5 . OCLC 225281611. 
  Barton, George A. (1916).  Archæology and the Bible . Philadelphia: American Sunday-School Union. OCLC 38608139. 
 Bertman, Stephen (2003).  Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia . Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN  978-0-19-518364-1 . Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 1 November 2020. 
 Breasted, James Henry (2003). Ancient Time or a History of the Early World, Part 1. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN  978-0-7661-4946-5 . OCLC 69651827. 
 DeBlois, Lukas (1997). An Introduction to the Ancient World. Routledge. ISBN  978-0-415-12773-8 . OCLC 231710353. 
  Driver, Godfrey R.; Miles, John C. (1952).  The Babylonian Laws: Edited with Translation and Commentary . Vol. 1: Legal Commentary. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN  978-1-55635-229-4 . OCLC 493362814. 
  Millard, Alan (2004) [1993]. "Hammurapi". In Metzger, Bruce M.; Coogan, Michael D. (eds.). The Oxford Companion to the Bible. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN  978-0-19-504645-8 . 
 Prince, J. Dyneley (1904). "The Code of Hammurabi".  The American Journal of Theology . 8 (3): 601–609. doi:10.1086/478479. JSTOR 3153895. 
 Roth, Martha T. (1995).  Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor . Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. ISBN  978-0-7885-0104-3 . 
  Roux, Georges (1992) [1864]. Ancient Iraq. London: Penguin Group. ISBN  978-0-14-012523-8 . 
 Van De Mieroop, Marc (2005).  King Hammurabi of Babylon: A Biography . Blackwell Publishing. ISBN  978-1-4051-2660-1 . OCLC 255676990. 
 Ziolkowski, Theodore (2012),  Gilgamesh among Us: Modern Encounters with the Ancient Epic , Ithaca, New York and London, England: Cornell University Press, ISBN  978-0-8014-5035-8 , archived from the original on 9 October 2021, retrieved 1 November 2020  
External links
  A Closer Look at the Code of Hammurabi at the Louvre museum
 Works by Hammurabi at Project Gutenberg 
 Works by or about Hammurabi at Internet Archive  
 
Regnal titles
 
Preceded by  Sin-muballit  
  Kings of Babylon   c. 1792 – c. 1750 BC (MC)
Succeeded by  Samsu-iluna
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Mary Queen
<div><div>
<h2>About </h2>
<p>Became Queen of Scotland when she was only 6 days old because she was the only surviving legitimate child of King <a href="https://www.famousbirthdays.com/people/james-v.html">James V</a> of Scotland. She was imprisoned and forced to abdicate her throne in 1567.</p>
<h2>Before Fame</h2>
<p>She was born prematurely and she spent most of her childhood in France while Scotland was ruled by regents.</p>
<h2>Trivia</h2>
<p>Her own cousin, <a href="https://www.famousbirthdays.com/people/elizabeth-i.html">Elizabeth I of England</a>, had her tried and executed for treason.</p>
<h2>Family Life</h2>
<p>In 1558, she married the Dauphin of France, Francis. Following his death she married Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley and after his death she married James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell. Her son was James VI and I.</p>
<h2>Associated With</h2>
<p>After an unsuccessful attempt to regain the throne, she fled southwards seeking the protection of her first cousin once removed, <a href="https://www.famousbirthdays.com/people/elizabeth-i.html">Elizabeth I of England</a>.</p>
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</a>
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 Mary Queen of Scots

 Queen

 Birthday December 8 , 1542

 Birth Sign Sagittarius

 Birthplace Linlithgow , Scotland

 DEATH DATE Feb 8 , 1587 ( age 44 )

 #5252 Most Popular

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 About

 Became Queen of Scotland when she was only 6 days old because she was the only surviving legitimate child of King James V of Scotland. She was imprisoned and forced to abdicate her throne in 1567.

 Before Fame

 She was born prematurely and she spent most of her childhood in France while Scotland was ruled by regents.

 Trivia

 Her own cousin, Elizabeth I of England, had her tried and executed for treason.

 Family Life

 In 1558, she married the Dauphin of France, Francis. Following his death she married Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley and after his death she married James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell. Her son was James VI and I.

 Associated With

 After an unsuccessful attempt to regain the throne, she fled southwards seeking the protection of her first cousin once removed, Elizabeth I of England.

 Popularity

 Most Popular #5252 Born on December 8 #17
 Queen #11 Born in 1542 #1
 Born in Scotland #16 First Name Mary #4

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About 
Became Queen of Scotland when she was only 6 days old because she was the only surviving legitimate child of King James V of Scotland. She was imprisoned and forced to abdicate her throne in 1567.
Before Fame
She was born prematurely and she spent most of her childhood in France while Scotland was ruled by regents.
Trivia
Her own cousin, Elizabeth I of England, had her tried and executed for treason.
Family Life
In 1558, she married the Dauphin of France, Francis. Following his death she married Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley and after his death she married James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell. Her son was James VI and I.
Associated With
After an unsuccessful attempt to regain the throne, she fled southwards seeking the protection of her first cousin once removed, Elizabeth I of England.
Learn about Mary Queen of Scots
https://www.famousbirthdays.com/people/mary-queen-of-scots.html
https://www.famousbirthdays.com/people/janeseymour-queenofengland.html
Learn about Jane Seymour (Princess)
2000-01-01
Jane Seymour
<div><div>
<h2>About<a href="#"><i></i></a></h2>
<p>Third wife of <a href="https://www.famousbirthdays.com/people/henry-VIII.html">King Henry VIII</a> who left him a male heir, but at the cost of her own life. She was the only one of Henry's wives to receive a queen's funeral and be buried beside him. </p>
<h2>Before Fame</h2>
<p>After King Henry took a liking to her, he dispatched his then-wife Anne Boleyn on trumped-up treason charges.</p>
<h2>Trivia</h2>
<p>She was a lady in waiting of Anne Boleyn, which is how King Henry came to know her in the first place.</p>
<h2>Family Life</h2>
<p>She grew up in a noble family, the great-great granddaughter of <a href="https://www.famousbirthdays.com/people/king-edwardiv.html">King Edward</a> III.</p>
<h2>Associated With</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.famousbirthdays.com/people/wendy-barrie.html">Wendy Barrie</a> played her in the Academy Award-nominated film The Private Life of Henry VIII.</p>
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 Jane Seymour

 Princess
 #7345
 Most Popular
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 Birthday

 May May 30, 1508

 Birthplace

 Wiltshire, England

 DEATH DATE

 Oct 24, 1537 ( age 29)

 Birth Sign

 Gemini

 Birthday

 May May 30, 1508

 Birthplace

 Wiltshire, England

 DEATH DATE

 Oct 24, 1537 ( age 29)

 Popularity

 Most Popular #7345
 Born on May 30 #19
 Princess #7
 First Name Jane #5
 Born in Wiltshire, England #2
 Gemini Royalty #4
 Last Name Seymour #1

 About

 Third wife of King Henry VIII who left him a male heir, but at the cost of her own life. She was the only one of Henry's wives to receive a queen's funeral and be buried beside him.

 Before Fame

 After King Henry took a liking to her, he dispatched his then-wife Anne Boleyn on trumped-up treason charges.

 Trivia

 She was a lady in waiting of Anne Boleyn, which is how King Henry came to know her in the first place.

 Family Life

 She grew up in a noble family, the great-great granddaughter of King Edward III.

 Associated With

 Wendy Barrie played her in the Academy Award-nominated film The Private Life of Henry VIII.


 Jane Seymour Popularity

 Most Popular #7345
 Born on May 30 #19
 Princess #7
 First Name Jane #5
 Born in Wiltshire, England #2
 Gemini Royalty #4
 Last Name Seymour #1

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About    
Third wife of King Henry VIII who left him a male heir, but at the cost of her own life. She was the only one of Henry's wives to receive a queen's funeral and be buried beside him. 
Before Fame
After King Henry took a liking to her, he dispatched his then-wife Anne Boleyn on trumped-up treason charges.
Trivia
She was a lady in waiting of Anne Boleyn, which is how King Henry came to know her in the first place.
Family Life
She grew up in a noble family, the great-great granddaughter of King Edward III.
Associated With
 Wendy Barrie played her in the Academy Award-nominated film The Private Life of Henry VIII.
Learn about Jane Seymour (Princess)
https://www.famousbirthdays.com/people/janeseymour-queenofengland.html
https://www.famousbirthdays.com/people/ivan-terrible.html
Learn about Ivan The Terrible
None
Ivan The Terrible
<div><div>
<h2>About </h2>
<p>Infamous ruler who served as the first Tsar of All Russias for forty years. During his reign, he conquered Khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan, and Siberia, forever altering the global political landscape. </p>
<h2>Before Fame</h2>
<p>He was crowned the Grand Prince of Moscow at age three and was made Tsar of All Russias at sixteen.</p>
<h2>Trivia</h2>
<p>He was known for his unstable temperament and bouts of mental illness. He once killed one of his own sons with a pointed staff during an argument.</p>
<h2>Family Life</h2>
<p>He was married seven times and had eight children.</p>
<h2>Associated With</h2>
<p>Russian director <a href="https://www.famousbirthdays.com/people/sergei-eisenstein.html">Sergei Eisenstein</a> directed a historical epic based on his life titled "Ivan the Terrible."</p>
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 Ivan The Terrible

 Prince

 Birthday August 25 , 1530

 Birth Sign Virgo

 Birthplace Moscow , Russia

 DEATH DATE Mar 28 , 1584 ( age 53 )

 #12100 Most Popular

 Boost

 About

 Infamous ruler who served as the first Tsar of All Russias for forty years. During his reign, he conquered Khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan, and Siberia, forever altering the global political landscape.

 Before Fame

 He was crowned the Grand Prince of Moscow at age three and was made Tsar of All Russias at sixteen.

 Trivia

 He was known for his unstable temperament and bouts of mental illness. He once killed one of his own sons with a pointed staff during an argument.

 Family Life

 He was married seven times and had eight children.

 Associated With

 Russian director Sergei Eisenstein directed a historical epic based on his life titled "Ivan the Terrible."

 Popularity

 Most Popular #12100 Born on August 25 #37
 Prince #11 First Name Ivan #4
 Born in Moscow, Russia #12 Virgo Royalty #4

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About 
Infamous ruler who served as the first Tsar of All Russias for forty years. During his reign, he conquered Khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan, and Siberia, forever altering the global political landscape. 
Before Fame
He was crowned the Grand Prince of Moscow at age three and was made Tsar of All Russias at sixteen.
Trivia
He was known for his unstable temperament and bouts of mental illness. He once killed one of his own sons with a pointed staff during an argument.
Family Life
He was married seven times and had eight children.
Associated With
Russian director Sergei Eisenstein directed a historical epic based on his life titled "Ivan the Terrible."
Learn about Ivan The Terrible
https://www.famousbirthdays.com/people/ivan-terrible.html
https://www.famousbirthdays.com/people/toyotomi-hideyoshi.html
Learn about Toyotomi Hideyoshi
None
Toyotomi Hideyoshi
<div><div>
<h2>About </h2>
<p>Warrior and politician of the Japanese Sengoku period who held the offices of Imperial Regent of Japan and Chancellor of the Realm.</p>
<h2>Before Fame</h2>
<p>He was born a peasant and worked as a humble servant to the Japanese Oda clan. His skill as a warrior and negotiator, however, soon secured him a place among the samurai elite.</p>
<h2>Trivia</h2>
<p>His contributions to Japanese society include the institution of a census; class reforms that more strictly divided the peasants from the elite; and the construction of the grand Osaka Castle. He also banned slavery, encouraged Japanese cultural traditions such as the tea ceremony, and set up a Council of Five Elders to provide a governmental system of checks and balances.</p>
<h2>Family Life</h2>
<p>He married Sugaihara Yasuko, an aristocrat, in 1561.</p>
<h2>Associated With</h2>
<p>He began his political career as a servant to the powerful lord, <a href="https://www.famousbirthdays.com/people/oda-nobunaga.html">Oda Nobunaga</a>. Nobunaga, in fact, came up with the nickname of "Kozaru" ("little monkey") for Hideyoshi.</p>
<a href="#">
</a>
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 Toyotomi Hideyoshi

 Politician

 Birthday March 17 , 1537

 Birth Sign Pisces

 Birthplace Japan

 DEATH DATE Sep 18 , 1598 ( age 61 )

 #112803 Most Popular

 Boost

 About

 Warrior and politician of the Japanese Sengoku period who held the offices of Imperial Regent of Japan and Chancellor of the Realm.

 Before Fame

 He was born a peasant and worked as a humble servant to the Japanese Oda clan. His skill as a warrior and negotiator, however, soon secured him a place among the samurai elite.

 Trivia

 His contributions to Japanese society include the institution of a census; class reforms that more strictly divided the peasants from the elite; and the construction of the grand Osaka Castle. He also banned slavery, encouraged Japanese cultural traditions such as the tea ceremony, and set up a Council of Five Elders to provide a governmental system of checks and balances.

 Family Life

 He married Sugaihara Yasuko, an aristocrat, in 1561.

 Associated With

 He began his political career as a servant to the powerful lord, Oda Nobunaga. Nobunaga, in fact, came up with the nickname of "Kozaru" ("little monkey") for Hideyoshi.

 Popularity

 Most Popular #112803 Born in 1537 #3
 March 17 Politician #3 Politician Born in Japan #5

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About 
Warrior and politician of the Japanese Sengoku period who held the offices of Imperial Regent of Japan and Chancellor of the Realm.
Before Fame
He was born a peasant and worked as a humble servant to the Japanese Oda clan. His skill as a warrior and negotiator, however, soon secured him a place among the samurai elite.
Trivia
His contributions to Japanese society include the institution of a census; class reforms that more strictly divided the peasants from the elite; and the construction of the grand Osaka Castle. He also banned slavery, encouraged Japanese cultural traditions such as the tea ceremony, and set up a Council of Five Elders to provide a governmental system of checks and balances.
Family Life
He married Sugaihara Yasuko, an aristocrat, in 1561.
Associated With
He began his political career as a servant to the powerful lord, Oda Nobunaga. Nobunaga, in fact, came up with the nickname of "Kozaru" ("little monkey") for Hideyoshi.
Learn about Toyotomi Hideyoshi
https://www.famousbirthdays.com/people/toyotomi-hideyoshi.html
https://www.famousbirthdays.com/people/yi-sun-sin.html
Learn about Yi Sun-sin
None
Yi Sun-sin
<div><div>
<h2>About </h2>
<p>Remembered best for his 1597 victory at the Battle of Myeongnyang, this Korean military leader earned the title of Naval Commander for his bravery against invading Japanese forces during the late sixteenth-century Imjin War. </p>
<h2>Before Fame</h2>
<p>He began his military career as a member of the Bukbyeong army in Korea's northeastern Hamgyeong province.</p>
<h2>Trivia</h2>
<p>He was killed in combat during the Battle of Noryang.</p>
<h2>Family Life</h2>
<p>He was born and raised in Hanseong, Korea (present-day Seoul, South Korea), and he grew up as a member of the prominent Deoksu Yi clan.</p>
<h2>Associated With</h2>
<p>Numerous historians have likened Sun-sin's skill as a naval commander to that of eighteenth-century British admiral <a href="https://www.famousbirthdays.com/people/horatio-nelson.html">Horatio Nelson</a>. </p>
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 Source License

 Yi Sun-sin

 War Hero

 Birthday April 28 , 1545

 Birth Sign Taurus

 Birthplace South Korea

 DEATH DATE Dec 16 , 1598 ( age 53 )

 #195864 Most Popular

 Boost

 About

 Remembered best for his 1597 victory at the Battle of Myeongnyang, this Korean military leader earned the title of Naval Commander for his bravery against invading Japanese forces during the late sixteenth-century Imjin War.

 Before Fame

 He began his military career as a member of the Bukbyeong army in Korea's northeastern Hamgyeong province.

 Trivia

 He was killed in combat during the Battle of Noryang.

 Family Life

 He was born and raised in Hanseong, Korea (present-day Seoul, South Korea), and he grew up as a member of the prominent Deoksu Yi clan.

 Associated With

 Numerous historians have likened Sun-sin's skill as a naval commander to that of eighteenth-century British admiral Horatio Nelson.

 Popularity

 Most Popular #195864 First Name Yi #4
 Taurus War Hero #21

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About 
Remembered best for his 1597 victory at the Battle of Myeongnyang, this Korean military leader earned the title of Naval Commander for his bravery against invading Japanese forces during the late sixteenth-century Imjin War. 
Before Fame
He began his military career as a member of the Bukbyeong army in Korea's northeastern Hamgyeong province.
Trivia
He was killed in combat during the Battle of Noryang.
Family Life
He was born and raised in Hanseong, Korea (present-day Seoul, South Korea), and he grew up as a member of the prominent Deoksu Yi clan.
Associated With
Numerous historians have likened Sun-sin's skill as a naval commander to that of eighteenth-century British admiral Horatio Nelson.
Learn about Yi Sun-sin
https://www.famousbirthdays.com/people/yi-sun-sin.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain
Philip II of Spain - Wikipedia
2002-05-31
Authority control
<div><div>
<table><tbody><tr><th>Philip II</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:Philip_II_portrait_by_Titian.jpg"></a><p>Portrait by <a href="/wiki/Titian">Titian</a> (1550)</p></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/King_of_Spain">King of Spain</a> <div><p>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_titles_and_honours_of_the_Spanish_Crown">more…</a>) </p></div></th></tr><tr><th>Reign</th><td>16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598</td></tr><tr><th>Predecessor</th><td><a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor">Charles I</a></td></tr><tr><th>Successor</th><td><a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Spain">Philip III</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/King_of_Portugal">King of Portugal</a> <div><p>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_titles_and_honours_of_the_Portuguese_Crown">more…</a>) </p></div></th></tr><tr><th>Reign</th><td>12 September 1580 – 13 September 1598</td></tr><tr><th>Acclamation</th><td>16 April 1581, <a href="/wiki/Tomar">Tomar</a></td></tr><tr><th>Predecessor</th><td><a href="/wiki/Henry,_King_of_Portugal">Henry</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio,_Prior_of_Crato">Anthony</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Portuguese_Succession">disputed</a></i>)</td></tr><tr><th>Successor</th><td><a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Spain">Philip III of Spain</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/King_of_England">King of England</a> and <a href="/wiki/King_of_Ireland">Ireland</a> <div><p>(<i><a href="/wiki/Jure_uxoris">jure uxoris</a></i>) </p></div></th></tr><tr><th>Reign</th><td>25 July 1554 – 17 November 1558</td></tr><tr><th>Predecessor</th><td><a href="/wiki/Mary_I">Mary I</a></td></tr><tr><th>Successor</th><td><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I">Elizabeth I</a></td></tr><tr><th>Co-monarch</th><td>Mary I</td></tr><tr><th></th></tr><tr><th>Born</th><td>21 May 1527<br /><a href="/wiki/Palacio_de_Pimentel">Palacio de Pimentel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Valladolid">Valladolid</a>, Castile</td></tr><tr><th>Died</th><td>13 September 1598 (aged 71)<br /><a href="/wiki/El_Escorial">El Escorial</a>, <a href="/wiki/San_Lorenzo_de_El_Escorial">San Lorenzo de El Escorial</a>, Castile</td></tr><tr><th>Burial</th><td><p>El Escorial</p></td></tr><tr><th>Spouses</th><td><div>
<ul><li></li></ul>
<div><div><p><a href="/wiki/Maria_Manuela_of_Portugal">Maria Manuela of Portugal</a></p></div>
 <p>​</p> <p>​</p><p>(<abbr>m.</abbr> ; died </p><p>)<wbr></wbr>​</p></div>
<ul><li></li></ul>
<div><div><p><a href="/wiki/Mary_I_of_England">Mary I of England</a></p></div>
 <p>​</p> <p>​</p><p>(<abbr>m.</abbr></p><p>; died </p><p>)<wbr></wbr>​</p></div>
<ul><li></li></ul>
<div><div><p><a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_of_Valois">Elisabeth of Valois</a></p></div>
 <p>​</p> <p>​</p><p>(<abbr>m.</abbr> 1559; died </p><p>)<wbr></wbr>​</p></div>
<ul><li></li></ul>
<div><div><p><a href="/wiki/Anna_of_Austria,_Queen_of_Spain">Anna of Austria</a></p></div>
 <p>​</p> <p>​</p><p>(<abbr>m.</abbr></p><p>; died </p><p>)<wbr></wbr>​</p></div>
</div></td></tr><tr><th>Issue<br /><i><a href="#Family">Detail</a></i></th><td><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carlos,_Prince_of_Asturias">Carlos, Prince of Asturias</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Isabella_Clara_Eugenia">Isabella Clara Eugenia, Lady of the Netherlands</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Catalina_Micaela_of_Spain">Catherine Michaela, Duchess of Savoy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand,_Prince_of_Asturias">Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Diego,_Prince_of_Asturias">Diego, Prince of Asturias</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philip_III,_King_of_Spain">Philip III, King of Spain</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/Dynasty">House</a></th><td><a href="/wiki/House_of_Habsburg">Habsburg</a></td></tr><tr><th>Father</th><td><a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor">Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor</a></td></tr><tr><th>Mother</th><td><a href="/wiki/Isabella_of_Portugal">Isabella of Portugal</a></td></tr><tr><th>Religion</th><td><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Spain">Roman Catholicism</a></td></tr><tr><th>Signature</th><td><a href="/wiki/File:Firma_del_Rey_Felipe_II.svg"></a></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Philip II</b><sup><a href="#cite_note-1">[note 1]</a></sup> (21 May 1527 – 13 September 1598), also known as <b>Philip the Prudent</b> (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_language">Spanish</a>: <i>Felipe el Prudente</i>), was <a href="/wiki/King_of_Spain">King of Spain</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-2">[note 2]</a></sup> from 1556, <a href="/wiki/King_of_Portugal">King of Portugal</a> from 1580, and <a href="/wiki/King_of_Naples">King of Naples</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Sicilian_monarchs">Sicily</a> from 1554 until his death in 1598. He was <i><a href="/wiki/Jure_uxoris">jure uxoris</a></i> <a href="/wiki/King_of_England">King of England</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Irish_monarchs">Ireland</a> from <a href="/wiki/Wedding_of_Mary_I_of_England_and_Philip_of_Spain">his marriage</a> to Queen <a href="/wiki/Mary_I">Mary I</a> in 1554 until her death in 1558.<sup><a href="#cite_note-3">[1]</a></sup> He was also <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Milan">Duke of Milan</a> from 1540.<sup><a href="#cite_note-4">[2]</a></sup> From 1555, he was Lord of the <a href="/wiki/Seventeen_Provinces">Seventeen Provinces</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Netherlands">Netherlands</a>.
</p><p>The son of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Charles_V">Emperor Charles V</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isabella_of_Portugal,_Holy_Roman_Empress">Isabella of Portugal</a>, Philip inherited his father's <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire">Spanish Empire</a> in 1556 and succeeded to the Portuguese throne in 1580 following a dynastic crisis. The Spanish conquests <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Inca_Empire">of the Inca Empire</a> and of the <a href="/wiki/Philippines">Philippines</a>, named in his honor by <a href="/wiki/Ruy_L%C3%B3pez_de_Villalobos">Ruy López de Villalobos</a>, were completed during his reign. Under Philip II, Spain reached the height of its influence and power, sometimes called the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Golden_Age">Spanish Golden Age</a>, and ruled territories in every continent then known to Europeans. Philip led a highly <a href="/wiki/National_debt">debt-leveraged regime</a>, seeing <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_default">state defaults</a> in 1557, 1560, 1569, 1575, and 1596. This policy was partly the cause of the <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Abjuration">declaration of independence</a> that created the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic">Dutch Republic</a> in 1581. Philip finished building the royal palace <a href="/wiki/El_Escorial">El Escorial</a> in 1584.
</p><p>Deeply devout, Philip saw himself as the defender of Catholic Europe against the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a>. In 1584, Philip signed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Joinville">Treaty of Joinville</a> funding the French <a href="/wiki/Catholic_League_(French)">Catholic League</a> over the following decade in its civil war against the French <a href="/wiki/Huguenots">Huguenots</a>. In 1588, he sent an <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada">armada</a> to invade Protestant England, with the strategic aim of overthrowing <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I">Elizabeth I</a> and re-establishing Catholicism there, but his fleet was defeated in a skirmish at <a href="/wiki/Gravelines">Gravelines</a> (northern France) and then destroyed by storms as it circled the British Isles to return to Spain. The following year Philip's naval power was able to recover after the failed invasion of the <a href="/wiki/English_Armada">English Armada</a> into Spain. Two more Spanish armadas unsuccessfully tried to invade England in 1596 and 1597. The Anglo-Spanish war carried on until 1604, six years after Philip's death.<sup><a href="#cite_note-5">[3]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-6">[4]</a></sup>
</p><p>Under Philip, an average of about 9,000 soldiers were recruited from Spain each year, rising to as many as 20,000 in crisis years. Between 1567 and 1574, nearly 43,000 men left Spain to fight in Italy and the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries">Low Countries</a> (modern-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands).<sup><a href="#cite_note-7">[5]</a></sup>
</p><p>Philip was described by the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice">Venetian</a> ambassador Paolo Fagolo in 1563 as "slight of stature and round-faced, with pale blue eyes, <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_jaw">somewhat prominent lip</a>, and pink skin, but his overall appearance is very attractive. ... He dresses very tastefully, and everything that he does is courteous and gracious."<sup><a href="#cite_note-8">[6]</a></sup> Philip was married four times; all his wives predeceased him.
</p>
<h2>Early life: 1527–1544[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_II_of_Spain&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Bautizo_Felipe_II_grande.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>A member of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Habsburg">House of Habsburg</a>, Philip was the son of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Charles_V">Emperor Charles V</a>, who was also king of <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile">Castile</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon">Aragon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Isabella_of_Portugal,_Holy_Roman_Empress">Isabella of Portugal</a>. He was born in the Castilian capital of <a href="/wiki/Valladolid">Valladolid</a> on 21 May 1527 at <a href="/wiki/Palacio_de_Pimentel">Palacio de Pimentel</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-9">[7]</a></sup> which was owned by Don Bernardino Pimentel (the first Marqués de Távara). The culture and courtly life of Castile were an important influence in his early life. He was entrusted to the royal governess <a href="/wiki/Leonor_de_Mascare%C3%B1as">Leonor de Mascareñas</a>, and tutored by <a href="/wiki/Juan_Mart%C3%ADnez_Siliceo">Juan Martínez Siliceo</a>, the future <a href="/wiki/Archbishop_of_Toledo">archbishop of Toledo</a>. Philip displayed reasonable aptitude in arts and letters alike. Later he would study with more illustrious tutors, including the humanist Juan Cristóbal Calvete de Estrella. Though Philip had good command over <a href="/wiki/Latin">Latin</a>, Spanish, and Portuguese, he never managed to equal his father, Charles V, as a <a href="/wiki/Polyglot">polyglot</a>. While Philip was also an <a href="/wiki/Archduke_of_Austria">archduke of Austria</a>, he was seen as a foreigner in the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>. The feeling was mutual. Philip felt himself to be culturally Spanish; he had been born in Castile and raised in the Castilian court, his native language was Spanish, and he preferred to live in the Spanish kingdoms. This ultimately impeded his succession to the imperial throne.<sup><a href="#cite_note-JBE-10">[8]</a></sup>
</p><p>In April 1528, when Philip was eleven months old, he received the oath of allegiance as heir to the crown from the <a href="/wiki/Cortes_Generales">Cortes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Castile">Castile</a>. From that time until the death of his mother Isabella in 1539, he was raised in the royal court of Castile under the care of his mother and one of her <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_people">Portuguese</a> ladies, Doña Leonor de Mascarenhas, to whom he was devotedly attached. Philip was also close to his two sisters, <a href="/wiki/Maria_of_Austria,_Holy_Roman_Empress">María</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joan_of_Austria,_Princess_of_Portugal">Juana</a>, and to his two pages, the Portuguese nobleman <a href="/wiki/Ruy_G%C3%B3mez_de_Silva">Rui Gomes da Silva</a> and <a href="/wiki/Luis_de_Requesens_y_Z%C3%BA%C3%B1iga">Luis de Requesens</a>, the son of his governor Juan de Zúñiga. These men would serve Philip throughout their lives, as would Antonio Pérez, his secretary from 1541.
</p><p>Philip's martial training was undertaken by his governor, Juan de Zúñiga, a Castilian nobleman who served as the <i><a href="/wiki/Commendador">commendador</a> mayor</i> of Castile. The practical lessons in warfare were overseen by the <a href="/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_3rd_Duke_of_Alba">Duke of Alba</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Italian_War_of_1542%E2%80%931546">Italian Wars</a>. Philip was present at the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Perpignan_(1542)">Siege of Perpignan</a> in 1542 but did not see action as the Spanish army under Alba decisively defeated the besieging French forces under the <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_France">Dauphin of France</a>. On his way back to Castile, Philip received the oath of allegiance of the <a href="/wiki/Cortes_of_Aragon#Early_Cortes">Aragonese Cortes</a> at <a href="/wiki/Monz%C3%B3n">Monzón</a>. His political training had begun a year previously under his father, who had found his son studious, grave, and prudent beyond his years, and having decided to train and initiate him in the government of the Spanish kingdoms. The king-emperor's interactions with his son during his stay in Castile convinced him of Philip's precocity in statesmanship, so he determined to leave in his hands the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_regents">regency of the Spanish kingdoms</a> in 1543. Philip, who had previously been made the <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Milan">Duke of Milan</a> in 1540, began governing the most extensive empire in the world at the young age of sixteen.
</p><p>Charles left Philip with experienced advisors—notably the secretary <a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_los_Cobos">Francisco de los Cobos</a> and the general Duke of Alba. Philip was also left with extensive written instructions that emphasised "piety, patience, modesty, and distrust". These principles of Charles were gradually assimilated by his son, who would grow up to become grave, self-possessed and cautious. Personally, Philip spoke softly and had an icy self-mastery; in the words of one of his ministers, "he had a smile that was cut by a sword".<sup><a href="#cite_note-11">[9]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Domestic policy[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_II_of_Spain&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>After living in the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands">Netherlands</a> in the early years of his reign,<sup><a href="#cite_note-12">[10]</a></sup> Philip II decided to return to Castile. Although sometimes described as an absolute monarch, Philip faced many constitutional constraints on his authority, influenced by the growing strength of the bureaucracy. The <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire">Spanish Empire</a> was not a single monarchy with one legal system but a federation of separate realms, each jealously guarding its own rights against those of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Habsburg">House of Habsburg</a>. In practice, Philip often found his authority overruled by local assemblies and his word less effective than that of local lords.<sup><a href="#cite_note-13">[11]</a></sup>
</p><p>Philip carried <a href="/wiki/List_of_titles_and_honours_of_the_Heir_Apparent_to_the_Spanish_Throne#Titles_held_by_the_heir_apparent_to_the_Spanish_Throne">several titles</a> as <a href="/wiki/List_of_heirs_to_the_Spanish_throne">heir to the Spanish kingdoms and empire</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Asturias">Prince of Asturias</a>. The newest constituent kingdom in the empire was <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Navarre#Spanish_conquest_Navarre">Navarre</a>, a realm invaded by <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_Aragon">Ferdinand II of Aragon</a> mainly with Castilian troops (1512), and annexed to Castile with an ambiguous status (1513). <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Iberian_Navarre">War across Navarre</a> continued until 1528 (<a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Madrid_(1526)#Madrid">Treaties of Madrid and Cambrai</a>). Charles V proposed to end hostilities with King <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_Navarre">Henry II of Navarre</a>—the legitimate monarch of Navarre—by marrying his son Philip to the heiress of Navarre, <a href="/wiki/Jeanne_III_of_Navarre">Jeanne III of Navarre</a>. The marriage would provide a dynastic solution to instability in Navarre, making him king of all Navarre and a prince of independent <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9arn">Béarn</a>, as well as lord of a large part of southern France. However, the French nobility under <a href="/wiki/Francis_I_of_France">Francis I</a> opposed the arrangement and successfully ended the prospects of marriage between the heirs of Habsburg and Albret in 1541.
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Philip_II_of_Spain_by_Antonio_Moro.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>In his will, Charles stated his doubts over Navarre and recommended that his son give the kingdom back. Both King Charles and his son Philip II failed to abide by the elective (contractual) nature of the Crown of Navarre and took the kingdom for granted. This sparked mounting tension not only with King Henry II and Queen Jeanne III of Navarre but also with the Parliament of the Spanish Navarre (<i>Cortes</i>, <i>The Three States</i>) and the <i>Diputación</i> for breach of the <a href="/wiki/Fueros_of_Navarre">realm specific laws (fueros)</a>—violation of the <i>pactum subjection is</i> as ratified by Ferdinand. Tensions in Navarre came to a head in 1592 after several years of disagreements over the agenda of the intended parliamentary session.
</p><p>In November 1592, the Parliament (<i>Cortes</i>) of Aragón revolted against another breach of the realm-specific laws, so the Attorney General (<i>Justicia</i>) of the kingdom, Juan de Lanuza, was executed on Philip II's orders, with his secretary <a href="/wiki/Antonio_P%C3%A9rez_(statesman)">Antonio Perez</a> taking exile in France. In Navarre, the major strongholds of the kingdom were garrisoned by troops alien to the kingdom (Castilians) in a conspicuous violation of the local laws, and the Parliament had long been refusing to pledge loyalty to Philip II's son and heir apparent without a proper ceremony. On 20 November 1592 a ghostly Parliament session was called, pushed by Philip II, who had arrived in <a href="/wiki/Pamplona#Three_boroughs_and_one_city">Pamplona</a> at the head of an unspecified military force, and with one only point on his agenda—attendance to the session was kept blank on the minutes: unlawful appointments of trusted Castilian officials and imposition of his son as the future king of Navarre at the Santa Maria Cathedral. A ceremony was held before the bishop of Pamplona (22 November), but its customary procedure and terms were altered. Protests erupted in Pamplona, but they were quelled.
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Jooris_van_der_Straeten_-_Portrait_of_Philip_II_of_Spain.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Philip II also grappled with the problem of the large <a href="/wiki/Morisco">Morisco</a> population in the Spanish kingdoms, who had been forcibly converted to Christianity by his predecessors. In 1569, the <a href="/wiki/Morisco_Revolt">Morisco Revolt</a> broke out in the southern province of <a href="/wiki/Granada_(province)">Granada</a> in defiance of attempts to suppress Moorish customs. Philip ordered the expulsion of the Moriscos from Granada and their dispersal to other provinces.
</p><p>Despite its immense dominions, the Spanish kingdoms had a sparse population that yielded a limited income to the crown (in contrast to France, for example, which was much more heavily populated). Philip faced major difficulties in raising taxes, and the collection was largely farmed out to local lords. He was able to finance his military campaigns only by taxing and exploiting the local resources of his empire. The flow of income from the <a href="/wiki/New_World">New World</a> proved vital to his militant foreign policy, but his exchequer several times faced bankruptcy.
</p><p>Spanish culture flourished during Philip's reign, beginning the "<a href="/wiki/Spanish_Golden_Age">Spanish Golden Age</a>", creating a lasting legacy in literature, music, and the visual arts. One of the notable artists from Philip II's court was <a href="/wiki/Sofonisba_Anguissola">Sofonisba Anguissola</a>, who gained fame for her talent and unusual role as a woman artist. She was invited to the court of Madrid in 1559 and was chosen to become an attendant to <a href="/wiki/Isabella_Clara_Eugenia">Isabella Clara Eugenia</a> (1566–1633). Anguissola also became a <a href="/wiki/Lady-in-waiting">lady-in-waiting</a> and court painter for the queen, <a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_of_Valois">Elizabeth de Valois</a>. During her time as a court painter, Anguissola painted many official portraits of the royal family, a sharp departure from her previous personal portraits.
</p>
<h2>Economy[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_II_of_Spain&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Koning_Spanje_Filips_II_1-5_Philipsdaalder_1566.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Portrait of Philip II on 1/5 Philipsdaalder, struck 1566, Guelders, Low Countries</p></div></div>
<p>Charles V had left his son Philip with a debt of about 36 million <a href="/wiki/Ducat">ducats</a> and an annual deficit of 1 million ducats. This debt caused Philip II to default on loans in 1557, 1560, 1575, and 1596 (including debt to Poland, known as <a href="/wiki/Neapolitan_sums">Neapolitan sums</a>).<sup><a href="#cite_note-14">[12]</a></sup> Lenders had no power over the King and could not force him to repay his loans. These defaults were just the beginning of Spain's economic troubles as its kings would default six more times in the next 65 years.<sup><a href="#cite_note-15">[13]</a></sup> Aside from reducing state revenues for overseas expeditions, the domestic policies of Philip II further burdened the Spanish kingdoms and would, in the following century, contribute to its decline, as maintained by some historians.<sup><a href="#cite_note-16">[14]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Spanish kingdoms were subject to different assemblies: the <a href="/wiki/Cortes_Generales">Cortes</a> in <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile">Castile</a>, the assembly in <a href="/wiki/Navarre">Navarre</a>, and one each for the three regions of <a href="/wiki/Aragon">Aragon</a>, which preserved traditional rights and laws from the time when they were separate kingdoms. This made the Spanish kingdoms and its possessions difficult to rule, unlike France, which while divided into regional states, had a single <a href="/wiki/Estates_General_(France)">Estates-General</a>. The lack of a viable supreme assembly led to power defaulting into Philip II's hands, especially as manager and final arbiter of the constant conflict between different authorities. To deal with the difficulties arising from this situation, authority was administered by local agents appointed by the crown and viceroys carrying out crown instructions. Philip II felt it necessary to be involved in the detail, and he presided over specialised councils for state affairs, finance, war, and the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition">Inquisition</a>.
</p><p>Philip II played groups against each other, leading to a system of checks and balances that managed affairs inefficiently, even to the extent of damaging state business, as in the <a href="/wiki/Antonio_P%C3%A9rez_(statesman)">Perez affair</a>. Following a fire in Valladolid in 1561, he resisted calls to move his Court to <a href="/wiki/Lisbon">Lisbon</a>, an act that could have curbed centralisation and bureaucracy domestically as well as relaxed rule in the Empire as a whole. Instead, with the traditional Royal and <a href="/wiki/Primate_of_Spain">Primacy</a> seat of <a href="/wiki/Toledo,_Spain">Toledo</a> now essentially obsolete, he moved his Court to the Castilian stronghold of <a href="/wiki/Madrid">Madrid</a>. Except for a brief period under <a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Spain">Philip III of Spain</a>, Madrid has remained the capital of Spain. It was around this time that Philip II converted the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Alc%C3%A1zar_of_Madrid">Royal Alcázar of Madrid</a> into a royal palace; the works, which lasted from 1561 until 1598, were done by tradesmen who came from the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy">Italy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/France">France</a>.
</p><p>King Philip II ruled at a critical turning point in European history toward <a href="/wiki/Modernity">modernity</a> whereas his father Charles V had been forced to an itinerant rule as a medieval king. He mainly directed state affairs, even when not at Court. Indeed, when his health began failing, he worked from his quarters at the Palace-Monastery-Pantheon of <a href="/wiki/El_Escorial">El Escorial</a> that he had built in 1584, a palace built as a monument to Spain's role as a center of the Christian world. But Philip did not enjoy the supremacy that <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France">King Louis XIV of France</a> would in the next century, nor was such a rule necessarily possible at his time. The inefficiencies of the Spanish state and the restrictively regulated industry under his rule were common to many contemporary countries. Further, the dispersal of the <a href="/wiki/Morisco">Moriscos</a> from Granada – motivated by the fear they might support a Muslim invasion – had serious negative effects on the economy,<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> particularly in that region.
</p>
<h2>Foreign policy[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_II_of_Spain&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Philip's foreign policies were determined by a combination of Catholic fervour and dynastic objectives. He considered himself the chief defender of Catholic Europe, both against the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_empire">Ottoman Turks</a> and against the forces of the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a>. He never relented from his fight against <a href="/wiki/Heresy">heresy</a>, defending the Catholic faith and limiting freedom of worship within his territories.<sup><a href="#cite_note-17">[15]</a></sup> These territories included his patrimony in the Netherlands, where Protestantism had taken deep root. Following the <a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Netherlands">Revolt of the Netherlands</a> in 1568, Philip waged a campaign against Dutch heresy and secession. It also dragged in the English and the French at times and expanded into the German Rhineland with the <a href="/wiki/Cologne_War">Cologne War</a>. This series of conflicts lasted for the rest of his life. Philip's constant involvement in European wars took a significant toll on the treasury and caused economic difficulties for the Crown and even bankruptcies.
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Guidon_of_King_Philip_II_of_Spain.svg"></a></p><div><p>Personal guidon of Philip II</p></div></div>
<p>In 1588, the English defeated Philip's <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada">Spanish Armada</a>, thwarting his planned invasion of the country to reinstate Catholicism. But <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1585%E2%80%931604)">war with England</a> continued for the next sixteen years, in a complex series of struggles that included France, Ireland and the main battle zone, the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries">Low Countries</a>. It would not end until all the leading protagonists, including himself, had died. Earlier, however, after several setbacks in his reign and especially that of his father, Philip did achieve a decisive victory against the Turks at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto_(1571)">Lepanto</a> in 1571, with the allied fleet of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_League_(1571)">Holy League</a>, which he had put under the command of his illegitimate brother, <a href="/wiki/John_of_Austria">John of Austria</a>. He also successfully secured his succession to the throne of <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Union">Portugal</a>.
</p><p>With regard to Philip's overseas possessions, in response to the reforms imposed by the Ordenanzas, extensive questionnaires were distributed to every major town and region in New Spain called <a href="/wiki/Relaciones_geogr%C3%A1ficas">relaciones geográficas</a>. These surveys helped the Spanish monarchy to govern these overseas conquests more effectively.
</p>
<h3>Italy[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_II_of_Spain&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Charles V abdicated the throne of Naples to Philip on 25 July 1554, and the young king was invested with the kingdom (officially called "Naples and Sicily") on 2 October by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Julius_III">Pope Julius III</a>. The date of Charles' abdication of the throne of Sicily is uncertain, but Philip was invested with this kingdom (officially "Sicily and Jerusalem") on 18 November 1554 by Julius.<sup><a href="#cite_note-18">[16]</a></sup> In 1556, Philip decided to invade the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States">Papal States</a> and temporarily held territory there, perhaps in response to <a href="/wiki/Pope_Paul_IV">Pope Paul IV</a>'s anti-Spanish outlook. According to Philip II, he was doing it for the benefit of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church">Church</a>.
</p><p>In a letter to the Princess Dowager of Portugal, Regent of the Spanish kingdoms, dated 22 September 1556, <a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Vargas_y_Mexia">Francisco de Vargas</a> wrote:
</p>
<blockquote><p>I have reported to your Highness what has been happening here, and how far the Pope is going in his fury and vain imaginings. His Majesty could not do otherwise than have a care for his reputation and dominions. I am sure your Highness will have had more recent news from the Duke of Alva, who has taken the field with an excellent army and has penetrated so far into the Pope's territory that his cavalry is raiding up to ten miles from Rome, where there is such panic that the population would have run away had not the gates been closed. The Pope has fallen ill with rage, and was struggling with a fever on the 16th of this month. The two Carafa brothers, the Cardinal and Count Montorio, do not agree, and they and Piero Strozzi are not on as good terms as they were in the past. They would like to discuss peace. The best thing would be for the Pope to die, for he is the poison at the root of all this trouble and more which may occur. His Majesty's intention is only to wrest the knife from this madman's hand and make him return to a sense of his dignity, acting like the protector of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_See">Apostolic See</a>, in whose name, and that of the <a href="/wiki/College_of_Cardinals">College of Cardinals</a>, his Majesty has publicly proclaimed that he has seized all he is occupying. The Pope is now sending again to the potentates of Italy for help. I hope he will gain as little thereby as he has done in the past, and that the French will calm down. May God give us peace in the end, as their Majesties desire and deserve!<sup><a href="#cite_note-19">[17]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>In response to the invasion, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Paul_IV">Pope Paul IV</a> called for a French military intervention. After minor fights in Lazio and near Rome, <a href="/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_3rd_Duke_of_Alba">Fernando Alvarez de Toledo</a> (Duke of Alba and Viceroy of Naples) met <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Carafa">Cardinal Carlo Carafa</a> and signed the Treaty of <a href="/wiki/Cave,_Lazio">Cave</a> as a compromise: French and Spanish forces left the Papal states and the Pope declared a neutral position between France and the Spanish kingdoms.<sup><a href="#cite_note-fiuRebiba-20">[18]</a></sup>
</p><p>Philip led the Spanish kingdoms into the final phase of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars">Italian Wars</a>. A Spanish advance into France from the Low Countries led to their important victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_St._Quentin_(1557)">Battle of St. Quentin</a> in 1557. The French were defeated again at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gravelines_(1558)">Battle of Gravelines</a> in 1558. The resulting <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Cateau-Cambresis">Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis</a> in 1559 secured <a href="/wiki/Piedmont_(Italy)">Piedmont</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy">Duchy of Savoy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Corsica">Corsica</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa">Republic of Genoa</a>. Both Genoa and Savoy were allies of Spain and, although Savoy subsequently declared its neutrality between France and Spain, Genoa remained a crucial financial ally for Philip during his entire reign. The treaty also confirmed Philip's direct control over <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan">Milan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples">Naples</a>, Sicily, and <a href="/wiki/Sardinia">Sardinia</a>. Therefore, all of southern Italy was under direct Spanish rule. Sicily and Naples were viceroyalties of the <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile">Crown of Castile</a>, while Sardinia was part of the <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a>. In the north, Milan was a Duchy of the Holy Roman Empire held by Philip. Attached to the Kingdom of Naples, the <a href="/wiki/State_of_Presidi">State of Presidi</a> in Tuscany gave Philip the possibility to monitor maritime traffic to southern Italy. The <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Italy">Council of Italy</a> was set up by Philip in order to co-ordinate his rule over the states of Milan, Naples and Sicily. Ultimately, the treaty ended the 60-year Franco-Habsburg wars for supremacy in Italy. It marked also the beginning of a period of peace between the Pope and Philip, as their European interests converged, although political differences remained and diplomatic contrasts eventually re-emerged.
</p><p>By the end of the wars in 1559, <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain">Habsburg Spain</a> had been established as the premier power of Europe, to the detriment of France. In France, <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_France">Henry II</a> was fatally wounded in a joust held during the celebrations of the peace. His death led to the accession of his 15-year-old son <a href="/wiki/Francis_II_of_France">Francis II</a>, who in turn soon died. The French monarchy was thrown into turmoil, which increased further with the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion">French Wars of Religion</a> that would last for several decades. The states of Italy were reduced to second-rate powers, and Milan and Naples were annexed directly to Aragon. Mary Tudor's death in 1558 enabled Philip to seal the treaty by marrying Henry II's daughter, <a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_of_Valois">Elisabeth of Valois</a>, later giving him a claim to the throne of France on behalf of his daughter by Elisabeth, <a href="/wiki/Isabel_Clara_Eugenia">Isabel Clara Eugenia</a>.
</p>
<h3>France[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_II_of_Spain&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>The French Wars of Religion (1562–1598) were primarily fought between French Catholics and Protestants (Huguenots). The conflict involved the factional disputes between the aristocratic houses of France, such as the House of Bourbon and House of Guise (Lorraine), and both sides received assistance from foreign sources. Philip claimed descent from <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I">Constantine I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>, justifying his intervention in French Wars of Religion and his continuing efforts to depose <a href="/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France">Henry IV of France</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-21">[19]</a></sup>
</p><p>Philip signed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Vaucelles">Treaty of Vaucelles</a> with Henry II of France in 1556. Based on the terms of the treaty, the territory of <a href="/wiki/Franche-Comt%C3%A9">Franche-Comté</a> in <a href="/wiki/Burgundy">Burgundy</a> was to be relinquished to Philip. However, the treaty was broken shortly afterwards. France and the Spanish kingdoms waged war in northern France and Italy over the following years. Spanish victories at St. Quentin and Gravelines led to the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis, in which France recognised Spanish sovereignty over Franche-Comté.
</p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Portuguese_Succession">War of the Portuguese Succession</a>, the pretender <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio,_Prior_of_Crato">António</a> fled to France following his defeats and, as Philip's armies had not yet occupied the <a href="/wiki/Azores">Azores</a>, he sailed there with a large Anglo-French fleet under <a href="/wiki/Filippo_di_Piero_Strozzi">Filippo Strozzi</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Florence">Florentine</a> exile in the service of France. The naval <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Terceira">Battle of Terceira</a> took place on 26 July 1582, in the sea near the <a href="/wiki/Azores_Islands">Azores</a>, off <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Miguel_Island">São Miguel Island</a>, as part of the War of the Portuguese Succession and the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1585%E2%80%931604)">Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)</a>. The Spanish navy defeated the combined Anglo-French fleet that had sailed to preserve control of the Azores under António. The French naval contingent was the largest French force sent overseas before the age of <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France">Louis XIV</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-22">[20]</a></sup>
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<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:PhilipIIbust.JPG"></a></p></div>
<p>The Spanish victory at Terceira was followed by the <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Azores">Battle of the Azores</a> between the Portuguese loyal to the claimant António, supported by French and English troops, and the Spanish-Portuguese forces loyal to Philip commanded by the admiral Don <a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Baz%C3%A1n,_1st_Marquis_of_Santa_Cruz">Álvaro de Bazán</a>. Victory in Azores completed the incorporation of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire">Portugal into the Spanish Empire</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-23">[21]</a></sup>
</p><p>Philip financed the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_League_(French)">Catholic League</a> during the French Wars of Religion. He directly intervened in the final phases of the wars (1589–1598), ordering the <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Farnese,_Duke_of_Parma">Duke of Parma</a> into France in an effort to unseat <a href="/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France">Henry IV</a>, and perhaps dreaming of placing his favourite daughter, Isabel Clara Eugenia, on the French throne. Elizabeth of Valois, Philip's third wife and Isabella's mother, had already ceded any claim to the French Crown with her marriage to Philip. However the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Paris">Parliament of Paris</a>, in power of the Catholic party, gave verdict that Isabella Clara Eugenia was "the legitimate sovereign" of France. Philip's interventions in the fighting – sending the Duke of Parma to end Henry IV's <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Paris,_1590">siege of Paris</a> in 1590 and the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Rouen_(1591)">siege of Rouen</a> in 1592 – contributed in saving the French Catholic Leagues's cause against a Protestant monarchy.
</p><p>In 1593, Henry agreed to convert to Catholicism; weary of war, most French Catholics switched to his side against the hardline core of the Catholic League, who were portrayed by Henry's propagandists as puppets of a foreign monarch, Philip. By the end of 1594 certain League members were still working against Henry across the country, but all relied on the support of the Spanish Crown. In January 1595, therefore, Henry officially declared war on the Spanish Crown, to show Catholics that Philip was using religion as a cover for an attack on the French state, and Protestants that he had not become a puppet of the Spanish Crown through his conversion, while hoping to reconquer large parts of northern France from the Franco-Spanish Catholic forces.<sup><a href="#cite_note-24">[22]</a></sup>
</p><p>French victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fontaine-Fran%C3%A7aise">Battle of Fontaine-Française</a> in Burgundy, 5 June 1595, marked an end to the Catholic League in France. The French also made some progress during an invasion of the Spanish Netherlands. They captured <a href="/wiki/Ham,_Belgium">Ham</a> and massacred the small Spanish garrison, provoking anger among the Spanish ranks.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> The Spanish launched a concerted offensive that year, taking <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Doullens">Doullens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cambrai">Cambrai</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Le_Catelet_(1595)">Le Catelet</a>; at Doullens, they massacred 4,000 of its citizens.<sup><a href="#cite_note-25">[23]</a></sup> On 24 April 1596, the Spanish also <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Calais_(1596)">conquered Calais</a>. Following the Spanish capture of <a href="/wiki/Amiens">Amiens</a> in March 1597, the French Crown laid siege to it until it managed to <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Amiens_(1597)">reconquer Amiens</a> from the overstretched Spanish forces in September 1597. Henry then negotiated a peace with the Spanish Crown. The war was only drawn to an official close, however, after the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes">Edict of Nantes</a>, with the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Vervins">Peace of Vervins</a> in May 1598.
</p><p>The 1598 Treaty of Vervins was largely a restatement of the 1559 Peace of Câteau-Cambrésis and Spanish forces and subsidies were withdrawn; meanwhile, Henry issued the Edict of Nantes, which offered a high degree of religious toleration for French Protestants. The military interventions in France thus failed to oust Henry from the throne or suppress Protestantism in France, and yet they had played a decisive part in helping the French Catholic cause gain the conversion of Henry, ensuring that Catholicism would remain France's official and majority faith – matters of paramount importance for the devoutly Catholic Spanish king.
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<h3>Mediterranean[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_II_of_Spain&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7">edit</a>]</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Felipe_IV_offers_Ferdinand_to_Glory.jpg"></a></p></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Tercio_-_Morados_Viejos.svg"></a></p></div>
<p>In the early part of his reign Philip was concerned with the rising power of the Ottoman Empire under <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent">Suleiman the Magnificent</a>. Fear of Islamic domination in the Mediterranean caused him to pursue an aggressive foreign policy.
</p><p>In 1558, Turkish admiral <a href="/wiki/Piyale_Pasha">Piyale Pasha</a> captured the <a href="/wiki/Balearic_Islands">Balearic Islands</a>, especially inflicting great damage on <a href="/wiki/Menorca">Menorca</a> and enslaving many, while raiding the coasts of the Spanish mainland. Philip appealed to the Pope and other powers in Europe to bring an end to the rising <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire">Ottoman</a> threat. Since his father's losses against the Ottomans and against <a href="/wiki/Hayreddin_Barbarossa">Hayreddin Barbarossa</a> in 1541, the major European sea powers in the Mediterranean, namely the Spanish Crown and <a href="/wiki/Venice">Venice</a>, became hesitant in confronting the Ottomans. The myth of "Turkish invincibility" was becoming a popular story, causing fear and panic among the people.
</p><p>In 1560, Philip II organised a <i>Holy League</i> between the Spanish kingdoms and the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice">Republic of Venice</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa">Republic of Genoa</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States">Papal States</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy">Duchy of Savoy</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller">Knights of Malta</a>. The joint fleet was assembled at <a href="/wiki/Messina">Messina</a> and consisted of 200 ships (60 galleys and 140 other vessels) carrying a total of 30,000 soldiers under the command of <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Andrea_Doria">Giovanni Andrea Doria</a>, nephew of the famous Genoese admiral <a href="/wiki/Andrea_Doria">Andrea Doria</a>.
</p><p>On 12 March 1560, the Holy League captured the island of <a href="/wiki/Djerba">Djerba</a>, which had a strategic location and could control the sea routes between <a href="/wiki/Algiers">Algiers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tripoli,_Libya">Tripoli</a>. As a response, Suleiman sent an Ottoman fleet of 120 ships under the command of Piyale Pasha, which arrived at Djerba on 9 May 1560. The battle lasted until 14 May 1560, and the forces of Piyale Pasha and <a href="/wiki/Turgut_Reis">Turgut Reis</a> (who joined Piyale Pasha on the third day of the battle) won an overwhelming victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Djerba">Battle of Djerba</a>. The Holy League lost 60 ships (30 galleys) and 20,000 men, and Giovanni Andrea Doria was barely able to escape with a small vessel. The Ottomans retook the Fortress of Djerba, whose Spanish commander, D. <a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Sande">Álvaro de Sande</a>, attempted to escape with a ship but was followed and eventually captured by Turgut Reis. In 1565 the Ottomans sent <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Malta_(1565)">a large expedition to Malta</a>, which laid siege to several forts on the island, taking some of them. The Spanish sent a relief force, which finally drove the Ottoman army out of the island.
</p><p>The grave threat posed by the increasing Ottoman domination of the Mediterranean was reversed in one of history's most decisive battles, with the destruction of nearly the entire Ottoman fleet at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto">Battle of Lepanto</a> in 1571, by the Holy League under the command of Philip's half brother, <a href="/wiki/John_of_Austria">Don Juan of Austria</a>. A fleet sent by Philip, again commanded by Don John, reconquered Tunis from the Ottomans in 1573. The Turks soon rebuilt their fleet, and in 1574 <a href="/wiki/Ulu%C3%A7_Ali_Reis">Uluç Ali Reis</a> managed to recapture <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1574)">Tunis</a> with a force of 250 galleys and a siege that lasted 40 days. Thousands of Spanish and Italian soldiers became prisoners. Nevertheless, Lepanto marked a permanent reversal in the balance of naval power in the Mediterranean and the end of the threat of Ottoman control. In 1585 a peace treaty was signed with the Ottomans.
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<h2>Colonial policy[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_II_of_Spain&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8">edit</a>]</h2>
<h3>Strait of Magellan[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_II_of_Spain&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>During Philip's reign Spain considered the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> a <i><a href="/wiki/Mare_clausum">mare clausum</a></i> – a sea closed to other naval powers. As the only known entrance from the Atlantic, the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Magellan">Strait of Magellan</a> was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships.<sup><a href="#cite_note-lytle-26">[24]</a></sup> To end navigation by rival powers in the Strait of Magellan Spanish viceroy <a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Toledo">Francisco de Toledo</a> ordered <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Sarmiento_de_Gamboa">Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa</a> to explore the strait and found settlements on its shores.<sup><a href="#cite_note-MCLEstrecho-27">[25]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1584, Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa founded two colonies in the strait: <a href="/wiki/Nombre_de_Jes%C3%BAs_(Patagonia)">Nombre de Jesús</a> and Ciudad del Rey Don Felipe. The latter was established north of the strait with 300 settlers.<sup><a href="#cite_note-28">[26]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-29">[27]</a></sup> The new colonies suffered from high death rates; likely as consequence executions, brawls, violent encounters with indigenous peoples, and most important, diseases which were rife.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartinic1977119-30">[28]</a></sup> Deeper contributing causes for failure of the settlement and death of most settlers may have been the poor mood settlers showed already from the beginning of the settlement.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartinic1977119-30">[28]</a></sup> This mood can in part be explained by a series of difficulties the expedition had to go through between the departure from Spain and the arrival to the strait.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartinic1977119-30">[28]</a></sup> Philip II's inaction despite repeated pleas by Sarmiento to aid the ailing colony has been attributed to the strain on Spain's resources that resulted from wars with England and Dutch rebels.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartinic1977121-31">[29]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1587 English corsairs renamed Ciudad del Rey Don Felipe <a href="/wiki/Puerto_del_Hambre">Puerto del Hambre</a>, or "Port Famine"—most of the settlers had died by cold or starvation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-32">[30]</a></sup> When Sir <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cavendish">Thomas Cavendish</a> landed at the site of Rey Don Felipe in 1587, he found only ruins of the settlement. He renamed it Port Famine.<sup><a href="#cite_note-33">[31]</a></sup> The Spanish failure at colonizing the Strait of Magellan made <a href="/wiki/Chilo%C3%A9_Archipelago">Chiloé Archipelago</a> assume the role of protecting western Patagonia from foreign intrusions.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Urbina2013-34">[32]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Valdivia">Valdivia</a> and Chiloé acted as sentries, being hubs where the Spanish collected intelligence from all over Patagonia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Urbina2017-35">[33]</a></sup>
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<h2>Revolt in the Netherlands[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_II_of_Spain&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Philip_II_of_Spain_berating_William_the_Silent_Prince_of_Orange_by_Cornelis_Kruseman.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Philip's rule in the <a href="/wiki/Seventeen_Provinces">Seventeen Provinces</a> known collectively as the Netherlands faced many difficulties, leading to <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War">open warfare</a> in 1568. He appointed <a href="/wiki/Margaret_of_Parma">Margaret of Parma</a> as Governor of the Netherlands, when he left the low countries for the Spanish kingdoms in 1559, but forced her to adjust policy to the advice of <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_Granvelle">Cardinal Granvelle</a>, who was greatly disliked in the Netherlands, after he insisted on direct control over events in the Netherlands despite being over two weeks' ride away in Madrid. There was discontent in the Netherlands about Philip's taxation demands and the incessant <a href="/wiki/Inquisition_of_the_Netherlands">persecution</a> of Protestants. In 1566, Protestant preachers sparked anti-clerical riots known as the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Revolt#1566_—_Iconoclasm_and_repression">Iconoclast Fury</a>; in response to growing Protestant influence, the army of the Iron Duke (<a href="/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_3rd_Duke_of_Alba">Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba</a>) went on the offensive. In 1568, Alba had <a href="/wiki/Lamoral,_Count_of_Egmont">Lamoral, Count of Egmont</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philip_de_Montmorency,_Count_of_Horn">Philip de Montmorency, Count of Horn</a> executed in <a href="/wiki/Brussels">Brussels</a>' <a href="/wiki/Grand-Place">central square</a>, further alienating the local aristocracy. There were massacres of civilians in <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Fury_at_Mechelen">Mechelen</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Nierop69-70-36">[34]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_Naarden">Naarden</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-37">[35]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Zutphen">Zutphen</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-Nierop69-70-36">[34]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Haarlem">Haarlem</a>. In 1571, Alba erected at <a href="/wiki/Antwerp">Antwerp</a> a bronze statue of himself trampling the rebellious Dutch under his horse's hooves, cast from the melted-down cannon looted by the Spanish troops after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jemmingen">Battle of Jemmingen</a> in 1568; it was modelled on medieval images of the Spanish patron <a href="/wiki/Saint_James_Matamoros">Saint James "the Moorslayer"</a> riding down Muslims and caused such outrage that Philip had it removed and destroyed.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Goodwin-38">[36]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1572, a prominent exiled member of the Dutch aristocracy, <a href="/wiki/William_the_Silent">William of Orange</a> (Prince of Orange), invaded the Netherlands with a Protestant army, but he only succeeded in holding two provinces, <a href="/wiki/Holland">Holland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zeeland">Zeeland</a>. Because of the Spanish repulse in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Alkmaar">Siege of Alkmaar</a> (1573) led by his equally brutal son <a href="/wiki/Fadrique_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_4th_Duke_of_Alba">Fadrique</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Goodwin-38">[36]</a></sup> Alba resigned his command, replaced by <a href="/wiki/Luis_de_Requesens_y_Z%C3%BA%C3%B1iga">Luis de Requesens</a>. Alba boasted that he had burned or executed 18,600 persons in the Netherlands,<sup><a href="#cite_note-39">[37]</a></sup> in addition to the far greater number he massacred during the war, many of them women and children; 8,000 persons were burned or hanged in one year, and the total number of Alba's <a href="/wiki/Flemish_people">Flemish</a> victims can not have fallen short of 50,000.<sup><a href="#cite_note-40">[38]</a></sup> Under Requesens, the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_Flanders">Army of Flanders</a> reached a peak strength of 86,000 in 1574 and retained its battlefield superiority, destroying <a href="/wiki/Louis_of_Nassau">Louis of Nassau</a>'s German mercenary army at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mookerheyde">Battle of Mookerheyde</a> on 14 April 1574, killing both him and his brother <a href="/wiki/Henry_of_Nassau-Dillenburg">Henry</a>.
</p><p>Rampant inflation and the loss of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleet">treasure fleets</a> from the <a href="/wiki/New_World">New World</a> prevented Philip from paying his soldiers consistently, leading to the so-called <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Fury">Spanish Fury</a> at <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Antwerp">Antwerp</a> in 1576, where soldiers ran amok through the streets, burning more than 1,000 homes and killing 6,000 citizens.<sup><a href="#cite_note-41">[39]</a></sup> Philip sent in <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Farnese,_Duke_of_Parma">Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma</a>, as Governor-General of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands">Spanish Netherlands</a> from 1578 to 1592. Farnese defeated the rebels in 1578 at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gembloux_(1578)">Battle of Gembloux</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-42">[40]</a></sup> and he captured many rebel towns in the south: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Maastricht_(1579)">Maastricht</a> (1579), <a href="/wiki/Tournai">Tournai</a> (1581), <a href="/wiki/Oudenaarde">Oudenaarde</a> (1582), <a href="/wiki/Dunkirk">Dunkirk</a> (1583), <a href="/wiki/Bruges">Bruges</a> (1584), <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Ghent_(1583%E2%80%931584)">Ghent</a> (1584), and <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Antwerp">Antwerp</a> (1585).<sup><a href="#cite_note-43">[41]</a></sup>
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<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Beloningsbrief_van_koning_Filips_II_van_Spanje_aan_Balthasar_Gerards,_1590.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/States_General_of_the_Netherlands">States General</a> of the northern provinces, united in the 1579 <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Utrecht">Union of Utrecht</a>, passed an <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Abjuration">Act of Abjuration</a> in 1581 declaring that they no longer recognised Philip as their king. The southern Netherlands (what is now Belgium and Luxembourg) remained under Spanish rule. In 1584, <a href="/wiki/William_the_Silent">William the Silent</a> was assassinated by <a href="/wiki/Balthasar_G%C3%A9rard">Balthasar Gérard</a>, after Philip had offered a reward of 25,000 crowns to anyone who killed him, calling him a "pest on the whole of Christianity and the enemy of the human race". The Dutch forces continued to fight on under Orange's son <a href="/wiki/Maurice_of_Nassau">Maurice of Nassau</a>, who received modest help from the Queen of England in 1585. The Dutch gained an advantage over the Spanish because of their growing economic strength, in contrast to Philip's burgeoning economic troubles. The war came to an end in 1648, when the Dutch Republic was recognised by the Spanish Crown as independent; the eight decades of war came at a massive human cost, with an estimated 600,000 to 700,000 victims, of which 350,000 to 400,000 were civilians killed by disease and what would later be considered <a href="/wiki/War_crime">war crimes</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-44">[42]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>King of Portugal[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_II_of_Spain&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Anthony_I_of_Portugal.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>In 1578 young king <a href="/wiki/Sebastian_of_Portugal">Sebastian of Portugal</a> died at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Alc%C3%A1cer_Quibir">Battle of Alcácer Quibir</a> without descendants, triggering a <a href="/wiki/1580_Portuguese_succession_crisis">succession crisis</a>. His granduncle, the elderly <a href="/wiki/Henry_I_of_Portugal">Cardinal Henry</a>, succeeded him as king, but Henry had no descendants either, having taken holy orders. When Henry died two years after Sebastian's disappearance, three grandchildren of <a href="/wiki/Manuel_I_of_Portugal">Manuel I</a> claimed the throne: <a href="/wiki/Infanta_Catarina,_Duchess_of_Braganza">Infanta Catarina, Duchess of Braganza</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio,_Prior_of_Crato">António, Prior of Crato</a>; and Philip II of Spain. António was acclaimed <a href="/wiki/King_of_Portugal">King of Portugal</a> in many cities and towns throughout the country, but members of the Council of Governors of Portugal who had supported Philip escaped to the Spanish kingdoms and declared him to be the legal successor of Henry.
</p><p>Philip II then marched into Portugal and defeated Prior António's troops in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Alc%C3%A2ntara_(1580)">Battle of Alcântara</a>. The Portuguese suffered 4,000 killed, wounded, or captured, while the Spanish sustained only 500 casualties.<sup><a href="#cite_note-45">[43]</a></sup> The troops commanded by <a href="/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo">Fernando Álvarez de Toledo</a> the 3rd <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Alba">Duke of Alba</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-46">[44]</a></sup> imposed subjection to Philip before entering Lisbon, where he seized an immense treasure.<sup><a href="#cite_note-47">[45]</a></sup> Philip II of Spain assumed the Portuguese throne in September 1580 and was crowned <i>Philip I</i> of Portugal in 1581 (recognized as king by the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Cortes">Portuguese Cortes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tomar">Tomar</a>) and a near sixty-year <a href="/wiki/Personal_union">personal union</a> under the rule of the <a href="/wiki/Philippine_Dynasty">Philippine Dynasty</a> began. This gave Philip control of the extensive <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_empire">Portuguese empire</a>. When Philip left for Madrid in 1583, he made his nephew <a href="/wiki/Albert_VII,_Archduke_of_Austria">Albert of Austria</a> his viceroy in Lisbon. In Madrid he established a <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Portugal">Council of Portugal</a> to advise him on Portuguese affairs, giving prominent positions to Portuguese nobles in the Spanish courts, and allowing Portugal to maintain autonomous law, currency, and government. This is on the well-established pattern of <a href="/wiki/Polysynodial_System">rule by councils</a>.
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:ImperioDeFelipeII.svg"></a></p><div><p>Spanish Empire of Philip II, III and IV including all charted and claimed territories, maritime claims (<i>mare clausum</i>) and other features</p></div></div>
<h2>Relations with England and Ireland[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_II_of_Spain&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12">edit</a>]</h2>
<h3>King of England and Ireland[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_II_of_Spain&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13">edit</a>]</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Philip_II.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Titian portrait of Philip as prince (1551), aged about 24, dressed in a lavishly decorated set of armour</p></div></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Philip_%26_Mary_Irish_groat_602446.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Irish <a href="/wiki/Groat_(coin)">groat</a> with Philip and Mary's initials and portraits</p></div></div>
<p>Philip's father arranged his marriage to 37-year-old Queen <a href="/wiki/Mary_I_of_England">Mary I of England</a>, Charles' maternal first cousin. His father ceded the crown of Naples, as well as his claim to the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem">Kingdom of Jerusalem</a>, to him. Their <a href="/wiki/Wedding_of_Mary_I_of_England_and_Philip_of_Spain">marriage</a> at <a href="/wiki/Winchester_Cathedral">Winchester Cathedral</a> on 25 July 1554 took place just two days after their first meeting. Philip's view of the affair was entirely political. Lord Chancellor Gardiner and the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_England">House of Commons</a> petitioned Mary to consider marrying an Englishman, preferring <a href="/wiki/Edward_Courtenay,_1st_Earl_of_Devon">Edward Courtenay</a>.
</p><p>Under the terms of the <a href="/wiki/Act_for_the_Marriage_of_Queen_Mary_to_Philip_of_Spain">Act for the Marriage of Queen Mary to Philip of Spain</a>, Philip was to enjoy Mary I's titles and honours for as long as their marriage should last. All official documents, including <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Parliament">Acts of Parliament</a>, were to be dated with both their names, and Parliament was to be called under the joint authority of the couple. Coins were also to show the heads of both Mary and Philip. The marriage treaty also provided that England would not be obliged to provide military support to Philip's father in any war. The Privy Council instructed that Philip and Mary should be joint signatories of royal documents, and this was enacted by an Act of Parliament, which gave him the title of king and stated that he "shall aid her Highness ... in the happy administration of her Grace's realms and dominions".<sup><a href="#cite_note-48">[46]</a></sup> In other words, Philip was to co-reign with his wife.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Montrose-49">[47]</a></sup> As the new King of England could not read English, it was ordered that a note of all matters of state should be made in Latin or Spanish.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Montrose-49">[47]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Pollard-50">[48]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Groot-51">[49]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Felipe_of_Spain_and_MariaTudor.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Philip and Mary I of England, 1558</p></div></div>
<p>Acts making it high treason to deny Philip's royal authority were passed in Ireland<sup><a href="#cite_note-Edwards-52">[50]</a></sup> and England.<sup><a href="#cite_note-53">[51]</a></sup> Philip and Mary appeared on coins together, with a single crown suspended between them as a symbol of joint reign. The Great Seal shows Philip and Mary seated on thrones, holding the crown together.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Montrose-49">[47]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_England">coat of arms of England</a> was impaled with Philip's to denote their joint reign.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Marks-54">[52]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-ANA-55">[53]</a></sup> During their joint reign, they waged war against France, which resulted in the loss of <a href="/wiki/Calais">Calais</a>, England's last remaining possession in France.
</p><p>Philip's wife had succeeded to the Kingdom of Ireland, but the title of <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Ireland_Act_1542">King of Ireland</a> had been created in 1542 by Henry VIII after he was excommunicated, and so it was not recognised by Catholic monarchs. In 1555, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Paul_IV">Pope Paul IV</a> rectified this by issuing a <a href="/wiki/Papal_bull">papal bull</a> recognising Philip and Mary as rightful King and Queen of Ireland.<sup><a href="#cite_note-56">[54]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/County_Offaly">King's County</a> and <a href="/wiki/Daingean">Philipstown</a> in Ireland were named after Philip as King of Ireland in 1556. The couple's joint royal style after Philip ascended the Spanish throne in 1556 was: <i>Philip and Mary, by the Grace of God, King and Queen of England, Spain, France, Jerusalem, both the Sicilies and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, Archdukes of Austria, Dukes of Burgundy, Milan and Brabant, Counts of Habsburg, Flanders and Tirol</i>.
</p><p>However, the couple had no children. Mary died in 1558 before the union could revitalise the Roman Catholic Church in England. With her death, Philip lost his rights to the English throne (including the ancient <a href="/wiki/English_claims_to_the_French_throne">English claims to the French throne</a>) and ceased to be King of England, Ireland and (as claimed by them) France.
</p><p>Philip's great-grandson, <a href="/wiki/Philippe_I,_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans">Philippe I, Duke of Orléans</a>, married <a href="/wiki/Princess_Henrietta_of_England">Princess Henrietta of England</a> in 1661; in 1807, the <a href="/wiki/Jacobitism">Jacobite</a> claim to the British throne passed to the descendants of their child <a href="/wiki/Anne_Marie_d%27Orl%C3%A9ans">Anne Marie d'Orléans</a>.
</p>
<h3>After Mary I's death[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_II_of_Spain&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14">edit</a>]</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Dominios_de_Felipe_II.svg"></a></p><div><p>Philip's European and North African dominions in 1581</p></div></div>
<p>Upon Mary's death, the throne went to <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England">Elizabeth I</a>. Philip had no wish to sever his tie with England, and had sent a proposal of marriage to Elizabeth. However, she delayed in answering, and in that time learned Philip was also considering a <a href="/wiki/House_of_Valois">Valois</a> alliance. Elizabeth I was the Protestant daughter of Henry VIII and <a href="/wiki/Anne_Boleyn">Anne Boleyn</a>. This union was deemed illegitimate by English Catholics, who disputed the validity of both the annulment of Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon and of his subsequent marriage to Boleyn, and hence claimed that <a href="/wiki/Mary,_Queen_of_Scots">Mary, Queen of Scots</a>, the Catholic great-granddaughter of <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England">Henry VII</a>, was the rightful monarch.
</p><p>For many years Philip maintained peace with England, and even defended Elizabeth from the Pope's threat of excommunication. This was a measure taken to preserve a European balance of power. Ultimately, Elizabeth allied England with the Protestant rebels in the Netherlands. Further, English ships began a policy of piracy against Spanish trade and threatened to plunder the great Spanish treasure ships coming from the New World. English ships went so far as to attack a Spanish port. The last straw for Philip was the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nonsuch">Treaty of Nonsuch</a> signed by Elizabeth in 1585 – promising troops and supplies to the rebels. Although it can be argued this English action was the result of Philip's <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Joinville">Treaty of Joinville</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_League_(French)">Catholic League of France</a>, Philip considered it an act of war by England.
</p><p>The execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, in 1587 ended Philip's hopes of placing a Catholic on the English throne. He turned instead to more direct plans to invade England and return the country to Catholicism. In 1588, he sent a fleet, the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada">Spanish Armada</a>, to rendezvous with the <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Farnese,_Duke_of_Parma">Duke of Parma</a>'s army and convey it across the English Channel. However, the operation had little chance of success from the beginning, because of lengthy delays, lack of communication between Philip II and his two commanders and the lack of a deep bay for the fleet. At the point of attack, a storm struck the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel">English Channel</a>, already known for its harsh currents and choppy waters, which devastated large numbers of the Spanish fleet. There was a tightly fought battle against the English <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy">Royal Navy</a>; it was by no means a slaughter (only one Spanish ship was sunk),<sup><a href="#cite_note-57">[55]</a></sup> but the Spanish were forced into a retreat, and the overwhelming majority of the Armada was destroyed by the harsh weather. Whilst the English Royal Navy may not have destroyed the Armada at the Battle of Gravelines, they had prevented it from linking up with the army it was supposed to convey across the channel. Thus whilst the English Royal Navy may have only won a slight tactical victory over the Spanish, it had delivered a major strategic one—preventing the invasion of England. Through a week of fighting the Spanish had expended 100,000 cannonballs, but no English ship was seriously damaged.<sup><a href="#cite_note-58">[56]</a></sup> However, over 7,000 English sailors died from disease during the time the Armada was in English waters.
</p><p>The defeat of the Spanish Armada gave great heart to the Protestant cause across Europe. The storm that smashed the Armada was seen by many of Philip's enemies as a sign of the will of God. Many Spaniards blamed the admiral of the Armada for its failure, but Philip, despite his complaint that he had sent his ships to fight the English, not the elements, was not among them.
</p><p>A measure of the character of Philip can be gathered by the fact that he personally saw to it that the wounded men of the Armada were treated and received pensions, and that the families of those who died were compensated for their loss, which was highly unusual for the time.
</p><p>While the invasion had been averted, England was unable to take advantage of this success. An attempt to use her newfound advantage at sea with a <a href="/wiki/English_Armada">counter-armada</a> the following year failed disastrously with 40 ships sunk and 15,000 men lost.<sup><a href="#cite_note-59">[57]</a></sup> Likewise, English buccaneering and attempts to seize territories in the Caribbean were defeated by Spain's rebuilt navy and their improved intelligence networks (although <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_C%C3%A1diz">Cádiz was destroyed</a> by an Anglo-Dutch force after a failed attempt to seize the treasure fleet). The Habsburgs also struck back with the <a href="/wiki/Dunkirkers">Dunkirkers</a>, who took an increasing toll on Dutch and English shipping.
</p><p>Eventually, the Spanish attempted two further Armadas, in October 1596 and October 1597. The <a href="/wiki/2nd_Spanish_Armada">1596 Armada</a> was destroyed in a storm off northern Spain; it had lost as many as 72 of its 126 ships and suffered 3,000 deaths. The <a href="/wiki/3rd_Spanish_Armada">1597 Armada</a> was frustrated by adverse weather as it approached the English coast undetected. This <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1585%E2%80%931604)">Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)</a> would be fought to a grinding end, but not until both Philip II (d. 1598) and Elizabeth I (d. 1603) were dead. Some of the fighting was done on land in Ireland, France, and the Netherlands, with the English sending expeditionary forces to France and the Netherlands to fight Spain, and Spain attempting to assist Irish rebellions in Ireland.
</p>
<h2>Death[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_II_of_Spain&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Philip II died in <a href="/wiki/El_Escorial">El Escorial</a>, near Madrid, on 13 September 1598, of <a href="/wiki/Cancer">cancer</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-60">[58]</a></sup> He was succeeded by his 20-year-old son, <a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Spain">Philip III</a>.
</p>
<h2>Legacy[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_II_of_Spain&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png"></a></p><div><p>Philip's dominions in 1598</p></div></div>
<p>Under Philip II, Spain reached the peak of its power. However, in spite of the great and increasing quantities of gold and silver flowing into his coffers from the American mines, the riches of the Portuguese spice trade, and the enthusiastic support of the Habsburg dominions for the <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a>, he would never succeed in suppressing Protestantism or defeating the Dutch rebellion. Early in his reign, the Dutch might have laid down their weapons if he had desisted in trying to suppress Protestantism,<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> but his devotion to Catholicism would not permit him to do so. He was a devout Catholic and exhibited the typical 16th century disdain for religious heterodoxy; he said, "Before suffering the slightest damage to religion in the service of God, I would lose all of my estates and a hundred lives, if I had them, because I do not wish nor do I desire to be the ruler of heretics."<sup><a href="#cite_note-61">[59]</a></sup>
</p><p>As he strove to enforce Catholic orthodoxy through an intensification of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition">Inquisition</a>, students were barred from studying elsewhere, and books printed by Spaniards outside the kingdom were banned. Even a highly respected churchman like <a href="/wiki/Bartolome_Carranza">Archbishop Carranza</a> of Toledo was jailed by the Inquisition for 17 years, for publishing ideas that seemed sympathetic in some degree with Protestantism. Such strict enforcement of orthodox belief was successful, and Spain avoided the religiously inspired strife tearing apart other European dominions.
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/School_of_Salamanca">School of Salamanca</a> flourished under his reign. <a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Azpilcueta">Martín de Azpilcueta</a>, highly honoured at Rome by several popes and looked on as an oracle of learning, published his <i>Manuale sive Enchiridion Confessariorum et Poenitentium</i> (Rome, 1568), long a classical text in the schools and in ecclesiastical practice.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez">Francisco Suárez</a>, generally regarded as the greatest scholastic after <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> and regarded during his lifetime as being the greatest living philosopher and theologian, was writing and lecturing, not only in Spain but also in Rome (1580–1585), where <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XIII">Pope Gregory XIII</a> attended the first lecture that he gave. <a href="/wiki/Luis_de_Molina">Luis de Molina</a> published his <i>De liberi arbitrii cum gratiae donis, divina praescientia, praedestinatione et reprobatione concordia</i> (1588), wherein he put forth the doctrine attempting to reconcile the <a href="/wiki/Omniscience">omniscience</a> of God with human <a href="/wiki/Free_will">free will</a> that came to be known as <a href="/wiki/Molinism">Molinism</a>, thereby contributing to what was one of the most important intellectual debates of the time; Molinism became the <i>de facto</i> <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus">Jesuit</a> doctrine on these matters, and is still advocated today by <a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig">William Lane Craig</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a>, among others.
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Felipe_II_de_Espa%C3%B1a_01.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Because Philip II was the most powerful European monarch in an era of war and religious conflict,<sup><a href="#cite_note-62">[60]</a></sup> evaluating both his reign and the man himself has become a controversial historical subject.<sup><a href="#cite_note-63">[61]</a></sup> Even before his death in 1598, his supporters had started presenting him as an archetypical gentleman, full of piety and Christian virtues, whereas his enemies depicted him as a fanatical and despotic monster, responsible for inhuman cruelties and barbarism.<sup><a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a></sup> This dichotomy, further developed into the so-called <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Black_Legend">Spanish Black Legend</a> and <a href="/wiki/White_Legend">White Legend</a>, was helped by King Philip himself. Philip prohibited any biographical account of his life to be published while he was alive, and he ordered that all his private correspondence be burned shortly before he died.<sup><a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a></sup> Moreover, Philip did nothing to defend himself after being betrayed by his ambitious secretary <a href="/wiki/Antonio_P%C3%A9rez_(statesman)">Antonio Perez</a>, who published incredible calumnies against his former master; this allowed Perez's tales to spread all around Europe unchallenged.<sup><a href="#cite_note-66">[64]</a></sup> That way, the popular image of the king that survives to today was created on the eve of his death, at a time when many European princes and religious leaders were turned against Spain as a pillar of the <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a>. This means that many histories depict Philip from deeply prejudiced points of view, usually negative.<sup><a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a></sup>
</p><p>However, some historians classify this anti-Spanish analysis as part of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Legend">Black Legend</a>. In a more recent example of popular culture, Philip II's portrayal in <i><a href="/wiki/Fire_Over_England">Fire Over England</a></i> (1937) is not entirely unsympathetic; he is shown as a very hardworking, intelligent, religious, somewhat paranoid ruler whose prime concern is his country, but who had no understanding of the English, despite his former co-monarchy there.
</p><p>Even in countries that remained Catholic, primarily France and the Italian states, fear and envy of Spanish success and domination created a wide receptiveness for the worst possible descriptions of Philip II. Although some efforts have been made to separate legend from reality,<sup><a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a></sup> that task has proved extremely difficult, since many prejudices are rooted in the cultural heritage of European countries. Spanish-speaking historians tend to assess his political and military achievements, sometimes deliberately avoiding issues such as the king's inflexible Catholicism.<sup><a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a></sup> English-speaking historians tend to show Philip II as a fanatical, despotical, criminal, imperialist monster,<sup><a href="#cite_note-70">[68]</a></sup> minimising his military victories (<a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto_(1571)">Battle of Lepanto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_St._Quentin_(1557)">Battle of Saint Quentin</a>, etc.) to mere anecdotes, and magnifying his defeats (namely the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada">Armada</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a></sup>) even though at the time those defeats did not result in great political or military changes in the balance of power in Europe. Moreover, it has been noted that objectively assessing Philip's reign would necessitate a re-analysis of the reign of his greatest opponents, namely England's Queen <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I">Elizabeth I</a> and the Dutch <a href="/wiki/William_the_Silent">William the Silent</a>, who are popularly regarded as great heroes in their home nations; if Philip II is to be shown to the English or Dutch public in a more favourable light, Elizabeth and William would lose their cold-blooded, fanatical enemy, thus decreasing their own patriotic accomplishments.<sup><a href="#cite_note-72">[note 3]</a></sup>
</p><p>He ended French Valois ambitions in Italy and brought about the Habsburg ascendency in Europe. He secured the Portuguese kingdom and empire. He succeeded in increasing the importation of silver in the face of English, Dutch, and French privateers, overcoming multiple financial crises and consolidating Spain's overseas empire. Although clashes would be ongoing, he ended the major threat posed to Europe by the Ottoman navy.
</p><p>
Historian <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Parker_(historian)">Geoffrey Parker</a> offers a management-psychological explanation, as summarized by <a href="/wiki/Tonio_Andrade">Tonio Andrade</a> and William Reger:</p><blockquote><p> One might have expected that Philip—being a dedicated, persistent, and hard-working man, and being the head of Western Europe’s wealthiest and largest empire—would have succeeded in his aims. He didn’t. His endeavors were doomed by his own character, or at least that’s how Parker sees it. Drawing on studies in management science and organizational psychology, Parker argues that a successful manager of a large organization must keep attention on the big picture, must have a good strategy for dealing with copious information, must know how to delegate, and must be flexible. Philip failed on all counts. He was a micromanager who got bogged down in details, refusing to delegate and trying to read every dispatch that came to his desk. He obsessed and dithered, so that by the time his decisions were made and his orders reached the men meant to carry them out, the situation on the ground had changed. Philip was also inflexible, unwilling to abandon ineffective policies. Most pernicious of all was Philip’s tendency toward messianic thinking, a belief that he was doing God’s work and that heaven would support him with miracles.<sup><a href="#cite_note-73">[70]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<h2>Titles, honours and styles[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_II_of_Spain&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Cannon_with_arms_of_Philip_II_as_King_of_England_and_Ireland.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Cannon with arms of Philip II as King of Spain and <i>jure uxoris</i> King of England and France</p></div></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Alonso_S%C3%A1nchez_Coello_-_Felipe_II_como_Rey_de_Portugal.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Portrait of Philip II as King of Portugal by <a href="/wiki/Alonso_S%C3%A1nchez_Coello">Sánchez Coello</a>, circa 1580</p></div></div>
<ul><li>Heir titles
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Gerona">Prince of Gerona</a>: 21 May 1527 – 16 January 1556</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Asturias">Prince of Asturias</a> 1528–1556</li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Castilian_monarchs">King of Castile</a> as <b>Philip II</b>: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598
<ul><li>King of Castile, of León, of Granada, of Toledo, of Galicia, of Seville, of Cordoba, of Murcia, of Jaen, of the Algarves, of Algeciras, of Gibraltar, of the Canary Islands, of the Indias, the Islands and Mainland of the Ocean Sea;<sup><a href="#cite_note-74">[note 4]</a></sup> Lord of Molina</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lord_of_Biscay">Lord of Biscay</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Aragonese_monarchs">King of Aragon</a> as <b>Philip I</b>: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598
<ul><li>King of Aragón</li>
<li>King of the Two Sicilies
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Naples">King of Naples</a>, of Jerusalem (from 25 July 1554)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Sicily">King of Sicily</a>. Duke of Athens, of Neopatria</li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Valencian_monarchs">King of Valencia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Majorcan_monarchs">King of Majorca</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sardinian_monarchs">King of Sardinia</a> and of Corsica, Margrave of Oristano, Count of Goceano</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Navarrese_monarchs">King of Navarre</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Count_of_Barcelona">Count of Barcelona</a>, of Roussillon, of Cerdanya</li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Portuguese_monarchs">King of Portugal</a> as <b>Philip I</b>: 12 September 1580 – 13 September 1598
<ul><li>King of Portugal and the Algarves of either side of the sea in Africa, Lord of Guinea and of Conquest, Navigation, and Commerce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, and India, etc.</li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_England">King of England de <i>jure uxoris</i></a> as <b>Philip I</b>: 25 July 1554 – 17 November 1558<sup><a href="#cite_note-75">[71]</a></sup>
<ul><li>King of England, France (titular); <a href="/wiki/Fidei_Defensor">Defender of the Faith</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Ireland">King of Ireland</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Imperial and Habsburg patrimonial titles:
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_dukes_of_Milan">Duke of Milan</a>: 11 October 1540 (secret donation) / 25 July 1554 (public investiture) – 13 September 1598</li>
<li>Imperial vicar of Siena: since 30 May 1554</li>
<li>Archduke of Austria</li>
<li>Princely Count of Habsburg and of Tyrol</li>
<li>Prince of Swabia</li></ul></li>
<li>Burgundian titles
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lord_of_the_Netherlands">Lord of the Netherlands</a>: 25 October 1555 – 13 September 1598
<ul><li>Duke <a href="/wiki/Dukes_of_Brabant">of Lothier, of Brabant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dukes_of_Limburg">of Limburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Counts,_Dukes_and_Grand_Dukes_of_Luxembourg">of Luxemburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dukes_of_Guelders">of Guelders</a>. Count <a href="/wiki/Counts_of_Flanders">of Flanders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Counts_of_Artois">of Artois</a>, <a href="/wiki/Counts_of_Hainaut">of Hainaut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Count_of_Holland">of Holland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Count_of_Zeeland">of Zeeland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marquis_of_Namur">of Namur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Count_of_Zutphen">of Zutphen</a>. Margrave of the Holy Roman Empire, Lord of Frisia, Salins, Mechelen, the cities, towns and lands of Utrecht, Overyssel, Groningen</li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_counts_of_Burgundy">Count Palatine of Burgundy</a> from 10 June 1556; <a href="/wiki/Charolais_(county)">Count of Charolais</a> from 21 September 1558</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Burgundy">Duke of Burgundy</a></li>
<li>Dominator in Asia, Africa</li></ul></li>
<li>Honours
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Knights_of_the_Golden_Fleece">Knight of the Golden Fleece</a>: 1531 – 13 September 1598</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Master_of_the_Order_of_the_Golden_Fleece">Grand Master of the Order of the Golden Fleece</a>:<sup><a href="#cite_note-Brug-76">[72]</a></sup> 23 October 1555 – 13 September 1598</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Grand_Masters_of_the_Order_of_Calatrava">Grand Master of the Order of Calatrava</a>: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Grand_Masters_of_the_Order_of_Alcantara">Grand Master of the Order of Alcantara</a>: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Grand_Masters_of_the_Order_of_Santiago">Grand Master of the Order of Santiago</a>: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Order_of_Montesa">Grand Master of the Order of Montesa</a>: 8 December 1587 – 13 September 1598</li></ul></li></ul>
<p>Philip continued his father's style of "<a href="/wiki/Majesty">Majesty</a>" (Latin: <i>Maiestas</i>; Spanish: <i>Majestad</i>) in preference to that of "<a href="/wiki/Highness">Highness</a>" (<i>Celsitudo</i>; <i>Alteza</i>). In diplomatic texts, he continued the use of the title "<a href="/wiki/Rex_Catholicismus">Most Catholic</a>" (<i>Rex Catholicissimus</i>; <i>Rey Católico</i>) first bestowed by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VI">Pope Alexander VI</a> on <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs">Ferdinand and Isabella</a> in 1496.
</p><p>Following the <a href="/wiki/Act_for_the_Marriage_of_Queen_Mary_to_Philip_of_Spain">Act of Parliament sanctioning his marriage with Mary</a>, the couple was styled "Philip and Mary, by the grace of God King and Queen of England, <a href="/wiki/British_claims_to_the_French_throne">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples">Naples</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland">Ireland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fidei_Defensor">Defenders of the Faith</a>, Princes of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire">Spain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily">Sicily</a>, Archdukes of <a href="/wiki/Archduchy_of_Austria">Austria</a>, Dukes of <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan">Milan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy">Burgundy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brabant">Brabant</a>, Counts of <a href="/wiki/Habsburg">Habsburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Count_of_Flanders">Flanders</a> and <a href="/wiki/County_of_Tyrol">Tyrol</a>".<sup><a href="#cite_note-waller-77">[73]</a></sup> Upon his inheritance of Spain in 1556, they became "Philip and Mary, by the grace of God King and Queen of England, Spain, France, <a href="/wiki/Two_Sicilies">both the Sicilies</a>, Jerusalem and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, Archdukes of Austria, Dukes of Burgundy, Milan and Brabant, Counts of Habsburg, Flanders and Tyrol".<sup><a href="#cite_note-waller-77">[73]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the 1584 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Joinville">Treaty of Joinville</a>, he was styled "Philip, by the grace of God second of his name, king of Castille, Leon, Aragon, Portugal, Navarre, Naples, Sicily, Jerusalem, <a href="/wiki/King_of_Majorca">Majorca</a>, <a href="/wiki/King_of_Sardinia">Sardinia</a>, and the islands, Indies, and <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/terra_firma">terra firma</a></i> of the <a href="/wiki/Ocean_Sea">Ocean Sea</a>; archduke of Austria; duke of Burgundy, <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Lothier">Lothier</a>, Brabant, <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Limbourg">Limbourg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Guelders">Guelders</a>, and Milan; Count of Habsburg, Flanders, <a href="/wiki/County_of_Artois">Artois</a>, and <a href="/wiki/County_of_Burgundy">Burgundy</a>; Count Palatine of <a href="/wiki/County_of_Hainaut">Hainault</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_of_Holland">Holland</a> and <a href="/wiki/County_of_Zeeland">Zeeland</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_of_Namur">Namur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drenthe">Drenthe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zutphen_County">Zutphen</a>; prince of "Zvuanem"; marquis of the Holy Roman Empire; lord of <a href="/wiki/Frisia">Frisia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salland">Salland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lordship_of_Mechelen">Mechelen</a>, and of the <a href="/wiki/Ommelanden">cities, towns, and lands</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lordship_of_Utrecht">Utrecht</a>, <a href="/wiki/Overissel">Overissel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lordship_of_Groningen">Groningen</a>; master of Asia and Africa".<sup><a href="#cite_note-78">[74]</a></sup>
</p><p>His coinage typically bore the <a href="/wiki/Obverse">obverse</a> inscription "<small>PHS·D:G·HISP·Z·REX</small>" (Latin: "Philip, by the grace of God King of Spain et cetera"), followed by the local title of the mint ("<small>DVX·BRA</small>" for Duke of Brabant, "<small>C·HOL</small>" for Count of Holland, "<small>D·TRS·ISSV</small>" for Lord of Overissel, etc.). The <a href="/wiki/Obverse_and_reverse">reverse</a> would then bear a motto such as "<small>PACE·ET·IVSTITIA</small>" ("For Peace and Justice") or "<small>DOMINVS·MIHI·ADIVTOR</small>" ("<a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Hebrews">The Lord is my helper</a>").<sup><a href="#cite_note-79">[75]</a></sup> A medal struck in 1583 bore the inscriptions "<small>PHILIPP II HISP ET NOVI ORBIS REX</small>" ("Philip II, King of Spain and the New World") and "<small>NON SUFFICIT ORBIS</small>" ("The world is not enough").<sup><a href="#cite_note-80">[76]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Heraldry[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_II_of_Spain&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18">edit</a>]</h2>
<table>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Heraldry of Philip II of Spain
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>
<table>
<tbody><tr>
<th><i> Common versions </i>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Philip_II_of_Spain,_English_King_Consort-Spanish_Variant_(1556-1558).svg"></a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Philip_II_of_Spain_(1558-1580).svg"></a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_Spain_(1580-1668).svg"></a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>1556–1558<br /><small>(as Spanish monarch)</small>
</td>
<td>1558–1580
</td>
<td>1580–1598
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table>
<tbody><tr>
<th><b>Spanish realms versions</b>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<th><b><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Navarre">Kingdom of Navarre</a></b>
</th>
<th><b><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Galicia">Kingdom of Galicia</a></b>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Philip_II_of_Spain_(Navarre)_-_1558-1580.svg"></a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_Spain_(1580-1668)_-_Navarre.svg"></a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_Spain_(1580-1668)_-_Navarre_Variant.svg"></a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Philip_II_of_Spain_-_Galicia_Variant_(1558-1580).svg"></a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_Spain_-_Galicia_Variant_(1580-1668).svg"></a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>1558–1580
</td>
<td>1580–1598
</td>
<td>1580–1598
</td>
<td>1558–1580
</td>
<td>1580–1598
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table>
<tbody><tr>
<th><b>Burgundian variants</b>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<th><b><a href="/wiki/Free_County_of_Burgundy">Free County of Burgundy</a></b>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Count_Palatine_of_Burgundy_(1556-1580).svg"></a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Count_Palatine_of_Burgundy_(1580-1678).svg"></a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>1556–1580
</td>
<td>1580–1598
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table>
<tbody><tr>
<th><b><a href="/wiki/Coats_of_arms_of_Spanish_Monarchs_in_Italy">Italian Variants</a></b>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<th><b><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan">Duchy of Milan</a></b>
</th>
<td><b><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia">Kingdom of Sardinia</a></b>
</td>
<td><b><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples">Naples</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily">Sicily</a></b>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Philip_II_of_Spain_as_Monarch_of_Milan_(1554-1558).svg"></a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Philip_II_of_Spain_as_Monarch_of_Milan_(1558-1580).svg"></a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_the_King_of_Spain_as_Monarch_of_Milan_(1580-1700).svg"></a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_Spain_(1580-1668)_-_Sardinia_Variant.svg"></a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Philip_II_of_Spain_as_Monarch_of_Naples_and_Sicily.svg"></a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>1554–1558
</td>
<td>1558–1580
</td>
<td>1580–1598
</td>
<td>1580–1598
</td>
<td>1554–1598
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table>
<tbody><tr>
<th><b>Ornamented versions</b>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Philip_II_of_Spain_(Order_of_the_Garter).svg"></a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Philip_II_of_Spain_with_the_Eagle_of_St._John_(1558-1580).svg"></a><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_Spain_with_the_Eagle_of_St._John_(1580-1668).svg"></a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Full_Ornamented_Coat_of_arms_of_Philip_II_of_Spain_(1556%E2%80%931558).svg"></a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Coat of arms at his investiture as Knight of the<br /><a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_Garter">Order of the Garter</a><br />(in 1554)
</td>
<td>Coat of arms<br />(with the Eagle of St John as supporter)<br />1558–1580 / 1580–1598
</td>
<td>Coat of arms as Spanish monarch and king<br /><i><a href="/wiki/Jure_uxoris">jure uxoris</a></i> of England<br /><small>(with symbols of the Crown of <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile">Castile and León</a> and<br />a <a href="/wiki/Cap_of_maintenance">cap of maintenance</a> with the crest of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England">England</a> imperially crowned in the top</small>)<br />1556–1558
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Full_Ornamented_Coat_of_arms_of_Philip_II_of_Spain_(1558%E2%80%931580).svg"></a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Full_Ornamented_Coat_of_Arms_of_Philip_II_of_Spain_(1580-1598).svg"></a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Full_Ornamented_Coat_of_Arms_of_Spanish_House_of_Austria_(1580-1668).svg"></a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Coat of arms with supporters, crest and motto<br /><small>(with symbols of the Crowns of <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile">Castile and León</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon">Aragon</a> in the top</small>)<br />1558–1580
</td>
<td>Coat of arms with supporters, crest and motto<br /><small>(with symbols of the Crowns of <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon">Aragon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile">Castile and León</a> and of<br /> the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal">Kingdom of Portugal</a> in the top</small>)<br />1580–1598
</td>
<td>Coat of arms with supporters (a lion and a griffin) and crest<br /><small>(with symbols of the Crowns of <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon">Aragon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile">Castile and León</a> and of<br /> the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal">Kingdom of Portugal</a> in the top</small>)<br />1580–1598
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h2>Family[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_II_of_Spain&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Philip was married four times and had children with three of his wives. He also had two long-term relationships with <a href="/wiki/Isabel_Osorio">Isabel Osorio</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eufrasia_de_Guzm%C3%A1n">Eufrasia de Guzmán</a>.
</p>
<ul>
	<li><div>
	<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Maria_Manuela,_Princess_of_Portugal_and_Asturias_-_El_Prado.jpg"></a></p></div>
	<p>Princess Maria of Portugal
</p>
	</div></li>
	<li></li>
	<li></li>
	<li></li>
</ul>
<h3>First marriage[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_II_of_Spain&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Philip's first wife was his double first cousin, <a href="/wiki/Maria_Manuela,_Princess_of_Portugal">Maria Manuela, Princess of Portugal</a>. She was a daughter of Philip's maternal uncle, <a href="/wiki/John_III_of_Portugal">John III of Portugal</a>, and paternal aunt, <a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Austria,_Queen_of_Portugal">Catherine of Austria</a>. They were married at <a href="/wiki/Salamanca">Salamanca</a> on 12 November 1543. The marriage produced one son in 1545, after which Maria died four days later due to haemorrhage:
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carlos,_Prince_of_Asturias">Carlos, Prince of Asturias</a> (8 July 1545 – 24 July 1568), died unmarried at the age of 23 and without issue.</li></ul>
<h3>Second marriage[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_II_of_Spain&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Philip's second wife was his first cousin once removed, Queen <a href="/wiki/Mary_I_of_England">Mary I of England</a>. The marriage, which took place on 25 July 1554 at <a href="/wiki/Winchester_Cathedral">Winchester Cathedral</a>, was political. By this marriage, Philip became <i><a href="/wiki/Jure_uxoris">jure uxoris</a></i> <a href="/wiki/List_of_English_monarchs">King of England</a> and <a href="/wiki/King_of_Ireland">Ireland</a>, although the couple was apart more than together as they ruled their respective countries. The marriage produced no children, although there was a <a href="/wiki/False_pregnancy">false pregnancy</a>, and Mary died in 1558, ending Philip's reign in England and Ireland.
</p>
<h3>Third marriage[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_II_of_Spain&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Philip's third wife was <a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_of_Valois">Elisabeth of Valois</a>, the eldest daughter of <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_France">Henry II of France</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catherine_de%27_Medici">Catherine de' Medici</a>. The original ceremony was conducted by proxy (the <a href="/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_3rd_Duke_of_Alba">Duke of Alba</a> standing in for Philip) at <a href="/wiki/Notre_Dame_de_Paris">Notre Dame</a> prior to Elisabeth's departure from France. The actual ceremony was conducted in <a href="/wiki/Guadalajara_(province)">Guadalajara</a> upon her arrival in Spain. During their marriage (1559–1568) they conceived five daughters, though only two of the girls survived. Elisabeth died a few hours after the loss of her last child. Their children were:
</p>
<ul><li>Miscarried twin daughters (August 1564).</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Isabella_Clara_Eugenia_of_Spain">Isabella Clara Eugenia</a> (12 August 1566 – 1 December 1633, aged 67), married <a href="/wiki/Albert_VII,_Archduke_of_Austria">Albert VII, Archduke of Austria</a>,</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Catalina_Micaela_of_Spain">Catherine Michaela</a> (10 October 1567 – 6 November 1597, aged 30), married <a href="/wiki/Charles_Emmanuel_I,_Duke_of_Savoy">Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy</a>, and had issue.</li>
<li>Joan (3 October 1568) died shortly after birth.</li></ul>
<h3>Fourth marriage[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_II_of_Spain&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Philip's fourth and final wife was his niece, <a href="/wiki/Anna_of_Austria_(1549%E2%80%931580)">Anna of Austria</a>. By contemporary accounts, this was a convivial and satisfactory marriage (1570–1580) for both Philip and Anna. This marriage produced four sons and one daughter. Anna died of heart failure 8 months after giving birth to Maria in 1580. 
Their children were:
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand,_Prince_of_Asturias">Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias</a> (4 December 1571 – 18 October 1578, aged six).</li>
<li>Charles Laurence (12 August 1573 – 30 June 1575, aged one).</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Diego,_Prince_of_Asturias">Diego Félix</a> (15 August 1575 – 21 November 1582, aged seven).</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Spain">Philip III of Spain</a> (14 April 1578 – 31 March 1621, aged 42).</li>
<li>Maria (14 February 1580 – 5 August 1583, aged three).</li></ul>
<ul>
	<li><div>
	<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Cenotafio_de_Felipe_II_y_su_familia.jpg"></a></p></div>
	<p>Cenotaph of Philip and three of his four wives at El Escorial
</p>
	</div></li>
	<li></li>
</ul>
<h2>Ancestry[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_II_of_Spain&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><table><tbody><tr><th>Ancestors of Philip II of Spain</th></tr><tr><td><table><tbody><tr><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>8. <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor">Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-BLKO-Philip-83">[79]</a></sup></td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td>4. <a href="/wiki/Philip_I,_King_of_Castile">Philip I, King of Castile</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-1911-Charles_V-81">[77]</a></sup></td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td>9. <a href="/wiki/Mary_of_Burgundy">Mary, Duchess of Burgundy</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-BLKO-Philip-83">[79]</a></sup></td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td>2. <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor">Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor</a></td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td>10. <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II,_King_of_Aragon">Ferdinand II, King of Aragon</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-1911-Joanna-84">[80]</a></sup> (= 14)</td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td>5. <a href="/wiki/Joanna,_Queen_of_Castile">Joanna, Queen of Castile</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-1911-Charles_V-81">[77]</a></sup></td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td>11. <a href="/wiki/Isabella_I,_Queen_of_Castile">Isabella I, Queen of Castile</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-1911-Joanna-84">[80]</a></sup> (= 15)</td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td>1. <b>Philip II of Spain</b></td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td>12. <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand,_Duke_of_Viseu">Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-Stephens1903-82">[78]</a></sup></td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td>6. <a href="/wiki/Manuel_I,_King_of_Portugal">Manuel I, King of Portugal</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-Stephens1903-82">[78]</a></sup></td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td>13. <a href="/wiki/Beatrice_of_Portugal,_Duchess_of_Viseu">Beatrice of Portugal</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-Stephens1903-82">[78]</a></sup></td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td>3. <a href="/wiki/Isabella_of_Portugal,_Holy_Roman_Empress">Isabella of Portugal</a></td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td>14. <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II,_King_of_Aragon">Ferdinand II, King of Aragon</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-Portugal-Maria-85">[81]</a></sup> (= 10)</td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td>7. <a href="/wiki/Maria_of_Aragon,_Queen_of_Portugal">Maria of Aragon</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-Stephens1903-82">[78]</a></sup></td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td>15. <a href="/wiki/Isabella_I,_Queen_of_Castile">Isabella I, Queen of Castile</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-Portugal-Maria-85">[81]</a></sup> (= 11)</td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<h2>See also[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_II_of_Spain&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Descendants_of_Isabella_I_of_Castile_and_Ferdinand_II_of_Aragon">Descendants of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/The_empire_on_which_the_sun_never_sets">The empire on which the sun never sets</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_monarchs">List of Spanish monarchs</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Armoury_of_Madrid">Royal Armoury of Madrid</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ruy_G%C3%B3mez_de_Silva,_1st_Prince_of_%C3%89boli">Ruy Gómez de Silva, 1st Prince of Éboli</a></li></ul>
<h2>Notes[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_II_of_Spain&amp;action=edit&amp;section=26">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b> He was titled as <b>Philip II</b> (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_language">Spanish</a>: <i>Felipe II</i>) in <a href="/wiki/Spain">Spain</a>, while in <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal">Portugal</a> and his Italian kingdoms he ruled as <b>Philip I</b> (<a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language">Portuguese</a>: <i>Filipe I</i>).
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b> Spain was a <a href="/wiki/Composite_monarchy">composite monarchy</a>, and besides being the second Philip to rule <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile">Castile</a>, he was the first to rule <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon">Aragon</a> and the fourth to rule <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Navarre">Navarre</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b> This appreciation is noted by Martin Hume in his aforementioned work ("Philip II of Spain", London 1897), pointing out how difficult is to show Philip II in a more favorable light to his fellow Englishmen because of that.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b> With the incorporation of Portugal to the Monarchy the title changed to East and West Indies, the Islands and Mainland of the Ocean sea.
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2>References[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_II_of_Spain&amp;action=edit&amp;section=27">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b> Geoffrey Parker. <i>The Grand Strategy of Philip II</i>, (2000)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b> Garret Mattingly. <i>The Armada</i> p. 22, p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-395-08366-4">0-395-08366-4</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b> <a href="/wiki/Rowse,_A._L.">Rowse, A. L.</a> (1969). <i>Tudor Cornwall: Portrait of a Society</i>. C. Scribner, p.400
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b> "One decisive action might have forced Philip II to the negotiating table and avoided fourteen years of continuing warfare. Instead the King was able to use the brief respite to rebuild his naval forces and by the end of 1589 Spain once again had an Atlantic fleet strong enough to escort the American treasure ships home." <i>The Mariner's Mirror</i>, Volumes 76–77. Society for Nautical Research, 1990
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b> <cite>Kamen, Henry (2014). <i>Spain, 1469–1714: A Society of Conflict</i>. Routledge. p. 150.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b> <cite>Davis, James C. (1970). <i>Pursuit of Power: Venetian Ambassadors' Reports on Spain, Turkey, and France in the Age of Philip II 1560–1600</i>. New York: Harper &amp; Row. pp. 81–82.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://servicios.jcyl.es/pweb/datos.do?numero=16049&amp;tipo=Inmueble&amp;ruta=">"BIEN DE INTERÉS CULTURAL: PALACIO CONDES RIVADAVIA PALACIO DE PIMENTEL"</a>. <i>Junta de Castilla y León</i>. Retrieved 12 January 2023.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-JBE_10-0">^</a></b> James Boyden. <i>Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopaedia of the Early Modern World</i>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b> <i>Encyclopedia of World Biography</i> (2004).
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b> Parker, Geoffrey. <i>The Dutch Revolt</i>. London: Penguin. p.41.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b> Parker, <i>The Dutch Revolt</i>. p. 42.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b> <cite>Drelichman, Mauricio; Voth, Hans-Joachim (2014). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xfWKAQAAQBAJ"><i>Lending to the Borrower from Hell: Debt, Taxes, and Default in the Age of Philip II</i></a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-4843-0"><bdi>978-1-4008-4843-0</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b> <cite>Gat, Azar (2006). <i>War in Human Civilization</i> (4th ed.). Oxford [u.a.]: Oxford University Press. p. 488. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-923663-3"><bdi>978-0-19-923663-3</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b> <cite>Elliott, J. H. (2002). <i>Imperial Spain 1469–1716</i> (Repr. ed.). London [u.a.]: Penguin Books. pp. 285–291. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-100703-6"><bdi>0-14-100703-6</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b> As Philip wrote in 1566 to <a href="/wiki/Luis_de_Z%C3%BA%C3%B1iga_y_Requesens">Luis de Requesens</a>: "You can assure his Holiness that rather than suffer the least injury to religion and the service of God, I would lose all my states and a hundred lives if I had them, for I do not intend to rule over heretics." <a href="#CITEREFPettegree2002">Pettegree 2002</a>, p. 214.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b> <a href="/wiki/Fernand_Braudel">Fernand Braudel</a>, <i>The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II</i>, vol. 2 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 935–936 and notes.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b> <cite>Royall Tyler, ed. (1954). <a href="http://www.british-history.ac.uk/cal-state-papers/spain/vol13/pp275-280">"Spain: September 1556"</a>. <i>Calendar of State Papers, Spain</i>. Institute of Historical Research. Retrieved 19 April 2013.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-fiuRebiba_20-0">^</a></b> <cite>Salvador Miranda (2010). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303175609/http://www2.fiu.edu/~mirandas/bios1555-ii.htm">"The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Florida_International_University">Florida International University</a>. Archived from <a href="http://www2.fiu.edu/~mirandas/bios1555-ii.htm">the original</a> on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 21 April 2010.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b> <cite>Richard L. Kagan (2009). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lV9Xdn3c6IoC&amp;pg=PA135"><i>Clio and the Crown: The Politics of History in Medieval and Early Modern Spain</i></a>. JHU Press. p. 135. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781421401652"><bdi>9781421401652</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b> Jan Glete p. 156
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b> Nascimiento Rodrigues/Tessaleno Devezas p.122
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b> Knecht, <i>French Civil Wars</i> p. 272
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b> <cite>Goubert, Pierre (2002). <i>The Course of French History</i>. Routledge. p. 103.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-lytle_26-0">^</a></b> <cite>Lytle Schurz, William (1922), "The Spanish Lake", <i>The Hispanic American Historical Review</i>, <b>5</b> (2): 181–194, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F00182168-5.2.181">10.1215/00182168-5.2.181</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/2506024">2506024</a></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-MCLEstrecho_27-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.memoriachilena.cl/602/w3-article-641.html">"Navegantes europeos en el estrecho de Magallanes"</a>. <i>Memoria Chilena</i> (in Spanish). <a href="/wiki/Biblioteca_Nacional_de_Chile">Biblioteca Nacional de Chile</a>. Retrieved 30 September 2014.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080922103737/http://www.artehistoria.jcyl.es/cronicas/contextos/10105.htm"><i>Relación y derrotero del viaje y descubrimiento del Estrecho de la Madre de Dios – antes llamado de Magallanes</i></a> (in Spanish). Archived from <a href="http://www.artehistoria.jcyl.es/cronicas/contextos/10105.htm">the original</a> on 22 September 2008. <q>Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa, según Amancio Landín, uno de sus más reputados biógrafos, nació en Pontevedra, hacia 1532. Julio Guillén—el marino-académico—, por su parte, dice que es posible fuera Colegial Mayor en la Universidad de Alcalá de Henares, ciudad que fue—asegura—cuna del gran marino español. Este, no ha dejado aclarada la duda sobre su origen geográfico, pues afirmó ser natural de ambos lugares.</q></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b> <cite>Sarmiento de Gamboa, Pedro (1895). <a href="https://archive.org/details/narrativesofvoya00sarm"><i>Narratives of the Voyages of Pedro De Gamboa to the Straits of Magellan</i></a>. Translated by Clements R. Markham. London: Hakluyt Society.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartinic1977119_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartinic1977119_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartinic1977119_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFMartinic1977">Martinic 1977</a>, p. 119.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartinic1977121_31-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMartinic1977">Martinic 1977</a>, p. 121.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://blogpatagonia.australis.com/history-strait-of-magellan/">"History of the Strait of Magellan"</a>. 7 April 2017. Retrieved 25 October 2019.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b> <cite>Wilson, Derek (2013). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XDGeBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT40">"3. The Triumph of Desire"</a>. <i>A Brief History of Circumnavigators</i>. Little, Brown Book Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4721-1329-0"><bdi>978-1-4721-1329-0</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Urbina2013_34-0">^</a></b> <cite>Urbina C., M. Ximena (2013). <a href="http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0718-22442013000200002&amp;script=sci_arttext&amp;tlng=pt">"Expediciones a las costas de la Patagonia Occidental en el periodo colonial"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Magallania">Magallania</a></i> (in Spanish). <b>41</b> (2): 51–84. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.4067%2FS0718-22442013000200002">10.4067/S0718-22442013000200002</a>. Retrieved 27 January 2016.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Urbina2017_35-0">^</a></b> <cite>Urbina C., María Ximena (2017). <a href="https://scielo.conicyt.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0718-22442017000200011&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso&amp;tlng=es">"La expedición de John Narborough a Chile, 1670: Defensa de Valdivia, rumeros de indios, informaciones de los prisioneros y la creencia en la Ciudad de los Césares"</a> [John Narborough expedition to Chile, 1670: Defense of Valdivia, indian rumors, information on prisoners, and the belief in the City of the Césares]. <i><a href="/wiki/Magallania">Magallania</a></i>. <b>45</b> (2): 11–36. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.4067%2FS0718-22442017000200011">10.4067/S0718-22442017000200011</a>. Retrieved 27 December 2019.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nierop69-70_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nierop69-70_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="/wiki/Henk_van_Nierop">Henk van Nierop</a>, <i>Treason in the Northern Quarter: War, Terror, and the Rule of Law in the Dutch Revolt</i> (Princeton University Press, 2009), 69–70.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b> Henk van Nierop, <i>Treason in the Northern Quarter: War, Terror, and the Rule of Law in the Dutch Revolt</i> (Princeton University Press, 2009), 177.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Goodwin_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goodwin_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Goodwin, Robert (2015). <i>Spain: The Centre of the World 1519–1682</i>. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 179–180.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://necrometrics.com/pre1700a.htm#Ne1566">"Twentieth Century Atlas – Historical Body Count"</a>. <i>necrometrics.com</i>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b> <cite>Sharp Hume, Martín Andrew. <i>The Spanish People: Their Origin, Growth and Influence</i>. p. 372.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b> Henry Kamen, <i>Philip of Spain</i> (Yale University Press, 1997), 160.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b> James Tracy, <i>The Founding of the Dutch Republic: War, Finance, and Politics in Holland, 1572–1588</i> (Oxford University Press, 2008), 141.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b> <cite>Black, Jeremy (1996). <i>The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: Renaissance to Revolution, 1492–1792, Volume 2</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521470339"><bdi>9780521470339</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://remilitari.com/guias/victimario9.htm">"Victimario Histórico Militar"</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b> <cite>Tucker, Spencer C. (2014). <i>500 Great Military Leaders [2 volumes]</i>. p. 19.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b> Geoffrey Parker, <i>The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road, 1567-1659: The Logistics of Spanish Victory and Defeat in the Low Countries' Wars</i>, London: Cambridge University Press, 1972 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-08462-8">0-521-08462-8</a>, p. 35.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b> <a href="/wiki/Henry_Kamen">Henry Kamen</a>, <i>The Duke of Alba</i> (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2004), Pp. x + 204.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b> <cite>Adams, George Burton; Stephens, H. Morse, eds. (1901). <a href="https://archive.org/stream/documentsofengli00adamiala#page/282/mode/2up">"An Act for the Marriage of Queen Mary to Philip of Spain"</a>. <i>Select Documents of English Constitutional History</i>. MacMillan. p. 284 – via Internet Archive.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Montrose_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Montrose_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Montrose_49-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> Louis Adrian Montrose, <i>The subject of Elizabeth: authority, gender, and representation</i>, University of Chicago Press, 2006
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pollard_50-0">^</a></b> A. F. Pollard, <i>The History of England – From the Accession of Edward VI. to the Death of Elizabeth (1547–1603)</i>, READ BOOKS, 2007
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Groot_51-0">^</a></b> Wim de Groot, <i>The Seventh Window: The King's Window Donated by Philip II and Mary Tudor to Sint Janskerk in Gouda (1557)</i>, Uitgeverij Verloren, 2005
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Edwards_52-0">^</a></b> Robert Dudley Edwards, <i>Ireland in the age of the Tudors: the destruction of Hiberno-Norman civilisation</i>, Taylor &amp; Francis, 1977
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b> <a href="/wiki/Treason_Act_1554">Treason Act 1554</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Marks_54-0">^</a></b> Richard Marks, Ann Payne, British Museum, British Library; <i>British heraldry from its origins to c. 1800</i>; British Museum Publications Ltd., 1978
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-ANA_55-0">^</a></b> <i>The Numismatist</i>, American Numismatic Association, 1971
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b> <cite>Francois Velde (25 July 2003). <a href="http://www.heraldica.org/topics/national/ireland_docs.htm#bull1555">"Text of 1555 Bull"</a>. Heraldica.org. Retrieved 22 August 2012.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b> <cite>Grant, R. G. (2017). <i>1001 Battles That Changed the Course of History</i>. p. 296.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b> <cite>Tucker, Spencer (2011). <i>Battles that Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict</i>. ABC-CLIO. p. 183.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b> Fernández Duro, Cesáreo (1972). <i>Armada Española desde la Unión de los Reinos de Castilla y Aragón.</i> Museo Naval de Madrid, Instituto de Historia y Cultura Naval, Volume III, Chapter III. Madrid. p. 51
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b> <cite>Koenigsberger, Helmut Georg (2012), <a href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/456081/Philip-II"><i>Philip II</i></a>, Encyclopædia Britannica Online, retrieved 31 January 2012</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b> <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qhlAqklH0do#t=21m27s">The Myth of the Spanish Inquisition</a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube">YouTube</a> (at 21:27 – 21:40). BBC.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b> Fernández Álvarez, Manuel. <i>Felipe II y su tiempo</i>. Espasa Calpe, Madrid, 6th Ed. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/84-239-9736-7">84-239-9736-7</a> In the introduction to this work, Felipe is mentioned as the most powerful European monarch by resources and army, depicting Europe at the time as a world full of unsolved issues and religious conflicts
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b> Cfr. Fernández Álvarez, Manuel. <i>Felipe II y su tiempo</i> (6th ed.). Espasa Calpe, Madrid. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/84-239-9736-7">84-239-9736-7</a>. Yet again, the several points of view towards his reign are mentioned in the Introduction.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b> Kamen, Henry. <i>Felipe de España</i>, Madrid, Siglo XXI, 1997. Cultural depictions of the king are mentioned, although Kamen tends to place himself with those favouring the king.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b> Fernández Álvarez, Manuel. <i>Felipe II y su tiempo</i>. Espasa Calpe, Madrid, 6th ed. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/84-239-9736-7">84-239-9736-7</a>. He discusses the lack of correspondence of the king because he ordered it burned, thus avoiding any chance of getting further into Philip's private life.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b> Vid. Marañón, Gregorio. <i>Antonio Pérez: el hombre, el drama, la época</i>. Madrid, Espasa Calpe, 1951, 2 vols. Judiciously argued review on the harm Perez did to the king, analyzing the king's responsibility on the assassination of Escobedo.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b> <cite>Johonnot, James. <a href="http://www.authorama.com/ten-great-events-in-history-8.html">"Ten Great Events in History – Chapter VII. The Invincible Armada"</a>. Authorama.com. Retrieved 22 August 2012.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b> Hume, Martin. <i>Philip II of Spain</i>, London, 1897. Martin tried to resurrect the prejudiced views concerning the king, as did Carl Bratli in his <i>Filip of Spanien</i> (Koebenhaven, 1909). By contrast, Ludwig Pfandl, in <i>Felipe II. Bosquejo de una vida y un tiempo</i>, Munich, 1938, assessed Philip's personality negatively.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b> In <i>Felipe II</i> (Madrid, 1943), W. T. Walsh depicts Felipe's reign as prosperous and successful. Fernández Álvarez, in <i>España y los españoles en la Edad Moderna</i> (Salamanca, 1979), points out how White Legend supporters flourished during the 1940s and 1950s, and how they omitted the darkest issues of Philip's reign.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b> Those kinds of adjectives can be read in M. Van Durme's 1953 <i>El Cardenal Granvela</i>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b> Cabrera de Córdoba, <i>Felipe II rey de España</i>, ed. RAH, 1877, criticizes how Felipe's victories are minimised by English historians, and points out the small consequences of defeats such as the Armada.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b> <a href="/wiki/Tonio_Andrade">Tonio Andrade</a> and William Reger, eds., "Geoffrey Parker and Early Modern History" in <i>The Limits of Empire: European Imperial Formations in Early Modern World History: Essays in Honor of Geoffrey Parker</i> (Routledge, 2016), p. xxiii.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b> Not usually included in lists of monarchs, although legally recognized as co-monarch, as his reign ended de facto with Mary's death.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brug_76-0">^</a></b> Rocquet, Claude-Henri. <i><a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6hgmESDLZM4C">Bruegel; or The Workshop of Dreams</a></i>. Univ. of Chicago Press, 1991. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0226723429">0226723429</a>.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-waller_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-waller_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Waller, Maureen. <i>Sovereign Ladies: The Six Reigning Queens of England</i>. St. Martin's Press (New York), 2006. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-33801-5">0-312-33801-5</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b> <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mDPF4ILESaUC&amp;pg=PA226">"Treaty of Joinville"</a>. (in French) In Davenport, Frances G. <i>European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and Its Dependencies</i>. The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd., 2004.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b> See, <i>inter alia</i>, "<a href="http://www.maravedis.net/europa_felipe_i_i_amberes.html">Amberes</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120203174438/http://www.maravedis.net/europa_felipe_i_i_amberes.html">Archived</a> 3 February 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>" (in Spanish) and <i><a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tXSrLbIEDBMC&amp;pg=PA1255">Standard Catalog of World Gold Coins</a></i>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b> Cremades, Checa. <i>Felipe II</i>. Op. cit. in "<a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ed_6gw5_5TkC&amp;pg=PA177">The Place of Tudor England</a>". <i>Transactions of the Royal Historical Society</i>, 6th Series, Vol. 12. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2003. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521815614">0521815614</a>.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-1911-Charles_V_81-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-1911-Charles_V_81-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Armstrong, Edward (1911). <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Charles_V._(Roman_Emperor)">"Charles V. (Roman Emperor)" </a>. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stephens1903_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stephens1903_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stephens1903_82-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stephens1903_82-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Stephens, Henry Morse (1903). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jwMqAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA139"><i>The story of Portugal</i></a>. G.P. Putnam's Sons. pp. 139, 279. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780722224731"><bdi>9780722224731</bdi></a>. Retrieved 23 October 2018.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-BLKO-Philip_83-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BLKO-Philip_83-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="/wiki/Constantin_von_Wurzbach">Wurzbach, Constantin, von</a>, ed. (1861). <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/de:BLK%C3%96:Habsburg,_Philipp_I._der_Sch%C3%B6ne_von_Oesterreich">"Habsburg, Philipp I. der Schöne von Oesterreich" </a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Biographisches_Lexikon_des_Kaiserthums_Oesterreich">Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich</a></i> [<i>Biographical Encyclopedia of the Austrian Empire</i>] (in German). Vol. 7. p. 112 – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-1911-Joanna_84-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-1911-Joanna_84-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Joanna">"Joanna" </a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Portugal-Maria_85-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Portugal-Maria_85-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="http://www.arqnet.pt/dicionario/maria_rainha.html">"Maria (D.). Rainha de Portugal"</a>. <i>Portugal - Dicionário Histórico, Corográfico, Heráldico, Biográfico, Bibliográfico, Numismático e Artístico</i> (in Portuguese). Vol. IV. pp. 823–824.</cite>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2>Further reading[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_II_of_Spain&amp;action=edit&amp;section=28">edit</a>]</h2>
<div>
<ul><li>Boyden, James M. <i>The Courtier and the King: Ruy Gómez De Silva, Philip II, and the Court of Spain</i> (University of California Press, 1995).</li>
<li>Elliott, J. H. <i>Imperial Spain: 1469–1716</i> (1966).</li>
<li>Elliott, John H. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/650136">"The decline of Spain"</a>. <i>Past &amp; Present</i> 20 (1961): 52–75.</li>
<li>Grierson, Edward. <i>The Fatal Inheritance: Philip II and the Spanish Netherlands</i> (1969).</li>
<li>Gwynn, Aubrey. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30094971">"A Catholic King: Philip II of Spain"</a>. <i>Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review</i>, vol. 22, no. 85 (1933), pp. 48–64.</li>
<li>Hume, M. A. S. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;lr=lang_en&amp;id=Oz1EAQAAMAAJ&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PA43&amp;dq=Philip+ii+spain&amp;ots=iV-4gYpGng&amp;sig=0RKW8Ik5KmyLNGa4emt5OjYXTAg"><i>Philip II. of Spain</i></a> (1903).</li>
<li>Israel, Jonathan. <a href="http://publicaciones.eafit.edu.co/index.php/co-herencia/article/download/5023/4145">"King Philip II of Spain as a symbol of 'Tyranny'"</a>. <i>Co-herencia</i> 15.28 (2018): 137–154.</li>
<li>Kamen, Henry. <i>Philip of Spain</i> (Yale University Press, 1999), a major scholarly biography. <a href="https://archive.org/details/philipofspain00kame">Online free to borrow</a></li>
<li>Kelsey, Harry. <i>Philip of Spain, King of England: The Forgotten Sovereign</i> (London, I.B. Tauris, 2011).</li>
<li>Koenigsberger, H. G. <i>The Habsburgs and Europe, 1516–1660</i> (1971). <a href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22%27%27The%20Habsburgs%20and%20Europe%2C%201516-1660%27%27">Online free to borrow</a></li>
<li>López, Anna Santamaría. "'Great Faith is Necessary to Drink from this Chalice': Philip II in the Court of Mary Tudor, 1554–58." in <i>Early Modern Dynastic Marriages and Cultural Transfer</i> ed. by Joan-Lluis Palos and Magdalena S. Sanchez (2017) pp: 115–138.</li>
<li>Lynch, John. <i>Spain Under the Habsburgs: vol I: Empire and Absolutism: 1516–1598</i> (1965)</li>
<li>Lynch, John. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3678749">"Philip II and the Papacy"</a>. <i>Transactions of the Royal Historical Society</i> 11 (1961): 23–42.</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Mateo_Martinic">Martinic, Mateo</a> (1977). <a href="http://www.memoriachilena.cl/602/w3-article-10441.html"><i>Historia del Estrecho de Magallanes</i></a> (in Spanish). Santiago: Andrés Bello.</cite></li>
<li>Merriman, R. B. <a href="https://archive.org/details/riseofspanishemp04merruoft"><i>The Rise of the Spanish Empire in the Old World and in the New</i></a> (4 vols, 1918). Vol. 4 has in-depth coverage of Philip II.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Parker_(historian)">Parker, Geoffrey</a>. <i>Imprudent King: A New Life of Philip II</i> (2014), a major scholarly biography.</li>
<li>Parker, Geoffrey. <i>The Grand Strategy of Philip II</i> (Yale University Press, 1998). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070310203214/http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/paper/macpherson.html">online review</a></li>
<li>Parker, Geoffrey. <i>Philip II</i> (1995), short scholarly biography</li>
<li>Parker, Geoffrey. <i>The World is Not Enough: The Imperial Vision of Philip II of Spain</i> (Baylor University Press, 2001).</li>
<li>Parker, Geoffrey. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3679344">"The Place of Tudor England in the Messianic Vision of Philip II of Spain"</a>. <i>Transactions of the Royal Historical Society</i> (2002): 167–221.</li>
<li>Patterson, Benton Rain. <i>With the Heart of a King: Elizabeth I of England, Philip II of Spain &amp; the Fight for a Nation's Soul &amp; Crown</i> (2007).</li>
<li>Petrie, Charles. <i>Philip II of Spain</i> (1963), short scholarly biography.</li>
<li><cite>Pettegree, Andrew (2002). <i>Europe in the Sixteenth Century</i>. Oxford, England: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-20704-X"><bdi>0-631-20704-X</bdi></a>.</cite>.</li>
<li>Pierson, Peter. <i>Philip II of Spain</i> (1975).</li>
<li>Redworth, Glyn. <a href="http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/22097">"Philip (1527–1598)"</a>, <i>Oxford Dictionary of National Biography,</i> online edition, May 2011. Retrieved 25 August 2011.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Jos%C3%A9_Rodriguez-Salgado">Rodriguez-Salgado, M. J.</a> "The Court of Philip II of Spain". In <i>Princes, Patronage, and the Nobility: The Court at the Beginning of the Modern Age, cc. 1450–1650.</i> Edited by Ronald G. Asch and Adolf M. Birke. (Oxford University Press, 1991). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-920502-7">0-19-920502-7</a>.</li>
<li>Samson, Alexander. <i>Mary and Philip: The Marriage of Tudor England and Habsburg Spain</i> (Manchester University Press, 2020) <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Mary-Philip-marriage-Habsburg-European/dp/1526142236/">excerpt</a>.</li>
<li>Samson, Alexander. "Power Sharing: The Co-monarchy of Philip and Mary", in <i>Tudor Queenship: The Reigns of Mary and Elizabeth</i>, ed. by Alice Hunt and Anna Whitelock (Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2010), pp. 159–172.</li>
<li>Thomas, Hugh. <i>World Without End: The Global Empire of Philip II</i> (Penguin UK, 2014); <i>World Without End: Spain, Philip II, and the First Global Empire</i> (Random House, 2015) popular history.</li>
<li>Waxman, Matthew C. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26004392">"Strategic Terror: Philip II and Sixteenth-Century Warfare"</a>. <i>War in History</i>, vol. 4, no. 3 (1997): 339–347.</li>
<li>Williams, Patrick. <i>Philip II</i> (Macmillan International Higher Education, 2017), a scholarly biography; <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Philip-II-European-History-Perspective/dp/0333630424/">excerpt</a></li></ul>
<h3>Economic and cultural history[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_II_of_Spain&amp;action=edit&amp;section=29">edit</a>]</h3>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fernand_Braudel">Braudel, Fernand</a>. <i>The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II</i> (2 vols., 1976) <a href="https://archive.org/details/mediterraneanthe01brau">vol. 1 free to borrow</a></li>
<li>Clouse, Michele L. <i>Medicine, Government and Public Health in Philip II's Spain: Shared Interests, Competing Authorities</i> (Ashgate, 2013).</li>
<li>Conklin, James. <a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/322623625.pdf">"The Theory of Sovereign Debt and Spain under Philip II"</a>. <i>Journal of Political Economy</i> 106.3 (1998): 483–513, statistical</li>
<li>Drelichman, Mauricio, and Hans-Joachim Voth. <i>Lending to the Borrower from Hell: Debt, Taxes, and Default in the Age of Philip II</i> (Princeton University Press, 2016).</li>
<li>Goodman, David. "Philip II's Patronage of Science and Engineering". <i>British Journal for the History of Science</i> 16.1 (1983): 49–66.</li>
<li>Henriques, Antonio, and Nuno Pedro G. Palma. <a href="http://ehes.org/EHES_171.pdf">"Comparative European Institutions and the Little Divergence, 1385–1800"</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200719061314/http://www.ehes.org/EHES_171.pdf">Archived</a> 19 July 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. (2019), economics</li>
<li>Kagan, Richard L. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/204127">"Philip II and the Art of the Cityscape"</a>. <i>Journal of Interdisciplinary History</i> 17.1 (1986): 115–135.</li>
<li>Lazure, Guy. <a href="https://scholar.uwindsor.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1008&amp;context=historypub">"Possessing the Sacred: Monarchy and Identity in Philip II's Relic Collection at the Escorial"</a>. <i>Renaissance Quarterly</i> 60.1 (2007): 58–93.</li>
<li>Matthews, P. G. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/888764">"Portraits of Philip II of Spain as King of England"</a>. <i>Burlington Magazine</i> 142.1162 (2000): 13–19.</li>
<li>Miller, Stephanie R. "A Tale of Two Portraits: Titian's Seated Portraits of Philip II". <i>Visual Resources</i> 28.1 (2012): 103–116.</li>
<li>Samson, Alexander. <a href="http://www.academia.edu/download/31290156/ChangingPlaces.pdf">"Changing Places: The Marriage and Royal Entry of Philip, Prince of Austria, and Mary Tudor, July-August 1554"</a><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot">dead link</a></i>]</sup>. <i>Sixteenth Century Journal</i> (2005): 761–784.</li>
<li>Scully, Robert E. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25026461">"'In the Confident Hope of a Miracle': The Spanish Armada and Religious Mentalities in the Late Sixteenth Century"</a>. <i>Catholic Historical Review</i> 89.4 (2003): 643–670.</li>
<li>Wilkinson-Zerner, Catherine. <i>Juan de Herrera: Architect to Philip II of Spain</i> (Yale University Press, 1993).</li></ul>
</div>
<h2>External links[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_II_of_Spain&amp;action=edit&amp;section=30">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li><a href="https://lib.byu.edu/collections/letters-of-philip-ii/">Letters of Philip II, King of Spain 1592–1597, online edition at Brigham Young University</a></li>
<li><cite>Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Philip_II">"Philip II" </a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</cite></li></ul>
<table>
<tbody><tr>
<td><p>Philip II of Spain </p><div><p><b><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain">House of Habsburg</a></b></p></div><b>Born:</b> 21 May 1527 <b>Died:</b> 13 September 1598
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th>Regnal titles
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>Preceded by<div><p><a href="/wiki/Mary_I">Mary I</a></p></div><small><i><b>as sole monarch</b></i></small>
</td>
<td><b> <a href="/wiki/King_of_England">King of England</a> and <a href="/wiki/King_of_Ireland">Ireland</a> </b><i>(<a href="/wiki/Jure_uxoris">jure uxoris</a>)</i><b> </b><br />25 July 1554 – 17 November 1558<br /><i>with <a href="/wiki/Mary_I_of_England">Mary I</a></i>
</td>
<td>Succeeded by<div><p><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I">Elizabeth I</a></p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Preceded by<div><p><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Charles_V">Emperor Charles V</a></p></div>
</td>
<td><b> <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Brabant">Duke of Brabant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dukes_of_Limburg">Limburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dukes_of_Lothier">Lothier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Counts,_Dukes_and_Grand_Dukes_of_Luxembourg">Luxemburg</a>;<br /><a href="/wiki/Marquis_of_Namur">Marquis of Namur</a>; <a href="/wiki/List_of_counts_of_Burgundy">Count Palatine of Burgundy</a>;<br /><a href="/wiki/Counts_of_Artois">Count of Artois</a>, <a href="/wiki/Counts_of_Flanders">Flanders</a> and <a href="/wiki/Counts_of_Hainaut">Hainaut</a> </b><br />16 January 1556 – 6 May 1598
</td>
<td>Succeeded by<div><p><a href="/wiki/Isabella_Clara_Eugenia">Isabella Clara Eugenia</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Albert_VII,_Archduke_of_Austria">Albert</a></p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b> <a href="/wiki/Count_of_Charolais">Count of Charolais</a> </b><br />21 September 1558 – 6 May 1598
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b> <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Guelders">Duke of Guelders</a>;<br /><a href="/wiki/Count_of_Zutphen">Count of Zutphen</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_of_Holland">Holland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zeeland">Zeeland</a> </b><br />16 January 1556 – 26 July 1581
</td>
<td><b><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic">Dutch Republic</a> </b>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b> <a href="/wiki/King_of_Naples">King of Naples</a> and <a href="/wiki/King_of_Sicily">Sicily</a> </b><br />1554–1598
</td>
<td>Succeeded by<div><p><a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Spain">Philip III</a></p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b> <a href="/wiki/King_of_Spain">King of Spain</a> and <a href="/wiki/King_of_Sardinia">Sardinia</a> </b><br />1556–1598
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Preceded by<div><p><a href="/wiki/Henry,_King_of_Portugal">Henry</a></p></div>
</td>
<td><b> <a href="/wiki/King_of_Portugal">King of Portugal</a> </b><br />1581–1598
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Vacant</b><p>Title last held by</p><b><a href="/wiki/Francesco_II_Sforza">Francesco II Sforza</a> </b>
</td>
<td><b> <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Milan">Duke of Milan</a> </b><br />1540–1598
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_monarchs">Spanish royalty</a>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Vacant</b><p>Title last held by</p><b><a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor">Charles I</a> </b>
</td>
<td><b> <a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Asturias">Prince of Asturias</a> </b><br />1528–1556
</td>
<td>Succeeded by<div><p><a href="/wiki/Don_Carlos,_Prince_of_Asturias">Carlos</a></p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b> <a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Girona">Prince of Girona</a> </b><br />1527–1556
</td></tr></tbody></table>
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 Contents

 move to sidebar hide
 * (Top)
 * 1 Early life: 1527–1544
 * 2 Domestic policy
 * 3 Economy
 * 4 Foreign policy
 + 4.1 Italy
 + 4.2 France
 + 4.3 Mediterranean
 * 5 Colonial policy
 + 5.1 Strait of Magellan
 * 6 Revolt in the Netherlands
 * 7 King of Portugal
 * 8 Relations with England and Ireland
 + 8.1 King of England and Ireland
 + 8.2 After Mary I's death
 * 9 Death
 * 10 Legacy
 * 11 Titles, honours and styles
 * 12 Heraldry
 * 13 Family
 + 13.1 First marriage
 + 13.2 Second marriage
 + 13.3 Third marriage
 + 13.4 Fourth marriage
 * 14 Ancestry
 * 15 See also
 * 16 Notes
 * 17 References
 * 18 Further reading
 + 18.1 Economic and cultural history
 * 19 External links
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 Philip II of Spain

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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 Philip II 
 Portrait by Titian (1550) 
 King of Spain (more…) 
 Reign 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598 
 Predecessor Charles I 
 Successor Philip III 
 King of Portugal (more…) 
 Reign 12 September 1580 – 13 September 1598 
 Acclamation 16 April 1581, Tomar 
 Predecessor Henry or Anthony (disputed) 
 Successor Philip III of Spain 
 King of England and Ireland (jure uxoris)
 Reign 25 July 1554 – 17 November 1558 
 Predecessor Mary I 
 Successor Elizabeth I 
 Co-monarch Mary I 
 
 Born 21 May 1527 
 Palacio de Pimentel, Valladolid, Castile 
 Died 13 September 1598 (aged 71) 
 El Escorial, San Lorenzo de El Escorial, Castile 
 Burial El Escorial 
 * 
 Maria Manuela of Portugal 
 ​ 
 ​(m. 1543 ; died 1545 )​ 
 * 
 Mary I of England 
 ​ 
 Spouses ​(m. 1554 ; died 1558 )​ 
 * 
 Elisabeth of Valois 
 ​ 
 ​(m. 1559; died 1568 )​ 
 * 
 Anna of Austria 
 ​ 
 ​(m. 1570 ; died 1580 )​ 
 * Carlos, Prince of Asturias 
 * Isabella Clara Eugenia, Lady of the Netherlands
 Issue * Catherine Michaela, Duchess of Savoy 
 Detail * Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias 
 * Diego, Prince of Asturias 
 * Philip III, King of Spain 
 House Habsburg 
 Father Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor 
 Mother Isabella of Portugal 
 Religion Roman Catholicism 
 Signature  
 

 Philip II[note 1] (21 May 1527 – 13 September 1598), also known as Philip the Prudent (Spanish: Felipe el Prudente), was King of Spain[note 2] from 1556, King of Portugal from 1580, and King of Naples and Sicily from 1554 until his death in 1598. He was jure uxoris King of England and Ireland from his marriage to Queen Mary I in 1554 until her death in 1558.[1] He was also Duke of Milan from 1540.[2] From 1555, he was Lord of the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands.

 The son of Emperor Charles V and Isabella of Portugal, Philip inherited his father's Spanish Empire in 1556 and succeeded to the Portuguese throne in 1580 following a dynastic crisis. The Spanish conquests of the Inca Empire and of the Philippines, named in his honor by Ruy López de Villalobos, were completed during his reign. Under Philip II, Spain reached the height of its influence and power, sometimes called the Spanish Golden Age, and ruled territories in every continent then known to Europeans. Philip led a highly debt-leveraged regime, seeing state defaults in 1557, 1560, 1569, 1575, and 1596. This policy was partly the cause of the declaration of independence that created the Dutch Republic in 1581. Philip finished building the royal palace El Escorial in 1584.

 Deeply devout, Philip saw himself as the defender of Catholic Europe against the Ottoman Empire and the Protestant Reformation. In 1584, Philip signed the Treaty of Joinville funding the French Catholic League over the following decade in its civil war against the French Huguenots. In 1588, he sent an armada to invade Protestant England, with the strategic aim of overthrowing Elizabeth I and re-establishing Catholicism there, but his fleet was defeated in a skirmish at Gravelines (northern France) and then destroyed by storms as it circled the British Isles to return to Spain. The following year Philip's naval power was able to recover after the failed invasion of the English Armada into Spain. Two more Spanish armadas unsuccessfully tried to invade England in 1596 and 1597. The Anglo-Spanish war carried on until 1604, six years after Philip's death.[3][4]

 Under Philip, an average of about 9,000 soldiers were recruited from Spain each year, rising to as many as 20,000 in crisis years. Between 1567 and 1574, nearly 43,000 men left Spain to fight in Italy and the Low Countries (modern-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands).[5]

 Philip was described by the Venetian ambassador Paolo Fagolo in 1563 as "slight of stature and round-faced, with pale blue eyes, somewhat prominent lip, and pink skin, but his overall appearance is very attractive. ... He dresses very tastefully, and everything that he does is courteous and gracious."[6] Philip was married four times; all his wives predeceased him.

 Early life: 1527–1544 [ edit ]

 The Baptism of Philip II in Valladolid, Castile. Historical ceiling preserved in Palacio de Pimentel (Valladolid).

 A member of the House of Habsburg, Philip was the son of Emperor Charles V, who was also king of Castile and Aragon, and Isabella of Portugal. He was born in the Castilian capital of Valladolid on 21 May 1527 at Palacio de Pimentel,[7] which was owned by Don Bernardino Pimentel (the first Marqués de Távara). The culture and courtly life of Castile were an important influence in his early life. He was entrusted to the royal governess Leonor de Mascareñas, and tutored by Juan Martínez Siliceo, the future archbishop of Toledo. Philip displayed reasonable aptitude in arts and letters alike. Later he would study with more illustrious tutors, including the humanist Juan Cristóbal Calvete de Estrella. Though Philip had good command over Latin, Spanish, and Portuguese, he never managed to equal his father, Charles V, as a polyglot. While Philip was also an archduke of Austria, he was seen as a foreigner in the Holy Roman Empire. The feeling was mutual. Philip felt himself to be culturally Spanish; he had been born in Castile and raised in the Castilian court, his native language was Spanish, and he preferred to live in the Spanish kingdoms. This ultimately impeded his succession to the imperial throne.[8]

 In April 1528, when Philip was eleven months old, he received the oath of allegiance as heir to the crown from the Cortes of Castile. From that time until the death of his mother Isabella in 1539, he was raised in the royal court of Castile under the care of his mother and one of her Portuguese ladies, Doña Leonor de Mascarenhas, to whom he was devotedly attached. Philip was also close to his two sisters, María and Juana, and to his two pages, the Portuguese nobleman Rui Gomes da Silva and Luis de Requesens, the son of his governor Juan de Zúñiga. These men would serve Philip throughout their lives, as would Antonio Pérez, his secretary from 1541.

 Philip's martial training was undertaken by his governor, Juan de Zúñiga, a Castilian nobleman who served as the commendador mayor of Castile. The practical lessons in warfare were overseen by the Duke of Alba during the Italian Wars. Philip was present at the Siege of Perpignan in 1542 but did not see action as the Spanish army under Alba decisively defeated the besieging French forces under the Dauphin of France. On his way back to Castile, Philip received the oath of allegiance of the Aragonese Cortes at Monzón. His political training had begun a year previously under his father, who had found his son studious, grave, and prudent beyond his years, and having decided to train and initiate him in the government of the Spanish kingdoms. The king-emperor's interactions with his son during his stay in Castile convinced him of Philip's precocity in statesmanship, so he determined to leave in his hands the regency of the Spanish kingdoms in 1543. Philip, who had previously been made the Duke of Milan in 1540, began governing the most extensive empire in the world at the young age of sixteen.

 Charles left Philip with experienced advisors—notably the secretary Francisco de los Cobos and the general Duke of Alba. Philip was also left with extensive written instructions that emphasised "piety, patience, modesty, and distrust". These principles of Charles were gradually assimilated by his son, who would grow up to become grave, self-possessed and cautious. Personally, Philip spoke softly and had an icy self-mastery; in the words of one of his ministers, "he had a smile that was cut by a sword".[9]

 Domestic policy [ edit ]

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 After living in the Netherlands in the early years of his reign,[10] Philip II decided to return to Castile. Although sometimes described as an absolute monarch, Philip faced many constitutional constraints on his authority, influenced by the growing strength of the bureaucracy. The Spanish Empire was not a single monarchy with one legal system but a federation of separate realms, each jealously guarding its own rights against those of the House of Habsburg. In practice, Philip often found his authority overruled by local assemblies and his word less effective than that of local lords.[11]

 Philip carried several titles as heir to the Spanish kingdoms and empire, including Prince of Asturias. The newest constituent kingdom in the empire was Navarre, a realm invaded by Ferdinand II of Aragon mainly with Castilian troops (1512), and annexed to Castile with an ambiguous status (1513). War across Navarre continued until 1528 (Treaties of Madrid and Cambrai). Charles V proposed to end hostilities with King Henry II of Navarre—the legitimate monarch of Navarre—by marrying his son Philip to the heiress of Navarre, Jeanne III of Navarre. The marriage would provide a dynastic solution to instability in Navarre, making him king of all Navarre and a prince of independent Béarn, as well as lord of a large part of southern France. However, the French nobility under Francis I opposed the arrangement and successfully ended the prospects of marriage between the heirs of Habsburg and Albret in 1541.

 Philip, in the prime of his life, by Anthonis Mor

 In his will, Charles stated his doubts over Navarre and recommended that his son give the kingdom back. Both King Charles and his son Philip II failed to abide by the elective (contractual) nature of the Crown of Navarre and took the kingdom for granted. This sparked mounting tension not only with King Henry II and Queen Jeanne III of Navarre but also with the Parliament of the Spanish Navarre (Cortes, The Three States) and the Diputación for breach of the realm specific laws (fueros)—violation of the pactum subjection is as ratified by Ferdinand. Tensions in Navarre came to a head in 1592 after several years of disagreements over the agenda of the intended parliamentary session.

 In November 1592, the Parliament (Cortes) of Aragón revolted against another breach of the realm-specific laws, so the Attorney General (Justicia) of the kingdom, Juan de Lanuza, was executed on Philip II's orders, with his secretary Antonio Perez taking exile in France. In Navarre, the major strongholds of the kingdom were garrisoned by troops alien to the kingdom (Castilians) in a conspicuous violation of the local laws, and the Parliament had long been refusing to pledge loyalty to Philip II's son and heir apparent without a proper ceremony. On 20 November 1592 a ghostly Parliament session was called, pushed by Philip II, who had arrived in Pamplona at the head of an unspecified military force, and with one only point on his agenda—attendance to the session was kept blank on the minutes: unlawful appointments of trusted Castilian officials and imposition of his son as the future king of Navarre at the Santa Maria Cathedral. A ceremony was held before the bishop of Pamplona (22 November), but its customary procedure and terms were altered. Protests erupted in Pamplona, but they were quelled.

 Philip II wearing the order of the garter by Jooris van der Straeten, c. 1554

 Philip II also grappled with the problem of the large Morisco population in the Spanish kingdoms, who had been forcibly converted to Christianity by his predecessors. In 1569, the Morisco Revolt broke out in the southern province of Granada in defiance of attempts to suppress Moorish customs. Philip ordered the expulsion of the Moriscos from Granada and their dispersal to other provinces.

 Despite its immense dominions, the Spanish kingdoms had a sparse population that yielded a limited income to the crown (in contrast to France, for example, which was much more heavily populated). Philip faced major difficulties in raising taxes, and the collection was largely farmed out to local lords. He was able to finance his military campaigns only by taxing and exploiting the local resources of his empire. The flow of income from the New World proved vital to his militant foreign policy, but his exchequer several times faced bankruptcy.

 Spanish culture flourished during Philip's reign, beginning the "Spanish Golden Age", creating a lasting legacy in literature, music, and the visual arts. One of the notable artists from Philip II's court was Sofonisba Anguissola, who gained fame for her talent and unusual role as a woman artist. She was invited to the court of Madrid in 1559 and was chosen to become an attendant to Isabella Clara Eugenia (1566–1633). Anguissola also became a lady-in-waiting and court painter for the queen, Elizabeth de Valois. During her time as a court painter, Anguissola painted many official portraits of the royal family, a sharp departure from her previous personal portraits.

 Economy [ edit ]

 Portrait of Philip II on 1/5 Philipsdaalder, struck 1566, Guelders, Low Countries

 Charles V had left his son Philip with a debt of about 36 million ducats and an annual deficit of 1 million ducats. This debt caused Philip II to default on loans in 1557, 1560, 1575, and 1596 (including debt to Poland, known as Neapolitan sums).[12] Lenders had no power over the King and could not force him to repay his loans. These defaults were just the beginning of Spain's economic troubles as its kings would default six more times in the next 65 years.[13] Aside from reducing state revenues for overseas expeditions, the domestic policies of Philip II further burdened the Spanish kingdoms and would, in the following century, contribute to its decline, as maintained by some historians.[14]

 The Spanish kingdoms were subject to different assemblies: the Cortes in Castile, the assembly in Navarre, and one each for the three regions of Aragon, which preserved traditional rights and laws from the time when they were separate kingdoms. This made the Spanish kingdoms and its possessions difficult to rule, unlike France, which while divided into regional states, had a single Estates-General. The lack of a viable supreme assembly led to power defaulting into Philip II's hands, especially as manager and final arbiter of the constant conflict between different authorities. To deal with the difficulties arising from this situation, authority was administered by local agents appointed by the crown and viceroys carrying out crown instructions. Philip II felt it necessary to be involved in the detail, and he presided over specialised councils for state affairs, finance, war, and the Inquisition.

 Philip II played groups against each other, leading to a system of checks and balances that managed affairs inefficiently, even to the extent of damaging state business, as in the Perez affair. Following a fire in Valladolid in 1561, he resisted calls to move his Court to Lisbon, an act that could have curbed centralisation and bureaucracy domestically as well as relaxed rule in the Empire as a whole. Instead, with the traditional Royal and Primacy seat of Toledo now essentially obsolete, he moved his Court to the Castilian stronghold of Madrid. Except for a brief period under Philip III of Spain, Madrid has remained the capital of Spain. It was around this time that Philip II converted the Royal Alcázar of Madrid into a royal palace; the works, which lasted from 1561 until 1598, were done by tradesmen who came from the Netherlands, Italy, and France.

 King Philip II ruled at a critical turning point in European history toward modernity whereas his father Charles V had been forced to an itinerant rule as a medieval king. He mainly directed state affairs, even when not at Court. Indeed, when his health began failing, he worked from his quarters at the Palace-Monastery-Pantheon of El Escorial that he had built in 1584, a palace built as a monument to Spain's role as a center of the Christian world. But Philip did not enjoy the supremacy that King Louis XIV of France would in the next century, nor was such a rule necessarily possible at his time. The inefficiencies of the Spanish state and the restrictively regulated industry under his rule were common to many contemporary countries. Further, the dispersal of the Moriscos from Granada – motivated by the fear they might support a Muslim invasion – had serious negative effects on the economy,[ citation needed ] particularly in that region.

 Foreign policy [ edit ]

 Philip's foreign policies were determined by a combination of Catholic fervour and dynastic objectives. He considered himself the chief defender of Catholic Europe, both against the Ottoman Turks and against the forces of the Protestant Reformation. He never relented from his fight against heresy, defending the Catholic faith and limiting freedom of worship within his territories.[15] These territories included his patrimony in the Netherlands, where Protestantism had taken deep root. Following the Revolt of the Netherlands in 1568, Philip waged a campaign against Dutch heresy and secession. It also dragged in the English and the French at times and expanded into the German Rhineland with the Cologne War. This series of conflicts lasted for the rest of his life. Philip's constant involvement in European wars took a significant toll on the treasury and caused economic difficulties for the Crown and even bankruptcies.

 Personal guidon of Philip II

 In 1588, the English defeated Philip's Spanish Armada, thwarting his planned invasion of the country to reinstate Catholicism. But war with England continued for the next sixteen years, in a complex series of struggles that included France, Ireland and the main battle zone, the Low Countries. It would not end until all the leading protagonists, including himself, had died. Earlier, however, after several setbacks in his reign and especially that of his father, Philip did achieve a decisive victory against the Turks at Lepanto in 1571, with the allied fleet of the Holy League, which he had put under the command of his illegitimate brother, John of Austria. He also successfully secured his succession to the throne of Portugal.

 With regard to Philip's overseas possessions, in response to the reforms imposed by the Ordenanzas, extensive questionnaires were distributed to every major town and region in New Spain called relaciones geográficas. These surveys helped the Spanish monarchy to govern these overseas conquests more effectively.

 Italy [ edit ]

 Main article: Italian Wars

 Charles V abdicated the throne of Naples to Philip on 25 July 1554, and the young king was invested with the kingdom (officially called "Naples and Sicily") on 2 October by Pope Julius III. The date of Charles' abdication of the throne of Sicily is uncertain, but Philip was invested with this kingdom (officially "Sicily and Jerusalem") on 18 November 1554 by Julius.[16] In 1556, Philip decided to invade the Papal States and temporarily held territory there, perhaps in response to Pope Paul IV's anti-Spanish outlook. According to Philip II, he was doing it for the benefit of the Church.

 In a letter to the Princess Dowager of Portugal, Regent of the Spanish kingdoms, dated 22 September 1556, Francisco de Vargas wrote:

 I have reported to your Highness what has been happening here, and how far the Pope is going in his fury and vain imaginings. His Majesty could not do otherwise than have a care for his reputation and dominions. I am sure your Highness will have had more recent news from the Duke of Alva, who has taken the field with an excellent army and has penetrated so far into the Pope's territory that his cavalry is raiding up to ten miles from Rome, where there is such panic that the population would have run away had not the gates been closed. The Pope has fallen ill with rage, and was struggling with a fever on the 16th of this month. The two Carafa brothers, the Cardinal and Count Montorio, do not agree, and they and Piero Strozzi are not on as good terms as they were in the past. They would like to discuss peace. The best thing would be for the Pope to die, for he is the poison at the root of all this trouble and more which may occur. His Majesty's intention is only to wrest the knife from this madman's hand and make him return to a sense of his dignity, acting like the protector of the Apostolic See, in whose name, and that of the College of Cardinals, his Majesty has publicly proclaimed that he has seized all he is occupying. The Pope is now sending again to the potentates of Italy for help. I hope he will gain as little thereby as he has done in the past, and that the French will calm down. May God give us peace in the end, as their Majesties desire and deserve![17]

 In response to the invasion, Pope Paul IV called for a French military intervention. After minor fights in Lazio and near Rome, Fernando Alvarez de Toledo (Duke of Alba and Viceroy of Naples) met Cardinal Carlo Carafa and signed the Treaty of Cave as a compromise: French and Spanish forces left the Papal states and the Pope declared a neutral position between France and the Spanish kingdoms.[18]

 Philip led the Spanish kingdoms into the final phase of the Italian Wars. A Spanish advance into France from the Low Countries led to their important victory at the Battle of St. Quentin in 1557. The French were defeated again at the Battle of Gravelines in 1558. The resulting Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis in 1559 secured Piedmont to the Duchy of Savoy, and Corsica to the Republic of Genoa. Both Genoa and Savoy were allies of Spain and, although Savoy subsequently declared its neutrality between France and Spain, Genoa remained a crucial financial ally for Philip during his entire reign. The treaty also confirmed Philip's direct control over Milan, Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia. Therefore, all of southern Italy was under direct Spanish rule. Sicily and Naples were viceroyalties of the Crown of Castile, while Sardinia was part of the Crown of Aragon. In the north, Milan was a Duchy of the Holy Roman Empire held by Philip. Attached to the Kingdom of Naples, the State of Presidi in Tuscany gave Philip the possibility to monitor maritime traffic to southern Italy. The Council of Italy was set up by Philip in order to co-ordinate his rule over the states of Milan, Naples and Sicily. Ultimately, the treaty ended the 60-year Franco-Habsburg wars for supremacy in Italy. It marked also the beginning of a period of peace between the Pope and Philip, as their European interests converged, although political differences remained and diplomatic contrasts eventually re-emerged.

 By the end of the wars in 1559, Habsburg Spain had been established as the premier power of Europe, to the detriment of France. In France, Henry II was fatally wounded in a joust held during the celebrations of the peace. His death led to the accession of his 15-year-old son Francis II, who in turn soon died. The French monarchy was thrown into turmoil, which increased further with the outbreak of the French Wars of Religion that would last for several decades. The states of Italy were reduced to second-rate powers, and Milan and Naples were annexed directly to Aragon. Mary Tudor's death in 1558 enabled Philip to seal the treaty by marrying Henry II's daughter, Elisabeth of Valois, later giving him a claim to the throne of France on behalf of his daughter by Elisabeth, Isabel Clara Eugenia.

 France [ edit ]

 Main article: French Wars of Religion

 The French Wars of Religion (1562–1598) were primarily fought between French Catholics and Protestants (Huguenots). The conflict involved the factional disputes between the aristocratic houses of France, such as the House of Bourbon and House of Guise (Lorraine), and both sides received assistance from foreign sources. Philip claimed descent from Constantine I and Charlemagne, justifying his intervention in French Wars of Religion and his continuing efforts to depose Henry IV of France.[19]

 Philip signed the Treaty of Vaucelles with Henry II of France in 1556. Based on the terms of the treaty, the territory of Franche-Comté in Burgundy was to be relinquished to Philip. However, the treaty was broken shortly afterwards. France and the Spanish kingdoms waged war in northern France and Italy over the following years. Spanish victories at St. Quentin and Gravelines led to the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis, in which France recognised Spanish sovereignty over Franche-Comté.

 During the War of the Portuguese Succession, the pretender António fled to France following his defeats and, as Philip's armies had not yet occupied the Azores, he sailed there with a large Anglo-French fleet under Filippo Strozzi, a Florentine exile in the service of France. The naval Battle of Terceira took place on 26 July 1582, in the sea near the Azores, off São Miguel Island, as part of the War of the Portuguese Succession and the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604). The Spanish navy defeated the combined Anglo-French fleet that had sailed to preserve control of the Azores under António. The French naval contingent was the largest French force sent overseas before the age of Louis XIV.[20]

 A marble bust of Philip II of Spain by Pompeo Leoni, son of Leone Leoni, Metropolitan Museum of Art

 The Spanish victory at Terceira was followed by the Battle of the Azores between the Portuguese loyal to the claimant António, supported by French and English troops, and the Spanish-Portuguese forces loyal to Philip commanded by the admiral Don Álvaro de Bazán. Victory in Azores completed the incorporation of Portugal into the Spanish Empire.[21]

 Philip financed the Catholic League during the French Wars of Religion. He directly intervened in the final phases of the wars (1589–1598), ordering the Duke of Parma into France in an effort to unseat Henry IV, and perhaps dreaming of placing his favourite daughter, Isabel Clara Eugenia, on the French throne. Elizabeth of Valois, Philip's third wife and Isabella's mother, had already ceded any claim to the French Crown with her marriage to Philip. However the Parliament of Paris, in power of the Catholic party, gave verdict that Isabella Clara Eugenia was "the legitimate sovereign" of France. Philip's interventions in the fighting – sending the Duke of Parma to end Henry IV's siege of Paris in 1590 and the siege of Rouen in 1592 – contributed in saving the French Catholic Leagues's cause against a Protestant monarchy.

 In 1593, Henry agreed to convert to Catholicism; weary of war, most French Catholics switched to his side against the hardline core of the Catholic League, who were portrayed by Henry's propagandists as puppets of a foreign monarch, Philip. By the end of 1594 certain League members were still working against Henry across the country, but all relied on the support of the Spanish Crown. In January 1595, therefore, Henry officially declared war on the Spanish Crown, to show Catholics that Philip was using religion as a cover for an attack on the French state, and Protestants that he had not become a puppet of the Spanish Crown through his conversion, while hoping to reconquer large parts of northern France from the Franco-Spanish Catholic forces.[22]

 French victory at the Battle of Fontaine-Française in Burgundy, 5 June 1595, marked an end to the Catholic League in France. The French also made some progress during an invasion of the Spanish Netherlands. They captured Ham and massacred the small Spanish garrison, provoking anger among the Spanish ranks.[ citation needed ] The Spanish launched a concerted offensive that year, taking Doullens, Cambrai, and Le Catelet; at Doullens, they massacred 4,000 of its citizens.[23] On 24 April 1596, the Spanish also conquered Calais. Following the Spanish capture of Amiens in March 1597, the French Crown laid siege to it until it managed to reconquer Amiens from the overstretched Spanish forces in September 1597. Henry then negotiated a peace with the Spanish Crown. The war was only drawn to an official close, however, after the Edict of Nantes, with the Peace of Vervins in May 1598.

 The 1598 Treaty of Vervins was largely a restatement of the 1559 Peace of Câteau-Cambrésis and Spanish forces and subsidies were withdrawn; meanwhile, Henry issued the Edict of Nantes, which offered a high degree of religious toleration for French Protestants. The military interventions in France thus failed to oust Henry from the throne or suppress Protestantism in France, and yet they had played a decisive part in helping the French Catholic cause gain the conversion of Henry, ensuring that Catholicism would remain France's official and majority faith – matters of paramount importance for the devoutly Catholic Spanish king.

 Mediterranean [ edit ]

 Further information: Ottoman–Habsburg wars
 Titian; after the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, Philip offers his short-lived heir Fernando to Glory in this allegory.
 Standard of the tercios morados of the Spanish army under Philip II

 In the early part of his reign Philip was concerned with the rising power of the Ottoman Empire under Suleiman the Magnificent. Fear of Islamic domination in the Mediterranean caused him to pursue an aggressive foreign policy.

 In 1558, Turkish admiral Piyale Pasha captured the Balearic Islands, especially inflicting great damage on Menorca and enslaving many, while raiding the coasts of the Spanish mainland. Philip appealed to the Pope and other powers in Europe to bring an end to the rising Ottoman threat. Since his father's losses against the Ottomans and against Hayreddin Barbarossa in 1541, the major European sea powers in the Mediterranean, namely the Spanish Crown and Venice, became hesitant in confronting the Ottomans. The myth of "Turkish invincibility" was becoming a popular story, causing fear and panic among the people.

 In 1560, Philip II organised a Holy League between the Spanish kingdoms and the Republic of Venice, the Republic of Genoa, the Papal States, the Duchy of Savoy and the Knights of Malta. The joint fleet was assembled at Messina and consisted of 200 ships (60 galleys and 140 other vessels) carrying a total of 30,000 soldiers under the command of Giovanni Andrea Doria, nephew of the famous Genoese admiral Andrea Doria.

 On 12 March 1560, the Holy League captured the island of Djerba, which had a strategic location and could control the sea routes between Algiers and Tripoli. As a response, Suleiman sent an Ottoman fleet of 120 ships under the command of Piyale Pasha, which arrived at Djerba on 9 May 1560. The battle lasted until 14 May 1560, and the forces of Piyale Pasha and Turgut Reis (who joined Piyale Pasha on the third day of the battle) won an overwhelming victory at the Battle of Djerba. The Holy League lost 60 ships (30 galleys) and 20,000 men, and Giovanni Andrea Doria was barely able to escape with a small vessel. The Ottomans retook the Fortress of Djerba, whose Spanish commander, D. Álvaro de Sande, attempted to escape with a ship but was followed and eventually captured by Turgut Reis. In 1565 the Ottomans sent a large expedition to Malta, which laid siege to several forts on the island, taking some of them. The Spanish sent a relief force, which finally drove the Ottoman army out of the island.

 The grave threat posed by the increasing Ottoman domination of the Mediterranean was reversed in one of history's most decisive battles, with the destruction of nearly the entire Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, by the Holy League under the command of Philip's half brother, Don Juan of Austria. A fleet sent by Philip, again commanded by Don John, reconquered Tunis from the Ottomans in 1573. The Turks soon rebuilt their fleet, and in 1574 Uluç Ali Reis managed to recapture Tunis with a force of 250 galleys and a siege that lasted 40 days. Thousands of Spanish and Italian soldiers became prisoners. Nevertheless, Lepanto marked a permanent reversal in the balance of naval power in the Mediterranean and the end of the threat of Ottoman control. In 1585 a peace treaty was signed with the Ottomans.

 Colonial policy [ edit ]

 Strait of Magellan [ edit ]

 Further information: Spanish colonization attempt of the Strait of Magellan

 During Philip's reign Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a mare clausum – a sea closed to other naval powers. As the only known entrance from the Atlantic, the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships.[24] To end navigation by rival powers in the Strait of Magellan Spanish viceroy Francisco de Toledo ordered Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa to explore the strait and found settlements on its shores.[25]

 In 1584, Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa founded two colonies in the strait: Nombre de Jesús and Ciudad del Rey Don Felipe. The latter was established north of the strait with 300 settlers.[26][27] The new colonies suffered from high death rates; likely as consequence executions, brawls, violent encounters with indigenous peoples, and most important, diseases which were rife.[28] Deeper contributing causes for failure of the settlement and death of most settlers may have been the poor mood settlers showed already from the beginning of the settlement.[28] This mood can in part be explained by a series of difficulties the expedition had to go through between the departure from Spain and the arrival to the strait.[28] Philip II's inaction despite repeated pleas by Sarmiento to aid the ailing colony has been attributed to the strain on Spain's resources that resulted from wars with England and Dutch rebels.[29]

 In 1587 English corsairs renamed Ciudad del Rey Don Felipe Puerto del Hambre, or "Port Famine"—most of the settlers had died by cold or starvation.[30] When Sir Thomas Cavendish landed at the site of Rey Don Felipe in 1587, he found only ruins of the settlement. He renamed it Port Famine.[31] The Spanish failure at colonizing the Strait of Magellan made Chiloé Archipelago assume the role of protecting western Patagonia from foreign intrusions.[32] Valdivia and Chiloé acted as sentries, being hubs where the Spanish collected intelligence from all over Patagonia.[33]

 Revolt in the Netherlands [ edit ]

 Main articles: Dutch Revolt and Eighty Years' War
 Philip II berating William of Orange, by Cornelis Kruseman

 Philip's rule in the Seventeen Provinces known collectively as the Netherlands faced many difficulties, leading to open warfare in 1568. He appointed Margaret of Parma as Governor of the Netherlands, when he left the low countries for the Spanish kingdoms in 1559, but forced her to adjust policy to the advice of Cardinal Granvelle, who was greatly disliked in the Netherlands, after he insisted on direct control over events in the Netherlands despite being over two weeks' ride away in Madrid. There was discontent in the Netherlands about Philip's taxation demands and the incessant persecution of Protestants. In 1566, Protestant preachers sparked anti-clerical riots known as the Iconoclast Fury; in response to growing Protestant influence, the army of the Iron Duke (Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba) went on the offensive. In 1568, Alba had Lamoral, Count of Egmont and Philip de Montmorency, Count of Horn executed in Brussels' central square, further alienating the local aristocracy. There were massacres of civilians in Mechelen,[34] Naarden,[35] Zutphen[34] and Haarlem. In 1571, Alba erected at Antwerp a bronze statue of himself trampling the rebellious Dutch under his horse's hooves, cast from the melted-down cannon looted by the Spanish troops after the Battle of Jemmingen in 1568; it was modelled on medieval images of the Spanish patron Saint James "the Moorslayer" riding down Muslims and caused such outrage that Philip had it removed and destroyed.[36]

 In 1572, a prominent exiled member of the Dutch aristocracy, William of Orange (Prince of Orange), invaded the Netherlands with a Protestant army, but he only succeeded in holding two provinces, Holland and Zeeland. Because of the Spanish repulse in the Siege of Alkmaar (1573) led by his equally brutal son Fadrique,[36] Alba resigned his command, replaced by Luis de Requesens. Alba boasted that he had burned or executed 18,600 persons in the Netherlands,[37] in addition to the far greater number he massacred during the war, many of them women and children; 8,000 persons were burned or hanged in one year, and the total number of Alba's Flemish victims can not have fallen short of 50,000.[38] Under Requesens, the Army of Flanders reached a peak strength of 86,000 in 1574 and retained its battlefield superiority, destroying Louis of Nassau's German mercenary army at the Battle of Mookerheyde on 14 April 1574, killing both him and his brother Henry.

 Rampant inflation and the loss of treasure fleets from the New World prevented Philip from paying his soldiers consistently, leading to the so-called Spanish Fury at Antwerp in 1576, where soldiers ran amok through the streets, burning more than 1,000 homes and killing 6,000 citizens.[39] Philip sent in Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, as Governor-General of the Spanish Netherlands from 1578 to 1592. Farnese defeated the rebels in 1578 at the Battle of Gembloux,[40] and he captured many rebel towns in the south: Maastricht (1579), Tournai (1581), Oudenaarde (1582), Dunkirk (1583), Bruges (1584), Ghent (1584), and Antwerp (1585).[41]

 Reward letter of Philip II to the family of Balthasar Gerards, assassin of William the Silent, 1590

 The States General of the northern provinces, united in the 1579 Union of Utrecht, passed an Act of Abjuration in 1581 declaring that they no longer recognised Philip as their king. The southern Netherlands (what is now Belgium and Luxembourg) remained under Spanish rule. In 1584, William the Silent was assassinated by Balthasar Gérard, after Philip had offered a reward of 25,000 crowns to anyone who killed him, calling him a "pest on the whole of Christianity and the enemy of the human race". The Dutch forces continued to fight on under Orange's son Maurice of Nassau, who received modest help from the Queen of England in 1585. The Dutch gained an advantage over the Spanish because of their growing economic strength, in contrast to Philip's burgeoning economic troubles. The war came to an end in 1648, when the Dutch Republic was recognised by the Spanish Crown as independent; the eight decades of war came at a massive human cost, with an estimated 600,000 to 700,000 victims, of which 350,000 to 400,000 were civilians killed by disease and what would later be considered war crimes.[42]

 King of Portugal [ edit ]

 Main article: Iberian Union
 Anthony I of Portugal

 In 1578 young king Sebastian of Portugal died at the Battle of Alcácer Quibir without descendants, triggering a succession crisis. His granduncle, the elderly Cardinal Henry, succeeded him as king, but Henry had no descendants either, having taken holy orders. When Henry died two years after Sebastian's disappearance, three grandchildren of Manuel I claimed the throne: Infanta Catarina, Duchess of Braganza; António, Prior of Crato; and Philip II of Spain. António was acclaimed King of Portugal in many cities and towns throughout the country, but members of the Council of Governors of Portugal who had supported Philip escaped to the Spanish kingdoms and declared him to be the legal successor of Henry.

 Philip II then marched into Portugal and defeated Prior António's troops in the Battle of Alcântara. The Portuguese suffered 4,000 killed, wounded, or captured, while the Spanish sustained only 500 casualties.[43] The troops commanded by Fernando Álvarez de Toledo the 3rd Duke of Alba[44] imposed subjection to Philip before entering Lisbon, where he seized an immense treasure.[45] Philip II of Spain assumed the Portuguese throne in September 1580 and was crowned Philip I of Portugal in 1581 (recognized as king by the Portuguese Cortes of Tomar) and a near sixty-year personal union under the rule of the Philippine Dynasty began. This gave Philip control of the extensive Portuguese empire. When Philip left for Madrid in 1583, he made his nephew Albert of Austria his viceroy in Lisbon. In Madrid he established a Council of Portugal to advise him on Portuguese affairs, giving prominent positions to Portuguese nobles in the Spanish courts, and allowing Portugal to maintain autonomous law, currency, and government. This is on the well-established pattern of rule by councils.

 Spanish Empire of Philip II, III and IV including all charted and claimed territories, maritime claims (mare clausum) and other features

 Relations with England and Ireland [ edit ]

 King of England and Ireland [ edit ]

 Titian portrait of Philip as prince (1551), aged about 24, dressed in a lavishly decorated set of armour
 Irish groat with Philip and Mary's initials and portraits

 Philip's father arranged his marriage to 37-year-old Queen Mary I of England, Charles' maternal first cousin. His father ceded the crown of Naples, as well as his claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem, to him. Their marriage at Winchester Cathedral on 25 July 1554 took place just two days after their first meeting. Philip's view of the affair was entirely political. Lord Chancellor Gardiner and the House of Commons petitioned Mary to consider marrying an Englishman, preferring Edward Courtenay.

 Under the terms of the Act for the Marriage of Queen Mary to Philip of Spain, Philip was to enjoy Mary I's titles and honours for as long as their marriage should last. All official documents, including Acts of Parliament, were to be dated with both their names, and Parliament was to be called under the joint authority of the couple. Coins were also to show the heads of both Mary and Philip. The marriage treaty also provided that England would not be obliged to provide military support to Philip's father in any war. The Privy Council instructed that Philip and Mary should be joint signatories of royal documents, and this was enacted by an Act of Parliament, which gave him the title of king and stated that he "shall aid her Highness ... in the happy administration of her Grace's realms and dominions".[46] In other words, Philip was to co-reign with his wife.[47] As the new King of England could not read English, it was ordered that a note of all matters of state should be made in Latin or Spanish.[47][48][49]

 Philip and Mary I of England, 1558

 Acts making it high treason to deny Philip's royal authority were passed in Ireland[50] and England.[51] Philip and Mary appeared on coins together, with a single crown suspended between them as a symbol of joint reign. The Great Seal shows Philip and Mary seated on thrones, holding the crown together.[47] The coat of arms of England was impaled with Philip's to denote their joint reign.[52][53] During their joint reign, they waged war against France, which resulted in the loss of Calais, England's last remaining possession in France.

 Philip's wife had succeeded to the Kingdom of Ireland, but the title of King of Ireland had been created in 1542 by Henry VIII after he was excommunicated, and so it was not recognised by Catholic monarchs. In 1555, Pope Paul IV rectified this by issuing a papal bull recognising Philip and Mary as rightful King and Queen of Ireland.[54] King's County and Philipstown in Ireland were named after Philip as King of Ireland in 1556. The couple's joint royal style after Philip ascended the Spanish throne in 1556 was: Philip and Mary, by the Grace of God, King and Queen of England, Spain, France, Jerusalem, both the Sicilies and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, Archdukes of Austria, Dukes of Burgundy, Milan and Brabant, Counts of Habsburg, Flanders and Tirol.

 However, the couple had no children. Mary died in 1558 before the union could revitalise the Roman Catholic Church in England. With her death, Philip lost his rights to the English throne (including the ancient English claims to the French throne) and ceased to be King of England, Ireland and (as claimed by them) France.

 Philip's great-grandson, Philippe I, Duke of Orléans, married Princess Henrietta of England in 1661; in 1807, the Jacobite claim to the British throne passed to the descendants of their child Anne Marie d'Orléans.

 After Mary I's death [ edit ]

 Further information: Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)
 Philip's European and North African dominions in 1581

 Upon Mary's death, the throne went to Elizabeth I. Philip had no wish to sever his tie with England, and had sent a proposal of marriage to Elizabeth. However, she delayed in answering, and in that time learned Philip was also considering a Valois alliance. Elizabeth I was the Protestant daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. This union was deemed illegitimate by English Catholics, who disputed the validity of both the annulment of Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon and of his subsequent marriage to Boleyn, and hence claimed that Mary, Queen of Scots, the Catholic great-granddaughter of Henry VII, was the rightful monarch.

 For many years Philip maintained peace with England, and even defended Elizabeth from the Pope's threat of excommunication. This was a measure taken to preserve a European balance of power. Ultimately, Elizabeth allied England with the Protestant rebels in the Netherlands. Further, English ships began a policy of piracy against Spanish trade and threatened to plunder the great Spanish treasure ships coming from the New World. English ships went so far as to attack a Spanish port. The last straw for Philip was the Treaty of Nonsuch signed by Elizabeth in 1585 – promising troops and supplies to the rebels. Although it can be argued this English action was the result of Philip's Treaty of Joinville with the Catholic League of France, Philip considered it an act of war by England.

 The execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, in 1587 ended Philip's hopes of placing a Catholic on the English throne. He turned instead to more direct plans to invade England and return the country to Catholicism. In 1588, he sent a fleet, the Spanish Armada, to rendezvous with the Duke of Parma's army and convey it across the English Channel. However, the operation had little chance of success from the beginning, because of lengthy delays, lack of communication between Philip II and his two commanders and the lack of a deep bay for the fleet. At the point of attack, a storm struck the English Channel, already known for its harsh currents and choppy waters, which devastated large numbers of the Spanish fleet. There was a tightly fought battle against the English Royal Navy; it was by no means a slaughter (only one Spanish ship was sunk),[55] but the Spanish were forced into a retreat, and the overwhelming majority of the Armada was destroyed by the harsh weather. Whilst the English Royal Navy may not have destroyed the Armada at the Battle of Gravelines, they had prevented it from linking up with the army it was supposed to convey across the channel. Thus whilst the English Royal Navy may have only won a slight tactical victory over the Spanish, it had delivered a major strategic one—preventing the invasion of England. Through a week of fighting the Spanish had expended 100,000 cannonballs, but no English ship was seriously damaged.[56] However, over 7,000 English sailors died from disease during the time the Armada was in English waters.

 The defeat of the Spanish Armada gave great heart to the Protestant cause across Europe. The storm that smashed the Armada was seen by many of Philip's enemies as a sign of the will of God. Many Spaniards blamed the admiral of the Armada for its failure, but Philip, despite his complaint that he had sent his ships to fight the English, not the elements, was not among them.

 A measure of the character of Philip can be gathered by the fact that he personally saw to it that the wounded men of the Armada were treated and received pensions, and that the families of those who died were compensated for their loss, which was highly unusual for the time.

 While the invasion had been averted, England was unable to take advantage of this success. An attempt to use her newfound advantage at sea with a counter-armada the following year failed disastrously with 40 ships sunk and 15,000 men lost.[57] Likewise, English buccaneering and attempts to seize territories in the Caribbean were defeated by Spain's rebuilt navy and their improved intelligence networks (although Cádiz was destroyed by an Anglo-Dutch force after a failed attempt to seize the treasure fleet). The Habsburgs also struck back with the Dunkirkers, who took an increasing toll on Dutch and English shipping.

 Eventually, the Spanish attempted two further Armadas, in October 1596 and October 1597. The 1596 Armada was destroyed in a storm off northern Spain; it had lost as many as 72 of its 126 ships and suffered 3,000 deaths. The 1597 Armada was frustrated by adverse weather as it approached the English coast undetected. This Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) would be fought to a grinding end, but not until both Philip II (d. 1598) and Elizabeth I (d. 1603) were dead. Some of the fighting was done on land in Ireland, France, and the Netherlands, with the English sending expeditionary forces to France and the Netherlands to fight Spain, and Spain attempting to assist Irish rebellions in Ireland.

 Death [ edit ]

 Philip II died in El Escorial, near Madrid, on 13 September 1598, of cancer.[58] He was succeeded by his 20-year-old son, Philip III.

 Legacy [ edit ]

 Main article: Cultural depictions of Philip II of Spain
 Philip's dominions in 1598

 Under Philip II, Spain reached the peak of its power. However, in spite of the great and increasing quantities of gold and silver flowing into his coffers from the American mines, the riches of the Portuguese spice trade, and the enthusiastic support of the Habsburg dominions for the Counter-Reformation, he would never succeed in suppressing Protestantism or defeating the Dutch rebellion. Early in his reign, the Dutch might have laid down their weapons if he had desisted in trying to suppress Protestantism,[ citation needed ] but his devotion to Catholicism would not permit him to do so. He was a devout Catholic and exhibited the typical 16th century disdain for religious heterodoxy; he said, "Before suffering the slightest damage to religion in the service of God, I would lose all of my estates and a hundred lives, if I had them, because I do not wish nor do I desire to be the ruler of heretics."[59]

 As he strove to enforce Catholic orthodoxy through an intensification of the Inquisition, students were barred from studying elsewhere, and books printed by Spaniards outside the kingdom were banned. Even a highly respected churchman like Archbishop Carranza of Toledo was jailed by the Inquisition for 17 years, for publishing ideas that seemed sympathetic in some degree with Protestantism. Such strict enforcement of orthodox belief was successful, and Spain avoided the religiously inspired strife tearing apart other European dominions.

 The School of Salamanca flourished under his reign. Martín de Azpilcueta, highly honoured at Rome by several popes and looked on as an oracle of learning, published his Manuale sive Enchiridion Confessariorum et Poenitentium (Rome, 1568), long a classical text in the schools and in ecclesiastical practice.

 Francisco Suárez, generally regarded as the greatest scholastic after Thomas Aquinas and regarded during his lifetime as being the greatest living philosopher and theologian, was writing and lecturing, not only in Spain but also in Rome (1580–1585), where Pope Gregory XIII attended the first lecture that he gave. Luis de Molina published his De liberi arbitrii cum gratiae donis, divina praescientia, praedestinatione et reprobatione concordia (1588), wherein he put forth the doctrine attempting to reconcile the omniscience of God with human free will that came to be known as Molinism, thereby contributing to what was one of the most important intellectual debates of the time; Molinism became the de facto Jesuit doctrine on these matters, and is still advocated today by William Lane Craig and Alvin Plantinga, among others.

 Statue of Philip II at the Sabatini Gardens in Madrid (F. Castro, 1753)

 Because Philip II was the most powerful European monarch in an era of war and religious conflict,[60] evaluating both his reign and the man himself has become a controversial historical subject.[61] Even before his death in 1598, his supporters had started presenting him as an archetypical gentleman, full of piety and Christian virtues, whereas his enemies depicted him as a fanatical and despotic monster, responsible for inhuman cruelties and barbarism.[62] This dichotomy, further developed into the so-called Spanish Black Legend and White Legend, was helped by King Philip himself. Philip prohibited any biographical account of his life to be published while he was alive, and he ordered that all his private correspondence be burned shortly before he died.[63] Moreover, Philip did nothing to defend himself after being betrayed by his ambitious secretary Antonio Perez, who published incredible calumnies against his former master; this allowed Perez's tales to spread all around Europe unchallenged.[64] That way, the popular image of the king that survives to today was created on the eve of his death, at a time when many European princes and religious leaders were turned against Spain as a pillar of the Counter-Reformation. This means that many histories depict Philip from deeply prejudiced points of view, usually negative.[65]

 However, some historians classify this anti-Spanish analysis as part of the Black Legend. In a more recent example of popular culture, Philip II's portrayal in Fire Over England (1937) is not entirely unsympathetic; he is shown as a very hardworking, intelligent, religious, somewhat paranoid ruler whose prime concern is his country, but who had no understanding of the English, despite his former co-monarchy there.

 Even in countries that remained Catholic, primarily France and the Italian states, fear and envy of Spanish success and domination created a wide receptiveness for the worst possible descriptions of Philip II. Although some efforts have been made to separate legend from reality,[66] that task has proved extremely difficult, since many prejudices are rooted in the cultural heritage of European countries. Spanish-speaking historians tend to assess his political and military achievements, sometimes deliberately avoiding issues such as the king's inflexible Catholicism.[67] English-speaking historians tend to show Philip II as a fanatical, despotical, criminal, imperialist monster,[68] minimising his military victories (Battle of Lepanto, Battle of Saint Quentin, etc.) to mere anecdotes, and magnifying his defeats (namely the Armada[69]) even though at the time those defeats did not result in great political or military changes in the balance of power in Europe. Moreover, it has been noted that objectively assessing Philip's reign would necessitate a re-analysis of the reign of his greatest opponents, namely England's Queen Elizabeth I and the Dutch William the Silent, who are popularly regarded as great heroes in their home nations; if Philip II is to be shown to the English or Dutch public in a more favourable light, Elizabeth and William would lose their cold-blooded, fanatical enemy, thus decreasing their own patriotic accomplishments.[note 3]

 He ended French Valois ambitions in Italy and brought about the Habsburg ascendency in Europe. He secured the Portuguese kingdom and empire. He succeeded in increasing the importation of silver in the face of English, Dutch, and French privateers, overcoming multiple financial crises and consolidating Spain's overseas empire. Although clashes would be ongoing, he ended the major threat posed to Europe by the Ottoman navy.

 Historian Geoffrey Parker offers a management-psychological explanation, as summarized by Tonio Andrade and William Reger:

 One might have expected that Philip—being a dedicated, persistent, and hard-working man, and being the head of Western Europe’s wealthiest and largest empire—would have succeeded in his aims. He didn’t. His endeavors were doomed by his own character, or at least that’s how Parker sees it. Drawing on studies in management science and organizational psychology, Parker argues that a successful manager of a large organization must keep attention on the big picture, must have a good strategy for dealing with copious information, must know how to delegate, and must be flexible. Philip failed on all counts. He was a micromanager who got bogged down in details, refusing to delegate and trying to read every dispatch that came to his desk. He obsessed and dithered, so that by the time his decisions were made and his orders reached the men meant to carry them out, the situation on the ground had changed. Philip was also inflexible, unwilling to abandon ineffective policies. Most pernicious of all was Philip’s tendency toward messianic thinking, a belief that he was doing God’s work and that heaven would support him with miracles.[70]

 Titles, honours and styles [ edit ]

 Cannon with arms of Philip II as King of Spain and jure uxoris King of England and France
 Portrait of Philip II as King of Portugal by Sánchez Coello, circa 1580
 * Heir titles
 + Prince of Gerona: 21 May 1527 – 16 January 1556
 + Prince of Asturias 1528–1556
 * King of Castile as Philip II: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598
 + King of Castile, of León, of Granada, of Toledo, of Galicia, of Seville, of Cordoba, of Murcia, of Jaen, of the Algarves, of Algeciras, of Gibraltar, of the Canary Islands, of the Indias, the Islands and Mainland of the Ocean Sea;[note 4] Lord of Molina
 + Lord of Biscay
 * King of Aragon as Philip I: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598
 + King of Aragón
 + King of the Two Sicilies
 o King of Naples, of Jerusalem (from 25 July 1554)
 o King of Sicily. Duke of Athens, of Neopatria
 + King of Valencia
 + King of Majorca
 + King of Sardinia and of Corsica, Margrave of Oristano, Count of Goceano
 + King of Navarre
 + Count of Barcelona, of Roussillon, of Cerdanya
 * King of Portugal as Philip I: 12 September 1580 – 13 September 1598
 + King of Portugal and the Algarves of either side of the sea in Africa, Lord of Guinea and of Conquest, Navigation, and Commerce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, and India, etc.
 * King of England de jure uxoris as Philip I: 25 July 1554 – 17 November 1558[71]
 + King of England, France (titular); Defender of the Faith
 + King of Ireland
 * Imperial and Habsburg patrimonial titles:
 + Duke of Milan: 11 October 1540 (secret donation) / 25 July 1554 (public investiture) – 13 September 1598
 + Imperial vicar of Siena: since 30 May 1554
 + Archduke of Austria
 + Princely Count of Habsburg and of Tyrol
 + Prince of Swabia
 * Burgundian titles
 + Lord of the Netherlands: 25 October 1555 – 13 September 1598
 o Duke of Lothier, of Brabant, of Limburg, of Luxemburg, of Guelders. Count of Flanders, of Artois, of Hainaut, of Holland, of Zeeland, of Namur, of Zutphen. Margrave of the Holy Roman Empire, Lord of Frisia, Salins, Mechelen, the cities, towns and lands of Utrecht, Overyssel, Groningen
 + Count Palatine of Burgundy from 10 June 1556; Count of Charolais from 21 September 1558
 + Duke of Burgundy
 + Dominator in Asia, Africa
 * Honours
 + Knight of the Golden Fleece: 1531 – 13 September 1598
 + Grand Master of the Order of the Golden Fleece:[72] 23 October 1555 – 13 September 1598
 + Grand Master of the Order of Calatrava: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598
 + Grand Master of the Order of Alcantara: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598
 + Grand Master of the Order of Santiago: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598
 + Grand Master of the Order of Montesa: 8 December 1587 – 13 September 1598

 Philip continued his father's style of "Majesty" (Latin: Maiestas; Spanish: Majestad) in preference to that of "Highness" (Celsitudo; Alteza). In diplomatic texts, he continued the use of the title "Most Catholic" (Rex Catholicissimus; Rey Católico) first bestowed by Pope Alexander VI on Ferdinand and Isabella in 1496.

 Following the Act of Parliament sanctioning his marriage with Mary, the couple was styled "Philip and Mary, by the grace of God King and Queen of England, France, Naples, Jerusalem, and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, Princes of Spain and Sicily, Archdukes of Austria, Dukes of Milan, Burgundy and Brabant, Counts of Habsburg, Flanders and Tyrol".[73] Upon his inheritance of Spain in 1556, they became "Philip and Mary, by the grace of God King and Queen of England, Spain, France, both the Sicilies, Jerusalem and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, Archdukes of Austria, Dukes of Burgundy, Milan and Brabant, Counts of Habsburg, Flanders and Tyrol".[73]

 In the 1584 Treaty of Joinville, he was styled "Philip, by the grace of God second of his name, king of Castille, Leon, Aragon, Portugal, Navarre, Naples, Sicily, Jerusalem, Majorca, Sardinia, and the islands, Indies, and terra firma of the Ocean Sea; archduke of Austria; duke of Burgundy, Lothier, Brabant, Limbourg, Luxembourg, Guelders, and Milan; Count of Habsburg, Flanders, Artois, and Burgundy; Count Palatine of Hainault, Holland and Zeeland, Namur, Drenthe, Zutphen; prince of "Zvuanem"; marquis of the Holy Roman Empire; lord of Frisia, Salland, Mechelen, and of the cities, towns, and lands of Utrecht, Overissel, and Groningen; master of Asia and Africa".[74]

 His coinage typically bore the obverse inscription "PHS·D:G·HISP·Z·REX" (Latin: "Philip, by the grace of God King of Spain et cetera"), followed by the local title of the mint ("DVX·BRA" for Duke of Brabant, "C·HOL" for Count of Holland, "D·TRS·ISSV" for Lord of Overissel, etc.). The reverse would then bear a motto such as "PACE·ET·IVSTITIA" ("For Peace and Justice") or "DOMINVS·MIHI·ADIVTOR" ("The Lord is my helper").[75] A medal struck in 1583 bore the inscriptions "PHILIPP II HISP ET NOVI ORBIS REX" ("Philip II, King of Spain and the New World") and "NON SUFFICIT ORBIS" ("The world is not enough").[76]

 Heraldry [ edit ]

 Heraldry of Philip II of Spain   
 Common versions    
    
 1556–1558 1558–1580 1580–1598   
 (as Spanish monarch)    
    
 Spanish realms versions    
 Kingdom of Navarre Kingdom of Galicia   
    
 1558–1580 1580–1598 1580–1598 1558–1580 1580–1598   
    
 Burgundian variants    
 Free County of Burgundy    
    
 1556–1580 1580–1598   
    
 Italian Variants    
 Duchy of Milan Kingdom of Sardinia Naples and Sicily   
    
 1554–1558 1558–1580 1580–1598 1580–1598 1554–1598   
    
 Ornamented versions    
    
   Coat of arms as Spanish monarch and king 
 Coat of arms at his investiture as Knight of the Coat of arms jure uxoris of England 
 Order of the Garter (with the Eagle of St John as supporter) (with symbols of the Crown of Castile and León and 
 (in 1554) 1558–1580 / 1580–1598 a cap of maintenance with the crest of England imperially crowned in the top)
   1556–1558  
    
 Coat of arms with supporters, crest and motto Coat of arms with supporters, crest and motto Coat of arms with supporters (a lion and a griffin) and crest 
 (with symbols of the Crowns of Castile and León and Aragon in the top) (with symbols of the Crowns of Aragon and Castile and León and of (with symbols of the Crowns of Aragon and Castile and León and of 
 1558–1580 the Kingdom of Portugal in the top) the Kingdom of Portugal in the top) 
  1580–1598 1580–1598  
    
 

 Family [ edit ]

 Philip was married four times and had children with three of his wives. He also had two long-term relationships with Isabel Osorio and Eufrasia de Guzmán.

 * Princess Maria of Portugal

 * Queen Mary Tudor of England by Antonis Mor

 * Queen Elisabeth of Valois by Juan Pantoja de la Cruz

 * Queen Anna of Austria by Sofonisba Anguissola

 First marriage [ edit ]

 Philip's first wife was his double first cousin, Maria Manuela, Princess of Portugal. She was a daughter of Philip's maternal uncle, John III of Portugal, and paternal aunt, Catherine of Austria. They were married at Salamanca on 12 November 1543. The marriage produced one son in 1545, after which Maria died four days later due to haemorrhage:

 * Carlos, Prince of Asturias (8 July 1545 – 24 July 1568), died unmarried at the age of 23 and without issue.

 Second marriage [ edit ]

 Philip's second wife was his first cousin once removed, Queen Mary I of England. The marriage, which took place on 25 July 1554 at Winchester Cathedral, was political. By this marriage, Philip became jure uxoris King of England and Ireland, although the couple was apart more than together as they ruled their respective countries. The marriage produced no children, although there was a false pregnancy, and Mary died in 1558, ending Philip's reign in England and Ireland.

 Third marriage [ edit ]

 Philip's third wife was Elisabeth of Valois, the eldest daughter of Henry II of France and Catherine de' Medici. The original ceremony was conducted by proxy (the Duke of Alba standing in for Philip) at Notre Dame prior to Elisabeth's departure from France. The actual ceremony was conducted in Guadalajara upon her arrival in Spain. During their marriage (1559–1568) they conceived five daughters, though only two of the girls survived. Elisabeth died a few hours after the loss of her last child. Their children were:

 * Miscarried twin daughters (August 1564).
 * Isabella Clara Eugenia (12 August 1566 – 1 December 1633, aged 67), married Albert VII, Archduke of Austria,
 * Catherine Michaela (10 October 1567 – 6 November 1597, aged 30), married Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy, and had issue.
 * Joan (3 October 1568) died shortly after birth.

 Fourth marriage [ edit ]

 Philip's fourth and final wife was his niece, Anna of Austria. By contemporary accounts, this was a convivial and satisfactory marriage (1570–1580) for both Philip and Anna. This marriage produced four sons and one daughter. Anna died of heart failure 8 months after giving birth to Maria in 1580. Their children were:

 * Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias (4 December 1571 – 18 October 1578, aged six).
 * Charles Laurence (12 August 1573 – 30 June 1575, aged one).
 * Diego Félix (15 August 1575 – 21 November 1582, aged seven).
 * Philip III of Spain (14 April 1578 – 31 March 1621, aged 42).
 * Maria (14 February 1580 – 5 August 1583, aged three).

 * Cenotaph of Philip and three of his four wives at El Escorial

 * Philip and his niece Anna banqueting with family and courtiers, by Alonso Sánchez Coello

 Ancestry [ edit ]

 Ancestors of Philip II of Spain  
  8. Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor[79] 
   
   
   
 4. Philip I, King of Castile[77]  
   
   
   
 9. Mary, Duchess of Burgundy[79]  
   
   
   
 2. Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor  
   
   
   
 10. Ferdinand II, King of Aragon[80] (= 14) 
   
   
   
 5. Joanna, Queen of Castile[77]  
   
   
   
 11. Isabella I, Queen of Castile[80] (= 15) 
   
   
   
 1. Philip II of Spain  
   
   
   
 12. Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu[78]  
   
   
   
 6. Manuel I, King of Portugal[78]  
   
   
   
 13. Beatrice of Portugal[78]  
   
   
   
 3. Isabella of Portugal  
   
   
   
 14. Ferdinand II, King of Aragon[81] (= 10) 
   
   
   
 7. Maria of Aragon[78]  
   
   
   
 15. Isabella I, Queen of Castile[81] (= 11) 
   
   
   
 

 See also [ edit ]

 * Descendants of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon
 * The empire on which the sun never sets
 * List of Spanish monarchs
 * Royal Armoury of Madrid
 * Ruy Gómez de Silva, 1st Prince of Éboli

 Notes [ edit ]

 1. ^ He was titled as Philip II ( Spanish : Felipe II ) in Spain , while in Portugal and his Italian kingdoms he ruled as Philip I ( Portuguese : Filipe I ).
 2. ^ Spain was a composite monarchy , and besides being the second Philip to rule Castile , he was the first to rule Aragon and the fourth to rule Navarre .
 3. ^ This appreciation is noted by Martin Hume in his aforementioned work ("Philip II of Spain", London 1897), pointing out how difficult is to show Philip II in a more favorable light to his fellow Englishmen because of that.
 4. ^ With the incorporation of Portugal to the Monarchy the title changed to East and West Indies, the Islands and Mainland of the Ocean sea.

 References [ edit ]

 1. ^ Geoffrey Parker. The Grand Strategy of Philip II , (2000)
 2. ^ Garret Mattingly. The Armada p. 22, p. 66. ISBN 0-395-08366-4 .
 3. ^ Rowse, A. L. (1969). Tudor Cornwall: Portrait of a Society . C. Scribner, p.400
 4. ^ "One decisive action might have forced Philip II to the negotiating table and avoided fourteen years of continuing warfare. Instead the King was able to use the brief respite to rebuild his naval forces and by the end of 1589 Spain once again had an Atlantic fleet strong enough to escort the American treasure ships home." The Mariner's Mirror , Volumes 76–77. Society for Nautical Research, 1990
 5. ^ Kamen, Henry (2014). Spain, 1469–1714: A Society of Conflict. Routledge. p. 150.
 6. ^ Davis, James C. (1970). Pursuit of Power: Venetian Ambassadors' Reports on Spain, Turkey, and France in the Age of Philip II 1560–1600. New York: Harper & Row. pp. 81–82.
 7. ^ "BIEN DE INTERÉS CULTURAL: PALACIO CONDES RIVADAVIA PALACIO DE PIMENTEL". Junta de Castilla y León . Retrieved 12 January 2023 .
 8. ^ James Boyden. Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopaedia of the Early Modern World .
 9. ^ Encyclopedia of World Biography (2004).
 10. ^ Parker, Geoffrey. The Dutch Revolt . London: Penguin. p.41.
 11. ^ Parker, The Dutch Revolt . p. 42.
 12. ^ Drelichman, Mauricio; Voth, Hans-Joachim (2014). Lending to the Borrower from Hell: Debt, Taxes, and Default in the Age of Philip II. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-4843-0.
 13. ^ Gat, Azar (2006). War in Human Civilization (4th ed.). Oxford [u.a.]: Oxford University Press. p. 488. ISBN 978-0-19-923663-3.
 14. ^ Elliott, J. H. (2002). Imperial Spain 1469–1716 (Repr. ed.). London [u.a.]: Penguin Books. pp. 285–291. ISBN 0-14-100703-6.
 15. ^ As Philip wrote in 1566 to Luis de Requesens : "You can assure his Holiness that rather than suffer the least injury to religion and the service of God, I would lose all my states and a hundred lives if I had them, for I do not intend to rule over heretics." Pettegree 2002 , p. 214.
 16. ^ Fernand Braudel , The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II , vol. 2 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 935–936 and notes.
 17. ^ Royall Tyler, ed. (1954). "Spain: September 1556". Calendar of State Papers, Spain. Institute of Historical Research . Retrieved 19 April 2013 .
 18. ^ Salvador Miranda (2010). "The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church". Florida International University. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016 . Retrieved 21 April 2010 .
 19. ^ Richard L. Kagan (2009). Clio and the Crown: The Politics of History in Medieval and Early Modern Spain. JHU Press. p. 135. ISBN 9781421401652.
 20. ^ Jan Glete p. 156
 21. ^ Nascimiento Rodrigues/Tessaleno Devezas p.122
 22. ^ Knecht, French Civil Wars p. 272
 23. ^ Goubert, Pierre (2002). The Course of French History. Routledge. p. 103.
 24. ^ Lytle Schurz, William (1922), "The Spanish Lake", The Hispanic American Historical Review, 5 (2): 181–194, doi:10.1215/00182168-5.2.181, JSTOR 2506024
 25. ^ "Navegantes europeos en el estrecho de Magallanes". Memoria Chilena (in Spanish). Biblioteca Nacional de Chile . Retrieved 30 September 2014 .
 26. ^ Relación y derrotero del viaje y descubrimiento del Estrecho de la Madre de Dios – antes llamado de Magallanes (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 22 September 2008. "Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa, según Amancio Landín, uno de sus más reputados biógrafos, nació en Pontevedra, hacia 1532. Julio Guillén—el marino-académico—, por su parte, dice que es posible fuera Colegial Mayor en la Universidad de Alcalá de Henares, ciudad que fue—asegura—cuna del gran marino español. Este, no ha dejado aclarada la duda sobre su origen geográfico, pues afirmó ser natural de ambos lugares."
 27. ^ Sarmiento de Gamboa, Pedro (1895). Narratives of the Voyages of Pedro De Gamboa to the Straits of Magellan. Translated by Clements R. Markham. London: Hakluyt Society.
 28. ^ a b c Martinic 1977 , p. 119.
 29. ^ Martinic 1977 , p. 121.
 30. ^ "History of the Strait of Magellan". 7 April 2017 . Retrieved 25 October 2019 .
 31. ^ Wilson, Derek (2013). "3. The Triumph of Desire". A Brief History of Circumnavigators. Little, Brown Book Group. ISBN 978-1-4721-1329-0.
 32. ^ Urbina C., M. Ximena (2013). "Expediciones a las costas de la Patagonia Occidental en el periodo colonial". Magallania (in Spanish). 41 (2): 51–84. doi:10.4067/S0718-22442013000200002 . Retrieved 27 January 2016 .
 33. ^ Urbina C., María Ximena (2017). "La expedición de John Narborough a Chile, 1670: Defensa de Valdivia, rumeros de indios, informaciones de los prisioneros y la creencia en la Ciudad de los Césares" [John Narborough expedition to Chile, 1670: Defense of Valdivia, indian rumors, information on prisoners, and the belief in the City of the Césares]. Magallania. 45 (2): 11–36. doi:10.4067/S0718-22442017000200011 . Retrieved 27 December 2019 .
 34. ^ a b Henk van Nierop , Treason in the Northern Quarter: War, Terror, and the Rule of Law in the Dutch Revolt (Princeton University Press, 2009), 69–70.
 35. ^ Henk van Nierop, Treason in the Northern Quarter: War, Terror, and the Rule of Law in the Dutch Revolt (Princeton University Press, 2009), 177.
 36. ^ a b Goodwin, Robert (2015). Spain: The Centre of the World 1519–1682. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 179–180.
 37. ^ "Twentieth Century Atlas – Historical Body Count". necrometrics.com.
 38. ^ Sharp Hume, Martín Andrew. The Spanish People: Their Origin, Growth and Influence. p. 372.
 39. ^ Henry Kamen, Philip of Spain (Yale University Press, 1997), 160.
 40. ^ James Tracy, The Founding of the Dutch Republic: War, Finance, and Politics in Holland, 1572–1588 (Oxford University Press, 2008), 141.
 41. ^ Black, Jeremy (1996). The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: Renaissance to Revolution, 1492–1792, Volume 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 58. ISBN 9780521470339.
 42. ^ "Victimario Histórico Militar".
 43. ^ Tucker, Spencer C. (2014). 500 Great Military Leaders [2 volumes]. p. 19.
 44. ^ Geoffrey Parker, The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road, 1567-1659: The Logistics of Spanish Victory and Defeat in the Low Countries' Wars , London: Cambridge University Press, 1972 ISBN 0-521-08462-8 , p. 35.
 45. ^ Henry Kamen , The Duke of Alba (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2004), Pp. x + 204.
 46. ^ Adams, George Burton; Stephens, H. Morse, eds. (1901). "An Act for the Marriage of Queen Mary to Philip of Spain". Select Documents of English Constitutional History. MacMillan. p. 284 – via Internet Archive.
 47. ^ a b c Louis Adrian Montrose, The subject of Elizabeth: authority, gender, and representation , University of Chicago Press, 2006
 48. ^ A. F. Pollard, The History of England – From the Accession of Edward VI. to the Death of Elizabeth (1547–1603) , READ BOOKS, 2007
 49. ^ Wim de Groot, The Seventh Window: The King's Window Donated by Philip II and Mary Tudor to Sint Janskerk in Gouda (1557) , Uitgeverij Verloren, 2005
 50. ^ Robert Dudley Edwards, Ireland in the age of the Tudors: the destruction of Hiberno-Norman civilisation , Taylor & Francis, 1977
 51. ^ Treason Act 1554
 52. ^ Richard Marks, Ann Payne, British Museum, British Library; British heraldry from its origins to c. 1800 ; British Museum Publications Ltd., 1978
 53. ^ The Numismatist , American Numismatic Association, 1971
 54. ^ Francois Velde (25 July 2003). "Text of 1555 Bull". Heraldica.org . Retrieved 22 August 2012 .
 55. ^ Grant, R. G. (2017). 1001 Battles That Changed the Course of History. p. 296.
 56. ^ Tucker, Spencer (2011). Battles that Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict. ABC-CLIO. p. 183.
 57. ^ Fernández Duro, Cesáreo (1972). Armada Española desde la Unión de los Reinos de Castilla y Aragón. Museo Naval de Madrid, Instituto de Historia y Cultura Naval, Volume III, Chapter III. Madrid. p. 51
 58. ^ Koenigsberger, Helmut Georg (2012), Philip II, Encyclopædia Britannica Online , retrieved 31 January 2012
 59. ^ The Myth of the Spanish Inquisition on YouTube (at 21:27 – 21:40). BBC.
 60. ^ Fernández Álvarez, Manuel. Felipe II y su tiempo . Espasa Calpe, Madrid, 6th Ed. ISBN 84-239-9736-7 In the introduction to this work, Felipe is mentioned as the most powerful European monarch by resources and army, depicting Europe at the time as a world full of unsolved issues and religious conflicts
 61. ^ Cfr. Fernández Álvarez, Manuel. Felipe II y su tiempo (6th ed.). Espasa Calpe, Madrid. ISBN 84-239-9736-7 . Yet again, the several points of view towards his reign are mentioned in the Introduction.
 62. ^ Kamen, Henry. Felipe de España , Madrid, Siglo XXI, 1997. Cultural depictions of the king are mentioned, although Kamen tends to place himself with those favouring the king.
 63. ^ Fernández Álvarez, Manuel. Felipe II y su tiempo . Espasa Calpe, Madrid, 6th ed. ISBN 84-239-9736-7 . He discusses the lack of correspondence of the king because he ordered it burned, thus avoiding any chance of getting further into Philip's private life.
 64. ^ Vid. Marañón, Gregorio. Antonio Pérez: el hombre, el drama, la época . Madrid, Espasa Calpe, 1951, 2 vols. Judiciously argued review on the harm Perez did to the king, analyzing the king's responsibility on the assassination of Escobedo.
 65. ^ Johonnot, James. "Ten Great Events in History – Chapter VII. The Invincible Armada". Authorama.com . Retrieved 22 August 2012 .
 66. ^ Hume, Martin. Philip II of Spain , London, 1897. Martin tried to resurrect the prejudiced views concerning the king, as did Carl Bratli in his Filip of Spanien (Koebenhaven, 1909). By contrast, Ludwig Pfandl, in Felipe II. Bosquejo de una vida y un tiempo , Munich, 1938, assessed Philip's personality negatively.
 67. ^ In Felipe II (Madrid, 1943), W. T. Walsh depicts Felipe's reign as prosperous and successful. Fernández Álvarez, in España y los españoles en la Edad Moderna (Salamanca, 1979), points out how White Legend supporters flourished during the 1940s and 1950s, and how they omitted the darkest issues of Philip's reign.
 68. ^ Those kinds of adjectives can be read in M. Van Durme's 1953 El Cardenal Granvela .
 69. ^ Cabrera de Córdoba, Felipe II rey de España , ed. RAH, 1877, criticizes how Felipe's victories are minimised by English historians, and points out the small consequences of defeats such as the Armada.
 70. ^ Tonio Andrade and William Reger, eds., "Geoffrey Parker and Early Modern History" in The Limits of Empire: European Imperial Formations in Early Modern World History: Essays in Honor of Geoffrey Parker (Routledge, 2016), p. xxiii.
 71. ^ Not usually included in lists of monarchs, although legally recognized as co-monarch, as his reign ended de facto with Mary's death.
 72. ^ Rocquet, Claude-Henri. Bruegel; or The Workshop of Dreams . Univ. of Chicago Press, 1991. ISBN 0226723429 .
 73. ^ a b Waller, Maureen. Sovereign Ladies: The Six Reigning Queens of England . St. Martin's Press (New York), 2006. ISBN 0-312-33801-5 .
 74. ^ "Treaty of Joinville" . (in French) In Davenport, Frances G. European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and Its Dependencies . The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd., 2004.
 75. ^ See, inter alia , " Amberes Archived 3 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine " (in Spanish) and Standard Catalog of World Gold Coins .
 76. ^ Cremades, Checa. Felipe II . Op. cit. in " The Place of Tudor England ". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society , 6th Series, Vol. 12. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2003. ISBN 0521815614 .
 77. ^ a b Armstrong, Edward (1911). "Charles V. (Roman Emperor)" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
 78. ^ a b c d Stephens, Henry Morse (1903). The story of Portugal. G.P. Putnam's Sons. pp. 139, 279. ISBN 9780722224731 . Retrieved 23 October 2018 .
 79. ^ a b Wurzbach, Constantin, von, ed. (1861). "Habsburg, Philipp I. der Schöne von Oesterreich" . Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich [Biographical Encyclopedia of the Austrian Empire] (in German). Vol. 7. p. 112 – via Wikisource.
 80. ^ a b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Joanna" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
 81. ^ a b "Maria (D.). Rainha de Portugal". Portugal - Dicionário Histórico, Corográfico, Heráldico, Biográfico, Bibliográfico, Numismático e Artístico (in Portuguese). Vol. IV. pp. 823–824.

 Further reading [ edit ]

 * Boyden, James M. The Courtier and the King: Ruy Gómez De Silva, Philip II, and the Court of Spain (University of California Press, 1995).
 * Elliott, J. H. Imperial Spain: 1469–1716 (1966).
 * Elliott, John H. "The decline of Spain". Past & Present 20 (1961): 52–75.
 * Grierson, Edward. The Fatal Inheritance: Philip II and the Spanish Netherlands (1969).
 * Gwynn, Aubrey. "A Catholic King: Philip II of Spain". Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review, vol. 22, no. 85 (1933), pp. 48–64.
 * Hume, M. A. S. Philip II. of Spain (1903).
 * Israel, Jonathan. "King Philip II of Spain as a symbol of 'Tyranny ' ". Co-herencia 15.28 (2018): 137–154.
 * Kamen, Henry. Philip of Spain (Yale University Press, 1999), a major scholarly biography. Online free to borrow
 * Kelsey, Harry. Philip of Spain, King of England: The Forgotten Sovereign (London, I.B. Tauris, 2011).
 * Koenigsberger, H. G. The Habsburgs and Europe, 1516–1660 (1971). Online free to borrow
 * López, Anna Santamaría. " 'Great Faith is Necessary to Drink from this Chalice': Philip II in the Court of Mary Tudor, 1554–58." in Early Modern Dynastic Marriages and Cultural Transfer ed. by Joan-Lluis Palos and Magdalena S. Sanchez (2017) pp: 115–138.
 * Lynch, John. Spain Under the Habsburgs: vol I: Empire and Absolutism: 1516–1598 (1965)
 * Lynch, John. "Philip II and the Papacy". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 11 (1961): 23–42.
 * Martinic, Mateo (1977). Historia del Estrecho de Magallanes (in Spanish). Santiago: Andrés Bello.
 * Merriman, R. B. The Rise of the Spanish Empire in the Old World and in the New (4 vols, 1918). Vol. 4 has in-depth coverage of Philip II.
 * Parker, Geoffrey. Imprudent King: A New Life of Philip II (2014), a major scholarly biography.
 * Parker, Geoffrey. The Grand Strategy of Philip II (Yale University Press, 1998). online review
 * Parker, Geoffrey. Philip II (1995), short scholarly biography
 * Parker, Geoffrey. The World is Not Enough: The Imperial Vision of Philip II of Spain (Baylor University Press, 2001).
 * Parker, Geoffrey. "The Place of Tudor England in the Messianic Vision of Philip II of Spain". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society (2002): 167–221.
 * Patterson, Benton Rain. With the Heart of a King: Elizabeth I of England, Philip II of Spain & the Fight for a Nation's Soul & Crown (2007).
 * Petrie, Charles. Philip II of Spain (1963), short scholarly biography.
 * Pettegree, Andrew (2002). Europe in the Sixteenth Century. Oxford, England: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-20704-X..
 * Pierson, Peter. Philip II of Spain (1975).
 * Redworth, Glyn. "Philip (1527–1598)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, online edition, May 2011. Retrieved 25 August 2011.
 * Rodriguez-Salgado, M. J. "The Court of Philip II of Spain". In Princes, Patronage, and the Nobility: The Court at the Beginning of the Modern Age, cc. 1450–1650. Edited by Ronald G. Asch and Adolf M. Birke. (Oxford University Press, 1991). ISBN 0-19-920502-7.
 * Samson, Alexander. Mary and Philip: The Marriage of Tudor England and Habsburg Spain (Manchester University Press, 2020) excerpt.
 * Samson, Alexander. "Power Sharing: The Co-monarchy of Philip and Mary", in Tudor Queenship: The Reigns of Mary and Elizabeth, ed. by Alice Hunt and Anna Whitelock (Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2010), pp. 159–172.
 * Thomas, Hugh. World Without End: The Global Empire of Philip II (Penguin UK, 2014); World Without End: Spain, Philip II, and the First Global Empire (Random House, 2015) popular history.
 * Waxman, Matthew C. "Strategic Terror: Philip II and Sixteenth-Century Warfare". War in History, vol. 4, no. 3 (1997): 339–347.
 * Williams, Patrick. Philip II (Macmillan International Higher Education, 2017), a scholarly biography; excerpt

 Economic and cultural history [ edit ]

 * Braudel, Fernand. The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II (2 vols., 1976) vol. 1 free to borrow
 * Clouse, Michele L. Medicine, Government and Public Health in Philip II's Spain: Shared Interests, Competing Authorities (Ashgate, 2013).
 * Conklin, James. "The Theory of Sovereign Debt and Spain under Philip II". Journal of Political Economy 106.3 (1998): 483–513, statistical
 * Drelichman, Mauricio, and Hans-Joachim Voth. Lending to the Borrower from Hell: Debt, Taxes, and Default in the Age of Philip II (Princeton University Press, 2016).
 * Goodman, David. "Philip II's Patronage of Science and Engineering". British Journal for the History of Science 16.1 (1983): 49–66.
 * Henriques, Antonio, and Nuno Pedro G. Palma. "Comparative European Institutions and the Little Divergence, 1385–1800" Archived 19 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine. (2019), economics
 * Kagan, Richard L. "Philip II and the Art of the Cityscape". Journal of Interdisciplinary History 17.1 (1986): 115–135.
 * Lazure, Guy. "Possessing the Sacred: Monarchy and Identity in Philip II's Relic Collection at the Escorial". Renaissance Quarterly 60.1 (2007): 58–93.
 * Matthews, P. G. "Portraits of Philip II of Spain as King of England". Burlington Magazine 142.1162 (2000): 13–19.
 * Miller, Stephanie R. "A Tale of Two Portraits: Titian's Seated Portraits of Philip II". Visual Resources 28.1 (2012): 103–116.
 * Samson, Alexander. "Changing Places: The Marriage and Royal Entry of Philip, Prince of Austria, and Mary Tudor, July-August 1554" [ dead link ] . Sixteenth Century Journal (2005): 761–784.
 * Scully, Robert E. " 'In the Confident Hope of a Miracle': The Spanish Armada and Religious Mentalities in the Late Sixteenth Century". Catholic Historical Review 89.4 (2003): 643–670.
 * Wilkinson-Zerner, Catherine. Juan de Herrera: Architect to Philip II of Spain (Yale University Press, 1993).

 External links [ edit ]

 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Philip II of Spain .
 Wikiquote has quotations related to Philip II of Spain.
 * Letters of Philip II, King of Spain 1592–1597, online edition at Brigham Young University
 * Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Philip II" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
 Philip II of Spain 
 House of Habsburg 
 Born: 21 May 1527 Died: 13 September 1598
 Regnal titles 
 Preceded by King of England and Ireland (jure uxoris) Succeeded by 
 Mary I 25 July 1554 – 17 November 1558 Elizabeth I 
 as sole monarch with Mary I 
  Duke of Brabant, Limburg, Lothier and Luxemburg; Succeeded by 
 Preceded by Marquis of Namur; Count Palatine of Burgundy; Isabella Clara Eugenia
 Emperor Charles V Count of Artois, Flanders and Hainaut Albert 
  16 January 1556 – 6 May 1598 
 Count of Charolais 
 21 September 1558 – 6 May 1598 
 Duke of Guelders;  
 Count of Zutphen, Holland and Zeeland Dutch Republic 
 16 January 1556 – 26 July 1581 
 King of Naples and Sicily Succeeded by 
 1554–1598 Philip III 
 King of Spain and Sardinia 
 1556–1598 
 Preceded by King of Portugal 
 Henry 1581–1598 
 Vacant Duke of Milan 
 Title last held by 1540–1598 
 Francesco II Sforza  
 Spanish royalty 
 Vacant Prince of Asturias Succeeded by 
 Title last held by 1528–1556 Carlos 
 Charles I  
 Prince of Girona 
 1527–1556 
 
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  * Sancho VI   
  * Sancho VII   
  * Theobald I   
 House of Champagne * Theobald II   
  * Henry I   
  * Joan I   
  * Philip IF   
  * Louis IF   
 House of Capet * John IF   
  * Philip IIF   
  * Charles IF   
  * Joan II   
  * Philip III   
 House of Évreux * Charles II   
  * Charles III   
  * Blanche I   
  * John IIA   
 House of Trastámara * Charles IV   
  * Blanche II   
  * Eleanor   
 House of Foix  * Francis Phoebus   
  * Catherine   
 House of Albret * John III   
 House of Albret - Lower Navarre * Henry II   
  * Joan III   
  * Antoine   
  * Henry IIIF   
  * Louis IIF   
 House of Bourbon - Lower Navarre * Louis IIIF   
  * Louis IVF   
  * Louis VF   
  * Louis VIF   
  * Charles VF   
 House of Trastámara - Upper Navarre * Ferdinand IA   
  * Joan IIIS   
  * Charles IVS   
  * Philip IVS   
 House of Habsburg - Upper Navarre * Philip VS   
  * Philip VIS   
  * Charles VS   
  * Philip VIIS   
  * Louis IIS   
  * Ferdinand IIS   
 House of Bourbon - Upper Navarre * Charles VIS   
  * Charles VIIS   
  * Ferdinand IIIS   
  * Isabella IS   
 AAlso King of Aragon. FAlso King of France. SAlso King/Queen of Spain.    
     
 * v     
 * t     
 * e     
 Spanish Empire     
 Timeline–immersed    
 * Catholic Monarchs    
 * Conquest of the Americas, Asia and the Pacific    
 * Treaty of Tordesillas    
 * Italian Wars     
 * Habsburgs     
 * Golden Age     
 * War of the League of Cognac    
 * Encomiendas     
 * New Laws in favour of the indigenous    
 * Expulsion of the Moriscos    
 * Ottoman–Habsburg wars    
 * French Wars of Religion    
 * Bruneian–Spanish conflict    
 * Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)    
 * Piracy in the Caribbean    
 * Eighty Years' War    
 * Spanish–Moro conflict    
 * Thirty Years' War    
 * Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)    
 * Portuguese Restoration War    
 * War of the Spanish Succession    
 + Queen Anne's War    
 * Bourbons     
 * Bourbon Reforms    
 * War of Jenkins' Ear    
 * Treaty of Madrid (1750)    
 * Seven Years' War    
 * Nootka Convention    
 * Napoleonic invasion    
 * Third Treaty of San Ildefonso    
 * Independence of Spanish continental Americas    
 * Adams–Onís Treaty    
 * Liberal constitution    
 * Carlist Wars     
 * Spanish–American War    
 * German–Spanish Treaty (1899)    
 * Spanish Civil War    
 * Independence of Morocco    
 * Independence of Equatorial Guinea    
 * Western Sahara conflict    
     
 Territories     
 Europe     
 * Spain     
 * Gibraltar     
 * Kingdoms of Naples, Sicily and Sardinia    
 * Milan     
 * Union with Holy Roman Empire    
 * Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, northernmost France    
 * Franche-Comté    
 * Pyrénées-Orientales    
 * Union with Portugal    
     
 Asia     
 * Philippines     
 * Pacific Islands (Guam, Mariana, Caroline, Micronesia, Palau, Marshall)    
 * Northern Taiwan    
 * Tidore     
     
 North America     
 * Florida     
 * New Spain (Western United States, Mexico, Central America, Spanish Caribbean)   
 * Spanish Louisiana (Central United States)    
 * Coastal Alaska    
     
 Central America     
 * Trinidad     
 * Jamaica     
 * Haiti     
 * Aruba     
 * Curazao     
 * Bonaire     
 * Belize     
     
 South America     
 * Venezuela, part of Guyana    
 * New Granada (Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, a northernmost portion of Brazilian Amazon)   
 * Peru (Peru, Acre)    
 * Río de la Plata (Argentina, Paraguay, Charcas (Bolivia), Banda Oriental (Uruguay), Falkland Islands)   
 * Chile     
     
 Africa     
 * Equatorial Guinea    
 * Northern Africa (Western Sahara, Spanish Morocco, Tripoli, Tunis, Peñón of Algiers, Oran, Béjaïa, Ifni and Cape Juby)   
     
 Antarctica     
 * Terra Australis    
     
     
 Administration     
 * Archivo de Indias    
 * Council of the Indies    
 * Cabildo     
 * Exequatur     
 * Laws of the Indies    
 * Papal bull     
 * Royal Decree of Graces    
 * Trial of residence    
 * School of Salamanca    
     
 Administrative subdivisions    
  * Columbian    
  * New Spain    
 Viceroyalties * New Granada    
  * Perú    
  * Río de la Plata    
  * Chile    
  * Cuba    
  * Guatemala    
  * Philippines    
 Captaincies General * Provincias Internas    
  * Puerto Rico    
  * Santo Domingo    
  * Venezuela    
  * Yucatán    
  * Castilla de Oro    
  * Cuba    
  * La Florida    
  * La Luisiana    
  * New Andalusia (1501–1513)    
 Governorates * New Andalusia    
  * New Castile    
  * New Navarre    
  * New Toledo    
  * Paraguay    
  * Río de la Plata    
  * Terra Australis    
  * Bogotá    
  * Buenos Aires    
  * Caracas    
  * Charcas    
  * Concepción    
  * Cusco    
  * Guadalajara    
 Audiencias * Guatemala    
  * Lima    
  * Manila    
  * Mexico    
  * Panamá    
  * Quito    
  * Santiago    
  * Santo Domingo    
     
     
 Economy     
 * Dollar (Peso)    
 * Real    
 Currencies * Maravedí    
 * Escudo    
 * Columnario    
 * Doubloon    
 * Manila galleon    
 * Spanish treasure fleet    
 * Casa de Contratación    
 * Spanish Road    
 Trade * Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas    
 * Barcelona Trading Company    
 * Consulate of the Sea    
 * Camino Real de Tierra Adentro    
 * Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires    
     
     
 Military     
 * Tercio    
 * Army of Flanders    
 * Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia    
 Armies * Indian auxiliaries    
 * Spanish Armada    
 * Ships of the line    
 * Royalists    
 * Legión    
 * Duke of Alba    
 * Antonio de Leyva    
 * Martín de Goiti    
 * Alfonso d'Avalos    
 * García de Toledo Osorio    
 * Duke of Savoy    
 Strategists * Álvaro de Bazán the Elder    
 * John of Austria    
 * Charles Bonaventure de Longueval    
 * Pedro de Zubiaur    
 * Ambrosio Spinola    
 * Blas de Lezo    
 * Bernardo de Gálvez    
 * Christopher Columbus    
 * Pinzón brothers    
 * Ferdinand Magellan    
 * Juan Sebastián Elcano    
 * Juan de la Cosa    
 * Juan Ponce de León    
 * Miguel López de Legazpi    
 * Pedro Menéndez de Avilés    
 * Sebastián de Ocampo    
 * Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca    
 * Alonso de Ojeda    
 Mariners * Vasco Núñez de Balboa    
 * Alonso de Salazar    
 * Andrés de Urdaneta    
 * Antonio de Ulloa    
 * Ruy López de Villalobos    
 * Diego Columbus    
 * Alonso de Ercilla    
 * Nicolás de Ovando    
 * Juan de Ayala    
 * Sebastián Vizcaíno    
 * Juan Fernández    
 * Luis Fajardo    
 * Felipe González de Ahedo    
 * Hernán Cortés    
 * Francisco Pizarro    
 * Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada    
 * Hernán Pérez de Quesada    
 * Francisco Vázquez de Coronado    
 * Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar    
 * Pedro de Valdivia    
 * Gaspar de Portolà    
 Conquistadors * Pere Fages i Beleta    
 * Joan Orpí    
 * Pedro de Alvarado    
 * Martín de Ursúa    
 * Diego de Almagro    
 * Pánfilo de Narváez    
 * Diego de Mazariegos    
 * Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera    
 * Pere d'Alberní i Teixidor    
 * García López de Cárdenas    
  * Comuneros    
  * Bicocca    
  * Rome (1527)    
  * Landriano    
  * Pavia    
  * Tunis    
  * Mühlberg    
  * St. Quentin    
  * Gravelines    
  * Malta    
  * Lepanto    
  * Antwerp    
  * Azores    
  Won * Mons    
  * Gembloux    
  * Ostend    
  * English Armada    
  * Cape Celidonia    
  * White Mountain    
  * Breda    
  * Nördlingen    
  * Valenciennes    
  * Ceuta    
  * Bitonto    
 Old World * Bailén    
  * Vitoria    
  * Tetouan    
  * Alhucemas    
  * Capo d'Orso    
  * Vienna (1529)    
  * Preveza    
  * Siege of Castelnuovo    
  * Algiers    
  * Ceresole    
  * Balearic Islands (1558)    
  * Djerba    
  * Tunis    
  Lost * Spanish Armada    
  * Leiden    
  * Rocroi    
  * Downs    
  * Montes Claros    
 Notable battles * Passaro    
  * Manila Bay    
  * Trafalgar    
  * Somosierra    
  * Annual    
  * Mactan    
     
  * Tenochtitlan    
  * Cajamarca    
  * Cusco    
  * Bogotá savanna    
  * Penco    
  * Mataquito    
  * Guadalupe Island    
  * Recife    
  * San Juan (1595)    
  Won * Bahia    
  * Colonia del Sacramento    
  * Comuneros (Paraguay)    
  * Cartagena de Indias    
  * Cuerno Verde    
  * Túpac Amaru II    
  * Túpac Katari    
  * Pensacola    
 New World * Newfoundland    
  * San Juan (1797)    
  * La Noche Triste    
  * Iguape    
  * Tucapel    
  * Guiana    
  * Curalaba    
  * Comuneros (New Granada)    
  * Trinidad (1797)    
  Lost * Chacabuco    
  * Boyacá    
  * Carabobo    
  * Pichincha    
  * Ayacucho    
  * Guam    
  * Santiago de Cuba    
  * Asomante    
     
     
     
     
 Spanish conquests    
 * Canary Islands    
 * The Americas     
 * Aztec     
 * Maya     
 + Chiapas     
 + Yucatán     
 + Guatemala    
 + Petén     
 * El Salvador     
 * Honduras     
 * Nicaragua     
 * Chibchan Nations    
 * Colombia     
 * Chile     
 * Inca     
 * Philippines     
     
 Other civil topics    
 * Spanish missions in the Americas    
 * Architecture     
 * Mesoamerican codices    
 * Cusco painting tradition    
 * Indochristian painting in New Spain    
 * Quito painting tradition    
 * Tapada limeña    
 * Academia Antártica    
 * Colonial universities in Hispanic America    
 * Colonial universities in the Philippines    
 * General Archive of the Indies    
 * Colonial Spanish Horse    
 + Mustang     
 * Castas     
 + Criollos in the colonial society    
 * Old inquisition    
 * Slavery in Spanish Empire    
 * Asiento     
 * Law of coartación (which allowed slaves to buy their freedom, and that of others)   
 * Great Potosí Mint Fraud of 1649    
     
     
 * v     
 * t     
 * e     
 Monarchs of Portugal    
  * Afonso I    
  * Sancho I    
  * Afonso II    
  * Sancho II    
 House of Burgundy (1139–1383) * Afonso III    
  * Denis I    
  * Afonso IV    
  * Peter I    
  * Ferdinand I    
  * Beatrice I    
  * John I    
  * Edward I    
  * Afonso V    
  * John II    
 House of Aviz (1385–1580) * Manuel I    
  * John III    
  * Sebastian I    
  * Henry I    
  * Anthony I    
  * Philip I    
 House of Habsburg (1581–1640) * Philip II    
  * Philip III    
  * John IV    
  * Afonso VI    
  * Peter II    
  * John V    
  * Joseph I    
  * Maria I with Peter III    
  * John VI    
 House of Braganza (1640–1910) * Peter IV    
  * Maria II    
  * Miguel I    
  * Maria II with Ferdinand II    
  * Peter V    
  * Luís I    
  * Carlos I    
  * Manuel II    
 Debatable or disputed rulers are in italics.    
     
 * v     
 * t     
 * e     
 English, Scottish and British monarchs    
 Monarchs of England until 1603 Monarchs of Scotland until 1603    
  * Kenneth I MacAlpin    
 * Æthelstan (from 927) * Donald I    
 * Edmund I * Constantine I    
 * Eadred * Áed    
 * Eadwig * Giric    
 * Edgar the Peaceful * Eochaid    
 * Edward the Martyr * Donald II    
 * Æthelred the Unready * Constantine II    
 * Sweyn * Malcolm I    
 * Edmund Ironside * Indulf    
 * Cnut * Dub    
 * Harold I * Cuilén    
 * Harthacnut * Amlaíb    
 * Edward the Confessor * Kenneth II    
 * Harold Godwinson * Constantine III    
 * Edgar Ætheling * Kenneth III    
 * William I * Malcolm II    
 * William II * Duncan I    
 * Henry I * Macbeth    
 * Stephen * Lulach    
 * Matilda * Malcolm III    
 * Henry II * Donald III    
 * Henry the Young King * Duncan II    
 * Richard I * Edgar    
 * John * Alexander I    
 * Henry III * David I    
 * Edward I * Malcolm IV    
 * Edward II * William I    
 * Edward III * Alexander II    
 * Richard II * Alexander III    
 * Henry IV * Margaret    
 * Henry V * John    
 * Henry VI * Robert I    
 * Edward IV * David II    
 * Edward V * Edward Balliol    
 * Richard III * Robert II    
 * Henry VII * Robert III    
 * Henry VIII * James I    
 * Edward VI * James II    
 * Jane * James III    
 * Mary I and Philip * James IV    
 * Elizabeth I * James V    
  * Mary I    
  * James VI    
     
     
 * Monarchs of England and Scotland after the Union of the Crowns from 1603    
 * James I and VI    
 * Charles I    
 * Charles II    
 * James II and VII    
 * William III and II and Mary II    
 * Anne     
     
 * British monarchs after the Acts of Union 1707    
 * Anne     
 * George I     
 * George II    
 * George III    
 * George IV    
 * William IV    
 * Victoria     
 * Edward VII    
 * George V     
 * Edward VIII    
 * George VI    
 * Elizabeth II    
 * Charles III    
     
 * Debatable or disputed rulers are in italics.    
     
 * v     
 * t     
 * e     
 Monarchs of Naples    
 * Charles I*    
 * Charles II    
 * Robert     
 * Joanna I with Louis I    
 * Charles III    
 * Ladislaus (1st reign)    
 * Louis II    
 * Ladislaus (2nd reign)    
 * Joanna II    
 * René I     
 * Alfonso I*    
 * Ferdinand I    
 * Alfonso II    
 * Ferdinand II    
 * Frederick    
 * Louis III    
 * Ferdinand III*    
 * Joanna III*    
 * Charles IV*    
 * Philip I*    
 * Philip II*    
 * Philip III*    
 * Charles V*    
 * Charles VI*    
 * Charles VII*    
 * Ferdinand IV* (1st reign)    
 * Parthenopean Republic    
 * Ferdinand IV* (2nd reign)    
 * Joseph I    
 * Joachim I    
 * Ferdinand IV* (3rd reign)    
 *Also Monarch of Sicily    
     
 * v     
 * t     
 * e     
 Monarchs of Sicily    
  * Roger I    
 County of Sicily (1071–1130) * Simon    
  * Roger II    
  * Roger II    
  * William I    
  * William II    
  * Tancred    
  * Roger III    
  * William III    
  * Constance    
  * Henry I    
  * Frederick I    
  * Henry II    
  * Conrad I    
  * Conrad II    
  * Manfred    
  * Charles I    
  * Peter I    
  * James I    
  * Frederick II    
  * Peter II    
 Kingdom of Sicily (1130–1816) * Louis    
  * Frederick III    
  * Maria    
  * Martin I    
  * Martin II    
  * Ferdinand I    
  * Alfonso I    
  * John    
  * Ferdinand II    
  * Joanna    
  * Charles II    
  * Philip I    
  * Philip II    
  * Philip III    
  * Charles III    
  * Philip IV    
  * Victor Amadeus    
  * Charles IV    
  * Charles V    
  * Ferdinand III    
     
 * v     
 * t     
 * e     
 Monarchs of Luxembourg    
 County of Luxemburg (963–1354)    
  * Siegfried (963–998)    
  * Henry I (998–1026)    
  * Henry II (1026–1047)    
 Elder House of Luxembourg * Giselbert (1047–1059)    
 (963–1136) * Conrad I (1059–1086)    
  * Henry III (1086–1096)    
  * William I (1096–1131)    
  * Conrad II (1131–1136)    
 House of Namur * Henry IV (1136–1189)    
 (1136–1189)    
 House of Hohenstaufen * Otto (1196–1197)    
 (1196–1197)    
 House of Namur * Ermesinde (1197–1247), with    
 (1197–1247) * Theobald (1197–1214), and then    
  * Waleran (1214–1226)    
  * Henry V (1247–1281)    
  * Henry VI (1281–1288)    
 House of Limburg * Henry VII (1288–1313)    
 (1247–1354) * John I (1313–1346)    
  * Charles I (1346–1353)    
  * Wenceslaus I (1353–1354)    
     
     
 Duchy of Luxemburg (1354–1794)    
  * Wenceslaus I (1354–1383)    
  * Wenceslaus II (1383–1388)    
 House of Limburg * Jobst (1388–1411)    
 (1354–1443) * Elisabeth (1411–1443) with    
  * Anthony (1411–1415), and then    
  * John II (1418–1425)    
  * Philip I (1443–1467)    
 House of Valois-Burgundy * Charles II (1467–1477)    
 (1443–1482) * Mary I (1477–1482) and    
  * Maximilian I (1477–1482)    
  * Philip II (1482–1506)    
  * Charles III (1506–1556)    
 House of Habsburg * Philip III (1556–1598)    
 (1482–1700) * Isabella Clara Eugenia (1598–1621) and Albert (1598–1621)   
  * Philip IV (1621–1665)    
  * Charles IV (1665–1700)    
 House of Bourbon * Philip V (1700–1712)    
 (1700–1712)    
 House of Wittelsbach * Maximilian II (1712–1713)    
 (1712–1713)    
 House of Habsburg * Charles V (1713–1740)    
 (1713–1780) * Mary II (1740–1780)    
 House of Habsburg-Lorraine * Joseph (1780–1790)    
 (1780–1794) * Leopold (1790–1792)    
  * Francis (1792–1794)    
     
     
 Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (since 1815)    
 House of Orange-Nassau * William I (1815–1840)    
 (1815–1890) * William II (1840–1849)    
  * William III (1849–1890)    
  * Adolphe (1890–1905)    
  * William IV (1905–1912)    
 House of Nassau-Weilburg * Marie-Adélaïde (1912–1919)    
 (1890–present) * Charlotte (1919–1964)    
  * Jean (1964–2000)    
  * Henri (since 2000)    
     
     
     
 * v    
 * t    
 * e    
 Infantes of Spain    
 The generations indicate descent from Carlos I, under whom the crowns of Castile and Aragon were united, forming the Kingdom of Spain. Previously, the title Infante had been largely used in the different realms. 
 1st generation    * Felipe II 
     * Carlos, Prince of Asturias 
 2nd generation    * Fernando, Prince of Asturias 
     * Diego, Prince of Asturias 
     * Felipe III 
     * Felipe IV 
 3rd generation    * Infante Carlos 
     * Infante Fernando 
     * Infante Alonso 
     * Baltasar Carlos, Prince of Asturias 
 4th generation    * Felipe Próspero, Prince of Asturias 
     * Carlos II 
 5th generation    * None 
 6th generation    * None 
     * Luis I 
     * Infante Felipe Pedro 
 7th generation    * Fernando VI 
     * Carlos III 
     * Felipe I, Duke of Parma 
     * Infante Luis, Count of Chinchón 
     * Infante Felipe, Duke of Calabria 
     * Carlos IV 
 8th generation    * Fernando I of the Two Sicilies 
     * Infante Gabriel 
     * Infante Antonio Pascual 
     * Fernando I, Duke of Parma1 
     * Fernando VII 
     * Infante Carlos, Count of Molina 
 9th generation    * Infante Francisco de Paula 
     * Infante Pedro Carlos, Infante of Portugal1
     * Luis I of Etruria2 
     * Infante Antonio, Duke of Montpensier2 
     * Infante Carlos, Count of Montemolin1 
     * Infante Juan, Count of Montizón1 
 10th generation    * Infante Fernando1 
     * Francisco de Asís, King Consort of Spain1 
     * Infante Enrique, Duke of Seville1 
     * Infante Sebastián, Infante of Portugal1 
     * Carlos II, Duke of Parma1 
     * Alfonso XII 
     * Infante Gaetan, Count of Girgenti2 
 11th generation    * Infante Antonio, Duke of Galliera1 
     * Infante Carlos, Duke of Madrid 
     * Infante Alfonso Carlos, Duke of San Jaime1
     * Carlos III, Duke of Parma1 
     * Infante Carlos of Bourbon-Two Sicilies2 
     * Infante Ferdinand of Bavaria2 
 12th generation    * Infante Alfonso, Duke of Galliera1 
     * Infante Luis Fernando of Orléans1 
     * Infante Jaime, Duke of Madrid1 
     * Roberto I, Duke of Parma1 
     * Alfonso, Prince of Asturias 
     * Infante Jaime, Duke of Segovia 
 13th generation    * Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona 
     * Infante Gonzalo 
     * Infante Alfonso, Duke of Calabria1 
     * Juan Carlos I 
 14th generation    * Infante Alfonso 
     * Infante Carlos, Duke of Calabria1 
 15th generation    * Felipe VI 
 16th generation    * None 
 * 1 title granted by Royal Decree    
 * 2 consort to an Infanta naturalized as a Spanish Infante    
     
 * v    
 * t    
 * e    
 Austrian archdukes    
 Generations are numbered by male-line descent from the first archdukes. Later generations are included although Austrian titles of nobility were abolished in 1919.  
    * Frederick V  
 1st generation   * Albert VI  
    * Sigismund  
 2nd generation   * Maximilian I  
 3rd generation   * Philip I of Castile  
 4th generation   * Charles I  
    * Ferdinand I  
    * Philip II of SpainS  
 5th generation   * Maximilian II  
    * Ferdinand II  
    * Charles II  
    * Charles, Prince of AsturiasS 
    * Rudolf V  
    * Ernest  
    * Matthias  
    * Maximilian III  
    * Albert VII  
 6th generation   * Wenceslaus  
    * Ferdinand, Prince of AsturiasS 
    * Diego, Prince of AsturiasS 
    * Philip III of SpainS  
    * Ferdinand III  
    * Maximilian Ernest  
    * Leopold V  
    * Charles, Bishop of Wroclaw 
    * Philip IV of SpainS  
    * CharlesS  
    * Ferdinand IV  
 7th generation   * FerdinandS  
    * AlonsoS  
    * Leopold Wilhelm  
    * Ferdinand Charles  
    * Sigismund Francis  
    * Balthasar Charles, Prince of AsturiasS 
    * Ferdinand IV of Hungary  
 8th generation   * Leopold VI  
    * Charles Joseph  
    * Philip Prospero, Prince of AsturiasS 
    * Charles II of SpainS  
    * Joseph I  
 9th generation   * Leopold Joseph  
    * Charles III  
    * Joseph IIT  
    * Charles JosephT  
 11th generation   * Leopold VIIT  
    * FerdinandT  
    * Maximilian Franz, Archbishop-Elector of CologneT 
    * Emperor Francis IT  
    * Ferdinand III, Grand Duke of TuscanyT 
    * CharlesT  
    * Alexander LeopoldT  
    * JosephT  
    * Anton VictorT  
    * JohnT  
 12th generation   * Rainer JosephT  
    * LouisT  
    * Cardinal RudolfT  
    * Joseph Franz  
    * Francis IV, Duke of Modena 
    * Ferdinand Karl Joseph  
    * Maximilian  
    * Karl Ambrosius, Primate of Hungary 
    * Emperor Ferdinand I  
    * Leopold II, Grand Duke of TuscanyT 
    * Franz Karl  
    * Johann Nepomuk  
    * Albrecht  
    * Stephen  
    * Karl Ferdinand  
 13th generation   * Francis V, Duke of Modena 
    * Frederick Ferdinand  
    * Ferdinand Karl Viktor  
    * Leopold Ludwig  
    * Ernest  
    * Rainer Ferdinand  
    * Wilhelm Franz  
    * Heinrich Anton  
    * Joseph Karl  
    * Emperor Franz Joseph I  
    * Maximilian I of Mexico  
    * Karl Ludwig  
    * Ludwig Viktor  
    * Ferdinand IV, Grand Duke of TuscanyT 
    * Karl SalvatorT  
 14th generation   * Ludwig SalvatorT  
    * John SalvatorT  
    * Friedrich  
    * Charles Stephen  
    * Eugen  
    * Joseph August  
    * Archduke Ladislaus Philipp 
    * Crown Prince Rudolf  
    * Franz Ferdinand  
    * Otto  
    * Ferdinand Karl  
    * Leopold FerdinandT  
    * Josef FerdinandT  
 15th generation   * Peter FerdinandT  
    * Leopold SalvatorT  
    * Franz SalvatorT  
    * Albrecht Franz  
    * Karl Albrecht  
    * Leo Karl  
    * Wilhelm  
    * Joseph Francis  
    * Emperor Charles I  
    * Maximilian  
    * GottfriedT 
    * RainerT 
    Habsburg * Leopold MariaT 
 16th generation   Tuscany * AntonT 
    * Franz JosephT 
    * Karl PiusT 
    * Hubert SalvatorT 
    Palatines * Joseph Árpád 
    of Hungary * Géza 
     
    * Crown Prince Otto 
    Descent of * Robert  
    Charles I * Felix  
    * Carl Ludwig  
 17th generation   * Rudolf  
    Tuscany * DominicT  
    * Markus Emanuel SalvatorT 
    Palatines * Eduard  
     
    * Karl  
    * Georg  
 18th generation   Charles * LorenzB  
    * Karl Philipp  
    * Simeon  
     
 19th generation   Charles * Ferdinand Zvonimir 
     
 * S: also an infante of Spain    
 * T: also a prince of Tuscany    
 * B: also a prince of Belgium    
     
 * v    
 * t    
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Philip II      Portrait by Titian (1550)     King of Spain  (more…)      Reign 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598   Predecessor  Charles I    Successor  Philip III     King of Portugal  (more…)      Reign 12 September 1580 – 13 September 1598   Acclamation 16 April 1581, Tomar    Predecessor  Henry or Anthony ( disputed )   Successor  Philip III of Spain     King of England and Ireland  ( jure uxoris )      Reign 25 July 1554 – 17 November 1558   Predecessor  Mary I    Successor  Elizabeth I    Co-monarch Mary I       Born 21 May 1527 Palacio de Pimentel, Valladolid, Castile   Died 13 September 1598 (aged 71) El Escorial, San Lorenzo de El Escorial, Castile   Burial  El Escorial    Spouses  
   
   Maria Manuela of Portugal  
 ​ ​ (m. ; died  ) ​ 
   
   Mary I of England  
 ​ ​ (m.  ; died  ) ​ 
   
   Elisabeth of Valois  
 ​ ​ (m. 1559; died  ) ​ 
   
   Anna of Austria  
 ​ ​ (m.  ; died  ) ​ 
    Issue  Detail    
  Carlos, Prince of Asturias 
 Isabella Clara Eugenia, Lady of the Netherlands 
 Catherine Michaela, Duchess of Savoy 
 Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias 
 Diego, Prince of Asturias 
 Philip III, King of Spain  
     House   Habsburg    Father  Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor    Mother  Isabella of Portugal    Religion  Roman Catholicism    Signature       
 Philip II  [note 1]  (21 May 1527 – 13 September 1598), also known as Philip the Prudent (Spanish: Felipe el Prudente), was King of Spain  [note 2]  from 1556, King of Portugal from 1580, and King of Naples and Sicily from 1554 until his death in 1598. He was  jure uxoris  King of England and Ireland from his marriage to Queen Mary I in 1554 until her death in 1558. [1]  He was also Duke of Milan from 1540. [2]  From 1555, he was Lord of the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands.
 The son of Emperor Charles V and Isabella of Portugal, Philip inherited his father's Spanish Empire in 1556 and succeeded to the Portuguese throne in 1580 following a dynastic crisis. The Spanish conquests of the Inca Empire and of the Philippines, named in his honor by Ruy López de Villalobos, were completed during his reign. Under Philip II, Spain reached the height of its influence and power, sometimes called the Spanish Golden Age, and ruled territories in every continent then known to Europeans. Philip led a highly debt-leveraged regime, seeing state defaults in 1557, 1560, 1569, 1575, and 1596. This policy was partly the cause of the declaration of independence that created the Dutch Republic in 1581. Philip finished building the royal palace El Escorial in 1584.
 Deeply devout, Philip saw himself as the defender of Catholic Europe against the Ottoman Empire and the Protestant Reformation. In 1584, Philip signed the Treaty of Joinville funding the French Catholic League over the following decade in its civil war against the French Huguenots. In 1588, he sent an armada to invade Protestant England, with the strategic aim of overthrowing Elizabeth I and re-establishing Catholicism there, but his fleet was defeated in a skirmish at Gravelines (northern France) and then destroyed by storms as it circled the British Isles to return to Spain. The following year Philip's naval power was able to recover after the failed invasion of the English Armada into Spain. Two more Spanish armadas unsuccessfully tried to invade England in 1596 and 1597. The Anglo-Spanish war carried on until 1604, six years after Philip's death. [3]   [4] 
 Under Philip, an average of about 9,000 soldiers were recruited from Spain each year, rising to as many as 20,000 in crisis years. Between 1567 and 1574, nearly 43,000 men left Spain to fight in Italy and the Low Countries (modern-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands). [5] 
 Philip was described by the Venetian ambassador Paolo Fagolo in 1563 as "slight of stature and round-faced, with pale blue eyes, somewhat prominent lip, and pink skin, but his overall appearance is very attractive. ... He dresses very tastefully, and everything that he does is courteous and gracious." [6]  Philip was married four times; all his wives predeceased him.
Early life: 1527–1544[edit]
     
A member of the House of Habsburg, Philip was the son of Emperor Charles V, who was also king of Castile and Aragon, and Isabella of Portugal. He was born in the Castilian capital of Valladolid on 21 May 1527 at Palacio de Pimentel, [7]  which was owned by Don Bernardino Pimentel (the first Marqués de Távara). The culture and courtly life of Castile were an important influence in his early life. He was entrusted to the royal governess Leonor de Mascareñas, and tutored by Juan Martínez Siliceo, the future archbishop of Toledo. Philip displayed reasonable aptitude in arts and letters alike. Later he would study with more illustrious tutors, including the humanist Juan Cristóbal Calvete de Estrella. Though Philip had good command over Latin, Spanish, and Portuguese, he never managed to equal his father, Charles V, as a polyglot. While Philip was also an archduke of Austria, he was seen as a foreigner in the Holy Roman Empire. The feeling was mutual. Philip felt himself to be culturally Spanish; he had been born in Castile and raised in the Castilian court, his native language was Spanish, and he preferred to live in the Spanish kingdoms. This ultimately impeded his succession to the imperial throne. [8] 
 In April 1528, when Philip was eleven months old, he received the oath of allegiance as heir to the crown from the Cortes of Castile. From that time until the death of his mother Isabella in 1539, he was raised in the royal court of Castile under the care of his mother and one of her Portuguese ladies, Doña Leonor de Mascarenhas, to whom he was devotedly attached. Philip was also close to his two sisters, María and Juana, and to his two pages, the Portuguese nobleman Rui Gomes da Silva and Luis de Requesens, the son of his governor Juan de Zúñiga. These men would serve Philip throughout their lives, as would Antonio Pérez, his secretary from 1541.
 Philip's martial training was undertaken by his governor, Juan de Zúñiga, a Castilian nobleman who served as the  commendador mayor of Castile. The practical lessons in warfare were overseen by the Duke of Alba during the Italian Wars. Philip was present at the Siege of Perpignan in 1542 but did not see action as the Spanish army under Alba decisively defeated the besieging French forces under the Dauphin of France. On his way back to Castile, Philip received the oath of allegiance of the Aragonese Cortes at Monzón. His political training had begun a year previously under his father, who had found his son studious, grave, and prudent beyond his years, and having decided to train and initiate him in the government of the Spanish kingdoms. The king-emperor's interactions with his son during his stay in Castile convinced him of Philip's precocity in statesmanship, so he determined to leave in his hands the regency of the Spanish kingdoms in 1543. Philip, who had previously been made the Duke of Milan in 1540, began governing the most extensive empire in the world at the young age of sixteen.
 Charles left Philip with experienced advisors—notably the secretary Francisco de los Cobos and the general Duke of Alba. Philip was also left with extensive written instructions that emphasised "piety, patience, modesty, and distrust". These principles of Charles were gradually assimilated by his son, who would grow up to become grave, self-possessed and cautious. Personally, Philip spoke softly and had an icy self-mastery; in the words of one of his ministers, "he had a smile that was cut by a sword". [9] 
Domestic policy[edit]
After living in the Netherlands in the early years of his reign, [10]  Philip II decided to return to Castile. Although sometimes described as an absolute monarch, Philip faced many constitutional constraints on his authority, influenced by the growing strength of the bureaucracy. The Spanish Empire was not a single monarchy with one legal system but a federation of separate realms, each jealously guarding its own rights against those of the House of Habsburg. In practice, Philip often found his authority overruled by local assemblies and his word less effective than that of local lords. [11] 
 Philip carried several titles as heir to the Spanish kingdoms and empire, including Prince of Asturias. The newest constituent kingdom in the empire was Navarre, a realm invaded by Ferdinand II of Aragon mainly with Castilian troops (1512), and annexed to Castile with an ambiguous status (1513). War across Navarre continued until 1528 (Treaties of Madrid and Cambrai). Charles V proposed to end hostilities with King Henry II of Navarre—the legitimate monarch of Navarre—by marrying his son Philip to the heiress of Navarre, Jeanne III of Navarre. The marriage would provide a dynastic solution to instability in Navarre, making him king of all Navarre and a prince of independent Béarn, as well as lord of a large part of southern France. However, the French nobility under Francis I opposed the arrangement and successfully ended the prospects of marriage between the heirs of Habsburg and Albret in 1541.
     
In his will, Charles stated his doubts over Navarre and recommended that his son give the kingdom back. Both King Charles and his son Philip II failed to abide by the elective (contractual) nature of the Crown of Navarre and took the kingdom for granted. This sparked mounting tension not only with King Henry II and Queen Jeanne III of Navarre but also with the Parliament of the Spanish Navarre (Cortes, The Three States) and the Diputación for breach of the realm specific laws (fueros)—violation of the pactum subjection is as ratified by Ferdinand. Tensions in Navarre came to a head in 1592 after several years of disagreements over the agenda of the intended parliamentary session.
 In November 1592, the Parliament (Cortes) of Aragón revolted against another breach of the realm-specific laws, so the Attorney General (Justicia) of the kingdom, Juan de Lanuza, was executed on Philip II's orders, with his secretary Antonio Perez taking exile in France. In Navarre, the major strongholds of the kingdom were garrisoned by troops alien to the kingdom (Castilians) in a conspicuous violation of the local laws, and the Parliament had long been refusing to pledge loyalty to Philip II's son and heir apparent without a proper ceremony. On 20 November 1592 a ghostly Parliament session was called, pushed by Philip II, who had arrived in Pamplona at the head of an unspecified military force, and with one only point on his agenda—attendance to the session was kept blank on the minutes: unlawful appointments of trusted Castilian officials and imposition of his son as the future king of Navarre at the Santa Maria Cathedral. A ceremony was held before the bishop of Pamplona (22 November), but its customary procedure and terms were altered. Protests erupted in Pamplona, but they were quelled.
     
Philip II also grappled with the problem of the large Morisco population in the Spanish kingdoms, who had been forcibly converted to Christianity by his predecessors. In 1569, the Morisco Revolt broke out in the southern province of Granada in defiance of attempts to suppress Moorish customs. Philip ordered the expulsion of the Moriscos from Granada and their dispersal to other provinces.
 Despite its immense dominions, the Spanish kingdoms had a sparse population that yielded a limited income to the crown (in contrast to France, for example, which was much more heavily populated). Philip faced major difficulties in raising taxes, and the collection was largely farmed out to local lords. He was able to finance his military campaigns only by taxing and exploiting the local resources of his empire. The flow of income from the New World proved vital to his militant foreign policy, but his exchequer several times faced bankruptcy.
 Spanish culture flourished during Philip's reign, beginning the "Spanish Golden Age", creating a lasting legacy in literature, music, and the visual arts. One of the notable artists from Philip II's court was Sofonisba Anguissola, who gained fame for her talent and unusual role as a woman artist. She was invited to the court of Madrid in 1559 and was chosen to become an attendant to Isabella Clara Eugenia (1566–1633). Anguissola also became a lady-in-waiting and court painter for the queen, Elizabeth de Valois. During her time as a court painter, Anguissola painted many official portraits of the royal family, a sharp departure from her previous personal portraits.
Economy[edit]
      Portrait of Philip II on 1/5 Philipsdaalder, struck 1566, Guelders, Low Countries  
Charles V had left his son Philip with a debt of about 36 million ducats and an annual deficit of 1 million ducats. This debt caused Philip II to default on loans in 1557, 1560, 1575, and 1596 (including debt to Poland, known as Neapolitan sums). [12]  Lenders had no power over the King and could not force him to repay his loans. These defaults were just the beginning of Spain's economic troubles as its kings would default six more times in the next 65 years. [13]  Aside from reducing state revenues for overseas expeditions, the domestic policies of Philip II further burdened the Spanish kingdoms and would, in the following century, contribute to its decline, as maintained by some historians. [14] 
 The Spanish kingdoms were subject to different assemblies: the Cortes in Castile, the assembly in Navarre, and one each for the three regions of Aragon, which preserved traditional rights and laws from the time when they were separate kingdoms. This made the Spanish kingdoms and its possessions difficult to rule, unlike France, which while divided into regional states, had a single Estates-General. The lack of a viable supreme assembly led to power defaulting into Philip II's hands, especially as manager and final arbiter of the constant conflict between different authorities. To deal with the difficulties arising from this situation, authority was administered by local agents appointed by the crown and viceroys carrying out crown instructions. Philip II felt it necessary to be involved in the detail, and he presided over specialised councils for state affairs, finance, war, and the Inquisition.
 Philip II played groups against each other, leading to a system of checks and balances that managed affairs inefficiently, even to the extent of damaging state business, as in the Perez affair. Following a fire in Valladolid in 1561, he resisted calls to move his Court to Lisbon, an act that could have curbed centralisation and bureaucracy domestically as well as relaxed rule in the Empire as a whole. Instead, with the traditional Royal and Primacy seat of Toledo now essentially obsolete, he moved his Court to the Castilian stronghold of Madrid. Except for a brief period under Philip III of Spain, Madrid has remained the capital of Spain. It was around this time that Philip II converted the Royal Alcázar of Madrid into a royal palace; the works, which lasted from 1561 until 1598, were done by tradesmen who came from the Netherlands, Italy, and France.
 King Philip II ruled at a critical turning point in European history toward modernity whereas his father Charles V had been forced to an itinerant rule as a medieval king. He mainly directed state affairs, even when not at Court. Indeed, when his health began failing, he worked from his quarters at the Palace-Monastery-Pantheon of El Escorial that he had built in 1584, a palace built as a monument to Spain's role as a center of the Christian world. But Philip did not enjoy the supremacy that King Louis XIV of France would in the next century, nor was such a rule necessarily possible at his time. The inefficiencies of the Spanish state and the restrictively regulated industry under his rule were common to many contemporary countries. Further, the dispersal of the Moriscos from Granada – motivated by the fear they might support a Muslim invasion – had serious negative effects on the economy,[ citation needed ] particularly in that region.
Foreign policy[edit]
Philip's foreign policies were determined by a combination of Catholic fervour and dynastic objectives. He considered himself the chief defender of Catholic Europe, both against the Ottoman Turks and against the forces of the Protestant Reformation. He never relented from his fight against heresy, defending the Catholic faith and limiting freedom of worship within his territories. [15]  These territories included his patrimony in the Netherlands, where Protestantism had taken deep root. Following the Revolt of the Netherlands in 1568, Philip waged a campaign against Dutch heresy and secession. It also dragged in the English and the French at times and expanded into the German Rhineland with the Cologne War. This series of conflicts lasted for the rest of his life. Philip's constant involvement in European wars took a significant toll on the treasury and caused economic difficulties for the Crown and even bankruptcies.
      Personal guidon of Philip II  
In 1588, the English defeated Philip's Spanish Armada, thwarting his planned invasion of the country to reinstate Catholicism. But war with England continued for the next sixteen years, in a complex series of struggles that included France, Ireland and the main battle zone, the Low Countries. It would not end until all the leading protagonists, including himself, had died. Earlier, however, after several setbacks in his reign and especially that of his father, Philip did achieve a decisive victory against the Turks at Lepanto in 1571, with the allied fleet of the Holy League, which he had put under the command of his illegitimate brother, John of Austria. He also successfully secured his succession to the throne of Portugal.
 With regard to Philip's overseas possessions, in response to the reforms imposed by the Ordenanzas, extensive questionnaires were distributed to every major town and region in New Spain called relaciones geográficas. These surveys helped the Spanish monarchy to govern these overseas conquests more effectively.
Italy[edit]
Charles V abdicated the throne of Naples to Philip on 25 July 1554, and the young king was invested with the kingdom (officially called "Naples and Sicily") on 2 October by Pope Julius III. The date of Charles' abdication of the throne of Sicily is uncertain, but Philip was invested with this kingdom (officially "Sicily and Jerusalem") on 18 November 1554 by Julius. [16]  In 1556, Philip decided to invade the Papal States and temporarily held territory there, perhaps in response to Pope Paul IV's anti-Spanish outlook. According to Philip II, he was doing it for the benefit of the Church.
 In a letter to the Princess Dowager of Portugal, Regent of the Spanish kingdoms, dated 22 September 1556, Francisco de Vargas wrote:
 I have reported to your Highness what has been happening here, and how far the Pope is going in his fury and vain imaginings. His Majesty could not do otherwise than have a care for his reputation and dominions. I am sure your Highness will have had more recent news from the Duke of Alva, who has taken the field with an excellent army and has penetrated so far into the Pope's territory that his cavalry is raiding up to ten miles from Rome, where there is such panic that the population would have run away had not the gates been closed. The Pope has fallen ill with rage, and was struggling with a fever on the 16th of this month. The two Carafa brothers, the Cardinal and Count Montorio, do not agree, and they and Piero Strozzi are not on as good terms as they were in the past. They would like to discuss peace. The best thing would be for the Pope to die, for he is the poison at the root of all this trouble and more which may occur. His Majesty's intention is only to wrest the knife from this madman's hand and make him return to a sense of his dignity, acting like the protector of the Apostolic See, in whose name, and that of the College of Cardinals, his Majesty has publicly proclaimed that he has seized all he is occupying. The Pope is now sending again to the potentates of Italy for help. I hope he will gain as little thereby as he has done in the past, and that the French will calm down. May God give us peace in the end, as their Majesties desire and deserve! [17]   
In response to the invasion, Pope Paul IV called for a French military intervention. After minor fights in Lazio and near Rome, Fernando Alvarez de Toledo (Duke of Alba and Viceroy of Naples) met Cardinal Carlo Carafa and signed the Treaty of Cave as a compromise: French and Spanish forces left the Papal states and the Pope declared a neutral position between France and the Spanish kingdoms. [18] 
 Philip led the Spanish kingdoms into the final phase of the Italian Wars. A Spanish advance into France from the Low Countries led to their important victory at the Battle of St. Quentin in 1557. The French were defeated again at the Battle of Gravelines in 1558. The resulting Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis in 1559 secured Piedmont to the Duchy of Savoy, and Corsica to the Republic of Genoa. Both Genoa and Savoy were allies of Spain and, although Savoy subsequently declared its neutrality between France and Spain, Genoa remained a crucial financial ally for Philip during his entire reign. The treaty also confirmed Philip's direct control over Milan, Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia. Therefore, all of southern Italy was under direct Spanish rule. Sicily and Naples were viceroyalties of the Crown of Castile, while Sardinia was part of the Crown of Aragon. In the north, Milan was a Duchy of the Holy Roman Empire held by Philip. Attached to the Kingdom of Naples, the State of Presidi in Tuscany gave Philip the possibility to monitor maritime traffic to southern Italy. The Council of Italy was set up by Philip in order to co-ordinate his rule over the states of Milan, Naples and Sicily. Ultimately, the treaty ended the 60-year Franco-Habsburg wars for supremacy in Italy. It marked also the beginning of a period of peace between the Pope and Philip, as their European interests converged, although political differences remained and diplomatic contrasts eventually re-emerged.
 By the end of the wars in 1559, Habsburg Spain had been established as the premier power of Europe, to the detriment of France. In France, Henry II was fatally wounded in a joust held during the celebrations of the peace. His death led to the accession of his 15-year-old son Francis II, who in turn soon died. The French monarchy was thrown into turmoil, which increased further with the outbreak of the French Wars of Religion that would last for several decades. The states of Italy were reduced to second-rate powers, and Milan and Naples were annexed directly to Aragon. Mary Tudor's death in 1558 enabled Philip to seal the treaty by marrying Henry II's daughter, Elisabeth of Valois, later giving him a claim to the throne of France on behalf of his daughter by Elisabeth, Isabel Clara Eugenia.
France[edit]
The French Wars of Religion (1562–1598) were primarily fought between French Catholics and Protestants (Huguenots). The conflict involved the factional disputes between the aristocratic houses of France, such as the House of Bourbon and House of Guise (Lorraine), and both sides received assistance from foreign sources. Philip claimed descent from Constantine I and Charlemagne, justifying his intervention in French Wars of Religion and his continuing efforts to depose Henry IV of France. [19] 
 Philip signed the Treaty of Vaucelles with Henry II of France in 1556. Based on the terms of the treaty, the territory of Franche-Comté in Burgundy was to be relinquished to Philip. However, the treaty was broken shortly afterwards. France and the Spanish kingdoms waged war in northern France and Italy over the following years. Spanish victories at St. Quentin and Gravelines led to the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis, in which France recognised Spanish sovereignty over Franche-Comté.
 During the War of the Portuguese Succession, the pretender António fled to France following his defeats and, as Philip's armies had not yet occupied the Azores, he sailed there with a large Anglo-French fleet under Filippo Strozzi, a Florentine exile in the service of France. The naval Battle of Terceira took place on 26 July 1582, in the sea near the Azores, off São Miguel Island, as part of the War of the Portuguese Succession and the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604). The Spanish navy defeated the combined Anglo-French fleet that had sailed to preserve control of the Azores under António. The French naval contingent was the largest French force sent overseas before the age of Louis XIV. [20] 
     
The Spanish victory at Terceira was followed by the Battle of the Azores between the Portuguese loyal to the claimant António, supported by French and English troops, and the Spanish-Portuguese forces loyal to Philip commanded by the admiral Don Álvaro de Bazán. Victory in Azores completed the incorporation of Portugal into the Spanish Empire. [21] 
 Philip financed the Catholic League during the French Wars of Religion. He directly intervened in the final phases of the wars (1589–1598), ordering the Duke of Parma into France in an effort to unseat Henry IV, and perhaps dreaming of placing his favourite daughter, Isabel Clara Eugenia, on the French throne. Elizabeth of Valois, Philip's third wife and Isabella's mother, had already ceded any claim to the French Crown with her marriage to Philip. However the Parliament of Paris, in power of the Catholic party, gave verdict that Isabella Clara Eugenia was "the legitimate sovereign" of France. Philip's interventions in the fighting – sending the Duke of Parma to end Henry IV's siege of Paris in 1590 and the siege of Rouen in 1592 – contributed in saving the French Catholic Leagues's cause against a Protestant monarchy.
 In 1593, Henry agreed to convert to Catholicism; weary of war, most French Catholics switched to his side against the hardline core of the Catholic League, who were portrayed by Henry's propagandists as puppets of a foreign monarch, Philip. By the end of 1594 certain League members were still working against Henry across the country, but all relied on the support of the Spanish Crown. In January 1595, therefore, Henry officially declared war on the Spanish Crown, to show Catholics that Philip was using religion as a cover for an attack on the French state, and Protestants that he had not become a puppet of the Spanish Crown through his conversion, while hoping to reconquer large parts of northern France from the Franco-Spanish Catholic forces. [22] 
 French victory at the Battle of Fontaine-Française in Burgundy, 5 June 1595, marked an end to the Catholic League in France. The French also made some progress during an invasion of the Spanish Netherlands. They captured Ham and massacred the small Spanish garrison, provoking anger among the Spanish ranks.[ citation needed ] The Spanish launched a concerted offensive that year, taking Doullens, Cambrai, and Le Catelet; at Doullens, they massacred 4,000 of its citizens. [23]  On 24 April 1596, the Spanish also conquered Calais. Following the Spanish capture of Amiens in March 1597, the French Crown laid siege to it until it managed to reconquer Amiens from the overstretched Spanish forces in September 1597. Henry then negotiated a peace with the Spanish Crown. The war was only drawn to an official close, however, after the Edict of Nantes, with the Peace of Vervins in May 1598.
 The 1598 Treaty of Vervins was largely a restatement of the 1559 Peace of Câteau-Cambrésis and Spanish forces and subsidies were withdrawn; meanwhile, Henry issued the Edict of Nantes, which offered a high degree of religious toleration for French Protestants. The military interventions in France thus failed to oust Henry from the throne or suppress Protestantism in France, and yet they had played a decisive part in helping the French Catholic cause gain the conversion of Henry, ensuring that Catholicism would remain France's official and majority faith – matters of paramount importance for the devoutly Catholic Spanish king.
Mediterranean[edit]
     
     
In the early part of his reign Philip was concerned with the rising power of the Ottoman Empire under Suleiman the Magnificent. Fear of Islamic domination in the Mediterranean caused him to pursue an aggressive foreign policy.
 In 1558, Turkish admiral Piyale Pasha captured the Balearic Islands, especially inflicting great damage on Menorca and enslaving many, while raiding the coasts of the Spanish mainland. Philip appealed to the Pope and other powers in Europe to bring an end to the rising Ottoman threat. Since his father's losses against the Ottomans and against Hayreddin Barbarossa in 1541, the major European sea powers in the Mediterranean, namely the Spanish Crown and Venice, became hesitant in confronting the Ottomans. The myth of "Turkish invincibility" was becoming a popular story, causing fear and panic among the people.
 In 1560, Philip II organised a Holy League between the Spanish kingdoms and the Republic of Venice, the Republic of Genoa, the Papal States, the Duchy of Savoy and the Knights of Malta. The joint fleet was assembled at Messina and consisted of 200 ships (60 galleys and 140 other vessels) carrying a total of 30,000 soldiers under the command of Giovanni Andrea Doria, nephew of the famous Genoese admiral Andrea Doria.
 On 12 March 1560, the Holy League captured the island of Djerba, which had a strategic location and could control the sea routes between Algiers and Tripoli. As a response, Suleiman sent an Ottoman fleet of 120 ships under the command of Piyale Pasha, which arrived at Djerba on 9 May 1560. The battle lasted until 14 May 1560, and the forces of Piyale Pasha and Turgut Reis (who joined Piyale Pasha on the third day of the battle) won an overwhelming victory at the Battle of Djerba. The Holy League lost 60 ships (30 galleys) and 20,000 men, and Giovanni Andrea Doria was barely able to escape with a small vessel. The Ottomans retook the Fortress of Djerba, whose Spanish commander, D. Álvaro de Sande, attempted to escape with a ship but was followed and eventually captured by Turgut Reis. In 1565 the Ottomans sent a large expedition to Malta, which laid siege to several forts on the island, taking some of them. The Spanish sent a relief force, which finally drove the Ottoman army out of the island.
 The grave threat posed by the increasing Ottoman domination of the Mediterranean was reversed in one of history's most decisive battles, with the destruction of nearly the entire Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, by the Holy League under the command of Philip's half brother, Don Juan of Austria. A fleet sent by Philip, again commanded by Don John, reconquered Tunis from the Ottomans in 1573. The Turks soon rebuilt their fleet, and in 1574 Uluç Ali Reis managed to recapture Tunis with a force of 250 galleys and a siege that lasted 40 days. Thousands of Spanish and Italian soldiers became prisoners. Nevertheless, Lepanto marked a permanent reversal in the balance of naval power in the Mediterranean and the end of the threat of Ottoman control. In 1585 a peace treaty was signed with the Ottomans.
Colonial policy[edit]
Strait of Magellan[edit]
During Philip's reign Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a  mare clausum  – a sea closed to other naval powers. As the only known entrance from the Atlantic, the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships. [24]  To end navigation by rival powers in the Strait of Magellan Spanish viceroy Francisco de Toledo ordered Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa to explore the strait and found settlements on its shores. [25] 
 In 1584, Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa founded two colonies in the strait: Nombre de Jesús and Ciudad del Rey Don Felipe. The latter was established north of the strait with 300 settlers. [26]   [27]  The new colonies suffered from high death rates; likely as consequence executions, brawls, violent encounters with indigenous peoples, and most important, diseases which were rife. [28]  Deeper contributing causes for failure of the settlement and death of most settlers may have been the poor mood settlers showed already from the beginning of the settlement. [28]  This mood can in part be explained by a series of difficulties the expedition had to go through between the departure from Spain and the arrival to the strait. [28]  Philip II's inaction despite repeated pleas by Sarmiento to aid the ailing colony has been attributed to the strain on Spain's resources that resulted from wars with England and Dutch rebels. [29] 
 In 1587 English corsairs renamed Ciudad del Rey Don Felipe Puerto del Hambre, or "Port Famine"—most of the settlers had died by cold or starvation. [30]  When Sir Thomas Cavendish landed at the site of Rey Don Felipe in 1587, he found only ruins of the settlement. He renamed it Port Famine. [31]  The Spanish failure at colonizing the Strait of Magellan made Chiloé Archipelago assume the role of protecting western Patagonia from foreign intrusions. [32]  Valdivia and Chiloé acted as sentries, being hubs where the Spanish collected intelligence from all over Patagonia. [33] 
Revolt in the Netherlands[edit]
     
Philip's rule in the Seventeen Provinces known collectively as the Netherlands faced many difficulties, leading to open warfare in 1568. He appointed Margaret of Parma as Governor of the Netherlands, when he left the low countries for the Spanish kingdoms in 1559, but forced her to adjust policy to the advice of Cardinal Granvelle, who was greatly disliked in the Netherlands, after he insisted on direct control over events in the Netherlands despite being over two weeks' ride away in Madrid. There was discontent in the Netherlands about Philip's taxation demands and the incessant persecution of Protestants. In 1566, Protestant preachers sparked anti-clerical riots known as the Iconoclast Fury; in response to growing Protestant influence, the army of the Iron Duke (Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba) went on the offensive. In 1568, Alba had Lamoral, Count of Egmont and Philip de Montmorency, Count of Horn executed in Brussels' central square, further alienating the local aristocracy. There were massacres of civilians in Mechelen, [34]  Naarden, [35]  Zutphen  [34]  and Haarlem. In 1571, Alba erected at Antwerp a bronze statue of himself trampling the rebellious Dutch under his horse's hooves, cast from the melted-down cannon looted by the Spanish troops after the Battle of Jemmingen in 1568; it was modelled on medieval images of the Spanish patron Saint James "the Moorslayer" riding down Muslims and caused such outrage that Philip had it removed and destroyed. [36] 
 In 1572, a prominent exiled member of the Dutch aristocracy, William of Orange (Prince of Orange), invaded the Netherlands with a Protestant army, but he only succeeded in holding two provinces, Holland and Zeeland. Because of the Spanish repulse in the Siege of Alkmaar (1573) led by his equally brutal son Fadrique, [36]  Alba resigned his command, replaced by Luis de Requesens. Alba boasted that he had burned or executed 18,600 persons in the Netherlands, [37]  in addition to the far greater number he massacred during the war, many of them women and children; 8,000 persons were burned or hanged in one year, and the total number of Alba's Flemish victims can not have fallen short of 50,000. [38]  Under Requesens, the Army of Flanders reached a peak strength of 86,000 in 1574 and retained its battlefield superiority, destroying Louis of Nassau's German mercenary army at the Battle of Mookerheyde on 14 April 1574, killing both him and his brother Henry.
 Rampant inflation and the loss of treasure fleets from the New World prevented Philip from paying his soldiers consistently, leading to the so-called Spanish Fury at Antwerp in 1576, where soldiers ran amok through the streets, burning more than 1,000 homes and killing 6,000 citizens. [39]  Philip sent in Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, as Governor-General of the Spanish Netherlands from 1578 to 1592. Farnese defeated the rebels in 1578 at the Battle of Gembloux, [40]  and he captured many rebel towns in the south: Maastricht (1579), Tournai (1581), Oudenaarde (1582), Dunkirk (1583), Bruges (1584), Ghent (1584), and Antwerp (1585). [41] 
     
The States General of the northern provinces, united in the 1579 Union of Utrecht, passed an Act of Abjuration in 1581 declaring that they no longer recognised Philip as their king. The southern Netherlands (what is now Belgium and Luxembourg) remained under Spanish rule. In 1584, William the Silent was assassinated by Balthasar Gérard, after Philip had offered a reward of 25,000 crowns to anyone who killed him, calling him a "pest on the whole of Christianity and the enemy of the human race". The Dutch forces continued to fight on under Orange's son Maurice of Nassau, who received modest help from the Queen of England in 1585. The Dutch gained an advantage over the Spanish because of their growing economic strength, in contrast to Philip's burgeoning economic troubles. The war came to an end in 1648, when the Dutch Republic was recognised by the Spanish Crown as independent; the eight decades of war came at a massive human cost, with an estimated 600,000 to 700,000 victims, of which 350,000 to 400,000 were civilians killed by disease and what would later be considered war crimes. [42] 
King of Portugal[edit]
     
In 1578 young king Sebastian of Portugal died at the Battle of Alcácer Quibir without descendants, triggering a succession crisis. His granduncle, the elderly Cardinal Henry, succeeded him as king, but Henry had no descendants either, having taken holy orders. When Henry died two years after Sebastian's disappearance, three grandchildren of Manuel I claimed the throne: Infanta Catarina, Duchess of Braganza; António, Prior of Crato; and Philip II of Spain. António was acclaimed King of Portugal in many cities and towns throughout the country, but members of the Council of Governors of Portugal who had supported Philip escaped to the Spanish kingdoms and declared him to be the legal successor of Henry.
 Philip II then marched into Portugal and defeated Prior António's troops in the Battle of Alcântara. The Portuguese suffered 4,000 killed, wounded, or captured, while the Spanish sustained only 500 casualties. [43]  The troops commanded by Fernando Álvarez de Toledo the 3rd Duke of Alba  [44]  imposed subjection to Philip before entering Lisbon, where he seized an immense treasure. [45]  Philip II of Spain assumed the Portuguese throne in September 1580 and was crowned Philip I of Portugal in 1581 (recognized as king by the Portuguese Cortes of Tomar) and a near sixty-year personal union under the rule of the Philippine Dynasty began. This gave Philip control of the extensive Portuguese empire. When Philip left for Madrid in 1583, he made his nephew Albert of Austria his viceroy in Lisbon. In Madrid he established a Council of Portugal to advise him on Portuguese affairs, giving prominent positions to Portuguese nobles in the Spanish courts, and allowing Portugal to maintain autonomous law, currency, and government. This is on the well-established pattern of rule by councils.
      Spanish Empire of Philip II, III and IV including all charted and claimed territories, maritime claims (mare clausum) and other features  
Relations with England and Ireland[edit]
King of England and Ireland[edit]
      Titian portrait of Philip as prince (1551), aged about 24, dressed in a lavishly decorated set of armour  
      Irish groat with Philip and Mary's initials and portraits  
Philip's father arranged his marriage to 37-year-old Queen Mary I of England, Charles' maternal first cousin. His father ceded the crown of Naples, as well as his claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem, to him. Their marriage at Winchester Cathedral on 25 July 1554 took place just two days after their first meeting. Philip's view of the affair was entirely political. Lord Chancellor Gardiner and the House of Commons petitioned Mary to consider marrying an Englishman, preferring Edward Courtenay.
 Under the terms of the Act for the Marriage of Queen Mary to Philip of Spain, Philip was to enjoy Mary I's titles and honours for as long as their marriage should last. All official documents, including Acts of Parliament, were to be dated with both their names, and Parliament was to be called under the joint authority of the couple. Coins were also to show the heads of both Mary and Philip. The marriage treaty also provided that England would not be obliged to provide military support to Philip's father in any war. The Privy Council instructed that Philip and Mary should be joint signatories of royal documents, and this was enacted by an Act of Parliament, which gave him the title of king and stated that he "shall aid her Highness ... in the happy administration of her Grace's realms and dominions". [46]  In other words, Philip was to co-reign with his wife. [47]  As the new King of England could not read English, it was ordered that a note of all matters of state should be made in Latin or Spanish. [47]   [48]   [49] 
      Philip and Mary I of England, 1558  
Acts making it high treason to deny Philip's royal authority were passed in Ireland [50]  and England. [51]  Philip and Mary appeared on coins together, with a single crown suspended between them as a symbol of joint reign. The Great Seal shows Philip and Mary seated on thrones, holding the crown together. [47]  The coat of arms of England was impaled with Philip's to denote their joint reign. [52]   [53]  During their joint reign, they waged war against France, which resulted in the loss of Calais, England's last remaining possession in France.
 Philip's wife had succeeded to the Kingdom of Ireland, but the title of King of Ireland had been created in 1542 by Henry VIII after he was excommunicated, and so it was not recognised by Catholic monarchs. In 1555, Pope Paul IV rectified this by issuing a papal bull recognising Philip and Mary as rightful King and Queen of Ireland. [54]  King's County and Philipstown in Ireland were named after Philip as King of Ireland in 1556. The couple's joint royal style after Philip ascended the Spanish throne in 1556 was: Philip and Mary, by the Grace of God, King and Queen of England, Spain, France, Jerusalem, both the Sicilies and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, Archdukes of Austria, Dukes of Burgundy, Milan and Brabant, Counts of Habsburg, Flanders and Tirol.
 However, the couple had no children. Mary died in 1558 before the union could revitalise the Roman Catholic Church in England. With her death, Philip lost his rights to the English throne (including the ancient English claims to the French throne) and ceased to be King of England, Ireland and (as claimed by them) France.
 Philip's great-grandson, Philippe I, Duke of Orléans, married Princess Henrietta of England in 1661; in 1807, the Jacobite claim to the British throne passed to the descendants of their child Anne Marie d'Orléans.
After Mary I's death[edit]
      Philip's European and North African dominions in 1581  
Upon Mary's death, the throne went to Elizabeth I. Philip had no wish to sever his tie with England, and had sent a proposal of marriage to Elizabeth. However, she delayed in answering, and in that time learned Philip was also considering a Valois alliance. Elizabeth I was the Protestant daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. This union was deemed illegitimate by English Catholics, who disputed the validity of both the annulment of Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon and of his subsequent marriage to Boleyn, and hence claimed that Mary, Queen of Scots, the Catholic great-granddaughter of Henry VII, was the rightful monarch.
 For many years Philip maintained peace with England, and even defended Elizabeth from the Pope's threat of excommunication. This was a measure taken to preserve a European balance of power. Ultimately, Elizabeth allied England with the Protestant rebels in the Netherlands. Further, English ships began a policy of piracy against Spanish trade and threatened to plunder the great Spanish treasure ships coming from the New World. English ships went so far as to attack a Spanish port. The last straw for Philip was the Treaty of Nonsuch signed by Elizabeth in 1585 – promising troops and supplies to the rebels. Although it can be argued this English action was the result of Philip's Treaty of Joinville with the Catholic League of France, Philip considered it an act of war by England.
 The execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, in 1587 ended Philip's hopes of placing a Catholic on the English throne. He turned instead to more direct plans to invade England and return the country to Catholicism. In 1588, he sent a fleet, the Spanish Armada, to rendezvous with the Duke of Parma's army and convey it across the English Channel. However, the operation had little chance of success from the beginning, because of lengthy delays, lack of communication between Philip II and his two commanders and the lack of a deep bay for the fleet. At the point of attack, a storm struck the English Channel, already known for its harsh currents and choppy waters, which devastated large numbers of the Spanish fleet. There was a tightly fought battle against the English Royal Navy; it was by no means a slaughter (only one Spanish ship was sunk), [55]  but the Spanish were forced into a retreat, and the overwhelming majority of the Armada was destroyed by the harsh weather. Whilst the English Royal Navy may not have destroyed the Armada at the Battle of Gravelines, they had prevented it from linking up with the army it was supposed to convey across the channel. Thus whilst the English Royal Navy may have only won a slight tactical victory over the Spanish, it had delivered a major strategic one—preventing the invasion of England. Through a week of fighting the Spanish had expended 100,000 cannonballs, but no English ship was seriously damaged. [56]  However, over 7,000 English sailors died from disease during the time the Armada was in English waters.
 The defeat of the Spanish Armada gave great heart to the Protestant cause across Europe. The storm that smashed the Armada was seen by many of Philip's enemies as a sign of the will of God. Many Spaniards blamed the admiral of the Armada for its failure, but Philip, despite his complaint that he had sent his ships to fight the English, not the elements, was not among them.
 A measure of the character of Philip can be gathered by the fact that he personally saw to it that the wounded men of the Armada were treated and received pensions, and that the families of those who died were compensated for their loss, which was highly unusual for the time.
 While the invasion had been averted, England was unable to take advantage of this success. An attempt to use her newfound advantage at sea with a counter-armada the following year failed disastrously with 40 ships sunk and 15,000 men lost. [57]  Likewise, English buccaneering and attempts to seize territories in the Caribbean were defeated by Spain's rebuilt navy and their improved intelligence networks (although Cádiz was destroyed by an Anglo-Dutch force after a failed attempt to seize the treasure fleet). The Habsburgs also struck back with the Dunkirkers, who took an increasing toll on Dutch and English shipping.
 Eventually, the Spanish attempted two further Armadas, in October 1596 and October 1597. The 1596 Armada was destroyed in a storm off northern Spain; it had lost as many as 72 of its 126 ships and suffered 3,000 deaths. The 1597 Armada was frustrated by adverse weather as it approached the English coast undetected. This Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) would be fought to a grinding end, but not until both Philip II (d. 1598) and Elizabeth I (d. 1603) were dead. Some of the fighting was done on land in Ireland, France, and the Netherlands, with the English sending expeditionary forces to France and the Netherlands to fight Spain, and Spain attempting to assist Irish rebellions in Ireland.
Death[edit]
Philip II died in El Escorial, near Madrid, on 13 September 1598, of cancer. [58]  He was succeeded by his 20-year-old son, Philip III.
Legacy[edit]
      Philip's dominions in 1598  
Under Philip II, Spain reached the peak of its power. However, in spite of the great and increasing quantities of gold and silver flowing into his coffers from the American mines, the riches of the Portuguese spice trade, and the enthusiastic support of the Habsburg dominions for the Counter-Reformation, he would never succeed in suppressing Protestantism or defeating the Dutch rebellion. Early in his reign, the Dutch might have laid down their weapons if he had desisted in trying to suppress Protestantism,[ citation needed ] but his devotion to Catholicism would not permit him to do so. He was a devout Catholic and exhibited the typical 16th century disdain for religious heterodoxy; he said, "Before suffering the slightest damage to religion in the service of God, I would lose all of my estates and a hundred lives, if I had them, because I do not wish nor do I desire to be the ruler of heretics." [59] 
 As he strove to enforce Catholic orthodoxy through an intensification of the Inquisition, students were barred from studying elsewhere, and books printed by Spaniards outside the kingdom were banned. Even a highly respected churchman like Archbishop Carranza of Toledo was jailed by the Inquisition for 17 years, for publishing ideas that seemed sympathetic in some degree with Protestantism. Such strict enforcement of orthodox belief was successful, and Spain avoided the religiously inspired strife tearing apart other European dominions.
 The School of Salamanca flourished under his reign. Martín de Azpilcueta, highly honoured at Rome by several popes and looked on as an oracle of learning, published his Manuale sive Enchiridion Confessariorum et Poenitentium (Rome, 1568), long a classical text in the schools and in ecclesiastical practice.
  Francisco Suárez, generally regarded as the greatest scholastic after Thomas Aquinas and regarded during his lifetime as being the greatest living philosopher and theologian, was writing and lecturing, not only in Spain but also in Rome (1580–1585), where Pope Gregory XIII attended the first lecture that he gave. Luis de Molina published his De liberi arbitrii cum gratiae donis, divina praescientia, praedestinatione et reprobatione concordia (1588), wherein he put forth the doctrine attempting to reconcile the omniscience of God with human free will that came to be known as Molinism, thereby contributing to what was one of the most important intellectual debates of the time; Molinism became the de facto Jesuit doctrine on these matters, and is still advocated today by William Lane Craig and Alvin Plantinga, among others.
     
Because Philip II was the most powerful European monarch in an era of war and religious conflict, [60]  evaluating both his reign and the man himself has become a controversial historical subject. [61]  Even before his death in 1598, his supporters had started presenting him as an archetypical gentleman, full of piety and Christian virtues, whereas his enemies depicted him as a fanatical and despotic monster, responsible for inhuman cruelties and barbarism. [62]  This dichotomy, further developed into the so-called Spanish Black Legend and White Legend, was helped by King Philip himself. Philip prohibited any biographical account of his life to be published while he was alive, and he ordered that all his private correspondence be burned shortly before he died. [63]  Moreover, Philip did nothing to defend himself after being betrayed by his ambitious secretary Antonio Perez, who published incredible calumnies against his former master; this allowed Perez's tales to spread all around Europe unchallenged. [64]  That way, the popular image of the king that survives to today was created on the eve of his death, at a time when many European princes and religious leaders were turned against Spain as a pillar of the Counter-Reformation. This means that many histories depict Philip from deeply prejudiced points of view, usually negative. [65] 
 However, some historians classify this anti-Spanish analysis as part of the Black Legend. In a more recent example of popular culture, Philip II's portrayal in  Fire Over England  (1937) is not entirely unsympathetic; he is shown as a very hardworking, intelligent, religious, somewhat paranoid ruler whose prime concern is his country, but who had no understanding of the English, despite his former co-monarchy there.
 Even in countries that remained Catholic, primarily France and the Italian states, fear and envy of Spanish success and domination created a wide receptiveness for the worst possible descriptions of Philip II. Although some efforts have been made to separate legend from reality, [66]  that task has proved extremely difficult, since many prejudices are rooted in the cultural heritage of European countries. Spanish-speaking historians tend to assess his political and military achievements, sometimes deliberately avoiding issues such as the king's inflexible Catholicism. [67]  English-speaking historians tend to show Philip II as a fanatical, despotical, criminal, imperialist monster, [68]  minimising his military victories (Battle of Lepanto, Battle of Saint Quentin, etc.) to mere anecdotes, and magnifying his defeats (namely the Armada  [69] ) even though at the time those defeats did not result in great political or military changes in the balance of power in Europe. Moreover, it has been noted that objectively assessing Philip's reign would necessitate a re-analysis of the reign of his greatest opponents, namely England's Queen Elizabeth I and the Dutch William the Silent, who are popularly regarded as great heroes in their home nations; if Philip II is to be shown to the English or Dutch public in a more favourable light, Elizabeth and William would lose their cold-blooded, fanatical enemy, thus decreasing their own patriotic accomplishments. [note 3] 
 He ended French Valois ambitions in Italy and brought about the Habsburg ascendency in Europe. He secured the Portuguese kingdom and empire. He succeeded in increasing the importation of silver in the face of English, Dutch, and French privateers, overcoming multiple financial crises and consolidating Spain's overseas empire. Although clashes would be ongoing, he ended the major threat posed to Europe by the Ottoman navy.
 
Historian Geoffrey Parker offers a management-psychological explanation, as summarized by Tonio Andrade and William Reger:   One might have expected that Philip—being a dedicated, persistent, and hard-working man, and being the head of Western Europe’s wealthiest and largest empire—would have succeeded in his aims. He didn’t. His endeavors were doomed by his own character, or at least that’s how Parker sees it. Drawing on studies in management science and organizational psychology, Parker argues that a successful manager of a large organization must keep attention on the big picture, must have a good strategy for dealing with copious information, must know how to delegate, and must be flexible. Philip failed on all counts. He was a micromanager who got bogged down in details, refusing to delegate and trying to read every dispatch that came to his desk. He obsessed and dithered, so that by the time his decisions were made and his orders reached the men meant to carry them out, the situation on the ground had changed. Philip was also inflexible, unwilling to abandon ineffective policies. Most pernicious of all was Philip’s tendency toward messianic thinking, a belief that he was doing God’s work and that heaven would support him with miracles. [70]   
Titles, honours and styles[edit]
      Cannon with arms of Philip II as King of Spain and jure uxoris King of England and France  
      Portrait of Philip II as King of Portugal by Sánchez Coello, circa 1580  
 Heir titles
  Prince of Gerona: 21 May 1527 – 16 January 1556
 Prince of Asturias 1528–1556  
 King of Castile as Philip II: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598
 King of Castile, of León, of Granada, of Toledo, of Galicia, of Seville, of Cordoba, of Murcia, of Jaen, of the Algarves, of Algeciras, of Gibraltar, of the Canary Islands, of the Indias, the Islands and Mainland of the Ocean Sea; [note 4]  Lord of Molina
 Lord of Biscay   
 King of Aragon as Philip I: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598
 King of Aragón
King of the Two Sicilies
  King of Naples, of Jerusalem (from 25 July 1554)
 King of Sicily. Duke of Athens, of Neopatria  
 King of Valencia 
 King of Majorca 
 King of Sardinia and of Corsica, Margrave of Oristano, Count of Goceano
 King of Navarre 
 Count of Barcelona, of Roussillon, of Cerdanya  
 King of Portugal as Philip I: 12 September 1580 – 13 September 1598
 King of Portugal and the Algarves of either side of the sea in Africa, Lord of Guinea and of Conquest, Navigation, and Commerce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, and India, etc.  
 King of England de jure uxoris  as Philip I: 25 July 1554 – 17 November 1558 [71] 
 King of England, France (titular); Defender of the Faith 
 King of Ireland   
Imperial and Habsburg patrimonial titles:
  Duke of Milan: 11 October 1540 (secret donation) / 25 July 1554 (public investiture) – 13 September 1598
Imperial vicar of Siena: since 30 May 1554
Archduke of Austria
Princely Count of Habsburg and of Tyrol
Prince of Swabia  
Burgundian titles
  Lord of the Netherlands: 25 October 1555 – 13 September 1598
 Duke of Lothier, of Brabant, of Limburg, of Luxemburg, of Guelders. Count of Flanders, of Artois, of Hainaut, of Holland, of Zeeland, of Namur, of Zutphen. Margrave of the Holy Roman Empire, Lord of Frisia, Salins, Mechelen, the cities, towns and lands of Utrecht, Overyssel, Groningen  
 Count Palatine of Burgundy from 10 June 1556; Count of Charolais from 21 September 1558
 Duke of Burgundy 
Dominator in Asia, Africa  
Honours
  Knight of the Golden Fleece: 1531 – 13 September 1598
 Grand Master of the Order of the Golden Fleece: [72]  23 October 1555 – 13 September 1598
 Grand Master of the Order of Calatrava: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598
 Grand Master of the Order of Alcantara: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598
 Grand Master of the Order of Santiago: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598
 Grand Master of the Order of Montesa: 8 December 1587 – 13 September 1598   
Philip continued his father's style of "Majesty" (Latin: Maiestas; Spanish: Majestad) in preference to that of "Highness" (Celsitudo; Alteza). In diplomatic texts, he continued the use of the title "Most Catholic" (Rex Catholicissimus; Rey Católico) first bestowed by Pope Alexander VI on Ferdinand and Isabella in 1496.
 Following the Act of Parliament sanctioning his marriage with Mary, the couple was styled "Philip and Mary, by the grace of God King and Queen of England, France, Naples, Jerusalem, and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, Princes of Spain and Sicily, Archdukes of Austria, Dukes of Milan, Burgundy and Brabant, Counts of Habsburg, Flanders and Tyrol". [73]  Upon his inheritance of Spain in 1556, they became "Philip and Mary, by the grace of God King and Queen of England, Spain, France, both the Sicilies, Jerusalem and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, Archdukes of Austria, Dukes of Burgundy, Milan and Brabant, Counts of Habsburg, Flanders and Tyrol". [73] 
 In the 1584 Treaty of Joinville, he was styled "Philip, by the grace of God second of his name, king of Castille, Leon, Aragon, Portugal, Navarre, Naples, Sicily, Jerusalem, Majorca, Sardinia, and the islands, Indies, and  terra firma  of the Ocean Sea; archduke of Austria; duke of Burgundy, Lothier, Brabant, Limbourg, Luxembourg, Guelders, and Milan; Count of Habsburg, Flanders, Artois, and Burgundy; Count Palatine of Hainault, Holland and Zeeland, Namur, Drenthe, Zutphen; prince of "Zvuanem"; marquis of the Holy Roman Empire; lord of Frisia, Salland, Mechelen, and of the cities, towns, and lands of Utrecht, Overissel, and Groningen; master of Asia and Africa". [74] 
 His coinage typically bore the obverse inscription "PHS·D:G·HISP·Z·REX" (Latin: "Philip, by the grace of God King of Spain et cetera"), followed by the local title of the mint ("DVX·BRA" for Duke of Brabant, "C·HOL" for Count of Holland, "D·TRS·ISSV" for Lord of Overissel, etc.). The reverse would then bear a motto such as "PACE·ET·IVSTITIA" ("For Peace and Justice") or "DOMINVS·MIHI·ADIVTOR" ("The Lord is my helper"). [75]  A medal struck in 1583 bore the inscriptions "PHILIPP II HISP ET NOVI ORBIS REX" ("Philip II, King of Spain and the New World") and "NON SUFFICIT ORBIS" ("The world is not enough"). [76] 
Heraldry[edit]
 
Heraldry of Philip II of Spain
 
 
  Common versions 
 
  
  
  
 
1556–1558 (as Spanish monarch)
1558–1580
1580–1598
   
 
 Spanish realms versions
 
  Kingdom of Navarre 
  Kingdom of Galicia 
 
  
  
  
  
  
 
1558–1580
1580–1598
1580–1598
1558–1580
1580–1598
   
 
 Burgundian variants
 
  Free County of Burgundy 
 
  
  
 
1556–1580
1580–1598
   
 
  Italian Variants 
 
  Duchy of Milan 
  Kingdom of Sardinia 
  Naples and Sicily 
 
  
  
  
  
  
 
1554–1558
1558–1580
1580–1598
1580–1598
1554–1598
   
 
 Ornamented versions
 
  
    
  
 
Coat of arms at his investiture as Knight of the Order of the Garter (in 1554)
Coat of arms(with the Eagle of St John as supporter)1558–1580 / 1580–1598
Coat of arms as Spanish monarch and king  jure uxoris  of England (with symbols of the Crown of Castile and León anda cap of maintenance with the crest of England imperially crowned in the top)1556–1558
 
  
  
  
 
Coat of arms with supporters, crest and motto (with symbols of the Crowns of Castile and León and Aragon in the top)1558–1580
Coat of arms with supporters, crest and motto (with symbols of the Crowns of Aragon and Castile and León and of the Kingdom of Portugal in the top)1580–1598
Coat of arms with supporters (a lion and a griffin) and crest (with symbols of the Crowns of Aragon and Castile and León and of the Kingdom of Portugal in the top)1580–1598
   
   
Family[edit]
Philip was married four times and had children with three of his wives. He also had two long-term relationships with Isabel Osorio and Eufrasia de Guzmán.
	 
	     
	Princess Maria of Portugal
	 
	 
	 
	 
First marriage[edit]
Philip's first wife was his double first cousin, Maria Manuela, Princess of Portugal. She was a daughter of Philip's maternal uncle, John III of Portugal, and paternal aunt, Catherine of Austria. They were married at Salamanca on 12 November 1543. The marriage produced one son in 1545, after which Maria died four days later due to haemorrhage:
  Carlos, Prince of Asturias (8 July 1545 – 24 July 1568), died unmarried at the age of 23 and without issue. 
Second marriage[edit]
Philip's second wife was his first cousin once removed, Queen Mary I of England. The marriage, which took place on 25 July 1554 at Winchester Cathedral, was political. By this marriage, Philip became  jure uxoris  King of England and Ireland, although the couple was apart more than together as they ruled their respective countries. The marriage produced no children, although there was a false pregnancy, and Mary died in 1558, ending Philip's reign in England and Ireland.
Third marriage[edit]
Philip's third wife was Elisabeth of Valois, the eldest daughter of Henry II of France and Catherine de' Medici. The original ceremony was conducted by proxy (the Duke of Alba standing in for Philip) at Notre Dame prior to Elisabeth's departure from France. The actual ceremony was conducted in Guadalajara upon her arrival in Spain. During their marriage (1559–1568) they conceived five daughters, though only two of the girls survived. Elisabeth died a few hours after the loss of her last child. Their children were:
 Miscarried twin daughters (August 1564).
 Isabella Clara Eugenia (12 August 1566 – 1 December 1633, aged 67), married Albert VII, Archduke of Austria,
 Catherine Michaela (10 October 1567 – 6 November 1597, aged 30), married Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy, and had issue.
Joan (3 October 1568) died shortly after birth. 
Fourth marriage[edit]
Philip's fourth and final wife was his niece, Anna of Austria. By contemporary accounts, this was a convivial and satisfactory marriage (1570–1580) for both Philip and Anna. This marriage produced four sons and one daughter. Anna died of heart failure 8 months after giving birth to Maria in 1580. 
Their children were:
  Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias (4 December 1571 – 18 October 1578, aged six).
Charles Laurence (12 August 1573 – 30 June 1575, aged one).
 Diego Félix (15 August 1575 – 21 November 1582, aged seven).
 Philip III of Spain (14 April 1578 – 31 March 1621, aged 42).
Maria (14 February 1580 – 5 August 1583, aged three). 
	 
	     
	Cenotaph of Philip and three of his four wives at El Escorial
	 
	 
Ancestry[edit]
    Ancestors of Philip II of Spain                     8. Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor  [79]                       4. Philip I, King of Castile  [77]                             9. Mary, Duchess of Burgundy  [79]                       2. Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor                                10. Ferdinand II, King of Aragon  [80]  (= 14)                     5. Joanna, Queen of Castile  [77]                             11. Isabella I, Queen of Castile  [80]  (= 15)                     1. Philip II of Spain                                  12. Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu  [78]                       6. Manuel I, King of Portugal  [78]                             13. Beatrice of Portugal  [78]                       3. Isabella of Portugal                                14. Ferdinand II, King of Aragon  [81]  (= 10)                     7. Maria of Aragon  [78]                             15. Isabella I, Queen of Castile  [81]  (= 11)                                            
See also[edit]
  Descendants of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon 
 The empire on which the sun never sets 
 List of Spanish monarchs 
 Royal Armoury of Madrid 
 Ruy Gómez de Silva, 1st Prince of Éboli  
Notes[edit]
 
  ^  He was titled as Philip II (Spanish: Felipe II) in Spain, while in Portugal and his Italian kingdoms he ruled as Philip I (Portuguese: Filipe I).
  ^  Spain was a composite monarchy, and besides being the second Philip to rule Castile, he was the first to rule Aragon and the fourth to rule Navarre.
  ^  This appreciation is noted by Martin Hume in his aforementioned work ("Philip II of Spain", London 1897), pointing out how difficult is to show Philip II in a more favorable light to his fellow Englishmen because of that.
  ^  With the incorporation of Portugal to the Monarchy the title changed to East and West Indies, the Islands and Mainland of the Ocean sea.
 
References[edit]
 
  ^  Geoffrey Parker. The Grand Strategy of Philip II, (2000)
  ^  Garret Mattingly. The Armada p. 22, p. 66. ISBN 0-395-08366-4.
  ^  Rowse, A. L. (1969). Tudor Cornwall: Portrait of a Society. C. Scribner, p.400
  ^  "One decisive action might have forced Philip II to the negotiating table and avoided fourteen years of continuing warfare. Instead the King was able to use the brief respite to rebuild his naval forces and by the end of 1589 Spain once again had an Atlantic fleet strong enough to escort the American treasure ships home." The Mariner's Mirror, Volumes 76–77. Society for Nautical Research, 1990
  ^  Kamen, Henry (2014). Spain, 1469–1714: A Society of Conflict. Routledge. p. 150.
  ^  Davis, James C. (1970). Pursuit of Power: Venetian Ambassadors' Reports on Spain, Turkey, and France in the Age of Philip II 1560–1600. New York: Harper &amp; Row. pp. 81–82.
  ^   "BIEN DE INTERÉS CULTURAL: PALACIO CONDES RIVADAVIA PALACIO DE PIMENTEL". Junta de Castilla y León. Retrieved 12 January 2023.
  ^  James Boyden. Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopaedia of the Early Modern World.
  ^  Encyclopedia of World Biography (2004).
  ^  Parker, Geoffrey. The Dutch Revolt. London: Penguin. p.41.
  ^  Parker, The Dutch Revolt. p. 42.
  ^  Drelichman, Mauricio; Voth, Hans-Joachim (2014).  Lending to the Borrower from Hell: Debt, Taxes, and Default in the Age of Philip II . Princeton University Press. ISBN  978-1-4008-4843-0 .
  ^  Gat, Azar (2006). War in Human Civilization (4th ed.). Oxford [u.a.]: Oxford University Press. p. 488. ISBN  978-0-19-923663-3 .
  ^  Elliott, J. H. (2002). Imperial Spain 1469–1716 (Repr. ed.). London [u.a.]: Penguin Books. pp. 285–291. ISBN  0-14-100703-6 .
  ^  As Philip wrote in 1566 to Luis de Requesens: "You can assure his Holiness that rather than suffer the least injury to religion and the service of God, I would lose all my states and a hundred lives if I had them, for I do not intend to rule over heretics." Pettegree 2002, p. 214.
  ^  Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, vol. 2 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 935–936 and notes.
  ^  Royall Tyler, ed. (1954). "Spain: September 1556". Calendar of State Papers, Spain. Institute of Historical Research. Retrieved 19 April 2013.
  ^  Salvador Miranda (2010). "The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church". Florida International University. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 21 April 2010.
  ^  Richard L. Kagan (2009).  Clio and the Crown: The Politics of History in Medieval and Early Modern Spain . JHU Press. p. 135. ISBN  9781421401652 .
  ^  Jan Glete p. 156
  ^  Nascimiento Rodrigues/Tessaleno Devezas p.122
  ^  Knecht, French Civil Wars p. 272
  ^  Goubert, Pierre (2002). The Course of French History. Routledge. p. 103.
  ^  Lytle Schurz, William (1922), "The Spanish Lake", The Hispanic American Historical Review, 5 (2): 181–194, doi:10.1215/00182168-5.2.181, JSTOR 2506024 
  ^   "Navegantes europeos en el estrecho de Magallanes". Memoria Chilena (in Spanish). Biblioteca Nacional de Chile. Retrieved 30 September 2014.
  ^    Relación y derrotero del viaje y descubrimiento del Estrecho de la Madre de Dios – antes llamado de Magallanes  (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 22 September 2008. Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa, según Amancio Landín, uno de sus más reputados biógrafos, nació en Pontevedra, hacia 1532. Julio Guillén—el marino-académico—, por su parte, dice que es posible fuera Colegial Mayor en la Universidad de Alcalá de Henares, ciudad que fue—asegura—cuna del gran marino español. Este, no ha dejado aclarada la duda sobre su origen geográfico, pues afirmó ser natural de ambos lugares. 
  ^  Sarmiento de Gamboa, Pedro (1895).  Narratives of the Voyages of Pedro De Gamboa to the Straits of Magellan . Translated by Clements R. Markham. London: Hakluyt Society.
^    a       b       c    Martinic 1977, p. 119.
  ^  Martinic 1977, p. 121.
  ^   "History of the Strait of Magellan". 7 April 2017. Retrieved 25 October 2019.
  ^  Wilson, Derek (2013). "3. The Triumph of Desire". A Brief History of Circumnavigators. Little, Brown Book Group. ISBN  978-1-4721-1329-0 .
  ^  Urbina C., M. Ximena (2013). "Expediciones a las costas de la Patagonia Occidental en el periodo colonial".  Magallania  (in Spanish). 41 (2): 51–84. doi:10.4067/S0718-22442013000200002. Retrieved 27 January 2016.
  ^  Urbina C., María Ximena (2017). "La expedición de John Narborough a Chile, 1670: Defensa de Valdivia, rumeros de indios, informaciones de los prisioneros y la creencia en la Ciudad de los Césares" [John Narborough expedition to Chile, 1670: Defense of Valdivia, indian rumors, information on prisoners, and the belief in the City of the Césares].  Magallania . 45 (2): 11–36. doi:10.4067/S0718-22442017000200011. Retrieved 27 December 2019.
^    a       b    Henk van Nierop, Treason in the Northern Quarter: War, Terror, and the Rule of Law in the Dutch Revolt (Princeton University Press, 2009), 69–70.
  ^  Henk van Nierop, Treason in the Northern Quarter: War, Terror, and the Rule of Law in the Dutch Revolt (Princeton University Press, 2009), 177.
^    a       b    Goodwin, Robert (2015). Spain: The Centre of the World 1519–1682. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 179–180.
  ^   "Twentieth Century Atlas – Historical Body Count". necrometrics.com.
  ^  Sharp Hume, Martín Andrew. The Spanish People: Their Origin, Growth and Influence. p. 372.
  ^  Henry Kamen, Philip of Spain (Yale University Press, 1997), 160.
  ^  James Tracy, The Founding of the Dutch Republic: War, Finance, and Politics in Holland, 1572–1588 (Oxford University Press, 2008), 141.
  ^  Black, Jeremy (1996). The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: Renaissance to Revolution, 1492–1792, Volume 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 58. ISBN  9780521470339 .
  ^   "Victimario Histórico Militar".
  ^  Tucker, Spencer C. (2014). 500 Great Military Leaders [2 volumes]. p. 19.
  ^  Geoffrey Parker, The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road, 1567-1659: The Logistics of Spanish Victory and Defeat in the Low Countries' Wars, London: Cambridge University Press, 1972 ISBN 0-521-08462-8, p. 35.
  ^  Henry Kamen, The Duke of Alba (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2004), Pp. x + 204.
  ^  Adams, George Burton; Stephens, H. Morse, eds. (1901). "An Act for the Marriage of Queen Mary to Philip of Spain". Select Documents of English Constitutional History. MacMillan. p. 284 – via Internet Archive.
^    a       b       c    Louis Adrian Montrose, The subject of Elizabeth: authority, gender, and representation, University of Chicago Press, 2006
  ^  A. F. Pollard, The History of England – From the Accession of Edward VI. to the Death of Elizabeth (1547–1603), READ BOOKS, 2007
  ^  Wim de Groot, The Seventh Window: The King's Window Donated by Philip II and Mary Tudor to Sint Janskerk in Gouda (1557), Uitgeverij Verloren, 2005
  ^  Robert Dudley Edwards, Ireland in the age of the Tudors: the destruction of Hiberno-Norman civilisation, Taylor &amp; Francis, 1977
  ^  Treason Act 1554
  ^  Richard Marks, Ann Payne, British Museum, British Library; British heraldry from its origins to c. 1800; British Museum Publications Ltd., 1978
  ^  The Numismatist, American Numismatic Association, 1971
  ^  Francois Velde (25 July 2003). "Text of 1555 Bull". Heraldica.org. Retrieved 22 August 2012.
  ^  Grant, R. G. (2017). 1001 Battles That Changed the Course of History. p. 296.
  ^  Tucker, Spencer (2011). Battles that Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict. ABC-CLIO. p. 183.
  ^  Fernández Duro, Cesáreo (1972). Armada Española desde la Unión de los Reinos de Castilla y Aragón. Museo Naval de Madrid, Instituto de Historia y Cultura Naval, Volume III, Chapter III. Madrid. p. 51
  ^  Koenigsberger, Helmut Georg (2012),  Philip II , Encyclopædia Britannica Online, retrieved 31 January 2012
  ^  The Myth of the Spanish Inquisition on YouTube (at 21:27 – 21:40). BBC.
  ^  Fernández Álvarez, Manuel. Felipe II y su tiempo. Espasa Calpe, Madrid, 6th Ed. ISBN 84-239-9736-7 In the introduction to this work, Felipe is mentioned as the most powerful European monarch by resources and army, depicting Europe at the time as a world full of unsolved issues and religious conflicts
  ^  Cfr. Fernández Álvarez, Manuel. Felipe II y su tiempo (6th ed.). Espasa Calpe, Madrid. ISBN 84-239-9736-7. Yet again, the several points of view towards his reign are mentioned in the Introduction.
  ^  Kamen, Henry. Felipe de España, Madrid, Siglo XXI, 1997. Cultural depictions of the king are mentioned, although Kamen tends to place himself with those favouring the king.
  ^  Fernández Álvarez, Manuel. Felipe II y su tiempo. Espasa Calpe, Madrid, 6th ed. ISBN 84-239-9736-7. He discusses the lack of correspondence of the king because he ordered it burned, thus avoiding any chance of getting further into Philip's private life.
  ^  Vid. Marañón, Gregorio. Antonio Pérez: el hombre, el drama, la época. Madrid, Espasa Calpe, 1951, 2 vols. Judiciously argued review on the harm Perez did to the king, analyzing the king's responsibility on the assassination of Escobedo.
  ^  Johonnot, James. "Ten Great Events in History – Chapter VII. The Invincible Armada". Authorama.com. Retrieved 22 August 2012.
  ^  Hume, Martin. Philip II of Spain, London, 1897. Martin tried to resurrect the prejudiced views concerning the king, as did Carl Bratli in his Filip of Spanien (Koebenhaven, 1909). By contrast, Ludwig Pfandl, in Felipe II. Bosquejo de una vida y un tiempo, Munich, 1938, assessed Philip's personality negatively.
  ^  In Felipe II (Madrid, 1943), W. T. Walsh depicts Felipe's reign as prosperous and successful. Fernández Álvarez, in España y los españoles en la Edad Moderna (Salamanca, 1979), points out how White Legend supporters flourished during the 1940s and 1950s, and how they omitted the darkest issues of Philip's reign.
  ^  Those kinds of adjectives can be read in M. Van Durme's 1953 El Cardenal Granvela.
  ^  Cabrera de Córdoba, Felipe II rey de España, ed. RAH, 1877, criticizes how Felipe's victories are minimised by English historians, and points out the small consequences of defeats such as the Armada.
  ^  Tonio Andrade and William Reger, eds., "Geoffrey Parker and Early Modern History" in The Limits of Empire: European Imperial Formations in Early Modern World History: Essays in Honor of Geoffrey Parker (Routledge, 2016), p. xxiii.
  ^  Not usually included in lists of monarchs, although legally recognized as co-monarch, as his reign ended de facto with Mary's death.
  ^  Rocquet, Claude-Henri.  Bruegel; or The Workshop of Dreams . Univ. of Chicago Press, 1991. ISBN 0226723429.
^    a       b    Waller, Maureen. Sovereign Ladies: The Six Reigning Queens of England. St. Martin's Press (New York), 2006. ISBN 0-312-33801-5.
  ^  "Treaty of Joinville". (in French) In Davenport, Frances G. European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and Its Dependencies. The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd., 2004.
  ^  See, inter alia, "Amberes Archived 3 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine" (in Spanish) and  Standard Catalog of World Gold Coins .
  ^  Cremades, Checa. Felipe II. Op. cit. in "The Place of Tudor England". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 6th Series, Vol. 12. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2003. ISBN 0521815614.
^    a       b    Armstrong, Edward (1911). "Charles V. (Roman Emperor)" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.).  Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
^    a       b       c       d    Stephens, Henry Morse (1903).  The story of Portugal . G.P. Putnam's Sons. pp. 139, 279. ISBN  9780722224731 . Retrieved 23 October 2018.
^    a       b     Wurzbach, Constantin, von, ed. (1861). "Habsburg, Philipp I. der Schöne von Oesterreich" .  Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich  [Biographical Encyclopedia of the Austrian Empire] (in German). Vol. 7. p. 112 – via Wikisource.
^    a       b    Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Joanna" .  Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
^    a       b     "Maria (D.). Rainha de Portugal". Portugal - Dicionário Histórico, Corográfico, Heráldico, Biográfico, Bibliográfico, Numismático e Artístico (in Portuguese). Vol. IV. pp. 823–824.
 
Further reading[edit]
 Boyden, James M. The Courtier and the King: Ruy Gómez De Silva, Philip II, and the Court of Spain (University of California Press, 1995).
Elliott, J. H. Imperial Spain: 1469–1716 (1966).
Elliott, John H. "The decline of Spain". Past &amp; Present 20 (1961): 52–75.
Grierson, Edward. The Fatal Inheritance: Philip II and the Spanish Netherlands (1969).
Gwynn, Aubrey. "A Catholic King: Philip II of Spain". Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review, vol. 22, no. 85 (1933), pp. 48–64.
Hume, M. A. S.  Philip II. of Spain  (1903).
Israel, Jonathan. "King Philip II of Spain as a symbol of 'Tyranny'". Co-herencia 15.28 (2018): 137–154.
Kamen, Henry. Philip of Spain (Yale University Press, 1999), a major scholarly biography. Online free to borrow 
Kelsey, Harry. Philip of Spain, King of England: The Forgotten Sovereign (London, I.B. Tauris, 2011).
Koenigsberger, H. G. The Habsburgs and Europe, 1516–1660 (1971). Online free to borrow 
López, Anna Santamaría. "'Great Faith is Necessary to Drink from this Chalice': Philip II in the Court of Mary Tudor, 1554–58." in Early Modern Dynastic Marriages and Cultural Transfer ed. by Joan-Lluis Palos and Magdalena S. Sanchez (2017) pp: 115–138.
Lynch, John. Spain Under the Habsburgs: vol I: Empire and Absolutism: 1516–1598 (1965)
Lynch, John. "Philip II and the Papacy". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 11 (1961): 23–42.
  Martinic, Mateo (1977).  Historia del Estrecho de Magallanes  (in Spanish). Santiago: Andrés Bello. 
Merriman, R. B.  The Rise of the Spanish Empire in the Old World and in the New  (4 vols, 1918). Vol. 4 has in-depth coverage of Philip II.
 Parker, Geoffrey. Imprudent King: A New Life of Philip II (2014), a major scholarly biography.
Parker, Geoffrey. The Grand Strategy of Philip II (Yale University Press, 1998). online review 
Parker, Geoffrey. Philip II (1995), short scholarly biography
Parker, Geoffrey. The World is Not Enough: The Imperial Vision of Philip II of Spain (Baylor University Press, 2001).
Parker, Geoffrey. "The Place of Tudor England in the Messianic Vision of Philip II of Spain". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society (2002): 167–221.
Patterson, Benton Rain. With the Heart of a King: Elizabeth I of England, Philip II of Spain &amp; the Fight for a Nation's Soul &amp; Crown (2007).
Petrie, Charles. Philip II of Spain (1963), short scholarly biography.
 Pettegree, Andrew (2002). Europe in the Sixteenth Century. Oxford, England: Blackwell. ISBN  0-631-20704-X ..
Pierson, Peter. Philip II of Spain (1975).
Redworth, Glyn. "Philip (1527–1598)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, online edition, May 2011. Retrieved 25 August 2011.
 Rodriguez-Salgado, M. J. "The Court of Philip II of Spain". In Princes, Patronage, and the Nobility: The Court at the Beginning of the Modern Age, cc. 1450–1650. Edited by Ronald G. Asch and Adolf M. Birke. (Oxford University Press, 1991). ISBN 0-19-920502-7.
Samson, Alexander. Mary and Philip: The Marriage of Tudor England and Habsburg Spain (Manchester University Press, 2020) excerpt.
Samson, Alexander. "Power Sharing: The Co-monarchy of Philip and Mary", in Tudor Queenship: The Reigns of Mary and Elizabeth, ed. by Alice Hunt and Anna Whitelock (Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2010), pp. 159–172.
Thomas, Hugh. World Without End: The Global Empire of Philip II (Penguin UK, 2014); World Without End: Spain, Philip II, and the First Global Empire (Random House, 2015) popular history.
Waxman, Matthew C. "Strategic Terror: Philip II and Sixteenth-Century Warfare". War in History, vol. 4, no. 3 (1997): 339–347.
Williams, Patrick. Philip II (Macmillan International Higher Education, 2017), a scholarly biography; excerpt  
Economic and cultural history[edit]
  Braudel, Fernand. The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II (2 vols., 1976) vol. 1 free to borrow 
Clouse, Michele L. Medicine, Government and Public Health in Philip II's Spain: Shared Interests, Competing Authorities (Ashgate, 2013).
Conklin, James. "The Theory of Sovereign Debt and Spain under Philip II". Journal of Political Economy 106.3 (1998): 483–513, statistical
Drelichman, Mauricio, and Hans-Joachim Voth. Lending to the Borrower from Hell: Debt, Taxes, and Default in the Age of Philip II (Princeton University Press, 2016).
Goodman, David. "Philip II's Patronage of Science and Engineering". British Journal for the History of Science 16.1 (1983): 49–66.
Henriques, Antonio, and Nuno Pedro G. Palma. "Comparative European Institutions and the Little Divergence, 1385–1800" Archived 19 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine. (2019), economics
Kagan, Richard L. "Philip II and the Art of the Cityscape". Journal of Interdisciplinary History 17.1 (1986): 115–135.
Lazure, Guy. "Possessing the Sacred: Monarchy and Identity in Philip II's Relic Collection at the Escorial". Renaissance Quarterly 60.1 (2007): 58–93.
Matthews, P. G. "Portraits of Philip II of Spain as King of England". Burlington Magazine 142.1162 (2000): 13–19.
Miller, Stephanie R. "A Tale of Two Portraits: Titian's Seated Portraits of Philip II". Visual Resources 28.1 (2012): 103–116.
Samson, Alexander. "Changing Places: The Marriage and Royal Entry of Philip, Prince of Austria, and Mary Tudor, July-August 1554" [ dead link ]. Sixteenth Century Journal (2005): 761–784.
Scully, Robert E. "'In the Confident Hope of a Miracle': The Spanish Armada and Religious Mentalities in the Late Sixteenth Century". Catholic Historical Review 89.4 (2003): 643–670.
Wilkinson-Zerner, Catherine. Juan de Herrera: Architect to Philip II of Spain (Yale University Press, 1993). 
External links[edit]
  Letters of Philip II, King of Spain 1592–1597, online edition at Brigham Young University 
 Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Philip II" .  Catholic Encyclopedia . New York: Robert Appleton Company.  
 
 Philip II of Spain     House of Habsburg    Born: 21 May 1527 Died: 13 September 1598
 
Regnal titles
 
Preceded by  Mary I     as sole monarch  
  King of England and Ireland  (jure uxoris)   25 July 1554 – 17 November 1558 with Mary I 
Succeeded by  Elizabeth I  
 
Preceded by  Emperor Charles V  
  Duke of Brabant, Limburg, Lothier and Luxemburg; Marquis of Namur; Count Palatine of Burgundy; Count of Artois, Flanders and Hainaut  16 January 1556 – 6 May 1598
Succeeded by  Isabella Clara Eugenia  Albert  
 
  Count of Charolais  21 September 1558 – 6 May 1598
 
  Duke of Guelders; Count of Zutphen, Holland and Zeeland  16 January 1556 – 26 July 1581
  Dutch Republic 
 
  King of Naples and Sicily  1554–1598
Succeeded by  Philip III  
 
  King of Spain and Sardinia  1556–1598
 
Preceded by  Henry  
  King of Portugal  1581–1598
 
 Vacant Title last held by  Francesco II Sforza 
  Duke of Milan  1540–1598
 
 Spanish royalty
 
 Vacant Title last held by  Charles I 
  Prince of Asturias  1528–1556
Succeeded by  Carlos  
 
  Prince of Girona  1527–1556
Philip II of Spain - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain
https://ianthecool.wordpress.com/2011/08/11/the-ten-most-influential-people-of-the-15th-century/
The Ten Most Influential People of the 15th Century
2011-08-11
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</p>
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<p>Joan of arc is one of the most notable female figures in feudal history. Her story is hard to imagine: a peasant girl who claims she was chosen by God to lead the French army to victory. Which is exactly what she did, turning the tide f the once English-dominated Hundred Years War before being made a martyr. On a purely factual basis, these military victories may not seem significant enough as one of the most influential people in the world. However, her legacy lives on in the form of national pride, female empowerment, and religious fervour.</p>
<p><br/>
</p>
<p></p>
<p>The 15th century saw China’s Ming dynasty reach its peak through the reign of the Yongle Emperor. Yongle did many things to restore his kingdom to greatness. He built the Forbidden City, reopened the Grand Canal, and sent the famous Zheng He on his legendary journeys which created many diplomatic bonds with other countries. He embraced and strengthened Chinese culture during his reign and showed an openness towards differing philosophies and religions (…. except for Mongolians). His reign wasn’t perfect, but he reformed the countries economy, strengthened its military, and brought Chinese culture to great heights.</p>
<p><br/>
</p>
<p></p>
<p>1492 is one of those years in which the world changed forever. It was the fateful year that Christopher Columbus discovered the Americas. The colonization of the “New World” which would follow would shape the 500 years of history that would follow. Entirely new worlds and possibilities were opened up for people on both halves of the world, though it turned out much less well for those in the western hemisphere.<br/>
Make no mistake, Columbus was a brutal man. He decimated Hispaniola, putting many of the natives to the spear or put them in shackles. But influence isn’t only created by the “nice” people of the world. and because he essentially opened the world to being a global community and allowed Europe to spread and impose its influence, his discovery is certainly one of the most significant of the last millennium.</p>
<p><br/>
</p>
<p></p>
<p>With all of the scientists, explorers, and military and political leaders which have shaped this past century, its oddly humbling that a simple printer from Germany stands above the rest. And all because of his one invention which changed the world forever: the printing press. This seemingly basic invention was simply supposed to make Gutenberg’s life a little easier. Instead, it began a massive revolution of ideas and knowledge.<br/>
A&amp;E, in their Biography of the Millennium special, selected Gutenberg as the most influential person of the entire millennium, from 1001 – 2000. And hearing their reasoning, it makes sense. The printing press allowed ideas to spread and essentially gave birth to the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, and any other ideological movements since the 15th century. Scientist’s discoveries were able to be published, common people were able to read the bible for themselves, philosophers were able to teach their philosophies to many. This also took the dispersal of knowledge away from those in power, putting it into the hands of the people.<br/>
Johannes Gutenberg is most definitely the most influential person of the 15th century, but may very well be the simple most influential person of the last one thousand years.</p>
</div></div>||||I|||| Ian's Movie Reviews
 Short Reviews of Movies, Board Games, and Other Stuff

 The Ten Most Influential People of the 15th Century

 10. Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446)
 Art

 As one of the founding fathers of the Italian Renaissance, Brunelleschi made a modern contribution for all painters that would follow him; the development of linear perspective. Giving Depth through linear perspective is now one of the fundamental bases of art today.
 Brunelleschi was also a innovative mastermind of architecture and engineering. This is seen most notoriously with his design of the dome of the Florn ece Cathedral which required no scaffolding to build.

 9. Montezuma I (1398-1469)
 Politics

 Montezuma united the Aztec Empire of pre-Colombian Central America. His campaigns expanded the Aztec’s territory and created a central power in Tenochtitlan (which the modern day Mexico City is built around). Even though the Aztecs were all but wiped out later by Spanish Conquistadors, many Aztec roots still exist in Mexico and their legacy as a once-powerful empire lives on.

 8. Pachacuti (1438 – 1472)
 Politics

 Advertisement

 Pachacuti was the founder of the Inca Empire of South America, taking his small town and expanding it into the largest Empire of the Americas before Columbus’s landing. Though the empire would only last 100 years, its legacy still remains.

 7. Zheng He (1371 – 1433)
 Exploration

 One of the most famous explorers in the world, Zheng He is one of those historical figures which have become more legendary than strictly factual. His massive fleet sailed practically the entirely of the eastern world, spreading trade as well as diplomatic ties to China from various countries. He spread China’s influence far and wide for his Emperor and created many tales to be told by Chinese families for generations to come.

 6. Mehmed II (1432- 1481)
 Politics

 Mehmed was the ruler of the Ottoman Empire and brought an end once and for all of the Roman Empire (the eastern half still existed in the form of the Byzantine Empire). By conquering Constantinople he turned the Ottoman Empire into a realm of great influence and importance in the world.

 5. Isabella I (1451 – 1504)
 Politics

 Queen Isabella is on this list for three main reason. The first may seem too localized, but she unified the kingdom of Spain, especially with her marriage to Ferdinand of Aragon. But considering Spain was one of the major world powers during the colonial era, this is quite significant. Secondly, she established the Spanish Inquisition which ended Moor dominance on the peninsula and strengthened Catholicism’s hold on the Latin countries. Thirdly, she basically kicked off the colonial era by financing and setting in motion expeditions to find an eastern trading route, including one you may have heard of: Christopher Columbus.

 4. Joan of Arc (1412 – 1431)
 Military

 Joan of arc is one of the most notable female figures in feudal history. Her story is hard to imagine: a peasant girl who claims she was chosen by God to lead the French army to victory. Which is exactly what she did, turning the tide f the once English-dominated Hundred Years War before being made a martyr. On a purely factual basis, these military victories may not seem significant enough as one of the most influential people in the world. However, her legacy lives on in the form of national pride, female empowerment, and religious fervour.

 3. The Yongle Emperor (1360 – 1424)
 Politics

 The 15th century saw China’s Ming dynasty reach its peak through the reign of the Yongle Emperor. Yongle did many things to restore his kingdom to greatness. He built the Forbidden City, reopened the Grand Canal, and sent the famous Zheng He on his legendary journeys which created many diplomatic bonds with other countries. He embraced and strengthened Chinese culture during his reign and showed an openness towards differing philosophies and religions (…. except for Mongolians). His reign wasn’t perfect, but he reformed the countries economy, strengthened its military, and brought Chinese culture to great heights.

 2. Christopher Columbus (1451 – 1506)
 Exploration

 1492 is one of those years in which the world changed forever. It was the fateful year that Christopher Columbus discovered the Americas. The colonization of the “New World” which would follow would shape the 500 years of history that would follow. Entirely new worlds and possibilities were opened up for people on both halves of the world, though it turned out much less well for those in the western hemisphere.
 Make no mistake, Columbus was a brutal man. He decimated Hispaniola, putting many of the natives to the spear or put them in shackles. But influence isn’t only created by the “nice” people of the world. and because he essentially opened the world to being a global community and allowed Europe to spread and impose its influence, his discovery is certainly one of the most significant of the last millennium.

 Advertisement

 1. Johannes Gutenberg (1398 – 1468)
 Innovation

 With all of the scientists, explorers, and military and political leaders which have shaped this past century, its oddly humbling that a simple printer from Germany stands above the rest. And all because of his one invention which changed the world forever: the printing press. This seemingly basic invention was simply supposed to make Gutenberg’s life a little easier. Instead, it began a massive revolution of ideas and knowledge.
 A&E, in their Biography of the Millennium special, selected Gutenberg as the most influential person of the entire millennium, from 1001 – 2000. And hearing their reasoning, it makes sense. The printing press allowed ideas to spread and essentially gave birth to the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, and any other ideological movements since the 15th century. Scientist’s discoveries were able to be published, common people were able to read the bible for themselves, philosophers were able to teach their philosophies to many. This also took the dispersal of knowledge away from those in power, putting it into the hands of the people.
 Johannes Gutenberg is most definitely the most influential person of the 15th century, but may very well be the simple most influential person of the last one thousand years.

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 16 Responses to “The Ten Most Influential People of the 15th Century”

 1. No contest about Gutenberg’s influence but, if I am not mistaken, he didn’t invent the printing press. He was only responsible for its spread in the Western World. The Chinese and many other Eastern countries were already printing (albeit through less technological ways) even before Gutenberg.

 Well, at least that’s what I learned from my English 101 class.

 fanaddict22 - August 12, 2011 at 4:51 am | Reply

 Reply

 + Yes, that’s true and I probably should have mentioned that. Gutenberg’s invention revolutionized printing however, and made it possible for mass production where the earlier eastern presses were still really slow and laborious.

 ianthecool - August 12, 2011 at 9:09 am | Reply

 Reply

 o Well, yeah, that is true. Gutenberg made it possible for books to reach a wider range of people. Where would we be without him? Haha.

 fanaddict22 - August 12, 2011 at 7:17 pm

 + wrong he did invent it.

 Anonymous - April 15, 2021 at 1:48 am | Reply

 Reply

 2. this is awesome!!!!!

 bobbyjay - September 18, 2012 at 8:36 am | Reply

 Reply

 3. what about vald draculea

 Anonymous - February 23, 2015 at 7:00 pm | Reply

 Reply

 + Really?

 ianthecool - February 23, 2015 at 7:14 pm | Reply

 Reply

 4. A very awesome list! I have been going backwards on your page from 20th, 19th, 18th….15th most influential lists and you have done me a cruel thing. Where are the lists of the preceeding centuries? I wish to read more. If possible, please try to stretch this to the ancient periods. I know its too demanding, but there’s more. Can you try to make an influential ten list fot the human history? I know its daunting, but if possible, please do that.

 Tapan - April 11, 2015 at 3:07 pm | Reply

 Reply

 + That is pretty daunting. Perhaps I will go back into the first millennium, not sure yet. Thanks for all the comments!

 ianthecool - April 12, 2015 at 2:48 pm | Reply

 Reply

 o that would be awesome these lists have made a great impression on me

 nick - July 31, 2015 at 5:56 am

 5. Da Vinci duh

 nate pagel - October 5, 2015 at 3:20 pm | Reply

 Reply

 + Wrong century.

 ianthecool - October 5, 2015 at 6:39 pm | Reply

 Reply

 o Isabella I and Colombus was born just a year before Da Vinci and his notable works were mostly done just before the year 1500.
 Could’ve gone otherwise esp.if you included the former two I mentioned.

 Matthew Dave - December 18, 2019 at 11:08 pm

 o *Columbus

 Matthew Dave - December 18, 2019 at 11:09 pm

 6. Love your posts

 myeagermind - October 15, 2016 at 10:58 am | Reply

 Reply

 7. Reblogged this on Lenora's Culture Center and Foray into History.

 myeagermind - October 15, 2016 at 10:58 am | Reply

 Reply


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 This entry was posted on August 11, 2011 at 11:18 pm and filed under Objective lists,The Top Tens. You can follow any responses to this entry through the RSS feed.

 Tags: 15th century, art, brunelleschi, china, columbus, exploration, gutenberg, history, innovation, isabella I, joan of arc, linear perspective, mehmed II, montezuma, most influential people, pachacuti, politics, printing press, top ten, yongle emperor, zheng he

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As one of the founding fathers of the Italian Renaissance, Brunelleschi made a modern contribution for all painters that would follow him; the development of linear perspective. Giving Depth through linear perspective is now one of the fundamental bases of art today.
Brunelleschi was also a innovative mastermind of architecture and engineering. This is seen most notoriously with his design of the dome of the Florn ece Cathedral which required no scaffolding to build.
 
 
Montezuma united the Aztec Empire of pre-Colombian Central America. His campaigns expanded the Aztec’s territory and created a central power in Tenochtitlan (which the modern day Mexico City is built around). Even though the Aztecs were all but wiped out later by Spanish Conquistadors, many Aztec roots still exist in Mexico and their legacy as a once-powerful empire lives on.
 
 
Pachacuti was the founder of the Inca Empire of South America, taking his small town and expanding it into the largest Empire of the Americas before Columbus’s landing. Though the empire would only last 100 years, its legacy still remains.
 
 
One of the most famous explorers in the world, Zheng He is one of those historical figures which have become more legendary than strictly factual. His massive fleet sailed practically the entirely of the eastern world, spreading trade as well as diplomatic ties to China from various countries. He spread China’s influence far and wide for his Emperor and created many tales to be told by Chinese families for generations to come.
 
 
Mehmed was the ruler of the Ottoman Empire and brought an end once and for all of the Roman Empire (the eastern half still existed in the form of the Byzantine Empire). By conquering Constantinople he turned the Ottoman Empire into a realm of great influence and importance in the world.
 
 
Queen Isabella is on this list for three main reason. The first may seem too localized, but she unified the kingdom of Spain, especially with her marriage to Ferdinand of Aragon. But considering Spain was one of the major world powers during the colonial era, this is quite significant. Secondly, she established the Spanish Inquisition which ended Moor dominance on the peninsula and strengthened Catholicism’s hold on the Latin countries. Thirdly, she basically kicked off the colonial era by financing and setting in motion expeditions to find an eastern trading route, including one you may have heard of: Christopher Columbus.
 
 
Joan of arc is one of the most notable female figures in feudal history. Her story is hard to imagine: a peasant girl who claims she was chosen by God to lead the French army to victory. Which is exactly what she did, turning the tide f the once English-dominated Hundred Years War before being made a martyr. On a purely factual basis, these military victories may not seem significant enough as one of the most influential people in the world. However, her legacy lives on in the form of national pride, female empowerment, and religious fervour.
 
 
The 15th century saw China’s Ming dynasty reach its peak through the reign of the Yongle Emperor. Yongle did many things to restore his kingdom to greatness. He built the Forbidden City, reopened the Grand Canal, and sent the famous Zheng He on his legendary journeys which created many diplomatic bonds with other countries. He embraced and strengthened Chinese culture during his reign and showed an openness towards differing philosophies and religions (…. except for Mongolians). His reign wasn’t perfect, but he reformed the countries economy, strengthened its military, and brought Chinese culture to great heights.
 
 
1492 is one of those years in which the world changed forever. It was the fateful year that Christopher Columbus discovered the Americas. The colonization of the “New World” which would follow would shape the 500 years of history that would follow. Entirely new worlds and possibilities were opened up for people on both halves of the world, though it turned out much less well for those in the western hemisphere.
Make no mistake, Columbus was a brutal man. He decimated Hispaniola, putting many of the natives to the spear or put them in shackles. But influence isn’t only created by the “nice” people of the world. and because he essentially opened the world to being a global community and allowed Europe to spread and impose its influence, his discovery is certainly one of the most significant of the last millennium.
 
 
With all of the scientists, explorers, and military and political leaders which have shaped this past century, its oddly humbling that a simple printer from Germany stands above the rest. And all because of his one invention which changed the world forever: the printing press. This seemingly basic invention was simply supposed to make Gutenberg’s life a little easier. Instead, it began a massive revolution of ideas and knowledge.
A&amp;E, in their Biography of the Millennium special, selected Gutenberg as the most influential person of the entire millennium, from 1001 – 2000. And hearing their reasoning, it makes sense. The printing press allowed ideas to spread and essentially gave birth to the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, and any other ideological movements since the 15th century. Scientist’s discoveries were able to be published, common people were able to read the bible for themselves, philosophers were able to teach their philosophies to many. This also took the dispersal of knowledge away from those in power, putting it into the hands of the people.
Johannes Gutenberg is most definitely the most influential person of the 15th century, but may very well be the simple most influential person of the last one thousand years.
The Ten Most Influential People of the 15th Century
https://ianthecool.wordpress.com/2011/08/11/the-ten-most-influential-people-of-the-15th-century/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_Men%C3%A9ndez_de_Avil%C3%A9s
Pedro Menéndez de Avilés - Wikipedia
2004-04-27
Authority control
<div><div>
<table><tbody><tr><th><p>Pedro Menéndez de Avilés</p></th></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:Pedro_menendez_de_Aviles.jpg"></a><p>Pedro Menéndez de Avilés</p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/List_of_colonial_governors_of_Florida">1st Governor of Florida</a></th></tr><tr><td><b>In office</b><br />1565–1574</td></tr><tr><th>Succeeded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Velasco">Diego de Velasco</a></td></tr><tr><th>Personal details</th></tr><tr><th>Born</th><td>15 February 1519<br /><a href="/wiki/Avil%C3%A9s">Avilés</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asturias">Asturias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spain">Spain</a></td></tr><tr><th>Died</th><td>17 September 1574 (aged 55)<br /><a href="/wiki/Santander,_Cantabria">Santander</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cantabria">Cantabria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spain">Spain</a></td></tr><tr><th>Occupation</th><td><a href="/wiki/Admiral">Admiral</a>; 16th-century colonial governor of <i><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida">La Florida</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Cuba">Cuba</a>, in <a href="/wiki/New_Spain">New Spain</a></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Pedro Menéndez de Avilés</b> (<small>Spanish pronunciation: </small><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Spanish">[ˈpeðɾo mẽˈnẽndeθ ðe aβiˈles]</a>; <a href="/wiki/Asturian_language">Asturian</a>: <i>Pedro (Menéndez) d'Avilés</i>; 15 February 1519 – 17 September 1574) was a Spanish admiral, explorer and <a href="/wiki/Conquistador">conquistador</a> from <a href="/wiki/Avil%C3%A9s">Avilés</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Asturias">Asturias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spain">Spain</a>. He is notable for planning the first regular <a href="/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleet">trans-oceanic convoys</a>, which became known as the Spanish treasure fleet, and for founding <a href="/wiki/St._Augustine,_Florida">St. Augustine, Florida</a>, in 1565. This was the first successful European settlement in <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida">La Florida</a> and the most significant city in the region for nearly three centuries. St. Augustine is the oldest continuously inhabited, European-established settlement in the <a href="/wiki/Continental_United_States">continental United States</a>. Menéndez de Avilés was the first <a href="/wiki/List_of_colonial_governors_of_Florida">governor of <i>La Florida</i></a> (1565–74).<sup><a href="#cite_note-Stradling2003-1">[1]</a></sup> By his contract, or <i><a href="/wiki/Asiento">asiento</a></i>, with Philip II, Menéndez was appointed <a href="/wiki/Adelantado">adelantado</a> and was responsible for implementing royal policies to build fortifications for the defense of conquered territories in <i>La Florida</i> and to establish Castilian governmental institutions in desirable areas.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Lyon19834-2">[2]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Early years[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pedro_Men%C3%A9ndez_de_Avil%C3%A9s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Pedro Menéndez de Avilés was born to an old noble family in the kingdom of Asturias. He was one of the younger sons of Juan Alonso Sánchez de Avilés, who had served the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs">Catholic Monarchs</a> in the war of <a href="/wiki/War_of_Granada">War of Granada</a>, and María Alonso y Menéndez Arango.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Sastre1992-3">[3]</a></sup> His parents had twenty children, and Pedro was still a child when his father died.
</p><p>After Doña Maria remarried, Pedro was sent to live with a relative who promised to oversee his education. Pedro and his guardian did not get along, and he ran away from home. He was found six months later in <a href="/wiki/Valladolid">Valladolid</a> and taken back to his foster home. Eventually Menéndez entered the military and went off to fight in one of the wars with France. He served at sea in a small armada against the <a href="/wiki/French_corsairs">French corsairs</a> who harassed the maritime commerce of Spain.
</p>
<h2>Military career[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pedro_Men%C3%A9ndez_de_Avil%C3%A9s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Casa_natal_pedro_menendez.jpg"></a></p><div><p>The house in Avilés where Pedro Menéndez de Aviles was born</p></div></div>
<p>After two years of fighting, Menéndez returned to his family, having conceived a plan to use part of his inheritance to build his own vessel. He built a <i><a href="/wiki/Patache">patache</a></i>, a small but fast row-sailer,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Manucy2014-4">[4]</a></sup> suitable for patrolling the coast. He recruited a number of his relatives to sail with him in search of adventure.
</p><p>In this ship, the young Menéndez won his first victory of command in an engagement with French corsairs who had attacked three slow Spanish freighters off the coast of <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Spain)">Galicia</a>. By effective captainship, he separated the two swift <i>zabras</i> (Biscayan frigates) that pursued him and captured them both, and drove away the third. The exploits of Pedro Menéndez soon became a topic of conversation on the waterfronts of Spain and France, and in the royal courts.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Manucy20149-5">[5]</a></sup> Meanwhile, the Seville merchants and the <a href="/wiki/Casa_de_Contrataci%C3%B3n">Casa de Contratación</a> (House of Trade) were chagrined by Menéndez's success and his growing influence with the Crown.
</p>
<h3>Treasure fleet[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pedro_Men%C3%A9ndez_de_Avil%C3%A9s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Menéndez is credited as the Spanish leader who first surveyed and authorized the building of the royal fortresses at major <a href="/wiki/Caribbean">Caribbean</a> ports. He was appointed by the Crown in 1554 as Captain-General of the Fleet of the Indies, the Spanish treasure fleet; that year he departed with the fleet and brought it back safely to Spain. He was affirmed in his belief of the strategic importance of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Bahama_Channel">Bahama Channel</a> and that <a href="/wiki/Havana">Havana</a>, on the island of <a href="/wiki/Cuba">Cuba</a>, was the key port to conduct a rendezvous of the annual <i>Flota</i> of treasure galleons. The appointment was highly prestigious, and it was unusual for the Crown to make the appointment. In the past the Casa de Contratación had controlled this position.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Lowery1911-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p><p>King Phillip II and Menéndez maintained a close relationship. The Crown invited him to be a part of the Royal Party when Phillip married <a href="/wiki/Mary_I_of_England">Mary I, Queen of England</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Lowery1911-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1559, Philip II again appointed Menéndez as Captain General, and his brother <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bartolom%C3%A9_Men%C3%A9ndez&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1">Bartolomé Menéndez</a> as Admiral, of the Fleet of the Indies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Lowery1911123-8">[8]</a></sup> He sailed for the Indies that October as captain general and commanded the <a href="/wiki/Galleon">galleons</a> of the great <i>Armada de la Carrera</i>, or <a href="/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleet">Spanish Treasure Fleet</a>, on their return voyage from the Caribbean and Mexico to Spain. Menéndez determined the route they followed, which led through the <a href="/wiki/Florida_Strait">Florida Strait</a> (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_language">Spanish</a>: <i>Estrecho de Florida</i>) and up the east coast of Florida,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Lowery190512-9">[9]</a></sup> taking advantage of the current of the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream">Gulf Stream</a>. In 1561, however, Menéndez was jailed by Casa officials for alleged smuggling, but he got his case transferred to court and won his release.
</p><p>Menéndez is credited as the chief planner of the formalized <a href="/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleet">Spanish treasure fleet</a> convoy system that became the main link between Spain and her overseas territories. In partnership with <a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Baz%C3%A1n,_1st_Marquis_of_Santa_Cruz">Álvaro de Bazán, 1st Marquis of Santa Cruz</a>, he helped design the great <a href="/wiki/Galleon">galleons</a> that carried the trade between <a href="/wiki/Cadiz">Cadiz</a> in Spain and <a href="/wiki/Veracruz,_Veracruz">Vera Cruz</a> in Spanish <a href="/wiki/Mexico">Mexico</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup>
</p><p>Later, in his capacity as <i><a href="/wiki/Adelantado">adelantado</a></i>, Menéndez was required to explore this vast territory, which extended from the Gulf coast of present-day western Florida around the Florida keys to Newfoundland. He also was commanded by the king to establish two or three fortified <i><a href="/wiki/Presidio">presidios</a></i> and settle them with settlers and slaves, and to begin the conversion of the Indians to Catholicism.<sup><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Merás2020-12">[12]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Enterprise of <i>La Florida</i>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pedro_Men%C3%A9ndez_de_Avil%C3%A9s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4">edit</a>]</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Pedro_Men%C3%A9ndez_de_Avil%C3%A9s._Escultura,_Avil%C3%A9s.JPG"></a></p><div><p>Monument to Pedro Menéndez in Avilés, Spain</p></div></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Alcazar_Hotel,_St._Augustine,_FL,_US_(107).jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>In 1562, a group of <a href="/wiki/Huguenots">Huguenots</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Jean_Ribault">Jean Ribault</a> arrived in territory claimed by Spain and called <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida">La Florida</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-HendersonMormino1991-13">[13]</a></sup> They explored the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/St._Johns_River">St. Johns River</a> in Florida, calling it <i>la Rivière de Mai</i> (the River May). The French sailed northward and established a settlement called <a href="/wiki/Charlesfort-Santa_Elena_Site#Charlesfort">Charlesfort</a> at <a href="/wiki/Port_Royal_Sound">Port Royal Sound</a> in present-day South Carolina.
</p><p>On August 19, 1563, Pedro Menéndez and his brother Bartolomé were imprisoned by the Casa de Contratación, accused of accepting bribes and smuggling silver into Spain. In September, he received news that <i>La Concepción</i>, flagship of the New Spain fleet and commanded by his son Admiral Juan Menéndez, had disappeared off the coast of South Carolina, and was assumed to be dead. The ship was lost in a hurricane that scattered the fleet as it was returning to Spain, at the latitude of <a href="/wiki/Bermuda">Bermuda</a> off the coast of South Carolina.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Turner2015-14">[14]</a></sup> Menéndez conceived a plan for a voyage to <i>La Florida</i> to search for his son, who he believed might have reached there, but he was powerless to initiate it from prison, and his petitions to King <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain">Philip II</a> went unanswered.
</p><p>Spain learned of the French expedition to Florida through its spies at ports on the Atlantic coast of France. Philip II was alarmed when Dr. Gabriel de Enveja reported that <a href="/wiki/Jean_Ribault">Jean Ribault</a> had been appointed as "Captain-General and Viceroy of New France". He also said that a large expedition of ships, soldiers and supplies was being fitted at <a href="/wiki/Dieppe">Dieppe</a> for a voyage to Florida: it was to have more than 500 <a href="/wiki/Arquebusiers">arquebusiers</a>, and many dismounted bronze cannons were loaded aboard the vessels.
</p><p>After his release from prison, Menéndez was available again to serve the king's purposes. He was appointed as <i>adelantado</i> of <i>La Florida</i>, with the promise of a large land grant and the title of marquis if he was successful. He advised the king of the strategic importance of exploring the Florida coast for discovery of trade passages to the riches of China and Molucca. There was the hope that such waterways might also lead to the mines of New Spain in central Mexico and to the Pacific. He proposed colonizing several areas to defend the territory against incursions by the Indians and foreign powers.
</p><p>Menéndez expected to make vast profits for himself and to increase the royal treasury with this Florida enterprise, as it was to include the development of agriculture, fisheries, and <a href="/wiki/Naval_stores">naval stores</a>. This ambitious venture was supported materially and politically by his kinship alliance of seventeen families from northern Spain, all tied by blood relations and marriage. They pledged their persons and fortunes to the adelentado, hoping to enrich themselves later with large grants of lands and royal honors of civil and military offices in <i>La Florida</i>. This support gave Menéndez a loyal cadre of lieutenants and officials who had blood connection to him, and had invested their own futures in his success.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Gannon1996-15">[15]</a></sup>
</p><p>In early 1564 Menéndez asked permission to go to Florida to search for <i>La Concepcion</i> and his son, Admiral Juan Menéndez, who had been its commander. As noted above, they were lost in 1563 in a hurricane.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Turner2015-14">[14]</a></sup> The crown continued to refuse his request.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Goulaine_de_Laudonni%C3%A8re">René de Laudonnière</a>, a Huguenot aristocrat who had participated in the first Jean Ribault expedition, returned to Florida in 1564 with three ships and 300 Huguenot colonists. He reached the River May on June 22, 1564, sailed up it a few miles, and founded <a href="/wiki/Fort_Caroline">Fort Caroline</a>. (Modern <a href="/wiki/Jacksonville,_Florida">Jacksonville</a> later developed here.) The Crown was alarmed by these encroachments on Spanish territory in such proximity to the course of the Spanish treasure fleet.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McGrath1997-16">[16]</a></sup>
</p><p>Desiring to protect its claimed territories in North America against further incursions by European powers, the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Crown">Spanish Crown</a> issued an <i><a href="/wiki/Asiento">asiento</a></i> to Menéndez, signed by Philip II on March 20, 1565, granting him expansive trade privileges, the power to distribute lands, and licenses to sell 500 slaves, as well as various titles, including that of <i><a href="/wiki/Adelantado">adelantado</a></i> of Florida.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McGrath2000-17">[17]</a></sup> Menéndez was commissioned to reconnoiter North America from the <a href="/wiki/Florida_Keys">Florida Keys</a> to present-day Canada, and report on its coastal features, with a view to establishing a permanent settlement for the defense of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleet">Spanish treasure fleet</a>. He was ordered as well to drive away any intruders who were not subjects of the Spanish crown.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Lyon1983-18">[18]</a></sup>
</p><p>On July 28, 1565, Menéndez set sail from <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A1diz">Cádiz</a> with a fleet led by his 600-ton flagship, the <i>San Pelayo</i>, accompanied by several smaller ships, and carrying over 1,000 sailors, soldiers, and settlers.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Lyon198398-19">[19]</a></sup> On the feast day of <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo">St. Augustine</a>, August 28, the fleet sighted land and anchored off the north inlet of the <a href="/wiki/Matanzas_River">tidal channel</a> that the French called the River of Dolphins.<sup><a href="#cite_note-PickettPickett201169-20">[20]</a></sup> This was developed as the site of the present-day city of St. Augustine. Menéndez sailed north and confronted Ribault's fleet outside the bar of the River May in a brief skirmish. On September 6, he returned to his first landfall, naming the site it after the Catholic saint, disembarked his troops, and quickly constructed fortifications to protect his people and supplies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-GriffinGriffin1996-21">[21]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Reps1965-22">[22]</a></sup>
</p><p>Menéndez marched his soldiers overland from St. Augustine to destroy the French settlement at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Caroline">Fort Caroline</a> on the <a href="/wiki/St._Johns_River">St. Johns River</a>. On 20 September 1565, they made a surprise attack and killed everyone in the fort except for the women and children; 132 Frenchmen <a href="/wiki/Spanish_assault_on_French_Florida">were killed</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup> Menéndez left a Spanish garrison at the captured fort, now renamed San Mateo. (In 1568 French soldiers returned and destroyed it, killing the Spanish garrison in retaliation for the 1565 massacre.)
</p><p>Menéndez pursued Jean Ribault, who had already left with four ships to attack the Spanish at St. Augustine. After Ribault had put out to sea, he was surprised by a storm that wrecked three of his ships near what is now the <a href="/wiki/Ponce_de_Leon_Inlet">Ponce de Leon Inlet</a>. His flagship was grounded near present-day Cape Canaveral.<sup><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup> Informed by Indian allies that the French survivors were walking northward on the coast, Menéndez began to search for them, finding the party at the banks of the <a href="/wiki/Matanzas_River">Matanzas River</a>'s south entrance.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Tebeau1971-25">[25]</a></sup> After several parleys with the Spanish, Ribault and the 150-350 Frenchmen with him (sources differ) surrendered. The Spanish executed nearly all of them in the dunes near the inlet. It was later known as <i>Matanzas</i> (Spanish for "slaughters").<sup><a href="#cite_note-Weber1992-26">[26]</a></sup> Having taken control of the Florida coast, Menéndez had his soldiers complete the fort in St. Augustine. He also established missions to the natives for the Catholic Church, and explored the east coast and interior of the peninsula.
</p><p>In May 1566, as relations with the neighboring <a href="/wiki/Timucua">Timucua</a> Indians deteriorated, Menéndez moved the Spanish settlement to a more defensible position on the north end of the <a href="/wiki/Barrier_island">barrier island</a> between the mainland and the sea, building a wooden fort there. In 1572, the settlement was relocated to the mainland, in the area just south of the future town plaza. Secure as governor, Menéndez explored the area and built additional <a href="/wiki/Fortification">fortifications</a>.
</p><p>He also commissioned the <a href="/wiki/Juan_Pardo_(explorer)">Juan Pardo</a> expedition, to travel from <a href="/wiki/Santa_Elena_(Spanish_Florida)">Santa Elena</a>, at <a href="/wiki/Port_Royal_Sound">Port Royal Sound</a> in present-day South Carolina, into the interior of the Southeast.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Hudson2005-27">[27]</a></sup> Captain Pardo was to find and supply an alternate overland route to the Spanish silver mines in central Mexico, as the Spanish mistakenly thought the Appalachian Mountains were part of a range extending that far. In the next couple of years, Pardo and his men traveled into present-day South Carolina and <a href="/wiki/Western_North_Carolina">Western North Carolina</a>, stopping at the Mississippian chiefdom of <a href="/wiki/Joara">Joara</a>, where they built Fort San Juan and wintered over. In total, his expedition built six forts along this route, including one known as San Pedro at Olamico, the principal town of <a href="/wiki/Chiaha">Chiaha</a> in southeastern Tennessee. Pardo left the expedition for other business. In 1568 all the Spanish men but one in the garrisons were killed by Native Americans resisting their treatment, and the forts were destroyed. The Spanish did not attempt other colonization in this region.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Beck1997-28">[28]</a></sup>
</p><p>Confident that he had fulfilled his primary contract with the King, including construction of forts along the coast of <i>La Florida</i>, Menéndez returned to Spain in 1567.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Florida1976-29">[29]</a></sup> He was appointed governor of <a href="/wiki/Cuba">Cuba</a>, in October of that year.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Johnson1920-30">[30]</a></sup> After several more transatlantic crossings, Menéndez fell ill and died on September 17, 1574.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Manucy1983-31">[31]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Later years[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pedro_Men%C3%A9ndez_de_Avil%C3%A9s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Menéndez traveled to southwest Florida, looking for his son. There he made contact with the <a href="/wiki/Calusa">Calusa</a> tribe, an advanced maritime people, at what is now known as <a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Harbor_(estuary)">Charlotte harbor</a>. He negotiated an initial peace with their leader, <a href="/wiki/Carlos_(Calusa)">Carlos</a>, which was solidified by Menéndez's marriage to Carlos's sister, who took the baptismal name Doña Antonia. The peace was uneasy, and Menéndez's use of his new wife as a hostage in negotiations with her people, as well as his negotiating with the Calusas' enemies, the <a href="/wiki/Tocobaga">Tocobagas</a>, helped cause the decline of relations to all out war, which continued intermittently into the next century. Menéndez was unsuccessful in locating his son Juan.
</p><p>Establishing a Spanish garrison of 200 men further up the coast, he sailed to what is today the <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)">Georgia coast</a> making contact with the local Indians of <a href="/wiki/St._Catherines_Island">St. Catherines Island</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-Green2004-32">[32]</a></sup> before returning to Florida, where he expanded Spanish power throughout southeastern Florida. His position as governor now secure, Menéndez explored the area and built additional <a href="/wiki/Fortification">fortifications</a>. In 1567, he marched south and encountered the <a href="/wiki/Ais_(tribe)">Ais</a> (Jece) as he reached the <a href="/wiki/Indian_River_(Florida)">Indian River</a> near present-day <a href="/wiki/Vero_Beach">Vero Beach</a>. He returned to Spain in 1567<sup><a href="#cite_note-Florida1976-29">[29]</a></sup> and was appointed governor of <a href="/wiki/Cuba">Cuba</a>, in October of that year.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Johnson1920-30">[30]</a></sup>
</p><p>In December 1571, Menéndez was sailing from Florida to Havana with two frigates when, as he tells it, "I was wrecked at Cape Canaveral because of a storm which came upon me, and the other boat was lost fifteen leagues further on in the Bahama Channel, in a river they call the <a href="/wiki/Ais_(tribe)">Ais</a>, because the <i><a href="/wiki/Cacique">cacique</a></i> (chief) is so called. I, by a miracle reached the fort of St. Augustine with seventeen persons I was taking with me. Three times the Indians gave the order to attack me, and the way I escaped them was by ingenuity and arousing fear in them, telling them that behind me many Spaniards were coming who would slay them if they found them."<sup><a href="#cite_note-RiverArchaeology-33">[33]</a></sup> The Ais, like the <a href="/wiki/Tequesta">Tequesta</a> and Calusa tribes, proved hostile to Spanish settlement as war continued on and off until 1670.<sup><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup>
</p><p>Menéndez later made contact with the less hostile Tequesta at their capital in <i><a href="/wiki/El_Portal,_Florida">El Portal</a></i> (in what is now Miami) and was able to negotiate for three chieftains to accompany him to Cuba as translators to the <a href="/wiki/Arawak_peoples">Arawak</a>. Although Menéndez left behind Jesuit missionaries Brother Francisco de Villareal and Padre Rogel in an attempt to convert the Tequesta to Roman Catholicism, the tribe were indifferent to their teachings. The Jesuits returned to St. Augustine after a year.
</p><p>Menéndez voyaged to <i>La Florida</i> for the last time in 1571, with 650 settlers for <a href="/wiki/Santa_Elena,_la_Florida">Santa Elena</a>, as well as his wife and family.<sup><a href="#cite_note-HendersonMormino1991-13">[13]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-ArredondoRoss1925-35">[35]</a></sup> In August 1572, Menéndez led a ship with thirty soldiers and sailors to take revenge for the killing of the Jesuits of the <a href="/wiki/Ajac%C3%A1n_Mission">Ajacán Mission</a> in present-day Virginia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Mallios2006-36">[36]</a></sup> At the end of his life, he was appointed as governor of Cuba shortly after his arrival. Menéndez died of <a href="/wiki/Typhus">typhus</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-pbs.org-37">[37]</a></sup> at <a href="/wiki/Santander,_Cantabria">Santander, Spain</a>, on 17 September 1574.
</p>
<h2>Legacy[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pedro_Men%C3%A9ndez_de_Avil%C3%A9s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Menendez_High_School">Pedro Menendez High School</a> on <a href="/wiki/State_Road_206">State Road 206</a> in <a href="/wiki/Saint_Johns_County">Saint Johns County</a> is named after him, as well as several streets in the area.</li>
<li>The <a href="/wiki/World_War_II">World War II</a> <a href="/wiki/Liberty_Ship">Liberty Ship</a> <a href="/wiki/SS_Pedro_Menendez">SS <i>Pedro Menendez</i></a> was named in his honor.</li></ul>
<h2>See also[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pedro_Men%C3%A9ndez_de_Avil%C3%A9s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/El_Portal,_Florida">El Portal, Florida</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Florida">History of Florida</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_St._Augustine">Roman Catholic Diocese of St. Augustine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine,_Florida">St. Augustine, Florida</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida">Spanish Florida</a></li></ul>
<h2>Notes[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pedro_Men%C3%A9ndez_de_Avil%C3%A9s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stradling2003_1-0">^</a></b> <cite>R. A. Stradling (2003). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Heot6rAt0i8C&amp;pg=PA5"><i>The Armada of Flanders: Spanish Maritime Policy and European War, 1568-1668</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52512-1"><bdi>978-0-521-52512-1</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lyon19834_2-0">^</a></b> <cite>Eugene Lyon (28 May 1983). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W_gdHQAACAAJ"><i>The Enterprise of Florida: Pedro Menéndez de Avilés and the Spanish Conquest of 1565-1568</i></a>. University Press of Florida. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-0777-9"><bdi>978-0-8130-0777-9</bdi></a>. Retrieved 23 November 2012.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sastre1992_3-0">^</a></b> <cite>María Antonia Sáinz Sastre (1992). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NBULAAAAYAAJ&amp;q=%22Pedro%20Men%C3%A9ndez%22%20%22Naci%C3%B3%22"><i>La Florida, Siglo XVI: Descubrimiento y Conquista</i></a>. Editorial Mapfre. p. 131. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-7100-475-8"><bdi>978-84-7100-475-8</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Manucy2014_4-0">^</a></b> <cite>Albert Manucy (1 October 2014). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KZhxDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT116"><i>Menendez: Pedro Menendez de Aviles, Captain General of the Ocean Sea</i></a>. Pineapple Press. p. 101. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56164-692-0"><bdi>978-1-56164-692-0</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Manucy20149_5-0">^</a></b> <cite>Albert Manucy (1 October 2014). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KZhxDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT13"><i>Menendez: Pedro Menendez de Aviles, Captain General of the Ocean Sea</i></a>. Pineapple Press. pp. 9–11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56164-692-0"><bdi>978-1-56164-692-0</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lowery1911_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lowery1911_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Woodbury Lowery (1911). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_XGGAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA126"><i>The Spanish settlements within the present limits of the United States: Florida, 1562-1574</i></a>. G.P. Putnam. p. 126.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b> extracted from the historical text available at <a href="http://augustine.com/history/ponce-leon.php">http://augustine.com Written History</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110904170226/http://www.augustine.com/history/ponce-leon.php">Archived</a> 4 September 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lowery1911123_8-0">^</a></b> <cite>Woodbury Lowery (1911). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_XGGAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA123"><i>The Spanish settlements within the present limits of the United States: Florida, 1562-1574</i></a>. G.P. Putnam. p. 123.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lowery190512_9-0">^</a></b> <cite>Woodbury Lowery (1905). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eN9AAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA12"><i>The Spanish Settlements Within the Present Limits of the United States: Florida 1562-1574</i></a>. G.P. Putnam's Sons. pp. 12–14.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b> "The galleon evolved in response to Spain's need for an ocean-crossing cargo ship that could beat off corsairs. Pedro de Menéndez, along with the marquis Santa Cruz (later a hero of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto">Battle of Lepanto</a>), is credited with developing the prototypes which had the long hull - and sometimes the oars - of a galley married to the poop and prow of a <a href="/wiki/Carrack"><i>nao</i></a> or merchantman. <i>Galeones</i> were classed as 1-, 2- or 3-deckers, and stepped two or more masts rigged with square sails and topsails (except for a lateen sail on the mizzenmast). Capacity ranged up to 900 tons or more. Menéndez's <i>San Pelayo</i> of 1565 was a 900-ton galleon, which was also called a <i>nao</i> and <i>galeaza</i>. She carried 77 crewmen, 18 gunners, transported 317 soldiers and 26 families, as well as provisions and cargo. Her armament was iron." <i>Menéndez: Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, Captain General of the Ocean Sea</i>. Albert C. Manucy. Pineapple Press, Inc. (1992). p.100
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b> <cite>Lyon, Eugene (July 1988). <a href="http://palmm.digital.flvc.org/islandora/object/ucf%3A25485">"Pedro Menéndez's Strategic Plan for the Florida Peninsula"</a>. <i>The Florida Historical Quarterly</i>. Florida Historical Society. <b>67</b> (1): 12.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Merás2020_12-0">^</a></b> <cite>Gonzalo Solís de Merás; David Arbesú (November 2020). David Arbesú (ed.). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0anYzQEACAAJ"><i>Pedro Menéndez de Avilés and the Conquest of Florida: A New Manuscript</i></a>. University Press of Florida. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-6842-8"><bdi>978-0-8130-6842-8</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-HendersonMormino1991_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HendersonMormino1991_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Eugene Lyon (1991). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U5hxDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT76">"Pedro Menéndez de Avilés"</a>. In Gary Mormino; Ann L Henderson (eds.). <i>Spanish Pathways in Florida: 1492-1992/Los Caminos Espanoles En LA Florida 1492-1992</i> (in English and Spanish) (1st ed.). Pineapple Press Inc. p. 76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56164-003-4"><bdi>978-1-56164-003-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 20 November 2012.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Turner2015_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Turner2015_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Sam Turner (18 July 2015). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160131004026/http://www.tallahassee.com/story/life/family/2015/07/18/menndez-anguishes-prison-son-lost-sea/30305069/?from=global&amp;sessionKey=&amp;autologin=">"Menéndez anguishes in prison as son is lost at sea"</a>. <i>Tallahassee Democrat</i>. USA Today Network. Archived from <a href="https://www.tallahassee.com/story/life/family/2015/07/18/menndez-anguishes-prison-son-lost-sea/30305069/">the original</a> on 31 January 2016. Retrieved 9 August 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gannon1996_15-0">^</a></b> <cite>Eugene Lyon (1996). "Settlement and Survival". In Michael Gannon (ed.). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sn5xQgAACAAJ"><i>The New History of Florida</i></a>. University Press of Florida. pp. 42–44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-1415-9"><bdi>978-0-8130-1415-9</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-McGrath1997_16-0">^</a></b> <cite>McGrath, John (1997). <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/42953207">"A Massacre Revised: Matanzas, 1565"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the Meeting of the French Colonial Historical Society</i>. <b>21</b>: 16. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-7055">0362-7055</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/42953207">42953207</a>. Retrieved 3 July 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-McGrath2000_17-0">^</a></b> <cite>John T. McGrath (2000). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zIZsLLdB4T4C&amp;pg=PA207"><i>The French in Early Florida: In the Eye of the Hurricane</i></a>. University Press of Florida. p. 207. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-1784-6"><bdi>978-0-8130-1784-6</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170227014419/https://books.google.com/books?id=zIZsLLdB4T4C&amp;pg=PA207">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2017. Retrieved 6 October 2016.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lyon1983_18-0">^</a></b> <cite>Eugene Lyon (May 1983). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W_gdHQAACAAJ"><i>The Enterprise of Florida: Pedro Menéndez de Avilés and the Spanish Conquest of 1565–1568</i></a>. University Press of Florida. pp. 52–53. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-0777-9"><bdi>978-0-8130-0777-9</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170227015338/https://books.google.com/books?id=W_gdHQAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2017. Retrieved 6 October 2016.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lyon198398_19-0">^</a></b> <cite>Eugene Lyon (May 1983). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W_gdHQAACAAJ"><i>The Enterprise of Florida: Pedro Menéndez de Avilés and the Spanish Conquest of 1565–1568</i></a>. University Press of Florida. p. 98. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-0777-9"><bdi>978-0-8130-0777-9</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170227015338/https://books.google.com/books?id=W_gdHQAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2017. Retrieved 6 October 2016.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-PickettPickett201169_20-0">^</a></b> <cite>Pickett, Margaret F.; Pickett, Dwayne W. (8 February 2011). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vTkyqDHcBvsC&amp;pg=PA69"><i>The European Struggle to Settle North America: Colonizing Attempts by England, France and Spain, 1521–1608</i></a>. McFarland. p. 69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-6221-6"><bdi>978-0-7864-6221-6</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160521074010/https://books.google.com/books?id=vTkyqDHcBvsC&amp;pg=PA69">Archived</a> from the original on 21 May 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2015. <q>...Laudonnière decided to call it the River of Dolphins (today known as the Matanzas River, near St. Augustine).</q></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-GriffinGriffin1996_21-0">^</a></b> <cite>John W. Griffin; Patricia C. Griffin (1996). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dvslW1Gc6cYC&amp;pg=PA184"><i>Fifty Years of Southeastern Archaeology: Selected Works of John W. Griffin</i></a>. University Press of Florida. p. 184. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-1420-3"><bdi>978-0-8130-1420-3</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170227010929/https://books.google.com/books?id=dvslW1Gc6cYC&amp;pg=PA184">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2017. Retrieved 6 October 2016.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Reps1965_22-0">^</a></b> <cite>John William Reps (1965). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ES4m9SedVZkC&amp;pg=PA33"><i>The Making of Urban America: A History of City Planning in the United States</i></a>. Princeton University Press. p. 33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-00618-0"><bdi>0-691-00618-0</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160731182635/https://books.google.com/books?id=ES4m9SedVZkC&amp;pg=PA33">Archived</a> from the original on 31 July 2016. Retrieved 6 October 2016.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b> Lyon 1983, p.122
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b> Lyon 1983, p.124
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tebeau1971_25-0">^</a></b> <cite>Charlton W. Tebeau (1 January 1971). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1kMTAAAAYAAJ&amp;q=%22Matanzas%20Inlet%22"><i>A History of Florida</i></a>. University of Miami Press. p. 35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87024-149-9"><bdi>978-0-87024-149-9</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170227021258/https://books.google.com/books?id=1kMTAAAAYAAJ&amp;q=%22Matanzas%20Inlet%22">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2017. Retrieved 7 July 2016.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Weber1992_26-0">^</a></b> <cite>David J. Weber (1992). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KOPdX2qaVrkC&amp;pg=PA62"><i>The Spanish Frontier in North America</i></a>. Yale University Press. p. 62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-05917-5"><bdi>978-0-300-05917-5</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170227011427/https://books.google.com/books?id=KOPdX2qaVrkC&amp;pg=PA62">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2017. Retrieved 8 July 2016.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hudson2005_27-0">^</a></b> <cite>Charles Hudson (24 July 2005). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NyAD-F3Q85kC&amp;pg=PA3"><i>The Juan Pardo Expeditions: Exploration of the Carolinas and Tennessee, 1566-1568</i></a>. University of Alabama Press. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8173-5190-8"><bdi>978-0-8173-5190-8</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Beck1997_28-0">^</a></b> <cite>Beck, Robin A. (1997). <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40713105">"From Joara to Chiaha: Spanish Exploration of the Appalachian Summit Area, 1540-1568"</a>. <i>Southeastern Archaeology</i>. <b>16</b> (2): 165–168. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0734-578X">0734-578X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/40713105">40713105</a>. Retrieved 3 July 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Florida1976_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Florida1976_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Federal Writers' Project of the Work Projects Administration for the State of Florida (1 January 1976). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DEjI9IVepygC&amp;pg=PA51"><i>Florida: A Guide to the Southernmost State</i></a>. North American Book Dist LLC. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-403-02161-1"><bdi>978-0-403-02161-1</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Johnson1920_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Johnson1920_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Willis Fletcher Johnson (1920). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zWMYAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA205"><i>The History of Cuba</i></a>. B.F. Buck, Incorporated. pp. 205, 208. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780722295168"><bdi>9780722295168</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Manucy1983_31-0">^</a></b> <cite>Albert C. Manucy (1983). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1BYLAAAAYAAJ&amp;q=%22September%2017,%201574%22"><i>Menéndez: Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, Captain General of the Ocean Sea</i></a>. Pineapple Press. p. 95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781561640157"><bdi>9781561640157</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170227014548/https://books.google.com/books?id=1BYLAAAAYAAJ&amp;q=%22September%2017,%201574%22">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2017. Retrieved 8 July 2016.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Green2004_32-0">^</a></b> <cite>R. Edwin Green (1 November 2004). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MTlYvgAACAAJ"><i>St. Simons Island: A Summary of Its History</i></a>. The History Press. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59629-017-4"><bdi>978-1-59629-017-4</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-RiverArchaeology_33-0">^</a></b> <cite>Rouse, Irving (1981). <i>Survey of Indian River Archaeology</i>. Yale University Publications in Anthropology 45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-404-15668-8"><bdi>978-0-404-15668-8</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.hartford-hwp.com/Tekesta/history/part6.html">History of the Tekesta - Part 6. Late Contact Period (1565 to the Present)</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-ArredondoRoss1925_35-0">^</a></b> <cite>Antonio de Arredondo; Mary Ross (1925). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o8sBAAAAMAAJ"><i>Arredondo's Historical Proof of Spain's Title to Georgia: A Contribution to the History of One of the Spanish Borderlands</i></a>. University of California Press. p. 339. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780598643285"><bdi>9780598643285</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mallios2006_36-0">^</a></b> <cite>Seth Mallios (28 August 2006). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u07AtztpazIC"><i>The Deadly Politics of Giving: Exchange And Violence at Ajacan, Roanoke, And Jamestown</i></a>. University of Alabama Press. pp. 53–57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8173-5336-0"><bdi>978-0-8173-5336-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 4 July 2012.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-pbs.org_37-0">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/secrets-spanish-florida-synopsis/3626/">Secrets of Spanish Florida – A Secrets of the Dead Special</a> pbs.org (26 December 2017)
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2>References[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pedro_Men%C3%A9ndez_de_Avil%C3%A9s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9">edit</a>]</h2>
<div>
<ul><li>Forbes, James Grant (1821). Sketches, Historical and Topographical, of the Floridas: More Particularly of East Florida. C.S. Van Winkle.</li>
<li>Green, R. Edwin. (1 November 2004). St. Simons Island: A Summary of Its History. The History Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59629-017-4">978-1-59629-017-4</a>.</li>
<li>Henderson, Richard R. (March 1989). A Preliminary inventory of Spanish colonial resources associated with National Park Service units and national historic landmarks, 1987. United States Committee, International Council on Monuments and Sites, for the U.S. Dept. of the Interior, National Park Service.</li>
<li>History of the Tekesta - Part 6. Late Contact Period (1565 to the Present).</li>
<li>Laudonnière, René Goulaine de (1853). L'histoire notable de la Floride: situèe es Indes Occidentales. P. Jannet</li>
<li>Lowery, Woodbury. (1911). The Spanish settlements within the present limits of the United States: Florida, 1562-1574. G.P. Putnam.</li>
<li>Lyon, Eugene (28 May 1983). The Enterprise of Florida: Pedro Menéndez de Avilés and the Spanish Conquest of 1565-1568. University Press of Florida.</li>
<li>Lyon, Eugene (1996). The New History of Florida. Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8130-1415-8">0-8130-1415-8</a>.</li>
<li>Lyon, Eugene (1991). "Pedro Menéndez de Avilés". Edited by Gary Mormino (in English and Spanish). Spanish Pathways in Florida: 1492-1992/Los Caminos Espanoles En La Florida 1492-1992. Ann L Henderson (1st ed.). Pineapple Press Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56164-003-4">978-1-56164-003-4</a>.</li>
<li>Mallios, Seth. (28 August 2006) The Deadly Politics of Giving: Exchange And Violence at Ajacan, Roanoke, And Jamestown. University of Alabama Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8173-5336-0">978-0-8173-5336-0</a>.</li>
<li>Manucy, Albert C. (1992). Menéndez, Pedro Menéndez de Aviles, Captain General of the Open Sea. Sarasota, Florida: Pineapple Press, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56164-015-8">1-56164-015-8</a>.</li>
<li>Pickett, Margaret F. ; Pickett, Dwayne W. (15 February 2011). "Four". The European Struggle to Settle North America: Colonizing Attempts by England, France and Spain, 1521-1608. McFarland. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-5932-2">978-0-7864-5932-2</a>.</li>
<li><i>Ponce De Leon's Discovery</i>, Written History section at <a href="http://augustine.com/">http://augustine.com</a></li>
<li>Rouse, Irving. Survey of Indian River Archaeology. Yale University Publications in Anthropology 45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-404-15668-8">978-0-404-15668-8</a>.</li>
<li>Sáinz Sastre, María Antonia. (1992). La Florida, Siglo XVI: Descubrimiento y Conquista. Editorial Mapfre. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-7100-475-8">978-84-7100-475-8</a>.</li>
<li>Viele, John (1999). The Florida Keys: True stories of the perilous straits. Pineapple Press Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56164-179-0">1-56164-179-0</a>.</li>
<li>Voltaire, Francois Marie Arouet (1773). Essais sur les Moeurs et l'esprit des Nations.</li></ul>
</div>
<h2>Primary resources[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pedro_Men%C3%A9ndez_de_Avil%C3%A9s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li><a href="http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.rbc/kislak.74381.1"><i>Pedro Menéndez de Avilés Sailing Order</i></a>, 1572 July 3. From the Collections at the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress">Library of Congress</a></li></ul>
<h2>Further reading[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pedro_Men%C3%A9ndez_de_Avil%C3%A9s&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li><cite>Hannay, David (1911). <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Avil%C3%A9s,_Pedro_Men%C3%A9ndez_de">"Avilés, Pedro Menéndez de" </a>. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Appletons%27_Cyclop%C3%A6dia_of_American_Biography/Avil%C3%A9s,_Pedro_Men%C3%A9ndez_de">"Avilés, Pedro Menéndez de" </a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Appletons%27_Cyclop%C3%A6dia_of_American_Biography">Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography</a></i>. 1900.</cite></li></ul>
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 * 1 Early years
 * 2 Military career
 + 2.1 Treasure fleet
 + 2.2 Enterprise of La Florida
 * 3 Later years
 * 4 Legacy
 * 5 See also
 * 6 Notes
 * 7 References
 * 8 Primary resources
 * 9 Further reading
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 Pedro Menéndez de Avilés

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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 Pedro Menéndez de Avilés
 Pedro Menéndez de Avilés
 
 1st Governor of Florida 
 In office 
 1565–1574 
 Succeeded by Diego de Velasco 
 
 Personal details 
 Born 15 February 1519 
 Avilés, Asturias, Spain 
 Died 17 September 1574 (aged 55) 
 Santander, Cantabria, Spain 
 Occupation Admiral; 16th-century colonial governor of La Florida and Cuba, in New Spain
 
 

 Pedro Menéndez de Avilés (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈpeðɾo mẽˈnẽndeθ ðe aβiˈles]; Asturian: Pedro (Menéndez) d'Avilés; 15 February 1519 – 17 September 1574) was a Spanish admiral, explorer and conquistador from Avilés, in Asturias, Spain. He is notable for planning the first regular trans-oceanic convoys, which became known as the Spanish treasure fleet, and for founding St. Augustine, Florida, in 1565. This was the first successful European settlement in La Florida and the most significant city in the region for nearly three centuries. St. Augustine is the oldest continuously inhabited, European-established settlement in the continental United States. Menéndez de Avilés was the first governor of La Florida (1565–74).[1] By his contract, or asiento, with Philip II, Menéndez was appointed adelantado and was responsible for implementing royal policies to build fortifications for the defense of conquered territories in La Florida and to establish Castilian governmental institutions in desirable areas.[2]

 Early years [ edit ]

 Pedro Menéndez de Avilés was born to an old noble family in the kingdom of Asturias. He was one of the younger sons of Juan Alonso Sánchez de Avilés, who had served the Catholic Monarchs in the war of War of Granada, and María Alonso y Menéndez Arango.[3] His parents had twenty children, and Pedro was still a child when his father died.

 After Doña Maria remarried, Pedro was sent to live with a relative who promised to oversee his education. Pedro and his guardian did not get along, and he ran away from home. He was found six months later in Valladolid and taken back to his foster home. Eventually Menéndez entered the military and went off to fight in one of the wars with France. He served at sea in a small armada against the French corsairs who harassed the maritime commerce of Spain.

 Military career [ edit ]

 The house in Avilés where Pedro Menéndez de Aviles was born

 After two years of fighting, Menéndez returned to his family, having conceived a plan to use part of his inheritance to build his own vessel. He built a patache, a small but fast row-sailer,[4] suitable for patrolling the coast. He recruited a number of his relatives to sail with him in search of adventure.

 In this ship, the young Menéndez won his first victory of command in an engagement with French corsairs who had attacked three slow Spanish freighters off the coast of Galicia. By effective captainship, he separated the two swift zabras (Biscayan frigates) that pursued him and captured them both, and drove away the third. The exploits of Pedro Menéndez soon became a topic of conversation on the waterfronts of Spain and France, and in the royal courts.[5] Meanwhile, the Seville merchants and the Casa de Contratación (House of Trade) were chagrined by Menéndez's success and his growing influence with the Crown.

 Treasure fleet [ edit ]

 Main article: Spanish treasure fleet

 Menéndez is credited as the Spanish leader who first surveyed and authorized the building of the royal fortresses at major Caribbean ports. He was appointed by the Crown in 1554 as Captain-General of the Fleet of the Indies, the Spanish treasure fleet; that year he departed with the fleet and brought it back safely to Spain. He was affirmed in his belief of the strategic importance of the Bahama Channel and that Havana, on the island of Cuba, was the key port to conduct a rendezvous of the annual Flota of treasure galleons. The appointment was highly prestigious, and it was unusual for the Crown to make the appointment. In the past the Casa de Contratación had controlled this position.[6]

 King Phillip II and Menéndez maintained a close relationship. The Crown invited him to be a part of the Royal Party when Phillip married Mary I, Queen of England.[7][6]

 In 1559, Philip II again appointed Menéndez as Captain General, and his brother Bartolomé Menéndez as Admiral, of the Fleet of the Indies.[8] He sailed for the Indies that October as captain general and commanded the galleons of the great Armada de la Carrera, or Spanish Treasure Fleet, on their return voyage from the Caribbean and Mexico to Spain. Menéndez determined the route they followed, which led through the Florida Strait (Spanish: Estrecho de Florida) and up the east coast of Florida,[9] taking advantage of the current of the Gulf Stream. In 1561, however, Menéndez was jailed by Casa officials for alleged smuggling, but he got his case transferred to court and won his release.

 Menéndez is credited as the chief planner of the formalized Spanish treasure fleet convoy system that became the main link between Spain and her overseas territories. In partnership with Álvaro de Bazán, 1st Marquis of Santa Cruz, he helped design the great galleons that carried the trade between Cadiz in Spain and Vera Cruz in Spanish Mexico.[10]

 Later, in his capacity as adelantado, Menéndez was required to explore this vast territory, which extended from the Gulf coast of present-day western Florida around the Florida keys to Newfoundland. He also was commanded by the king to establish two or three fortified presidios and settle them with settlers and slaves, and to begin the conversion of the Indians to Catholicism.[11][12]

 Enterprise of La Florida [ edit ]

 Monument to Pedro Menéndez in Avilés, Spain
 Statue in St. Augustine, Florida, at the Lightner Museum

 In 1562, a group of Huguenots led by Jean Ribault arrived in territory claimed by Spain and called La Florida.[13] They explored the mouth of the St. Johns River in Florida, calling it la Rivière de Mai (the River May). The French sailed northward and established a settlement called Charlesfort at Port Royal Sound in present-day South Carolina.

 On August 19, 1563, Pedro Menéndez and his brother Bartolomé were imprisoned by the Casa de Contratación, accused of accepting bribes and smuggling silver into Spain. In September, he received news that La Concepción, flagship of the New Spain fleet and commanded by his son Admiral Juan Menéndez, had disappeared off the coast of South Carolina, and was assumed to be dead. The ship was lost in a hurricane that scattered the fleet as it was returning to Spain, at the latitude of Bermuda off the coast of South Carolina.[14] Menéndez conceived a plan for a voyage to La Florida to search for his son, who he believed might have reached there, but he was powerless to initiate it from prison, and his petitions to King Philip II went unanswered.

 Spain learned of the French expedition to Florida through its spies at ports on the Atlantic coast of France. Philip II was alarmed when Dr. Gabriel de Enveja reported that Jean Ribault had been appointed as "Captain-General and Viceroy of New France". He also said that a large expedition of ships, soldiers and supplies was being fitted at Dieppe for a voyage to Florida: it was to have more than 500 arquebusiers, and many dismounted bronze cannons were loaded aboard the vessels.

 After his release from prison, Menéndez was available again to serve the king's purposes. He was appointed as adelantado of La Florida, with the promise of a large land grant and the title of marquis if he was successful. He advised the king of the strategic importance of exploring the Florida coast for discovery of trade passages to the riches of China and Molucca. There was the hope that such waterways might also lead to the mines of New Spain in central Mexico and to the Pacific. He proposed colonizing several areas to defend the territory against incursions by the Indians and foreign powers.

 Menéndez expected to make vast profits for himself and to increase the royal treasury with this Florida enterprise, as it was to include the development of agriculture, fisheries, and naval stores. This ambitious venture was supported materially and politically by his kinship alliance of seventeen families from northern Spain, all tied by blood relations and marriage. They pledged their persons and fortunes to the adelentado, hoping to enrich themselves later with large grants of lands and royal honors of civil and military offices in La Florida. This support gave Menéndez a loyal cadre of lieutenants and officials who had blood connection to him, and had invested their own futures in his success.[15]

 In early 1564 Menéndez asked permission to go to Florida to search for La Concepcion and his son, Admiral Juan Menéndez, who had been its commander. As noted above, they were lost in 1563 in a hurricane.[14] The crown continued to refuse his request.

 René de Laudonnière, a Huguenot aristocrat who had participated in the first Jean Ribault expedition, returned to Florida in 1564 with three ships and 300 Huguenot colonists. He reached the River May on June 22, 1564, sailed up it a few miles, and founded Fort Caroline. (Modern Jacksonville later developed here.) The Crown was alarmed by these encroachments on Spanish territory in such proximity to the course of the Spanish treasure fleet.[16]

 Desiring to protect its claimed territories in North America against further incursions by European powers, the Spanish Crown issued an asiento to Menéndez, signed by Philip II on March 20, 1565, granting him expansive trade privileges, the power to distribute lands, and licenses to sell 500 slaves, as well as various titles, including that of adelantado of Florida.[17] Menéndez was commissioned to reconnoiter North America from the Florida Keys to present-day Canada, and report on its coastal features, with a view to establishing a permanent settlement for the defense of the Spanish treasure fleet. He was ordered as well to drive away any intruders who were not subjects of the Spanish crown.[18]

 On July 28, 1565, Menéndez set sail from Cádiz with a fleet led by his 600-ton flagship, the San Pelayo, accompanied by several smaller ships, and carrying over 1,000 sailors, soldiers, and settlers.[19] On the feast day of St. Augustine, August 28, the fleet sighted land and anchored off the north inlet of the tidal channel that the French called the River of Dolphins.[20] This was developed as the site of the present-day city of St. Augustine. Menéndez sailed north and confronted Ribault's fleet outside the bar of the River May in a brief skirmish. On September 6, he returned to his first landfall, naming the site it after the Catholic saint, disembarked his troops, and quickly constructed fortifications to protect his people and supplies.[21][22]

 Menéndez marched his soldiers overland from St. Augustine to destroy the French settlement at Fort Caroline on the St. Johns River. On 20 September 1565, they made a surprise attack and killed everyone in the fort except for the women and children; 132 Frenchmen were killed.[23] Menéndez left a Spanish garrison at the captured fort, now renamed San Mateo. (In 1568 French soldiers returned and destroyed it, killing the Spanish garrison in retaliation for the 1565 massacre.)

 Menéndez pursued Jean Ribault, who had already left with four ships to attack the Spanish at St. Augustine. After Ribault had put out to sea, he was surprised by a storm that wrecked three of his ships near what is now the Ponce de Leon Inlet. His flagship was grounded near present-day Cape Canaveral.[24] Informed by Indian allies that the French survivors were walking northward on the coast, Menéndez began to search for them, finding the party at the banks of the Matanzas River's south entrance.[25] After several parleys with the Spanish, Ribault and the 150-350 Frenchmen with him (sources differ) surrendered. The Spanish executed nearly all of them in the dunes near the inlet. It was later known as Matanzas (Spanish for "slaughters").[26] Having taken control of the Florida coast, Menéndez had his soldiers complete the fort in St. Augustine. He also established missions to the natives for the Catholic Church, and explored the east coast and interior of the peninsula.

 In May 1566, as relations with the neighboring Timucua Indians deteriorated, Menéndez moved the Spanish settlement to a more defensible position on the north end of the barrier island between the mainland and the sea, building a wooden fort there. In 1572, the settlement was relocated to the mainland, in the area just south of the future town plaza. Secure as governor, Menéndez explored the area and built additional fortifications.

 He also commissioned the Juan Pardo expedition, to travel from Santa Elena, at Port Royal Sound in present-day South Carolina, into the interior of the Southeast.[27] Captain Pardo was to find and supply an alternate overland route to the Spanish silver mines in central Mexico, as the Spanish mistakenly thought the Appalachian Mountains were part of a range extending that far. In the next couple of years, Pardo and his men traveled into present-day South Carolina and Western North Carolina, stopping at the Mississippian chiefdom of Joara, where they built Fort San Juan and wintered over. In total, his expedition built six forts along this route, including one known as San Pedro at Olamico, the principal town of Chiaha in southeastern Tennessee. Pardo left the expedition for other business. In 1568 all the Spanish men but one in the garrisons were killed by Native Americans resisting their treatment, and the forts were destroyed. The Spanish did not attempt other colonization in this region.[28]

 Confident that he had fulfilled his primary contract with the King, including construction of forts along the coast of La Florida, Menéndez returned to Spain in 1567.[29] He was appointed governor of Cuba, in October of that year.[30] After several more transatlantic crossings, Menéndez fell ill and died on September 17, 1574.[31]

 Later years [ edit ]

 Menéndez traveled to southwest Florida, looking for his son. There he made contact with the Calusa tribe, an advanced maritime people, at what is now known as Charlotte harbor. He negotiated an initial peace with their leader, Carlos, which was solidified by Menéndez's marriage to Carlos's sister, who took the baptismal name Doña Antonia. The peace was uneasy, and Menéndez's use of his new wife as a hostage in negotiations with her people, as well as his negotiating with the Calusas' enemies, the Tocobagas, helped cause the decline of relations to all out war, which continued intermittently into the next century. Menéndez was unsuccessful in locating his son Juan.

 Establishing a Spanish garrison of 200 men further up the coast, he sailed to what is today the Georgia coast making contact with the local Indians of St. Catherines Island[32] before returning to Florida, where he expanded Spanish power throughout southeastern Florida. His position as governor now secure, Menéndez explored the area and built additional fortifications. In 1567, he marched south and encountered the Ais (Jece) as he reached the Indian River near present-day Vero Beach. He returned to Spain in 1567[29] and was appointed governor of Cuba, in October of that year.[30]

 In December 1571, Menéndez was sailing from Florida to Havana with two frigates when, as he tells it, "I was wrecked at Cape Canaveral because of a storm which came upon me, and the other boat was lost fifteen leagues further on in the Bahama Channel, in a river they call the Ais, because the cacique (chief) is so called. I, by a miracle reached the fort of St. Augustine with seventeen persons I was taking with me. Three times the Indians gave the order to attack me, and the way I escaped them was by ingenuity and arousing fear in them, telling them that behind me many Spaniards were coming who would slay them if they found them."[33] The Ais, like the Tequesta and Calusa tribes, proved hostile to Spanish settlement as war continued on and off until 1670.[34]

 Menéndez later made contact with the less hostile Tequesta at their capital in El Portal (in what is now Miami) and was able to negotiate for three chieftains to accompany him to Cuba as translators to the Arawak. Although Menéndez left behind Jesuit missionaries Brother Francisco de Villareal and Padre Rogel in an attempt to convert the Tequesta to Roman Catholicism, the tribe were indifferent to their teachings. The Jesuits returned to St. Augustine after a year.

 Menéndez voyaged to La Florida for the last time in 1571, with 650 settlers for Santa Elena, as well as his wife and family.[13][35] In August 1572, Menéndez led a ship with thirty soldiers and sailors to take revenge for the killing of the Jesuits of the Ajacán Mission in present-day Virginia.[36] At the end of his life, he was appointed as governor of Cuba shortly after his arrival. Menéndez died of typhus[37] at Santander, Spain, on 17 September 1574.

 Legacy [ edit ]

 * Pedro Menendez High School on State Road 206 in Saint Johns County is named after him, as well as several streets in the area.
 * The World War II Liberty Ship SS Pedro Menendez was named in his honor.

 See also [ edit ]

 * Florida portal
 * Piracy portal
 * Spain portal
 * El Portal, Florida
 * History of Florida
 * Roman Catholic Diocese of St. Augustine
 * St. Augustine, Florida
 * Spanish Florida

 Notes [ edit ]

 1. ^ R. A. Stradling (2003). The Armada of Flanders: Spanish Maritime Policy and European War, 1568-1668. Cambridge University Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-521-52512-1.
 2. ^ Eugene Lyon (28 May 1983). The Enterprise of Florida: Pedro Menéndez de Avilés and the Spanish Conquest of 1565-1568. University Press of Florida. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-8130-0777-9 . Retrieved 23 November 2012 .
 3. ^ María Antonia Sáinz Sastre (1992). La Florida, Siglo XVI: Descubrimiento y Conquista. Editorial Mapfre. p. 131. ISBN 978-84-7100-475-8.
 4. ^ Albert Manucy (1 October 2014). Menendez: Pedro Menendez de Aviles, Captain General of the Ocean Sea. Pineapple Press. p. 101. ISBN 978-1-56164-692-0.
 5. ^ Albert Manucy (1 October 2014). Menendez: Pedro Menendez de Aviles, Captain General of the Ocean Sea. Pineapple Press. pp. 9–11. ISBN 978-1-56164-692-0.
 6. ^ a b Woodbury Lowery (1911). The Spanish settlements within the present limits of the United States: Florida, 1562-1574. G.P. Putnam. p. 126.
 7. ^ extracted from the historical text available at http://augustine.com Written History Archived 4 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine
 8. ^ Woodbury Lowery (1911). The Spanish settlements within the present limits of the United States: Florida, 1562-1574. G.P. Putnam. p. 123.
 9. ^ Woodbury Lowery (1905). The Spanish Settlements Within the Present Limits of the United States: Florida 1562-1574. G.P. Putnam's Sons. pp. 12–14.
 10. ^ "The galleon evolved in response to Spain's need for an ocean-crossing cargo ship that could beat off corsairs. Pedro de Menéndez, along with the marquis Santa Cruz (later a hero of the Battle of Lepanto ), is credited with developing the prototypes which had the long hull - and sometimes the oars - of a galley married to the poop and prow of a nao or merchantman. Galeones were classed as 1-, 2- or 3-deckers, and stepped two or more masts rigged with square sails and topsails (except for a lateen sail on the mizzenmast). Capacity ranged up to 900 tons or more. Menéndez's San Pelayo of 1565 was a 900-ton galleon, which was also called a nao and galeaza . She carried 77 crewmen, 18 gunners, transported 317 soldiers and 26 families, as well as provisions and cargo. Her armament was iron." Menéndez: Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, Captain General of the Ocean Sea . Albert C. Manucy. Pineapple Press, Inc. (1992). p.100
 11. ^ Lyon, Eugene (July 1988). "Pedro Menéndez's Strategic Plan for the Florida Peninsula". The Florida Historical Quarterly. Florida Historical Society. 67 (1): 12.
 12. ^ Gonzalo Solís de Merás; David Arbesú (November 2020). David Arbesú (ed.). Pedro Menéndez de Avilés and the Conquest of Florida: A New Manuscript. University Press of Florida. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-8130-6842-8.
 13. ^ a b Eugene Lyon (1991). "Pedro Menéndez de Avilés". In Gary Mormino; Ann L Henderson (eds.). Spanish Pathways in Florida: 1492-1992/Los Caminos Espanoles En LA Florida 1492-1992 (in English and Spanish) (1st ed.). Pineapple Press Inc. p. 76. ISBN 978-1-56164-003-4 . Retrieved 20 November 2012 .
 14. ^ a b Sam Turner (18 July 2015). "Menéndez anguishes in prison as son is lost at sea". Tallahassee Democrat. USA Today Network. Archived from the original on 31 January 2016 . Retrieved 9 August 2020 .
 15. ^ Eugene Lyon (1996). "Settlement and Survival". In Michael Gannon (ed.). The New History of Florida. University Press of Florida. pp. 42–44. ISBN 978-0-8130-1415-9.
 16. ^ McGrath, John (1997). "A Massacre Revised: Matanzas, 1565". Proceedings of the Meeting of the French Colonial Historical Society. 21: 16. ISSN 0362-7055. JSTOR 42953207 . Retrieved 3 July 2021 .
 17. ^ John T. McGrath (2000). The French in Early Florida: In the Eye of the Hurricane. University Press of Florida. p. 207. ISBN 978-0-8130-1784-6. Archived from the original on 27 February 2017 . Retrieved 6 October 2016 .
 18. ^ Eugene Lyon (May 1983). The Enterprise of Florida: Pedro Menéndez de Avilés and the Spanish Conquest of 1565–1568. University Press of Florida. pp. 52–53. ISBN 978-0-8130-0777-9. Archived from the original on 27 February 2017 . Retrieved 6 October 2016 .
 19. ^ Eugene Lyon (May 1983). The Enterprise of Florida: Pedro Menéndez de Avilés and the Spanish Conquest of 1565–1568. University Press of Florida. p. 98. ISBN 978-0-8130-0777-9. Archived from the original on 27 February 2017 . Retrieved 6 October 2016 .
 20. ^ Pickett, Margaret F.; Pickett, Dwayne W. (8 February 2011). The European Struggle to Settle North America: Colonizing Attempts by England, France and Spain, 1521–1608. McFarland. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-7864-6221-6. Archived from the original on 21 May 2016 . Retrieved 27 October 2015 . "...Laudonnière decided to call it the River of Dolphins (today known as the Matanzas River, near St. Augustine)."
 21. ^ John W. Griffin; Patricia C. Griffin (1996). Fifty Years of Southeastern Archaeology: Selected Works of John W. Griffin. University Press of Florida. p. 184. ISBN 978-0-8130-1420-3. Archived from the original on 27 February 2017 . Retrieved 6 October 2016 .
 22. ^ John William Reps (1965). The Making of Urban America: A History of City Planning in the United States. Princeton University Press. p. 33. ISBN 0-691-00618-0. Archived from the original on 31 July 2016 . Retrieved 6 October 2016 .
 23. ^ Lyon 1983, p.122
 24. ^ Lyon 1983, p.124
 25. ^ Charlton W. Tebeau (1 January 1971). A History of Florida. University of Miami Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-87024-149-9. Archived from the original on 27 February 2017 . Retrieved 7 July 2016 .
 26. ^ David J. Weber (1992). The Spanish Frontier in North America. Yale University Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-300-05917-5. Archived from the original on 27 February 2017 . Retrieved 8 July 2016 .
 27. ^ Charles Hudson (24 July 2005). The Juan Pardo Expeditions: Exploration of the Carolinas and Tennessee, 1566-1568. University of Alabama Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-8173-5190-8.
 28. ^ Beck, Robin A. (1997). "From Joara to Chiaha: Spanish Exploration of the Appalachian Summit Area, 1540-1568". Southeastern Archaeology. 16 (2): 165–168. ISSN 0734-578X. JSTOR 40713105 . Retrieved 3 July 2021 .
 29. ^ a b Federal Writers' Project of the Work Projects Administration for the State of Florida (1 January 1976). Florida: A Guide to the Southernmost State. North American Book Dist LLC. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-403-02161-1.
 30. ^ a b Willis Fletcher Johnson (1920). The History of Cuba. B.F. Buck, Incorporated. pp. 205, 208. ISBN 9780722295168.
 31. ^ Albert C. Manucy (1983). Menéndez: Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, Captain General of the Ocean Sea. Pineapple Press. p. 95. ISBN 9781561640157. Archived from the original on 27 February 2017 . Retrieved 8 July 2016 .
 32. ^ R. Edwin Green (1 November 2004). St. Simons Island: A Summary of Its History. The History Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-1-59629-017-4.
 33. ^ Rouse, Irving (1981). Survey of Indian River Archaeology. Yale University Publications in Anthropology 45. ISBN 978-0-404-15668-8.
 34. ^ History of the Tekesta - Part 6. Late Contact Period (1565 to the Present) .
 35. ^ Antonio de Arredondo; Mary Ross (1925). Arredondo's Historical Proof of Spain's Title to Georgia: A Contribution to the History of One of the Spanish Borderlands. University of California Press. p. 339. ISBN 9780598643285.
 36. ^ Seth Mallios (28 August 2006). The Deadly Politics of Giving: Exchange And Violence at Ajacan, Roanoke, And Jamestown. University of Alabama Press. pp. 53–57. ISBN 978-0-8173-5336-0 . Retrieved 4 July 2012 .
 37. ^ Secrets of Spanish Florida – A Secrets of the Dead Special pbs.org (26 December 2017)

 References [ edit ]

 Library resources about 
 Pedro Menéndez de Avilés 
 * Online books 
 * Resources in your library 
 * Resources in other libraries
 
 * Forbes, James Grant (1821). Sketches, Historical and Topographical, of the Floridas: More Particularly of East Florida. C.S. Van Winkle.
 * Green, R. Edwin. (1 November 2004). St. Simons Island: A Summary of Its History. The History Press. ISBN 978-1-59629-017-4.
 * Henderson, Richard R. (March 1989). A Preliminary inventory of Spanish colonial resources associated with National Park Service units and national historic landmarks, 1987. United States Committee, International Council on Monuments and Sites, for the U.S. Dept. of the Interior, National Park Service.
 * History of the Tekesta - Part 6. Late Contact Period (1565 to the Present).
 * Laudonnière, René Goulaine de (1853). L'histoire notable de la Floride: situèe es Indes Occidentales. P. Jannet
 * Lowery, Woodbury. (1911). The Spanish settlements within the present limits of the United States: Florida, 1562-1574. G.P. Putnam.
 * Lyon, Eugene (28 May 1983). The Enterprise of Florida: Pedro Menéndez de Avilés and the Spanish Conquest of 1565-1568. University Press of Florida.
 * Lyon, Eugene (1996). The New History of Florida. Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-1415-8.
 * Lyon, Eugene (1991). "Pedro Menéndez de Avilés". Edited by Gary Mormino (in English and Spanish). Spanish Pathways in Florida: 1492-1992/Los Caminos Espanoles En La Florida 1492-1992. Ann L Henderson (1st ed.). Pineapple Press Inc. ISBN 978-1-56164-003-4.
 * Mallios, Seth. (28 August 2006) The Deadly Politics of Giving: Exchange And Violence at Ajacan, Roanoke, And Jamestown. University of Alabama Press. ISBN 978-0-8173-5336-0.
 * Manucy, Albert C. (1992). Menéndez, Pedro Menéndez de Aviles, Captain General of the Open Sea. Sarasota, Florida: Pineapple Press, Inc. ISBN 1-56164-015-8.
 * Pickett, Margaret F. ; Pickett, Dwayne W. (15 February 2011). "Four". The European Struggle to Settle North America: Colonizing Attempts by England, France and Spain, 1521-1608. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-5932-2.
 * Ponce De Leon's Discovery, Written History section at http://augustine.com
 * Rouse, Irving. Survey of Indian River Archaeology. Yale University Publications in Anthropology 45. ISBN 978-0-404-15668-8.
 * Sáinz Sastre, María Antonia. (1992). La Florida, Siglo XVI: Descubrimiento y Conquista. Editorial Mapfre. ISBN 978-84-7100-475-8.
 * Viele, John (1999). The Florida Keys: True stories of the perilous straits. Pineapple Press Inc. ISBN 1-56164-179-0.
 * Voltaire, Francois Marie Arouet (1773). Essais sur les Moeurs et l'esprit des Nations.

 Primary resources [ edit ]

 * Pedro Menéndez de Avilés Sailing Order, 1572 July 3. From the Collections at the Library of Congress

 Further reading [ edit ]

 * Hannay, David (1911). "Avilés, Pedro Menéndez de" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
 * "Avilés, Pedro Menéndez de" . Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography. 1900.
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Pedro Menéndez de Avilés       Pedro Menéndez de Avilés         1st Governor of Florida     In office 1565–1574   Succeeded by  Diego de Velasco    Personal details   Born 15 February 1519 Avilés, Asturias, Spain    Died 17 September 1574 (aged 55) Santander, Cantabria, Spain    Occupation  Admiral; 16th-century colonial governor of  La Florida  and Cuba, in New Spain        
 Pedro Menéndez de Avilés (Spanish pronunciation:  [ˈpeðɾo mẽˈnẽndeθ ðe aβiˈles]; Asturian: Pedro (Menéndez) d'Avilés; 15 February 1519 – 17 September 1574) was a Spanish admiral, explorer and conquistador from Avilés, in Asturias, Spain. He is notable for planning the first regular trans-oceanic convoys, which became known as the Spanish treasure fleet, and for founding St. Augustine, Florida, in 1565. This was the first successful European settlement in La Florida and the most significant city in the region for nearly three centuries. St. Augustine is the oldest continuously inhabited, European-established settlement in the continental United States. Menéndez de Avilés was the first governor of La Florida  (1565–74). [1]  By his contract, or  asiento , with Philip II, Menéndez was appointed adelantado and was responsible for implementing royal policies to build fortifications for the defense of conquered territories in La Florida and to establish Castilian governmental institutions in desirable areas. [2] 
Early years[edit]
Pedro Menéndez de Avilés was born to an old noble family in the kingdom of Asturias. He was one of the younger sons of Juan Alonso Sánchez de Avilés, who had served the Catholic Monarchs in the war of War of Granada, and María Alonso y Menéndez Arango. [3]  His parents had twenty children, and Pedro was still a child when his father died.
 After Doña Maria remarried, Pedro was sent to live with a relative who promised to oversee his education. Pedro and his guardian did not get along, and he ran away from home. He was found six months later in Valladolid and taken back to his foster home. Eventually Menéndez entered the military and went off to fight in one of the wars with France. He served at sea in a small armada against the French corsairs who harassed the maritime commerce of Spain.
Military career[edit]
      The house in Avilés where Pedro Menéndez de Aviles was born  
After two years of fighting, Menéndez returned to his family, having conceived a plan to use part of his inheritance to build his own vessel. He built a  patache , a small but fast row-sailer, [4]  suitable for patrolling the coast. He recruited a number of his relatives to sail with him in search of adventure.
 In this ship, the young Menéndez won his first victory of command in an engagement with French corsairs who had attacked three slow Spanish freighters off the coast of Galicia. By effective captainship, he separated the two swift zabras (Biscayan frigates) that pursued him and captured them both, and drove away the third. The exploits of Pedro Menéndez soon became a topic of conversation on the waterfronts of Spain and France, and in the royal courts. [5]  Meanwhile, the Seville merchants and the Casa de Contratación (House of Trade) were chagrined by Menéndez's success and his growing influence with the Crown.
Treasure fleet[edit]
Menéndez is credited as the Spanish leader who first surveyed and authorized the building of the royal fortresses at major Caribbean ports. He was appointed by the Crown in 1554 as Captain-General of the Fleet of the Indies, the Spanish treasure fleet; that year he departed with the fleet and brought it back safely to Spain. He was affirmed in his belief of the strategic importance of the Bahama Channel and that Havana, on the island of Cuba, was the key port to conduct a rendezvous of the annual Flota of treasure galleons. The appointment was highly prestigious, and it was unusual for the Crown to make the appointment. In the past the Casa de Contratación had controlled this position. [6] 
 King Phillip II and Menéndez maintained a close relationship. The Crown invited him to be a part of the Royal Party when Phillip married Mary I, Queen of England. [7]   [6] 
 In 1559, Philip II again appointed Menéndez as Captain General, and his brother Bartolomé Menéndez as Admiral, of the Fleet of the Indies. [8]  He sailed for the Indies that October as captain general and commanded the galleons of the great Armada de la Carrera, or Spanish Treasure Fleet, on their return voyage from the Caribbean and Mexico to Spain. Menéndez determined the route they followed, which led through the Florida Strait (Spanish: Estrecho de Florida) and up the east coast of Florida, [9]  taking advantage of the current of the Gulf Stream. In 1561, however, Menéndez was jailed by Casa officials for alleged smuggling, but he got his case transferred to court and won his release.
 Menéndez is credited as the chief planner of the formalized Spanish treasure fleet convoy system that became the main link between Spain and her overseas territories. In partnership with Álvaro de Bazán, 1st Marquis of Santa Cruz, he helped design the great galleons that carried the trade between Cadiz in Spain and Vera Cruz in Spanish Mexico. [10] 
 Later, in his capacity as  adelantado , Menéndez was required to explore this vast territory, which extended from the Gulf coast of present-day western Florida around the Florida keys to Newfoundland. He also was commanded by the king to establish two or three fortified  presidios  and settle them with settlers and slaves, and to begin the conversion of the Indians to Catholicism. [11]   [12] 
Enterprise of La Florida[edit]
      Monument to Pedro Menéndez in Avilés, Spain  
     
In 1562, a group of Huguenots led by Jean Ribault arrived in territory claimed by Spain and called La Florida. [13]  They explored the mouth of the St. Johns River in Florida, calling it la Rivière de Mai (the River May). The French sailed northward and established a settlement called Charlesfort at Port Royal Sound in present-day South Carolina.
 On August 19, 1563, Pedro Menéndez and his brother Bartolomé were imprisoned by the Casa de Contratación, accused of accepting bribes and smuggling silver into Spain. In September, he received news that La Concepción, flagship of the New Spain fleet and commanded by his son Admiral Juan Menéndez, had disappeared off the coast of South Carolina, and was assumed to be dead. The ship was lost in a hurricane that scattered the fleet as it was returning to Spain, at the latitude of Bermuda off the coast of South Carolina. [14]  Menéndez conceived a plan for a voyage to La Florida to search for his son, who he believed might have reached there, but he was powerless to initiate it from prison, and his petitions to King Philip II went unanswered.
 Spain learned of the French expedition to Florida through its spies at ports on the Atlantic coast of France. Philip II was alarmed when Dr. Gabriel de Enveja reported that Jean Ribault had been appointed as "Captain-General and Viceroy of New France". He also said that a large expedition of ships, soldiers and supplies was being fitted at Dieppe for a voyage to Florida: it was to have more than 500 arquebusiers, and many dismounted bronze cannons were loaded aboard the vessels.
 After his release from prison, Menéndez was available again to serve the king's purposes. He was appointed as adelantado of La Florida, with the promise of a large land grant and the title of marquis if he was successful. He advised the king of the strategic importance of exploring the Florida coast for discovery of trade passages to the riches of China and Molucca. There was the hope that such waterways might also lead to the mines of New Spain in central Mexico and to the Pacific. He proposed colonizing several areas to defend the territory against incursions by the Indians and foreign powers.
 Menéndez expected to make vast profits for himself and to increase the royal treasury with this Florida enterprise, as it was to include the development of agriculture, fisheries, and naval stores. This ambitious venture was supported materially and politically by his kinship alliance of seventeen families from northern Spain, all tied by blood relations and marriage. They pledged their persons and fortunes to the adelentado, hoping to enrich themselves later with large grants of lands and royal honors of civil and military offices in La Florida. This support gave Menéndez a loyal cadre of lieutenants and officials who had blood connection to him, and had invested their own futures in his success. [15] 
 In early 1564 Menéndez asked permission to go to Florida to search for La Concepcion and his son, Admiral Juan Menéndez, who had been its commander. As noted above, they were lost in 1563 in a hurricane. [14]  The crown continued to refuse his request.
  René de Laudonnière, a Huguenot aristocrat who had participated in the first Jean Ribault expedition, returned to Florida in 1564 with three ships and 300 Huguenot colonists. He reached the River May on June 22, 1564, sailed up it a few miles, and founded Fort Caroline. (Modern Jacksonville later developed here.) The Crown was alarmed by these encroachments on Spanish territory in such proximity to the course of the Spanish treasure fleet. [16] 
 Desiring to protect its claimed territories in North America against further incursions by European powers, the Spanish Crown issued an  asiento  to Menéndez, signed by Philip II on March 20, 1565, granting him expansive trade privileges, the power to distribute lands, and licenses to sell 500 slaves, as well as various titles, including that of  adelantado  of Florida. [17]  Menéndez was commissioned to reconnoiter North America from the Florida Keys to present-day Canada, and report on its coastal features, with a view to establishing a permanent settlement for the defense of the Spanish treasure fleet. He was ordered as well to drive away any intruders who were not subjects of the Spanish crown. [18] 
 On July 28, 1565, Menéndez set sail from Cádiz with a fleet led by his 600-ton flagship, the San Pelayo, accompanied by several smaller ships, and carrying over 1,000 sailors, soldiers, and settlers. [19]  On the feast day of St. Augustine, August 28, the fleet sighted land and anchored off the north inlet of the tidal channel that the French called the River of Dolphins. [20]  This was developed as the site of the present-day city of St. Augustine. Menéndez sailed north and confronted Ribault's fleet outside the bar of the River May in a brief skirmish. On September 6, he returned to his first landfall, naming the site it after the Catholic saint, disembarked his troops, and quickly constructed fortifications to protect his people and supplies. [21]   [22] 
 Menéndez marched his soldiers overland from St. Augustine to destroy the French settlement at Fort Caroline on the St. Johns River. On 20 September 1565, they made a surprise attack and killed everyone in the fort except for the women and children; 132 Frenchmen were killed. [23]  Menéndez left a Spanish garrison at the captured fort, now renamed San Mateo. (In 1568 French soldiers returned and destroyed it, killing the Spanish garrison in retaliation for the 1565 massacre.)
 Menéndez pursued Jean Ribault, who had already left with four ships to attack the Spanish at St. Augustine. After Ribault had put out to sea, he was surprised by a storm that wrecked three of his ships near what is now the Ponce de Leon Inlet. His flagship was grounded near present-day Cape Canaveral. [24]  Informed by Indian allies that the French survivors were walking northward on the coast, Menéndez began to search for them, finding the party at the banks of the Matanzas River's south entrance. [25]  After several parleys with the Spanish, Ribault and the 150-350 Frenchmen with him (sources differ) surrendered. The Spanish executed nearly all of them in the dunes near the inlet. It was later known as Matanzas (Spanish for "slaughters"). [26]  Having taken control of the Florida coast, Menéndez had his soldiers complete the fort in St. Augustine. He also established missions to the natives for the Catholic Church, and explored the east coast and interior of the peninsula.
 In May 1566, as relations with the neighboring Timucua Indians deteriorated, Menéndez moved the Spanish settlement to a more defensible position on the north end of the barrier island between the mainland and the sea, building a wooden fort there. In 1572, the settlement was relocated to the mainland, in the area just south of the future town plaza. Secure as governor, Menéndez explored the area and built additional fortifications.
 He also commissioned the Juan Pardo expedition, to travel from Santa Elena, at Port Royal Sound in present-day South Carolina, into the interior of the Southeast. [27]  Captain Pardo was to find and supply an alternate overland route to the Spanish silver mines in central Mexico, as the Spanish mistakenly thought the Appalachian Mountains were part of a range extending that far. In the next couple of years, Pardo and his men traveled into present-day South Carolina and Western North Carolina, stopping at the Mississippian chiefdom of Joara, where they built Fort San Juan and wintered over. In total, his expedition built six forts along this route, including one known as San Pedro at Olamico, the principal town of Chiaha in southeastern Tennessee. Pardo left the expedition for other business. In 1568 all the Spanish men but one in the garrisons were killed by Native Americans resisting their treatment, and the forts were destroyed. The Spanish did not attempt other colonization in this region. [28] 
 Confident that he had fulfilled his primary contract with the King, including construction of forts along the coast of La Florida, Menéndez returned to Spain in 1567. [29]  He was appointed governor of Cuba, in October of that year. [30]  After several more transatlantic crossings, Menéndez fell ill and died on September 17, 1574. [31] 
Later years[edit]
Menéndez traveled to southwest Florida, looking for his son. There he made contact with the Calusa tribe, an advanced maritime people, at what is now known as Charlotte harbor. He negotiated an initial peace with their leader, Carlos, which was solidified by Menéndez's marriage to Carlos's sister, who took the baptismal name Doña Antonia. The peace was uneasy, and Menéndez's use of his new wife as a hostage in negotiations with her people, as well as his negotiating with the Calusas' enemies, the Tocobagas, helped cause the decline of relations to all out war, which continued intermittently into the next century. Menéndez was unsuccessful in locating his son Juan.
 Establishing a Spanish garrison of 200 men further up the coast, he sailed to what is today the Georgia coast making contact with the local Indians of St. Catherines Island  [32]  before returning to Florida, where he expanded Spanish power throughout southeastern Florida. His position as governor now secure, Menéndez explored the area and built additional fortifications. In 1567, he marched south and encountered the Ais (Jece) as he reached the Indian River near present-day Vero Beach. He returned to Spain in 1567 [29]  and was appointed governor of Cuba, in October of that year. [30] 
 In December 1571, Menéndez was sailing from Florida to Havana with two frigates when, as he tells it, "I was wrecked at Cape Canaveral because of a storm which came upon me, and the other boat was lost fifteen leagues further on in the Bahama Channel, in a river they call the Ais, because the  cacique  (chief) is so called. I, by a miracle reached the fort of St. Augustine with seventeen persons I was taking with me. Three times the Indians gave the order to attack me, and the way I escaped them was by ingenuity and arousing fear in them, telling them that behind me many Spaniards were coming who would slay them if they found them." [33]  The Ais, like the Tequesta and Calusa tribes, proved hostile to Spanish settlement as war continued on and off until 1670. [34] 
 Menéndez later made contact with the less hostile Tequesta at their capital in  El Portal  (in what is now Miami) and was able to negotiate for three chieftains to accompany him to Cuba as translators to the Arawak. Although Menéndez left behind Jesuit missionaries Brother Francisco de Villareal and Padre Rogel in an attempt to convert the Tequesta to Roman Catholicism, the tribe were indifferent to their teachings. The Jesuits returned to St. Augustine after a year.
 Menéndez voyaged to La Florida for the last time in 1571, with 650 settlers for Santa Elena, as well as his wife and family. [13]   [35]  In August 1572, Menéndez led a ship with thirty soldiers and sailors to take revenge for the killing of the Jesuits of the Ajacán Mission in present-day Virginia. [36]  At the end of his life, he was appointed as governor of Cuba shortly after his arrival. Menéndez died of typhus  [37]  at Santander, Spain, on 17 September 1574.
Legacy[edit]
  Pedro Menendez High School on State Road 206 in Saint Johns County is named after him, as well as several streets in the area.
The World War II Liberty Ship SS Pedro Menendez  was named in his honor. 
See also[edit]
  El Portal, Florida 
 History of Florida 
 Roman Catholic Diocese of St. Augustine 
 St. Augustine, Florida 
 Spanish Florida  
Notes[edit]
 
  ^  R. A. Stradling (2003).  The Armada of Flanders: Spanish Maritime Policy and European War, 1568-1668 . Cambridge University Press. p. 5. ISBN  978-0-521-52512-1 .
  ^  Eugene Lyon (28 May 1983).  The Enterprise of Florida: Pedro Menéndez de Avilés and the Spanish Conquest of 1565-1568 . University Press of Florida. p. 4. ISBN  978-0-8130-0777-9 . Retrieved 23 November 2012.
  ^  María Antonia Sáinz Sastre (1992).  La Florida, Siglo XVI: Descubrimiento y Conquista . Editorial Mapfre. p. 131. ISBN  978-84-7100-475-8 .
  ^  Albert Manucy (1 October 2014).  Menendez: Pedro Menendez de Aviles, Captain General of the Ocean Sea . Pineapple Press. p. 101. ISBN  978-1-56164-692-0 .
  ^  Albert Manucy (1 October 2014).  Menendez: Pedro Menendez de Aviles, Captain General of the Ocean Sea . Pineapple Press. pp. 9–11. ISBN  978-1-56164-692-0 .
^    a       b    Woodbury Lowery (1911).  The Spanish settlements within the present limits of the United States: Florida, 1562-1574 . G.P. Putnam. p. 126.
  ^  extracted from the historical text available at http://augustine.com Written History Archived 4 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  ^  Woodbury Lowery (1911).  The Spanish settlements within the present limits of the United States: Florida, 1562-1574 . G.P. Putnam. p. 123.
  ^  Woodbury Lowery (1905).  The Spanish Settlements Within the Present Limits of the United States: Florida 1562-1574 . G.P. Putnam's Sons. pp. 12–14.
  ^  "The galleon evolved in response to Spain's need for an ocean-crossing cargo ship that could beat off corsairs. Pedro de Menéndez, along with the marquis Santa Cruz (later a hero of the Battle of Lepanto), is credited with developing the prototypes which had the long hull - and sometimes the oars - of a galley married to the poop and prow of a  nao  or merchantman. Galeones were classed as 1-, 2- or 3-deckers, and stepped two or more masts rigged with square sails and topsails (except for a lateen sail on the mizzenmast). Capacity ranged up to 900 tons or more. Menéndez's San Pelayo of 1565 was a 900-ton galleon, which was also called a nao and galeaza. She carried 77 crewmen, 18 gunners, transported 317 soldiers and 26 families, as well as provisions and cargo. Her armament was iron." Menéndez: Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, Captain General of the Ocean Sea. Albert C. Manucy. Pineapple Press, Inc. (1992). p.100
  ^  Lyon, Eugene (July 1988). "Pedro Menéndez's Strategic Plan for the Florida Peninsula". The Florida Historical Quarterly. Florida Historical Society. 67 (1): 12.
  ^  Gonzalo Solís de Merás; David Arbesú (November 2020). David Arbesú (ed.).  Pedro Menéndez de Avilés and the Conquest of Florida: A New Manuscript . University Press of Florida. p. 11. ISBN  978-0-8130-6842-8 .
^    a       b    Eugene Lyon (1991). "Pedro Menéndez de Avilés". In Gary Mormino; Ann L Henderson (eds.). Spanish Pathways in Florida: 1492-1992/Los Caminos Espanoles En LA Florida 1492-1992 (in English and Spanish) (1st ed.). Pineapple Press Inc. p. 76. ISBN  978-1-56164-003-4 . Retrieved 20 November 2012.
^    a       b    Sam Turner (18 July 2015). "Menéndez anguishes in prison as son is lost at sea". Tallahassee Democrat. USA Today Network. Archived from the original on 31 January 2016. Retrieved 9 August 2020.
  ^  Eugene Lyon (1996). "Settlement and Survival". In Michael Gannon (ed.).  The New History of Florida . University Press of Florida. pp. 42–44. ISBN  978-0-8130-1415-9 .
  ^  McGrath, John (1997). "A Massacre Revised: Matanzas, 1565". Proceedings of the Meeting of the French Colonial Historical Society. 21: 16. ISSN 0362-7055. JSTOR 42953207. Retrieved 3 July 2021.
  ^  John T. McGrath (2000).  The French in Early Florida: In the Eye of the Hurricane . University Press of Florida. p. 207. ISBN  978-0-8130-1784-6 . Archived from the original on 27 February 2017. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
  ^  Eugene Lyon (May 1983).  The Enterprise of Florida: Pedro Menéndez de Avilés and the Spanish Conquest of 1565–1568 . University Press of Florida. pp. 52–53. ISBN  978-0-8130-0777-9 . Archived from the original on 27 February 2017. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
  ^  Eugene Lyon (May 1983).  The Enterprise of Florida: Pedro Menéndez de Avilés and the Spanish Conquest of 1565–1568 . University Press of Florida. p. 98. ISBN  978-0-8130-0777-9 . Archived from the original on 27 February 2017. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
  ^  Pickett, Margaret F.; Pickett, Dwayne W. (8 February 2011).  The European Struggle to Settle North America: Colonizing Attempts by England, France and Spain, 1521–1608 . McFarland. p. 69. ISBN  978-0-7864-6221-6 . Archived from the original on 21 May 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2015. ...Laudonnière decided to call it the River of Dolphins (today known as the Matanzas River, near St. Augustine). 
  ^  John W. Griffin; Patricia C. Griffin (1996).  Fifty Years of Southeastern Archaeology: Selected Works of John W. Griffin . University Press of Florida. p. 184. ISBN  978-0-8130-1420-3 . Archived from the original on 27 February 2017. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
  ^  John William Reps (1965).  The Making of Urban America: A History of City Planning in the United States . Princeton University Press. p. 33. ISBN  0-691-00618-0 . Archived from the original on 31 July 2016. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
  ^  Lyon 1983, p.122
  ^  Lyon 1983, p.124
  ^  Charlton W. Tebeau (1 January 1971).  A History of Florida . University of Miami Press. p. 35. ISBN  978-0-87024-149-9 . Archived from the original on 27 February 2017. Retrieved 7 July 2016.
  ^  David J. Weber (1992).  The Spanish Frontier in North America . Yale University Press. p. 62. ISBN  978-0-300-05917-5 . Archived from the original on 27 February 2017. Retrieved 8 July 2016.
  ^  Charles Hudson (24 July 2005).  The Juan Pardo Expeditions: Exploration of the Carolinas and Tennessee, 1566-1568 . University of Alabama Press. p. 3. ISBN  978-0-8173-5190-8 .
  ^  Beck, Robin A. (1997). "From Joara to Chiaha: Spanish Exploration of the Appalachian Summit Area, 1540-1568". Southeastern Archaeology. 16 (2): 165–168. ISSN 0734-578X. JSTOR 40713105. Retrieved 3 July 2021.
^    a       b    Federal Writers' Project of the Work Projects Administration for the State of Florida (1 January 1976).  Florida: A Guide to the Southernmost State . North American Book Dist LLC. p. 51. ISBN  978-0-403-02161-1 .
^    a       b    Willis Fletcher Johnson (1920).  The History of Cuba . B.F. Buck, Incorporated. pp. 205, 208. ISBN  9780722295168 .
  ^  Albert C. Manucy (1983).  Menéndez: Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, Captain General of the Ocean Sea . Pineapple Press. p. 95. ISBN  9781561640157 . Archived from the original on 27 February 2017. Retrieved 8 July 2016.
  ^  R. Edwin Green (1 November 2004).  St. Simons Island: A Summary of Its History . The History Press. p. 19. ISBN  978-1-59629-017-4 .
  ^  Rouse, Irving (1981). Survey of Indian River Archaeology. Yale University Publications in Anthropology 45. ISBN  978-0-404-15668-8 .
  ^  History of the Tekesta - Part 6. Late Contact Period (1565 to the Present).
  ^  Antonio de Arredondo; Mary Ross (1925).  Arredondo's Historical Proof of Spain's Title to Georgia: A Contribution to the History of One of the Spanish Borderlands . University of California Press. p. 339. ISBN  9780598643285 .
  ^  Seth Mallios (28 August 2006).  The Deadly Politics of Giving: Exchange And Violence at Ajacan, Roanoke, And Jamestown . University of Alabama Press. pp. 53–57. ISBN  978-0-8173-5336-0 . Retrieved 4 July 2012.
  ^  Secrets of Spanish Florida – A Secrets of the Dead Special pbs.org (26 December 2017)
 
References[edit]
 Forbes, James Grant (1821). Sketches, Historical and Topographical, of the Floridas: More Particularly of East Florida. C.S. Van Winkle.
Green, R. Edwin. (1 November 2004). St. Simons Island: A Summary of Its History. The History Press. ISBN 978-1-59629-017-4.
Henderson, Richard R. (March 1989). A Preliminary inventory of Spanish colonial resources associated with National Park Service units and national historic landmarks, 1987. United States Committee, International Council on Monuments and Sites, for the U.S. Dept. of the Interior, National Park Service.
History of the Tekesta - Part 6. Late Contact Period (1565 to the Present).
Laudonnière, René Goulaine de (1853). L'histoire notable de la Floride: situèe es Indes Occidentales. P. Jannet
Lowery, Woodbury. (1911). The Spanish settlements within the present limits of the United States: Florida, 1562-1574. G.P. Putnam.
Lyon, Eugene (28 May 1983). The Enterprise of Florida: Pedro Menéndez de Avilés and the Spanish Conquest of 1565-1568. University Press of Florida.
Lyon, Eugene (1996). The New History of Florida. Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-1415-8.
Lyon, Eugene (1991). "Pedro Menéndez de Avilés". Edited by Gary Mormino (in English and Spanish). Spanish Pathways in Florida: 1492-1992/Los Caminos Espanoles En La Florida 1492-1992. Ann L Henderson (1st ed.). Pineapple Press Inc. ISBN 978-1-56164-003-4.
Mallios, Seth. (28 August 2006) The Deadly Politics of Giving: Exchange And Violence at Ajacan, Roanoke, And Jamestown. University of Alabama Press. ISBN 978-0-8173-5336-0.
Manucy, Albert C. (1992). Menéndez, Pedro Menéndez de Aviles, Captain General of the Open Sea. Sarasota, Florida: Pineapple Press, Inc. ISBN 1-56164-015-8.
Pickett, Margaret F. ; Pickett, Dwayne W. (15 February 2011). "Four". The European Struggle to Settle North America: Colonizing Attempts by England, France and Spain, 1521-1608. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-5932-2.
 Ponce De Leon's Discovery, Written History section at http://augustine.com 
Rouse, Irving. Survey of Indian River Archaeology. Yale University Publications in Anthropology 45. ISBN 978-0-404-15668-8.
Sáinz Sastre, María Antonia. (1992). La Florida, Siglo XVI: Descubrimiento y Conquista. Editorial Mapfre. ISBN 978-84-7100-475-8.
Viele, John (1999). The Florida Keys: True stories of the perilous straits. Pineapple Press Inc. ISBN 1-56164-179-0.
Voltaire, Francois Marie Arouet (1773). Essais sur les Moeurs et l'esprit des Nations. 
Primary resources[edit]
   Pedro Menéndez de Avilés Sailing Order , 1572 July 3. From the Collections at the Library of Congress  
Further reading[edit]
  Hannay, David (1911). "Avilés, Pedro Menéndez de" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.).  Encyclopædia Britannica  (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 
  "Avilés, Pedro Menéndez de" .  Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography . 1900.
Pedro Menéndez de Avilés - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_Men%C3%A9ndez_de_Avil%C3%A9s