who founded Apollo cap
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2008-01-21
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<table><tbody><tr><th><p>Leon Black</p></th></tr><tr><th>Born</th><td><p>Leon David Black</p><br />July 31, 1951 (age 71)</td></tr><tr><th>Alma mater</th><td><a href="/wiki/Dartmouth_College">Dartmouth College</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Harvard_University">Harvard University</a></td></tr><tr><th>Occupation(s)</th><td>Private equity investor and art collector</td></tr><tr><th>Known for</th><td>Co-founder of <a href="/wiki/Apollo_Management">Apollo Management</a></td></tr><tr><th>Spouse</th><td><a href="/wiki/Debra_Black">Debra Ressler</a></td></tr><tr><th>Children</th><td>4</td></tr><tr><th>Parent</th><td><div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eli_M._Black">Eli M. Black</a> (father)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Family</th><td><a href="/wiki/Tony_Ressler">Tony Ressler</a> (brother-in-law)<br /><a href="/wiki/Benedict_I._Lubell">Benedict I. Lubell</a> (uncle)<br /><a href="/wiki/Grace_Borgenicht_Brandt">Grace Borgenicht Brandt</a> (aunt)</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Leon David Black</b> (born July 31, 1951)<sup><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup> is an American <a href="/wiki/Investor">investor</a> and the co-founder and former-CEO of the private equity firm <a href="/wiki/Apollo_Global_Management">Apollo Global Management</a>. Black also served as the chairman of <a href="/wiki/The_Museum_of_Modern_Art">The Museum of Modern Art</a> (MoMA) in New York City from July 2018 until July 2021.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Businesssweek_Profile-2">[2]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-:1-3">[3]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-:2-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p><p>Black stepped down as CEO and chairman of Apollo Global Management in 2021, after revelations that he paid the disgraced businessman and convicted sex offender <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Epstein">Jeffrey Epstein</a> $158 million for <a href="/wiki/Family_office">family office</a> tax-related advice over the period from 2012 to 2017.<sup><a href="#cite_note-sfblack-5">[5]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-whyleon-6">[6]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-:0-7">[7]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Early life and education[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leon_Black&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Black is a son of <a href="/wiki/Eli_M._Black">Eli M. Black</a> (1921–1975), a prominent Jewish businessman who emigrated from Poland and was best known for owning the <a href="/wiki/United_Brands_Company">United Brands Company</a>. His mother, Shirley Lubell (sister of Tulsa oil executive <a href="/wiki/Benedict_I._Lubell">Benedict I. Lubell</a>) was an artist.<sup><a href="#cite_note-NYT1-8">[8]</a></sup> In 1975, his father died by suicide, jumping out of the 44th floor of the <a href="/wiki/Pan_Am_Building">Pan Am Building</a> in New York City. It was later made public that, at the time, federal regulators were investigating allegations that United Brands was bribing Honduran government officials.<sup><a href="#cite_note-NYT1-8">[8]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-STPeteViolentDeath-9">[9]</a></sup> Black received an <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts">AB</a> in <a href="/wiki/Philosophy">philosophy</a> and history from <a href="/wiki/Dartmouth_College">Dartmouth College</a> in 1973 and a <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Business_Administration">MBA</a> from <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University">Harvard University</a> in 1975.<sup><a href="#cite_note-NYT1-8">[8]</a></sup> He served on the <a href="/wiki/Board_of_Trustees_of_Dartmouth_College">Board of Trustees of Dartmouth College</a> from 2002 to 2011.<sup><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup> In 2012, Black gave US$48 million toward a new visual arts center at Dartmouth College.<sup><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Career[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leon_Black&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Black started out as an accountant at Peat Marwick (which later became <a href="/wiki/KPMG">KPMG</a>) and with the publisher of Boardroom Reports. He also interviewed at Lehman Brothers but was told that he didn't have the brains or personality to succeed on Wall Street.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Businesssweek_Profile-2">[2]</a></sup> From 1977 to 1990, Black was employed by <a href="/wiki/Investment_bank">investment bank</a> <a href="/wiki/Drexel_Burnham_Lambert">Drexel Burnham Lambert</a>, where he served as managing director, head of the <a href="/wiki/Mergers_and_acquisitions">Mergers &amp; Acquisitions</a> Group, and co-head of the <a href="/wiki/Corporate_Finance">Corporate Finance</a> Department.<sup><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup> Black was regarded as "junk bond king" <a href="/wiki/Michael_Milken">Michael Milken</a>'s right-hand man at Drexel.<sup><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup> In 1990, he co-founded, on the heels of the collapse of <a href="/wiki/Drexel_Burnham_Lambert">Drexel Burnham Lambert</a>, the private equity firm <a href="/wiki/Apollo_Global_Management">Apollo Global Management</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Bernard_Arnault_Receives_MoMA's_David_Rockefeller_Award-14">[14]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup> Notable founders included: John Hannan, Drexel's former co-director of international finance; Craig Cogut, a lawyer who worked with Drexel's high-yield division in Los Angeles; Arthur Bilger, the former head of the Drexel's corporate finance department; <a href="/wiki/Antony_Ressler">Antony Ressler</a>, who worked as a senior vice president in Drexel's high yield department with responsibility for the new issue/syndicate desk; and <a href="/wiki/Marc_Rowan">Marc Rowan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Harris_(businessman)">Josh Harris</a> and Michael Gross, who all worked under Black in the mergers and acquisitions department.<sup><a href="#cite_note-fruitofloom-16">[16]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup>
</p><p>Black stepped down as CEO of Apollo in 2021 due to his ties to convicted sex offender <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Epstein">Jeffrey Epstein</a>. He remained chairman for several months but stepped down abruptly in March 2021.<sup><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Personal life[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leon_Black&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Black is married to <a href="/wiki/Debra_Black">Debra Ressler</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup> a 1976 <a href="/wiki/Barnard_College">Barnard College</a> graduate and Broadway producer and sister of Ares Management co-founder <a href="/wiki/Antony_Ressler">Antony Ressler</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup> They have four children.<sup><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup> One of their children, Ben, runs an investment fund.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:0-7">[7]</a></sup> Black's wife is a <a href="/wiki/Melanoma">melanoma</a> survivor. In 2007, the couple donated $25 million to form the new Melanoma Research Alliance.<sup><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup> Leon and Debra both serve on the board of the organization.<sup><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 2018, he was elected as the chairman of <a href="/wiki/The_Museum_of_Modern_Art">The Museum of Modern Art</a> (MoMA) in New York City. His term commenced on July 1, 2018.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Businesssweek_Profile-2">[2]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-:1-3">[3]</a></sup> His term as chairman ended on July 1, 2021, and he did not seek re-election.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:2-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Epstein relationship[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leon_Black&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Black has claimed that he maintained a "limited relationship" with <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Epstein">Jeffrey Epstein</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup> In 1997, he made Epstein one of the original trustees of what is today the Debra and Leon Black Foundation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-goldstein-29">[29]</a></sup> In his 2020 letter to Apollo investors, Black said that Epstein provided him with "estate planning, tax and philanthropic advice" to his "family partnership and other related family entities".<sup><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times">The New York Times</a></i> reported that Black had paid Epstein at least $50 million for such services from 2012 to 2017.<sup><a href="#cite_note-goldstein-29">[29]</a></sup> While Black has not confirmed the $50 million sum reported by <i>The Times</i>, he did say that he paid Epstein "millions of dollars annually for his work".<sup><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup> In October 2020, Black requested that the Apollo board conduct an independent review of his relationship with Epstein, and it retained the law firm <a href="/wiki/Dechert_LLP">Dechert LLP</a> to do so.<sup><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup> Black has said that he "deeply regrets" his relationship with Epstein.<sup><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup>
</p><p>The review conducted by Dechert LLP was released on January 25, 2021. It showed that Black had paid Epstein around $158 million from 2012 through 2017 for financial services.<sup><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup> Using Epstein's tax avoidance strategies, Black saved at least $1.3 billion.<sup><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup> Black pledged his intention to donate $200 million to women’s initiatives.<sup><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Sexual misconduct accusations[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leon_Black&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>In 2021, Black admitted to having what he called a "consensual affair" with Guzel Ganieva, a former model.<sup><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup> She claimed in a series of March 2021 tweets that "I was sexually harassed and abused by him for years [and ultimately] forced to sign a non-disclosure agreement under duress".<sup><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup> The matter has resulted in lawsuits and countersuits.<sup><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup> Ganieva also claimed that Black also introduced her to convicted sex offender Jeffrey Epstein and tried to force her to have sex with them.<sup><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup> The law firm representing Ganieva also represents another accuser Cheri Pierson, who accused Black of raping her at Jeffrey Epstein's mansion in New York. Black denied these claims.<sup><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup>
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<h3>Book publisher[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leon_Black&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>In 2012, Black acquired <a href="/wiki/Phaidon_Press">Phaidon Press</a>, a fine art books publishing house.<sup><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup>
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<h3>Art collection[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leon_Black&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7">edit</a>]</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:The_Scream_Pastel.jpg"></a></p><p><i>The Scream</i> by Edvard Munch</p></div>
<p>Two months after the May 2012 anonymous purchase of one of four versions of <a href="/wiki/Edvard_Munch">Edvard Munch</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Scream">The Scream</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a></i> reported that Black had been the one who had paid $119.9 million for the pastel, <a href="/wiki/List_of_most_expensive_paintings">the highest price ever paid for a work of art</a> at auction as of that time.<sup><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup> In September 2012, The <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Modern_Art">Museum of Modern Art</a> announced the painting would go on view for a six-month period starting in October.<sup><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup>
</p><p>In June 2013, it was revealed that Leon Black had purchased <i>Head of a Young Apostle</i>, an 11-inch-wide (28 cm) work by <a href="/wiki/Raphael">Raphael</a> for £29 million after a four-party bidding war.<sup><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup>
</p><p>On December 22, 2015, it was reported that Leon Black purchased at auction a complete set of the <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bomberg">Daniel Bomberg</a> Babylonian <a href="/wiki/Talmud">Talmud</a> for $9.3 million.<sup><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup> According to a press release from the <a href="/wiki/Sotheby%27s">Sotheby's</a> auction house, the sale is "a new world auction record for any piece of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_ceremonial_art">Judaica</a>."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Sotheby's_press_release-53">[53]</a></sup>
</p><p>In June 2016, a lawsuit over the <a href="/wiki/Pablo_Picasso">Picasso</a> sculpture <i><a href="/wiki/Bust_of_a_Woman_(Marie-Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se)">Bust of a Woman (Marie-Thérèse)</a></i> between the advisory firm Pelham Europe and art gallery owner <a href="/wiki/Larry_Gagosian">Larry Gagosian</a> was settled. Pelham Europe, an agent for a member of Qatar's royal family, and Gagosian, who had resold the bust to Leon Black, both claimed ownership. The case was settled by <a href="/wiki/Maya_Widmaier-Picasso">Maya Widmaier-Picasso</a>, the owner of the sculpture. The settlement included Leon Black getting the sculpture and Widmaier Picasso paying Pelham an undisclosed amount.<sup><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup>
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<h2>See also[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leon_Black&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_private_equity_and_venture_capital">History of private equity and venture capital</a></li></ul>
<h2>References[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leon_Black&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/billionaires/profiles/leon-d-black/">"Bloomberg Billionaires Index – Leon Black"</a>. <i>Bloomberg.com</i>. <a href="/wiki/Bloomberg_L.P.">Bloomberg L.P.</a> Retrieved March 23, 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Businesssweek_Profile_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Businesssweek_Profile_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Businesssweek_Profile_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Melby, Caleb; Perlberg, Heather (January 16, 2020). <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2020-01-16/nobody-makes-money-like-apollo-s-ruthless-founder-leon-black">"Nobody Makes Money Like Apollo's Ruthless Founder Leon Black"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Bloomberg_Businessweek">Bloomberg Businessweek</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200718124401/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2020-01-16/nobody-makes-money-like-apollo-s-ruthless-founder-leon-black">Archived</a> from the original on July 18, 2020. Retrieved July 16, 2020.</cite>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="https://press.moma.org/news/leon-black-ronnie-heyman/">"The Museum of Modern Art Elects Leon D. Black Chairman of Board of Trustees; Ronnie Heyman is Elected President"</a>. <i>press.moma.org</i> (Press release). May 30, 2018. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200128210147/https://press.moma.org/news/leon-black-ronnie-heyman/">Archived</a> from the original on January 28, 2020. Retrieved July 16, 2020.</cite>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Greenberger, Alex (March 26, 2021). <a href="https://www.artnews.com/art-news/news/leon-black-moma-board-chairman-steps-down-1234588009/">"Amid Jeffrey Epstein Fallout, Leon Black Will Step Down as MoMA Board Chair"</a>. <i>ARTnews.com</i>. Retrieved January 7, 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-sfblack_5-0">^</a></b> <cite>Foy, Simon (March 22, 2021). <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2021/03/22/deliveroo-targets-88bn-valuation-live-updates/">"Hedge fund boss quits over Epstein ties - live updates"</a>. Telegraph Media Group Limited.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-whyleon_6-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.ft.com/content/23448802-3ee8-4c3c-bb46-fc02e304f3ed">"Why did Leon Black pay $158m to Jeffrey Epstein?"</a>. <i>Financial Times</i>. January 26, 2021. Retrieved March 23, 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Indap, Sujeet; Kruppa, Miles; Fontanella-Khan, James (October 22, 2021). <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/5d840a5c-fa0c-4d08-9574-59f0d3e8c703">"Financiers find safe space for Milken jamboree at The Beverly Hilton"</a>. <i>Financial Times</i>. Retrieved October 24, 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-NYT1_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NYT1_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NYT1_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Creswell, Julie (December 6, 2008). <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/07/business/07leon.html">"In Private Equity, the Limits of Apollo's Power"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170806051330/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/07/business/07leon.html">Archived</a> from the original on August 6, 2017. Retrieved February 10, 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-STPeteViolentDeath_9-0">^</a></b> <a href="https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=888&amp;dat=19750219&amp;id=NUFSAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=eHkDAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=6314%2c3415359">St. Petersburg Times: "Violent Death Contradicted Executives' Quiet Life" by Peter T. Kilbourne</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181027220817/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=888&amp;dat=19750219&amp;id=NUFSAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=eHkDAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=6314%2C3415359">Archived</a> October 27, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> February 19, 1975.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.dartmouth.edu/~trustees/emeriti/">"Trustees Emeriti"</a>. Dartmouth College. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131030001812/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~trustees/emeriti/">Archived</a> from the original on October 30, 2013. Retrieved May 24, 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b> <cite>Lattman, Peter (March 29, 2012). <a href="https://dealbook.nytimes.com/2012/03/29/apollos-leon-black-donates-48-million-to-dartmouth/">"Apollo's Leon Black Donates $48 Million to Dartmouth"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200405153859/https://dealbook.nytimes.com/2012/03/29/apollos-leon-black-donates-48-million-to-dartmouth/">Archived</a> from the original on April 5, 2020. Retrieved June 9, 2017.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.dartmouth.edu/~trustees/biographies/black.html">Leon D. Black '73</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071117114748/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~trustees/biographies/black.html">Archived</a> November 17, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from <a href="/wiki/Dartmouth_College">Dartmouth College</a>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,137095,00.html">"King of the Hill"</a>. <i>Time</i>. June 24, 2001. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200808162243/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,137095,00.html">Archived</a> from the original on August 8, 2020. Retrieved August 9, 2018.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bernard_Arnault_Receives_MoMA's_David_Rockefeller_Award_14-0">^</a></b> <cite>Maza, Erik (March 4, 2014). <a href="http://www.wwd.com/eye/people/bernard-arnault-receives-momas-david-rockefeller-award-7555559?src=nl/mornReport/20140305">"Bernard Arnault Receives MoMa's David Rockefeller Award"</a>. WWD. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141219061011/http://www.wwd.com/eye/people/bernard-arnault-receives-momas-david-rockefeller-award-7555559?src=nl%2FmornReport%2F20140305">Archived</a> from the original on December 19, 2014. Retrieved March 5, 2014.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b> <a href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DE5D8143CF934A25751C1A96E948260">Drexel Divided on Settlement</a>. New York Times, December 17, 1988.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-fruitofloom_16-0">^</a></b> <a href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE0DD173BF937A1575BC0A966958260">Ex-Drexel Executives Arrange Aid for Fruit of the Loom</a>, August 24, 1990.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b> <a href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DE2DE1139F932A25750C0A96F948260">Changes at Drexel Continue</a>. New York Times, March 11, 1989.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b> <a href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DE2DE113AF936A25753C1A96F948260">Drexel's Uncertain Future</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201027143739/https://www.nytimes.com/1989/10/15/business/drexel-s-uncertain-future.html">Archived</a> October 27, 2020, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. New York Times, October 15, 1989.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b> <cite>Gottfried, Miriam (March 22, 2021). <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/leon-black-steps-down-as-apollo-chairman-in-unexpected-move-11616415292">"Leon Black Steps Down as Apollo Chairman in Unexpected Move"</a>. <i>Wall Street Journal</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0099-9660">0099-9660</a>. Retrieved March 22, 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b> <cite>Vandevelde, Mark (January 25, 2021). <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/97fdc05b-d3cd-45b7-b155-5f4ab525c59a">"Leon Black steps down as chief executive of Apollo"</a>. <i>The Financial Times</i>. Retrieved January 25, 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b> <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2000/10/29/classified/paid-notice-deaths-ressler-ira-richard.html">New York Times: "Paid Notice: Deaths RESSLER, IRA RICHARD"</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171107120039/http://www.nytimes.com/2000/10/29/classified/paid-notice-deaths-ressler-ira-richard.html">Archived</a> November 7, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> October 29, 2000.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b> <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-07-07/leon-black-loses-swaps-fight-to-carl-icahn-as-apollo-sets-new-credit-terms.html">Bloomberg: "Leon Black Loses to Carl Icahn as Apollo Sets New Credit Terms" By Anthony Effinger &amp; Cristina Alesci</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131228131941/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-07-07/leon-black-loses-swaps-fight-to-carl-icahn-as-apollo-sets-new-credit-terms.html">Archived</a> December 28, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> July 7, 2010.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://our.barnard.edu/s/1133/16/index.aspx?sid=1133&amp;gid=1&amp;pgid=3926">"Alumnae in the News Archive"</a>. <i>our.barnard.edu</i>. Retrieved June 23, 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b> <cite>Barnard College (September 1999). <a href="http://archive.org/details/barnard884barn"><i>Barnard</i></a>. Barnard College. Barnard College.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b> <a href="https://www.forbes.com/lists/2006/54/biz_06rich400_Leon-Black_SNB3.html">The 400 Richest Americans #160 Leon Black</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180130140048/https://www.forbes.com/lists/2006/54/biz_06rich400_Leon-Black_SNB3.html">Archived</a> January 30, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Forbes, 2006)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b> <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703969204575220160013541330">Wall Street Journal: "Melanoma Survivor Seeks Cure" By LAURA LANDRO</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171109183624/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703969204575220160013541330">Archived</a> November 9, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> May 3, 2010.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.curemelanoma.org/about-mra/board-of-directors/">"Board of Directors"</a>. <i>Melanoma Research Alliance</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200413133509/https://www.curemelanoma.org/about-mra/board-of-directors/">Archived</a> from the original on April 13, 2020. Retrieved April 14, 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b> <cite>Adler, Dan (October 12, 2020). <a href="https://www.vanityfair.com/style/2020/10/leon-black-epstein-transactions">"Leon Black, Who Reportedly Wired Jeffrey Epstein Millions of Dollars, Says He Regrets "Any Involvement""</a>. <i>Vanity Fair</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201027143739/https://www.vanityfair.com/style/2020/10/leon-black-epstein-transactions">Archived</a> from the original on October 27, 2020. Retrieved October 23, 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-goldstein_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-goldstein_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Goldstein, Matthew; Eder, Steve; Enrich, David (October 13, 2020). <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/12/business/leon-black-jeffrey-epstein.html">"The Billionaire Who Stood by Jeffrey Epstein"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201013153812/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/12/business/leon-black-jeffrey-epstein.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 13, 2020. Retrieved October 23, 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b> <cite>Primack, Dan (October 12, 2020). <a href="https://www.axios.com/leon-black-jeffrey-epstein-0eff63bd-6549-4c03-a93a-bb99766dcade.html">"Wall Street billionaire Leon Black to investors: "I deeply regret" Epstein involvement"</a>. <i>Axios</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201015091533/https://www.axios.com/leon-black-jeffrey-epstein-0eff63bd-6549-4c03-a93a-bb99766dcade.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 15, 2020. Retrieved October 23, 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b> <cite>Basu (Axios), Zach. <a href="https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/7225038-Investor-Letter.html">"Investor Letter"</a>. <i>www.documentcloud.org</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201024131754/https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/7225038-Investor-Letter.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 24, 2020. Retrieved October 23, 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b> <cite>Gottfried, Miriam (October 21, 2020). <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/apollo-board-panel-to-review-leon-blacks-ties-with-jeffrey-epstein-11603240418">"WSJ News Exclusive | Apollo Board Panel to Review Leon Black's Ties With Jeffrey Epstein"</a>. <i>Wall Street Journal</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0099-9660">0099-9660</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201022125409/https://www.wsj.com/articles/apollo-board-panel-to-review-leon-blacks-ties-with-jeffrey-epstein-11603240418">Archived</a> from the original on October 22, 2020. Retrieved October 23, 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b> <cite>Goldstein, Matthew (October 20, 2020). <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/20/business/leon-black-jeffrey-epstein-apollo.html">"Apollo Board Will Review Leon Black's Ties to Jeffrey Epstein"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201022184604/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/20/business/leon-black-jeffrey-epstein-apollo.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 22, 2020. Retrieved October 23, 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-10-12/leon-black-addresses-epstein-relationship-in-letter-to-investors">"Leon Black Says 'I Deeply Regret' Involvement With Epstein"</a>. <i>Bloomberg.com</i>. October 12, 2020. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201018003336/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-10-12/leon-black-addresses-epstein-relationship-in-letter-to-investors">Archived</a> from the original on October 18, 2020. Retrieved October 23, 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b> <cite>Goldstein, Matthew; Rosman, Katherine (January 25, 2021). <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/25/business/leon-black-apollo-jeffrey-epstein.html">"Apollo C.E.O. to Step Down After Firm Finds More Payments to Jeffrey Epstein"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. Retrieved January 26, 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b> <cite>Paulden, Pierre; Steverman, Ben (January 27, 2021). <a href="https://www.afr.com/world/north-america/what-billionaire-leon-black-got-for-paying-jeffrey-epstein-us158m-20210127-p56x24">"What billionaire Leon Black got for paying Jeffrey Epstein $US158m"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Australian_Financial_Review">Australian Financial Review</a></i>. Retrieved March 23, 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b> <cite>Greenberger, Alex (January 25, 2021). <a href="https://www.artnews.com/art-news/news/leon-black-leaves-apollo-global-management-1234582125/">"Top Art Collector Leon Black to Depart Investment Firm After Review of Jeffrey Epstein Donations"</a>. <i>ARTnews.com</i>. Retrieved June 1, 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b> <cite>Goldstein, Matthew; Rosman, Katherine (January 25, 2021). <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/25/business/leon-black-apollo-jeffrey-epstein.html">"Apollo C.E.O. to Step Down After Firm Finds More Payments to Jeffrey Epstein"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. Retrieved June 1, 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b> <cite>Duffy, Kate (April 9, 2021). <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/leon-black-sexual-abuse-harassment-allegations-apollo-affair-denied-2021-4">"Wall Street billionaire Leon Black denied sexual-harassment allegations made by a former model and said he paid her to keep the 'affair' quiet"</a>. <i>Business Insider</i>. Retrieved April 30, 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.institutionalinvestor.com/article/b1rbdj4dv8pkpc/Leon-Black-Admits-Paying-Woman-to-Keep-Affair-Quiet-Denies-It-Led-to-Sudden-Apollo-Exit">"Leon Black Admits Paying Woman to Keep Affair Quiet, Denies It Led to Sudden Apollo Exit"</a>. <i>Institutional Investor</i>. Retrieved April 30, 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b> <cite>Kosman, Josh (April 9, 2021). <a href="https://nypost.com/2021/04/08/leon-black-accused-of-sexual-harassment/">"Leon Black's surprise Apollo Global exit came amid sexual harassment allegation"</a>. <i>New York Post</i>. Retrieved April 30, 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b> Thomas David. <a href="https://www.reuters.com/legal/legalindustry/leon-blacks-law-firm-fights-disqualification-bid-russian-models-case-2022-11-16/">"Leon Black's law firm fights disqualification bid in Russian model's case"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reuters">Reuters</a> (16 Nov 2022).
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-06-01/leon-black-sued-by-woman-who-alleges-defamation-sexual-violence">"Leon Black Sued by Woman Who Alleges Defamation, Sexual Violence"</a>. <i>Bloomberg.com</i>. Bloomberg. June 2021.</cite><code>{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_news">cite news</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: url-status (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_url-status">link</a>)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://nypost.com/2021/08/09/leon-black-flew-model-to-florida-to-have-sex-with-jeffrey-epstein-lawsuit-claims/">"Leon Black flew model to Florida to have sex with Jeffrey Epstein, lawsuit claims"</a>. August 9, 2021. Retrieved January 19, 2023.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2021/08/billionaire-leon-black-flew-russian-model-to-meet-jeffrey-epstein-new-legal-filing-claims">""You Have to Let Them Do Whatever They Want": Billionaire Leon Black Flew a Russian Model to Meet Jeffrey Epstein, New Legal Filing Claims"</a>. <i>Vanity Fair</i>. August 9, 2021. Retrieved January 19, 2023.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b> DeGregory, Priscilla. <a href="https://nypost.com/2022/11/28/leon-black-raped-woman-in-jeffrey-epsteins-nyc-home-in-2002-suit/amp/">"Leon Black accused of raping woman in Jeffrey Epstein’s NYC home: suit"</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_Post">New York Post</a> (8 Nov 2022).
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b> Marif, Ramishaw. <a href="https://amp.cnn.com/cnn/2022/11/28/business/leon-black-jeffrey-epstein-rape-accusation/index.html">"Lawsuit alleges billionaire investor Leon Black raped a woman inside Jeffrey Epstein's home"</a>, <a href="/wiki/CNN">CNN</a> (28 Nov 2022).
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b> <cite>Lattman, Peter (October 9, 2012). <a href="https://dealbook.nytimes.com/2012/10/09/billionaire-financier-leon-black-buys-art-publisher-phaidon/">"Billionaire Financier Leon Black Buys Art Publisher Phaidon"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180215114446/https://dealbook.nytimes.com/2012/10/09/billionaire-financier-leon-black-buys-art-publisher-phaidon/">Archived</a> from the original on February 15, 2018. Retrieved June 9, 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304373804577521240470769420">"Munch's "The Scream" Sold to Financier Leon Black"</a>. <i>Wall Street Journal</i>. July 11, 2012. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150104221934/http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304373804577521240470769420">Archived</a> from the original on January 4, 2015. Retrieved August 22, 2012.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-19633293">"Edvard Munch's The Scream to go on show in New York"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC_News">BBC News</a>. September 18, 2012. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120919012316/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-19633293">Archived</a> from the original on September 19, 2012. Retrieved September 19, 2012.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b> <cite>Sherwin, Adam (June 20, 2013). <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/news/new-york-billionaire-leon-blacks-bid-to-take-29m-raphael-from-uk-blocked-by-ed-vaizey-8667116.html">"New York billionaire Leon Black's bid to take £29m Raphael from UK blocked by Ed Vaizey"</a>. <i>The Independent</i>. London. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170312094303/http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/news/new-york-billionaire-leon-blacks-bid-to-take-29m-raphael-from-uk-blocked-by-ed-vaizey-8667116.html">Archived</a> from the original on March 12, 2017. Retrieved September 2, 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.tabletmag.com/scroll/196121/new-york-businessman-leon-black-buy-bomberg-babylonian-talmud-for-9-3-million">"Tablet Magazine"</a>. December 22, 2015. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151223190020/http://www.tabletmag.com/scroll/196121/new-york-businessman-leon-black-buy-bomberg-babylonian-talmud-for-9-3-million">Archived</a> from the original on December 23, 2015. Retrieved December 23, 2015.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sotheby's_press_release_53-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://artdaily.com/news/83890/Daniel-Bomberg-s-16th-century-printing-of-the-Talmud-sells-for--9-3-million-at-Sotheby-s-New-York#.VsEqy7xeBE4">"Daniel Bomberg's 16th-century printing of the Talmud sells for $9.3 mill"</a>. Art Daily. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160207183415/http://artdaily.com/news/83890/Daniel-Bomberg-s-16th-century-printing-of-the-Talmud-sells-for--9-3-million-at-Sotheby-s-New-York#.VsEqy7xeBE4">Archived</a> from the original on February 7, 2016. Retrieved February 15, 2016.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b> <cite>Kazakina, Katya (June 15, 2016). <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-06-15/leon-black-wins-picasso-s-bust-of-a-woman-as-legal-drama-ends">"Leon Black Wins Picasso's 'Bust of a Woman' as Legal Drama Ends"</a>. Bloomberg. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160921081414/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-06-15/leon-black-wins-picasso-s-bust-of-a-woman-as-legal-drama-ends">Archived</a> from the original on September 21, 2016. Retrieved June 10, 2017.</cite>
</li>
</ol></div>
<dl><dt>General</dt></dl>
<div>
<ul><li><a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/20/business/20apollo.html?_r=1&amp;scp=6&amp;sq=leon+black+apollo&amp;st=nyt&amp;oref=slogin">Deal Maker's 3-Day Tally: $37 Billion</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181027220659/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/20/business/20apollo.html?_r=1&amp;scp=6&amp;sq=leon+black+apollo&amp;st=nyt&amp;oref=slogin">Archived</a> October 27, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (New York Times, 2006)</li>
<li><a href="http://www.readingeagle.com/article.aspx?id=29953">Billionaire Leon Black a tough negiotiator</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090219110617/http://www.readingeagle.com/article.aspx?id=29953">Archived</a> February 19, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081201104437/http://www.fiercefinance.com/story/rumor-leon-black-to-take-apollo-public/2007-04-04">Rumor: Leon Black to take Apollo public</a></li>
<li><a href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C02E4D81E3CF93AA15751C0A9629C8B63&amp;scp=10&amp;sq=leon+black+apollo&amp;st=nyt">Business People; Taking Tyco's View</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090219221405/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C02E4D81E3CF93AA15751C0A9629C8B63&amp;scp=10&amp;sq=leon+black+apollo&amp;st=nyt">Archived</a> February 19, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (New York Times, 2004)</li></ul>
</div>
<h2>External links[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leon_Black&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li><a href="https://www.forbes.com/profile/leon-black">Profile</a> at Forbes.com</li></ul>
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 * 1 Early life and education
 * 2 Career
 * 3 Personal life
 + 3.1 Epstein relationship
 + 3.2 Sexual misconduct accusations
 + 3.3 Book publisher
 + 3.4 Art collection
 * 4 See also
 * 5 References
 * 6 External links
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 Leon Black

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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 This article is about the businessman. For the basketball coach, see Leon Black (basketball). For the fictional character, see Curb Your Enthusiasm § Main cast.

 This article's lead section may not adequately summarize its contents. To comply with Wikipedia's lead section guidelines , please consider modifying the lead to provide an accessible overview of the article's key points in such a way that it can stand on its own as a concise version of the article. ( October 2020 )
 
 Leon Black 
 Born Leon David Black 
 July 31, 1951 (age 71) 
 Alma mater Dartmouth College 
 Harvard University 
 Occupation(s) Private equity investor and art collector
 Known for Co-founder of Apollo Management 
 Spouse Debra Ressler 
 Children 4 
 Parent * Eli M. Black (father) 
 Tony Ressler (brother-in-law) 
 Family Benedict I. Lubell (uncle) 
 Grace Borgenicht Brandt (aunt) 
 

 Leon David Black (born July 31, 1951)[1] is an American investor and the co-founder and former-CEO of the private equity firm Apollo Global Management. Black also served as the chairman of The Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York City from July 2018 until July 2021.[2][3][4]

 Black stepped down as CEO and chairman of Apollo Global Management in 2021, after revelations that he paid the disgraced businessman and convicted sex offender Jeffrey Epstein $158 million for family office tax-related advice over the period from 2012 to 2017.[5][6][7]

 Early life and education [ edit ]

 Black is a son of Eli M. Black (1921–1975), a prominent Jewish businessman who emigrated from Poland and was best known for owning the United Brands Company. His mother, Shirley Lubell (sister of Tulsa oil executive Benedict I. Lubell) was an artist.[8] In 1975, his father died by suicide, jumping out of the 44th floor of the Pan Am Building in New York City. It was later made public that, at the time, federal regulators were investigating allegations that United Brands was bribing Honduran government officials.[8][9] Black received an AB in philosophy and history from Dartmouth College in 1973 and a MBA from Harvard University in 1975.[8] He served on the Board of Trustees of Dartmouth College from 2002 to 2011.[10] In 2012, Black gave US$48 million toward a new visual arts center at Dartmouth College.[11]

 Career [ edit ]

 Black started out as an accountant at Peat Marwick (which later became KPMG) and with the publisher of Boardroom Reports. He also interviewed at Lehman Brothers but was told that he didn't have the brains or personality to succeed on Wall Street.[2] From 1977 to 1990, Black was employed by investment bank Drexel Burnham Lambert, where he served as managing director, head of the Mergers & Acquisitions Group, and co-head of the Corporate Finance Department.[12] Black was regarded as "junk bond king" Michael Milken's right-hand man at Drexel.[13] In 1990, he co-founded, on the heels of the collapse of Drexel Burnham Lambert, the private equity firm Apollo Global Management.[14][15] Notable founders included: John Hannan, Drexel's former co-director of international finance; Craig Cogut, a lawyer who worked with Drexel's high-yield division in Los Angeles; Arthur Bilger, the former head of the Drexel's corporate finance department; Antony Ressler, who worked as a senior vice president in Drexel's high yield department with responsibility for the new issue/syndicate desk; and Marc Rowan, Josh Harris and Michael Gross, who all worked under Black in the mergers and acquisitions department.[16][17][18]

 Black stepped down as CEO of Apollo in 2021 due to his ties to convicted sex offender Jeffrey Epstein. He remained chairman for several months but stepped down abruptly in March 2021.[19][20]

 Personal life [ edit ]

 Black is married to Debra Ressler,[21] a 1976 Barnard College graduate and Broadway producer and sister of Ares Management co-founder Antony Ressler.[22][23][24] They have four children.[25] One of their children, Ben, runs an investment fund.[7] Black's wife is a melanoma survivor. In 2007, the couple donated $25 million to form the new Melanoma Research Alliance.[26] Leon and Debra both serve on the board of the organization.[27]

 In 2018, he was elected as the chairman of The Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York City. His term commenced on July 1, 2018.[2][3] His term as chairman ended on July 1, 2021, and he did not seek re-election.[4]

 Epstein relationship [ edit ]

 Black has claimed that he maintained a "limited relationship" with Jeffrey Epstein.[28] In 1997, he made Epstein one of the original trustees of what is today the Debra and Leon Black Foundation.[29] In his 2020 letter to Apollo investors, Black said that Epstein provided him with "estate planning, tax and philanthropic advice" to his "family partnership and other related family entities".[30] The New York Times reported that Black had paid Epstein at least $50 million for such services from 2012 to 2017.[29] While Black has not confirmed the $50 million sum reported by The Times, he did say that he paid Epstein "millions of dollars annually for his work".[31] In October 2020, Black requested that the Apollo board conduct an independent review of his relationship with Epstein, and it retained the law firm Dechert LLP to do so.[32][33] Black has said that he "deeply regrets" his relationship with Epstein.[34]

 The review conducted by Dechert LLP was released on January 25, 2021. It showed that Black had paid Epstein around $158 million from 2012 through 2017 for financial services.[35] Using Epstein's tax avoidance strategies, Black saved at least $1.3 billion.[36] Black pledged his intention to donate $200 million to women’s initiatives.[37][38]

 Sexual misconduct accusations [ edit ]

 In 2021, Black admitted to having what he called a "consensual affair" with Guzel Ganieva, a former model.[39] She claimed in a series of March 2021 tweets that "I was sexually harassed and abused by him for years [and ultimately] forced to sign a non-disclosure agreement under duress".[40][41] The matter has resulted in lawsuits and countersuits.[42][43] Ganieva also claimed that Black also introduced her to convicted sex offender Jeffrey Epstein and tried to force her to have sex with them.[44][45] The law firm representing Ganieva also represents another accuser Cheri Pierson, who accused Black of raping her at Jeffrey Epstein's mansion in New York. Black denied these claims.[46][47]

 Book publisher [ edit ]

 In 2012, Black acquired Phaidon Press, a fine art books publishing house.[48]

 Art collection [ edit ]

 The Scream by Edvard Munch

 Two months after the May 2012 anonymous purchase of one of four versions of Edvard Munch's The Scream, The Wall Street Journal reported that Black had been the one who had paid $119.9 million for the pastel, the highest price ever paid for a work of art at auction as of that time.[49] In September 2012, The Museum of Modern Art announced the painting would go on view for a six-month period starting in October.[50]

 In June 2013, it was revealed that Leon Black had purchased Head of a Young Apostle, an 11-inch-wide (28 cm) work by Raphael for £29 million after a four-party bidding war.[51]

 On December 22, 2015, it was reported that Leon Black purchased at auction a complete set of the Daniel Bomberg Babylonian Talmud for $9.3 million.[52] According to a press release from the Sotheby's auction house, the sale is "a new world auction record for any piece of Judaica."[53]

 In June 2016, a lawsuit over the Picasso sculpture Bust of a Woman (Marie-Thérèse) between the advisory firm Pelham Europe and art gallery owner Larry Gagosian was settled. Pelham Europe, an agent for a member of Qatar's royal family, and Gagosian, who had resold the bust to Leon Black, both claimed ownership. The case was settled by Maya Widmaier-Picasso, the owner of the sculpture. The settlement included Leon Black getting the sculpture and Widmaier Picasso paying Pelham an undisclosed amount.[54]

 See also [ edit ]

 * History of private equity and venture capital

 References [ edit ]

 1. ^ "Bloomberg Billionaires Index – Leon Black". Bloomberg.com. Bloomberg L.P. Retrieved March 23, 2021 .
 2. ^ a b c Melby, Caleb; Perlberg, Heather (January 16, 2020). "Nobody Makes Money Like Apollo's Ruthless Founder Leon Black". Bloomberg Businessweek. Archived from the original on July 18, 2020 . Retrieved July 16, 2020 .
 3. ^ a b "The Museum of Modern Art Elects Leon D. Black Chairman of Board of Trustees; Ronnie Heyman is Elected President". press.moma.org (Press release). May 30, 2018. Archived from the original on January 28, 2020 . Retrieved July 16, 2020 .
 4. ^ a b Greenberger, Alex (March 26, 2021). "Amid Jeffrey Epstein Fallout, Leon Black Will Step Down as MoMA Board Chair". ARTnews.com . Retrieved January 7, 2022 .
 5. ^ Foy, Simon (March 22, 2021). "Hedge fund boss quits over Epstein ties - live updates". Telegraph Media Group Limited.
 6. ^ "Why did Leon Black pay $158m to Jeffrey Epstein?". Financial Times. January 26, 2021 . Retrieved March 23, 2021 .
 7. ^ a b Indap, Sujeet; Kruppa, Miles; Fontanella-Khan, James (October 22, 2021). "Financiers find safe space for Milken jamboree at The Beverly Hilton". Financial Times . Retrieved October 24, 2021 .
 8. ^ a b c Creswell, Julie (December 6, 2008). "In Private Equity, the Limits of Apollo's Power". The New York Times. Archived from the original on August 6, 2017 . Retrieved February 10, 2017 .
 9. ^ St. Petersburg Times: "Violent Death Contradicted Executives' Quiet Life" by Peter T. Kilbourne Archived October 27, 2018, at the Wayback Machine February 19, 1975.
 10. ^ "Trustees Emeriti". Dartmouth College. Archived from the original on October 30, 2013 . Retrieved May 24, 2017 .
 11. ^ Lattman, Peter (March 29, 2012). "Apollo's Leon Black Donates $48 Million to Dartmouth". The New York Times. Archived from the original on April 5, 2020 . Retrieved June 9, 2017 .
 12. ^ Leon D. Black '73 Archived November 17, 2007, at the Wayback Machine from Dartmouth College
 13. ^ "King of the Hill". Time. June 24, 2001. Archived from the original on August 8, 2020 . Retrieved August 9, 2018 .
 14. ^ Maza, Erik (March 4, 2014). "Bernard Arnault Receives MoMa's David Rockefeller Award". WWD. Archived from the original on December 19, 2014 . Retrieved March 5, 2014 .
 15. ^ Drexel Divided on Settlement . New York Times, December 17, 1988.
 16. ^ Ex-Drexel Executives Arrange Aid for Fruit of the Loom , August 24, 1990.
 17. ^ Changes at Drexel Continue . New York Times, March 11, 1989.
 18. ^ Drexel's Uncertain Future Archived October 27, 2020, at the Wayback Machine . New York Times, October 15, 1989.
 19. ^ Gottfried, Miriam (March 22, 2021). "Leon Black Steps Down as Apollo Chairman in Unexpected Move". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660 . Retrieved March 22, 2021 .
 20. ^ Vandevelde, Mark (January 25, 2021). "Leon Black steps down as chief executive of Apollo". The Financial Times . Retrieved January 25, 2021 .
 21. ^ New York Times: "Paid Notice: Deaths RESSLER, IRA RICHARD" Archived November 7, 2017, at the Wayback Machine October 29, 2000.
 22. ^ Bloomberg: "Leon Black Loses to Carl Icahn as Apollo Sets New Credit Terms" By Anthony Effinger & Cristina Alesci Archived December 28, 2013, at the Wayback Machine July 7, 2010.
 23. ^ "Alumnae in the News Archive". our.barnard.edu . Retrieved June 23, 2021 .
 24. ^ Barnard College (September 1999). Barnard. Barnard College. Barnard College.
 25. ^ The 400 Richest Americans #160 Leon Black Archived January 30, 2018, at the Wayback Machine (Forbes, 2006)
 26. ^ Wall Street Journal: "Melanoma Survivor Seeks Cure" By LAURA LANDRO Archived November 9, 2017, at the Wayback Machine May 3, 2010.
 27. ^ "Board of Directors". Melanoma Research Alliance. Archived from the original on April 13, 2020 . Retrieved April 14, 2020 .
 28. ^ Adler, Dan (October 12, 2020). "Leon Black, Who Reportedly Wired Jeffrey Epstein Millions of Dollars, Says He Regrets "Any Involvement"". Vanity Fair. Archived from the original on October 27, 2020 . Retrieved October 23, 2020 .
 29. ^ a b Goldstein, Matthew; Eder, Steve; Enrich, David (October 13, 2020). "The Billionaire Who Stood by Jeffrey Epstein". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on October 13, 2020 . Retrieved October 23, 2020 .
 30. ^ Primack, Dan (October 12, 2020). "Wall Street billionaire Leon Black to investors: "I deeply regret" Epstein involvement". Axios. Archived from the original on October 15, 2020 . Retrieved October 23, 2020 .
 31. ^ Basu (Axios), Zach. "Investor Letter". www.documentcloud.org. Archived from the original on October 24, 2020 . Retrieved October 23, 2020 .
 32. ^ Gottfried, Miriam (October 21, 2020). "WSJ News Exclusive | Apollo Board Panel to Review Leon Black's Ties With Jeffrey Epstein". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Archived from the original on October 22, 2020 . Retrieved October 23, 2020 .
 33. ^ Goldstein, Matthew (October 20, 2020). "Apollo Board Will Review Leon Black's Ties to Jeffrey Epstein". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on October 22, 2020 . Retrieved October 23, 2020 .
 34. ^ "Leon Black Says 'I Deeply Regret' Involvement With Epstein". Bloomberg.com. October 12, 2020. Archived from the original on October 18, 2020 . Retrieved October 23, 2020 .
 35. ^ Goldstein, Matthew; Rosman, Katherine (January 25, 2021). "Apollo C.E.O. to Step Down After Firm Finds More Payments to Jeffrey Epstein". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved January 26, 2021 .
 36. ^ Paulden, Pierre; Steverman, Ben (January 27, 2021). "What billionaire Leon Black got for paying Jeffrey Epstein $US158m". Australian Financial Review . Retrieved March 23, 2021 .
 37. ^ Greenberger, Alex (January 25, 2021). "Top Art Collector Leon Black to Depart Investment Firm After Review of Jeffrey Epstein Donations". ARTnews.com . Retrieved June 1, 2022 .
 38. ^ Goldstein, Matthew; Rosman, Katherine (January 25, 2021). "Apollo C.E.O. to Step Down After Firm Finds More Payments to Jeffrey Epstein". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved June 1, 2022 .
 39. ^ Duffy, Kate (April 9, 2021). "Wall Street billionaire Leon Black denied sexual-harassment allegations made by a former model and said he paid her to keep the 'affair' quiet". Business Insider . Retrieved April 30, 2021 .
 40. ^ "Leon Black Admits Paying Woman to Keep Affair Quiet, Denies It Led to Sudden Apollo Exit". Institutional Investor . Retrieved April 30, 2021 .
 41. ^ Kosman, Josh (April 9, 2021). "Leon Black's surprise Apollo Global exit came amid sexual harassment allegation". New York Post . Retrieved April 30, 2021 .
 42. ^ Thomas David. "Leon Black's law firm fights disqualification bid in Russian model's case" , Reuters (16 Nov 2022).
 43. ^ "Leon Black Sued by Woman Who Alleges Defamation, Sexual Violence". Bloomberg.com. Bloomberg. June 2021.{{cite news}} : CS1 maint: url-status ( link )
 44. ^ "Leon Black flew model to Florida to have sex with Jeffrey Epstein, lawsuit claims". August 9, 2021 . Retrieved January 19, 2023 .
 45. ^ ""You Have to Let Them Do Whatever They Want": Billionaire Leon Black Flew a Russian Model to Meet Jeffrey Epstein, New Legal Filing Claims". Vanity Fair. August 9, 2021 . Retrieved January 19, 2023 .
 46. ^ DeGregory, Priscilla. "Leon Black accused of raping woman in Jeffrey Epstein’s NYC home: suit" , New York Post (8 Nov 2022).
 47. ^ Marif, Ramishaw. "Lawsuit alleges billionaire investor Leon Black raped a woman inside Jeffrey Epstein's home" , CNN (28 Nov 2022).
 48. ^ Lattman, Peter (October 9, 2012). "Billionaire Financier Leon Black Buys Art Publisher Phaidon". The New York Times. Archived from the original on February 15, 2018 . Retrieved June 9, 2017 .
 49. ^ "Munch's "The Scream" Sold to Financier Leon Black". Wall Street Journal. July 11, 2012. Archived from the original on January 4, 2015 . Retrieved August 22, 2012 .
 50. ^ "Edvard Munch's The Scream to go on show in New York". BBC News. September 18, 2012. Archived from the original on September 19, 2012 . Retrieved September 19, 2012 .
 51. ^ Sherwin, Adam (June 20, 2013). "New York billionaire Leon Black's bid to take £29m Raphael from UK blocked by Ed Vaizey". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on March 12, 2017 . Retrieved September 2, 2017 .
 52. ^ "Tablet Magazine". December 22, 2015. Archived from the original on December 23, 2015 . Retrieved December 23, 2015 .
 53. ^ "Daniel Bomberg's 16th-century printing of the Talmud sells for $9.3 mill". Art Daily. Archived from the original on February 7, 2016 . Retrieved February 15, 2016 .
 54. ^ Kazakina, Katya (June 15, 2016). "Leon Black Wins Picasso's 'Bust of a Woman' as Legal Drama Ends". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on September 21, 2016 . Retrieved June 10, 2017 .
 General
 * Deal Maker's 3-Day Tally: $37 Billion Archived October 27, 2018, at the Wayback Machine (New York Times, 2006)
 * Billionaire Leon Black a tough negiotiator Archived February 19, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
 * Rumor: Leon Black to take Apollo public
 * Business People; Taking Tyco's View Archived February 19, 2009, at the Wayback Machine (New York Times, 2004)

 External links [ edit ]

 * Profile at Forbes.com
 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leon_Black&oldid=1135069530"
 Categories:
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 * American people of Polish-Jewish descent
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Leon Black - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Black
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2013-07-07
<div><div>
	<p>From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</p>
	</div><div><table><tbody><tr><th><p>Marc Rowan</p></th></tr><tr><th>Born</th><td>August 19, 1962 (age 60)</td></tr><tr><th>Nationality</th><td>American</td></tr><tr><th>Alma mater</th><td><a href="/wiki/Wharton_School_of_the_University_of_Pennsylvania">Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania</a> (BS &amp; MBA)</td></tr><tr><th>Occupation(s)</th><td>Investor, philanthropist</td></tr><tr><th>Known for</th><td>co-founder and CEO of <a href="/wiki/Apollo_Global_Management">Apollo Global Management</a></td></tr><tr><th>Spouse</th><td>Carolyn G. Pleva</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Marc J. Rowan</b> (born August 19, 1962)<sup><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup> is an American billionaire <a href="/wiki/Private_equity_investor">private equity investor</a>. He is co-founder and CEO of <a href="/wiki/Apollo_Global_Management">Apollo Global Management</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Early life and education[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marc_Rowan&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Rowan was born to a <a href="/wiki/American_Jews">Jewish</a> family in 1962.<sup><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> His mother Barbara was a teacher and a trained concert pianist.<sup><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> He has one sister, Andrea.<sup><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> Rowan graduated <i><a href="/wiki/Summa_cum_laude">summa cum laude</a></i> with a B.S. and an M.B.A. from the <a href="/wiki/Wharton_School_of_the_University_of_Pennsylvania">Wharton School</a> of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-ForbesBillionaires-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Career[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marc_Rowan&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Rowan joined the Mergers &amp; Acquisitions Group of <a href="/wiki/Drexel_Burnham_Lambert">Drexel Burnham Lambert</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-ApolloRowan-7">[7]</a></sup> where he worked in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City">New York City</a> and <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles">Los Angeles</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> In 1990, Rowan co-founded the private equity firm <a href="/wiki/Apollo_Global_Management">Apollo Global Management</a> with former Drexel Burnham colleagues <a href="/wiki/Leon_Black">Leon Black</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Harris_(businessman)">Joshua Harris</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-ForbesBillionaires-6">[6]</a></sup> The firm went public in March 2011.<sup><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Philanthropy[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marc_Rowan&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>He is a founding member and serves on the executive committee of the <a href="/wiki/Youth_Renewal_Fund">Youth Renewal Fund</a> and is a member of the board of directors for the <a href="/wiki/National_Jewish_Outreach_Program">National Jewish Outreach Program</a>, the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Police_Foundation">New York Police Foundation</a> and serves on the board of trustees of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a> and the board of advisors of the <a href="/wiki/Wharton_School">Wharton School</a> of the University of Pennsylvania.<sup><a href="#cite_note-ApolloRowan-7">[7]</a></sup> In October 2018, he donated $50 million to the Wharton School, the largest single gift in Wharton’s history. The funds would be used to recruit three Rowan Distinguished Professors, appoint Rowan Fellows and support the Penn Wharton Budget Model.<sup><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Personal life[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marc_Rowan&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Rowan is married to Carolyn G. Pleva<sup><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup> and lives in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City">New York City</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-ForbesBillionaires-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>References[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marc_Rowan&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b> <i>U.S. Public Records Index</i>, Vols. 1 &amp; 2 (Provo, UT: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc.), 2010.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-10-02/apollo-s-marc-rowan-gives-wharton-50-million-for-professorships">"Apollo's Marc Rowan Gives Wharton $50 Million for Professorships"</a>. Bloomberg. Retrieved 10 September 2019.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b> <a href="http://jeconline.com/media/video/marc-rowan-0">Jewish Enrichment Center: Marc Rowan Guest Speaker</a> May 19, 2009 - minute 57:40| <i>"I go to the non-Israel part of the Middle East around six times a year..it is evident to all that I am Jewish...and my Palestinian friends all know that I am Jewish and a supporter of Israel"</i>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.legacy.com/obituaries/herald/obituary.aspx?pid=171423901">Miami Herald: "Barbara J. Rowan Obituary</a> June 20, 2014
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.legacy.com/obituaries/nytimes/obituary.aspx?pid=171447482">New York Times: "BARBARA ROWAN Obituary"</a> June 22, 2014
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-ForbesBillionaires_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ForbesBillionaires_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ForbesBillionaires_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="https://www.forbes.com/profile/marc-rowan/">"Forbes Profile: Marc Rowan"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Forbes">Forbes</a></i>. Retrieved 2021-07-01.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-ApolloRowan_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ApolloRowan_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://www.agm.com/OurTeam/Corporate_Leadership/MarcRowan.aspx">Apollo Global Management website: Our Team - Marc Rowan</a> retrieved July 7, 2013
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b> <a href="http://jeconline.com/media/video/marc-rowan-0">Jewish Enrichment Center: Marc Rowan Guest Speaker</a> May 19, 2009 - minute 55:30 | <i>"I worked directly for <a href="/wiki/Dennis_Levine">Dennis Levine</a>, who went to jail...and then went to work for <a href="/w/index.php?title=Marty_Siegel&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1">Marty Siegel</a> who also went to jail...I then moved out to California to work for <a href="/wiki/Mike_Milken">Mike Milken</a> who also went to jail. There are so many ethical dilemmas you are presented with over your career...the choices you make just determine who you are over time...I read these stories...the Morgan Stanley analysts who did this...did they not understand they are destroying their lives."</i>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b> <a href="http://blogs.villagevoice.com/runninscared/2012/06/mitt_loves_ny_m.php">Village Voice: "Mitt Loves N.Y.: Marc Rowan" By John Surico</a> June 30, 2012
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-10-02/apollo-s-marc-rowan-gives-wharton-50-million-for-professorships">"Apollo's Marc Rowan Gives Wharton $50 Million for Professorships"</a>. <i>www.bloomberg.com</i>. Retrieved 2019-02-01.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b> <a href="https://observer.com/2013/01/a-brutal-buy-billionaire-marc-rowan-pays-26-m-for-brutalist-masterpiece-at-927-fifth/">New York Observer: "A Brutal Buy: Billionaire Marc Rowan Pays $26 M. for Brutalist Masterpiece at 927 Fifth" By Kim Velsey</a> January 2, 2013
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b> <a href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9400E4DB143AF934A25756C0A9679D8B63">New York Times: "Paid Notice: Deaths PLEVA, EUGENE</a> May 17, 2011
</li>
</ol></div>
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 * 1 Early life and education
 * 2 Career
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 Marc Rowan

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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 Marc Rowan 
 Born August 19, 1962 (age 60) 
 Nationality American 
 Alma mater Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania (BS & MBA)
 Occupation(s) Investor, philanthropist 
 Known for co-founder and CEO of Apollo Global Management 
 Spouse Carolyn G. Pleva 
 

 Marc J. Rowan (born August 19, 1962)[1] is an American billionaire private equity investor. He is co-founder and CEO of Apollo Global Management.[2]

 Early life and education [ edit ]

 Rowan was born to a Jewish family in 1962.[3] His mother Barbara was a teacher and a trained concert pianist.[4] He has one sister, Andrea.[5] Rowan graduated summa cum laude with a B.S. and an M.B.A. from the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania.[6]

 Career [ edit ]

 Rowan joined the Mergers & Acquisitions Group of Drexel Burnham Lambert[7] where he worked in New York City and Los Angeles.[8] In 1990, Rowan co-founded the private equity firm Apollo Global Management with former Drexel Burnham colleagues Leon Black and Joshua Harris.[6] The firm went public in March 2011.[9]

 Philanthropy [ edit ]

 He is a founding member and serves on the executive committee of the Youth Renewal Fund and is a member of the board of directors for the National Jewish Outreach Program, the New York Police Foundation and serves on the board of trustees of the University of Pennsylvania and the board of advisors of the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania.[7] In October 2018, he donated $50 million to the Wharton School, the largest single gift in Wharton’s history. The funds would be used to recruit three Rowan Distinguished Professors, appoint Rowan Fellows and support the Penn Wharton Budget Model.[10]

 Personal life [ edit ]

 Rowan is married to Carolyn G. Pleva[11][12] and lives in New York City.[6]

 References [ edit ]

 1. ^ U.S. Public Records Index , Vols. 1 & 2 (Provo, UT: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc.), 2010.
 2. ^ "Apollo's Marc Rowan Gives Wharton $50 Million for Professorships". Bloomberg . Retrieved 10 September 2019 .
 3. ^ Jewish Enrichment Center: Marc Rowan Guest Speaker May 19, 2009 - minute 57:40| "I go to the non-Israel part of the Middle East around six times a year..it is evident to all that I am Jewish...and my Palestinian friends all know that I am Jewish and a supporter of Israel"
 4. ^ Miami Herald: "Barbara J. Rowan Obituary June 20, 2014
 5. ^ New York Times: "BARBARA ROWAN Obituary" June 22, 2014
 6. ^ a b c "Forbes Profile: Marc Rowan". Forbes . Retrieved 2021-07-01 .
 7. ^ a b Apollo Global Management website: Our Team - Marc Rowan retrieved July 7, 2013
 8. ^ Jewish Enrichment Center: Marc Rowan Guest Speaker May 19, 2009 - minute 55:30 | "I worked directly for Dennis Levine, who went to jail...and then went to work for Marty Siegel who also went to jail...I then moved out to California to work for Mike Milken who also went to jail. There are so many ethical dilemmas you are presented with over your career...the choices you make just determine who you are over time...I read these stories...the Morgan Stanley analysts who did this...did they not understand they are destroying their lives."
 9. ^ Village Voice: "Mitt Loves N.Y.: Marc Rowan" By John Surico June 30, 2012
 10. ^ "Apollo's Marc Rowan Gives Wharton $50 Million for Professorships". www.bloomberg.com . Retrieved 2019-02-01 .
 11. ^ New York Observer: "A Brutal Buy: Billionaire Marc Rowan Pays $26 M. for Brutalist Masterpiece at 927 Fifth" By Kim Velsey January 2, 2013
 12. ^ New York Times: "Paid Notice: Deaths PLEVA, EUGENE May 17, 2011
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Marc Rowan - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc_Rowan
Authority control databases International VIAF National United States
2012-07-22
<div><div>
<p>From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</p>
</div><div>
<table><tbody><tr><th><p>Josh Harris</p></th></tr><tr><td><p>Harris in 2023</p></td></tr><tr><th>Born</th><td><p>Joshua Jordan Harris</p><br/>December 1964 (age 58–59)<br/><div><p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevy_Chase,_Maryland">Chevy Chase, Maryland</a>, U.S.</p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Education</th><td><div><ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wharton_School">Wharton School</a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science">BS</a>, 1986)</li><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Business_School">Harvard Business School</a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MBA">MBA</a>, 1990)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Occupations</th><td><div><ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investor">Investor</a></li><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_team_owner">sports team owner</a></li><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philanthropist">philanthropist</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Employers</th><td><div><ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drexel_Burnham_Lambert">Drexel Burnham Lambert</a> (1986–1988)</li><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_Global_Management">Apollo Global Management</a> (1990–2022)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Organizations</th><td><div><ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harris_Blitzer_Sports_%26_Entertainment">Harris Blitzer Sports &amp; Entertainment</a></li><li>Harris Philanthropies</li><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_on_Foreign_Relations">Council on Foreign Relations</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Title</th><td><div><ul><li><b>Managing partner</b></li><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia_76ers">Philadelphia 76ers</a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBA">NBA</a>)</li><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Jersey_Devils">New Jersey Devils</a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NHL">NHL</a>)</li><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Commanders">Washington Commanders</a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NFL">NFL</a>)</li><li><b>General partner</b></li><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_Palace_F.C.">Crystal Palace</a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premier_League">EPL</a>)</li><li><b>Minority owner</b></li><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Gibbs_Racing">Joe Gibbs Racing</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Board member of</th><td><div><ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Sinai_Health_System">Mount Sinai Health System</a></li><li>Harvard Business School</li><li>Wharton School</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Spouse</th><td>
<div><p>Marjorie Harris</p> <p>​</p><p>(<abbr>m.</abbr> 1995)<wbr/>​</p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Children</th><td>5</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Joshua Jordan Harris</b> (born December 1964) is an American <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investor">investor</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_team_owner">sports team owner</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philanthropist">philanthropist</a>. He is the co-founder of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_equity">private equity</a> firm <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_Global_Management">Apollo Global Management</a> and the principal owner and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Managing_partner">managing partner</a> of the NBA's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia_76ers">Philadelphia 76ers</a>, the NHL's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Jersey_Devils">New Jersey Devils</a>, and the NFL's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Commanders">Washington Commanders</a>. Harris is also a general partner of the English football club <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_Palace_F.C.">Crystal Palace</a> and holds a minority stake in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Gibbs_Racing">Joe Gibbs Racing</a>. He has an estimated <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Net_worth">net worth</a> of over $7 billion.
</p><p>Harris was born in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevy_Chase,_Maryland">Chevy Chase, Maryland</a>, later graduating with a degree in economics from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wharton_School_of_the_University_of_Pennsylvania">Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania</a> in 1986 before earning an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MBA">MBA</a> from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Business_School">Harvard Business School</a>, working two years at the former investment bank <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drexel_Burnham_Lambert">Drexel Burnham Lambert</a> in between. Harris founded Apollo with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Black">Leon Black</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc_Rowan">Marc Rowan</a> in 1990 and managed its daily operations until leaving in 2022 to focus on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_management">sports management</a> and philanthropic pursuits.
</p><p>Harris led groups that acquired the 76ers in 2011, the Devils and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prudential_Center">Prudential Center</a> in 2013, and the Commanders and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FedExField">FedExField</a> in 2023. Other companies founded include Harris Philanthropies with his wife Marjorie in 2014, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harris_Blitzer_Sports_%26_Entertainment">Harris Blitzer Sports &amp; Entertainment</a> with investment partner <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Blitzer">David Blitzer</a> in 2017, and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_assets">alternative assets</a> firm 26North in 2022. Harris is also a member of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_on_Foreign_Relations">Council on Foreign Relations</a> and formerly served on the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Olympic_Committee">United States Olympic Committee</a>.
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<h2></h2>
<p>Harris was born in December 1964 in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevy_Chase,_Maryland">Chevy Chase, Maryland</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Bethesda-2">[2]</a></sup> He grew up playing several sports and considers them as having developed <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_ethic">work ethic</a>. He cited his favorite sport as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrestling">wrestling</a> after winning a summer camp tournament at the age of nine.<sup><a href="#cite_note-ForbesWrestling-3">[3]</a></sup> Harris graduated from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Field_School">The Field School</a> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_D.C.">Washington D.C.</a> in 1982 and enrolled at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania_School_of_Arts_and_Sciences">University of Pennsylvania School of Arts and Sciences</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Bethesda-2">[2]</a></sup> He transferred to Penn's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wharton_School">Wharton School</a> of business as a freshman due to an affinity for statistics and graduated <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summa_cum_laude">summa cum laude</a></i> with a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science">Bachelor of Science</a> degree in economics in 1986.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Bethesda-2">[2]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Wharton10m-5">[5]</a></sup> As a student, Harris was a member of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi_Delta_Theta">Phi Delta Theta</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigma_Alpha_Epsilon">Sigma Alpha Epsilon</a> fraternities and represented the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penn_Quakers">Penn Quakers</a> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collegiate_wrestling">collegiate wrestling</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Bethesda-2">[2]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-ForbesWrestling-3">[3]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-NWHOF-6">[6]</a></sup> He managed <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemonade_stand">lemonade stands</a> in Washington, D.C. in locations such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farragut_North_station">Farragut North station</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Zoological_Park_(United_States)">National Zoo</a> during his freshman and sophomore <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summer_vacation">summer vacations</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Bethesda-2">[2]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Harris_2012-7">[7]</a></sup>
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<h2></h2>
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<figure><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Solow_Building_New_York_August_2012.jpg"></a><figcaption>The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solow_Building">Solow Building</a> in New York City, headquarters of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_Global_Management">Apollo Global Management</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>Harris moved to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City">New York City</a> in 1986 to work at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wall_Street">Wall Street</a> investment bank <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drexel_Burnham_Lambert">Drexel Burnham Lambert</a> as a financial analyst in their <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mergers_and_acquisitions">mergers and acquisitions</a> department, frequently clocking in over 100 hours a week.<sup><a href="#cite_note-ForbesWrestling-3">[3]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-MoCo2023-8">[8]</a></sup> He left after two years to attend <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Business_School">Harvard Business School</a> (HBS), where he graduated with an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MBA">MBA</a> in 1990 as a Baker Loeb Scholar, an honor given to the top 5% of the school's graduating class.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Reputation-9">[9]</a></sup> Drexel had filed for bankruptcy earlier that year due to illegal <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junk_bond">junk bond</a> activity amid a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_1990s_recession">recession</a>, with Harris working at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackstone_Inc.">Blackstone</a> for two months before leaving to establish the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_equity">private equity</a> firm <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_Global_Management">Apollo Global Management</a> with former Drexel partners <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Black">Leon Black</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc_Rowan">Marc Rowan</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Reputation-9">[9]</a></sup> By 2004, he had led the acquisitions of companies such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirius_Satellite_Radio">Sirius Satellite Radio</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WMC_Mortgage">WMC Mortgage</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacer_International">Pacer International</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nalco_Water">Nalco Water</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borden_(company)">Borden</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup> Harris also led a $2 billion investment into the multinational chemical company <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LyondellBasell">LyondellBasell</a> in 2008 before selling in November 2013 for a profit of $9.6 billion, one of the largest gains in private equity history.<sup><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup> In April 2009, Harris was ordered to pay $30 million in a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Settlement_(litigation)">settlement</a> with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huntsman_Corporation">Huntsman Corporation</a> after Apollo was sued for backing out of a merger the previous year.<sup><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup> He was among several businessmen in 2017 that met with the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trump_administration">Trump administration</a> as advisors for their $1.5 trillion infrastructure plan, with senior advisor <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jared_Kushner">Jared Kushner</a> considering him for a potential <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House">White House</a> job.<sup><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup>
</p><p>In May 2021, Harris announced he was stepping down from his day-to-day responsibilities at Apollo after being passed over as CEO for Marc Rowan, with his large personal focus on sport investments also reportedly becoming a source of tension within the company.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FinalYearsApollo-16">[16]</a></sup> The position had been made available after Leon Black announced he would be stepping down due to an investigation finding he had paid $158 million to convicted sex offender <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey_Epstein">Jeffrey Epstein</a> between 2012 and 2017 for advice on taxes and estate planning.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Day2Day-17">[17]</a></sup> He left Apollo in January 2022 and remained on their <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Board_of_directors">board of directors</a> until his term ended in October 2022.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FinalYearsApollo-16">[16]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup> The same year, Black included Harris in a civil <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations">Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations</a> (RICO) lawsuit, alleging that he led a group within Apollo attempting to tarnish his reputation after his ties to Epstein were reported.<sup><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup> Harris denied the claims, with federal judge <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Engelmayer">Paul Engelmayer</a> dismissing the suit in June 2022 for lack of evidence.<sup><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup> Black would appeal before the dismissal was upheld in March 2023.<sup><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup> He founded the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_asset">alternative asset</a> firm 26North in September 2022, hiring former senior <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centerbridge_Partners">Centerbridge Partners</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldman_Sachs">Goldman Sachs</a> executives.<sup><a href="#cite_note-26North-22">[22]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup> The firm held $9.5 billion in assets by the end of 2022.<sup><a href="#cite_note-26North-22">[22]</a></sup>
</p><p>Harris is on the board of trustees of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Sinai_Health_System">Mount Sinai Health System</a>, Harvard Business School, and Wharton School,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Wharton10m-5">[5]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup> and serves on the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_on_Foreign_Relations">Council on Foreign Relations</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-WhartonNewYork18-25">[25]</a></sup> He previously served on the Investor Advisory Committee on Financial Markets (IACFM) for the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Federal_Reserve">New York Federal Reserve</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup> the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Olympic_Committee">United States Olympic Committee</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-WhartonNewYork18-25">[25]</a></sup> as the vice president and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasurer">treasurer</a> of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen-Stevenson_School">Allen-Stevenson School</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup> and on the boards of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berry_Global">Berry Global</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constellium">Constellium</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-BoardsSEC-29">[29]</a></sup> and LyondellBasell.<sup><a href="#cite_note-BoardsSEC-29">[29]</a></sup> HRS Management, his <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_office">family office</a> founded in 2010, bought a majority stake in gym operator US Fitness in June 2018.<sup><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup> The office was also the largest investor in <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hill_(newspaper)">The Hill</a></i>, an American political newspaper, until selling to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nexstar_Media_Group">Nexstar Media Group</a> in August 2021.<sup><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup> In July 2022, HRS formed a joint venture with Canvas Property Group to buy more than $1 billion worth of apartments.<sup><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup> In January 2022, Harris invested $10 million in Mosaic Development Partners, a Philadelphia-based real estate company.<sup><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-HarrisSI-34">[34]</a></sup> He, alongside <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Penn">Mark Penn</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Tisch">James Tisch</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Peterffy">Thomas Peterffy</a>, contributed to a $50 million investment fund in <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Messenger_(website)">The Messenger</a></i>, a news website that launched in May 2023.<sup><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup>
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<div><div><p></p></div><div><p></p></div></div>
<p>Harris began contemplating investing in sports after meeting senior <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackstone_Inc.">Blackstone</a> executive <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Blitzer">David Blitzer</a> in 2008 at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Punch_Bowl,_Mayfair">The Punchbowl</a>, a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_house">public house</a> in London.<sup><a href="#cite_note-ESPNBid-37">[37]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-DCRoots-38">[38]</a></sup> Those talks led to the pair forming an investment group that bought the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia_76ers">Philadelphia 76ers</a> of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Basketball_Association">National Basketball Association</a> (NBA) from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comcast_Spectacor">Comcast Spectacor</a> for $280 million in 2011.<sup><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup> Other initial members of the group included <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Wrubel">Art Wrubel</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason_Levien">Jason Levien</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Aron">Adam Aron</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Geller">Martin Geller</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Heller">David Heller</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lassiter">James Lassiter</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc_Leder">Marc Leder</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Rubin_(businessman)">Michael Rubin</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_Smith">Will Smith</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jada_Pinkett_Smith">Jada Pinkett Smith</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erick_Thohir">Erick Thohir</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup> Harris presided over an era in 76ers history known as "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Process_(Philadelphia_76ers)">The Process</a>", in which the team <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanking_(sports)">tanked</a> for better <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBA_draft_lottery">NBA draft lottery</a> odds.<sup><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-TDP-43">[43]</a></sup> Agreeing to a plan formed by general manager <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Hinkie">Sam Hinkie</a>, the 76ers went 19–63 during the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2013%E2%80%9314_Philadelphia_76ers_season">2013–14 season</a>, 18–64 in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014%E2%80%9315_Philadelphia_76ers_season">2014–15</a>, and 10–72 in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_Philadelphia_76ers_season">2015–16</a>, the latter being the third-worst record in NBA history.<sup><a href="#cite_note-HarrisSI-34">[34]</a></sup> The Process was unpopular with NBA executives and team owners, who lobbied league commissioner <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Silver">Adam Silver</a> to step in due to the 76ers' poor performance affecting league <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revenue_sharing">revenue sharing</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-NBAPressure-44">[44]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup> Harris would eventually agree to a suggestion by Silver to hire <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Colangelo">Jerry Colangelo</a>, former owner of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix_Suns">Phoenix Suns</a>, as team chairman in December 2015, which led to Hinkie stepping down in April 2016.<sup><a href="#cite_note-NBAPressure-44">[44]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup> The Process led to the 76ers drafting future <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBA_MVP">NBA MVP</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joel_Embiid">Joel Embiid</a>, with the team having made five straight postseason appearances starting with the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_Philadelphia_76ers_season">2017–18 season</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-HarrisSI-34">[34]</a></sup> The 76ers were valued at $3.15 billion by <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes">Forbes</a></i> in 2023.<sup><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 2013, Harris and Blitzer bought the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Jersey_Devils">New Jersey Devils</a> of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Hockey_League">National Hockey League</a> (NHL) and their arena, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prudential_Center">Prudential Center</a>, from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeff_Vanderbeek">Jeff Vanderbeek</a> for $320 million.<sup><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup> The franchise was valued at $825 million by <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sportico">Sportico</a></i> in 2022.<sup><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup> He bought a 18% stake in the English football club <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_Palace_F.C.">Crystal Palace</a> in December 2015, which is operated as a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_partnership">general partnership</a> alongside Blitzer, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Parish_(businessman)">Steve Parish</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Textor">John Textor</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup> In September 2016, Harris and Blitzer bought the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esports">esports</a> organizations <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dignitas_(esports)">Dignitas</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apex_Gaming">Apex Gaming</a> and merged them under the Dignitas brand.<sup><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup> In September 2017, the pair founded <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harris_Blitzer_Sports_%26_Entertainment">Harris Blitzer Sports &amp; Entertainment</a> (HBSE) to consolidate their sports ventures. In addition to the 76ers and Devils, the company also owns the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delaware_Blue_Coats">Delaware Blue Coats</a> of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBA_G_League">NBA G League</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utica_Comets">Utica Comets</a> of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Hockey_League">American Hockey League</a>, as well as HBSE Real Estate, the venture capital firm HBSE Ventures,<sup><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup> and the event and marketing firm Elevate Sports Ventures.<sup><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup> In June 2020, Harris bought a 5% stake worth $140 million in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh_Steelers">Pittsburgh Steelers</a> of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Football_League">National Football League</a> (NFL).<sup><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup> In 2022, he led a group consisting of Blitzer, airline executive <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Broughton">Martin Broughton</a>, politician and Olympic gold medalist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastian_Coe">Sebastian Coe</a>, tennis player <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serena_Williams">Serena Williams</a>, and racing driver <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_Hamilton">Lewis Hamilton</a> that pursued a bid to purchase <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelsea_F.C.">Chelsea</a> of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premier_League">Premier League</a> before it was sold to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Todd_Boehly">Todd Boehly</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clearlake_Capital">Clearlake Capital</a> for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euro">€</a>4.25 billion ($4.5 billion).<sup><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup> He also pursued a bid for the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Mets">New York Mets</a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_League_Baseball">Major League Baseball</a> (MLB) before it was sold to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Cohen_(businessman)">Steve Cohen</a> for $2.4 billion the same year.<sup><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup> In January 2023, Harris and Blitzer purchased a controlling interest in Ripken Baseball, a youth baseball brand founded by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MLB">MLB</a> hall of famer <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cal_Ripken_Jr.">Cal Ripken Jr.</a>, and merged it with Cooperstown All Star Village, a baseball resort in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooperstown,_New_York">Cooperstown, New York</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup> The same year, Harris and Blitzer explored buying minority stakes in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_United">Manchester United</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup>
</p>
<blockquote><p>In sports, when you own a franchise, it’s very different than business. The public holds you personally accountable. There’s so much publicity that people expect you, as the managing partner, to be accountable for the organization. That’s a huge responsibility that keeps me up at night because life is complicated. Things happen. You do your absolute best, but I spend a lot of time thinking about how do we set this thing up so we stand for integrity, excellence, inclusion, diversity.</p><p>— <cite>Josh Harris, 2023<sup><a href="#cite_note-MoCo2023-8">[8]</a></sup></cite></p></blockquote>
<figure><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ravens_Vs_Commanders_(53133898142).jpg"></a><figcaption>Maryland governor <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wes_Moore">Wes Moore</a> and Harris at a Washington Commanders game, 2023</figcaption></figure>
<p>In 2023, Harris led a group that purchased the NFL's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Commanders">Washington Commanders</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FedExField">FedExField</a> from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Snyder">Daniel Snyder</a> for $6.05 billion, the highest price ever paid for a sports team.<sup><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup> He contributed $2 billion in cash, with the rest being raised from 20 limited partners including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danaher_Corporation">Danaher</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenstone">Glenstone</a> founder <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitchell_Rales">Mitchell Rales</a>, basketball hall of famer and entrepreneur <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_Johnson">Magic Johnson</a>, and DC businessman and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Kastles">Washington Kastles</a> owner <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Ein">Mark Ein</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup> Harris and Johnson had bid on the NFL's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denver_Broncos">Denver Broncos</a> the previous year before it was sold to a group headed by Walmart heirs <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rob_Walton">Rob Walton</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greg_Penner">Greg Penner</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></sup> He was the third limited partner of the Steelers to become majority owner of another NFL team since 2012, joining <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Haslam">Jimmy Haslam</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Tepper">David Tepper</a> of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleveland_Browns">Cleveland Browns</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolina_Panthers">Carolina Panthers</a> respectively.<sup><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></sup> Around the same time, he bought a minority stake in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Gibbs_Racing">Joe Gibbs Racing</a> by way of HBSE.<sup><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></sup>
</p><p>Harris employs <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_manager">general managers</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_(corporate_title)">presidents</a> to operate his teams and venues, with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion">diversity, equity, and inclusion</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employee_empowerment">employee empowerment</a> being promoted within his <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workplace_culture">workplace culture</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-MoCo2023-8">[8]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Harris_2012-7">[7]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-HarrisSI-34">[34]</a></sup> Harris also invests heavily in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_science">sports science</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_analytics">analytics</a>, with 76ers' president of basketball operations <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daryl_Morey">Daryl Morey</a> being a leading proponent of the field.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Breer2-71">[71]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></sup> He was among the first sports owners to announce that part-time staff would continue to be paid for any games canceled due to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_sports">impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on sports</a>, which saw the NBA and NHL suspend operations for most of 2020.<sup><a href="#cite_note-COVID19salaries-74">[74]</a></sup> Due to public criticism, Harris would reverse a decision to reduce the salaries of HBSE, 76ers, and Devils employees making under $100,000 by 20% during the hiatus.<sup><a href="#cite_note-COVID19salaries-74">[74]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2></h2>
<table>
<caption>Teams
</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Team
</th>
<th>League
</th>
<th>Notes
</th></tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_Palace_F.C.">Crystal Palace F.C.</a>
</th>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premier_League">Premier League</a>
</td>
<td>General partner; 18% stake
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Gibbs_Racing">Joe Gibbs Racing</a>
</th>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASCAR">NASCAR</a>
</td>
<td>Limited partner under <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harris_Blitzer_Sports_%26_Entertainment">Harris Blitzer Sports &amp; Entertainment</a> (HBSE) with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Blitzer">David Blitzer</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Jersey_Devils">New Jersey Devils</a>
</th>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Hockey_Association">National Hockey Association</a>
</td>
<td>Managing partner under HBSE with David Blitzer. Includes the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utica_Comets">Utica Comets</a> of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Hockey_League">American Hockey League</a>.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia_76ers">Philadelphia 76ers</a>
</th>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Basketball_Association">National Basketball Association</a>
</td>
<td>Managing partner under HBSE with David Blitzer. Includes the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delaware_Blue_Coats">Delaware Blue Coats</a> of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBA_G_League">NBA G League</a>.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Commanders">Washington Commanders</a>
</th>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Football_League">National Football League</a>
</td>
<td>Managing partner
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table>
<caption>Venues
</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Venue
</th>
<th>Location
</th>
<th>Tenant
</th></tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/76_Place_at_Market_East">76 Place at Market East</a>
</th>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia,_Pennsylvania">Philadelphia, Pennsylvania</a>
</td>
<td>Philadelphia 76ers (planned)
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FedExField">FedExField</a>
</th>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landover,_Maryland">Landover, Maryland</a>
</td>
<td>Washington Commanders
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prudential_Center">Prudential Center</a>
</th>
<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newark,_New_Jersey">Newark, New Jersey</a>
</td>
<td>New Jersey Devils
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h2></h2>
<figure><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Marjorie_harris.png"></a><figcaption>Harris' wife <div><p>Marjorie</p> <p>​</p><p>(<abbr>m.</abbr> 1995)<wbr/>​</p></div></figcaption></figure>
<p>Harris is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish">Jewish</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Breer2-71">[71]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></sup> His father Jacob was an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodontist">orthodontist</a> and his mother Sylvia was a schoolteacher; he has a younger brother named Gabe.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Harris_2012-7">[7]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Diaries-76">[76]</a></sup> He married Marjorie Harris (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A9e">née</a> Rubin) in 1995.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Reputation-9">[9]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></sup> The couple met while attending Harvard Business School and have three sons and two daughters together; Hannah, Stuart, Thomas, Pierce, and Bridget.<sup><a href="#cite_note-WhoIsWP-78">[78]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></sup> Harris and fellow Chevy Chase native and businessman <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Ein">Mark Ein</a> have been close friends since elementary school; they later attended Wharton and Harvard together and shared beach houses on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Island">Long Island</a> during their time on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wall_Street">Wall Street</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Bethesda-2">[2]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-DCRoots-38">[38]</a></sup>
</p><p>Harris grew up a fan of Washington-based sports teams, attending <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Redskins">Washington Redskins</a> games at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RFK_Stadium">RFK Stadium</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Bullets">Washington Bullets</a> games at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_Centre_(Landover,_Maryland)">Capital Centre</a> with his family.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Bethesda-2">[2]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-WhoIsWP-78">[78]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a></sup> As a youth, he placed third in a Maryland state wrestling tournament and once matched with future Olympic gold medalist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby_Weaver">Bobby Weaver</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-ForbesWrestling-3">[3]</a></sup> Harris received the Outstanding American Award from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Wrestling_Hall_of_Fame">National Wrestling Hall of Fame</a> in 2013.<sup><a href="#cite_note-NWHOF-6">[6]</a></sup> He also competes in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathon">marathons</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triathlon">triathlons</a>, finishing the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_New_York_City_Marathon">2010 New York City Marathon</a> in 3:53:41 and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Philadelphia_Marathon">2011 Philadelphia Marathon</a> in 3:48:12.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Reputation-9">[9]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></sup> Harris threw the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceremonial_first_pitch">ceremonial first pitch</a> at a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Nationals">Washington Nationals</a> game in September 2023.<sup><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></sup>
</p><p>Harris was inducted into <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kappa_Beta_Phi">Kappa Beta Phi</a>, a Wall Street fraternity, in 2011.<sup><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></sup> In November 2017, he bought the Dommerich Mansion, a 21,000-square-foot townhouse in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_East_Side">Upper East Side</a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City">New York City</a>, for $52 million.<sup><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></sup> In July 2021, he bought a 9,119-square-foot mansion in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miami">Miami</a> from Bolivian businessman <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcelo_Claure">Marcelo Claure</a> for $32 million and sold it in December 2022 for $66 million.<sup><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a></sup> Harris was included on <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_Business_Journal">Sports Business Journal</a></i> "Most Influential: Dealmakers &amp; Disrupters" list in 2022.<sup><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></sup> Harris frequently takes private helicopters to attend games. Due to a scheduling error, he once caused the cancellation of a youth soccer match held at Newark's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Benedict%27s_Preparatory_School">St. Benedict's Preparatory School</a> as the field is sometimes used as a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helipad">helipad</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a></sup> His <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Net_worth">net worth</a> was estimated in late 2023 to be $7.6 billion by <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes">Forbes</a></i> and $8.64 billion by the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomberg_Billionaires_Index">Bloomberg Billionaires Index</a></i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></sup> A total of $2.54 billion was derived from his shares in Apollo as of June 2023.<sup><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3></h3>
<p>Harris and his wife founded Harris Philanthropies, a New York City-based nonprofit organization, in 2014.<sup><a href="#cite_note-InquirerAug20-93">[93]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a></sup> He established the $5 million Harris Center for Precision Wellness at New York's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icahn_Genomics_Institute">Icahn Genomics Institute</a> in 2015.<sup><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a></sup> From 2015 to 2020, he donated a total of $3.5 million to the Philadelphia <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Police_Athletic_League">Police Athletic League</a>, $648,950 to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)">Republican Party</a>, and $190,150 to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)">Democratic Party</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></sup> He has been partnered with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/After-School_All-Stars">After-School All-Stars</a> since 2016, providing a $1 million grant for six schools in Newark, Philadelphia, and Camden.<sup><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></sup> Harris has also supported the University of Pennsylvania with several donations, including $1 million to the Penn Quakers wrestling program,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Wharton-99">[99]</a></sup> establishing the Harris Family Endowed Scholarship program for undergraduate students from the Washington, D.C. area,<sup><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></sup> and establishing the $10 million Harris Family Alternative Investments program.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Wharton-99">[99]</a></sup> He has also participated in forums and panels hosted by organizations such as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milken_Institute">Milken Institute</a>, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Sloan_Sports_Analytics_Conference">MIT Sloan Sports Analytics Conference</a>, and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_Club_of_Washington,_D.C.">Economic Club of Washington, D.C.</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></sup>
</p><p>Harris has contributed to socioeconomic programs in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel">Israel</a> through sports, including founding a youth basketball league known as the 48ers and funding a project integrating <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_Jews_in_Israel">Ethiopian immigrants</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></sup> He donated more than $7 million worth of food, medical supplies, and other <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19">COVID-19</a>-related equipment to several Philadelphia-based groups and organizations by April 2020.<sup><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a></sup> HBSE also committed $20 million to fight <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_injustice">racial injustice</a> that year, with Harris further donating $2 million to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bridgespan_Group">The Bridgespan Group</a> to expand their nonprofit programs in Philadelphia and Camden.<sup><a href="#cite_note-InquirerAug20-93">[93]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a></sup> In 2022, he established the $5 million Harris Family Fund for Sports Management and Alternative Investments program at Harvard Business School,<sup><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a></sup> as well as donating to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reform_Alliance_(United_States)">Reform Alliance</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></sup> several Philadelphia-area <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeless_shelter">homeless shelters</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></sup> and mobile cancer clinics to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_M._Miller_School_of_Medicine">Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a></sup> The same year, he donated $1 million to Fund for Health, a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_inequity">health inequity</a> collaboration fund by Penn Med and Wharton, with another million to Penn Med to promote student diversity in clinical medicine and biomedical research.<sup><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a></sup>
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<h2></h2>
<ul><li></li>
<li></li>
<li></li>
<li><a href="https://www.Linkedin.com/in/josh-harris-apollo">Josh Harris</a> on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LinkedIn">LinkedIn</a> </li></ul>
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 * 1 Early life and education
 * 2 Career
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 * 4 Personal life
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 Josh Harris (businessman)

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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 Josh Harris 
 Harris in 2023
 Joshua Jordan Harris 
 Born December 1964 (age 58–59) 
 Chevy Chase, Maryland, U.S. 
 Education * Wharton School (BS, 1986) 
 * Harvard Business School (MBA, 1990) 
 * Investor 
 Occupations * sports team owner 
 * philanthropist 
 Employers * Drexel Burnham Lambert (1986–1988) 
 * Apollo Global Management (1990–2022) 
 * Harris Blitzer Sports & Entertainment
 Organizations * Harris Philanthropies 
 * Council on Foreign Relations 
 * Managing partner 
 * Philadelphia 76ers (NBA) 
 * New Jersey Devils (NHL) 
 Title * Washington Commanders (NFL) 
 * General partner 
 * Crystal Palace (EPL) 
 * Minority owner 
 * Joe Gibbs Racing 
 * Mount Sinai Health System 
 Board member of * Harvard Business School 
 * Wharton School 
 Spouse Marjorie Harris ​(m. 1995)​ 
 Children 5 
 

 Joshua Jordan Harris (born December 1964) is an American investor, sports team owner, and philanthropist. He is the co-founder of the private equity firm Apollo Global Management and the principal owner and managing partner of the NBA's Philadelphia 76ers, the NHL's New Jersey Devils, and the NFL's Washington Commanders. Harris is also a general partner of the English football club Crystal Palace and holds a minority stake in Joe Gibbs Racing. He has an estimated net worth of over $7 billion.

 Harris was born in Chevy Chase, Maryland, later graduating with a degree in economics from the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania in 1986 before earning an MBA from Harvard Business School, working two years at the former investment bank Drexel Burnham Lambert in between. Harris founded Apollo with Leon Black and Marc Rowan in 1990 and managed its daily operations until leaving in 2022 to focus on sports management and philanthropic pursuits.

 Harris led groups that acquired the 76ers in 2011, the Devils and the Prudential Center in 2013, and the Commanders and FedExField in 2023. Other companies founded include Harris Philanthropies with his wife Marjorie in 2014, Harris Blitzer Sports & Entertainment with investment partner David Blitzer in 2017, and the alternative assets firm 26North in 2022. Harris is also a member of the Council on Foreign Relations and formerly served on the United States Olympic Committee.

 Early life and education [ edit ]

 Harris was born in December 1964 in Chevy Chase, Maryland.[1][2] He grew up playing several sports and considers them as having developed work ethic. He cited his favorite sport as wrestling after winning a summer camp tournament at the age of nine.[3] Harris graduated from The Field School in Washington D.C. in 1982 and enrolled at the University of Pennsylvania School of Arts and Sciences.[2] He transferred to Penn's Wharton School of business as a freshman due to an affinity for statistics and graduated summa cum laude with a Bachelor of Science degree in economics in 1986.[2][4][5] As a student, Harris was a member of the Phi Delta Theta and Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternities and represented the Penn Quakers in collegiate wrestling.[2][3][6] He managed lemonade stands in Washington, D.C. in locations such as Farragut North station and the National Zoo during his freshman and sophomore summer vacations.[2][7]

 Career [ edit ]

 Private equity [ edit ]

 See also: Apollo Global Management

 The Solow Building in New York City, headquarters of Apollo Global Management

 Harris moved to New York City in 1986 to work at the Wall Street investment bank Drexel Burnham Lambert as a financial analyst in their mergers and acquisitions department, frequently clocking in over 100 hours a week.[3][8] He left after two years to attend Harvard Business School (HBS), where he graduated with an MBA in 1990 as a Baker Loeb Scholar, an honor given to the top 5% of the school's graduating class.[9] Drexel had filed for bankruptcy earlier that year due to illegal junk bond activity amid a recession, with Harris working at Blackstone for two months before leaving to establish the private equity firm Apollo Global Management with former Drexel partners Leon Black and Marc Rowan.[9] By 2004, he had led the acquisitions of companies such as Sirius Satellite Radio, WMC Mortgage, Pacer International, Nalco Water, and Borden.[10] Harris also led a $2 billion investment into the multinational chemical company LyondellBasell in 2008 before selling in November 2013 for a profit of $9.6 billion, one of the largest gains in private equity history.[11][12] In April 2009, Harris was ordered to pay $30 million in a settlement with Huntsman Corporation after Apollo was sued for backing out of a merger the previous year.[13] He was among several businessmen in 2017 that met with the Trump administration as advisors for their $1.5 trillion infrastructure plan, with senior advisor Jared Kushner considering him for a potential White House job.[14][15]

 In May 2021, Harris announced he was stepping down from his day-to-day responsibilities at Apollo after being passed over as CEO for Marc Rowan, with his large personal focus on sport investments also reportedly becoming a source of tension within the company.[16] The position had been made available after Leon Black announced he would be stepping down due to an investigation finding he had paid $158 million to convicted sex offender Jeffrey Epstein between 2012 and 2017 for advice on taxes and estate planning.[17] He left Apollo in January 2022 and remained on their board of directors until his term ended in October 2022.[16][18] The same year, Black included Harris in a civil Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations (RICO) lawsuit, alleging that he led a group within Apollo attempting to tarnish his reputation after his ties to Epstein were reported.[19] Harris denied the claims, with federal judge Paul Engelmayer dismissing the suit in June 2022 for lack of evidence.[20] Black would appeal before the dismissal was upheld in March 2023.[21] He founded the alternative asset firm 26North in September 2022, hiring former senior Centerbridge Partners and Goldman Sachs executives.[22][23] The firm held $9.5 billion in assets by the end of 2022.[22]

 Harris is on the board of trustees of Mount Sinai Health System, Harvard Business School, and Wharton School,[5][24] and serves on the Council on Foreign Relations.[25] He previously served on the Investor Advisory Committee on Financial Markets (IACFM) for the New York Federal Reserve,[26] the United States Olympic Committee,[25] as the vice president and treasurer of the Allen-Stevenson School,[27] and on the boards of Berry Global,[28] Constellium,[29] and LyondellBasell.[29] HRS Management, his family office founded in 2010, bought a majority stake in gym operator US Fitness in June 2018.[30] The office was also the largest investor in The Hill, an American political newspaper, until selling to Nexstar Media Group in August 2021.[31] In July 2022, HRS formed a joint venture with Canvas Property Group to buy more than $1 billion worth of apartments.[32] In January 2022, Harris invested $10 million in Mosaic Development Partners, a Philadelphia-based real estate company.[33][34] He, alongside Mark Penn, James Tisch, and Thomas Peterffy, contributed to a $50 million investment fund in The Messenger, a news website that launched in May 2023.[35][36]

 Sports [ edit ]

 See also: Harris Blitzer Sports & Entertainment
 Harris is co-managing partner of the Philadelphia 76ers (above, blue) and the New Jersey Devils (below).

 Harris began contemplating investing in sports after meeting senior Blackstone executive David Blitzer in 2008 at The Punchbowl, a public house in London.[37][38] Those talks led to the pair forming an investment group that bought the Philadelphia 76ers of the National Basketball Association (NBA) from Comcast Spectacor for $280 million in 2011.[39] Other initial members of the group included Art Wrubel, Jason Levien, Adam Aron, Martin Geller, David Heller, James Lassiter, Marc Leder, Michael Rubin, Will Smith, Jada Pinkett Smith, and Erick Thohir.[40][41] Harris presided over an era in 76ers history known as "The Process", in which the team tanked for better NBA draft lottery odds.[42][43] Agreeing to a plan formed by general manager Sam Hinkie, the 76ers went 19–63 during the 2013–14 season, 18–64 in 2014–15, and 10–72 in 2015–16, the latter being the third-worst record in NBA history.[34] The Process was unpopular with NBA executives and team owners, who lobbied league commissioner Adam Silver to step in due to the 76ers' poor performance affecting league revenue sharing.[44][45] Harris would eventually agree to a suggestion by Silver to hire Jerry Colangelo, former owner of the Phoenix Suns, as team chairman in December 2015, which led to Hinkie stepping down in April 2016.[44][46] The Process led to the 76ers drafting future NBA MVP Joel Embiid, with the team having made five straight postseason appearances starting with the 2017–18 season.[34] The 76ers were valued at $3.15 billion by Forbes in 2023.[47]

 In 2013, Harris and Blitzer bought the New Jersey Devils of the National Hockey League (NHL) and their arena, the Prudential Center, from Jeff Vanderbeek for $320 million.[48] The franchise was valued at $825 million by Sportico in 2022.[49] He bought a 18% stake in the English football club Crystal Palace in December 2015, which is operated as a general partnership alongside Blitzer, Steve Parish, and John Textor.[50][51] In September 2016, Harris and Blitzer bought the esports organizations Dignitas and Apex Gaming and merged them under the Dignitas brand.[52] In September 2017, the pair founded Harris Blitzer Sports & Entertainment (HBSE) to consolidate their sports ventures. In addition to the 76ers and Devils, the company also owns the Delaware Blue Coats of the NBA G League and the Utica Comets of the American Hockey League, as well as HBSE Real Estate, the venture capital firm HBSE Ventures,[53] and the event and marketing firm Elevate Sports Ventures.[54] In June 2020, Harris bought a 5% stake worth $140 million in the Pittsburgh Steelers of the National Football League (NFL).[55] In 2022, he led a group consisting of Blitzer, airline executive Martin Broughton, politician and Olympic gold medalist Sebastian Coe, tennis player Serena Williams, and racing driver Lewis Hamilton that pursued a bid to purchase Chelsea of the Premier League before it was sold to Todd Boehly and Clearlake Capital for €4.25 billion ($4.5 billion).[56][57] He also pursued a bid for the New York Mets of Major League Baseball (MLB) before it was sold to Steve Cohen for $2.4 billion the same year.[58][59] In January 2023, Harris and Blitzer purchased a controlling interest in Ripken Baseball, a youth baseball brand founded by MLB hall of famer Cal Ripken Jr., and merged it with Cooperstown All Star Village, a baseball resort in Cooperstown, New York.[60] The same year, Harris and Blitzer explored buying minority stakes in Manchester United.[61]

 In sports, when you own a franchise, it’s very different than business. The public holds you personally accountable. There’s so much publicity that people expect you, as the managing partner, to be accountable for the organization. That’s a huge responsibility that keeps me up at night because life is complicated. Things happen. You do your absolute best, but I spend a lot of time thinking about how do we set this thing up so we stand for integrity, excellence, inclusion, diversity.

 — Josh Harris, 2023[8]

 Maryland governor Wes Moore and Harris at a Washington Commanders game, 2023

 In 2023, Harris led a group that purchased the NFL's Washington Commanders and FedExField from Daniel Snyder for $6.05 billion, the highest price ever paid for a sports team.[62][63] He contributed $2 billion in cash, with the rest being raised from 20 limited partners including Danaher and Glenstone founder Mitchell Rales, basketball hall of famer and entrepreneur Magic Johnson, and DC businessman and Washington Kastles owner Mark Ein.[64][65][66] Harris and Johnson had bid on the NFL's Denver Broncos the previous year before it was sold to a group headed by Walmart heirs Rob Walton and Greg Penner.[67][68] He was the third limited partner of the Steelers to become majority owner of another NFL team since 2012, joining Jimmy Haslam and David Tepper of the Cleveland Browns and Carolina Panthers respectively.[69] Around the same time, he bought a minority stake in Joe Gibbs Racing by way of HBSE.[70]

 Harris employs general managers and presidents to operate his teams and venues, with diversity, equity, and inclusion and employee empowerment being promoted within his workplace culture.[8][7][34] Harris also invests heavily in sports science and analytics, with 76ers' president of basketball operations Daryl Morey being a leading proponent of the field.[71][72][73] He was among the first sports owners to announce that part-time staff would continue to be paid for any games canceled due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on sports, which saw the NBA and NHL suspend operations for most of 2020.[74] Due to public criticism, Harris would reverse a decision to reduce the salaries of HBSE, 76ers, and Devils employees making under $100,000 by 20% during the hiatus.[74]

 List of teams and venues owned [ edit ]

 Teams
 Team League Notes  
 Crystal Palace F.C. Premier League General partner; 18% stake  
 Joe Gibbs Racing NASCAR Limited partner under Harris Blitzer Sports & Entertainment (HBSE) with David Blitzer 
 New Jersey Devils National Hockey Association Managing partner under HBSE with David Blitzer. Includes the Utica Comets of the American Hockey League.
 Philadelphia 76ers National Basketball Association Managing partner under HBSE with David Blitzer. Includes the Delaware Blue Coats of the NBA G League. 
 Washington Commanders National Football League Managing partner  
 
 Venues
 Venue Location Tenant 
 76 Place at Market East Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Philadelphia 76ers (planned)
 FedExField Landover, Maryland Washington Commanders 
 Prudential Center Newark, New Jersey New Jersey Devils 
 

 Personal life [ edit ]

 Harris' wife
 Marjorie ​(m. 1995)​

 Harris is Jewish.[71][75] His father Jacob was an orthodontist and his mother Sylvia was a schoolteacher; he has a younger brother named Gabe.[7][76] He married Marjorie Harris (née Rubin) in 1995.[9][77] The couple met while attending Harvard Business School and have three sons and two daughters together; Hannah, Stuart, Thomas, Pierce, and Bridget.[78][79] Harris and fellow Chevy Chase native and businessman Mark Ein have been close friends since elementary school; they later attended Wharton and Harvard together and shared beach houses on Long Island during their time on Wall Street.[2][38]

 Harris grew up a fan of Washington-based sports teams, attending Washington Redskins games at RFK Stadium and Washington Bullets games at the Capital Centre with his family.[2][78][80] As a youth, he placed third in a Maryland state wrestling tournament and once matched with future Olympic gold medalist Bobby Weaver.[3] Harris received the Outstanding American Award from the National Wrestling Hall of Fame in 2013.[6] He also competes in marathons and triathlons, finishing the 2010 New York City Marathon in 3:53:41 and the 2011 Philadelphia Marathon in 3:48:12.[9][81][82] Harris threw the ceremonial first pitch at a Washington Nationals game in September 2023.[83]

 Harris was inducted into Kappa Beta Phi, a Wall Street fraternity, in 2011.[84] In November 2017, he bought the Dommerich Mansion, a 21,000-square-foot townhouse in the Upper East Side of New York City, for $52 million.[85] In July 2021, he bought a 9,119-square-foot mansion in Miami from Bolivian businessman Marcelo Claure for $32 million and sold it in December 2022 for $66 million.[86][87] Harris was included on Sports Business Journal 's "Most Influential: Dealmakers & Disrupters" list in 2022.[88] Harris frequently takes private helicopters to attend games. Due to a scheduling error, he once caused the cancellation of a youth soccer match held at Newark's St. Benedict's Preparatory School as the field is sometimes used as a helipad.[89] His net worth was estimated in late 2023 to be $7.6 billion by Forbes and $8.64 billion by the Bloomberg Billionaires Index.[90][91] A total of $2.54 billion was derived from his shares in Apollo as of June 2023.[92]

 Philanthropy [ edit ]

 Harris and his wife founded Harris Philanthropies, a New York City-based nonprofit organization, in 2014.[93][94] He established the $5 million Harris Center for Precision Wellness at New York's Icahn Genomics Institute in 2015.[95] From 2015 to 2020, he donated a total of $3.5 million to the Philadelphia Police Athletic League, $648,950 to the Republican Party, and $190,150 to the Democratic Party.[96][97] He has been partnered with After-School All-Stars since 2016, providing a $1 million grant for six schools in Newark, Philadelphia, and Camden.[98] Harris has also supported the University of Pennsylvania with several donations, including $1 million to the Penn Quakers wrestling program,[99] establishing the Harris Family Endowed Scholarship program for undergraduate students from the Washington, D.C. area,[100] and establishing the $10 million Harris Family Alternative Investments program.[99] He has also participated in forums and panels hosted by organizations such as the Milken Institute, the MIT Sloan Sports Analytics Conference, and the Economic Club of Washington, D.C.[101][102][103]

 Harris has contributed to socioeconomic programs in Israel through sports, including founding a youth basketball league known as the 48ers and funding a project integrating Ethiopian immigrants.[104] He donated more than $7 million worth of food, medical supplies, and other COVID-19-related equipment to several Philadelphia-based groups and organizations by April 2020.[105][106][107][108] HBSE also committed $20 million to fight racial injustice that year, with Harris further donating $2 million to The Bridgespan Group to expand their nonprofit programs in Philadelphia and Camden.[93][109] In 2022, he established the $5 million Harris Family Fund for Sports Management and Alternative Investments program at Harvard Business School,[110] as well as donating to the Reform Alliance,[111] several Philadelphia-area homeless shelters,[112] and mobile cancer clinics to the Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine.[113] The same year, he donated $1 million to Fund for Health, a health inequity collaboration fund by Penn Med and Wharton, with another million to Penn Med to promote student diversity in clinical medicine and biomedical research.[114][115]

 References [ edit ]

 1. ^ "Joshua Jordan HARRIS". gov.uk. Companies House. Archived from the original on April 3, 2023 . Retrieved April 3, 2023 .
 2. ^ a b c d e f g Elfin, David (July 6, 2015). "Q&A with the Owners of the Philadelphia 76ers, New Jersey Devils and Washington Kastles". MoCo360. Archived from the original on March 22, 2023 . Retrieved March 22, 2023 .
 3. ^ a b c d Wang, Jennifer (November 7, 2017). "It All Started With Wrestling, Says Billionaire Owner of Philadelphia 76ers". Forbes. Archived from the original on July 9, 2023 . Retrieved May 8, 2023 .
 4. ^ Lynn, Carter (November 29, 2020). "Career businessmen and Wharton alums Josh Harris and Steve Cohen are now sports owners". The Daily Pennsylvanian. Archived from the original on April 29, 2021 . Retrieved April 29, 2021 .
 5. ^ a b Hermann, Adam (February 21, 2019). "Sixers owner Josh Harris gives $10 million to Penn's Wharton School". PhillyVoice. Archived from the original on August 6, 2020 . Retrieved August 17, 2020 .
 6. ^ a b "National Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum Announces Class of 2013 | National Wrestling Hall of Fame". National Wrestling Hall of Fame. 2013. Archived from the original on July 3, 2022 . Retrieved April 13, 2023 .
 7. ^ a b c Maese, Rick (May 7, 2012). "Josh Harris, Philadelphia 76ers owner, has roots in Washington". The Washington Post . Retrieved July 8, 2023 .
 8. ^ a b c Unger, Mike (October 26, 2023). "Josh Harris' quest to bring back the glory days of the Washington Commanders". MoCo360 . Retrieved October 28, 2023 .
 9. ^ a b c d Gottfried, Miriam (October 31, 2020). "A $433 Billion Wall Street Giant Has a Reputation Problem. It's Josh Harris's Job to Fix It". The Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Archived from the original on November 16, 2020 . Retrieved November 15, 2020 .
 10. ^ Meikle, Brad (February 28, 2005). "Buyout Pros of the Year: Josh Harris & Marc Rowan of Apollo". Buyouts Insider. Archived from the original on July 15, 2020 . Retrieved July 14, 2020 .
 11. ^ Vardi, Nathan (July 30, 2014). "How One Billionaire's Bet On LyondellBasell Turned Into The Greatest Deal In Wall St. History". Forbes. Archived from the original on December 17, 2017 . Retrieved July 14, 2020 .
 12. ^ Carey, David (June 25, 2013). "Apollo Fueled by $9.6 Billion Profit on Debt Beats Peers". Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on November 11, 2020 . Retrieved October 5, 2020 .
 13. ^ Pearson, Sophia; Calkins, Laurel (April 16, 2009). "Apollo Founders Must Face Huntsman Suit, Judge Says". Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on September 9, 2023 . Retrieved July 16, 2023 .
 14. ^ Drucker, Jesse; Kelly, Kate; Protess, Ben (February 28, 2018). "Kushner's Business Got Loans After White House Meetings". The New York Times. Archived from the original on March 1, 2018 . Retrieved March 1, 2018 .
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 29. ^ a b "Notice of Annual Meeting of Shareholders". sec.gov. U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. October 1, 2021. p. 7. Archived from the original on July 22, 2023 . Retrieved July 22, 2023 . "Mr. Harris has previously served on the board of directors of Berry Plastics Group Inc., EP Energy Corporation, EPE Acquisition, LLC, CEVA Logistics, Constellium N.V., and LyondellBasell Industries B.V."
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 66. ^ Leach, Kamaron; Boudway, Ira; Williams, Randall (August 3, 2023). "Washington Commanders Sale Cements High Finance's Status in NFL's Inner Circle". Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on August 12, 2023 . Retrieved August 5, 2023 .
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 80. ^ Selby, Zach (July 22, 2023). "Josh Harris, Mitch Rales and Earvin 'Magic' Johnson deliver powerful opening statements". Commanders.com. Archived from the original on July 22, 2023 . Retrieved July 23, 2023 .
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 85. ^ Clarke, Katherine (November 1, 2017). "Private Equity Executive Joshua Harris Pays $52 Million for New York Mansion". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on March 29, 2023 . Retrieved March 29, 2023 .
 86. ^ Bandell, Brian (July 27, 2021). "Sixers owner Josh Harris buys Miami Beach mansion from SoftBank executive for $32M in off-market deal". American City Business Journals. South Florida Business Journal. Archived from the original on September 9, 2023 . Retrieved July 23, 2023 .
 87. ^ Epstein, Jennifer (January 19, 2023). "Ultra-Rich Flip Palm Beach Homes to Score as Much as 86% Returns". Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on April 26, 2023 . Retrieved August 7, 2023 .
 88. ^ "Most Influential: Dealmakers & Disrupters". Sports Business Journal. December 12, 2022. Archived from the original on April 8, 2023 . Retrieved April 8, 2023 .
 89. ^ McQuade, Dan (November 11, 2015). "Sixers Owner's Helicopter Forces Cancelation of Youth Soccer Game". Philadelphia. Archived from the original on June 19, 2023 . Retrieved June 19, 2023 .
 90. ^ "Josh Harris - Forbes". Forbes. Archived from the original on April 3, 2023 . Retrieved November 18, 2023 .
 91. ^ "Bloomberg Billionaires Index: Josh Harris". Bloomberg L.P. Archived from the original on April 20, 2023 . Retrieved November 18, 2023 .
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 93. ^ a b Narducci, Marc (August 12, 2020). "Sixers managing partner Josh Harris is part of a multimillion-dollar donation to help Philadelphia-area nonprofits". The Philadelphia Inquirer. Archived from the original on September 23, 2020 . Retrieved September 17, 2020 .
 94. ^ Adeniji, Ade (March 13, 2017). "Here's Another Apollo Global Billionaire To Keep An Eye On". Inside Philanthropy. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021 . Retrieved August 17, 2020 .
 95. ^ "Gift to Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai Establishes Harris Center for Precision Wellness". mountsinai.org. June 25, 2015. Archived from the original on January 30, 2023 . Retrieved July 9, 2023 .
 96. ^ "Josh Harris to give $3.5 million to PAL of Philadelphia". NBC Sports. August 27, 2015. Archived from the original on April 29, 2021 . Retrieved August 24, 2020 .
 97. ^ Gonzalez, John (September 24, 2020). "The Political Donations of NBA Owners Are Not So Progressive". Archived from the original on December 25, 2022 . Retrieved April 13, 2023 .
 98. ^ "Harris Family Charitable Foundation Shows Support For After-School All-Stars". CBS News. January 7, 2020. Archived from the original on July 13, 2023 . Retrieved July 16, 2023 .
 99. ^ a b Aneja, Anushree (February 2019). "Wharton receives $10 million from 76ers owner and alum Joshua Harris". The Daily Pennsylvanian. Archived from the original on August 10, 2020 . Retrieved August 24, 2020 .
 100. ^ Hermann, Adam (February 21, 2019). "Sixers owner Josh Harris gives $10 million to Penn's Wharton School". PhillyVoice. Archived from the original on August 6, 2020 . Retrieved August 17, 2020 .
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 105. ^ Martin, Brian (April 2, 2020). "Sixers doing their part to assist during coronavirus pandemic". NBA.com. Archived from the original on August 31, 2023 . Retrieved September 3, 2023 .
 106. ^ Ryan, Chris (March 31, 2020). "Devils' Josh Harris, David Blitzer make 6-figure coronavirus donation to RWJBarnabas; Team will continue to support part-time employees through May 15". NJ.com. Archived from the original on May 30, 2023 . Retrieved July 9, 2023 .
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 External links [ edit ]

 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Josh Harris (businessman).
 * HBSE profile
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 Apollo Global Management 
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 * Josh Harris (Founder) 
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 Owned by Apollo Global Management (71%) and Cox Enterprises (29%) 
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 stations  * WFXT 
 (by primary  MyNetworkTV * KEVU-CD 
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   * Independent
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 Cable channels  * Pittsburgh Cable News Channel
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   * Newport Television 
 Acquisitions  * Northwest Broadcasting 
   * Standard Media (cancelled) 
 * 1 Owned by Hoffmann Communications, Inc., Cox Media Group operates WJAX under a SSA. 
 * 2 These stations broadcast these networks on their digital subchannels. 
   
 * v  
 * t  
 * e  
 Yahoo Inc.  
 Owned by Apollo Global Management (90%) and Verizon Communications (10%) 
   * Built by Girls 
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 * Apollo Education Group  
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 Other assets * Legendary Entertainment  
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 * v 
 * t 
 * e 
 Harris Blitzer Sports & Entertainment
 * Founders: Josh Harris 
 * David Blitzer 
 * CEO: Tad Brown 
 * Limited partners: David Adelman
 * Martin Geller 
 * Joe Gibbs 
 * Marc Leder 
  * 76ers Gaming Club 
 Philadelphia 76ers * 76 Place at Market East (proposed arena)
  * Delaware Blue Coats 
  * Training Complex 
  * Prudential Center 
 New Jersey Devils * Albany Devils (defunct) 
  * Binghamton Devils (defunct) 
  * Utica Comets 
  * Dignitas 
  + Clutch Gaming 
 Other * Grammy Museum Experience (closed) 
  * Joe Gibbs Racing (minority stake) 
  * Loew's Jersey Theatre 
  * Wollman Rink 
 * Category 
 
 * v 
 * t 
 * e 
 Sports teams and venues owned by Josh Harris 
 Year of acquisition listed; equity stake included if known
  * Philadelphia 76ers (2011) 
  Managing partner * New Jersey Devils (2013) 
  * Washington Commanders (2023) 
  * Delaware Blue Coats (2013) 
  * Crystal Palace (18%, 2015) 
 Sports teams Minority stake / other * Dignitas (2016) 
  * Utica Comets (2021) 
  * Joe Gibbs Racing (2023) 
  * Albany Devils (2013–2017) 
  Former * Binghamton Devils (2017–2021) 
  * Pittsburgh Steelers (5%, 2020–2023)
   
  * Prudential Center (2013) 
 Venues * Philadelphia 76ers Training Complex (2016) 
  * FedExField (2023) 
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 * Category 
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 * v     
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 * Based in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania    
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 Franchise * Draft history    
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 Arenas * Philadelphia Arena    
  * Spectrum    
  * Wells Fargo Center    
  * 76 Place at Market East (proposed)    
 Personnel Owner(s) Josh Harris and David Blitzer (Harris Blitzer Sports & Entertainment) President Daryl Morey General manager Elton Brand Head coach Nick Nurse  
 G League affiliate * Delaware Blue Coats    
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 New Jersey Devils     
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 Ownership group   * Managing partner: Josh Harris  
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 * v     
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 Formerly the Boston Braves (1932), Boston Redskins (1933–1936), Washington Redskins (1937–2019), and Washington Football Team (2020–2021)   
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 * v     
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 Joe Gibbs Racing     
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 NASCAR Cup Series Championships * 2005 (Stewart)    
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 NASCAR Xfinity Series Championships * 2008 (No. 20)   
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  Owners' Championship * 2012 (No. 18)   
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 ARCA Menards Series Championships * 2021 (T. Gibbs)    
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 ARCA Menards Series East Championships * 2011 (Gresham)    
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 Daytona 500 wins * 2016 (Hamlin)    
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 Brickyard 400 wins * 2007 (Stewart)    
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 Coca-Cola 600 wins * 2018 (Ky. Busch)    
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 Southern 500 wins * 2013 (Kenseth)    
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 GEICO 500 wins * 2008 (Ky. Busch)    
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 All-Star Race wins * 2015 (Hamlin)    
  * 2017 (Ky. Busch)    
  * 2001 (Stewart)    
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 * v     
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 National Basketball Association owners    
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 Eastern Central * Tom Gores (Detroit Pistons)   
 Conference * Herbert Simon (Indiana Pacers)   
  * Wes Edens and Jimmy Haslam (Milwaukee Bucks)   
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 Conference * Jody Allen (Portland Trail Blazers)   
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 * v     
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 National Hockey League owners    
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Josh Harris (businessman)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josh_Harris_(businessman)
Contributors to Wikimedia projects
2024-08-15T08:42:47Z
<div><div>


<table><tbody><tr><th><p>Neil Armstrong</p></th></tr><tr><td><span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Neil_Armstrong_pose.jpg"></a></span><p>Armstrong in 1969</p></td></tr><tr><th>Born</th><td><p>Neil Alden Armstrong</p><br/>August 5, 1930<br/><div><p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wapakoneta,_Ohio">Wapakoneta, Ohio</a>, U.S.</p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Died</th><td>August 25, 2012 (aged 82)<br/><div><p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairfield,_Ohio">Fairfield, Ohio</a>, U.S.</p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Education</th><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purdue_University">Purdue University</a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science">BS</a>)<br/><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Southern_California">University of Southern California</a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Science">MS</a>)</td></tr><tr><th>Spouses</th><td><div>
<ul><li></li></ul>
<div><p>Janet Shearon</p>
   <p>​</p> <p>​</p><p>(<abbr>m.</abbr> 1956; <abbr>div.</abbr> 1994)<wbr/>​</p></div>
<ul><li></li></ul>
<div><p>Carol Knight</p> <p>​</p><p>(<abbr>m.</abbr> 1994)<wbr/>​</p></div>
</div></td></tr><tr><th>Children</th><td>3</td></tr><tr><th>Awards</th><td><div><ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom">Presidential Medal of Freedom</a></li><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congressional_Space_Medal_of_Honor">Congressional Space Medal of Honor</a></li><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congressional_Gold_Medal">Congressional Gold Medal</a></li><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_Distinguished_Service_Medal">NASA Distinguished Service Medal</a></li><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_Exceptional_Service_Medal">NASA Exceptional Service Medal</a></li><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Medal">Air Medal</a> (3)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td><b>Space career</b></td></tr><tr><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man_in_Space_Soonest">USAF</a> / <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_astronaut">NASA astronaut</a></th></tr><tr><th>Rank</th><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_(junior_grade)">Lieutenant</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navy">USN</a></td></tr><tr><th><p>Time in space</p></th><td>8d 14h 12m</td></tr><tr><th>Selection</th><td><div><ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronauts_by_year_of_selection#1958">USAF Man in Space Soonest (1958)</a></li><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronauts_by_year_of_selection#1960">USAF Dyna-Soar (1960)</a></li><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_Astronaut_Group_2">NASA Group 2 (1962)</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th><div><p>Total <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extravehicular_activity">EVAs</a></p></div></th><td>1</td></tr><tr><th><p>Total EVA time</p></th><td>2h 31m</td></tr><tr><th>Missions</th><td><div>
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemini_8">Gemini 8</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_11">Apollo 11</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th><p>Mission insignia</p></th><td><span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gemini-8-logo.png"></a></span> <span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Apollo_11_insignia.png"></a></span></td></tr><tr><th>Signature</th></tr><tr><td><span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Neil_Armstrong_Signature.svg"></a></span></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Neil Alden Armstrong</b> (August 5, 1930 – August 25, 2012) was an American <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut">astronaut</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerospace_engineering">aeronautical engineer</a> who in 1969 became the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_11#Lunar_surface_operations">first person to walk on the Moon</a>. He was also a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_aviator_(United_States)">naval aviator</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_pilot">test pilot</a>, and university professor.
</p><p>Armstrong was born and raised in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wapakoneta,_Ohio">Wapakoneta, Ohio</a>. He entered <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purdue_University">Purdue University</a>, studying <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeronautical_engineering">aeronautical engineering</a>, with the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Navy">U.S. Navy</a> paying his tuition under the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holloway_Plan">Holloway Plan</a>.  He became a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midshipman">midshipman</a> in 1949 and a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_aviator_(United_States)">naval aviator</a> the following year. He saw action in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_War">Korean War</a>, flying the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grumman_F9F_Panther">Grumman F9F Panther</a> from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_carrier">aircraft carrier</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Essex_(CV-9)">USS <i>Essex</i></a>. After the war, he completed his bachelor's degree at Purdue and became a test pilot at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Advisory_Committee_for_Aeronautics">National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics</a> (NACA) <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armstrong_Flight_Research_Center">High-Speed Flight Station</a> at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwards_Air_Force_Base">Edwards Air Force Base</a> in California. He was the project pilot on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Century_Series">Century Series</a> fighters and flew the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_X-15">North American X-15</a> seven times. He was also a participant in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Air_Force">U.S. Air Force</a>'s <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man_in_Space_Soonest">Man in Space Soonest</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_X-20_Dyna-Soar">X-20 Dyna-Soar</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_spaceflight">human spaceflight</a> programs.
</p><p>Armstrong joined the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_Astronaut_Corps">NASA Astronaut Corps</a> in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_Astronaut_Group_2">second group</a>, which was selected in 1962. He made his first <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaceflight">spaceflight</a> as command pilot of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemini_8">Gemini 8</a> in March 1966, becoming <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA">NASA</a>'s first civilian astronaut to fly in space. During this mission with pilot <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Scott">David Scott</a>, he performed the first <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Docking_and_berthing_of_spacecraft">docking</a> of two <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacecraft">spacecraft</a>; the mission was aborted after Armstrong used some of his re-entry control fuel to stabilize a dangerous roll caused by a stuck thruster. During training for Armstrong's second and last spaceflight as commander of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_11">Apollo 11</a>, he had to eject from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_Landing_Research_Vehicle">Lunar Landing Research Vehicle</a> moments before a crash.
</p><p>On July 20, 1969, Armstrong and Apollo 11 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_Lunar_Module">Lunar Module</a> (LM) pilot <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buzz_Aldrin">Buzz Aldrin</a> became the first people to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon_landing">land on the Moon</a>, and the next day they spent two and a half hours outside the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_Module_Eagle">Lunar Module <i>Eagle</i></a> spacecraft while <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Collins_(astronaut)">Michael Collins</a> remained in lunar orbit in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command_module_Columbia">Apollo Command Module <i>Columbia</i></a>. When Armstrong first stepped onto the lunar surface, he famously said: "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind."<sup><a href="#cite_note-1"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-2"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-3"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-4"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup> It was broadcast live to an estimated 530 million viewers worldwide. Apollo 11 was a major U.S. victory in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Race">Space Race</a>, by fulfilling a national goal proposed in 1961 by President <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> "of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth" before the end of the decade. Along with Collins and Aldrin, Armstrong was awarded the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom">Presidential Medal of Freedom</a> by President <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> and received the 1969 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collier_Trophy">Collier Trophy</a>. President <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> presented him with the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congressional_Space_Medal_of_Honor">Congressional Space Medal of Honor</a> in 1978, he was inducted into the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Aviation_Hall_of_Fame">National Aviation Hall of Fame</a> in 1979, and with his former crewmates received the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congressional_Gold_Medal">Congressional Gold Medal</a> in 2009.
</p><p>After he resigned from NASA in 1971, Armstrong taught in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cincinnati">University of Cincinnati</a> until 1979. He served on the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_13">Apollo 13</a> accident investigation and on the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogers_Commission_Report">Rogers Commission</a>, which investigated the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Challenger_disaster">Space Shuttle <i>Challenger</i> disaster</a>. In 2012, Armstrong died due to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complication_(medicine)">complications</a> resulting from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronary_bypass_surgery">coronary bypass surgery</a>, at the age of 82.
</p>

<p></p><h2>Early life and education</h2><p></p>
<p>Armstrong was born near <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wapakoneta,_Ohio">Wapakoneta, Ohio</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen200549–50-5"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup> on August 5, 1930, the son of Viola Louise (née Engel) and Stephen Koenig Armstrong. He was of German, English, Scots-Irish, and Scottish descent.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen200513,_20-6"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-7"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup> He is a descendant of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clan_Armstrong">Clan Armstrong</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-8"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-9"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup> He had a younger sister, June, and a younger brother, Dean. His father was an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditor">auditor</a> for the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Ohio">Ohio state government</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-10"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup> and the family moved around the state repeatedly, living in 16 towns over the next 14 years.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen200529-11"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup> Armstrong's love for flying grew during this time, having started at the age of two when his father took him to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Air_Races">Cleveland Air Races</a>. When he was five or six, he experienced his first airplane flight in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren,_Ohio">Warren, Ohio</a>, when he and his father took a ride in a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Trimotor">Ford Trimotor</a> (also known as the "Tin Goose").<sup><a href="#cite_note-12"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen200545-13"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The family's last move was in 1944 and took them back to Wapakoneta, where Armstrong attended <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blume_High_School">Blume High School</a> and took flying lessons at the Wapakoneta airfield.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen200549–50-5"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup> He earned a student flight certificate on his 16th birthday, then <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_solo_flight">soloed</a> in August, all before he had a driver's license.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoestler-Grack201014-14"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup> He was an active <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boy_Scouts_of_America">Boy Scout</a> and earned the rank of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eagle_Scout_(Boy_Scouts_of_America)">Eagle Scout</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen201238-15"><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup> As an adult, he was recognized by the Scouts with their <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distinguished_Eagle_Scout_Award">Distinguished Eagle Scout Award</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_Buffalo_Award">Silver Buffalo Award</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-16"><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-17"><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></a></sup> While flying toward the Moon on July 18, 1969, he sent his regards to attendees at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Scout_jamboree_(Boy_Scouts_of_America)">National Scout jamboree</a> in Idaho.<sup><a href="#cite_note-18"><span>[</span>18<span>]</span></a></sup> Among the few personal items that he carried with him to the Moon and back was a World Scout Badge.<sup><a href="#cite_note-19"><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>At age 17, in 1947, Armstrong began studying <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerospace_engineering">aeronautical engineering</a> at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purdue_University">Purdue University</a> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Lafayette,_Indiana">West Lafayette, Indiana</a>; he was the second person in his family to attend college. Armstrong was also accepted to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT),<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen200555–56-20"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup> but he resolved to go to Purdue after watching a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_football">football</a> game between the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purdue_Boilermakers_football">Purdue Boilermakers</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio_State_Buckeyes_football">Ohio State Buckeyes</a> at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio_Stadium">Ohio Stadium</a> in 1945 in which quarterback <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_DeMoss">Bob DeMoss</a> led the Boilermakers to a sound victory over the highly regarded Buckeyes.<sup><a href="#cite_note-21"><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup> An uncle who attended MIT had also advised him that he could receive a good education without going all the way to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts">Cambridge, Massachusetts</a>. His college tuition was paid for under the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_L._Holloway,_Jr.#Holloway_Plan">Holloway Plan</a>. Successful applicants committed to two years of study, followed by two years of flight training and one year of service as an aviator in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Navy">U.S. Navy</a>, then completion of the final two years of their <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree">bachelor's degree</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen200555–56-20"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup> Armstrong did not take courses in naval science, nor did he join the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_Reserve_Officers_Training_Corps">Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen200558-22"><span>[</span>22<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<p></p><h2>Navy service</h2><p></p>
<figure><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Neil_Armstrong_23_May_1952_(cropped).jpg"></a><figcaption>Ensign Neil Armstrong on May 23, 1952</figcaption></figure>
<p>Armstrong's call-up from the Navy arrived on January 26, 1949, requiring him to report to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_Air_Station_Pensacola">Naval Air Station Pensacola</a> in Florida for flight training with class 5-49. After passing the medical examinations, he became a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midshipman">midshipman</a> on February 24, 1949.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen200568–69-23"><span>[</span>23<span>]</span></a></sup> Flight training was conducted in a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_T-6_Texan">North American SNJ trainer</a>, in which he soloed on September 9, 1949.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen200571-24"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup> On March 2, 1950, he made his first <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_carrier">aircraft carrier</a> landing on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Cabot_(CVL-28)">USS <i>Cabot</i></a>, an achievement he considered comparable to his first solo flight.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen200571-24"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup> He was then sent to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_Air_Station_Corpus_Christi">Naval Air Station Corpus Christi</a> in Texas for training on the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grumman_F8F_Bearcat">Grumman F8F Bearcat</a>, culminating in a carrier landing on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Wright_(CVL-49)">USS <i>Wright</i></a>. On August 16, 1950, Armstrong was informed by letter that he was a fully qualified <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Naval_Aviator">naval aviator</a>. His mother and sister attended his graduation ceremony on August 23, 1950.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen200576–79-25"><span>[</span>25<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Armstrong was assigned to Fleet Aircraft Service Squadron<span> </span>7 (FASRON 7) at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_Air_Station_North_Island">NAS San Diego</a> (now known as NAS North Island). On November 27, 1950, he was assigned to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VF-51">VF-51</a>, an all-jet squadron, becoming its youngest officer, and made his first flight in a jet, a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grumman_F9F_Panther">Grumman F9F Panther</a>, on January 5, 1951. He was promoted to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ensign_(rank)">ensign</a> on June 5, 1951, and made his first jet carrier landing on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Essex_(CV-9)">USS <i>Essex</i></a> two days later. On June 28, 1951, <i>Essex</i> had set sail for Korea, with VF-51 aboard to act as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground-attack_aircraft">ground-attack aircraft</a>. VF-51 flew ahead to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_Air_Station_Barbers_Point">Naval Air Station Barbers Point</a> in Hawaii, where it conducted fighter-bomber training before rejoining the ship at the end of July.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen200579–85-26"><span>[</span>26<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>On August 29, 1951, Armstrong saw action in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_War">Korean War</a> as an escort for a photo <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconnaissance">reconnaissance</a> plane over <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songjin">Songjin</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen200590-27"><span>[</span>27<span>]</span></a></sup> Five days later, on September 3, he flew armed reconnaissance over the primary transportation and storage facilities south of the village of Majon-ni, west of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wonsan">Wonsan</a>. According to Armstrong, he was making a low bombing run at 350 mph (560 km/h) when 6 feet (1.8 m) of his wing was torn off after it collided with a cable that was strung across the hills as a booby trap. He was flying 500 feet (150 m) above the ground when he hit it. While there was heavy anti-aircraft fire in the area, none hit Armstrong's aircraft.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen200594-28"><span>[</span>28<span>]</span></a></sup> An initial report to the commanding officer of <i>Essex</i> said that Armstrong's F9F Panther was hit by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-aircraft_warfare">anti-aircraft fire</a>. The report indicated he was trying to regain control and collided with a pole, which sliced off 2 feet (0.61 m) of the Panther's right wing. Further perversions of the story by different authors added that he was only 20 feet (6.1 m) from the ground and that 3 feet (0.91 m) of his wing was sheared off.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen200592–93-29"><span>[</span>29<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<figure><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:F9F-2_Panthers_VF-51_over_Korea_1951.jpg"></a><figcaption><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grumman_F9F_Panther">F9F-2 Panthers</a> over Korea, with Armstrong piloting S-116 (left)</figcaption></figure>
<p>Armstrong flew the plane back to friendly territory, but due to the loss of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aileron">aileron</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ejection_seat">ejection</a> was his only safe option. He intended to eject over water and await rescue by Navy helicopters, but his parachute was blown back over land. A jeep driven by a roommate from flight school picked him up; it is unknown what happened to the wreckage of his aircraft, F9F-2 BuNo <i>125122</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen200595–96-30"><span>[</span>30<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In all, Armstrong flew 78<span> </span>missions over Korea for a total of 121<span> </span>hours in the air, a third of them in January 1952, with the final mission on March 5, 1952. Of 492 U.S. Navy personnel killed in the Korean War, 27 of them were from  <i>Essex</i> on this war cruise. Armstrong received the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Medal">Air Medal</a> for 20 combat missions, two <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5/16_inch_star">gold stars</a> for the next 40, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Service_Medal">Korean Service Medal</a> and Engagement Star, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Defense_Service_Medal">National Defense Service Medal</a>, and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Korea_Medal">United Nations Korea Medal</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005112-31"><span>[</span>31<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Armstrong's regular commission was terminated on February 25, 1952, and he became an ensign in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navy_Reserve">United States Navy Reserve</a>. On completion of his combat tour with <i>Essex</i>, he was assigned to a transport squadron, VR-32, in May 1952. He was released from active duty on August 23, 1952, but remained in the reserve, and was promoted to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_(junior_grade)">lieutenant (junior grade)</a> on May 9, 1953.<sup><a href="#cite_note-USN_record-32"><span>[</span>32<span>]</span></a></sup> As a reservist, he continued to fly, with VF-724 at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_Air_Station_Glenview">Naval Air Station Glenview</a> in Illinois, and then, after moving to California, with VF-773 at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_Air_Station_Los_Alamitos">Naval Air Station Los Alamitos</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005118-33"><span>[</span>33<span>]</span></a></sup> He remained in the reserve for eight years, before resigning his commission on October 21, 1960.<sup><a href="#cite_note-USN_record-32"><span>[</span>32<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<p></p><h2>College years</h2><p></p>
<p>After his service with the Navy, Armstrong returned to Purdue. His previously earned good but not outstanding <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_grading_in_the_United_States#Six-point_system">grades</a> now improved, lifting his final Grade Point Average (GPA) to a respectable but not outstanding 4.8 out of 6.0. He pledged the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi_Delta_Theta">Phi Delta Theta</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraternities_and_sororities_in_North_America">fraternity</a>, and lived in its fraternity house. He wrote and co-directed two musicals as part of the all-student revue. The first was a version of <i>Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs</i>, co-directed with his girlfriend Joanne Alford from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_Chi_Omega">Alpha Chi Omega</a> sorority, with songs from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow_White_and_the_Seven_Dwarfs_(1937_film)">1937 Walt Disney film</a>, including "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Someday_My_Prince_Will_Come">Someday My Prince Will Come</a>"; the second was titled <i>The Land of Egelloc</i> ("college" spelled backward), with music from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_and_Sullivan">Gilbert and Sullivan</a> but new lyrics. 
</p><p>Armstrong was chairman of the Purdue Aero Flying Club, and flew the club's aircraft, an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeronca_Aircraft">Aeronca</a> and a couple of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piper_Aircraft">Pipers</a>, which were kept at nearby Aretz Airport in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lafayette,_Indiana">Lafayette, Indiana</a>. Flying the Aeronca to Wapakoneta in 1954, he damaged it in a rough landing in a farmer's field, and it had to be hauled back to Lafayette on a trailer.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen200561–62-34"><span>[</span>34<span>]</span></a></sup> He was a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baritone_horn">baritone</a> player in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purdue_All-American_Marching_Band">Purdue All-American Marching Band</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-35"><span>[</span>35<span>]</span></a></sup> Ten years later he was made an honorary member of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kappa_Kappa_Psi">Kappa Kappa Psi</a> national band honorary fraternity.<sup><a href="#cite_note-36"><span>[</span>36<span>]</span></a></sup> Armstrong graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeronautical_Engineering">Aeronautical Engineering</a> in January 1955.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005118-33"><span>[</span>33<span>]</span></a></sup> In 1970, he completed his Master of Science degree in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerospace_Engineering">Aerospace Engineering</a> at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Southern_California">University of Southern California</a> (USC).<sup><a href="#cite_note-NASA-bio-37"><span>[</span>37<span>]</span></a></sup> He would eventually be awarded honorary doctorates by several universities.<sup><a href="#cite_note-38"><span>[</span>38<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Armstrong met Janet Elizabeth Shearon, who was majoring in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_and_consumer_science">home economics</a>, at a party hosted by Alpha Chi Omega.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen200562-39"><span>[</span>39<span>]</span></a></sup> According to the couple, there was no real courtship, and neither could remember the exact circumstances of their engagement. They were married on January 28, 1956, at the Congregational Church in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilmette,_Illinois">Wilmette, Illinois</a>. When he moved to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwards_Air_Force_Base">Edwards Air Force Base</a>, he lived in the bachelor quarters of the base, while Janet lived in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westwood,_Los_Angeles">Westwood</a> district of Los Angeles. After one semester, they moved into a house in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antelope_Valley">Antelope Valley</a>, near Edwards AFB. Janet did not finish her degree, a fact she regretted later in life. The couple had three children.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005124–128-40"><span>[</span>40<span>]</span></a></sup> In June 1961, their daughter Karen was diagnosed with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffuse_intrinsic_pontine_glioma">diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma</a>, a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malignant">malignant</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumor">tumor</a> of the middle part of her <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brainstem">brain stem</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-41"><span>[</span>41<span>]</span></a></sup> X-ray treatment slowed its growth, but her health deteriorated to the point where she could no longer walk or talk. She died of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>, related to her weakened health, on January 28, 1962, aged two.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005161–164-42"><span>[</span>42<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<p></p><h2>Test pilot</h2><p></p>
<p>Following his graduation from Purdue, Armstrong became an experimental research test pilot. He applied at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Advisory_Committee_for_Aeronautics">National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics</a> (NACA) <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armstrong_Flight_Research_Center">High-Speed Flight Station</a> at Edwards Air Force Base.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005119–120-43"><span>[</span>43<span>]</span></a></sup> NACA had no open positions, and forwarded his application to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenn_Research_Center">Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory</a> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleveland">Cleveland</a>, where Armstrong made his first test flight on March 1, 1955.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005119–120-43"><span>[</span>43<span>]</span></a></sup> Armstrong's stint at Cleveland lasted only a couple of months before a position at the High-Speed Flight Station became available, and he reported for work there on July 11, 1955.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005130-44"><span>[</span>44<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<figure><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Neil_Armstrong_1958_portrait.jpg"></a><figcaption>Armstrong, 26,  as a test pilot at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Advisory_Committee_for_Aeronautics">NACA</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armstrong_Flight_Research_Center">High-Speed Flight Station</a> at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwards_Air_Force_Base">Edwards AFB</a>, California</figcaption></figure>
<p>On his first day, Armstrong was tasked with piloting <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chase_plane">chase planes</a> during releases of experimental aircraft from modified bombers. He also flew the modified bombers, and on one of these missions had his first flight incident at Edwards. On March 22, 1956, he was in a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_B-29_Superfortress">Boeing B-29 Superfortress</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005134-45"><span>[</span>45<span>]</span></a></sup> which was to air-drop a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_D-558-2_Skyrocket">Douglas D-558-2 Skyrocket</a>. He sat in the right-hand co-pilot seat while pilot in command, Stan Butchart sat in the left-hand pilot seat flying the B-29.<sup><a href="#cite_note-46"><span>[</span>46<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>As they climbed to 30,000 feet (9 km), the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_engine_position_number">number-four engine</a> stopped and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propeller_(aircraft)">propeller</a> began windmilling (rotating freely) in the airstream. Hitting the switch that would stop the propeller's spinning, Butchart watched it slow, then resume spinning even faster than the others; if it spun too fast, it would break apart. Their aircraft needed to hold an airspeed of 210 mph (338 km/h) to launch its Skyrocket payload, and the B-29 could not land with the Skyrocket attached to its belly. Armstrong and Butchart brought the aircraft into a nose-down <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_(geometry)">attitude</a> to increase speed, then launched the Skyrocket. At the instant of launch, the number-four engine propeller disintegrated. Pieces of it damaged the number-three engine and hit the number-two engine. Butchart and Armstrong were forced to shut down the damaged number-three engine, along with the number-one engine, due to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torque">torque</a> it created. They made a slow, circling descent from 30,000 ft (9 km) using only the number-two engine, and landed safely.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005134–136-47"><span>[</span>47<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Armstrong served as project pilot on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Century_Series">Century Series</a> fighters, including the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_F-100_Super_Sabre">North American F-100 Super Sabre</a> A and C variants, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonnell_F-101_Voodoo">McDonnell F-101 Voodoo</a>, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_F-104_Starfighter">Lockheed F-104 Starfighter</a>, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_F-105_Thunderchief">Republic F-105 Thunderchief</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convair_F-106_Delta_Dart">Convair F-106 Delta Dart</a>. He also flew the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_DC-3">Douglas DC-3</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_T-33_Shooting_Star">Lockheed T-33 Shooting Star</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_F-86_Sabre">North American F-86 Sabre</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F-4_Phantom_II">McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_F5D-1_Skylancer">Douglas F5D-1 Skylancer</a>, Boeing B-29 Superfortress, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_B-47_Stratojet">Boeing B-47 Stratojet</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_KC-135_Stratotanker">Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker</a>, and was one of eight elite pilots involved in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_Paresev">Parasev</a> paraglider research vehicle program.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005136–138-48"><span>[</span>48<span>]</span></a></sup> Over his career, he flew more than 200 different models of aircraft.<sup><a href="#cite_note-NASA-bio-37"><span>[</span>37<span>]</span></a></sup> His first flight in a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket-powered_aircraft">rocket-powered aircraft</a> was on August 15, 1957, in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_X-1">Bell X-1</a>B, to an altitude of 11.4 miles (18.3 km). On landing, the poorly designed <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landing_gear">nose landing gear</a> failed, as had happened on about a dozen previous flights of the Bell X-1B. He flew the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_X-15">North American X-15</a> seven times,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005145-49"><span>[</span>49<span>]</span></a></sup> including the first flight with the Q-ball system, the first flight of the number<span> </span>3 X-15 airframe, and the first flight of the MH-96 adaptive flight control system.<sup><a href="#cite_note-50"><span>[</span>50<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005147-51"><span>[</span>51<span>]</span></a></sup> He became an employee of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Administration">National Aeronautics and Space Administration</a> (NASA) when it was established on October 1, 1958, absorbing NACA.<sup><a href="#cite_note-52"><span>[</span>52<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Armstrong was involved in several incidents that went down in Edwards folklore or were chronicled in the memoirs of colleagues. During his sixth X-15 flight on April 20, 1962, Armstrong was testing the MH-96 control system when he flew to a height of over 207,000 feet (63 km) (the highest he flew before <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemini_8">Gemini 8</a>). He held up the aircraft nose during its descent to demonstrate the MH-96's g-limiting performance, and the X-15 ballooned back up to around 140,000 feet (43 km). He flew past the landing field at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mach_number">Mach</a><span> </span>3 at over 100,000 feet (30 km) in altitude, and ended up 40 miles (64 km) south of Edwards. After sufficient descent, he turned back toward the landing area, and landed. It was the longest X-15 flight in both flight time and length of the ground track.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005178–184-53"><span>[</span>53<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-54"><span>[</span>54<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<figure><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pilot_Neil_Armstrong_and_X-15_-1_-_GPN-2000-000121.jpg"></a><figcaption>Armstrong and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_X-15">X-15-1</a> after a research flight in 1960</figcaption></figure>
<p>Fellow astronaut <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Collins_(astronaut)">Michael Collins</a> wrote that of the X-15 pilots Armstrong "had been considered one of the weaker stick-and-rudder men, but the very best when it came to understanding the machine's design and how it operated".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins2001314-55"><span>[</span>55<span>]</span></a></sup> Many of the test pilots at Edwards praised Armstrong's engineering ability. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milton_Orville_Thompson">Milt Thompson</a> said he was "the most technically capable of the early X-15 pilots". <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Dana_(pilot)">Bill Dana</a> said Armstrong "had a mind that absorbed things like a sponge". Those who flew for the Air Force tended to have a different opinion, especially people like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuck_Yeager">Chuck Yeager</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_J._Knight">Pete Knight</a>, who did not have engineering degrees. Knight said that pilot-engineers flew in a way that was "more mechanical than it is flying", and gave this as the reason why some pilot-engineers got into trouble: Their flying skills did not come naturally.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005138–139-56"><span>[</span>56<span>]</span></a></sup> Armstrong made seven <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_X-15_flights">flights in the X-15</a> between November 30, 1960, and July 26, 1962.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenkins2000118–121-57"><span>[</span>57<span>]</span></a></sup> He reached a top speed of Mach 5.74 (3,989 mph, 6,420 km/h) in the X-15-1, and left the Flight Research Center with a total of 2,400 flying hours.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005210-58"><span>[</span>58<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>On April 24, 1962, Armstrong flew for the only time with Yeager. Their job, flying a T-33, was to evaluate Smith Ranch Dry Lake in Nevada for use as an emergency landing site for the X-15. In his autobiography, Yeager wrote that he knew the lake bed was unsuitable for landings after recent rains, but Armstrong insisted on flying out anyway. As they attempted a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touch-and-go_landing">touch-and-go</a>, the wheels became stuck and they had to wait for rescue. As Armstrong told the story, Yeager never tried to talk him out of it and they made a first successful landing on the east side of the lake. Then Yeager told him to try again, this time a bit slower. On the second landing, they became stuck, provoking Yeager to fits of laughter.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005184–189-59"><span>[</span>59<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>On May 21, 1962, Armstrong was involved in the "Nellis Affair". He was sent in an F-104 to inspect <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delamar_Dry_Lake">Delamar Dry Lake</a> in southern Nevada, again for emergency landings. He misjudged his altitude and did not realize that the landing gear had not fully extended. As he touched down, the landing gear began to retract; Armstrong applied full power to abort the landing, but the ventral fin and landing gear door struck the ground, damaging the radio and releasing <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_fluid">hydraulic fluid</a>. Without radio communication, Armstrong flew south to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nellis_Air_Force_Base">Nellis Air Force Base</a>, past the control tower, and waggled his wings, the signal for a no-radio approach. The loss of hydraulic fluid caused the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tailhook">tailhook</a> to release, and upon landing, he caught the arresting wire attached to an anchor chain, and dragged the chain along the runway.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005189–192-60"><span>[</span>60<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>It took thirty minutes to clear the runway and rig another arresting cable. Armstrong telephoned Edwards and asked for someone to collect him. Milt Thompson was sent in an F-104B, the only two-seater available, but a plane Thompson had never flown. With great difficulty, Thompson made it to Nellis, where a strong crosswind caused a hard landing and the left main tire suffered a blowout. The runway was again closed to clear it, and Bill Dana was sent to Nellis in a T-33, but he almost landed long. The Nellis base operations office then decided that to avoid any further problems, it would be best to find the three NASA pilots ground transport back to Edwards.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005189–192-60"><span>[</span>60<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<p></p><h2>Astronaut career</h2><p></p>
<figure><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Neil_Armstrong_in_Gemini_G-2C_training_suit.jpg"></a><figcaption>Armstrong in an early <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Gemini">Gemini</a> space suit</figcaption></figure>
<p>In June 1958, Armstrong was selected for the U.S. Air Force's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man_in_Space_Soonest">Man in Space Soonest</a> program, but the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Research_Projects_Agency">Advanced Research Projects Agency</a> (ARPA) canceled its funding on August 1, 1958, and on November 5, 1958, it was superseded by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Mercury">Project Mercury</a>, a civilian project run by NASA. As a NASA civilian test pilot, Armstrong was ineligible to become one of its astronauts at this time, as selection was restricted to military test pilots.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurgess201317–18-61"><span>[</span>61<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-62"><span>[</span>62<span>]</span></a></sup> In November 1960, he was chosen as part of the pilot consultant group for the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_X-20_Dyna-Soar">X-20 Dyna-Soar</a>, a military space plane under development by Boeing for the U.S. Air Force, and on March 15, 1962, he was selected by the U.S. Air Force as one of seven pilot-engineers who would fly the X-20 when it got off the design board.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005171–173-63"><span>[</span>63<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurgess201319–21-64"><span>[</span>64<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In April 1962, NASA sought applications for the second group of NASA astronauts for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Gemini">Project Gemini</a>, a proposed two-man spacecraft. This time, selection was open to qualified civilian test pilots.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurgess20134–6-65"><span>[</span>65<span>]</span></a></sup> Armstrong visited the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle_World%27s_Fair">Seattle World's Fair</a> in May 1962 and attended a conference there on space exploration that was co-sponsored by NASA. After he returned from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle">Seattle</a> on June 4, he applied to become an astronaut. His application arrived about a week past the June 1, 1962, deadline, but Dick Day, a flight simulator expert with whom Armstrong had worked closely at Edwards, saw the late arrival of the application and slipped it into the pile before anyone noticed.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005193–195-66"><span>[</span>66<span>]</span></a></sup> At <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooks_Air_Force_Base">Brooks Air Force Base</a> at the end of June, Armstrong underwent a medical exam that many of the applicants described as painful and at times seemingly pointless.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurgess201329–30-67"><span>[</span>67<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>NASA's Director of Flight Crew Operations, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deke_Slayton">Deke Slayton</a>, called Armstrong on September 13, 1962, and asked whether he would be interested in joining the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_Astronaut_Corps">NASA Astronaut Corps</a> as part of what the press dubbed "the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_Astronaut_Group_2">New Nine</a>"; without hesitation, Armstrong said yes. The selections were kept secret until three days later, although newspaper reports had circulated since earlier that year that he would be selected as the "first civilian astronaut".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005201–202-68"><span>[</span>68<span>]</span></a></sup> Armstrong was one of two civilian pilots selected for this group;<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurgess201364–66-69"><span>[</span>69<span>]</span></a></sup> the other was <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliot_See">Elliot See</a>, another former naval aviator.<sup><a href="#cite_note-70"><span>[</span>70<span>]</span></a></sup> NASA selected the second group that, compared with the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_Seven">Mercury Seven</a> astronauts, were younger,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurgess201329–30-67"><span>[</span>67<span>]</span></a></sup> and had more impressive academic credentials.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurgess201354-71"><span>[</span>71<span>]</span></a></sup> Collins wrote that Armstrong was by far the most experienced test pilot in the Astronaut Corps.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins2001314-55"><span>[</span>55<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<p></p><h3>Gemini program</h3><p></p>
<p></p><h4>Gemini 5</h4><p></p>
<p>On February 8, 1965, Armstrong and Elliot See were picked as the backup crew for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemini_5">Gemini 5</a>, with Armstrong as commander, supporting the prime crew of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Cooper">Gordon Cooper</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pete_Conrad">Pete Conrad</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReichl201678-72"><span>[</span>72<span>]</span></a></sup> The mission's purpose was to practice <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_rendezvous">space rendezvous</a> and to develop procedures and equipment for a seven-day flight, all of which would be required for a mission to the Moon. With two other flights (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemini_3">Gemini 3</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemini_4">Gemini 4</a>) in preparation, six crews were competing for simulator time, so Gemini<span> </span>5 was postponed. It finally lifted off on August 21.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHackerGrimwood2010255–256-73"><span>[</span>73<span>]</span></a></sup> Armstrong and See watched the launch at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Kennedy">Cape Kennedy</a>, then flew to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manned_Spacecraft_Center">Manned Spacecraft Center</a> (MSC) in Houston.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005239-74"><span>[</span>74<span>]</span></a></sup> The mission was generally successful, despite a problem with the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_cell">fuel cells</a> that prevented a rendezvous. Cooper and Conrad practiced a "phantom rendezvous", carrying out the maneuver without a target.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHackerGrimwood2010257–258-75"><span>[</span>75<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>

<p></p><h4>Gemini 8</h4><p></p>

<figure><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GEMINI-TITAN-8_-_PRELAUNCH_ACTIVITY.jpg"></a><figcaption>Armstrong, 35, suiting up for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemini_8">Gemini 8</a> in March 1966</figcaption></figure>
<p>The crews for Gemini<span> </span>8 were assigned on September 20, 1965. Under the normal rotation system, the backup crew for one mission became the prime crew for the third mission after, but Slayton designated <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Scott">David Scott</a> as the pilot of Gemini<span> </span>8.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005240-76"><span>[</span>76<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHackerGrimwood2010523–529-77"><span>[</span>77<span>]</span></a></sup> Scott was the first member of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_Astronaut_Group_3">third group of astronauts</a>, who was selected on October 18, 1963, to receive a prime crew assignment.<sup><a href="#cite_note-78"><span>[</span>78<span>]</span></a></sup> See was designated to command <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemini_9">Gemini 9</a>. Henceforth, each Gemini mission was commanded by a member of Armstrong's group, with a member of Scott's group as the pilot. Conrad would be Armstrong's backup this time, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_F._Gordon_Jr.">Richard F. Gordon Jr.</a> his pilot.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005240-76"><span>[</span>76<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHackerGrimwood2010523–529-77"><span>[</span>77<span>]</span></a></sup> Armstrong became the first American civilian in space. (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valentina_Tereshkova">Valentina Tereshkova</a> of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union">Soviet Union</a> had become the first civilian—and first woman—nearly three years earlier aboard <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vostok_6">Vostok 6</a> when it launched on June 16, 1963.<sup><a href="#cite_note-79"><span>[</span>79<span>]</span></a></sup>) Armstrong would also be the last of his group to fly in space, as See died in a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1966_NASA_T-38_crash">T-38 crash</a> on February 28, 1966, that also took the life of crewmate <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bassett">Charles Bassett</a>. They were replaced by the backup crew of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_P._Stafford">Tom Stafford</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_Cernan">Gene Cernan</a>, while <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Lovell">Jim Lovell</a> and Buzz Aldrin moved up from the backup crew of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemini_10">Gemini 10</a> to become the backup for Gemini 9,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHackerGrimwood2010323–325-80"><span>[</span>80<span>]</span></a></sup> and would eventually fly <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemini_12">Gemini 12</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECunningham2010258-81"><span>[</span>81<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Gemini 8 launched on March 16, 1966. It was the most complex mission yet, with a rendezvous and docking with an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncrewed_spacecraft">uncrewed</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agena_target_vehicle">Agena target vehicle</a>, and the planned second American <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extravehicular_activity">spacewalk</a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extravehicular_activity">EVA</a>) by Scott. The mission was planned to last 75<span> </span>hours and 55<span> </span>orbits. After the Agena lifted off at 10:00:00 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Time_Zone">EST</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005242–244-82"><span>[</span>82<span>]</span></a></sup> the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan_II_GLV">Titan II</a> rocket carrying Armstrong and Scott ignited at 11:41:02 EST, putting them into an orbit from which they chased the Agena.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHackerGrimwood2010526-83"><span>[</span>83<span>]</span></a></sup> They achieved the first-ever docking between two spacecraft.<sup><a href="#cite_note-84"><span>[</span>84<span>]</span></a></sup> Contact with the crew was intermittent due to the lack of tracking stations covering their entire orbits. While out of contact with the ground, the docked spacecraft began to roll, and Armstrong attempted to correct this with the Gemini's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbit_Attitude_and_Maneuvering_System">Orbit Attitude and Maneuvering System</a> (OAMS). Following the earlier advice of Mission Control, they undocked, but the roll increased dramatically until they were turning about once per second, indicating a problem with Gemini's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacecraft_attitude_control">attitude control</a>. Armstrong engaged the Reentry Control System (RCS) and turned off the OAMS. Mission rules dictated that once this system was turned on, the spacecraft had to reenter at the next possible opportunity. It was later thought that damaged wiring caused one of the thrusters to stick in the on position.<sup><a href="#cite_note-85"><span>[</span>85<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<figure><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Armstrong_and_Scott_with_Hatches_Open_-_GPN-2000-001413.jpg"></a><figcaption>Recovery of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemini_8">Gemini 8</a> from the western Pacific Ocean; Armstrong sitting to the right</figcaption></figure>
<p>A few people in the Astronaut Office, including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Cunningham">Walter Cunningham</a>, felt that Armstrong and Scott "had botched their first mission".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECunningham2010111–112-86"><span>[</span>86<span>]</span></a></sup> There was speculation that Armstrong could have salvaged the mission if he had turned on only one of the two RCS rings, saving the other for mission objectives. These criticisms were unfounded; no malfunction procedures had been written, and it was possible to turn on only both RCS rings, not one or the other.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005270–271-87"><span>[</span>87<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_Kranz">Gene Kranz</a> wrote, "The crew reacted as they were trained, and they reacted wrong because we trained them wrong." The mission planners and controllers had failed to realize that when two spacecraft were docked, they must be considered one spacecraft. Kranz considered this the mission's most important lesson.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKranz2000174-88"><span>[</span>88<span>]</span></a></sup> Armstrong was depressed that the mission was cut short,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005274-89"><span>[</span>89<span>]</span></a></sup> canceling most mission objectives and robbing Scott of his EVA. The Agena was later reused as a docking target by Gemini 10.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHackerGrimwood2010321–322-90"><span>[</span>90<span>]</span></a></sup> Armstrong and Scott received the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_Exceptional_Service_Medal">NASA Exceptional Service Medal</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-NASA_Awards-91"><span>[</span>91<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-zanesville-92"><span>[</span>92<span>]</span></a></sup> and the Air Force awarded Scott the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distinguished_Flying_Cross_(United_States)">Distinguished Flying Cross</a> as well.<sup><a href="#cite_note-93"><span>[</span>93<span>]</span></a></sup> Scott was promoted to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel_(United_States)">lieutenant colonel</a>, and Armstrong received a $678 raise in pay to $21,653 a year (equivalent to $203,338 in 2023), making him NASA's highest-paid astronaut.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005274-89"><span>[</span>89<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<p></p><h4>Gemini 11</h4><p></p>

<p>In Armstrong's final assignment in the Gemini program, he was the back-up Command Pilot for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemini_11">Gemini 11</a>. Having trained for two flights, Armstrong was quite knowledgeable about the systems and took on a teaching role for the rookie backup pilot, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Anders">William Anders</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005292–293-94"><span>[</span>94<span>]</span></a></sup> The launch was on September 12, 1966,<sup><a href="#cite_note-95"><span>[</span>95<span>]</span></a></sup> with Conrad and Gordon on board, who successfully completed the mission objectives, while Armstrong served as a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsule_communicator">capsule communicator</a> (CAPCOM).<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005294–296-96"><span>[</span>96<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Following the flight, President <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> asked Armstrong and his wife to take part in a 24-day goodwill tour of South America.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005296–297-97"><span>[</span>97<span>]</span></a></sup> Also on the tour, which took in 11<span> </span>countries and 14<span> </span>major cities, were Dick Gordon, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Low">George Low</a>, their wives, and other government officials. In Paraguay, Armstrong greeted dignitaries in their local language, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guarani_language">Guarani</a>; in Brazil he talked about the exploits of the Brazilian-born aviation pioneer <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberto_Santos-Dumont">Alberto Santos-Dumont</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005298–299-98"><span>[</span>98<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<p></p><h3>Apollo program</h3><p></p>
<p>On January 27, 1967—the day of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_1_fire">Apollo 1 fire</a>—Armstrong was in Washington, D.C., with Cooper, Gordon, Lovell and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Carpenter">Scott Carpenter</a> for the signing of the United Nations <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outer_Space_Treaty">Outer Space Treaty</a>. The astronauts chatted with the assembled dignitaries until 18:45, when Carpenter went to the airport, and the others returned to the Georgetown Inn, where they each found messages to phone the MSC. During these calls, they learned of the deaths of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gus_Grissom">Gus Grissom</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed_White_(astronaut)">Ed White</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_B._Chaffee">Roger Chaffee</a> in the fire. Armstrong and the group spent the rest of the night drinking scotch and discussing what had happened.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELovellKluger200024–25-99"><span>[</span>99<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>On April 5, 1967, the same day the Apollo<span> </span>1 investigation released its final report, Armstrong and 17 other astronauts gathered for a meeting with Slayton. The first thing Slayton said was, "The guys who are going to fly the first lunar missions are the guys in this room."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECernanDavis1999165-100"><span>[</span>100<span>]</span></a></sup> According to Cernan, only Armstrong showed no reaction to the statement. To Armstrong it came as no surprise—the room was full of veterans of Project Gemini, the only people who could fly the lunar missions. Slayton talked about the planned missions and named Armstrong to the backup crew for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_9">Apollo 9</a>, which at that stage was planned as a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium_Earth_orbit">medium Earth orbit</a> test of the combined <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_module">lunar module</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command_and_service_module">command and service module</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005312–313-101"><span>[</span>101<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The crew was officially assigned on November 20, 1967.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrooks_et_al.2009374-102"><span>[</span>102<span>]</span></a></sup> For crewmates, Armstrong was assigned Lovell and Aldrin, from Gemini 12. After design and manufacturing delays of the lunar module (LM), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_8">Apollo 8</a> and<span> </span>9 swapped prime and backup crews. Based on the normal crew rotation, Armstrong would command Apollo 11,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005312–313-101"><span>[</span>101<span>]</span></a></sup> with one change: Collins on the Apollo<span> </span>8 crew began experiencing trouble with his legs. Doctors diagnosed the problem as a bony growth between his fifth and sixth vertebrae, requiring surgery.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins2001288–289-103"><span>[</span>103<span>]</span></a></sup> Lovell took his place on the Apollo<span> </span>8 crew, and, when Collins recovered, he joined Armstrong's crew.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECunningham2010109-104"><span>[</span>104<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<figure><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Apollo_11_LLRV_1.jpg"></a><figcaption>Armstrong descends to the ground on a parachute after ejecting from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_Landing_Research_Vehicle">Lunar Landing Research Vehicle</a> 1.</figcaption></figure><p>To give the astronauts practice piloting the LM on its descent, NASA commissioned <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Aircraft">Bell Aircraft</a> to build two <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_Landing_Research_Vehicle">Lunar Landing Research Vehicles</a> (LLRV), later augmented with three Lunar Landing Training Vehicles (LLTV). Nicknamed the "Flying Bedsteads", they simulated the Moon's one-sixth gravity using a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbofan">turbofan</a> engine to support five-sixths of the craft's weight. On May 6, 1968, 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, Armstrong's controls started to degrade and the LLRV began <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_principal_axes">rolling</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005330-105"><span>[</span>105<span>]</span></a></sup> He ejected safely before the vehicle struck the ground and burst into flames. Later analysis suggested that if he had ejected half a second later, his parachute would not have opened in time. His only injury was from biting his tongue. The LLRV was completely destroyed.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKraft2001312-106"><span>[</span>106<span>]</span></a></sup> Even though he was nearly killed, Armstrong maintained that without the LLRV and LLTV, the lunar landings would not have been successful, as they gave commanders essential experience in piloting the lunar landing craft.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005334-107"><span>[</span>107<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In addition to the LLRV training, NASA began lunar landing simulator training after Apollo 10 was completed. Aldrin and Armstrong trained for a variety of scenarios that could develop during a real lunar landing.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaikin1994171-108"><span>[</span>108<span>]</span></a></sup> They also received briefings from geologists at NASA.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaikin1994179-109"><span>[</span>109<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<p></p><h4>Apollo 11</h4><p></p>

<figure><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Apollo_11_Prime_Crew_-_GPN-2000-001164_-_Ap11-s69-31740.jpg"></a><figcaption>The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_11">Apollo 11</a> crew: Armstrong, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Collins_(astronaut)">Michael Collins</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buzz_Aldrin">Buzz Aldrin</a>.</figcaption></figure>
<p>After Armstrong served as backup commander for Apollo<span> </span>8, Slayton offered him the post of commander of Apollo 11 on December 23, 1968, as Apollo<span> </span>8 orbited the Moon.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson200917-110"><span>[</span>110<span>]</span></a></sup> According to Armstrong's 2005 biography, Slayton told him that although the planned crew was Commander Armstrong, Lunar Module Pilot Buzz Aldrin, and Command Module Pilot Michael Collins, he was offering Armstrong the chance to replace Aldrin with Jim Lovell. After thinking it over for a day, Armstrong told Slayton he would stick with Aldrin, as he had no difficulty working with him and thought Lovell deserved his own command. Replacing Aldrin with Lovell would have made Lovell the lunar module pilot, unofficially the lowest ranked member, and Armstrong could not justify placing Lovell, the commander of Gemini 12, in the number<span> </span>3 position of the crew.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005338-111"><span>[</span>111<span>]</span></a></sup> The crew of Apollo 11 was assigned on January 9, 1969, as Armstrong, Collins, and Aldrin, with Lovell, Anders, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Haise">Fred Haise</a> as the backup crew.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins2001312–313-112"><span>[</span>112<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>According to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Kraft">Chris Kraft</a>, a March 1969 meeting among Slayton, George Low, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Gilruth">Bob Gilruth</a>, and Kraft determined that Armstrong would be the first person on the Moon, in part because NASA management saw him as a person who did not have a large ego. A press conference on April 14, 1969, gave the design of the LM cabin as the reason for Armstrong's being first; the hatch opened inwards and to the right, making it difficult for the LM pilot, on the right-hand side, to exit first. At the time of their meeting, the four men did not know about the hatch consideration. The first knowledge of the meeting outside the small group came when Kraft wrote his book.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKraft2001323–324-113"><span>[</span>113<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005365–373-114"><span>[</span>114<span>]</span></a></sup> Methods of circumventing this difficulty existed, but it is not known if these were considered at the time. Slayton added, "Secondly, just on a pure protocol basis, I figured the commander ought to be the first guy out<span> </span>... I changed it as soon as I found they had the time line that showed that. Bob Gilruth approved my decision."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECortright1975160-115"><span>[</span>115<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<p></p><h4>Voyage to the Moon</h4><p></p>
<p>A <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn_V">Saturn V</a> rocket launched Apollo 11 from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39A">Launch Complex 39A</a> at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center">Kennedy Space Center</a> on July 16, 1969, at 13:32:00 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time">UTC</a> (09:32:00 EDT local time).<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrloff200092-116"><span>[</span>116<span>]</span></a></sup> Armstrong's wife Janet and two sons watched from a yacht moored on the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banana_River">Banana River</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen20052-117"><span>[</span>117<span>]</span></a></sup> During the launch, Armstrong's heart rate peaked at 110<span> </span>beats per minute.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005410-118"><span>[</span>118<span>]</span></a></sup> He found the first stage the loudest, much noisier than the Gemini<span> </span>8 Titan II launch. The Apollo command module was relatively roomy compared with the Gemini spacecraft. None of the Apollo 11 crew suffered <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_sickness">space sickness</a>, as some members of previous crews had. Armstrong was especially glad about this, as he had been prone to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_sickness">motion sickness</a> as a child and could experience <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nausea">nausea</a> after long periods of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerobatics">aerobatics</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005411–412-119"><span>[</span>119<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<figure><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Neil_Armstrong.jpg"></a><figcaption>Armstrong in the lunar module after the completion of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extravehicular_activity">EVA</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>Apollo 11's objective was to land safely on the Moon, rather than to touch down at a precise location. Three minutes into the lunar descent, Armstrong noted that craters were passing about two seconds too early, which meant the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_Module_Eagle">Lunar Module <i>Eagle</i></a> would probably touch down several miles (kilometres) beyond the planned landing zone.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith200511-120"><span>[</span>120<span>]</span></a></sup> As the <i>Eagle</i><span>'</span>s landing <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar">radar</a> acquired the surface, several computer error alarms sounded. The first was a code <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Garman#1202">1202</a> alarm, and even with their extensive training, neither Armstrong nor Aldrin knew what this code meant. They promptly received word from CAPCOM <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Duke">Charles Duke</a> in Houston that the alarms were not a concern; the 1202 and 1201 alarms were caused by executive overflows in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_Guidance_Computer">lunar module guidance computer</a>. In 2007, Aldrin said the overflows were caused by his own counter-checklist choice of leaving the docking radar on during the landing process, causing the computer to process unnecessary radar data. When it did not have enough time to execute all tasks, the computer dropped the lower-priority ones, triggering the alarms. Aldrin said he decided to leave the radar on in case an abort was necessary when re-docking with the Apollo command module; he did not realize it would cause the processing overflows.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005459–465-121"><span>[</span>121<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<figure><span></span><figcaption>Armstrong lands the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_Module_Eagle">Lunar Module <i>Eagle</i></a> on the Moon, July 20, 1969.</figcaption></figure>
<p>When Armstrong noticed they were heading toward a landing area that seemed unsafe, he took manual control of the LM and attempted to find a safer area. This took longer than expected, and longer than most simulations had taken.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaikin1994199-122"><span>[</span>122<span>]</span></a></sup> For this reason, Mission Control was concerned that the LM was running low on fuel.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaikin1994198-123"><span>[</span>123<span>]</span></a></sup> On landing, Aldrin and Armstrong believed they had 40<span> </span>seconds of fuel left, including the 20<span> </span>seconds' worth which had to be saved in the event of an abort.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaikin1994200-124"><span>[</span>124<span>]</span></a></sup> During training, Armstrong had, on several occasions, landed with fewer than 15<span> </span>seconds of fuel; he was also confident the LM could survive a fall of up to 50 feet (15 m). Post-mission analysis showed that at touchdown there were 45 to 50<span> </span>seconds of propellant burn time left.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManned_Spacecraft_Center19699-23–9-24-125"><span>[</span>125<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The landing on the surface of the Moon occurred several seconds after 20:17:40 UTC on July 20, 1969.<sup><a href="#cite_note-126"><span>[</span>126<span>]</span></a></sup> One of three 67-inch (170 cm) probes attached to three of the LM's four legs made contact with the surface, a panel light in the LM illuminated, and Aldrin called out, "Contact light." Armstrong shut the engine off and said, "Shutdown." As the LM settled onto the surface, Aldrin said, "Okay, engine stop"; then they both called out some post-landing checklist items. After a 10-second pause, Duke acknowledged the landing with, "We copy you down, <i>Eagle</i>." Armstrong confirmed the landing to Mission Control and the world with the words, "Houston, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tranquility_Base">Tranquility Base</a> here. The <i>Eagle</i> has landed." Aldrin and Armstrong celebrated with a brisk handshake and pat on the back. They then returned to the checklist of contingency tasks, should an emergency liftoff become necessary.<sup><a href="#cite_note-127"><span>[</span>127<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-128"><span>[</span>128<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-129"><span>[</span>129<span>]</span></a></sup> After Armstrong confirmed touch down, Duke re-acknowledged, adding a comment about the flight crew's relief: "Roger, Tranquility. We copy you on the ground. You got a bunch of guys about to turn blue. We're breathing again. Thanks a lot."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaikin1994200-124"><span>[</span>124<span>]</span></a></sup> During the landing, Armstrong's heart rate ranged from 100 to 150<span> </span>beats per minute.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManned_Spacecraft_Center196912-1-130"><span>[</span>130<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<p></p><h4>First Moon walk</h4><p></p>

<figure><span></span><figcaption>Armstrong describes the lunar surface.</figcaption></figure>
<div><figure><span></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div>
<p>The flight plan called for a crew rest period before leaving the module, but Armstrong asked for this to be moved to earlier in the evening, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Time_Zone_(North_America)">Houston time</a>. When he and Aldrin were ready to go outside, <i>Eagle</i> was depressurized, the hatch was opened, and Armstrong made his way down the ladder.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECortright1975215-131"><span>[</span>131<span>]</span></a></sup> At the bottom of the ladder, while standing on a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_Lunar_Module">Lunar Module</a> landing pad, Armstrong said, "I'm going to step off the LM now". He turned and set his left boot on the lunar surface at 02:56 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTC">UTC</a> July 21, 1969,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarland199923-132"><span>[</span>132<span>]</span></a></sup> then said, "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Snopes-133"><span>[</span>133<span>]</span></a></sup> The exact time of Armstrong's first step on the Moon is unclear.<sup><a href="#cite_note-134"><span>[</span>134<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Armstrong prepared his famous <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigram">epigram</a> on his own.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Plimpton-135"><span>[</span>135<span>]</span></a></sup> In a post-flight press conference, he said that he chose the words "just prior to leaving the LM."<sup><a href="#cite_note-136"><span>[</span>136<span>]</span></a></sup> In a 1983 interview in <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esquire_(magazine)">Esquire</a></i> magazine, he explained to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Plimpton">George Plimpton</a>: "I always knew there was a good chance of being able to return to Earth, but I thought the chances of a successful touch down on the moon surface were about even money—fifty–fifty<span> </span>... Most people don't realize how difficult the mission was. So it didn't seem to me there was much point in thinking of something to say if we'd have to abort landing."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Plimpton-135"><span>[</span>135<span>]</span></a></sup> In 2012, his brother Dean Armstrong said that Neil showed him a draft of the line months before the launch.<sup><a href="#cite_note-137"><span>[</span>137<span>]</span></a></sup> Historian <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Chaikin">Andrew Chaikin</a>, who interviewed Armstrong in 1988 for his book <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Man_on_the_Moon">A Man on the Moon</a></i>, disputed that Armstrong claimed to have conceived the line during the mission.<sup><a href="#cite_note-138"><span>[</span>138<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Recordings of Armstrong's transmission do not provide evidence for the indefinite article "a" before "man", though NASA and Armstrong insisted for years that static obscured it. Armstrong stated he would never make such a mistake, but after repeated listenings to recordings, he eventually conceded he must have dropped the "a".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Snopes-133"><span>[</span>133<span>]</span></a></sup> He later said he "would hope that history would grant me leeway for dropping the syllable and understand that it was certainly intended, even if it was not said—although it might actually have been".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENickell2008175-139"><span>[</span>139<span>]</span></a></sup> There have since been claims and counter-claims about whether acoustic analysis of the recording reveals the presence of the missing "a";<sup><a href="#cite_note-Snopes-133"><span>[</span>133<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-140"><span>[</span>140<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Shann_Ford">Peter Shann Ford</a>, an Australian computer programmer, conducted a digital audio analysis and claims that Armstrong did say "a man", but the "a" was inaudible due to the limitations of communications technology of the time.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Snopes-133"><span>[</span>133<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-141"><span>[</span>141<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-142"><span>[</span>142<span>]</span></a></sup> Ford and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_R._Hansen">James R. Hansen</a>, Armstrong's authorized biographer, presented these findings to Armstrong and NASA representatives, who conducted their own analysis.<sup><a href="#cite_note-143"><span>[</span>143<span>]</span></a></sup> Armstrong found Ford's analysis "persuasive."<sup><a href="#cite_note-144"><span>[</span>144<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-145"><span>[</span>145<span>]</span></a></sup> Linguists <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Beaver">David Beaver</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Liberman">Mark Liberman</a> wrote of their skepticism of Ford's claims on the blog <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_Log">Language Log</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-146"><span>[</span>146<span>]</span></a></sup> A 2016 peer-reviewed study again concluded Armstrong had included the article.<sup><a href="#cite_note-147"><span>[</span>147<span>]</span></a></sup> NASA's transcript continues to show the "a" in parentheses.<sup><a href="#cite_note-148"><span>[</span>148<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>When Armstrong made his proclamation, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_of_America">Voice of America</a> was rebroadcast live by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC">BBC</a> and many other stations worldwide. An estimated 530<span> </span>million people viewed the event,<sup><a href="#cite_note-149"><span>[</span>149<span>]</span></a></sup> 20 percent out of a world population of approximately 3.6<span> </span>billion.<sup><a href="#cite_note-150"><span>[</span>150<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-151"><span>[</span>151<span>]</span></a></sup><span> </span>
</p>
<div>
<blockquote>
<p>Q: Did you misspeak?
</p><p>A: There isn't any way of knowing.
</p><p>Q: Several sources say you did.
</p><p>A: I mean, there isn't any way of <i>my</i> knowing. When I listen to the tape, I can't hear the 'a', but that doesn't mean it wasn't there, because that was the fastest VOX ever built. There was no mike-switch — it was a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice-operated_switch">voice-operated key or VOX</a>. In a helmet you find you lose a lot of syllables. Sometimes a short syllable like 'a' might not be transmitted. However, when I listen to it, I can't hear it. But the 'a' is implied, so I'm happy if they just put it in parentheses.
</p>
</blockquote>
<p><cite><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omni_(magazine)">Omni</a></i>, June 1982, p. 126</cite></p>
</div>
<figure><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Armstrong_on_Moon_(As11-40-5886)_(cropped).jpg"></a><figcaption>Armstrong on the Moon</figcaption></figure>
<p>About 19<span> </span>minutes after Armstrong's first step, Aldrin joined him on the surface, becoming the second human to walk on the Moon. They began their tasks of investigating how easily a person could operate on the lunar surface. Armstrong unveiled a plaque commemorating the flight, and with Aldrin, planted the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_Flag_Assembly">flag of the United States</a>. Although Armstrong had wanted the flag to be draped on the flagpole,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaikin2007212-152"><span>[</span>152<span>]</span></a></sup> it was decided to use a metal rod to hold it horizontally.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson200860-153"><span>[</span>153<span>]</span></a></sup> However, the rod did not fully extend, leaving the flag with a slightly wavy appearance, as if there were a breeze.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2012503–504-154"><span>[</span>154<span>]</span></a></sup> Shortly after the flag planting, President <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> spoke to them by telephone from his office. He spoke for about a minute, after which Armstrong responded for about thirty seconds.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005505–506-155"><span>[</span>155<span>]</span></a></sup> In the Apollo 11 photographic record, there are only five images of Armstrong partly shown or reflected. The mission was planned to the minute, with the majority of photographic tasks performed by Armstrong with the single <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasselblad">Hasselblad</a> camera.<sup><a href="#cite_note-156"><span>[</span>156<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>After helping to set up the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_Lunar_Surface_Experiments_Package">Early Apollo Scientific Experiment Package</a>, Armstrong went for a walk to what is now known as East Crater, 65 yards (59 m) east of the LM, the greatest distance traveled from the LM on the mission. His final task was to remind Aldrin to leave a small package of memorial items to Soviet <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cosmonauts">cosmonauts</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Komarov">Vladimir Komarov</a>, and Apollo<span> </span>1 astronauts Grissom, White and Chaffee.<sup><a href="#cite_note-157"><span>[</span>157<span>]</span></a></sup> The Apollo 11 EVA lasted two and a half hours.<sup><a href="#cite_note-ApolloSum-158"><span>[</span>158<span>]</span></a></sup> Each of the subsequent five landings was allotted a progressively longer EVA period; the crew of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_17">Apollo 17</a> spent over 22<span> </span>hours exploring the lunar surface.<sup><a href="#cite_note-ApolloSum-158"><span>[</span>158<span>]</span></a></sup> In a 2010 interview, Armstrong explained that NASA limited their Moon walk because they were unsure how the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_suit">space suits</a> would cope with the Moon's extremely high temperature.<sup><a href="#cite_note-159"><span>[</span>159<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<p></p><h5>Return to Earth</h5><p></p>
<figure><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:President_Nixon_welcomes_the_Apollo_11_astronauts_aboard_the_U.S.S._Hornet.jpg"></a><figcaption>The Apollo 11 crew and President <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> during the post-mission quarantine period</figcaption></figure>
<p>After they re-entered the LM, the hatch was closed and sealed. While preparing for liftoff, Armstrong and Aldrin discovered that, in their bulky space suits, they had broken the ignition switch for the ascent engine; using part of a pen, they pushed in the circuit breaker to start the launch sequence.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005489–490-160"><span>[</span>160<span>]</span></a></sup> The <i>Eagle</i> then continued to its rendezvous in lunar orbit, where it docked with <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command_module_Columbia">Columbia</a></i>, the command and service module. The three astronauts returned to Earth and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean, to be picked up by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Hornet_(CV-12)">USS <i>Hornet</i></a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-161"><span>[</span>161<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>
After being released from an 18-day quarantine to ensure that they had not picked up any infections or diseases from the Moon, the crew was feted across the United States and around the world as part of a 38-day "Giant Leap" tour.<sup><a href="#cite_note-162"><span>[</span>162<span>]</span></a></sup> </p><figure><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Apollo_11_ticker_tape_parade_1.jpg"></a><figcaption>New York City ticker tape parade, August 13, 1969</figcaption></figure>
<p>The tour began on August 13, when the three astronauts spoke and rode in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ticker-tape_parade">ticker-tape parades</a> in their honor in New York and Chicago, with an estimated six million attendees.<sup><a href="#cite_note-LADinner-163"><span>[</span>163<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-164"><span>[</span>164<span>]</span></a></sup> On the same evening an official <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_dinner">state dinner</a> was held in Los Angeles to celebrate the flight, attended by members of Congress, 44<span> </span>governors, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States">Chief Justice of the United States</a>, and ambassadors from 83<span> </span>nations. President Nixon and Vice President Agnew presented each astronaut with a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom">Presidential Medal of Freedom</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-LADinner-163"><span>[</span>163<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-165"><span>[</span>165<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>After the tour Armstrong took part in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Hope">Bob Hope</a>'s 1969 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USO">USO</a> show, primarily to Vietnam.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005580-166"><span>[</span>166<span>]</span></a></sup> In May 1970, Armstrong traveled to the Soviet Union to present a talk at the 13th annual conference of the International <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_on_Space_Research">Committee on Space Research</a>; after arriving in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leningrad">Leningrad</a> from Poland, he traveled to Moscow where he met <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union">Premier</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexei_Kosygin">Alexei Kosygin</a>. Armstrong was the first westerner to see the supersonic <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tupolev_Tu-144">Tupolev Tu-144</a> and was given a tour of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin_Cosmonaut_Training_Center">Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center</a>, which he described as "a bit Victorian in nature".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005583-167"><span>[</span>167<span>]</span></a></sup> At the end of the day, he was surprised to view a delayed video of the launch of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_9">Soyuz 9</a> as it had not occurred to Armstrong that the mission was taking place, even though Valentina Tereshkova had been his host and her husband, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andriyan_Nikolayev">Andriyan Nikolayev</a>, was on board.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005582–584-168"><span>[</span>168<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<p></p><h2>Life after Apollo</h2><p></p>
<figure><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_837790_Valentina_Tereshkova_and_Neil_Armstrong.jpg"></a><figcaption><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valentina_Tereshkova">Valentina Tereshkova</a>, the first woman in space, presenting a badge to Neil Armstrong, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin_Cosmonaut_Training_Center">Star City</a>, Soviet Union, June 1970</figcaption></figure>
<p></p><h3>Teaching</h3><p></p>
<p>Shortly after Apollo 11, Armstrong stated that he did not plan to fly in space again.<sup><a href="#cite_note-169"><span>[</span>169<span>]</span></a></sup> He was appointed Deputy Associate Administrator for Aeronautics for the Office of Advanced Research and Technology at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DARPA">ARPA</a>, served in the position for a year, then resigned from it and NASA in 1971.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005584-170"><span>[</span>170<span>]</span></a></sup> He accepted a teaching position in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cincinnati">University of Cincinnati</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-171"><span>[</span>171<span>]</span></a></sup> having chosen Cincinnati over other universities, including his <i>alma mater</i> Purdue, because Cincinnati had a small aerospace department,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2012590-172"><span>[</span>172<span>]</span></a></sup> and said he hoped the faculty there would not be annoyed that he came straight into a professorship with only a USC master's degree.<sup><a href="#cite_note-173"><span>[</span>173<span>]</span></a></sup> He began his master's degree while stationed at Edwards years before, and completed it after Apollo 11 by presenting a report on various aspects of Apollo, instead of a thesis on the simulation of hypersonic flight.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005590–594-174"><span>[</span>174<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>At Cincinnati, Armstrong was University Professor of Aerospace Engineering. He took a heavy teaching load, taught core classes, and created two graduate-level classes: aircraft design and experimental flight mechanics. He was considered a good teacher, and a tough grader. His research activities during this time did not involve his work at NASA, as he did not want to give the appearance of favoritism; he later regretted the decision. After teaching for eight years, Armstrong resigned in 1980. When the university changed from an independent municipal university to a state school, bureaucracy increased. He did not want to be a part of the faculty collective bargaining group, so he decided to teach half-time. According to Armstrong, he had the same amount of work but received half his salary. In 1979, less than 10% of his income came from his university salary. Employees at the university did not know why he left.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005590–594-174"><span>[</span>174<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<p></p><h3>NASA commissions</h3><p></p>
<p>In 1970, after an explosion aboard <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_13">Apollo 13</a> aborted its lunar landing, Armstrong was part of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar_Cortright">Edgar Cortright</a>'s investigation of the mission. He produced a detailed chronology of the flight. He determined that a 28-volt thermostat switch in an oxygen tank, which was supposed to have been replaced with a 65-volt version, led to the explosion. Cortright's report recommended the entire tank be redesigned at a cost of $40<span> </span>million. Many NASA managers, including Armstrong, opposed the recommendation, since only the thermostat switch had caused the problem. They lost the argument, and the tanks were redesigned.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005600–603-175"><span>[</span>175<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In 1986, President <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> asked Armstrong to join the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogers_Commission_Report">Rogers Commission</a> investigating the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Challenger_disaster">Space Shuttle <i>Challenger</i> disaster</a>. Armstrong was made vice chairman of the commission and held private interviews with contacts he had developed over the years to help determine the cause of the disaster. He helped limit the committee's recommendations to nine, believing that if there were too many, NASA would not act on them.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005610–616-176"><span>[</span>176<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<figure><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Apollo_11_-_Crew_at_the_White_House.jpg"></a><figcaption>Michael Collins, President <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_W._Bush">George W. Bush</a>, Neil Armstrong, and Buzz Aldrin during celebrations of the 35th anniversary of the Apollo 11 flight, July 21, 2004</figcaption></figure>
<p>Armstrong was appointed to a fourteen-member commission by President Reagan to develop a plan for American civilian spaceflight in the 21st century. The commission was chaired by former NASA administrator Dr. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_O._Paine">Thomas O. Paine</a>, with whom Armstrong had worked during the Apollo program. The group published a book titled <i>Pioneering the Space Frontier: The Report on the National Commission on Space</i>, recommending a permanent lunar base by 2006, and sending people to Mars by 2015. The recommendations were largely ignored, overshadowed by the <i>Challenger</i> disaster.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2012609–610-177"><span>[</span>177<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Armstrong and his wife attended the memorial service for the victims of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Columbia_disaster">Space Shuttle <i>Columbia</i> disaster</a> in 2003, at the invitation of President <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_W._Bush">George W. Bush</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2012616–617-178"><span>[</span>178<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<p></p><h3>Business activities</h3><p></p>
<p>After Armstrong retired from NASA in 1971, he acted as a spokesman for several businesses. The first company to successfully approach him was <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysler">Chrysler</a>, for whom he appeared in advertising starting in January 1979. Armstrong thought they had a strong engineering division, and they were in financial difficulty. He later acted as a spokesman for other American companies, including General Time Corporation and the Bankers Association of America.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005595-179"><span>[</span>179<span>]</span></a></sup> He acted as a spokesman for only American companies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005596-180"><span>[</span>180<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In addition to his duties as a spokesman, he also served on the board of directors of several companies. The first company board Armstrong joined was <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gates_Learjet">Gates Learjet</a>, chairing their technical committee. He flew their new and experimental jets and even set a climb and altitude record for business jets. Armstrong became a member of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cincinnati_Gas_%26_Electric_Company">Cincinnati Gas &amp; Electric Company</a>'s board in 1973. They were interested in nuclear power and wanted to increase the company's technical competence. He served on the board of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taft_Broadcasting">Taft Broadcasting</a>, also based in Cincinnati. Armstrong joined the board of solid rocket booster <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiokol">Thiokol</a> in 1989, after previously serving on the Rogers Commission which found that the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a> <i>Challenger</i> was destroyed due to a defect in the Thiokol-manufactured solid rocket boosters. When Armstrong left the University of Cincinnati, he became the chairman of Cardwell International Ltd., a company that manufactured drilling rigs. He served on additional aerospace boards, first <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Airlines">United Airlines</a> in 1978, and later <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eaton_Corporation">Eaton Corporation</a> in 1980. He was asked to chair the board of directors for a subsidiary of Eaton, AIL Systems. He chaired the board through the company's 2000 merger with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EDO_Corporation">EDO Corporation</a>, until his retirement in 2002.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005596–598-181"><span>[</span>181<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-182"><span>[</span>182<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<p></p><h3>North Pole expedition</h3><p></p>
<p>In 1985, professional expedition leader Mike Dunn organized a trip to take men he deemed the "greatest explorers" to the North Pole. The group included Armstrong, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Hillary">Edmund Hillary</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Hillary">Hillary's son Peter</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Fossett">Steve Fossett</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Morrow">Patrick Morrow</a>. They arrived at the Pole on April 6, 1985. Armstrong said he was curious to see what it looked like from the ground, as he had seen it only from the Moon.<sup><a href="#cite_note-183"><span>[</span>183<span>]</span></a></sup> He did not inform the media of the trip, preferring to keep it private.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2012609-184"><span>[</span>184<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<p></p><h3>Public profile</h3><p></p>
<figure><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Neil_Armstrong,_1999.jpg"></a><figcaption>Armstrong in 1999</figcaption></figure>
<p>Armstrong's family described him as a "reluctant American hero".<sup><a href="#cite_note-185"><span>[</span>185<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-186"><span>[</span>186<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-187"><span>[</span>187<span>]</span></a></sup> He kept a low profile later in his life, leading to the belief that he was a recluse.<sup><a href="#cite_note-188"><span>[</span>188<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-wapo1-189"><span>[</span>189<span>]</span></a></sup> Recalling Armstrong's humility, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Glenn">John Glenn</a>, the first American to orbit Earth, told CNN: "[Armstrong] didn't feel that he should be out huckstering himself. He was a humble person, and that's the way he remained after his lunar flight, as well as before."<sup><a href="#cite_note-190"><span>[</span>190<span>]</span></a></sup> Armstrong turned down most requests for interviews and public appearances. Michael Collins said in his book <i>Carrying the Fire</i> that when Armstrong moved to a dairy farm to become a college professor, it was like he "retreated to his castle and pulled up the drawbridge". Armstrong found this amusing, and said, "...<span> </span>those of us that live out in the hinterlands think that people that live inside the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_Beltway">Beltway</a> are the ones that have the problems."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShapiro20129,_267,_268-191"><span>[</span>191<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Andrew Chaikin says in <i>A Man on the Moon</i> that Armstrong kept a low profile but was not a recluse, citing his participation in interviews, advertisements for Chrysler, and hosting a cable television series.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaikin2007568–570-192"><span>[</span>192<span>]</span></a></sup> Between 1991 and 1993, he hosted <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Flights_with_Neil_Armstrong">First Flights with Neil Armstrong</a></i>, an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviation_history">aviation history</a> documentary series on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%26E_(TV_channel)">A&amp;E</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShapiro20129,_267,_268-191"><span>[</span>191<span>]</span></a></sup> In 2010, Armstrong voiced the character of Dr. Jack Morrow in <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_Quest:_A_Cassini_Space_Odyssey">Quantum Quest: A Cassini Space Odyssey</a></i>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-193"><span>[</span>193<span>]</span></a></sup> an animated educational sci-fi adventure film initiated by JPL/NASA through a grant from Jet Propulsion Lab.<sup><a href="#cite_note-194"><span>[</span>194<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Armstrong guarded the use of his name, image, and famous quote. When it was launched in 1981, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MTV">MTV</a> wanted to use his quote in its <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Station_identification">station identification</a>, with the American flag replaced with the MTV logo, but he refused the use of his voice and likeness.<sup><a href="#cite_note-195"><span>[</span>195<span>]</span></a></sup> He sued <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallmark_Cards">Hallmark Cards</a> in 1994, when they used his name, and a recording of the "one small step" quote, in a Christmas ornament without his permission. The lawsuit was settled out of court for an undisclosed sum, which Armstrong donated to Purdue.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005628-196"><span>[</span>196<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-197"><span>[</span>197<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>For many years, he wrote letters congratulating new Eagle Scouts on their accomplishment, but decided to quit the practice in the 1990s because he felt the letters should be written by people who knew the scout. (In 2003, he received 950<span> </span>congratulation requests.) This contributed to the myth of his reclusiveness.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2012622–623-198"><span>[</span>198<span>]</span></a></sup> Armstrong used to autograph everything except <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_day_cover">first day covers</a>. Around 1993, he found out his signatures were being sold online, and that most of them were forgeries, and stopped giving autographs.<sup><a href="#cite_note-wapo1-189"><span>[</span>189<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<p></p><h2>Personal life</h2><p></p>
<figure><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Neil_Armstrong_at_50th_anniversary_of_John_Glenn%27s_first_spaceflight.jpg"></a><figcaption>Armstrong speaking in February 2012, six months before his death, on the 50th anniversary of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Glenn">John Glenn</a>'s first spaceflight</figcaption></figure>
<p>Some former astronauts, including Glenn and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_17">Apollo 17</a>'s <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrison_Schmitt">Harrison Schmitt</a>, sought political careers after leaving NASA. Armstrong was approached by groups from both the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)">Democratic</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)">Republican</a> parties but declined the offers. He supported <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/States%27_rights">states' rights</a> and opposed the U.S. acting as the "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_policeman">world's policeman</a>".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005600–601-199"><span>[</span>199<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>When Armstrong applied at a local <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodist">Methodist</a> church to lead a Boy Scout troop in the late 1950s, he gave his religious affiliation as "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deist">deist</a>".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen200533-200"><span>[</span>200<span>]</span></a></sup> His mother later said that his religious views caused her grief and distress in later life, as she was a Christian.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen200535-201"><span>[</span>201<span>]</span></a></sup> Upon his return from the Moon, Armstrong gave a speech in front of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Congress">U.S. Congress</a> in which he thanked them for giving him the opportunity to see some of the "grandest views of the Creator".<sup><a href="#cite_note-202"><span>[</span>202<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005575-203"><span>[</span>203<span>]</span></a></sup> In the early 1980s, he was the subject of a hoax claiming that he converted to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam">Islam</a> after hearing the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adhan">call to prayer</a> while walking on the Moon. Indonesian singer Suhaemi wrote a song called "Gema Suara Adzan di Bulan" ("The Resonant Sound of the Call to Prayer on the Moon") which described Armstrong's supposed conversion, and the song was widely discussed by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakarta">Jakarta</a> news outlets in 1983.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbramson200493-204"><span>[</span>204<span>]</span></a></sup> Similar hoax stories were seen in Egypt and Malaysia. In March 1983, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State">U.S. State Department</a> responded by issuing a message to embassies and consulates in Muslim countries saying that Armstrong had not converted to Islam.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005630–631-205"><span>[</span>205<span>]</span></a></sup> The hoax surfaced occasionally for the next three decades. Part of the confusion arose from the similarity between the names of the country of Lebanon, which has a majority Muslim population, and Armstrong's longtime residence in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanon,_Ohio">Lebanon, Ohio</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005630–631-205"><span>[</span>205<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In 1972, Armstrong visited the Scottish town of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langholm">Langholm</a>, the traditional seat of Clan Armstrong. He was made the first <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_the_City">freeman</a> of the burgh, and happily declared the town his home.<sup><a href="#cite_note-206"><span>[</span>206<span>]</span></a></sup> To entertain the crowd, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justice_of_the_Peace">Justice of the Peace</a> read from an unrepealed archaic 400-year-old law that required him to hang any Armstrong found in the town.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen200513-207"><span>[</span>207<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Armstrong flew light aircraft for pleasure. He enjoyed <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glider_(sailplane)">gliders</a> and before the Moon flight had earned a gold badge with two diamonds from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FAI_Gliding_Commission">International Gliding Commission</a>. He continued to fly engineless aircraft well into his 70s.<sup><a href="#cite_note-208"><span>[</span>208<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>While working on his farm in November 1978, Armstrong jumped off the back of his grain truck and caught his wedding ring in its wheel, tearing the tip off his left ring finger. He collected the severed tip, packed it in ice, and had surgeons reattach it at a nearby hospital in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisville,_Kentucky">Louisville, Kentucky</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005608-209"><span>[</span>209<span>]</span></a></sup> In February 1991, he suffered a mild heart attack while skiing with friends at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspen,_Colorado">Aspen, Colorado</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005639–640-210"><span>[</span>210<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Armstrong and his first wife, Janet, separated in 1990 and divorced in 1994 after 38 years of marriage.<sup><a href="#cite_note-211"><span>[</span>211<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-212"><span>[</span>212<span>]</span></a></sup> He met his second wife, Carol Held Knight, at a golf tournament in 1992, when they were seated together at breakfast. She said little to Armstrong, but he called her two weeks later to ask what she was doing. She replied that she was cutting down a cherry tree, and he arrived at her house 35 minutes later to help. They were married in Ohio on June 12, 1994, and had a second ceremony at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Ysidro_Ranch">San Ysidro Ranch</a> in California. They lived in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Hill,_Ohio">Indian Hill, Ohio</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-213"><span>[</span>213<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2005643–645-214"><span>[</span>214<span>]</span></a></sup> Through his marriage to Carol, he was the father-in-law of future <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Mets">New York Mets</a> general manager <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brodie_Van_Wagenen">Brodie Van Wagenen</a>.
</p><p>In May 2005, Armstrong became involved in a legal dispute with Mark Sizemore, his barber of 20<span> </span>years. After cutting Armstrong's hair, Sizemore sold some of it to a collector for $3,000 without Armstrong's knowledge or permission.<sup><a href="#cite_note-215"><span>[</span>215<span>]</span></a></sup> Armstrong threatened legal action against Sizemore unless he returned the hair or donated the proceeds to a charity of Armstrong's choosing. Sizemore, unable to retrieve the hair, donated the proceeds to charity.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2012628-216"><span>[</span>216<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-217"><span>[</span>217<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<p></p><h2>Illness and death</h2><p></p>
<figure><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Neil_Armstrong_family_memorial_service_(201208310014HQ).jpg"></a><figcaption>Photograph of Armstrong as a boy at his family memorial service in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Hill,_Ohio">Indian Hill, Ohio</a>, near Cincinnati, on August 31, 2012</figcaption></figure>
<p>On August 7, 2012, Armstrong underwent <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronary_artery_bypass_surgery">bypass surgery</a> at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercy_Health_(Ohio_and_Kentucky)">Mercy Faith–Fairfield Hospital</a> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairfield,_Ohio">Fairfield, Ohio</a>, to relieve <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronary_artery_disease">coronary artery disease</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-NYT_malpractice_suit_story-218"><span>[</span>218<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-219"><span>[</span>219<span>]</span></a></sup> Although he was reportedly recovering well,<sup><a href="#cite_note-220"><span>[</span>220<span>]</span></a></sup> he developed complications and died on August 25.<sup><a href="#cite_note-221"><span>[</span>221<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-222"><span>[</span>222<span>]</span></a></sup> President <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_Obama">Barack Obama</a> issued a statement memorializing Armstrong as "among the greatest of American heroes—not just of his time, but of all time",<sup><a href="#cite_note-223"><span>[</span>223<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-224"><span>[</span>224<span>]</span></a></sup> and added that Armstrong had carried the aspirations of the United States' citizens and had delivered "a moment of human achievement that will never be forgotten."<sup><a href="#cite_note-225"><span>[</span>225<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<figure><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Neil_Armstrong_burial_at_sea_(201209140008HQ).jpg"></a><figcaption>Armstrong's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burial_at_sea">burial at sea</a> on September 14, 2012</figcaption></figure>
<p>Armstrong's family released a statement describing him as a "reluctant American hero [who had] served his nation proudly, as a navy fighter pilot, test pilot, and astronaut ... While we mourn the loss of a very good man, we also celebrate his remarkable life and hope that it serves as an example to young people around the world to work hard to make their dreams come true, to be willing to explore and push the limits, and to selflessly serve a cause greater than themselves. For those who may ask what they can do to honor Neil, we have a simple request. Honor his example of service, accomplishment and modesty, and the next time you walk outside on a clear night and see the moon smiling down at you, think of Neil Armstrong and give him a wink."<sup><a href="#cite_note-226"><span>[</span>226<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Buzz Aldrin called Armstrong "a true American hero and the best pilot I ever knew", and said he was disappointed that they would not be able to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the Moon landing together in 2019.<sup><a href="#cite_note-227"><span>[</span>227<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-228"><span>[</span>228<span>]</span></a></sup> Michael Collins said, "He was the best, and I will miss him terribly."<sup><a href="#cite_note-229"><span>[</span>229<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-230"><span>[</span>230<span>]</span></a></sup> NASA Administrator <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bolden">Charles Bolden</a> said, "As long as there are history books, Neil Armstrong will be included in them, remembered for taking humankind's first small step on a world beyond our own".<sup><a href="#cite_note-231"><span>[</span>231<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-232"><span>[</span>232<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<table><tbody><tr><th>External videos</th></tr><tr><td><span><span></span></span> <a href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?308141-1/memorial-service-neil-armstrong">Memorial service for Armstrong, Washington National Cathedral, September 13, 2012</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>A tribute was held for Armstrong on September 13, at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_National_Cathedral">Washington National Cathedral</a>, whose Space Window depicts the Apollo 11 mission and holds a sliver of Moon rock amid its stained-glass panels.<sup><a href="#cite_note-aljazeu-233"><span>[</span>233<span>]</span></a></sup> In attendance were Armstrong's Apollo 11 crewmates, Collins and Aldrin; Gene Cernan, the Apollo 17 mission commander and last man to walk on the Moon; and former senator and astronaut John Glenn, the first American to orbit the Earth. In his eulogy, Charles Bolden praised Armstrong's "courage, grace, and humility". Cernan recalled Armstrong's low-fuel approach to the Moon: "When the gauge says empty, we all know there's a gallon or two left in the tank!" <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diana_Krall">Diana Krall</a> sang the song "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly_Me_to_the_Moon">Fly Me to the Moon</a>". Collins led prayers. David Scott spoke, possibly for the first time, about an incident during their Gemini 8 mission: minutes before the hatch was to be sealed, a small chip of dried glue fell into the latch of his harness and prevented it from being buckled, threatening to abort the mission. Armstrong then called on Conrad to solve the problem, which he did, and the mission proceeded. "That happened because Neil Armstrong was a team player—he always worked on behalf of the team."<sup><a href="#cite_note-aljazeu-233"><span>[</span>233<span>]</span></a></sup> Congressman <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Johnson_(Ohio_politician)">Bill Johnson</a> from Armstrong's home state of Ohio led calls for President Barack Obama to authorize a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_funerals_in_the_United_States">state funeral</a> in Washington D.C. Throughout his lifetime, Armstrong shunned publicity and rarely gave interviews. Mindful that Armstrong would have objected to a state funeral, his family opted to have a private funeral in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cincinnati">Cincinnati</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-234"><span>[</span>234<span>]</span></a></sup> On September 14, Armstrong's cremated remains were scattered in the Atlantic Ocean from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Philippine_Sea_(CG-58)">USS <i>Philippine Sea</i></a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-235"><span>[</span>235<span>]</span></a></sup> Flags were flown at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half-mast">half-staff</a> on the day of Armstrong's funeral.<sup><a href="#cite_note-236"><span>[</span>236<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In July 2019, after observations of the 50th anniversary of the Moon landing, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times">The New York Times</a></i> reported on details of a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_malpractice_in_the_United_States">medical malpractice</a> suit Armstrong's family had filed against Mercy Health–Fairfield Hospital, where he died. When Armstrong appeared to be recovering from his bypass surgery, nurses removed the wires connected to his temporary <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_cardiac_pacemaker">pacemaker</a>. He began to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_bleeding">bleed internally</a> and his blood pressure dropped. Doctors took him to the hospital's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catheter">catheterization</a> laboratory, and only later began operating. Two of the three physicians who reviewed the medical files during the lawsuit called this a serious error, saying surgery should have begun immediately; experts the <i>Times</i> talked to, while qualifying their judgement by noting that they were unable to review the specific records in the case, said that taking a patient directly to the operating room under those circumstances generally gave them the highest chance of survival.<sup><a href="#cite_note-NYT_malpractice_suit_story-218"><span>[</span>218<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The family ultimately settled for $6 million in 2014. Letters included with the 93 pages of documents sent to the <i>Times</i> by an unknown person<sup><a href="#cite_note-237"><span>[</span>237<span>]</span></a></sup> show that his sons intimated to the hospital, through their lawyers, that they might discuss what happened to their father publicly at the 45th anniversary observances in 2014. The hospital, fearing the bad publicity that would result from being accused of negligently causing the death of a revered figure such as Armstrong, agreed to pay as long as the family never spoke about the suit or the settlement.<sup><a href="#cite_note-NYT_malpractice_suit_story-218"><span>[</span>218<span>]</span></a></sup> Armstrong's wife, Carol, was not a party to the lawsuit. She reportedly felt that her husband would have been opposed to taking legal action.<sup><a href="#cite_note-NYT_20190727-238"><span>[</span>238<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<p></p><h2>Legacy</h2><p></p>
<figure><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Navy_100514-N-3852A-002_Former_astronaut_Neil_Armstrong_gives_an_acceptance_speech_after_being_inducted_into_the_Naval_Aviation_Hall_of_Honor_at_the_National_Naval_Aviation_Museum_in_Pensacola,_Fla.jpg"></a><figcaption>Armstrong gives an acceptance speech after being inducted into the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_Aviation_Hall_of_Honor">Naval Aviation Hall of Honor</a> at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Naval_Aviation_Museum">National Naval Aviation Museum</a> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pensacola,_Florida">Pensacola, Florida</a>. </figcaption></figure>
<p>When Pete Conrad of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_12">Apollo 12</a> became the third man to walk on the Moon, on November 19, 1969, his first words referenced Armstrong. The shorter of the two, when Conrad stepped from the LM onto the surface he proclaimed "Whoopie! Man, that may have been a small one for Neil, but that's a long one for me."<sup><a href="#cite_note-239"><span>[</span>239<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Armstrong received many honors and awards, including the Presidential Medal of Freedom (with distinction) from President Nixon,<sup><a href="#cite_note-LADinner-163"><span>[</span>163<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-240"><span>[</span>240<span>]</span></a></sup> the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cullum_Geographical_Medal">Cullum Geographical Medal</a> from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Geographical_Society">American Geographical Society</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-241"><span>[</span>241<span>]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collier_Trophy">Collier Trophy</a> from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Aeronautic_Association">National Aeronautic Association</a> (1969);<sup><a href="#cite_note-242"><span>[</span>242<span>]</span></a></sup> the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_Distinguished_Service_Medal">NASA Distinguished Service Medal</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-243"><span>[</span>243<span>]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._Robert_H._Goddard_Memorial_Trophy">Dr. Robert H. Goddard Memorial Trophy</a> (1970);<sup><a href="#cite_note-244"><span>[</span>244<span>]</span></a></sup> the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylvanus_Thayer_Award">Sylvanus Thayer Award</a> by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Military_Academy">United States Military Academy</a> (1971);<sup><a href="#cite_note-245"><span>[</span>245<span>]</span></a></sup> the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congressional_Space_Medal_of_Honor">Congressional Space Medal of Honor</a> from President <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> (1978);<sup><a href="#cite_note-NASA_Awards-91"><span>[</span>91<span>]</span></a></sup> the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_Brothers_Memorial_Trophy">Wright Brothers Memorial Trophy</a> from the National Aeronautic Association (2001);<sup><a href="#cite_note-246"><span>[</span>246<span>]</span></a></sup> and a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congressional_Gold_Medal">Congressional Gold Medal</a> (2011).<sup><a href="#cite_note-247"><span>[</span>247<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Armstrong was elected as member into the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Academy_of_Engineering">National Academy of Engineering</a> in 1978 for contributions to aerospace engineering, scientific knowledge, and exploration of the universe as an experimental test pilot and astronaut.<sup><a href="#cite_note-248"><span>[</span>248<span>]</span></a></sup> He was elected to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society">American Philosophical Society</a> in 2001.<sup><a href="#cite_note-249"><span>[</span>249<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Armstrong and his Apollo 11 crewmates were the 1999 recipients of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langley_Gold_Medal">Langley Gold Medal</a> from the Smithsonian Institution.<sup><a href="#cite_note-250"><span>[</span>250<span>]</span></a></sup> On April 18, 2006, he received NASA's Ambassador of Exploration Award.<sup><a href="#cite_note-251"><span>[</span>251<span>]</span></a></sup> The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Foundation">Space Foundation</a> named Armstrong as a recipient of its 2013 General James E. Hill Lifetime Space Achievement Award.<sup><a href="#cite_note-252"><span>[</span>252<span>]</span></a></sup> Armstrong was also inducted into the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerospace_Walk_of_Honor">Aerospace Walk of Honor</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-253"><span>[</span>253<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-ind91-254"><span>[</span>254<span>]</span></a></sup> the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Hall_of_Fame">International Space Hall of Fame</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-255"><span>[</span>255<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Aviation_Hall_of_Fame">National Aviation Hall of Fame</a>, and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Astronaut_Hall_of_Fame">United States Astronaut Hall of Fame</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-256"><span>[</span>256<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-257"><span>[</span>257<span>]</span></a></sup> He was awarded his <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut_Badge">Naval Astronaut badge</a> in a ceremony on board the aircraft carrier <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Dwight_D._Eisenhower">USS <i>Dwight D. Eisenhower</i></a> on March 10, 2010, in a ceremony attended by Lovell and Cernan.<sup><a href="#cite_note-258"><span>[</span>258<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<figure><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:President_Obama_Meets_with_Crew_of_Apollo_11_(200907200016HQ)_(explored)_DVIDS723610.jpg"></a><figcaption>President <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_Obama">Barack Obama</a> poses with the Apollo 11 crew on the 40th anniversary of the Apollo 11 lunar landing, July 20, 2009: Buzz Aldrin, Michael Collins, and Neil Armstrong.</figcaption></figure>
<p>The lunar crater <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armstrong_(crater)">Armstrong</a>, 31 miles (50 km) from the Apollo 11 landing site, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid">asteroid</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6469_Armstrong">6469 Armstrong</a> are named in his honor.<sup><a href="#cite_note-259"><span>[</span>259<span>]</span></a></sup> There are more than a dozen elementary, middle and high schools named for Armstrong in the United States,<sup><a href="#cite_note-260"><span>[</span>260<span>]</span></a></sup> and many places around the world have streets, buildings, schools, and other places named for him and/or Apollo.<sup><a href="#cite_note-261"><span>[</span>261<span>]</span></a></sup> The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armstrong_Air_and_Space_Museum">Armstrong Air and Space Museum</a>, in Armstrong's hometown of Wapakoneta,<sup><a href="#cite_note-262"><span>[</span>262<span>]</span></a></sup> and the Neil Armstrong Airport in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Knoxville,_Ohio">New Knoxville, Ohio</a>, are named after him.<sup><a href="#cite_note-263"><span>[</span>263<span>]</span></a></sup> The mineral <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armstrongite">armstrongite</a> is named after him,<sup><a href="#cite_note-264"><span>[</span>264<span>]</span></a></sup> and the mineral <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armalcolite">armalcolite</a> is named, in part, after him.<sup><a href="#cite_note-265"><span>[</span>265<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In October 2004 Purdue University named its new engineering building <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purdue_University_College_of_Engineering">Neil Armstrong Hall of Engineering</a>;<sup><a href="#cite_note-266"><span>[</span>266<span>]</span></a></sup> the building was dedicated on October 27, 2007, during a ceremony at which Armstrong was joined by fourteen other Purdue astronauts.<sup><a href="#cite_note-267"><span>[</span>267<span>]</span></a></sup> The NASA Dryden Flight Research Center was renamed the NASA Neil A. Armstrong Flight Research Center in 2014.<sup><a href="#cite_note-268"><span>[</span>268<span>]</span></a></sup> In September 2012, the U.S. Navy named the first <i>Armstrong</i>-class vessel <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RV_Neil_Armstrong">RV <i>Neil Armstrong</i></a>. Delivered to the Navy on September 23, 2015, it is a modern oceanographic research platform supporting a wide range of activities by academic groups.<sup><a href="#cite_note-269"><span>[</span>269<span>]</span></a></sup> In 2019, the College of Engineering at Purdue University celebrated the 50th anniversary of Neil Armstrong's walk on the Moon by launching the Neil Armstrong Distinguished Visiting Fellows Program, which brings highly accomplished scholars and practitioners to the college to catalyze collaborations with faculty and students.<sup><a href="#cite_note-270"><span>[</span>270<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<table><tbody><tr><th>External videos</th></tr><tr><td><span><span></span></span> <a href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?189961-1/first-man-life-neil-a-armstrong">Presentation by James Hansen on <i>First Man</i>, November 9, 2005</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>Armstrong's authorized biography, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Man:_The_Life_of_Neil_A._Armstrong">First Man: The Life of Neil A. Armstrong</a></i>, was published in 2005. For many years, he turned down biography offers from authors such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Ambrose">Stephen Ambrose</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_A._Michener">James A. Michener</a> but agreed to work with James R. Hansen after reading one of Hansen's other biographies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-271"><span>[</span>271<span>]</span></a></sup> He recalled his initial concerns about the Apollo 11 mission, when he had believed there was only a 50% chance of landing on the Moon. "I was elated, ecstatic and extremely surprised that we were successful".<sup><a href="#cite_note-272"><span>[</span>272<span>]</span></a></sup> A <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Man_(film)">film adaptation of the book</a>, starring <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryan_Gosling">Ryan Gosling</a> and directed by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damien_Chazelle">Damien Chazelle</a>, was released in October 2018.<sup><a href="#cite_note-273"><span>[</span>273<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In July 2018, Armstrong's sons put his collection of memorabilia up for sale, including his Boy Scout cap, and various flags and medals flown on his space missions. A series of auctions held November 1–3, 2018, realized $5,276,320 (~$6.31 million in 2023). As of July 2019, the auction sales totaled $16.7<span> </span>million.<sup><a href="#cite_note-NYT_20190727-238"><span>[</span>238<span>]</span></a></sup> Two fragments of wood from the propeller and four pieces of fabric from the wing of the 1903 <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_Flyer">Wright Flyer</a></i> that Armstrong took to the Moon fetched between $112,500 and $275,000 each.<sup><a href="#cite_note-274"><span>[</span>274<span>]</span></a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-275"><span>[</span>275<span>]</span></a></sup> Armstrong's wife, Carol, has not put any of his memorabilia up for sale.<sup><a href="#cite_note-NYT_20190727-238"><span>[</span>238<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Armstrong donated his papers to Purdue. Along with posthumous donations by his widow Carol, the collection consists of over 450<span> </span>boxes of material. In May 2019, she donated two 25-by-24-inch (640 by 610 mm) pieces of fabric from the <i>Wright Flyer</i>, along with his correspondence related to them.<sup><a href="#cite_note-276"><span>[</span>276<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<figure><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ohio_quarter,_reverse_side,_2002.png"></a><figcaption>Ohio's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/50_State_quarters">state quarter</a> depicts Armstrong and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_brothers">Wright brothers</a>' <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_Flyer_III">Wright Flyer III</a>.</figcaption></figure>
<p>In a 2010 <i>Space Foundation</i> survey, Armstrong was ranked as the number-one most popular space hero;<sup><a href="#cite_note-277"><span>[</span>277<span>]</span></a></sup> and in 2013, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_(magazine)">Flying</a></i> magazine ranked him number one on its list of 51 Heroes of Aviation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-278"><span>[</span>278<span>]</span></a></sup> The press often asked Armstrong for his views on the future of spaceflight. In 2005, he said that a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_mission_to_Mars">human mission to Mars</a> would be easier than the lunar challenge of the 1960s. In 2010, he made a rare public criticism of the decision to cancel the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ares_I">Ares I</a> launch vehicle and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constellation_program">Constellation Moon landing program</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-279"><span>[</span>279<span>]</span></a></sup> In an open letter also signed by fellow Apollo veterans Lovell and Cernan, he said, "For The United States, the leading space faring nation for nearly half a century, to be without carriage to low Earth orbit and with no human exploration capability to go beyond Earth orbit for an indeterminate time into the future, destines our nation to become one of second or even third rate stature".<sup><a href="#cite_note-280"><span>[</span>280<span>]</span></a></sup> On November 18, 2010, aged 80, he said in a speech during the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meet_the_Future,_Science_%26_Technology_Summit_2010">Science &amp; Technology Summit</a></i> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hague,_Netherlands">the Hague, Netherlands</a>, that he would offer his services as commander on a mission to Mars if he were asked.<sup><a href="#cite_note-281"><span>[</span>281<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The planetarium at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altoona_Area_High_School">Altoona Area High School</a> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altoona,_Pennsylvania">Altoona, Pennsylvania</a> is named after Armstrong and is home to a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Race">Space Race</a> museum.<sup><a href="#cite_note-282"><span>[</span>282<span>]</span></a></sup> A campsite in Camp Sandy Beach at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yawgoog_Scout_Reservation">Yawgoog Scout Reservation</a> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockville,_Rhode_Island">Rockville, Rhode Island</a>, is named in his honor, a nod to his Scouting career.
</p><p>Armstrong was named the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USAFA_Class_exemplar">class exemplar</a> for the Class of 2019 at the U.S. Air Force Academy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-283"><span>[</span>283<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<p></p><h2>See also</h2><p></p>
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_11_in_popular_culture">Apollo 11 in popular culture</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cueva_de_los_Tayos#1976_BCRA_expedition">Cueva de los Tayos</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation">History of aviation</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_spaceflight_records">List of spaceflight records</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Experimental_Test_Pilots">Society of Experimental Test Pilots</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Astronaut_Monument">The Astronaut Monument</a></li></ul>
<p></p><h2>Notes</h2><p></p>
<div><ol>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span><cite><a href="https://whyy.org/articles/armstrongs-famous-one-small-step-quote-explained/">"Armstrong's famous 'one small step' quote — explained"</a>. <i>WHYY-FM</i>. July 14, 2019<span>. Retrieved <span>July 13,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span></span></span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span><cite><a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/apollo11.html">"July 20, 1969: One Giant Leap For Mankind"</a>. <i>NASA</i>. July 20, 2019<span>. Retrieved <span>August 13,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span></span></span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span><cite>Armstrong, Neil (July 16, 1999). <a href="https://history.nasa.gov/ap11ann/pressconf.htm">"[Press conference with Neil Armstrong]"</a>. <i>NASA History Division</i><span>. Retrieved <span>August 13,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span></span></span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span><cite>Stamm, Amy (July 17, 2019). <a href="https://airandspace.si.edu/stories/editorial/one-small-step-man-or-man">"<span></span>"One Small Step for Man" or "a Man"?"</a>. <i>National Air and Space Museum</i><span>. Retrieved <span>August 13,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span></span></span>
</li>
<li><span>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen200549–50_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen200549–50_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span><a href="#CITEREFHansen2005">Hansen 2005</a>, pp. 49–50.</span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen200513,_20_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span><a href="#CITEREFHansen2005">Hansen 2005</a>, pp. 13, 20.</span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span><cite>Coleman, Maureen (August 28, 2012). <a href="https://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/northern-ireland/a-giant-leap-for-an-ulsterman-tributes-to-neil-armstrong-the-astronaut-who-was-first-to-walk-on-the-moon-28785887.html">"A Giant Leap For An Ulsterman"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Belfast_Telegraph">The Belfast Telegraph</a></i><span>. Retrieved <span>November 14,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span></span></span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span><cite>Harvey, Ian (April 15, 2019). <a href="https://www.thevintagenews.com/2019/04/15/armstrong/">"Neil Armstrong's Last Name Posed a Problem in his Ancestral Scottish Hometown"</a>. <i>thevintagenews</i><span>. Retrieved <span>September 4,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span></span></span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span><cite>Scott, David (June 21, 2018). <a href="https://www.express.co.uk/news/uk/977295/Langholm-Neil-Armstrong-best-market-town-scotland-royal-mail-survey">"Langholm, ancestral home of Neil Armstrong, tops town survey"</a>. <i>Daily Express</i><span>. Retrieved <span>September 4,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span></span></span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span><cite><a href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/neil-armstrong-grants-rare-interview-to-accountants-organization-1.1289392">"Neil Armstrong grants rare interview to accountants organization"</a>. CBC News. May 24, 2012. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180107163955/http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/neil-armstrong-grants-rare-interview-to-accountants-organization-1.1289392">Archived</a> from the original on January 7, 2018<span>. Retrieved <span>April 8,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span></span></span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen200529_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span><a href="#CITEREFHansen2005">Hansen 2005</a>, p. 29.</span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span><cite><a href="https://history.nasa.gov/ap11ann/astrobios.htm#Armstrong">"Project Apollo: Astronaut Biographies"</a>. NASA. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110428105817/http://history.nasa.gov/ap11ann/astrobios.htm#Armstrong">Archived</a> from the original on April 28, 2011<span>. Retrieved <span>May 12,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span></span></span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen200545_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span><a href="#CITEREFHansen2005">Hansen 2005</a>, p. 45. "According to a volunteer group in Warren, Ohio that had worked through the 2000s to turn the Warren Airport into a historical exhibit, the date of Neil's inaugural flight was July 26, 1936. If that date is correct, Neil was still only five when he experienced his first airplane ride, his sixth birthday not coming for ten more days."</span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoestler-Grack201014_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span><a href="#CITEREFKoestler-Grack2010">Koestler-Grack 2010</a>, p. 14.</span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen201238_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span><a href="#CITEREFHansen2012">Hansen 2012</a>, p. 38.</span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span><cite>Airgood, Glenn (February 16, 1973). <a href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/23385802/the_morning_call/">"1st Man on the Moon Gets National Eagle Award"</a>. <i>The Morning Call</i>. Allentown, Pennsylvania. p. 5 – via Newspapers.com.</cite><span></span></span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span><cite><a href="https://www.scouting.org/awards/silver-buffalo/previous-winners/1979-1970/">"Silver Buffalo Award Winners 1979–1970"</a>. Boy Scouts of America<span>. Retrieved <span>September 2,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span></span></span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span><cite><a href="https://history.nasa.gov/afj/ap11fj/09day3-entering-eagle.html">"Apollo 11 – Day 3, part 2: Entering Eagle – Transcript"</a>. NASA. April 11, 2010<span>. Retrieved <span>February 14,</span> 2022</span>. <q>I'd like to say hello to all my fellow Scouts and Scouters at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farragut_State_Park">Farragut State Park</a> in Idaho having a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Scout_jamboree_(Boy_Scouts_of_America)">National Jamboree</a> there this week; and Apollo 11 would like to send them best wishes". <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsule_communicator">Capsule communicator</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Duke">Charles Duke</a> replied: "Thank you, Apollo 11. I'm sure that, if they didn't hear that, they'll get the word through the news. Certainly appreciate that.</q></cite><span></span></span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span><cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150904004807/http://oldsite.scout.org/en/information_events/news/world_scouting_salutes_neil_armstrong">"World Scouting salutes Neil Armstrong"</a>. World Organization of the Scout Movement. Archived from <a href="http://oldsite.scout.org/en/information_events/news/world_scouting_salutes_neil_armstrong">the original</a> on September 4, 2015<span>. Retrieved <span>July 27,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span></span></span>
</li>
<li><span>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen200555–56_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen200555–56_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span><a href="#CITEREFHansen2005">Hansen 2005</a>, pp. 55–56.</span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span><cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190704035141/https://www.wlfi.com/content/news/The-untold-story-of-how-Neil-Armstrong-chose-Purdue-512192321.html">"The untold story of how Neil Armstrong chose Purdue"</a>. <i>wlfi.com</i>. Archived from <a href="https://www.wlfi.com/content/news/The-untold-story-of-how-Neil-Armstrong-chose-Purdue-512192321.html">the original</a> on July 4, 2019<span>. Retrieved <span>July 5,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span></span></span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen200558_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span><a href="#CITEREFHansen2005">Hansen 2005</a>, p. 58.</span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen200568–69_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span><a href="#CITEREFHansen2005">Hansen 2005</a>, pp. 68–69.</span>
</li>
<li><span>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen200571_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen200571_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span><a href="#CITEREFHansen2005">Hansen 2005</a>, p. 71.</span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen200576–79_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span><a href="#CITEREFHansen2005">Hansen 2005</a>, pp. 76–79.</span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen200579–85_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span><a href="#CITEREFHansen2005">Hansen 2005</a>, pp. 79–85.</span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen200590_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span><a href="#CITEREFHansen2005">Hansen 2005</a>, p. 90.</span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen200594_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span><a href="#CITEREFHansen2005">Hansen 2005</a>, p. 94.</span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen200592–93_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span><a href="#CITEREFHansen2005">Hansen 2005</a>, pp. 92–93.</span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen200595–96_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span><a href="#CITEREFHansen2005">Hansen 2005</a>, pp. 95–96.</span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen2005112_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span><a href="#CITEREFHansen2005">Hansen 2005</a>, p. 112.</span>
</li>
<li><span>^ <a href="#cite_ref-USN_record_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-USN_record_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span><cite><a href="https://www.history.navy.mil/content/dam/nhhc/research/histories/bios/Armstrong-Neil/Armstrong_redacted_Redacted.pdf">"Ex-Lieutenant (junior grade) Neil Alden Armstrong, U.S. Naval Reserve, Transcript of Naval Service"</a> <span>(PDF)</span>. United States Navy. March 27, 1967. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170506025424/https://www.history.navy.mil/content/dam/nhhc/research/histories/bios/Armstrong-Neil/Armstrong_redacted_Redacted.pdf">Archived</a> <span>(PDF)</span> from the original on May 6, 2017<span>. Retrieved <span>February 28,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span></span></span>
</li>
<li><span>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen2005118_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen2005118_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span><a href="#CITEREFHansen2005">Hansen 2005</a>, p. 118.</span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen200561–62_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span><a href="#CITEREFHansen2005">Hansen 2005</a>, pp. 61–62.</span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span><cite><a href="https://www.purdue.edu/newsroom/releases/2012/Q3/purdue-mourns-alumnus-neil-armstrong.html">"Purdue mourns alumnus Neil Armstrong"</a>. Purdue University. August 25, 2012. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171216125803/http://www.purdue.edu/newsroom/releases/2012/Q3/purdue-mourns-alumnus-neil-armstrong.html">Archived</a> from the original on December 16, 2017<span>. Retrieved <span>April 2,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span></span></span>
</li>
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<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen20052_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span><a href="#CITEREFHansen2005">Hansen 2005</a>, p. 2.</span>
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<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen2005410_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span><a href="#CITEREFHansen2005">Hansen 2005</a>, p. 410.</span>
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<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen2005411–412_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span><a href="#CITEREFHansen2005">Hansen 2005</a>, pp. 411–412.</span>
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<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith200511_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span><a href="#CITEREFSmith2005">Smith 2005</a>, p. 11.</span>
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<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen2005459–465_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span><a href="#CITEREFHansen2005">Hansen 2005</a>, pp. 459–465.</span>
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<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChaikin1994199_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span><a href="#CITEREFChaikin1994">Chaikin 1994</a>, p. 199.</span>
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<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChaikin1994198_123-0">^</a></b></span> <span><a href="#CITEREFChaikin1994">Chaikin 1994</a>, p. 198.</span>
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<li><span>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Plimpton_135-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Plimpton_135-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span><cite><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Plimpton">Plimpton, George</a> (December 1983). "Neil Armstrong's Famous First Words". <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esquire_(magazine)">Esquire</a></i>. pp. 113–118.</cite><span></span></span>
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<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span><cite><a href="https://history.nasa.gov/ap11ann/FirstLunarLanding/ch-7.html">"Apollo 11 Post Flight Press Conference, 16 September 1969"</a>. NASA. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151016015011/http://history.nasa.gov/ap11ann/FirstLunarLanding/ch-7.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 16, 2015<span>. Retrieved <span>July 24,</span> 2015</span>. <q>Yes, I did think about it. It was not extemporaneous, neither was it planned. It evolved during the conduct of the flight and I decided what the words would be while we were on the lunar surface just prior to leaving the LM.</q></cite><span></span></span>
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<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENickell2008175_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span><a href="#CITEREFNickell2008">Nickell 2008</a>, p. 175.</span>
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<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a></b></span> <span><cite><a href="https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo46206">"An Act to Redesignate the Dryden Flight Research Center as the Neil A. Armstrong Flight Research Center and the Western Aeronautical Test Range as the Hugh L. Dryden Aeronautical Test Range"</a>. US Government Publishing Office<span>. Retrieved <span>February 28,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span></span></span>
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<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a></b></span> <span><cite><a href="https://engineering.purdue.edu/NADVF">"Neil Armstrong Distinguished Visiting Fellows"</a>. Purdue University<span>. Retrieved <span>April 30,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span></span></span>
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<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a></b></span> <span><cite>McGauley, John (October 14, 2005). <a href="http://www.collectspace.com/news/news-013003b.html#100305">"Discovering the Man Behind 'First Man'<span></span>"</a>. <i>collectSPACE</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180131140927/http://www.collectspace.com/news/news-013003b.html#100305">Archived</a> from the original on January 31, 2018<span>. Retrieved <span>February 28,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span></span></span>
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<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-272">^</a></b></span> <span><cite>Yoong, Sean (September 6, 2005). <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/space/2005-09-06-mars-armstrong_x.htm">"Neil Armstrong: Manned Mars mission 20 years away"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA_Today">USA Today</a></i>. Washington DC. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110726194523/http://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/space/2005-09-06-mars-armstrong_x.htm">Archived</a> from the original on July 26, 2011<span>. Retrieved <span>May 3,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span></span></span>
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<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a></b></span> <span><cite>Stolworthy, Jacob (March 8, 2017). <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/news/ryan-gosling-damien-chazelle-neil-armstrong-biopic-first-man-release-date-trailer-oscars-2019-best-a7618146.html">"First Man: Damien Chazelle and Ryan Gosling's Neil Armstrong biopic gets awards season release date"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Independent">The Independent</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180201013746/http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/news/ryan-gosling-damien-chazelle-neil-armstrong-biopic-first-man-release-date-trailer-oscars-2019-best-a7618146.html">Archived</a> from the original on February 1, 2018<span>. Retrieved <span>February 28,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span></span></span>
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<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a></b></span> <span><cite>Cornwell, Lisa (July 20, 2018). <a href="https://phys.org/news/2018-07-giant-sale-neil-armstrong-auction.html">"One giant sale: Neil Armstrong's collection goes to auction"</a>. <i>phys.org</i><span>. Retrieved <span>December 16,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span></span></span>
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<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-275">^</a></b></span> <span><cite><a href="https://www.pmgnotes.com/news/article/6960/">"CAG-certified Armstrong Family Collection Tops $5.2 Million in First Auction"</a>. PMG. November 5, 2018<span>. Retrieved <span>December 16,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span></span></span>
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<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a></b></span> <span><cite><a href="https://www.purdue.edu/newsroom/releases/2019/Q2/wright-flyer-fabric-lands-at-purdue-university-archives.html">"Wright Flyer fabric lands at Purdue University Archives"</a>. <i>Purdue University News</i>. May 30, 2019<span>. Retrieved <span>July 5,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span></span></span>
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<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-277">^</a></b></span> <span><cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120723031011/http://www.spacefoundation.org/media/press-releases/space-foundation-survey-reveals-broad-range-space-heroes-early-astronauts-still?id=1038">"Space Foundation Survey Reveals Broad Range of Space Heroes"</a> (Press release). Space Foundation. October 27, 2010. Archived from <a href="http://www.spacefoundation.org/news/story.php?id=1038">the original</a> on July 23, 2012<span>. Retrieved <span>May 13,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span></span></span>
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<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a></b></span> <span><cite><a href="http://www.flyingmag.com/photo-gallery/photos/51-heroes-aviation?pnid=41853">"51 Heroes of Aviation"</a>. <i>Flying</i>. July 24, 2013. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151016015011/http://www.flyingmag.com/photo-gallery/photos/51-heroes-aviation?pnid=41853">Archived</a> from the original on October 16, 2015<span>. Retrieved <span>February 28,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span></span></span>
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<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-279">^</a></b></span> <span><cite>Kaplan, Jeremy A. (April 14, 2010). <a href="http://www.foxnews.com/scitech/2010/04/14/obama-vs-neil-armstrong-nasa-constellation/?test=latestnews">"Star Wars: Neil Armstrong, Obama Spar Over NASA's Future"</a>. Fox News. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151029081228/http://www.foxnews.com/scitech/2010/04/14/obama-vs-neil-armstrong-nasa-constellation/?test=latestnews">Archived</a> from the original on October 29, 2015<span>. Retrieved <span>February 28,</span> 2018</span>. <q>I suspect that even though the various questions are difficult and many, they are not as difficult and many as those we faced when we started the Apollo [space program] in 1961.</q></cite><span></span></span>
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<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a></b></span> <span><cite>Armstrong, Neil; Lovell, James; Cernan, Eugene (April 14, 2010). <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna36470363">"Armstrong: Obama NASA plan 'devastating'<span></span>"</a>. NBC Nightly News<span>. Retrieved <span>October 18,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span></span></span>
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<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a></b></span> <span><cite><a href="http://www.nu.nl/wetenschap/2382331/neil-armstrong-wil-nog-best-mars.html">"Neil Armstrong wil nog best naar Mars"</a> [Neil Armstrong still wants to go to Mars]. <i>NU.nl</i> (in Dutch). November 18, 2010. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180220151853/https://www.nu.nl/wetenschap/2382331/neil-armstrong-wil-nog-best-mars.html">Archived</a> from the original on February 20, 2018<span>. Retrieved <span>February 28,</span> 2018</span> – via ANP.</cite><span></span></span>
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<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a></b></span> <span><cite>School District, Altoona Area. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231103080035/https://aahs.aasdcat.com/apps/pages/index.jsp?uREC_ID=424697&amp;type=d&amp;pREC_ID=1034959">"Welcome to the Neil Armstrong Planetarium"</a>. <i>Altoona Area High School</i>. Altoona Area School District. Archived from <a href="https://aahs.aasdcat.com/apps/pages/index.jsp?uREC_ID=424697&amp;type=d&amp;pREC_ID=1034959">the original</a> on November 3, 2023<span>. Retrieved <span>April 25,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span></span></span>
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<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a></b></span> <span><cite>Swanson, Conrad; Roeder, Tom (May 30, 2019). <a href="https://gazette.com/military/air-force-academy-graduation-notes-class-of-2019-gives-nod-to-neil-armstrong/article_c2647ece-8327-11e9-9c8a-13a69088cc68.html">"Air Force Academy graduation notes: Class of 2019 gives nod to Neil Armstrong"</a>. <i>Colorado Springs Gazette</i><span>. Retrieved <span>June 10,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span></span></span>
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</ol></div>
<p></p><h2>References</h2><p></p>
<div>
<ul><li><cite>Abramson, Glenda (2004). <i>Religious Perspectives in Modern Muslim and Jewish Literatures</i>. Studies in Arabic and Middle-Eastern Literatures. London: Routledge. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35021-1"><bdi>978-0-415-35021-1</bdi></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/56641703">56641703</a>.</cite><span></span></li>
<li><cite>Brooks, Courtney G.; Grimwood, James M.; Swenson, Loyd S. Jr. (2009) [1979]. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151020095653/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/cover.html"><i>Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft</i></a>. The NASA History Series. Foreword by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_C._Phillips">Samuel C. Phillips</a>. Washington, DC: Scientific and Technical Information Branch, NASA. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-46756-6"><bdi>978-0-486-46756-6</bdi></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)">LCCN</a> <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/79001042">79001042</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/227923959">227923959</a>. NASA SP-4205. Archived from <a href="http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/cover.html">the original</a> on October 20, 2015<span>. Retrieved <span>August 1,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span></span></li>
<li><cite><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Burgess_(author)">Burgess, Colin</a> (2013). <i>Moon Bound: Choosing and Preparing NASA's Lunar Astronauts</i>. Springer-Praxis books in space exploration. New York; London: Springer. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-3854-0"><bdi>978-1-4614-3854-0</bdi></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/905162781">905162781</a>.</cite><span></span></li>
<li><cite><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_Cernan">Cernan, Eugene</a>; Davis, Don (1999). <a href="https://archive.org/details/lastmanonmoonast00cern_0"><i>The Last Man on the Moon</i></a>. New York: St Martin's Griffin. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-19906-7"><bdi>978-0-312-19906-7</bdi></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/40200305">40200305</a>.</cite><span></span></li>
<li><cite>Chaikin, Andrew (1994). <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Man_on_the_Moon:_The_Voyages_of_the_Apollo_Astronauts"><i>A Man on the Moon: The Voyages of the Apollo Astronauts</i></a>. London: Penguin Books. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-024146-4"><bdi>978-0-14-024146-4</bdi></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/895935578">895935578</a>.</cite><span></span></li>
<li><cite>Chaikin, Andrew (2007) [1994]. <i>A Man on the Moon: The Voyages of the Apollo Astronauts</i>. London: Penguin Books. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-311235-8"><bdi>978-0-14-311235-8</bdi></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/958200469">958200469</a>.</cite><span></span></li>
<li><cite>Collins, Michael (2001). <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrying_the_Fire:_An_Astronaut%27s_Journeys"><i>Carrying the Fire: An Astronaut's Journeys</i></a>. New York: Cooper Square Press. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8154-1028-7"><bdi>978-0-8154-1028-7</bdi></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/45755963">45755963</a>.</cite><span></span></li>
<li><cite>Cortright, Edgar M. (1975). "Apollo Expeditions to the Moon". <i>NASA Special Publication</i>. <b>350</b>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1975NASSP.350.....C">1975NASSP.350.....C</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/251694818">251694818</a>. NASA SP 350.</cite><span></span></li>
<li><cite><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Cunningham">Cunningham, Walter</a> (2010) [1977]. <i>The All-American Boys</i>. New York: ipicturebooks. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-876963-24-8"><bdi>978-1-876963-24-8</bdi></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/713908039">713908039</a>.</cite><span></span></li>
<li><cite>Hacker, Barton C.; Grimwood, James M. (2010) [1977]. <a href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4203.pdf"><i>On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini</i></a> <span>(PDF)</span>. NASA History Series. Washington, DC: NASA History Division, Office of Policy and Plans. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-16-067157-9"><bdi>978-0-16-067157-9</bdi></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/945144787">945144787</a>. NASA SP-4203. Archived from <a href="http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4203.pdf">the original</a> <span>(PDF)</span> on October 9, 2022<span>. Retrieved <span>April 8,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span></span></li>
<li><cite>Hansen, James R. (2005). <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Man:_The_Life_of_Neil_A._Armstrong"><i>First Man: The Life of Neil A. Armstrong</i></a>. New York: Simon &amp; Schuster. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-5631-5"><bdi>978-0-7432-5631-5</bdi></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/937302502">937302502</a>.</cite><span></span></li>
<li><cite>Hansen, James R. (2012). <i>First Man: The Life of Neil A. Armstrong</i>. New York: Simon &amp; Schuster. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4767-2781-3"><bdi>978-1-4767-2781-3</bdi></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1029741947">1029741947</a>.</cite><span></span></li>
<li><cite>Harland, David (1999). <i>Exploring the Moon: The Apollo Expeditions</i>. London; New York: Springer. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85233-099-6"><bdi>978-1-85233-099-6</bdi></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/982158259">982158259</a>.</cite><span></span></li>
<li><cite>Jenkins, Dennis R. (June 2000). <a href="https://history.nasa.gov/monograph18.pdf"><i>Hypersonics Before the Shuttle: A Concise History of the X-15 Research Airplane</i></a> <span>(PDF)</span>. Monographs in Aerospace History. Washington, DC: NASA. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/421657636">421657636</a>. NASA SP-2000-4518<span>. Retrieved <span>February 28,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span></span></li>
<li><cite>Johnson, Sandra L. (Fall 2008). <a href="https://houstonhistorymagazine.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/red-white-and-blue-US-flag.pdf">"Red, White &amp; Blue: U.S. Flag at Home on the Moon"</a> <span>(PDF)</span>. <i>Houston History Magazine</i>. <b>6</b> (1): 60<span>. Retrieved <span>March 17,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span></span></li>
<li><cite>Koestler-Grack, Rachel A. (2010). <span><a href="https://archive.org/details/neilarmstrong0000koes"><i>Neil Armstrong</i></a></span>. Pleasantville, New York: Gareth Stevens. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4339-2147-6"><bdi>978-1-4339-2147-6</bdi></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/300982973">300982973</a>.</cite><span></span></li>
<li><cite>Kraft, Chris (2001). <a href="https://archive.org/details/flight00chri"><i>Flight: My Life in Mission Control</i></a>. New York: Dutton. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-525-94571-0"><bdi>978-0-525-94571-0</bdi></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/49323520">49323520</a>.</cite><span></span></li>
<li><cite><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_Kranz">Kranz, Gene</a> (2000). <span><a href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780743200790"><i>Failure is not an Option: Mission Control From Mercury to Apollo 13 and Beyond</i></a></span>. Alexandria, Virginia: Simon &amp; Schuster. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4391-4881-5"><bdi>978-1-4391-4881-5</bdi></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/810544750">810544750</a>.</cite><span></span></li>
<li><cite><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Lovell">Lovell, Jim</a>; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey_Kluger">Kluger, Jeffrey</a> (2000). <i>Apollo 13</i>. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-618-05665-1"><bdi>978-0-618-05665-1</bdi></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1011809615">1011809615</a>.</cite><span></span></li>
<li><cite>Manned Spacecraft Center (November 1969). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030616190156/http://history.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/A11_MissionReport.pdf"><i>Apollo 11 Mission Report</i></a> <span>(PDF)</span>. Houston: NASA. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/8444918">8444918</a>. MSC 00171. Archived from <a href="https://history.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/A11_MissionReport.pdf">the original</a> <span>(PDF)</span> on June 16, 2003<span>. Retrieved <span>February 28,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span></span></li>
<li><cite>Nelson, Craig (2009). <span><a href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780670021031"><i>Rocket Men: The Epic Story of the First Men on the Moon</i></a></span>. New York City: Viking. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7195-6948-7"><bdi>978-0-7195-6948-7</bdi></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/699213335">699213335</a>.</cite><span></span></li>
<li><cite>Nickell, Duane S. (2008). <i>Guidebook for the Scientific Traveler: Visiting Astronomy and Space</i>. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-4374-1"><bdi>978-0-8135-4374-1</bdi></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/190785292">190785292</a>.</cite><span></span></li>
<li><cite>Orloff, Richard W. (2000). <a href="https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029.pdf"><i>Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference</i></a> <span>(PDF)</span>. NASA History Series. Washington, DC: NASA History Division, Office of Policy and Plans. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-16-050631-4"><bdi>978-0-16-050631-4</bdi></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)">LCCN</a> <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/00061677">00061677</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/829406439">829406439</a>. NASA SP-2000-4029<span>. Retrieved <span>March 4,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span></span></li>
<li><cite>Reichl, Eugen (2016). <i>Project Gemini</i>. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7643-5070-2"><bdi>978-0-7643-5070-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span></span></li>
<li><cite>Shapiro, Michael E. (2012). <i>Cable Television Prime Time Programming 1990–2010</i>. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland &amp; Co. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-7087-7"><bdi>978-0-7864-7087-7</bdi></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/878810736">878810736</a>.</cite><span></span></li>
<li><cite>Smith, Andrew (2005). <i>Moondust: In Search of the Men Who Fell to Earth</i>. London: Bloomsbury. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7475-6368-6"><bdi>978-0-7475-6368-6</bdi></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/728066122">728066122</a>.</cite><span></span></li></ul>
</div>
<p></p><h2>Further reading</h2><p></p>
<table><tbody><tr><th>External videos</th></tr><tr><td><span><span></span></span> <a href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?320051-1/after-words-jay-barbree"><i>After Words</i> interview with Jay Barbree on <i>Neil Armstrong: A Life of Flight</i>, July 19, 2014</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></td></tr></tbody></table>
<div>
<ul><li><cite><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_Barbree">Barbree, Jay</a> (2014). <i>Neil Armstrong: A Life of Flight</i>. New York: Thomas Dunne Books. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-250-04071-8"><bdi>978-1-250-04071-8</bdi></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/900815422">900815422</a>.</cite><span></span></li>
<li><cite><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_French_(author)">French, Francis</a>; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Burgess_(author)">Burgess, Colin</a> (2010). <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_the_Shadow_of_the_Moon_(book)"><i>In the Shadow of the Moon</i></a>. Lincoln, Nebraska, and London: University of Nebraska Press. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-2979-2"><bdi>978-0-8032-2979-2</bdi></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1019883802">1019883802</a>.</cite><span></span></li>
<li><cite>Thompson, Milton O. (1992). <a href="https://archive.org/details/atedgeofspacex1500thom"><i>At the Edge of Space: The X-15 Flight Program</i></a>. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Books. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56098-107-7"><bdi>978-1-56098-107-7</bdi></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/925195868">925195868</a>.</cite><span></span></li></ul>
</div>
<p></p><h2>External links</h2><p></p>
<ul><li><a href="http://uc.edu/armstrong">Neil Armstrong Commemorative Website</a> – <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cincinnati">University of Cincinnati</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.nytimes.com/topic/person/neil-armstrong">Neil Armstrong collected news and commentary</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times">The New York Times</a></i>.</li>
<li><a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/neil-armstrong">Neil Armstrong</a> collected news and commentary at <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian">The Guardian</a></i></li>
<li><a href="https://www.c-span.org/person/?8521">Appearances</a> on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></li></ul>













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              Contents

              move to sidebar hide
                * (Top)
                * 1 Early life and education
                * 2 Navy service
                * 3 College years
                * 4 Test pilot
                * 5 Astronaut career
                Toggle Astronaut career subsection
                    + 5.1 Gemini program
                        o 5.1.1 Gemini 5
                        o 5.1.2 Gemini 8
                        o 5.1.3 Gemini 11
                    + 5.2 Apollo program
                        o 5.2.1 Apollo 11
                        o 5.2.2 Voyage to the Moon
                        o 5.2.3 First Moon walk
                            - 5.2.3.1 Return to Earth
                * 6 Life after Apollo
                Toggle Life after Apollo subsection
                    + 6.1 Teaching
                    + 6.2 NASA commissions
                    + 6.3 Business activities
                    + 6.4 North Pole expedition
                    + 6.5 Public profile
                * 7 Personal life
                * 8 Illness and death
                * 9 Legacy
                * 10 See also
                * 11 Notes
                * 12 References
                * 13 Further reading
                * 14 External links
        Toggle the table of contents

      Neil Armstrong

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            From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
              For other uses, see Neil Armstrong (disambiguation).

                Neil Armstrong     
                Armstrong in 1969  
                                     Neil Alden Armstrong                                                                                                                                                    
              Born                   August 5, 1930                                                                                                                                                          
                                     Wapakoneta, Ohio, U.S.                                                                                                                                                  
              Died                   August 25, 2012 (aged 82)                                                                                                                                               
                                     Fairfield, Ohio, U.S.                                                                                                                                                   
              Education              Purdue University (BS)                                                                                                                                                  
                                     University of Southern California (MS)                                                                                                                                  
                                         *                                                                                                                                                                   
                                         Janet Shearon                                                                                                                                                       
              Spouses                      ​                                                                                                                                                                 
                                         ​(m. 1956; div. 1994)​                                                                                                                                              
                                         *                                                                                                                                                                   
                                         Carol Knight ​(m. 1994)​                                                                                                                                            
              Children               3                                                                                                                                                                       
              Awards                       Presidential Medal of FreedomCongressional Space Medal of HonorCongressional Gold MedalNASA Distinguished Service MedalNASA Exceptional Service MedalAir Medal (3)
              Space career         
              USAF / NASA astronaut
              Rank                   Lieutenant, USN                                                                                                                                                         
              Time in space          8d 14h 12m                                                                                                                                                              
              Selection                    USAF Man in Space Soonest (1958)USAF Dyna-Soar (1960)NASA Group 2 (1962)                                                                                          
              Total EVAs             1                                                                                                                                                                       
              Total EVA time         2h 31m                                                                                                                                                                  
              Missions                   * Gemini 8                                                                                                                                                          
                                         * Apollo 11                                                                                                                                                         
              Mission insignia                                                                                                                                                                               
                                   
              Signature            
                                   
              

              Neil Alden Armstrong (August 5, 1930 – August 25, 2012) was an American astronaut and aeronautical engineer who in 1969 became the first person to walk on the Moon. He was also a naval aviator, test pilot, and university professor.

              Armstrong was born and raised in Wapakoneta, Ohio. He entered Purdue University, studying aeronautical engineering, with the U.S. Navy paying his tuition under the Holloway Plan. He became a midshipman in 1949 and a naval aviator the following year. He saw action in the Korean War, flying the Grumman F9F Panther from the aircraft carrier USS Essex. After the war, he completed his bachelor's degree at Purdue and became a test pilot at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) High-Speed Flight Station at Edwards Air Force Base in California. He was the project pilot on Century Series fighters and flew the North American X-15 seven times. He was also a participant in the U.S. Air Force's Man in Space Soonest and X-20 Dyna-Soar human spaceflight programs.

              Armstrong joined the NASA Astronaut Corps in the second group, which was selected in 1962. He made his first spaceflight as command pilot of Gemini 8 in March 1966, becoming NASA's first civilian astronaut to fly in space. During this mission with pilot David Scott, he performed the first docking of two spacecraft; the mission was aborted after Armstrong used some of his re-entry control fuel to stabilize a dangerous roll caused by a stuck thruster. During training for Armstrong's second and last spaceflight as commander of Apollo 11, he had to eject from the Lunar Landing Research Vehicle moments before a crash.

              On July 20, 1969, Armstrong and Apollo 11 Lunar Module (LM) pilot Buzz Aldrin became the first people to land on the Moon, and the next day they spent two and a half hours outside the Lunar Module Eagle spacecraft while Michael Collins remained in lunar orbit in the Apollo Command Module Columbia. When Armstrong first stepped onto the lunar surface, he famously said: "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] It was broadcast live to an estimated 530 million viewers worldwide. Apollo 11 was a major U.S. victory in the Space Race, by fulfilling a national goal proposed in 1961 by President John F. Kennedy "of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth" before the end of the decade. Along with Collins and Aldrin, Armstrong was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Richard Nixon and received the 1969 Collier Trophy. President Jimmy Carter presented him with the Congressional Space Medal of Honor in 1978, he was inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 1979, and with his former crewmates received the Congressional Gold Medal in 2009.

              After he resigned from NASA in 1971, Armstrong taught in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at the University of Cincinnati until 1979. He served on the Apollo 13 accident investigation and on the Rogers Commission, which investigated the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster. In 2012, Armstrong died due to complications resulting from coronary bypass surgery, at the age of 82.

                Early life and education

              Armstrong was born near Wapakoneta, Ohio, [ 5 ] on August 5, 1930, the son of Viola Louise (née Engel) and Stephen Koenig Armstrong. He was of German, English, Scots-Irish, and Scottish descent. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] He is a descendant of Clan Armstrong. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] He had a younger sister, June, and a younger brother, Dean. His father was an auditor for the Ohio state government, [ 10 ] and the family moved around the state repeatedly, living in 16 towns over the next 14 years. [ 11 ] Armstrong's love for flying grew during this time, having started at the age of two when his father took him to the Cleveland Air Races. When he was five or six, he experienced his first airplane flight in Warren, Ohio, when he and his father took a ride in a Ford Trimotor (also known as the "Tin Goose"). [ 12 ] [ 13 ]

              The family's last move was in 1944 and took them back to Wapakoneta, where Armstrong attended Blume High School and took flying lessons at the Wapakoneta airfield. [ 5 ] He earned a student flight certificate on his 16th birthday, then soloed in August, all before he had a driver's license. [ 14 ] He was an active Boy Scout and earned the rank of Eagle Scout. [ 15 ] As an adult, he was recognized by the Scouts with their Distinguished Eagle Scout Award and Silver Buffalo Award. [ 16 ] [ 17 ] While flying toward the Moon on July 18, 1969, he sent his regards to attendees at the National Scout jamboree in Idaho. [ 18 ] Among the few personal items that he carried with him to the Moon and back was a World Scout Badge. [ 19 ]

              At age 17, in 1947, Armstrong began studying aeronautical engineering at Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana; he was the second person in his family to attend college. Armstrong was also accepted to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), [ 20 ] but he resolved to go to Purdue after watching a football game between the Purdue Boilermakers and the Ohio State Buckeyes at the Ohio Stadium in 1945 in which quarterback Bob DeMoss led the Boilermakers to a sound victory over the highly regarded Buckeyes. [ 21 ] An uncle who attended MIT had also advised him that he could receive a good education without going all the way to Cambridge, Massachusetts. His college tuition was paid for under the Holloway Plan. Successful applicants committed to two years of study, followed by two years of flight training and one year of service as an aviator in the U.S. Navy, then completion of the final two years of their bachelor's degree. [ 20 ] Armstrong did not take courses in naval science, nor did he join the Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps. [ 22 ]

                Navy service

              Ensign Neil Armstrong on May 23, 1952

              Armstrong's call-up from the Navy arrived on January 26, 1949, requiring him to report to Naval Air Station Pensacola in Florida for flight training with class 5-49. After passing the medical examinations, he became a midshipman on February 24, 1949. [ 23 ] Flight training was conducted in a North American SNJ trainer, in which he soloed on September 9, 1949. [ 24 ] On March 2, 1950, he made his first aircraft carrier landing on USS Cabot, an achievement he considered comparable to his first solo flight. [ 24 ] He was then sent to Naval Air Station Corpus Christi in Texas for training on the Grumman F8F Bearcat, culminating in a carrier landing on USS Wright. On August 16, 1950, Armstrong was informed by letter that he was a fully qualified naval aviator. His mother and sister attended his graduation ceremony on August 23, 1950. [ 25 ]

              Armstrong was assigned to Fleet Aircraft Service Squadron 7 (FASRON 7) at NAS San Diego (now known as NAS North Island). On November 27, 1950, he was assigned to VF-51, an all-jet squadron, becoming its youngest officer, and made his first flight in a jet, a Grumman F9F Panther, on January 5, 1951. He was promoted to ensign on June 5, 1951, and made his first jet carrier landing on USS Essex two days later. On June 28, 1951, Essex had set sail for Korea, with VF-51 aboard to act as ground-attack aircraft. VF-51 flew ahead to Naval Air Station Barbers Point in Hawaii, where it conducted fighter-bomber training before rejoining the ship at the end of July. [ 26 ]

              On August 29, 1951, Armstrong saw action in the Korean War as an escort for a photo reconnaissance plane over Songjin. [ 27 ] Five days later, on September 3, he flew armed reconnaissance over the primary transportation and storage facilities south of the village of Majon-ni, west of Wonsan. According to Armstrong, he was making a low bombing run at 350 mph (560 km/h) when 6 feet (1.8 m) of his wing was torn off after it collided with a cable that was strung across the hills as a booby trap. He was flying 500 feet (150 m) above the ground when he hit it. While there was heavy anti-aircraft fire in the area, none hit Armstrong's aircraft. [ 28 ] An initial report to the commanding officer of Essex said that Armstrong's F9F Panther was hit by anti-aircraft fire. The report indicated he was trying to regain control and collided with a pole, which sliced off 2 feet (0.61 m) of the Panther's right wing. Further perversions of the story by different authors added that he was only 20 feet (6.1 m) from the ground and that 3 feet (0.91 m) of his wing was sheared off. [ 29 ]

              F9F-2 Panthers over Korea, with Armstrong piloting S-116 (left)

              Armstrong flew the plane back to friendly territory, but due to the loss of the aileron, ejection was his only safe option. He intended to eject over water and await rescue by Navy helicopters, but his parachute was blown back over land. A jeep driven by a roommate from flight school picked him up; it is unknown what happened to the wreckage of his aircraft, F9F-2 BuNo 125122. [ 30 ]

              In all, Armstrong flew 78 missions over Korea for a total of 121 hours in the air, a third of them in January 1952, with the final mission on March 5, 1952. Of 492 U.S. Navy personnel killed in the Korean War, 27 of them were from Essex on this war cruise. Armstrong received the Air Medal for 20 combat missions, two gold stars for the next 40, the Korean Service Medal and Engagement Star, the National Defense Service Medal, and the United Nations Korea Medal. [ 31 ]

              Armstrong's regular commission was terminated on February 25, 1952, and he became an ensign in the United States Navy Reserve. On completion of his combat tour with Essex, he was assigned to a transport squadron, VR-32, in May 1952. He was released from active duty on August 23, 1952, but remained in the reserve, and was promoted to lieutenant (junior grade) on May 9, 1953. [ 32 ] As a reservist, he continued to fly, with VF-724 at Naval Air Station Glenview in Illinois, and then, after moving to California, with VF-773 at Naval Air Station Los Alamitos. [ 33 ] He remained in the reserve for eight years, before resigning his commission on October 21, 1960. [ 32 ]

                College years

              After his service with the Navy, Armstrong returned to Purdue. His previously earned good but not outstanding grades now improved, lifting his final Grade Point Average (GPA) to a respectable but not outstanding 4.8 out of 6.0. He pledged the Phi Delta Theta fraternity, and lived in its fraternity house. He wrote and co-directed two musicals as part of the all-student revue. The first was a version of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, co-directed with his girlfriend Joanne Alford from the Alpha Chi Omega sorority, with songs from the 1937 Walt Disney film, including "Someday My Prince Will Come"; the second was titled The Land of Egelloc ("college" spelled backward), with music from Gilbert and Sullivan but new lyrics.

              Armstrong was chairman of the Purdue Aero Flying Club, and flew the club's aircraft, an Aeronca and a couple of Pipers, which were kept at nearby Aretz Airport in Lafayette, Indiana. Flying the Aeronca to Wapakoneta in 1954, he damaged it in a rough landing in a farmer's field, and it had to be hauled back to Lafayette on a trailer. [ 34 ] He was a baritone player in the Purdue All-American Marching Band. [ 35 ] Ten years later he was made an honorary member of Kappa Kappa Psi national band honorary fraternity. [ 36 ] Armstrong graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree in Aeronautical Engineering in January 1955. [ 33 ] In 1970, he completed his Master of Science degree in Aerospace Engineering at the University of Southern California (USC). [ 37 ] He would eventually be awarded honorary doctorates by several universities. [ 38 ]

              Armstrong met Janet Elizabeth Shearon, who was majoring in home economics, at a party hosted by Alpha Chi Omega. [ 39 ] According to the couple, there was no real courtship, and neither could remember the exact circumstances of their engagement. They were married on January 28, 1956, at the Congregational Church in Wilmette, Illinois. When he moved to Edwards Air Force Base, he lived in the bachelor quarters of the base, while Janet lived in the Westwood district of Los Angeles. After one semester, they moved into a house in Antelope Valley, near Edwards AFB. Janet did not finish her degree, a fact she regretted later in life. The couple had three children. [ 40 ] In June 1961, their daughter Karen was diagnosed with diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma, a malignant tumor of the middle part of her brain stem. [ 41 ] X-ray treatment slowed its growth, but her health deteriorated to the point where she could no longer walk or talk. She died of pneumonia, related to her weakened health, on January 28, 1962, aged two. [ 42 ]

                Test pilot

              Following his graduation from Purdue, Armstrong became an experimental research test pilot. He applied at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) High-Speed Flight Station at Edwards Air Force Base. [ 43 ] NACA had no open positions, and forwarded his application to the Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory in Cleveland, where Armstrong made his first test flight on March 1, 1955. [ 43 ] Armstrong's stint at Cleveland lasted only a couple of months before a position at the High-Speed Flight Station became available, and he reported for work there on July 11, 1955. [ 44 ]

              Armstrong, 26, as a test pilot at the NACA High-Speed Flight Station at Edwards AFB, California

              On his first day, Armstrong was tasked with piloting chase planes during releases of experimental aircraft from modified bombers. He also flew the modified bombers, and on one of these missions had his first flight incident at Edwards. On March 22, 1956, he was in a Boeing B-29 Superfortress, [ 45 ] which was to air-drop a Douglas D-558-2 Skyrocket. He sat in the right-hand co-pilot seat while pilot in command, Stan Butchart sat in the left-hand pilot seat flying the B-29. [ 46 ]

              As they climbed to 30,000 feet (9 km), the number-four engine stopped and the propeller began windmilling (rotating freely) in the airstream. Hitting the switch that would stop the propeller's spinning, Butchart watched it slow, then resume spinning even faster than the others; if it spun too fast, it would break apart. Their aircraft needed to hold an airspeed of 210 mph (338 km/h) to launch its Skyrocket payload, and the B-29 could not land with the Skyrocket attached to its belly. Armstrong and Butchart brought the aircraft into a nose-down attitude to increase speed, then launched the Skyrocket. At the instant of launch, the number-four engine propeller disintegrated. Pieces of it damaged the number-three engine and hit the number-two engine. Butchart and Armstrong were forced to shut down the damaged number-three engine, along with the number-one engine, due to the torque it created. They made a slow, circling descent from 30,000 ft (9 km) using only the number-two engine, and landed safely. [ 47 ]

              Armstrong served as project pilot on Century Series fighters, including the North American F-100 Super Sabre A and C variants, the McDonnell F-101 Voodoo, the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter, the Republic F-105 Thunderchief and the Convair F-106 Delta Dart. He also flew the Douglas DC-3, Lockheed T-33 Shooting Star, North American F-86 Sabre, McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II, Douglas F5D-1 Skylancer, Boeing B-29 Superfortress, Boeing B-47 Stratojet and Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker, and was one of eight elite pilots involved in the Parasev paraglider research vehicle program. [ 48 ] Over his career, he flew more than 200 different models of aircraft. [ 37 ] His first flight in a rocket-powered aircraft was on August 15, 1957, in the Bell X-1B, to an altitude of 11.4 miles (18.3 km). On landing, the poorly designed nose landing gear failed, as had happened on about a dozen previous flights of the Bell X-1B. He flew the North American X-15 seven times, [ 49 ] including the first flight with the Q-ball system, the first flight of the number 3 X-15 airframe, and the first flight of the MH-96 adaptive flight control system. [ 50 ] [ 51 ] He became an employee of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) when it was established on October 1, 1958, absorbing NACA. [ 52 ]

              Armstrong was involved in several incidents that went down in Edwards folklore or were chronicled in the memoirs of colleagues. During his sixth X-15 flight on April 20, 1962, Armstrong was testing the MH-96 control system when he flew to a height of over 207,000 feet (63 km) (the highest he flew before Gemini 8). He held up the aircraft nose during its descent to demonstrate the MH-96's g-limiting performance, and the X-15 ballooned back up to around 140,000 feet (43 km). He flew past the landing field at Mach 3 at over 100,000 feet (30 km) in altitude, and ended up 40 miles (64 km) south of Edwards. After sufficient descent, he turned back toward the landing area, and landed. It was the longest X-15 flight in both flight time and length of the ground track. [ 53 ] [ 54 ]

              Armstrong and X-15-1 after a research flight in 1960

              Fellow astronaut Michael Collins wrote that of the X-15 pilots Armstrong "had been considered one of the weaker stick-and-rudder men, but the very best when it came to understanding the machine's design and how it operated". [ 55 ] Many of the test pilots at Edwards praised Armstrong's engineering ability. Milt Thompson said he was "the most technically capable of the early X-15 pilots". Bill Dana said Armstrong "had a mind that absorbed things like a sponge". Those who flew for the Air Force tended to have a different opinion, especially people like Chuck Yeager and Pete Knight, who did not have engineering degrees. Knight said that pilot-engineers flew in a way that was "more mechanical than it is flying", and gave this as the reason why some pilot-engineers got into trouble: Their flying skills did not come naturally. [ 56 ] Armstrong made seven flights in the X-15 between November 30, 1960, and July 26, 1962. [ 57 ] He reached a top speed of Mach 5.74 (3,989 mph, 6,420 km/h) in the X-15-1, and left the Flight Research Center with a total of 2,400 flying hours. [ 58 ]

              On April 24, 1962, Armstrong flew for the only time with Yeager. Their job, flying a T-33, was to evaluate Smith Ranch Dry Lake in Nevada for use as an emergency landing site for the X-15. In his autobiography, Yeager wrote that he knew the lake bed was unsuitable for landings after recent rains, but Armstrong insisted on flying out anyway. As they attempted a touch-and-go, the wheels became stuck and they had to wait for rescue. As Armstrong told the story, Yeager never tried to talk him out of it and they made a first successful landing on the east side of the lake. Then Yeager told him to try again, this time a bit slower. On the second landing, they became stuck, provoking Yeager to fits of laughter. [ 59 ]

              On May 21, 1962, Armstrong was involved in the "Nellis Affair". He was sent in an F-104 to inspect Delamar Dry Lake in southern Nevada, again for emergency landings. He misjudged his altitude and did not realize that the landing gear had not fully extended. As he touched down, the landing gear began to retract; Armstrong applied full power to abort the landing, but the ventral fin and landing gear door struck the ground, damaging the radio and releasing hydraulic fluid. Without radio communication, Armstrong flew south to Nellis Air Force Base, past the control tower, and waggled his wings, the signal for a no-radio approach. The loss of hydraulic fluid caused the tailhook to release, and upon landing, he caught the arresting wire attached to an anchor chain, and dragged the chain along the runway. [ 60 ]

              It took thirty minutes to clear the runway and rig another arresting cable. Armstrong telephoned Edwards and asked for someone to collect him. Milt Thompson was sent in an F-104B, the only two-seater available, but a plane Thompson had never flown. With great difficulty, Thompson made it to Nellis, where a strong crosswind caused a hard landing and the left main tire suffered a blowout. The runway was again closed to clear it, and Bill Dana was sent to Nellis in a T-33, but he almost landed long. The Nellis base operations office then decided that to avoid any further problems, it would be best to find the three NASA pilots ground transport back to Edwards. [ 60 ]

                Astronaut career

              Armstrong in an early Gemini space suit

              In June 1958, Armstrong was selected for the U.S. Air Force's Man in Space Soonest program, but the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) canceled its funding on August 1, 1958, and on November 5, 1958, it was superseded by Project Mercury, a civilian project run by NASA. As a NASA civilian test pilot, Armstrong was ineligible to become one of its astronauts at this time, as selection was restricted to military test pilots. [ 61 ] [ 62 ] In November 1960, he was chosen as part of the pilot consultant group for the X-20 Dyna-Soar, a military space plane under development by Boeing for the U.S. Air Force, and on March 15, 1962, he was selected by the U.S. Air Force as one of seven pilot-engineers who would fly the X-20 when it got off the design board. [ 63 ] [ 64 ]

              In April 1962, NASA sought applications for the second group of NASA astronauts for Project Gemini, a proposed two-man spacecraft. This time, selection was open to qualified civilian test pilots. [ 65 ] Armstrong visited the Seattle World's Fair in May 1962 and attended a conference there on space exploration that was co-sponsored by NASA. After he returned from Seattle on June 4, he applied to become an astronaut. His application arrived about a week past the June 1, 1962, deadline, but Dick Day, a flight simulator expert with whom Armstrong had worked closely at Edwards, saw the late arrival of the application and slipped it into the pile before anyone noticed. [ 66 ] At Brooks Air Force Base at the end of June, Armstrong underwent a medical exam that many of the applicants described as painful and at times seemingly pointless. [ 67 ]

              NASA's Director of Flight Crew Operations, Deke Slayton, called Armstrong on September 13, 1962, and asked whether he would be interested in joining the NASA Astronaut Corps as part of what the press dubbed "the New Nine"; without hesitation, Armstrong said yes. The selections were kept secret until three days later, although newspaper reports had circulated since earlier that year that he would be selected as the "first civilian astronaut". [ 68 ] Armstrong was one of two civilian pilots selected for this group; [ 69 ] the other was Elliot See, another former naval aviator. [ 70 ] NASA selected the second group that, compared with the Mercury Seven astronauts, were younger, [ 67 ] and had more impressive academic credentials. [ 71 ] Collins wrote that Armstrong was by far the most experienced test pilot in the Astronaut Corps. [ 55 ]

                Gemini program

                Gemini 5

              On February 8, 1965, Armstrong and Elliot See were picked as the backup crew for Gemini 5, with Armstrong as commander, supporting the prime crew of Gordon Cooper and Pete Conrad. [ 72 ] The mission's purpose was to practice space rendezvous and to develop procedures and equipment for a seven-day flight, all of which would be required for a mission to the Moon. With two other flights (Gemini 3 and Gemini 4) in preparation, six crews were competing for simulator time, so Gemini 5 was postponed. It finally lifted off on August 21. [ 73 ] Armstrong and See watched the launch at Cape Kennedy, then flew to the Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC) in Houston. [ 74 ] The mission was generally successful, despite a problem with the fuel cells that prevented a rendezvous. Cooper and Conrad practiced a "phantom rendezvous", carrying out the maneuver without a target. [ 75 ]

                Gemini 8

                Main article: Gemini 8

              Armstrong, 35, suiting up for Gemini 8 in March 1966

              The crews for Gemini 8 were assigned on September 20, 1965. Under the normal rotation system, the backup crew for one mission became the prime crew for the third mission after, but Slayton designated David Scott as the pilot of Gemini 8. [ 76 ] [ 77 ] Scott was the first member of the third group of astronauts, who was selected on October 18, 1963, to receive a prime crew assignment. [ 78 ] See was designated to command Gemini 9. Henceforth, each Gemini mission was commanded by a member of Armstrong's group, with a member of Scott's group as the pilot. Conrad would be Armstrong's backup this time, and Richard F. Gordon Jr. his pilot. [ 76 ] [ 77 ] Armstrong became the first American civilian in space. (Valentina Tereshkova of the Soviet Union had become the first civilian—and first woman—nearly three years earlier aboard Vostok 6 when it launched on June 16, 1963. [ 79 ] ) Armstrong would also be the last of his group to fly in space, as See died in a T-38 crash on February 28, 1966, that also took the life of crewmate Charles Bassett. They were replaced by the backup crew of Tom Stafford and Gene Cernan, while Jim Lovell and Buzz Aldrin moved up from the backup crew of Gemini 10 to become the backup for Gemini 9, [ 80 ] and would eventually fly Gemini 12. [ 81 ]

              Gemini 8 launched on March 16, 1966. It was the most complex mission yet, with a rendezvous and docking with an uncrewed Agena target vehicle, and the planned second American spacewalk (EVA) by Scott. The mission was planned to last 75 hours and 55 orbits. After the Agena lifted off at 10:00:00 EST, [ 82 ] the Titan II rocket carrying Armstrong and Scott ignited at 11:41:02 EST, putting them into an orbit from which they chased the Agena. [ 83 ] They achieved the first-ever docking between two spacecraft. [ 84 ] Contact with the crew was intermittent due to the lack of tracking stations covering their entire orbits. While out of contact with the ground, the docked spacecraft began to roll, and Armstrong attempted to correct this with the Gemini's Orbit Attitude and Maneuvering System (OAMS). Following the earlier advice of Mission Control, they undocked, but the roll increased dramatically until they were turning about once per second, indicating a problem with Gemini's attitude control. Armstrong engaged the Reentry Control System (RCS) and turned off the OAMS. Mission rules dictated that once this system was turned on, the spacecraft had to reenter at the next possible opportunity. It was later thought that damaged wiring caused one of the thrusters to stick in the on position. [ 85 ]

              Recovery of Gemini 8 from the western Pacific Ocean; Armstrong sitting to the right

              A few people in the Astronaut Office, including Walter Cunningham, felt that Armstrong and Scott "had botched their first mission". [ 86 ] There was speculation that Armstrong could have salvaged the mission if he had turned on only one of the two RCS rings, saving the other for mission objectives. These criticisms were unfounded; no malfunction procedures had been written, and it was possible to turn on only both RCS rings, not one or the other. [ 87 ] Gene Kranz wrote, "The crew reacted as they were trained, and they reacted wrong because we trained them wrong." The mission planners and controllers had failed to realize that when two spacecraft were docked, they must be considered one spacecraft. Kranz considered this the mission's most important lesson. [ 88 ] Armstrong was depressed that the mission was cut short, [ 89 ] canceling most mission objectives and robbing Scott of his EVA. The Agena was later reused as a docking target by Gemini 10. [ 90 ] Armstrong and Scott received the NASA Exceptional Service Medal, [ 91 ] [ 92 ] and the Air Force awarded Scott the Distinguished Flying Cross as well. [ 93 ] Scott was promoted to lieutenant colonel, and Armstrong received a $678 raise in pay to $21,653 a year (equivalent to $203,338 in 2023), making him NASA's highest-paid astronaut. [ 89 ]

                Gemini 11

                Main article: Gemini 11

              In Armstrong's final assignment in the Gemini program, he was the back-up Command Pilot for Gemini 11. Having trained for two flights, Armstrong was quite knowledgeable about the systems and took on a teaching role for the rookie backup pilot, William Anders. [ 94 ] The launch was on September 12, 1966, [ 95 ] with Conrad and Gordon on board, who successfully completed the mission objectives, while Armstrong served as a capsule communicator (CAPCOM). [ 96 ]

              Following the flight, President Lyndon B. Johnson asked Armstrong and his wife to take part in a 24-day goodwill tour of South America. [ 97 ] Also on the tour, which took in 11 countries and 14 major cities, were Dick Gordon, George Low, their wives, and other government officials. In Paraguay, Armstrong greeted dignitaries in their local language, Guarani; in Brazil he talked about the exploits of the Brazilian-born aviation pioneer Alberto Santos-Dumont. [ 98 ]

                Apollo program

              On January 27, 1967—the day of the Apollo 1 fire—Armstrong was in Washington, D.C., with Cooper, Gordon, Lovell and Scott Carpenter for the signing of the United Nations Outer Space Treaty. The astronauts chatted with the assembled dignitaries until 18:45, when Carpenter went to the airport, and the others returned to the Georgetown Inn, where they each found messages to phone the MSC. During these calls, they learned of the deaths of Gus Grissom, Ed White and Roger Chaffee in the fire. Armstrong and the group spent the rest of the night drinking scotch and discussing what had happened. [ 99 ]

              On April 5, 1967, the same day the Apollo 1 investigation released its final report, Armstrong and 17 other astronauts gathered for a meeting with Slayton. The first thing Slayton said was, "The guys who are going to fly the first lunar missions are the guys in this room." [ 100 ] According to Cernan, only Armstrong showed no reaction to the statement. To Armstrong it came as no surprise—the room was full of veterans of Project Gemini, the only people who could fly the lunar missions. Slayton talked about the planned missions and named Armstrong to the backup crew for Apollo 9, which at that stage was planned as a medium Earth orbit test of the combined lunar module and command and service module. [ 101 ]

              The crew was officially assigned on November 20, 1967. [ 102 ] For crewmates, Armstrong was assigned Lovell and Aldrin, from Gemini 12. After design and manufacturing delays of the lunar module (LM), Apollo 8 and 9 swapped prime and backup crews. Based on the normal crew rotation, Armstrong would command Apollo 11, [ 101 ] with one change: Collins on the Apollo 8 crew began experiencing trouble with his legs. Doctors diagnosed the problem as a bony growth between his fifth and sixth vertebrae, requiring surgery. [ 103 ] Lovell took his place on the Apollo 8 crew, and, when Collins recovered, he joined Armstrong's crew. [ 104 ]

              Armstrong descends to the ground on a parachute after ejecting from Lunar Landing Research Vehicle 1.

              To give the astronauts practice piloting the LM on its descent, NASA commissioned Bell Aircraft to build two Lunar Landing Research Vehicles (LLRV), later augmented with three Lunar Landing Training Vehicles (LLTV). Nicknamed the "Flying Bedsteads", they simulated the Moon's one-sixth gravity using a turbofan engine to support five-sixths of the craft's weight. On May 6, 1968, 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, Armstrong's controls started to degrade and the LLRV began rolling. [ 105 ] He ejected safely before the vehicle struck the ground and burst into flames. Later analysis suggested that if he had ejected half a second later, his parachute would not have opened in time. His only injury was from biting his tongue. The LLRV was completely destroyed. [ 106 ] Even though he was nearly killed, Armstrong maintained that without the LLRV and LLTV, the lunar landings would not have been successful, as they gave commanders essential experience in piloting the lunar landing craft. [ 107 ]

              In addition to the LLRV training, NASA began lunar landing simulator training after Apollo 10 was completed. Aldrin and Armstrong trained for a variety of scenarios that could develop during a real lunar landing. [ 108 ] They also received briefings from geologists at NASA. [ 109 ]

                Apollo 11

                Main article: Apollo 11

              The Apollo 11 crew: Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Buzz Aldrin.

              After Armstrong served as backup commander for Apollo 8, Slayton offered him the post of commander of Apollo 11 on December 23, 1968, as Apollo 8 orbited the Moon. [ 110 ] According to Armstrong's 2005 biography, Slayton told him that although the planned crew was Commander Armstrong, Lunar Module Pilot Buzz Aldrin, and Command Module Pilot Michael Collins, he was offering Armstrong the chance to replace Aldrin with Jim Lovell. After thinking it over for a day, Armstrong told Slayton he would stick with Aldrin, as he had no difficulty working with him and thought Lovell deserved his own command. Replacing Aldrin with Lovell would have made Lovell the lunar module pilot, unofficially the lowest ranked member, and Armstrong could not justify placing Lovell, the commander of Gemini 12, in the number 3 position of the crew. [ 111 ] The crew of Apollo 11 was assigned on January 9, 1969, as Armstrong, Collins, and Aldrin, with Lovell, Anders, and Fred Haise as the backup crew. [ 112 ]

              According to Chris Kraft, a March 1969 meeting among Slayton, George Low, Bob Gilruth, and Kraft determined that Armstrong would be the first person on the Moon, in part because NASA management saw him as a person who did not have a large ego. A press conference on April 14, 1969, gave the design of the LM cabin as the reason for Armstrong's being first; the hatch opened inwards and to the right, making it difficult for the LM pilot, on the right-hand side, to exit first. At the time of their meeting, the four men did not know about the hatch consideration. The first knowledge of the meeting outside the small group came when Kraft wrote his book. [ 113 ] [ 114 ] Methods of circumventing this difficulty existed, but it is not known if these were considered at the time. Slayton added, "Secondly, just on a pure protocol basis, I figured the commander ought to be the first guy out ... I changed it as soon as I found they had the time line that showed that. Bob Gilruth approved my decision." [ 115 ]

                Voyage to the Moon

              A Saturn V rocket launched Apollo 11 from Launch Complex 39A at the Kennedy Space Center on July 16, 1969, at 13:32:00 UTC (09:32:00 EDT local time). [ 116 ] Armstrong's wife Janet and two sons watched from a yacht moored on the Banana River. [ 117 ] During the launch, Armstrong's heart rate peaked at 110 beats per minute. [ 118 ] He found the first stage the loudest, much noisier than the Gemini 8 Titan II launch. The Apollo command module was relatively roomy compared with the Gemini spacecraft. None of the Apollo 11 crew suffered space sickness, as some members of previous crews had. Armstrong was especially glad about this, as he had been prone to motion sickness as a child and could experience nausea after long periods of aerobatics. [ 119 ]

              Armstrong in the lunar module after the completion of the EVA

              Apollo 11's objective was to land safely on the Moon, rather than to touch down at a precise location. Three minutes into the lunar descent, Armstrong noted that craters were passing about two seconds too early, which meant the Lunar Module Eagle would probably touch down several miles (kilometres) beyond the planned landing zone. [ 120 ] As the Eagle ' s landing radar acquired the surface, several computer error alarms sounded. The first was a code 1202 alarm, and even with their extensive training, neither Armstrong nor Aldrin knew what this code meant. They promptly received word from CAPCOM Charles Duke in Houston that the alarms were not a concern; the 1202 and 1201 alarms were caused by executive overflows in the lunar module guidance computer. In 2007, Aldrin said the overflows were caused by his own counter-checklist choice of leaving the docking radar on during the landing process, causing the computer to process unnecessary radar data. When it did not have enough time to execute all tasks, the computer dropped the lower-priority ones, triggering the alarms. Aldrin said he decided to leave the radar on in case an abort was necessary when re-docking with the Apollo command module; he did not realize it would cause the processing overflows. [ 121 ]

              Armstrong lands the Lunar Module Eagle on the Moon, July 20, 1969.

              When Armstrong noticed they were heading toward a landing area that seemed unsafe, he took manual control of the LM and attempted to find a safer area. This took longer than expected, and longer than most simulations had taken. [ 122 ] For this reason, Mission Control was concerned that the LM was running low on fuel. [ 123 ] On landing, Aldrin and Armstrong believed they had 40 seconds of fuel left, including the 20 seconds' worth which had to be saved in the event of an abort. [ 124 ] During training, Armstrong had, on several occasions, landed with fewer than 15 seconds of fuel; he was also confident the LM could survive a fall of up to 50 feet (15 m). Post-mission analysis showed that at touchdown there were 45 to 50 seconds of propellant burn time left. [ 125 ]

              The landing on the surface of the Moon occurred several seconds after 20:17:40 UTC on July 20, 1969. [ 126 ] One of three 67-inch (170 cm) probes attached to three of the LM's four legs made contact with the surface, a panel light in the LM illuminated, and Aldrin called out, "Contact light." Armstrong shut the engine off and said, "Shutdown." As the LM settled onto the surface, Aldrin said, "Okay, engine stop"; then they both called out some post-landing checklist items. After a 10-second pause, Duke acknowledged the landing with, "We copy you down, Eagle." Armstrong confirmed the landing to Mission Control and the world with the words, "Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed." Aldrin and Armstrong celebrated with a brisk handshake and pat on the back. They then returned to the checklist of contingency tasks, should an emergency liftoff become necessary. [ 127 ] [ 128 ] [ 129 ] After Armstrong confirmed touch down, Duke re-acknowledged, adding a comment about the flight crew's relief: "Roger, Tranquility. We copy you on the ground. You got a bunch of guys about to turn blue. We're breathing again. Thanks a lot." [ 124 ] During the landing, Armstrong's heart rate ranged from 100 to 150 beats per minute. [ 130 ]

                First Moon walk

                See also: Apollo 11 § Lunar surface operations

              Armstrong describes the lunar surface.

                        "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind"
                  Problems playing this file? See media help.

              The flight plan called for a crew rest period before leaving the module, but Armstrong asked for this to be moved to earlier in the evening, Houston time. When he and Aldrin were ready to go outside, Eagle was depressurized, the hatch was opened, and Armstrong made his way down the ladder. [ 131 ] At the bottom of the ladder, while standing on a Lunar Module landing pad, Armstrong said, "I'm going to step off the LM now". He turned and set his left boot on the lunar surface at 02:56 UTC July 21, 1969, [ 132 ] then said, "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." [ 133 ] The exact time of Armstrong's first step on the Moon is unclear. [ 134 ]

              Armstrong prepared his famous epigram on his own. [ 135 ] In a post-flight press conference, he said that he chose the words "just prior to leaving the LM." [ 136 ] In a 1983 interview in Esquire magazine, he explained to George Plimpton: "I always knew there was a good chance of being able to return to Earth, but I thought the chances of a successful touch down on the moon surface were about even money—fifty–fifty ... Most people don't realize how difficult the mission was. So it didn't seem to me there was much point in thinking of something to say if we'd have to abort landing." [ 135 ] In 2012, his brother Dean Armstrong said that Neil showed him a draft of the line months before the launch. [ 137 ] Historian Andrew Chaikin, who interviewed Armstrong in 1988 for his book A Man on the Moon, disputed that Armstrong claimed to have conceived the line during the mission. [ 138 ]

              Recordings of Armstrong's transmission do not provide evidence for the indefinite article "a" before "man", though NASA and Armstrong insisted for years that static obscured it. Armstrong stated he would never make such a mistake, but after repeated listenings to recordings, he eventually conceded he must have dropped the "a". [ 133 ] He later said he "would hope that history would grant me leeway for dropping the syllable and understand that it was certainly intended, even if it was not said—although it might actually have been". [ 139 ] There have since been claims and counter-claims about whether acoustic analysis of the recording reveals the presence of the missing "a"; [ 133 ] [ 140 ] Peter Shann Ford, an Australian computer programmer, conducted a digital audio analysis and claims that Armstrong did say "a man", but the "a" was inaudible due to the limitations of communications technology of the time. [ 133 ] [ 141 ] [ 142 ] Ford and James R. Hansen, Armstrong's authorized biographer, presented these findings to Armstrong and NASA representatives, who conducted their own analysis. [ 143 ] Armstrong found Ford's analysis "persuasive." [ 144 ] [ 145 ] Linguists David Beaver and Mark Liberman wrote of their skepticism of Ford's claims on the blog Language Log. [ 146 ] A 2016 peer-reviewed study again concluded Armstrong had included the article. [ 147 ] NASA's transcript continues to show the "a" in parentheses. [ 148 ]

              When Armstrong made his proclamation, Voice of America was rebroadcast live by the BBC and many other stations worldwide. An estimated 530 million people viewed the event, [ 149 ] 20 percent out of a world population of approximately 3.6 billion. [ 150 ] [ 151 ]

                Q: Did you misspeak?

                A: There isn't any way of knowing.

                Q: Several sources say you did.

                A: I mean, there isn't any way of my knowing. When I listen to the tape, I can't hear the 'a', but that doesn't mean it wasn't there, because that was the fastest VOX ever built. There was no mike-switch — it was a voice-operated key or VOX. In a helmet you find you lose a lot of syllables. Sometimes a short syllable like 'a' might not be transmitted. However, when I listen to it, I can't hear it. But the 'a' is implied, so I'm happy if they just put it in parentheses.

                Omni, June 1982, p. 126

              Armstrong on the Moon

              About 19 minutes after Armstrong's first step, Aldrin joined him on the surface, becoming the second human to walk on the Moon. They began their tasks of investigating how easily a person could operate on the lunar surface. Armstrong unveiled a plaque commemorating the flight, and with Aldrin, planted the flag of the United States. Although Armstrong had wanted the flag to be draped on the flagpole, [ 152 ] it was decided to use a metal rod to hold it horizontally. [ 153 ] However, the rod did not fully extend, leaving the flag with a slightly wavy appearance, as if there were a breeze. [ 154 ] Shortly after the flag planting, President Richard Nixon spoke to them by telephone from his office. He spoke for about a minute, after which Armstrong responded for about thirty seconds. [ 155 ] In the Apollo 11 photographic record, there are only five images of Armstrong partly shown or reflected. The mission was planned to the minute, with the majority of photographic tasks performed by Armstrong with the single Hasselblad camera. [ 156 ]

              After helping to set up the Early Apollo Scientific Experiment Package, Armstrong went for a walk to what is now known as East Crater, 65 yards (59 m) east of the LM, the greatest distance traveled from the LM on the mission. His final task was to remind Aldrin to leave a small package of memorial items to Soviet cosmonauts Yuri Gagarin and Vladimir Komarov, and Apollo 1 astronauts Grissom, White and Chaffee. [ 157 ] The Apollo 11 EVA lasted two and a half hours. [ 158 ] Each of the subsequent five landings was allotted a progressively longer EVA period; the crew of Apollo 17 spent over 22 hours exploring the lunar surface. [ 158 ] In a 2010 interview, Armstrong explained that NASA limited their Moon walk because they were unsure how the space suits would cope with the Moon's extremely high temperature. [ 159 ]

                Return to Earth

              The Apollo 11 crew and President Richard Nixon during the post-mission quarantine period

              After they re-entered the LM, the hatch was closed and sealed. While preparing for liftoff, Armstrong and Aldrin discovered that, in their bulky space suits, they had broken the ignition switch for the ascent engine; using part of a pen, they pushed in the circuit breaker to start the launch sequence. [ 160 ] The Eagle then continued to its rendezvous in lunar orbit, where it docked with Columbia, the command and service module. The three astronauts returned to Earth and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean, to be picked up by the USS Hornet. [ 161 ]

              After being released from an 18-day quarantine to ensure that they had not picked up any infections or diseases from the Moon, the crew was feted across the United States and around the world as part of a 38-day "Giant Leap" tour. [ 162 ]

              New York City ticker tape parade, August 13, 1969

              The tour began on August 13, when the three astronauts spoke and rode in ticker-tape parades in their honor in New York and Chicago, with an estimated six million attendees. [ 163 ] [ 164 ] On the same evening an official state dinner was held in Los Angeles to celebrate the flight, attended by members of Congress, 44 governors, the Chief Justice of the United States, and ambassadors from 83 nations. President Nixon and Vice President Agnew presented each astronaut with a Presidential Medal of Freedom. [ 163 ] [ 165 ]

              After the tour Armstrong took part in Bob Hope's 1969 USO show, primarily to Vietnam. [ 166 ] In May 1970, Armstrong traveled to the Soviet Union to present a talk at the 13th annual conference of the International Committee on Space Research; after arriving in Leningrad from Poland, he traveled to Moscow where he met Premier Alexei Kosygin. Armstrong was the first westerner to see the supersonic Tupolev Tu-144 and was given a tour of the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center, which he described as "a bit Victorian in nature". [ 167 ] At the end of the day, he was surprised to view a delayed video of the launch of Soyuz 9 as it had not occurred to Armstrong that the mission was taking place, even though Valentina Tereshkova had been his host and her husband, Andriyan Nikolayev, was on board. [ 168 ]

                Life after Apollo

              Valentina Tereshkova, the first woman in space, presenting a badge to Neil Armstrong, Star City, Soviet Union, June 1970

                Teaching

              Shortly after Apollo 11, Armstrong stated that he did not plan to fly in space again. [ 169 ] He was appointed Deputy Associate Administrator for Aeronautics for the Office of Advanced Research and Technology at ARPA, served in the position for a year, then resigned from it and NASA in 1971. [ 170 ] He accepted a teaching position in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at the University of Cincinnati, [ 171 ] having chosen Cincinnati over other universities, including his alma mater Purdue, because Cincinnati had a small aerospace department, [ 172 ] and said he hoped the faculty there would not be annoyed that he came straight into a professorship with only a USC master's degree. [ 173 ] He began his master's degree while stationed at Edwards years before, and completed it after Apollo 11 by presenting a report on various aspects of Apollo, instead of a thesis on the simulation of hypersonic flight. [ 174 ]

              At Cincinnati, Armstrong was University Professor of Aerospace Engineering. He took a heavy teaching load, taught core classes, and created two graduate-level classes: aircraft design and experimental flight mechanics. He was considered a good teacher, and a tough grader. His research activities during this time did not involve his work at NASA, as he did not want to give the appearance of favoritism; he later regretted the decision. After teaching for eight years, Armstrong resigned in 1980. When the university changed from an independent municipal university to a state school, bureaucracy increased. He did not want to be a part of the faculty collective bargaining group, so he decided to teach half-time. According to Armstrong, he had the same amount of work but received half his salary. In 1979, less than 10% of his income came from his university salary. Employees at the university did not know why he left. [ 174 ]

                NASA commissions

              In 1970, after an explosion aboard Apollo 13 aborted its lunar landing, Armstrong was part of Edgar Cortright's investigation of the mission. He produced a detailed chronology of the flight. He determined that a 28-volt thermostat switch in an oxygen tank, which was supposed to have been replaced with a 65-volt version, led to the explosion. Cortright's report recommended the entire tank be redesigned at a cost of $40 million. Many NASA managers, including Armstrong, opposed the recommendation, since only the thermostat switch had caused the problem. They lost the argument, and the tanks were redesigned. [ 175 ]

              In 1986, President Ronald Reagan asked Armstrong to join the Rogers Commission investigating the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster. Armstrong was made vice chairman of the commission and held private interviews with contacts he had developed over the years to help determine the cause of the disaster. He helped limit the committee's recommendations to nine, believing that if there were too many, NASA would not act on them. [ 176 ]

              Michael Collins, President George W. Bush, Neil Armstrong, and Buzz Aldrin during celebrations of the 35th anniversary of the Apollo 11 flight, July 21, 2004

              Armstrong was appointed to a fourteen-member commission by President Reagan to develop a plan for American civilian spaceflight in the 21st century. The commission was chaired by former NASA administrator Dr. Thomas O. Paine, with whom Armstrong had worked during the Apollo program. The group published a book titled Pioneering the Space Frontier: The Report on the National Commission on Space, recommending a permanent lunar base by 2006, and sending people to Mars by 2015. The recommendations were largely ignored, overshadowed by the Challenger disaster. [ 177 ]

              Armstrong and his wife attended the memorial service for the victims of the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster in 2003, at the invitation of President George W. Bush. [ 178 ]

                Business activities

              After Armstrong retired from NASA in 1971, he acted as a spokesman for several businesses. The first company to successfully approach him was Chrysler, for whom he appeared in advertising starting in January 1979. Armstrong thought they had a strong engineering division, and they were in financial difficulty. He later acted as a spokesman for other American companies, including General Time Corporation and the Bankers Association of America. [ 179 ] He acted as a spokesman for only American companies. [ 180 ]

              In addition to his duties as a spokesman, he also served on the board of directors of several companies. The first company board Armstrong joined was Gates Learjet, chairing their technical committee. He flew their new and experimental jets and even set a climb and altitude record for business jets. Armstrong became a member of Cincinnati Gas & Electric Company's board in 1973. They were interested in nuclear power and wanted to increase the company's technical competence. He served on the board of Taft Broadcasting, also based in Cincinnati. Armstrong joined the board of solid rocket booster Thiokol in 1989, after previously serving on the Rogers Commission which found that the Space Shuttle Challenger was destroyed due to a defect in the Thiokol-manufactured solid rocket boosters. When Armstrong left the University of Cincinnati, he became the chairman of Cardwell International Ltd., a company that manufactured drilling rigs. He served on additional aerospace boards, first United Airlines in 1978, and later Eaton Corporation in 1980. He was asked to chair the board of directors for a subsidiary of Eaton, AIL Systems. He chaired the board through the company's 2000 merger with EDO Corporation, until his retirement in 2002. [ 181 ] [ 182 ]

                North Pole expedition

              In 1985, professional expedition leader Mike Dunn organized a trip to take men he deemed the "greatest explorers" to the North Pole. The group included Armstrong, Edmund Hillary, Hillary's son Peter, Steve Fossett, and Patrick Morrow. They arrived at the Pole on April 6, 1985. Armstrong said he was curious to see what it looked like from the ground, as he had seen it only from the Moon. [ 183 ] He did not inform the media of the trip, preferring to keep it private. [ 184 ]

                Public profile

              Armstrong in 1999

              Armstrong's family described him as a "reluctant American hero". [ 185 ] [ 186 ] [ 187 ] He kept a low profile later in his life, leading to the belief that he was a recluse. [ 188 ] [ 189 ] Recalling Armstrong's humility, John Glenn, the first American to orbit Earth, told CNN: "[Armstrong] didn't feel that he should be out huckstering himself. He was a humble person, and that's the way he remained after his lunar flight, as well as before." [ 190 ] Armstrong turned down most requests for interviews and public appearances. Michael Collins said in his book Carrying the Fire that when Armstrong moved to a dairy farm to become a college professor, it was like he "retreated to his castle and pulled up the drawbridge". Armstrong found this amusing, and said, "... those of us that live out in the hinterlands think that people that live inside the Beltway are the ones that have the problems." [ 191 ]

              Andrew Chaikin says in A Man on the Moon that Armstrong kept a low profile but was not a recluse, citing his participation in interviews, advertisements for Chrysler, and hosting a cable television series. [ 192 ] Between 1991 and 1993, he hosted First Flights with Neil Armstrong, an aviation history documentary series on A&E. [ 191 ] In 2010, Armstrong voiced the character of Dr. Jack Morrow in Quantum Quest: A Cassini Space Odyssey, [ 193 ] an animated educational sci-fi adventure film initiated by JPL/NASA through a grant from Jet Propulsion Lab. [ 194 ]

              Armstrong guarded the use of his name, image, and famous quote. When it was launched in 1981, MTV wanted to use his quote in its station identification, with the American flag replaced with the MTV logo, but he refused the use of his voice and likeness. [ 195 ] He sued Hallmark Cards in 1994, when they used his name, and a recording of the "one small step" quote, in a Christmas ornament without his permission. The lawsuit was settled out of court for an undisclosed sum, which Armstrong donated to Purdue. [ 196 ] [ 197 ]

              For many years, he wrote letters congratulating new Eagle Scouts on their accomplishment, but decided to quit the practice in the 1990s because he felt the letters should be written by people who knew the scout. (In 2003, he received 950 congratulation requests.) This contributed to the myth of his reclusiveness. [ 198 ] Armstrong used to autograph everything except first day covers. Around 1993, he found out his signatures were being sold online, and that most of them were forgeries, and stopped giving autographs. [ 189 ]

                Personal life

              Armstrong speaking in February 2012, six months before his death, on the 50th anniversary of John Glenn's first spaceflight

              Some former astronauts, including Glenn and Apollo 17's Harrison Schmitt, sought political careers after leaving NASA. Armstrong was approached by groups from both the Democratic and Republican parties but declined the offers. He supported states' rights and opposed the U.S. acting as the "world's policeman". [ 199 ]

              When Armstrong applied at a local Methodist church to lead a Boy Scout troop in the late 1950s, he gave his religious affiliation as "deist". [ 200 ] His mother later said that his religious views caused her grief and distress in later life, as she was a Christian. [ 201 ] Upon his return from the Moon, Armstrong gave a speech in front of the U.S. Congress in which he thanked them for giving him the opportunity to see some of the "grandest views of the Creator". [ 202 ] [ 203 ] In the early 1980s, he was the subject of a hoax claiming that he converted to Islam after hearing the call to prayer while walking on the Moon. Indonesian singer Suhaemi wrote a song called "Gema Suara Adzan di Bulan" ("The Resonant Sound of the Call to Prayer on the Moon") which described Armstrong's supposed conversion, and the song was widely discussed by Jakarta news outlets in 1983. [ 204 ] Similar hoax stories were seen in Egypt and Malaysia. In March 1983, the U.S. State Department responded by issuing a message to embassies and consulates in Muslim countries saying that Armstrong had not converted to Islam. [ 205 ] The hoax surfaced occasionally for the next three decades. Part of the confusion arose from the similarity between the names of the country of Lebanon, which has a majority Muslim population, and Armstrong's longtime residence in Lebanon, Ohio. [ 205 ]

              In 1972, Armstrong visited the Scottish town of Langholm, the traditional seat of Clan Armstrong. He was made the first freeman of the burgh, and happily declared the town his home. [ 206 ] To entertain the crowd, the Justice of the Peace read from an unrepealed archaic 400-year-old law that required him to hang any Armstrong found in the town. [ 207 ]

              Armstrong flew light aircraft for pleasure. He enjoyed gliders and before the Moon flight had earned a gold badge with two diamonds from the International Gliding Commission. He continued to fly engineless aircraft well into his 70s. [ 208 ]

              While working on his farm in November 1978, Armstrong jumped off the back of his grain truck and caught his wedding ring in its wheel, tearing the tip off his left ring finger. He collected the severed tip, packed it in ice, and had surgeons reattach it at a nearby hospital in Louisville, Kentucky. [ 209 ] In February 1991, he suffered a mild heart attack while skiing with friends at Aspen, Colorado. [ 210 ]

              Armstrong and his first wife, Janet, separated in 1990 and divorced in 1994 after 38 years of marriage. [ 211 ] [ 212 ] He met his second wife, Carol Held Knight, at a golf tournament in 1992, when they were seated together at breakfast. She said little to Armstrong, but he called her two weeks later to ask what she was doing. She replied that she was cutting down a cherry tree, and he arrived at her house 35 minutes later to help. They were married in Ohio on June 12, 1994, and had a second ceremony at San Ysidro Ranch in California. They lived in Indian Hill, Ohio. [ 213 ] [ 214 ] Through his marriage to Carol, he was the father-in-law of future New York Mets general manager Brodie Van Wagenen.

              In May 2005, Armstrong became involved in a legal dispute with Mark Sizemore, his barber of 20 years. After cutting Armstrong's hair, Sizemore sold some of it to a collector for $3,000 without Armstrong's knowledge or permission. [ 215 ] Armstrong threatened legal action against Sizemore unless he returned the hair or donated the proceeds to a charity of Armstrong's choosing. Sizemore, unable to retrieve the hair, donated the proceeds to charity. [ 216 ] [ 217 ]

                Illness and death

              Photograph of Armstrong as a boy at his family memorial service in Indian Hill, Ohio, near Cincinnati, on August 31, 2012

              On August 7, 2012, Armstrong underwent bypass surgery at Mercy Faith–Fairfield Hospital in Fairfield, Ohio, to relieve coronary artery disease. [ 218 ] [ 219 ] Although he was reportedly recovering well, [ 220 ] he developed complications and died on August 25. [ 221 ] [ 222 ] President Barack Obama issued a statement memorializing Armstrong as "among the greatest of American heroes—not just of his time, but of all time", [ 223 ] [ 224 ] and added that Armstrong had carried the aspirations of the United States' citizens and had delivered "a moment of human achievement that will never be forgotten." [ 225 ]

              Armstrong's burial at sea on September 14, 2012

              Armstrong's family released a statement describing him as a "reluctant American hero [who had] served his nation proudly, as a navy fighter pilot, test pilot, and astronaut ... While we mourn the loss of a very good man, we also celebrate his remarkable life and hope that it serves as an example to young people around the world to work hard to make their dreams come true, to be willing to explore and push the limits, and to selflessly serve a cause greater than themselves. For those who may ask what they can do to honor Neil, we have a simple request. Honor his example of service, accomplishment and modesty, and the next time you walk outside on a clear night and see the moon smiling down at you, think of Neil Armstrong and give him a wink." [ 226 ]

              Buzz Aldrin called Armstrong "a true American hero and the best pilot I ever knew", and said he was disappointed that they would not be able to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the Moon landing together in 2019. [ 227 ] [ 228 ] Michael Collins said, "He was the best, and I will miss him terribly." [ 229 ] [ 230 ] NASA Administrator Charles Bolden said, "As long as there are history books, Neil Armstrong will be included in them, remembered for taking humankind's first small step on a world beyond our own". [ 231 ] [ 232 ]

                External videos                                                                          
                Memorial service for Armstrong, Washington National Cathedral, September 13, 2012, C-SPAN
                

                A tribute was held for Armstrong on September 13, at Washington National Cathedral, whose Space Window depicts the Apollo 11 mission and holds a sliver of Moon rock amid its stained-glass panels. [ 233 ] In attendance were Armstrong's Apollo 11 crewmates, Collins and Aldrin; Gene Cernan, the Apollo 17 mission commander and last man to walk on the Moon; and former senator and astronaut John Glenn, the first American to orbit the Earth. In his eulogy, Charles Bolden praised Armstrong's "courage, grace, and humility". Cernan recalled Armstrong's low-fuel approach to the Moon: "When the gauge says empty, we all know there's a gallon or two left in the tank!" Diana Krall sang the song "Fly Me to the Moon". Collins led prayers. David Scott spoke, possibly for the first time, about an incident during their Gemini 8 mission: minutes before the hatch was to be sealed, a small chip of dried glue fell into the latch of his harness and prevented it from being buckled, threatening to abort the mission. Armstrong then called on Conrad to solve the problem, which he did, and the mission proceeded. "That happened because Neil Armstrong was a team player—he always worked on behalf of the team." [ 233 ] Congressman Bill Johnson from Armstrong's home state of Ohio led calls for President Barack Obama to authorize a state funeral in Washington D.C. Throughout his lifetime, Armstrong shunned publicity and rarely gave interviews. Mindful that Armstrong would have objected to a state funeral, his family opted to have a private funeral in Cincinnati. [ 234 ] On September 14, Armstrong's cremated remains were scattered in the Atlantic Ocean from the USS Philippine Sea. [ 235 ] Flags were flown at half-staff on the day of Armstrong's funeral. [ 236 ]

                In July 2019, after observations of the 50th anniversary of the Moon landing, The New York Times reported on details of a medical malpractice suit Armstrong's family had filed against Mercy Health–Fairfield Hospital, where he died. When Armstrong appeared to be recovering from his bypass surgery, nurses removed the wires connected to his temporary pacemaker. He began to bleed internally and his blood pressure dropped. Doctors took him to the hospital's catheterization laboratory, and only later began operating. Two of the three physicians who reviewed the medical files during the lawsuit called this a serious error, saying surgery should have begun immediately; experts the Times talked to, while qualifying their judgement by noting that they were unable to review the specific records in the case, said that taking a patient directly to the operating room under those circumstances generally gave them the highest chance of survival. [ 218 ]

                The family ultimately settled for $6 million in 2014. Letters included with the 93 pages of documents sent to the Times by an unknown person [ 237 ] show that his sons intimated to the hospital, through their lawyers, that they might discuss what happened to their father publicly at the 45th anniversary observances in 2014. The hospital, fearing the bad publicity that would result from being accused of negligently causing the death of a revered figure such as Armstrong, agreed to pay as long as the family never spoke about the suit or the settlement. [ 218 ] Armstrong's wife, Carol, was not a party to the lawsuit. She reportedly felt that her husband would have been opposed to taking legal action. [ 238 ]

                  Legacy

                Armstrong gives an acceptance speech after being inducted into the Naval Aviation Hall of Honor at the National Naval Aviation Museum in Pensacola, Florida.

                When Pete Conrad of Apollo 12 became the third man to walk on the Moon, on November 19, 1969, his first words referenced Armstrong. The shorter of the two, when Conrad stepped from the LM onto the surface he proclaimed "Whoopie! Man, that may have been a small one for Neil, but that's a long one for me." [ 239 ]

                Armstrong received many honors and awards, including the Presidential Medal of Freedom (with distinction) from President Nixon, [ 163 ] [ 240 ] the Cullum Geographical Medal from the American Geographical Society, [ 241 ] and the Collier Trophy from the National Aeronautic Association (1969); [ 242 ] the NASA Distinguished Service Medal [ 243 ] and the Dr. Robert H. Goddard Memorial Trophy (1970); [ 244 ] the Sylvanus Thayer Award by the United States Military Academy (1971); [ 245 ] the Congressional Space Medal of Honor from President Jimmy Carter (1978); [ 91 ] the Wright Brothers Memorial Trophy from the National Aeronautic Association (2001); [ 246 ] and a Congressional Gold Medal (2011). [ 247 ]

                Armstrong was elected as member into the National Academy of Engineering in 1978 for contributions to aerospace engineering, scientific knowledge, and exploration of the universe as an experimental test pilot and astronaut. [ 248 ] He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2001. [ 249 ]

                Armstrong and his Apollo 11 crewmates were the 1999 recipients of the Langley Gold Medal from the Smithsonian Institution. [ 250 ] On April 18, 2006, he received NASA's Ambassador of Exploration Award. [ 251 ] The Space Foundation named Armstrong as a recipient of its 2013 General James E. Hill Lifetime Space Achievement Award. [ 252 ] Armstrong was also inducted into the Aerospace Walk of Honor, [ 253 ] [ 254 ] the International Space Hall of Fame, [ 255 ] National Aviation Hall of Fame, and the United States Astronaut Hall of Fame. [ 256 ] [ 257 ] He was awarded his Naval Astronaut badge in a ceremony on board the aircraft carrier USS Dwight D. Eisenhower on March 10, 2010, in a ceremony attended by Lovell and Cernan. [ 258 ]

                President Barack Obama poses with the Apollo 11 crew on the 40th anniversary of the Apollo 11 lunar landing, July 20, 2009: Buzz Aldrin, Michael Collins, and Neil Armstrong.

                The lunar crater Armstrong, 31 miles (50 km) from the Apollo 11 landing site, and asteroid 6469 Armstrong are named in his honor. [ 259 ] There are more than a dozen elementary, middle and high schools named for Armstrong in the United States, [ 260 ] and many places around the world have streets, buildings, schools, and other places named for him and/or Apollo. [ 261 ] The Armstrong Air and Space Museum, in Armstrong's hometown of Wapakoneta, [ 262 ] and the Neil Armstrong Airport in New Knoxville, Ohio, are named after him. [ 263 ] The mineral armstrongite is named after him, [ 264 ] and the mineral armalcolite is named, in part, after him. [ 265 ]

                In October 2004 Purdue University named its new engineering building Neil Armstrong Hall of Engineering; [ 266 ] the building was dedicated on October 27, 2007, during a ceremony at which Armstrong was joined by fourteen other Purdue astronauts. [ 267 ] The NASA Dryden Flight Research Center was renamed the NASA Neil A. Armstrong Flight Research Center in 2014. [ 268 ] In September 2012, the U.S. Navy named the first Armstrong-class vessel RV Neil Armstrong. Delivered to the Navy on September 23, 2015, it is a modern oceanographic research platform supporting a wide range of activities by academic groups. [ 269 ] In 2019, the College of Engineering at Purdue University celebrated the 50th anniversary of Neil Armstrong's walk on the Moon by launching the Neil Armstrong Distinguished Visiting Fellows Program, which brings highly accomplished scholars and practitioners to the college to catalyze collaborations with faculty and students. [ 270 ]

                  External videos                                                    
                  Presentation by James Hansen on First Man, November 9, 2005, C-SPAN
                  

                  Armstrong's authorized biography, First Man: The Life of Neil A. Armstrong, was published in 2005. For many years, he turned down biography offers from authors such as Stephen Ambrose and James A. Michener but agreed to work with James R. Hansen after reading one of Hansen's other biographies. [ 271 ] He recalled his initial concerns about the Apollo 11 mission, when he had believed there was only a 50% chance of landing on the Moon. "I was elated, ecstatic and extremely surprised that we were successful". [ 272 ] A film adaptation of the book, starring Ryan Gosling and directed by Damien Chazelle, was released in October 2018. [ 273 ]

                  In July 2018, Armstrong's sons put his collection of memorabilia up for sale, including his Boy Scout cap, and various flags and medals flown on his space missions. A series of auctions held November 1–3, 2018, realized $5,276,320 (~$6.31 million in 2023). As of July 2019, the auction sales totaled $16.7 million. [ 238 ] Two fragments of wood from the propeller and four pieces of fabric from the wing of the 1903 Wright Flyer that Armstrong took to the Moon fetched between $112,500 and $275,000 each. [ 274 ] [ 275 ] Armstrong's wife, Carol, has not put any of his memorabilia up for sale. [ 238 ]

                  Armstrong donated his papers to Purdue. Along with posthumous donations by his widow Carol, the collection consists of over 450 boxes of material. In May 2019, she donated two 25-by-24-inch (640 by 610 mm) pieces of fabric from the Wright Flyer, along with his correspondence related to them. [ 276 ]

                  Ohio's state quarter depicts Armstrong and the Wright brothers' Wright Flyer III.

                  In a 2010 Space Foundation survey, Armstrong was ranked as the number-one most popular space hero; [ 277 ] and in 2013, Flying magazine ranked him number one on its list of 51 Heroes of Aviation. [ 278 ] The press often asked Armstrong for his views on the future of spaceflight. In 2005, he said that a human mission to Mars would be easier than the lunar challenge of the 1960s. In 2010, he made a rare public criticism of the decision to cancel the Ares I launch vehicle and the Constellation Moon landing program. [ 279 ] In an open letter also signed by fellow Apollo veterans Lovell and Cernan, he said, "For The United States, the leading space faring nation for nearly half a century, to be without carriage to low Earth orbit and with no human exploration capability to go beyond Earth orbit for an indeterminate time into the future, destines our nation to become one of second or even third rate stature". [ 280 ] On November 18, 2010, aged 80, he said in a speech during the Science & Technology Summit in the Hague, Netherlands, that he would offer his services as commander on a mission to Mars if he were asked. [ 281 ]

                  The planetarium at Altoona Area High School in Altoona, Pennsylvania is named after Armstrong and is home to a Space Race museum. [ 282 ] A campsite in Camp Sandy Beach at Yawgoog Scout Reservation in Rockville, Rhode Island, is named in his honor, a nod to his Scouting career.

                  Armstrong was named the class exemplar for the Class of 2019 at the U.S. Air Force Academy. [ 283 ]

                    See also

                    * Apollo 11 in popular culture
                    * Cueva de los Tayos
                    * History of aviation
                    * List of spaceflight records
                    * Society of Experimental Test Pilots
                    * The Astronaut Monument

                    Notes

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                      * Nelson, Craig (2009). Rocket Men: The Epic Story of the First Men on the Moon. New York City: Viking. ISBN 978-0-7195-6948-7. OCLC 699213335.
                      * Nickell, Duane S. (2008). Guidebook for the Scientific Traveler: Visiting Astronomy and Space. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-4374-1. OCLC 190785292.
                      * Orloff, Richard W. (2000). Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference (PDF) . NASA History Series. Washington, DC: NASA History Division, Office of Policy and Plans. ISBN 978-0-16-050631-4. LCCN 00061677. OCLC 829406439. NASA SP-2000-4029 . Retrieved March 4, 2018 .
                      * Reichl, Eugen (2016). Project Gemini. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer. ISBN 978-0-7643-5070-2.
                      * Shapiro, Michael E. (2012). Cable Television Prime Time Programming 1990–2010. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Co. ISBN 978-0-7864-7087-7. OCLC 878810736.
                      * Smith, Andrew (2005). Moondust: In Search of the Men Who Fell to Earth. London: Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-0-7475-6368-6. OCLC 728066122.

                    Further reading

                    External videos                                                                                  
                    After Words interview with Jay Barbree on Neil Armstrong: A Life of Flight, July 19, 2014, C-SPAN
                    
                        * Barbree, Jay (2014). Neil Armstrong: A Life of Flight. New York: Thomas Dunne Books. ISBN 978-1-250-04071-8. OCLC 900815422.
                        * French, Francis; Burgess, Colin (2010). In the Shadow of the Moon. Lincoln, Nebraska, and London: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-2979-2. OCLC 1019883802.
                        * Thompson, Milton O. (1992). At the Edge of Space: The X-15 Flight Program. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Books. ISBN 978-1-56098-107-7. OCLC 925195868.

                      External links

                      * Neil Armstrong Commemorative Website – University of Cincinnati
                      * Neil Armstrong collected news and commentary. The New York Times.
                      * Neil Armstrong collected news and commentary at The Guardian
                      * Appearances on C-SPAN
                      Portals :
                        * Biography
                        * Spaceflight
                        * Aviation
                        * Solar System
                        * Ohio
                        * United States
                        Neil Armstrong at Wikipedia's sister projects :
                        * Media from Commons
                        * News from Wikinews
                        * Quotations from Wikiquote
                        * Texts from Wikisource
                        * Resources from Wikiversity
                        * Data from Wikidata
                      Preceded by         Sylvanus Thayer Award recipient  Succeeded by  
                        Ellsworth Bunker  1971                               Billy Graham
                      
                              * v                               
                              * t                               
                              * e                               
                            People who have traveled to the Moon
                                                                      * Neil Armstrong ( Apollo 11 )       
                                                                      * Buzz Aldrin ( Apollo 11 )          
                                                                      * Pete Conrad ( Apollo 12 )          
                                                                      * Alan Bean ( Apollo 12 )            
                                                                      * Alan Shepard ( Apollo 14 )         
                          Walked on the Moon                          * Edgar Mitchell ( Apollo 14 )       
                                                                      * David Scott ( Apollo 15 )          
                                                                      * James Irwin ( Apollo 15 )          
                                                                      * John Young ( Apollo 16 )           
                                                                      * Charles Duke ( Apollo 16 )         
                                                                      * Harrison Schmitt ( Apollo 17 )     
                                                                      * Gene Cernan ( Apollo 17 )          
                                                                      * William Anders ( Apollo 8 )        
                                                                      * Frank Borman ( Apollo 8 )          
                                                                      * Jim Lovell ( Apollo 8 , Apollo 13 )
                                                                      * Thomas Stafford ( Apollo 10 )      
                                                                      * Michael Collins ( Apollo 11 )      
                          Flew to the Moon                            * Dick Gordon ( Apollo 12 )          
                          without landing                             * Fred Haise ( Apollo 13 )           
                                                                      * Jack Swigert ( Apollo 13 )         
                                                                      * Stuart Roosa ( Apollo 14 )         
                                                                      * Al Worden ( Apollo 15 )            
                                                                      * Ken Mattingly ( Apollo 16 )        
                                                                      * Ronald Evans ( Apollo 17 )         
                              * Apollo program                  
                              * Saturn V                        
                              * Command and Service Module      
                              * Lunar Module                    
                              * Lunar Roving Vehicle            
                              * Exploration of the Moon         
                          
                                * v                                                   
                                * t                                                   
                                * e                                                   
                              Recipients of the Congressional Space Medal of Honor    
                                * Michael P. Anderson                                 
                                * Neil Armstrong                                      
                                * Frank Borman                                        
                                * David M. Brown                                      
                                * Roger B. Chaffee                                    
                                * Kalpana Chawla                                      
                                * Laurel Clark                                        
                                * Charles "Pete" Conrad                               
                                * Robert Crippen                                      
                                * John Glenn                                          
                                * Virgil "Gus" Grissom                                
                                * Rick Husband                                        
                                * Gregory Jarvis                                      
                                * Jim Lovell                                          
                                * Shannon Lucid                                       
                                * Christa McAuliffe                                   
                                * William C. McCool                                   
                                * Ronald McNair                                       
                                * Ellison Onizuka                                     
                                * Ilan Ramon                                          
                                * Judith Resnik                                       
                                * Dick Scobee                                         
                                * Alan Shepard                                        
                                * William Shepherd                                    
                                * Michael J. Smith                                    
                                * Thomas P. Stafford                                  
                                * Ed White                                            
                                * John Young                                          
                                * Italics indicate the award was bestowed posthumously
                            
                                  * v                                                                         
                                  * t                                                                         
                                  * e                                                                         
                                NASA Astronaut Group 2, "The New Nine, The Next Nine, The Nifty Nine", 1962   
                                NASA Astronaut Group 1 ← NASA Astronaut Group 2 → NASA Astronaut Group 3      
                                  * Neil Armstrong                                                            
                                  * Frank Borman                                                              
                                  * Charles "Pete" Conrad                                                     
                                  * Jim Lovell                                                                
                                  * James McDivitt                                                            
                                  * Elliot See                                                                
                                  * Thomas P. Stafford                                                        
                                  * Ed White                                                                  
                                  * John Young                                                                
                                  * v                                                                         
                                  * t                                                                         
                                  * e                                                                         
                                  * NASA Astronaut Groups                                                     
                                  * NASA Astronaut Corps                                                      
                                                               * 1                                            
                                                               * 2                                            
                                                               * 3                                            
                                                               * 4                                            
                                                               * 5                                            
                                                               * 6                                            
                                                               * 7                                            
                                                               * 8                                            
                                                               * 9                                            
                                                               * 10                                           
                                                               * 11                                           
                              Groups                           * 12                                           
                                                               * 13                                           
                                                               * 14                                           
                                                               * 15                                           
                                                               * 16                                           
                                                               * 17                                           
                                                               * 18                                           
                                                               * 19                                           
                                                               * 20                                           
                                                               * 21                                           
                                                               * 22                                           
                                                               * 23                                           
                                                               * List of astronauts by year of selection      
                              Related                          * Astronaut ranks and positions                
                                                               * List of United States Marine Corps astronauts
                                                               * List of United States Space Force astronauts 
                                                                                                              
                              
                                    * v         
                                    * t         
                                    * e         
                                  Project Gemini
                                                  Uncrewed      * Gemini 1                                                      
                                                                * 2                                                             
                                                                * Gemini 3                                                      
                                                                * 4                                                             
                                                                * 5                                                             
                                                                * 7                                                             
                                Missions          Crewed        * 6A                                                            
                                                                * 8                                                             
                                                                * 9A                                                            
                                                                * 10                                                            
                                                                * 11                                                            
                                                                * 12                                                            
                                                                                                                                
                                                      * Gemini 3: Gus Grissom (command pilot), John Young (pilot)             
                                                      * Gemini 4: James McDivitt (command pilot), Ed White (pilot)            
                                                      * Gemini 5: Gordon Cooper (command pilot), Pete Conrad (pilot)          
                                                      * Gemini 7: Frank Borman (command pilot), Jim Lovell (pilot)            
                                Astronauts            * Gemini 6A: Wally Schirra (command pilot), Tom Stafford (pilot)        
                                                      * Gemini 8: Neil Armstrong (command pilot), David Scott (pilot)         
                                                      * Gemini 9A: Tom Stafford (command pilot), Gene Cernan (pilot)          
                                                      * Gemini 10: John Young (command pilot), Michael Collins (pilot)        
                                                      * Gemini 11: Pete Conrad (command pilot), Richard Gordon (pilot)        
                                                      * Gemini 12: Jim Lovell (command pilot), Buzz Aldrin (pilot)            
                                                      * Gemini spacecraft                                                     
                                                          + SC-2                                                              
                                                      * Orbit Attitude and Maneuvering System                                 
                                Components            * Titan rocket                                                          
                                                      * Gemini Guidance Computer                                              
                                                      * Agena target vehicle                                                  
                                                      * Gemini space suit                                                     
                                Launch sites          * Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 19 / Launch Complex 14
                                                      * Advanced Gemini                                                       
                                                      * Blue Gemini / Military Orbital Development System                     
                                Developments          * Manned Orbiting Laboratory                                            
                                                          + OPS 0855                                                          
                                                      * Big Gemini                                                            
                                                      * Charles Bassett                                                       
                                                      * Elliot See                                                            
                                Related               * Manned Space Flight Network                                           
                                                      * Rendezvous Docking Simulator                                          
                                                      * 1966 NASA T-38 crash                                                  
                                
                                      * v              
                                      * t              
                                      * e              
                                    North American X-15
                                  Operators                  * NASA                                                      
                                                             * United States Air Force                                   
                                  Manufacturer               * North American Aviation                                 
                                                             * Michael Adams                                           
                                                             * Neil Armstrong                                          
                                                             * Scott Crossfield                                        
                                                             * William Dana                                            
                                                             * Joe Engle                                               
                                  Pilots                     * William Knight                                          
                                                             * John McKay                                              
                                                             * Forrest Petersen                                        
                                                             * Robert Rushworth                                        
                                                             * Milton Thompson                                         
                                                             * Joseph Walker                                           
                                                             * Robert White                                            
                                                             * List of X-15 flights                                    
                                                             * Flight 35 (first flight into the mesosphere, Walker)    
                                                             * Flight 62 (first spaceflight, White)                    
                                  Flights                    * Flight 87 (spaceflight, Rushworth)                      
                                                             * Flight 90 (spaceflight, Walker)                         
                                                             * Flight 91 (spaceflight, program altitude record, Walker)
                                                             * Flight 188 (program speed record, Knight)               
                                                             * Flight 191 (spaceflight, fatality, Adams)               
                                                             * Bell X-1                                                
                                                             * Boeing B-52 Stratofortress (Balls 8)                    
                                  Related                    * Hypersonic speed                                        
                                                             * List of X-planes                                        
                                                             * Sub-orbital spaceflight                                 
                                  
                                        * v                               
                                        * t                               
                                        * e                               
                                      United States Astronaut Hall of Fame
                                                                                * Buzz Aldrin                         
                                                                                * Joseph P. Allen                     
                                                                                * Scott Altman                        
                                                                                * William Anders                      
                                                                                * Neil Armstrong                      
                                                                                * Alan Bean                           
                                                                                * John E. Blaha                       
                                                                                * Guion Bluford                       
                                                                                * Karol J. Bobko                      
                                                                                * Charles Bolden                      
                                                                                * Frank Borman                        
                                                                                * Ken Bowersox                        
                                                                                * Vance D. Brand                      
                                                                                * Daniel Brandenstein                 
                                                                                * Roy Bridges Jr.                     
                                                                                * Curtis Brown                        
                                                                                * James Buchli                        
                                                                                * Robert D. Cabana                    
                                                                                * Scott Carpenter                     
                                                                                * Gerald Carr                         
                                                                                * Gene Cernan                         
                                                                                * Roger B. Chaffee                    
                                                                                * Franklin Chang-Díaz                 
                                                                                * Kevin P. Chilton                    
                                                                                * Michael Coats                       
                                                                                * Eileen Collins                      
                                                                                * Michael Collins                     
                                                                                * Pete Conrad                         
                                                                                * Gordon Cooper                       
                                                                                * Richard O. Covey                    
                                                                                * Robert Crippen                      
                                                                                * Frank L. Culbertson Jr.             
                                                                                * Walter Cunningham                   
                                                                                * Brian Duffy                         
                                                                                * Charles Duke                        
                                                                                * Bonnie J. Dunbar                    
                                                                                * Donn F. Eisele                      
                                                                                * Joe Engle                           
                                                                                * Ronald Evans                        
                                                                                * Christopher Ferguson                
                                                                                * Michael Foale                       
                                                                                * C. Gordon Fullerton                 
                                                                                * Owen Garriott                       
                                                                                * Edward Gibson                       
                                                                                * Robert L. Gibson                    
                                                                                * John Glenn                          
                                                                                * Richard F. Gordon Jr.               
                                                                                * Frederick D. Gregory                
                                                                                * Gus Grissom                         
                                                                                * John M. Grunsfeld                   
                                                                                * Fred Haise                          
                                                                                * Henry Hartsfield                    
                                                                                * Frederick Hauck                     
                                                                                * Steven Hawley                       
                                    Members                                     * Susan Helms                         
                                                                                * David C. Hilmers                    
                                                                                * Jeffrey A. Hoffman                  
                                                                                * James Irwin                         
                                                                                * Marsha Ivins                        
                                                                                * Thomas David Jones                  
                                                                                * Janet L. Kavandi                    
                                                                                * Mark Kelly                          
                                                                                * Scott Kelly                         
                                                                                * Joseph P. Kerwin                    
                                                                                * David Leestma                       
                                                                                * Steven Lindsey                      
                                                                                * Michael López-Alegría               
                                                                                * Jack Lousma                         
                                                                                * Jim Lovell                          
                                                                                * Shannon Lucid                       
                                                                                * Sandra Magnus                       
                                                                                * Ken Mattingly                       
                                                                                * Bruce McCandless II                 
                                                                                * James McDivitt                      
                                                                                * Pamela Melroy                       
                                                                                * Edgar Mitchell                      
                                                                                * Story Musgrave                      
                                                                                * George Nelson                       
                                                                                * Ellen Ochoa                         
                                                                                * Bryan D. O'Connor                   
                                                                                * Scott E. Parazynski                 
                                                                                * William Pogue                       
                                                                                * Charles J. Precourt                 
                                                                                * Sally Ride                          
                                                                                * Kent Rominger                       
                                                                                * Stuart Roosa                        
                                                                                * Jerry L. Ross                       
                                                                                * Wally Schirra                       
                                                                                * Harrison Schmitt                    
                                                                                * Rusty Schweickart                   
                                                                                * Dick Scobee                         
                                                                                * David Scott                         
                                                                                * Rhea Seddon                         
                                                                                * Brewster H. Shaw                    
                                                                                * Alan Shepard                        
                                                                                * William Shepherd                    
                                                                                * Loren Shriver                       
                                                                                * Deke Slayton                        
                                                                                * Thomas P. Stafford                  
                                                                                * Kathryn D. Sullivan                 
                                                                                * Jack Swigert                        
                                                                                * Norman Thagard                      
                                                                                * Kathryn C. Thornton                 
                                                                                * Richard H. Truly                    
                                                                                * Paul J. Weitz                       
                                                                                * Jim Wetherbee                       
                                                                                * Ed White                            
                                                                                * Alfred Worden                       
                                                                                * John Young                          
                                                                                * Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex
                                    Related                                     * NASA Astronaut Corps                
                                                                                * Astronaut                           
                                    
                                        Authority control databases
                                                                         * FAST                     
                                                                             + 2                    
                                      International                      * ISNI                     
                                                                         * VIAF                     
                                                                         * WorldCat                 
                                                                         * Norway                   
                                                                         * Chile                    
                                                                         * Spain                    
                                                                         * France                   
                                                                         * BnF data                 
                                                                         * Catalonia                
                                                                         * Germany                  
                                                                         * Italy                    
                                                                         * Israel                   
                                      National                           * United States            
                                                                         * Sweden                   
                                                                         * Taiwan                   
                                                                         * Japan                    
                                                                         * Czech Republic           
                                                                         * Australia                
                                                                         * Greece                   
                                                                         * Korea                    
                                                                         * Netherlands              
                                                                         * Poland                   
                                                                         * Russia                   
                                      Academics                          * CiNii                    
                                                                         * MusicBrainz              
                                                                         * Victoria                 
                                      Artists                            * Photographers' Identities
                                                                         * RKD Artists              
                                                                         * ULAN                     
                                      People                             * Deutsche Biographie      
                                                                         * Trove                    
                                                                         * NARA                     
                                      Other                              * SNAC                     
                                                                         * IdRef                    
                                                                         * Te Papa (New Zealand)    
                                      
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                      Waqas Khatri

                      Managing Member at Ayrton Capital

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                    Waqas Khatri's Current Company Details

                                Ayrton Capital

                                  Westport, Connecticut • 9 Employees
                                financial services
                              Ayrton Capital is an absolute-return focused investment firm that combines fundamental research, quantitative analysis and portfolio structuring to identify and allocate capital to attractive investment opportu...
                                Ayrton Capital is an absolute-return focused investment firm that combines fundamental research, quantitative analysis and portfolio structuring to identify and allocate capital to attractive investment opportunities. For additional information email: ir@ayrtonllc.com
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                                hedge fund
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                        Waqas Khatri works for Ayrton Capital.

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                        Waqas Khatri's role at Ayrton Capital is Managing Member.

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                        Waqas Khatri's email address is w**@ayrtonllc.com.

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                        Waqas Khatri's HQ phone number is +1 646-793-9056.

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                        Waqas Khatri works in the Financial Services industry.

                        Who are Waqas Khatri's colleagues?

                        Waqas Khatri's colleagues are Tim Rao, Michael Batanjany, Samar Hamza, Blair Friedensohn and more.
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Waqas Khatri Email & Phone Number Contact Info - Managing Member - Ayrton Capital
https://www.apollo.io/people/Waqas/Khatri/5f76ee2c5da3470001510260
Contributors to Wikimedia projects
2024-07-26T15:14:19Z
<div><div>
							

						<p>From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</p>
					</div><div>
<table><tbody><tr><th><p>Marc A. Spilker</p></th></tr><tr><th>Born</th><td>June 28, 1964<span> (age 60)</span></td></tr><tr><th>Nationality</th><td>American</td></tr><tr><th>Alma mater</th><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wharton_School_of_the_University_of_Pennsylvania">Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania</a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science">BS</a>)</td></tr><tr><th>Occupation(s)</th><td>Businessman, Investor, Executive</td></tr><tr><th>Known for</th><td>Founding Partner of GPS Investment Partners LLC<br/>
Executive Chairman of Merchant Investment Management, LLC</td></tr><tr><th>Spouse</th><td>Diane Isaacs Spilker</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Marc A. Spilker</b> is an American financial executive and investor. He is a Founding Member of GPS Investment Partners, LLC and the Executive Chairman of Merchant Investment Management, LLC.
</p>


<p>A native of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Island">Long Island</a>, New York, Spilker is a 1982 graduate of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wellington_C._Mepham_High_School">W.C. Mepham High School</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-1"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup> He received a BS in Economics from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wharton_School_of_the_University_of_Pennsylvania">Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania</a> in 1986.
</p><p>Spilker started his career at O'Connor &amp; Associates.<sup><a href="#cite_note-2"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup> In 2010, Spilker retired from Goldman Sachs following a 20-year career with the firm.<sup><a href="#cite_note-3"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup> At Goldman he served as co-head of the Investment Management Division (IMD) and was also a member of the firmwide Management and Risk Committees.<sup><a href="#cite_note-4"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>From 2010 to 2014 Spilker was President of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_Global_Management">Apollo Global Management</a> and a member of the firm’s Executive Committee.<sup><a href="#cite_note-5"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_note-6"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup>
Spilker was also the Chairman of Chiron Investment Management, LLC from 2015 to 2020. Marc Spilker is a Founding Member of GPS Investment Partners, LLC and the  Executive Chairman of Merchant Investment Management, LLC.
</p>

<p>Spilker is married to Diane Isaacs Spilker.<sup><a href="#cite_note-7"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup>
</p>

<div><ol>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span><cite>Sandomir, Richard (April 16, 2011). <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/17/sports/baseball/17bidders.html">"The Mets Do Not Have to Look Far to Find Bidders"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <q>They are fabulously rich Mets fans, in their 40s, from Long Island. Spilker graduated from W. C. Mepham High School in Bellmore.</q></cite><span></span></span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span><cite><a href="https://www.insidephilanthropy.com/wall-street-donors/marc-a-spilker.html">"Marc and Diane Spilker"</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inside_Philanthropy">Inside Philanthropy</a><span>. Retrieved <span>26 January</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span></span></span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span><cite>Kouwefeb, Zachery (12 February 2010). <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/13/business/13goldman.html">"Goldman Picks New Leader in Asset Management Unit"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Times">New York Times</a></i><span>. Retrieved <span>26 January</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span></span></span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span><cite>Business Wire (2010-11-29). <a href="http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20101129006478/en/Apollo-Global-Management-Announces-Appointment-Marc-Spilker">"Apollo Global Management Announces Appointment of Marc Spilker as President and Member of Company's Executive Committee"</a>. Business Wire<span>. Retrieved <span>2012-05-22</span></span>.</cite><span></span> </span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span><cite><a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2014/03/20/apollo-global-president-marc-spilker-to-step-down.html">"Apollo Global President Marc Spilker to step down"</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuters">Reuters</a>. 20 March 2014<span>. Retrieved <span>26 January</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span></span></span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span><cite>Tan, Gillian (17 July 2017). <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/gadfly/articles/2017-07-17/kkr-succession-picks-should-spur-rivals-game-of-thrones">"Game of Thrones, Private Equity Style"</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomberg_News">Bloomberg News</a><span>. Retrieved <span>26 January</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span></span></span>
</li>
<li><span><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span><cite><a href="https://www.legacy.com/us/obituaries/nytimes/name/gertrude-isaacs-obituary?n=gertrude-isaacs&amp;pid=174162381">"Gertrude Isaacs"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times">The New York Times</a></i>. February 16, 2015. <q>UJA-Federation of New York mourns with sadness the passing of Gertrude Isaacs, beloved mother of Diane Isaacs Spilker and mother-in- law of Marc Spilker, dear friends who are deeply committed to strengthening the Jewish community.</q></cite><span></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div>

<ul><li><a href="http://www.marcspilker.org">[1]</a> Home Page</li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110727214920/http://www.rfkcenter.org/news/influential-institutional-investors-are-changing-way-they-invest">[2]</a> RFK Award</li></ul>




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              Contents

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                * 1 Life and career
                * 2 Personal life
                * 3 References
                * 4 External links
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      Marc Spilker

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            From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
                Marc A. Spilker
              Born               June 28, 1964 (age 60)                                   
              Nationality        American                                                 
              Alma mater         Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania (BS)    
              Occupation(s)      Businessman, Investor, Executive                         
              Known for          Founding Partner of GPS Investment Partners LLC          
                                 Executive Chairman of Merchant Investment Management, LLC
              Spouse             Diane Isaacs Spilker                                     
              

              Marc A. Spilker is an American financial executive and investor. He is a Founding Member of GPS Investment Partners, LLC and the Executive Chairman of Merchant Investment Management, LLC.

                Life and career

                [ edit ]

              A native of Long Island, New York, Spilker is a 1982 graduate of W.C. Mepham High School. [ 1 ] He received a BS in Economics from the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania in 1986.

              Spilker started his career at O'Connor & Associates. [ 2 ] In 2010, Spilker retired from Goldman Sachs following a 20-year career with the firm. [ 3 ] At Goldman he served as co-head of the Investment Management Division (IMD) and was also a member of the firmwide Management and Risk Committees. [ 4 ]

              From 2010 to 2014 Spilker was President of Apollo Global Management and a member of the firm’s Executive Committee. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Spilker was also the Chairman of Chiron Investment Management, LLC from 2015 to 2020. Marc Spilker is a Founding Member of GPS Investment Partners, LLC and the Executive Chairman of Merchant Investment Management, LLC.

                Personal life

                [ edit ]

              Spilker is married to Diane Isaacs Spilker. [ 7 ]

                References

                [ edit ]
                   1. ^ Sandomir, Richard (April 16, 2011). "The Mets Do Not Have to Look Far to Find Bidders". The New York Times. "They are fabulously rich Mets fans, in their 40s, from Long Island. Spilker graduated from W. C. Mepham High School in Bellmore."
                   2. ^ "Marc and Diane Spilker". Inside Philanthropy . Retrieved 26 January 2018 .
                   3. ^ Kouwefeb, Zachery (12 February 2010). "Goldman Picks New Leader in Asset Management Unit". New York Times . Retrieved 26 January 2018 .
                   4. ^ Business Wire (2010-11-29). "Apollo Global Management Announces Appointment of Marc Spilker as President and Member of Company's Executive Committee". Business Wire . Retrieved 2012-05-22 . {{cite web}} : |author= has generic name ( help )
                   5. ^ "Apollo Global President Marc Spilker to step down". Reuters. 20 March 2014 . Retrieved 26 January 2018 .
                   6. ^ Tan, Gillian (17 July 2017). "Game of Thrones, Private Equity Style". Bloomberg News . Retrieved 26 January 2018 .
                   7. ^ "Gertrude Isaacs". The New York Times. February 16, 2015. "UJA-Federation of New York mourns with sadness the passing of Gertrude Isaacs, beloved mother of Diane Isaacs Spilker and mother-in- law of Marc Spilker, dear friends who are deeply committed to strengthening the Jewish community."

                External links

                [ edit ]
                * [1] Home Page
                * [2] RFK Award
              Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marc_Spilker&oldid=1236794529"
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Marc Spilker
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc_Spilker