Interstellar movie on imdb
https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0816692/
Interstellar (2014) - IMDb
2014-11-07
None
<div><div><section><p><a href="/title/tt0816692/videogallery/?ref_=tt_vi_sm"><h3>Videos29</h3></a></p></section><section><h2>Jessica Chastain Through the Years</h2></section><div><hgroup><h3>More like this</h3></hgroup></div><div><div><p>Earth's future has been riddled by disasters, famines, and droughts. There is only one way to ensure mankind's survival: Interstellar travel. A newly discovered wormhole in the far reaches of our solar system allows a team of astronauts to go where no man has gone before, a planet that may have the right environment to sustain human life. —<a href="/search/title/?plot_author=ahmetkozan&amp;view=simple&amp;sort=alpha&amp;ref_=tt_stry_pl">ahmetkozan</a></p></div><ul><li><a href="/title/tt0816692/plotsummary?ref_=tt_stry_pl">Plot summary</a></li><li><a href="/title/tt0816692/synopsis?ref_=tt_stry_pl">Plot synopsis</a></li></ul></div><section><a href="https://contribute.imdb.com/review/tt0816692/add?bus=imdb&amp;return_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.imdb.com%2Fclose_me&amp;site=web&amp;ref_=tt_urv_add"><p>Review</p></a><div><div> <p>The best film I have ever seen</p><div><p>All is amazing. I can't describe anything. It's a film that leads you to think about yourself and your plans in your life. I am a real series/movies' lover and... This was awesome.</p></div></div><div><ul><li><a href="/user/ur86322012/?ref_=tt_urv_usr">fontenlabrador</a></li><li>Apr 17, 2019</li></ul></div></div></section><section><div><a href="/what-to-watch/top-picks/?ref_=tt_tpks_sm"><h3>Top picks</h3></a><p>Sign in to rate and Watchlist for personalized recommendations</p></div><a href="/registration/signin?ref_=tt_tpks_signin"><p>Sign in</p></a></section><section><p><a href="/title/tt0816692/faq?ref_=tt_faq_sm"><h3>FAQ20</h3></a></p></section><div><hgroup><h3>Contribute to this page</h3></hgroup><p>Suggest an edit or add missing content</p></div></div>||||I|||| Menu
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 Interstellar

 * 2014 2014
 * PG-13 PG-13
 * 2h 49m
 IMDb RATING
 8.6 / 10
 1.9M
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 POPULARITY
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 This video file cannot be played.(Error Code: 224003)
 Play trailer 2 :28
 29 Videos
 99+ Photos
 Adventure Drama Sci-Fi
 A team of explorers travel through a wormhole in space in an attempt to ensure humanity's survival. A team of explorers travel through a wormhole in space in an attempt to ensure humanity's survival. A team of explorers travel through a wormhole in space in an attempt to ensure humanity's survival.
 IMDb RATING
 8.6 / 10
 1.9M
 YOUR RATING
 Rate
 POPULARITY
 71
 1
 * Director
 + Christopher Nolan
 * Writers
 + Jonathan Nolan
 + Christopher Nolan
 * Stars
 + Matthew McConaughey
 + Anne Hathaway
 + Jessica Chastain
 Top credits
 * Director
 + Christopher Nolan
 * Writers
 + Jonathan Nolan
 + Christopher Nolan
 * Stars
 + Matthew McConaughey
 + Anne Hathaway
 + Jessica Chastain
 * See production, box office & company info
 Add to Watchlist
 Added by 1.2M users
 * 5.2K User reviews
 * 639 Critic reviews
 * 74 Metascore
 * See more at IMDbPro
 Top rated movie #25
 * Won 1 Oscar
 + 44 wins & 148 nominations total

 Videos 29

 Trailer 2:28
 Watch Trailer #4
 Trailer 2:34
 Watch Trailer #3
 Trailer 2:31
 Watch Trailer #1
 Trailer 1:52
 Watch Official Teaser
 Trailer 2:19
 Watch Interstellar
 Clip 1:33
 Watch Alphabet of Movies | A to Z
 Clip 2:03
 Watch A Guide to the Films of Christopher Nolan
 Clip 4:04
 Watch 'The Platform' & Future Films From the IMDb Top 250
 Clip 2:31
 Watch Anne Hathaway and Matthew McConaughey Get Steamy in 'Serenity'
 Clip 1:11
 Watch "Useless Machines"
 Clip 2:00
 Watch Interstellar: Water Landing
 Clip 1:04
 Watch Interstellar: Get Out There

 Photos 480

 Top cast

 Edit
 Matthew McConaughey
 * Cooper
 Anne Hathaway
 * Brand
 Jessica Chastain
 * Murph
 Mackenzie Foy
 * Murph (10 Yrs.)
 Ellen Burstyn
 * Murph (Older)
 John Lithgow
 * Donald
 Timothée Chalamet
 * Tom (15 Yrs.)
 David Oyelowo
 * School Principal
 Collette Wolfe
 * Ms. Hanley
 Francis X. McCarthy
 * Boots
 * (as Francis Xavier McCarthy)
 Bill Irwin
 * TARS
 * (voice)
 Andrew Borba
 * Smith
 Wes Bentley
 * Doyle
 William Devane
 * Williams
 Michael Caine
 * Professor Brand
 David Gyasi
 * Romilly
 Josh Stewart
 * CASE
 * (voice)
 Casey Affleck
 * Tom
 * Director
 + Christopher Nolan
 * Writers
 + Jonathan Nolan
 + Christopher Nolan
 * All cast & crew
 * Production, box office & more at IMDbPro

 Jessica Chastain Through the Years

 Jessica Chastain Through the Years

 Take a look back at Jessica Chastain's movie career in photos.
 See the full gallery

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 Storyline

 Edit
 Earth's future has been riddled by disasters, famines, and droughts. There is only one way to ensure mankind's survival: Interstellar travel. A newly discovered wormhole in the far reaches of our solar system allows a team of astronauts to go where no man has gone before, a planet that may have the right environment to sustain human life. —ahmetkozan
 astronaut saving the world space travel wormhole father daughter relationship 248 more
 * Plot summary
 * Plot synopsis
 * Taglines
 + Mankind was born on Earth. It was never meant to die here.
 * Genres
 + Adventure
 + Drama
 + Sci-Fi
 * Motion Picture Rating (MPAA)
 + Rated PG-13 for some intense perilous action and brief strong language.
 * Parents guide

 Did you know

 Edit
 * Trivia
 To create the wormhole and black hole, Dr. Kip Thorne collaborated with Visual Effects Supervisor Paul J. Franklin and his team at Double Negative. Thorne provided pages of deeply sourced theoretical equations to the team, which then created new CGI software programs based on these equations to create accurate computer simulations of these phenomena. Some individual frames took up to one hundred hours to render, and ultimately the whole CGI program reached to eight hundred terabytes of data. The resulting visual effects provided Thorne with new insight into the effects of gravitational lensing and accretion disks surrounding black holes, and led to him writing two scientific papers, one for the astrophysics community, and one for the computer graphics community.
 * Goofs
 Two characters sustain a fall from an ice plateau, on a steep ice ramp, onto a shadowy ice platform. A moment later, a panoramic shot shows them fighting on a very different place.
 * Quotes

 Cooper: We used to look up at the sky and wonder at our place in the stars. Now we just look down, and worry about our place in the dirt.

 * Crazy credits
 The Warner Bros, Paramount, Syncopy and Legendary Pictures logos are brown and dusty, representing Earth's arid dry state in the film.
 * Alternate versions
 The 70mm IMAX version is two minutes shorter than the regular 70mm, Digital IMAX, 35mm, and digital projection versions. This is because the end credits are played in an abbreviated slide-show form (rather than scrolling from bottom to top), due to the size capacity of the IMAX platters, which can hold a maximum of 167 minutes of film.
 * Connections
 Featured in Trailer Failure: Interstellar (2013)
 * Soundtracks
 Do Not Go Gentle Into that Good Night
 (uncredited)
 Written by Dylan Thomas

 User reviews 5.2K

 Review
 Review
 Featured review
 10 / 10
 The best film I have ever seen
 All is amazing. I can't describe anything. It's a film that leads you to think about yourself and your plans in your life. I am a real series/movies' lover and... This was awesome.
 helpful • 382
 75
 * fontenlabrador
 * Apr 17, 2019

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 Joker
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 Forrest Gump
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 FAQ 20

 * Why did Earth change its history books to claim that the Apollo missions to the Moon were faked?
 * How did Cooper figure out NASA's location?
 * What were Plan A and Plan B?

 Details

 Edit
 * Release date
 + November 7, 2014 (United States)
 * Countries of origin
 + United States
 + United Kingdom
 + Canada
 * Official sites
 + Official Facebook
 + Official Twitter
 * Language
 + English
 * Also known as
 + Flora's Letter
 * Filming locations
 + Iceland
 * Production companies
 + Paramount Pictures
 + Warner Bros.
 + Legendary Entertainment
 * See more company credits at IMDbPro

 Box office

 Edit
 * Budget
 + $165,000,000 (estimated)
 * Gross US & Canada
 + $188,020,017
 * Opening weekend US & Canada
 + $47,510,360
 + Nov 9, 2014
 * Gross worldwide
 + $774,136,705
 See detailed box office info on IMDbPro

 Technical specs

 Edit
 * Runtime
 2 hours 49 minutes
 * Sound mix
 + Datasat
 + Dolby Digital
 + IMAX 6-Track
 + Dolby Surround 7.1
 * Aspect ratio
 + 2.39 : 1

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Videos29     Jessica Chastain Through the Years    More like this     Earth's future has been riddled by disasters, famines, and droughts. There is only one way to ensure mankind's survival: Interstellar travel. A newly discovered wormhole in the far reaches of our solar system allows a team of astronauts to go where no man has gone before, a planet that may have the right environment to sustain human life. —ahmetkozan     Plot summary   Plot synopsis      Review    The best film I have ever seen  All is amazing. I can't describe anything. It's a film that leads you to think about yourself and your plans in your life. I am a real series/movies' lover and... This was awesome.      fontenlabrador  Apr 17, 2019        Top picks  Sign in to rate and Watchlist for personalized recommendations   Sign in      FAQ20      Contribute to this page  Suggest an edit or add missing content
Interstellar (2014) - IMDb
https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0816692/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstellar_(film)#Wormholes_and_black_holes
Interstellar (film) - Wikipedia
2006-07-18
Authority control International VIAF National Germany United States
<div><div>
<table><tbody><tr><th>Interstellar</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:Interstellar_film_poster.jpg"></a><p>Theatrical release poster</p></td></tr><tr><th>Directed by</th><td><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Nolan">Christopher Nolan</a></td></tr><tr><th>Written by</th><td><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Nolan">Jonathan Nolan</a></li>
<li>Christopher Nolan</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th>Produced by</th><td><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Thomas">Emma Thomas</a></li>
<li>Christopher Nolan</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lynda_Obst">Lynda Obst</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th>Starring</th><td><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_McConaughey">Matthew McConaughey</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Hathaway">Anne Hathaway</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jessica_Chastain">Jessica Chastain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Irwin">Bill Irwin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Burstyn">Ellen Burstyn</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Caine">Michael Caine</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th>Cinematography</th><td><a href="/wiki/Hoyte_van_Hoytema">Hoyte van Hoytema</a></td></tr><tr><th>Edited by</th><td><a href="/wiki/Lee_Smith_(film_editor)">Lee Smith</a></td></tr><tr><th>Music by</th><td><a href="/wiki/Hans_Zimmer">Hans Zimmer</a></td></tr><tr><th><p>Production<br />companies</p></th><td><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legendary_Pictures">Legendary Pictures</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Syncopy_Inc.">Syncopy</a></li>
<li>Lynda Obst Productions</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th>Distributed by</th><td><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paramount_Pictures">Paramount Pictures</a> (North America)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Warner_Bros._Pictures">Warner Bros. Pictures</a> (International)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th><p>Release dates</p></th><td><div>
<ul><li>October 26, 2014 (<a href="/wiki/TCL_Chinese_Theatre">TCL Chinese Theatre</a>)</li>
<li>November 5, 2014 (United States)</li>
<li>November 7, 2014 (United Kingdom)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th><p>Running time</p></th><td>169 minutes<sup><a href="#cite_note-BBFC-Oct2014-1">[1]</a></sup></td></tr><tr><th>Countries</th><td><div>
<ul><li>United Kingdom<sup><a href="#cite_note-LUMIERE-2">[2]</a></sup></li>
<li>United States<sup><a href="#cite_note-LUMIERE-2">[2]</a></sup></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th>Language</th><td>English</td></tr><tr><th>Budget</th><td>$165 million<sup><a href="#cite_note-BOM-3">[3]</a></sup></td></tr><tr><th>Box office</th><td>$773.8 million<sup><a href="#cite_note-BOM-3">[3]</a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><i><b>Interstellar</b></i> is a 2014 <a href="/wiki/Epic_film">epic</a> <a href="/wiki/Science_fiction_film">science fiction film</a> co-written, directed, and produced by <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Nolan">Christopher Nolan</a>. It stars <a href="/wiki/Matthew_McConaughey">Matthew McConaughey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anne_Hathaway">Anne Hathaway</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jessica_Chastain">Jessica Chastain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bill_Irwin">Bill Irwin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ellen_Burstyn">Ellen Burstyn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Matt_Damon">Matt Damon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Caine">Michael Caine</a>. Set in a <a href="/wiki/Dystopia">dystopian</a> future where humanity is struggling to survive, the film follows a group of <a href="/wiki/Astronaut">astronauts</a> who travel through a <a href="/wiki/Wormhole">wormhole</a> near <a href="/wiki/Saturn">Saturn</a> in search of a new home for mankind.
</p><p>Brothers Christopher and <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Nolan">Jonathan Nolan</a> wrote the screenplay, which had its origins in a script Jonathan developed in 2007. <a href="/wiki/Caltech">Caltech</a> theoretical physicist and 2017 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics">Nobel laureate in Physics</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-NobelPrize-4">[4]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Kip_Thorne">Kip Thorne</a> was an executive producer, acted as a scientific consultant, and wrote a tie-in book, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Science_of_Interstellar">The Science of Interstellar</a></i>. Cinematographer <a href="/wiki/Hoyte_van_Hoytema">Hoyte van Hoytema</a> shot it on <a href="/wiki/35_mm_movie_film">35 mm movie film</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Panavision">Panavision</a> <a href="/wiki/Anamorphic_format">anamorphic format</a> and <a href="/wiki/IMAX">IMAX</a> 70 mm. Principal photography began in late 2013 and took place in <a href="/wiki/Alberta">Alberta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iceland">Iceland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles">Los Angeles</a>. <i>Interstellar</i> uses extensive practical and <a href="/wiki/Miniature_effect">miniature effects</a> and the company <a href="/wiki/Double_Negative_(VFX)">Double Negative</a> created additional <a href="/wiki/Visual_effect">digital effects</a>.
</p><p><i>Interstellar</i> premiered on October 26, 2014, in Los Angeles. In the United States, it was first released on <a href="/wiki/Film_stock">film stock</a>, expanding to venues using digital projectors. The film had a worldwide gross over $677 million (and $773 million with subsequent re-releases), making it the <a href="/wiki/2014_in_film#Highest-grossing_films">tenth-highest grossing film of 2014</a>. It received acclaim for its performances, direction, screenplay, musical score, visual effects, ambition, themes, and emotional weight. It has also received praise from many astronomers for its scientific accuracy and portrayal of theoretical astrophysics. Since its premiere, <i>Interstellar</i> gained a <a href="/wiki/Cult_following">cult following</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> and now is regarded by many sci-fi experts as one of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_films_considered_the_best#Science_fiction">best science-fiction films of all time</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> <i>Interstellar</i> was nominated for five awards at the <a href="/wiki/87th_Academy_Awards">87th Academy Awards</a>, winning <a href="/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Visual_Effects">Best Visual Effects</a>, and received <a href="/wiki/List_of_accolades_received_by_Interstellar">numerous other accolades</a>.
</p>
<h2>Plot</h2>
<p>In 2067, a global famine caused humanity to abandon scientific pursuits such as space exploration. Ex-<a href="/wiki/NASA">NASA</a> pilot Joseph Cooper is forced to work as a farmer. One day, Cooper experiences a gravitational "anomaly" in his daughter Murph's bedroom. He deduces it to be a pattern of GPS coordinates and arrives at a secret NASA facility headed by Professor Brand. Brand explains to Cooper that it is engaged in a secret mission to discover an <a href="/wiki/Exoplanet">exoplanet</a> capable of supporting life and that he is working on a gravity-equation. He enlists Cooper's help to pilot an exploratory spacecraft with three other scientists – Romilly, Doyle, and Brand’s daughter Amelia. The crew travels through a <a href="/wiki/Wormhole">wormhole</a> on board the <i>Endurance</i> to pass through to another galaxy. Their mission is to investigate three planets, orbiting a <a href="/wiki/Supermassive_black_hole">supermassive black hole</a> called Gargantua, each of which was previously explored by a NASA scientist-explorer. 
</p><p>The first planet is an <a href="/wiki/Ocean_world">aqua planet</a>. The NASA explorer there is found dead, and one of their crew – Doyle – drowns after being caught in a massive tidal wave. The same tide also causes the probe's engines to be filled with water, forcing Cooper and Amelia to wait for them to dry out. They return to the <i>Endurance</i> in an hour, finding that 23 years have passed aboard due to the <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_time_dilation">time dilation</a> caused by the planet's proximity to Gargantua. In those 23 years, Murph has become a scientist, and begun working with Brand at NASA. She learns from a dying Professor Brand that he had given up on solving his gravity-equation, knowing that information is needed from inside a black hole. Instead, he put their mission's hopes on Cooper's team establishing a space colony using pre-fertilized eggs on a new habitable planet. 
</p><p>At the second planet, the crew find its explorer, Mann, to be alive and awaken him from cryostasis. He eventually reveals to Cooper that he lied about the planet's habitability in the hope that NASA sent a mission to rescue him. Romilly dies in an explosion when he attempts to access the system's logs, while Mann tries to kill Cooper and hijack the <i>Endurance</i> spacecraft. Mann is killed when his craft fails to dock properly, and Cooper regains command of the <i>Endurance</i>. Cooper realizes that the <i>Endurance</i> only has enough resources for one person to safely complete their mission. He initiates a <a href="/wiki/Gravity_assist">slingshot move</a> around Gargantua, setting it to use gravity and be propelled to the final planet. At the last minute, he sacrifices himself by detaching from the spaceship and falling into the black hole, so that Amelia might safely complete the mission. 
</p><p>Cooper survives and finds himself inside a five-dimensional <a href="/wiki/Tesseract">tesseract</a>, out of view from beyond the <a href="/wiki/Event_horizon">event horizon</a>. From inside he can see moments in time from inside Murph's childhood bedroom. He finds her returning to look for clues to the gravity-equation, and he contacts her by manipulating items in the room with gravity to communicate through <a href="/wiki/Morse_code">Morse code</a>. Deducing that this construct has been created by future humans with the ability to time-travel, Cooper imparts to her the information she needs. With his mission completed, he is ejected by the future beings, who return him to the Solar System. He is reunited with a now elderly Murph, who he learns has used the gravity-equation to lead humanity's exodus from Earth. She advises him to seek out Amelia, and he sets off. Meanwhile, on the mission's final planet, Amelia is setting up a new colony for future humans to inhabit. She removes her helmet and breathes in the air, showing that the planet is capable of supporting human life. 
</p>
<h2>Cast</h2>
<div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Matthew_McConaughey_-_Goldene_Kamera_2014_-_Berlin.jpg"></a></p></div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Anne_Hathaway_2014_(cropped).jpg"></a></p></div></div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_McConaughey">Matthew McConaughey</a> as Joseph Cooper,<sup><a href="#cite_note-8">[a]</a></sup> a widowed <a href="/wiki/NASA">NASA</a> pilot who, after the agency was closed by the government, had become a farmer</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Hathaway">Anne Hathaway</a> as Dr. Amelia Brand, a NASA scientist, and astronaut</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jessica_Chastain">Jessica Chastain</a> as Murphy "Murph" Cooper, Joseph's daughter, who eventually becomes a NASA scientist</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mackenzie_Foy">Mackenzie Foy</a> as young Murph</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Burstyn">Ellen Burstyn</a> as elderly Murph</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Lithgow">John Lithgow</a> as Donald, Cooper's elderly father-in-law</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Caine">Michael Caine</a> as Professor John Brand, a high-ranking NASA scientist, ideator of Plan A, former mentor of Cooper, and father of Amelia</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Gyasi">David Gyasi</a> as Romilly, another high-ranking NASA member, and <i>Endurance</i> crew member</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wes_Bentley">Wes Bentley</a> as Doyle, a high-ranking NASA member, and <i>Endurance</i> crew member</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Casey_Affleck">Casey Affleck</a> as Tom Cooper, Joseph's son, who eventually grows up to become a farmer</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timoth%C3%A9e_Chalamet">Timothée Chalamet</a> as young Tom</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Matt_Damon">Matt Damon</a> as Mann, a NASA astronaut sent to an icy planet during the Lazarus program</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Irwin">Bill Irwin</a> as TARS (voice and puppetry) and CASE (puppetry)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Josh_Stewart">Josh Stewart</a> as CASE (voice)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Topher_Grace">Topher Grace</a> as Getty, Murph's colleague and love interest</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Leah_Cairns">Leah Cairns</a> as Lois, Tom's wife</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Oyelowo">David Oyelowo</a> as School Principal</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Collette_Wolfe">Collette Wolfe</a> as Ms. Hanley</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/William_Devane">William Devane</a> as Williams, another NASA member</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Elyes_Gabel">Elyes Gabel</a> as Administrator</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jeff_Hephner">Jeff Hephner</a> as Doctor</li>
<li>Russ Fega as Crew Chief</li></ul>
<h2>Production</h2>
<h3>Crew</h3>
<div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Nolan">Christopher Nolan</a> – Director, producer, writer</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Nolan">Jonathan Nolan</a> – Writer</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Thomas">Emma Thomas</a> – Producer</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lynda_Obst">Lynda Obst</a> – Producer</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hoyte_van_Hoytema">Hoyte van Hoytema</a> – Cinematographer</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_Crowley">Nathan Crowley</a> – Production designer</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Zophres">Mary Zophres</a> – Costume designer</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Smith_(film_editor)">Lee Smith</a> – Editor</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Zimmer">Hans Zimmer</a> – Music composer</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Franklin_(visual_effects_supervisor)">Paul Franklin</a> – Visual effects supervisor</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kip_Thorne">Kip Thorne</a> – Consultant, executive producer</li></ul>
</div>
<h3>Development and financing</h3>
<p>The premise for <i>Interstellar</i> was conceived by producer <a href="/wiki/Lynda_Obst">Lynda Obst</a> and theoretical physicist <a href="/wiki/Kip_Thorne">Kip Thorne</a>, who collaborated on the film <i><a href="/wiki/Contact_(1997_American_film)">Contact</a></i> (1997), and had known each other since <a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan">Carl Sagan</a> set them up on a blind date.<sup><a href="#cite_note-jolin-9">[8]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-wired-10">[9]</a></sup> The two conceived a scenario, based on Thorne's work, about "the most exotic events in the universe suddenly becoming accessible to humans," and attracted filmmaker <a href="/wiki/Steven_Spielberg">Steven Spielberg</a>'s interest in directing.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Fernandez-Mar2007-11">[10]</a></sup> The film began development in June 2006, when Spielberg and <a href="/wiki/Paramount_Pictures">Paramount Pictures</a> announced plans for a science-fiction film based on an eight-page treatment written by Obst and Thorne. Obst was attached to produce.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Fleming-Jun2006-12">[11]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-news.sciencemag.org-13">[12]</a></sup> By March 2007, Jonathan Nolan was hired to write a <a href="/wiki/Screenplay">screenplay</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-LATimes-Mar2007-14">[13]</a></sup>
</p><p>After Spielberg moved his production studio <a href="/wiki/DreamWorks_Pictures">DreamWorks</a> from Paramount to <a href="/wiki/Walt_Disney_Studios_(division)">Walt Disney Studios</a> in 2009, Paramount needed a new director for <i>Interstellar</i>. Jonathan Nolan recommended his brother Christopher, who joined the project in 2012.<sup><a href="#cite_note-jensen-15">[14]</a></sup> Christopher Nolan met with Thorne, then attached as executive producer, to discuss the use of <a href="/wiki/Spacetime">spacetime</a> in the story.<sup><a href="#cite_note-galloway20141022-16">[15]</a></sup> In January 2013, Paramount and Warner Bros. announced that Christopher Nolan was in negotiations to direct <i>Interstellar</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Variety-Jan2013-17">[16]</a></sup> Nolan said he wanted to encourage the goal of <a href="/wiki/Human_spaceflight">human spaceflight</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-fritz-18">[17]</a></sup> and intended to merge his brother's screenplay with his own.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Deadline-Jan2013-19">[18]</a></sup> By the following March, Nolan was confirmed to direct <i>Interstellar</i>, which would be produced under his label <a href="/wiki/Syncopy_Inc.">Syncopy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lynda_Obst_Productions">Lynda Obst Productions</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-HR-Mar2013-20">[19]</a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hollywood_Reporter">The Hollywood Reporter</a></i> said Nolan would earn a salary of $20 million against 20% of the total gross.<sup><a href="#cite_note-HollywoodReporter-Oct2014-21">[20]</a></sup> To research for the film, Nolan visited NASA and the <a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_Transport_System">private space program</a> at <a href="/wiki/SpaceX">SpaceX</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-galloway20141022-16">[15]</a></sup>
</p><p>Warner Bros. sought a stake in Nolan's production of <i>Interstellar</i> from Paramount, despite their traditional rivalry, and agreed to give Paramount its rights to co-finance the next film in the <i><a href="/wiki/Friday_the_13th_(franchise)">Friday the 13th</a></i> horror franchise, with a stake in a future film based on the television series <i><a href="/wiki/South_Park">South Park</a></i>. Warner Bros. also agreed to let Paramount co-finance an indeterminate "A-list" property.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Kit-Masters-Jun2013-22">[21]</a></sup> In August 2013, <a href="/wiki/Legendary_Pictures">Legendary Pictures</a> finalized an agreement with Warner Bros. to finance approximately 25% of the film's production. Although it failed to renew its eight-year production partnership with Warner Bros., Legendary reportedly agreed to forgo financing <i><a href="/wiki/Batman_v_Superman:_Dawn_of_Justice">Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice</a></i> (2016) in exchange for the stake in <i>Interstellar</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-galloway20130814-23">[22]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Writing and casting</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Dust-storm-Texas-1935.png"></a></p></div>
<p>Screenwriter Jonathan Nolan worked on the script for four years.<sup><a href="#cite_note-jolin-9">[8]</a></sup> To learn the scientific aspects, he studied <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity">relativity</a> at the <a href="/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology">California Institute of Technology</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-OraTV-Apr2014-24">[23]</a></sup> Jonathan was pessimistic about the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program">Space Shuttle program</a> ending and how NASA lacked financing for a <a href="/wiki/Human_mission_to_Mars">human mission to Mars</a>, drawing inspiration from science-fiction films with <a href="/wiki/Apocalyptic_and_post-apocalyptic_fiction">apocalyptic</a> themes, such as <i><a href="/wiki/WALL-E">WALL-E</a></i> (2008) and <i><a href="/wiki/Avatar_(2009_film)">Avatar</a></i> (2009). Jeff Jensen of <i><a href="/wiki/Entertainment_Weekly">Entertainment Weekly</a></i> commented: "He set the story in a dystopian future ravaged by blight, but populated with hardy folk who refuse to bow to despair."<sup><a href="#cite_note-jensen-15">[14]</a></sup> His brother Christopher had worked on other science fiction scripts but decided to take the <i>Interstellar</i> script and choose among the vast array of ideas presented by Jonathan and Thorne, picking what he felt, as director, he could get "across to the audience and hopefully not lose them," before he merged it with a script he had worked on for years on his own.<sup><a href="#cite_note-galloway20141022-16">[15]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-marlow-25">[24]</a></sup> Christopher kept in place Jonathan's conception of the first hour, which is set on a <a href="/wiki/Resource_depletion">resource depleted</a> Earth in the near future. The setting was inspired by the <a href="/wiki/Dust_Bowl">Dust Bowl</a> that took place in the United States during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression">Great Depression</a> in the 1930s.<sup><a href="#cite_note-jolin-9">[8]</a></sup> He revised the rest of the script, where a team travels into space, instead.<sup><a href="#cite_note-jolin-9">[8]</a></sup> After watching the 2012 documentary <i><a href="/wiki/The_Dust_Bowl_(film)">The Dust Bowl</a></i> for inspiration, Christopher contacted director <a href="/wiki/Ken_Burns">Ken Burns</a> and producer Dayton Duncan, requesting permission to use some of their featured interviews in <i>Interstellar</i>, which was granted.<sup><a href="#cite_note-burns-26">[25]</a></sup>
</p><p>Christopher Nolan wanted an actor who could bring to life his vision of the main character as an <a href="/wiki/Everyman">everyman</a> with whom "the audience could experience the story."<sup><a href="#cite_note-mcclintock20140326-27">[26]</a></sup> He became interested in casting <a href="/wiki/Matthew_McConaughey">Matthew McConaughey</a> after watching him in an early cut of the 2012 film <i><a href="/wiki/Mud_(2012_film)">Mud</a></i>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-mcclintock20140326-27">[26]</a></sup> which he had seen as a friend of one of its producers, Aaron Ryder.<sup><a href="#cite_note-jolin-9">[8]</a></sup> Nolan went to visit McConaughey while he was filming for the TV series <i><a href="/wiki/True_Detective">True Detective</a></i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-td-28">[27]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Anne_Hathaway">Anne Hathaway</a> was invited to Nolan's home, where she read the script for <i>Interstellar</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-itzkoff-29">[28]</a></sup> In early 2013, both actors were cast in the starring roles.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Fleming-Apr2013-30">[29]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jessica_Chastain">Jessica Chastain</a> was contacted while she was working on <i><a href="/wiki/Miss_Julie_(2014_film)">Miss Julie</a></i> (2014) in Northern Ireland, and a script was delivered to her.<sup><a href="#cite_note-itzkoff-29">[28]</a></sup> Originally, <a href="/wiki/Irrfan_Khan">Irrfan Khan</a> was offered the role of Dr. Mann but rejected due to scheduling conflicts. <a href="/wiki/Matt_Damon">Matt Damon</a> was cast as Mann in late August 2013 and completed filming his scenes in Iceland.<sup><a href="#cite_note-jagernauth-31">[30]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Principal photography</h3>
<p>Nolan shot <i>Interstellar</i> on 35 mm film in the <a href="/wiki/Panavision">Panavision</a> <a href="/wiki/Anamorphic_format">anamorphic format</a> and <a href="/wiki/IMAX">IMAX</a> 70 mm photography.<sup><a href="#cite_note-deadline-32">[31]</a></sup> Cinematographer <a href="/wiki/Hoyte_van_Hoytema">Hoyte van Hoytema</a> was hired for <i>Interstellar</i>, as <a href="/wiki/Wally_Pfister">Wally Pfister</a>, Nolan's cinematographer on all of his previous films, was making his directorial debut working on <i><a href="/wiki/Transcendence_(2014_film)">Transcendence</a></i> (2014).<sup><a href="#cite_note-Jagernauth-Apr2013-33">[32]</a></sup> More IMAX cameras were used for <i>Interstellar</i> than for any of Nolan's previous films. To minimize the use of <a href="/wiki/Computer-generated_imagery">computer-generated imagery</a> (CGI), the director had practical locations built, such as the interior of a space shuttle.<sup><a href="#cite_note-mcclintock20140326-27">[26]</a></sup> Van Hoytema retooled an IMAX camera to be <a href="/wiki/Hand-held_camera">hand-held</a> for shooting interior scenes.<sup><a href="#cite_note-jolin-9">[8]</a></sup> Some of the film's sequences were shot with an IMAX camera installed in the nose cone of a <a href="/wiki/Learjet">Learjet</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Learjet-34">[33]</a></sup>
</p><p>Nolan, who is known for keeping details of his productions secret, strove to ensure secrecy for <i>Interstellar</i>. Writing for <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a></i>, Ben Fritz stated, "The famously secretive filmmaker has gone to extreme lengths to guard the script to ... <i>Interstellar</i>, just as he did with the blockbuster <i>Dark Knight</i> trilogy."<sup><a href="#cite_note-WSJ-Oct2013-35">[34]</a></sup> As one security measure, <i>Interstellar</i> was filmed under the name <i>Flora's Letter</i>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-volmers-36">[35]</a></sup> Flora being one of Nolan's four children with producer Emma Thomas.<sup><a href="#cite_note-galloway20141022-16">[15]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Sv%C3%ADnafellsj%C3%B6kull.JPG"></a></p><div><p>The Svínafellsjökull glacier in <a href="/wiki/Iceland">Iceland</a> was used as a filming location for <i>Interstellar</i>, doubling for Mann's planet.</p></div></div>
<p>The film's <a href="/wiki/Principal_photography">principal photography</a> was scheduled to last four months.<sup><a href="#cite_note-jagernauth-31">[30]</a></sup> It began on August 6, 2013, in the province of <a href="/wiki/Alberta">Alberta</a>, Canada.<sup><a href="#cite_note-galloway20130814-23">[22]</a></sup> Towns in Alberta where shooting took place included <a href="/wiki/Nanton,_Alberta">Nanton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Longview,_Alberta">Longview</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lethbridge">Lethbridge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Macleod">Fort Macleod</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Okotoks">Okotoks</a>. In Okotoks, filming took place at the <a href="/wiki/Seaman_Stadium">Seaman Stadium</a> and the Olde Town Plaza.<sup><a href="#cite_note-volmers-36">[35]</a></sup> For a cornfield scene, production designer <a href="/wiki/Nathan_Crowley">Nathan Crowley</a> planted 500 acres (200 ha) of corn that would be destroyed in an apocalyptic <a href="/wiki/Dust_storm">dust storm</a> scene,<sup><a href="#cite_note-jensen-15">[14]</a></sup> intended to be similar to storms experienced during the Dust Bowl in 1930s America.<sup><a href="#cite_note-galloway20141022-16">[15]</a></sup> Additional scenes involving the dust storm and McConaughey's character were also shot in <a href="/wiki/Fort_Macleod">Fort Macleod</a>, where the giant dust clouds were created on location using large fans to blow <a href="/wiki/Cellulose_fiber">cellulose-based</a> synthetic dust through the air.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McTighe-Aug2013-37">[36]</a></sup> Filming in the province lasted until September 9, 2013, and involved hundreds of extras in addition to 130 crew members, most of whom were local.<sup><a href="#cite_note-volmers-36">[35]</a></sup>
</p><p>Shooting also took place in Iceland, where Nolan had previously filmed scenes for <i><a href="/wiki/Batman_Begins">Batman Begins</a></i> (2005).<sup><a href="#cite_note-Verrier-Horn-Apr2014-38">[37]</a></sup> The location was chosen to represent two extraterrestrial planets: one covered in ice, and the other in water.<sup><a href="#cite_note-jolin-9">[8]</a></sup> The crew transported mock spaceships weighing about 10,000 pounds (4,500 kg) to the country.<sup><a href="#cite_note-galloway20141022-16">[15]</a></sup> They spent two weeks shooting there,<sup><a href="#cite_note-jagernauth-31">[30]</a></sup> during which a crew of about 350 people, including 130 locals, worked on the film. Locations included the Svínafellsjökull glacier and the town of <a href="/wiki/Kirkjub%C3%A6jarklaustur">Klaustur</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-NewsofIceland-Sep2013-39">[38]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-IcelandReview-Sep2013-40">[39]</a></sup> While filming a water scene in Iceland, Hathaway almost suffered <a href="/wiki/Hypothermia">hypothermia</a> because the <a href="/wiki/Dry_suit">dry suit</a> she was wearing had not been properly secured.<sup><a href="#cite_note-galloway20141022-16">[15]</a></sup>
</p><p>After the schedule in Iceland was completed, the crew moved to Los Angeles to shoot for 54 days. Filming locations included the <a href="/wiki/Westin_Bonaventure_Hotel">Westin Bonaventure Hotel and Suites</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Convention_Center">Los Angeles Convention Center</a>, a Sony Pictures <a href="/wiki/Soundstage">soundstage</a> in <a href="/wiki/Culver_City,_California">Culver City</a>, and a private residence in <a href="/wiki/Altadena,_California">Altadena, California</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Verrier-Nov2013-41">[40]</a></sup> Principal photography concluded in December 2013.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Zeitchik-Dec2013-42">[41]</a></sup> Production had a budget of $165 million, $10 million less than was allotted by Paramount, Warner Bros., and Legendary Pictures.<sup><a href="#cite_note-galloway20141022-16">[15]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Production design</h3>
<div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Interstellar_film_-_Endurance_spacecraft.jpg"></a></p></div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:S130e012150.jpg"></a></p></div></div>
<p><i>Interstellar</i> features three spacecraft— a ranger, the <i>Endurance</i>, and a lander. The ranger's function is similar to the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a>'s, being able to enter and exit planetary atmospheres. The <i>Endurance</i>, the crew's <a href="/wiki/Mother_ship">mother ship</a>, is a circular structure consisting of 12 capsules, laid flat to mimic a clock: Four capsules with planetary settling equipment, four with engines, and four with the permanent functions of cockpit, medical labs, and habitation. Production designer Nathan Crowley said the <i>Endurance</i> was based on the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station">International Space Station</a>: "It's a real mish-mash of different kinds of technology. You need analogue stuff, as well as digital stuff, you need backup systems and tangible switches. It's really like a submarine in space. Every inch of space is used, everything has a purpose." Lastly, the lander transports the capsules with settling equipment to planetary surfaces. Crowley compared it to "a heavy Russian helicopter."<sup><a href="#cite_note-jolin-9">[8]</a></sup>
</p><p>The film also features two robots, CASE and TARS, as well as a dismantled third robot, KIPP. Nolan wanted to avoid making the robots <a href="/wiki/Anthropomorphism">anthropomorphic</a> and chose a 1.5 m (4.9 ft) <a href="/wiki/Quadrilateral">quadrilateral</a> design. The director said: "It has a very complicated design philosophy. It's based on mathematics. You've got four main blocks and they can be joined in three ways. So, you have three combinations you follow. But then within that, it subdivides into a further three joints. And all the places we see lines—those can subdivide further. So you can unfold a finger, essentially, but it's all proportional." Actor <a href="/wiki/Bill_Irwin">Bill Irwin</a> voiced and physically controlled both robots, but his image was digitally removed from the film, and actor <a href="/wiki/Josh_Stewart">Josh Stewart</a>'s voice replaced his voicing for CASE.<sup><a href="#cite_note-jolin-9">[8]</a></sup> The human space habitats resemble <a href="/wiki/O%27Neill_cylinder">O'Neill cylinders</a>, a theoretical <a href="/wiki/Space_habitat">space habitat</a> model proposed by physicist <a href="/wiki/Gerard_K._O%27Neill">Gerard K. O'Neill</a> in 1976.<sup><a href="#cite_note-GQ-Oct2014-43">[42]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Sound design and music</h3>
<p><a href="/wiki/Gregg_Landaker">Gregg Landaker</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gary_Rizzo">Gary Rizzo</a> were the film's <a href="/wiki/Audio_engineer">audio engineers</a> tasked with <a href="/wiki/Audio_mixing">audio mixing</a>, while sound editor <a href="/wiki/Richard_King_(sound_designer)">Richard King</a> supervised the process.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Desowitz-Sep2014-44">[43]</a></sup> Christopher Nolan sought to mix the sound to take maximum advantage of theater equipment<sup><a href="#cite_note-Hammond-Mar2014-45">[44]</a></sup> and paid close attention to designing the sound mix, like focusing on the sound of buttons being pressed with astronaut suit gloves.<sup><a href="#cite_note-jensen-15">[14]</a></sup> The studio's website stated that the film was "mixed to maximize the power of the low-end frequencies in the main channels, as well as in the <a href="/wiki/Subwoofer">subwoofer</a> channel."<sup><a href="#cite_note-InterstellarMovie-46">[45]</a></sup> Nolan deliberately intended some dialogue to seem drowned out by ambient noise or music, causing some theaters to post notices emphasizing that this effect was intentional and not a fault in their equipment.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McClintock-Nov2014-47">[46]</a></sup>
</p><p>Composer <a href="/wiki/Hans_Zimmer">Hans Zimmer</a>, who scored <a href="/wiki/The_Dark_Knight_Trilogy">Nolan's <i>The Dark Knight Trilogy</i></a> and <i><a href="/wiki/Inception">Inception</a></i> (2010), returned to score <i>Interstellar</i>. Nolan chose not to provide Zimmer with a script or any plot details for writing the film's music but instead gave the composer a single page that told the story of a father leaving his child for work. It was through this connection that Zimmer created the early stages of the <i>Interstellar</i> soundtrack. Zimmer and Nolan later decided that the 1926 four-manual <a href="/wiki/Harrison_%26_Harrison">Harrison &amp; Harrison</a> organ of the <a href="/wiki/Temple_Church">Temple Church</a>, London, would be the primary instrument for the score.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Lubin-Nov2014-48">[47]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Kilkenny-49">[48]</a></sup> Zimmer conducted 45 scoring sessions for <i>Interstellar</i>, three times more than for <i>Inception</i>. The soundtrack was released on November 18, 2014.<sup><a href="#cite_note-jensen-15">[14]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Visual effects</h3>
<p>Visual effects company <a href="/wiki/Double_Negative_(VFX)">Double Negative</a>, which worked on <i>Inception</i>, was brought back for <i>Interstellar</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Giardina-Jun2014-50">[49]</a></sup> According to visual effects supervisor <a href="/wiki/Paul_Franklin_(visual_effects_supervisor)">Paul Franklin</a>, the number of effects in the film was not much greater than in Nolan's <i><a href="/wiki/The_Dark_Knight_Rises">The Dark Knight Rises</a></i> (2012) or <i>Inception</i>. However, for <i>Interstellar</i>, they created the effects first, allowing digital projectors to display them behind the actors, rather than having the actors perform in front of <a href="/wiki/Chroma_key">green screens</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-jolin-9">[8]</a></sup> Ultimately, the film contained 850 visual-effect shots at a resolution of 5600 × 4000 lines: 150 shots that were created in-camera using digital projectors, and another 700 were created in post-production. Of those, 620 were presented in IMAX, while the rest were anamorphic.<sup><a href="#cite_note-VFXshots-51">[50]</a></sup>
</p><p>The ranger, <i>Endurance</i>, and lander spacecraft were created using <a href="/wiki/Miniature_effect">miniature effects</a> by Nathan Crowley in collaboration with effects company New Deal Studios, as opposed to using computer-generated imagery, as Nolan felt they offered the best way to give the ships a tangible presence in space. <a href="/wiki/3D_printing">3D-printed</a> and hand-sculpted, the scale models earned the nickname "maxatures" by the crew due to their immense size; the 1/15th-scale miniature of the <i>Endurance</i> module spanned over 7.6 m (25 ft), while a <a href="/wiki/Pyrotechnic">pyrotechnic</a> model of part of the craft was built at 1/5th scale. The Ranger and Lander miniatures spanned 14 m (46 ft) and over 15 m (49 ft), respectively, and were large enough for van Hoytema to mount IMAX cameras directly onto the spacecraft, thus mimicking the look of NASA IMAX documentaries. The models were then attached to a six-axis <a href="/wiki/Gimbal">gimbal</a> on a motion control system that allowed an operator to manipulate their movements, which were filmed against background plates of space using <a href="/wiki/VistaVision">VistaVision</a> cameras on a smaller motion control rig.<sup><a href="#cite_note-EmanuelLevy-Oct2014-52">[51]</a></sup> New Deal Studio's miniatures were used in 150 special effects shots.<sup><a href="#cite_note-VFXshots-51">[50]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Influences</h2>
<p>The director was influenced by what he called "key touchstones" of science fiction cinema, including <i><a href="/wiki/Metropolis_(1927_film)">Metropolis</a></i> (1927), <i><a href="/wiki/2001:_A_Space_Odyssey_(film)">2001: A Space Odyssey</a></i> (1968), <i><a href="/wiki/Blade_Runner">Blade Runner</a></i> (1982),<sup><a href="#cite_note-EW-Apr2013-53">[52]</a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Star_Wars_(film)">Star Wars</a></i> (1977), and <i><a href="/wiki/Alien_(film)">Alien</a></i> (1979).<sup><a href="#cite_note-Empire-Oct2014-54">[53]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Tarkovsky">Andrei Tarkovsky</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Mirror_(1975_film)">The Mirror</a></i> (1975) influenced "elemental things in the story to do with wind and dust and water", according to Nolan,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Mueller-Oct2014-55">[54]</a></sup> who also compared <i>Interstellar</i> to <i><a href="/wiki/The_Treasure_of_the_Sierra_Madre_(film)">The Treasure of the Sierra Madre</a></i> (1948) as a film about human nature.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Jensen-Oct2014-56">[55]</a></sup> He sought to emulate films like <a href="/wiki/Steven_Spielberg">Steven Spielberg</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Jaws_(film)">Jaws</a></i> (1975) and <i><a href="/wiki/Close_Encounters_of_the_Third_Kind">Close Encounters of the Third Kind</a></i> (1977) for being family-friendly but also "as edgy and incisive and challenging as anything else on the blockbuster spectrum". He screened <i><a href="/wiki/The_Right_Stuff_(film)">The Right Stuff</a></i> (1983) for the crew before production,<sup><a href="#cite_note-jolin-9">[8]</a></sup> following in its example by capturing reflections on the <i>Interstellar</i> astronauts' visors. For further inspiration, the director invited former astronaut <a href="/wiki/Marsha_Ivins">Marsha Ivins</a> to the set.<sup><a href="#cite_note-galloway20141022-16">[15]</a></sup> Nolan and his crew studied the IMAX NASA documentaries of filmmaker <a href="/wiki/Toni_Myers">Toni Myers</a> for visual reference of spacefaring missions, and strove to imitate their use of IMAX cameras in the enclosed spaces of spacecraft interiors.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Space-Nov2014-57">[56]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Clark_Kent">Clark Kent</a>'s upbringing in <i><a href="/wiki/Man_of_Steel_(film)">Man of Steel</a></i> (2013) was the inspiration for the farm setting in the Midwest.<sup><a href="#cite_note-marlow-25">[24]</a></sup> Apart from films, Nolan drew inspiration from the architecture of <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Mies_van_der_Rohe">Ludwig Mies van der Rohe</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-galloway20141022-16">[15]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Scientific accuracy</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Kip_S._Thorne_EM1B8790_(24027017497).jpg"></a></p><div><p><a href="/wiki/Kip_Thorne">Kip Thorne</a>, a theoretical physicist and Nobel Laureate, served as scientific consultant and executive producer.</p></div></div>
<p>Regarding the concepts of wormholes and black holes, Kip Thorne stated that he "worked on the equations that would enable tracing of light rays as they traveled through a wormhole or around a black hole—so what you see is based on <a href="/wiki/Einstein">Einstein</a>'s <a href="/wiki/General_relativity">general relativity</a> <a href="/wiki/Einstein_field_equations">equations</a>."<sup><a href="#cite_note-ThorneWormhole-58">[57]</a></sup> Early in the process, Thorne laid down two guidelines: "First, that nothing would violate established physical laws. Second, that all the wild speculations ... would spring from science and not from the fertile mind of a screenwriter." Nolan accepted these terms as long as they did not get in the way of making the film.<sup><a href="#cite_note-news.sciencemag.org-13">[12]</a></sup> At one point, Thorne spent two weeks trying to talk Nolan out of an idea about a character traveling faster than light before Nolan finally gave up.<sup><a href="#cite_note-NPR-Nov2014-59">[58]</a></sup> According to Thorne, the element which has the highest degree of artistic freedom is the clouds of ice on one of the planets they visit, which are structures that would go beyond the material strength that ice could support.<sup><a href="#cite_note-news.sciencemag.org-13">[12]</a></sup>
</p><p>Astrobiologist <a href="/wiki/David_Grinspoon">David Grinspoon</a> criticized the dire "blight" situation on Earth portrayed in the early scenes, pointing out that even with a voracious blight it would have taken millions of years to reduce the atmosphere's oxygen content. He also notes that gravity should have pulled down the ice clouds.<sup><a href="#cite_note-MotherJones-Nov2014-60">[59]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Neil_deGrasse_Tyson">Neil deGrasse Tyson</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Astrophysics">astrophysicist</a>, explored the science behind the ending of <i>Interstellar</i>, concluding that it is theoretically possible to interact with the past, and that "we don't really know what's in a black hole, so take it and run with it."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Gray-61">[60]</a></sup> Theoretical physicist <a href="/wiki/Michio_Kaku">Michio Kaku</a> praised the film for its scientific accuracy and has said <i>Interstellar</i> "could set the gold standard for science fiction movies for years to come." Similarly, Timothy Reyes, a former NASA <a href="/wiki/Software_engineer">software engineer</a>, said "Thorne's and Nolan's accounting of black holes and wormholes and the use of gravity is excellent."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Mashable-62">[61]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Wormholes and black holes</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Black_hole_Interstellar.png"></a></p><div><p>Miller's planet orbiting Gargantua</p></div></div>
<p>To create the visual effects for the wormhole and a <a href="/wiki/Rotating_black_hole">rotating</a>, <a href="/wiki/Supermassive_black_hole">supermassive black hole</a> (possessing an <a href="/wiki/Ergosphere">ergosphere</a>, as opposed to a non-rotating black hole), Thorne collaborated with Franklin and a team of 30 people at <a href="/wiki/DNEG">Double Negative</a>, providing pages of deeply sourced <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics">theoretical equations</a> to the engineers, who then wrote new <a href="/wiki/Computer-generated_imagery">CGI</a> rendering software based on these equations to create accurate simulations of the <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_lensing">gravitational lensing</a> caused by these phenomena. Some individual frames took up to 100 hours to render, totaling 800 <a href="/wiki/Terabyte">terabytes</a> of data.<sup><a href="#cite_note-wired-10">[9]</a></sup> Thorne described the accretion disk of the black hole as "anemic and at low temperature<sup><a href="#cite_note-63">[62]</a></sup>—about the temperature of the surface of the sun," allowing it to emit appreciable light, but not enough <a href="/wiki/Gamma_radiation">gamma radiation</a> and <a href="/wiki/X-ray">X-rays</a> to threaten nearby astronauts and planets.<sup><a href="#cite_note-InsideScience-Nov2015-64">[63]</a></sup> The resulting visual effects provided Thorne with new insight into the gravitational lensing and <a href="/wiki/Accretion_disk">accretion disks</a> surrounding black holes, resulting in the publication of three <a href="/wiki/Scientific_papers">scientific papers</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-IOP-Feb2015-65">[64]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-AJP-Jun2015-66">[65]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-ACM-Jul2015-67">[66]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Black_hole_-_Messier_87.jpg"></a></p><div><p>The first image of the event horizon of a black hole, obtained by the <a href="/wiki/Event_Horizon_Telescope">Event Horizon Telescope</a>. The asymmetric brightness of the accretion disk is well visible here.</p></div></div>
<p>Christopher Nolan was initially concerned that a scientifically accurate depiction of a black hole would not be visually comprehensible to an audience, and would require the effects team to unrealistically alter its appearance. The visual representation of the black hole in the film does not account for the <a href="/wiki/Doppler_effect">Doppler effect</a> which, when added by the visual effects team, resulted in an asymmetrically lit black and blue-black hole, the purpose of which Nolan thought the audience would not understand. As a result, it was omitted in the finished product.<sup><a href="#cite_note-NewScientist-Feb2015-68">[67]</a></sup> Nolan found the finished effect to be understandable, as long as he maintained consistent camera perspectives.<sup><a href="#cite_note-WiredBlackHoleInterview-69">[68]</a></sup>
</p><p>As a reference, the asymmetric brightness of the accretion disk is very well visible in the first image<sup><a href="#cite_note-70">[69]</a></sup> of the event horizon of a black hole obtained by the <a href="/wiki/Event_Horizon_Telescope">Event Horizon Telescope</a> team in 2019. <i>Futura-Sciences</i> praised the correct depiction of the <a href="/wiki/Penrose_process">Penrose process</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FX-Jan2016-71">[70]</a></sup>
</p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Space.com">Space.com</a>, the portrayal of what a wormhole would look like is considered scientifically correct. Rather than a two-dimensional hole in space, it is depicted as a sphere, showing a distorted view of the target galaxy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Wall-Nov2014-72">[71]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Marketing</h2>
<p>The teaser trailer for <i>Interstellar</i> debuted December 13, 2013, and featured clips related to <a href="/wiki/Space_exploration">space exploration</a>, accompanied by a voiceover by Matthew McConaughey's character, Cooper.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McIntyre-Dec2013-73">[72]</a></sup> The theatrical trailer debuted May 5, 2014, at the <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_Martin">Lockheed Martin</a> IMAX Theater in <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> and was made available online later that month. For the week ending on May 19, it was the most-viewed film trailer, with over 19.5 million views on <a href="/wiki/YouTube">YouTube</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-TheHollywoodReporter-May2014-74">[73]</a></sup>
</p><p>Christopher Nolan and McConaughey made their first appearances at <a href="/wiki/San_Diego_Comic-Con">San Diego Comic-Con</a> in July 2014 to promote <i>Interstellar</i>. That same month, Paramount Pictures launched an interactive website, on which users uncovered a <a href="/wiki/Star_chart">star chart</a> related to the <a href="/wiki/Apollo_11">Apollo 11</a> Moon landing.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McMillan-Jul2014-75">[74]</a></sup>
</p><p>In October 2014, Paramount partnered with <a href="/wiki/Google">Google</a> to promote <i>Interstellar</i> across multiple platforms.<sup><a href="#cite_note-sneider-76">[75]</a></sup> The film's website was relaunched as a digital hub hosted on a Google domain,<sup><a href="#cite_note-jarvey-77">[76]</a></sup> which collected feedback from film audiences, and linked to a mobile app.<sup><a href="#cite_note-jarvey-77">[76]</a></sup> It featured a game in which players could build <a href="/wiki/Solar_System">Solar System</a> models and use a <a href="/wiki/Flight_simulator">flight simulator</a> for space travel.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Wired-Sep2014-78">[77]</a></sup> The Paramount–Google partnership also included a virtual <a href="/wiki/Time_capsule">time capsule</a> compiled with user-generated content, made available in 2015.<sup><a href="#cite_note-interstellar.withgoogle-79">[78]</a></sup> The initiative Google for Education used the film as a basis for promoting math and science lesson plans in schools.<sup><a href="#cite_note-sneider-76">[75]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-googleforeducation-80">[79]</a></sup>
</p><p>Paramount provided a <a href="/wiki/Virtual_reality">virtual reality</a> walkthrough of the <i>Endurance</i> spacecraft using <a href="/wiki/Oculus_Rift">Oculus Rift</a> technology. It hosted the walkthrough sequentially in New York City, Houston, Los Angeles, and Washington, D.C., from October 6 through November 19, 2014.<sup><a href="#cite_note-/Film-Oct2014-81">[80]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-InterstellarMovie.com-82">[81]</a></sup> The publisher <a href="/wiki/Running_Press">Running Press</a> released <i>Interstellar: Beyond Time and Space</i>, a book by <a href="/wiki/Mark_Cotta_Vaz">Mark Cotta Vaz</a> about the making of the film, on November 11.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Space-May2014-83">[82]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/W._W._Norton_%26_Company">W. W. Norton &amp; Company</a> released <i><a href="/wiki/The_Science_of_Interstellar">The Science of Interstellar</a></i>, a book by Thorne;<sup><a href="#cite_note-Yahoo-Sep2014-84">[83]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Titan_Books">Titan Books</a> released the official novelization, written by <a href="/wiki/Greg_Keyes">Greg Keyes</a>;<sup><a href="#cite_note-Keyes-Nov2014-85">[84]</a></sup> and <i><a href="/wiki/Wired_(magazine)">Wired</a></i> magazine released a tie-in <a href="/wiki/Online_comic">online comic</a>, <i>Absolute Zero</i>, written by Christopher Nolan and drawn by <a href="/wiki/Sean_Gordon_Murphy">Sean Gordon Murphy</a>. The comic is a <a href="/wiki/Prequel">prequel</a> to the film, with Mann as the protagonist.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Nolan-Murphy-Nov2014-86">[85]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Release</h2>
<h3>Theatrical</h3>
<p>Before <i>Interstellar</i>'s public release, Paramount CEO <a href="/wiki/Brad_Grey">Brad Grey</a> hosted a private screening on October 19, 2014, at an IMAX theater in <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Square,_Manhattan">Lincoln Square, Manhattan</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-PrivateScreening-87">[86]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-PrivateScreeningNotes-88">[87]</a></sup> Paramount then showed <i>Interstellar</i> to some of the industry's filmmakers and actors in a first-look screening at the <a href="/wiki/California_Science_Center">California Science Center</a> on October 22.<sup><a href="#cite_note-waxman-89">[88]</a></sup> On the following day, the film was screened at the <a href="/wiki/TCL_Chinese_Theatre">TCL Chinese Theatre</a> in <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles">Los Angeles</a>, California for over 900 members of the <a href="/wiki/Screen_Actors_Guild">Screen Actors Guild</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Whipp-Oct2014-90">[89]</a></sup> The film premiered on October 26 at the TCL Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles,<sup><a href="#cite_note-ford-91">[90]</a></sup> and in Europe on October 29 at the <a href="/wiki/Odeon_Leicester_Square">Odeon Leicester Square</a> in London. The film premiered on November 7 in Canada.<sup><a href="#cite_note-theguardian-92">[91]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Jessica_Chastain_Steals_The_Show_At_Interstellar_European_Premiere-93">[92]</a></sup>
</p><p><i>Interstellar</i> was released early on November 4 in various <a href="/wiki/70_mm_film">70 mm</a> IMAX film, 70 mm film and <a href="/wiki/35mm_movie_film">35 mm</a> film theaters, and had a limited release in North America (United States and Canada) on November 5, with a wide release on November 7.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Vlessing-Oct2014-94">[93]</a></sup> The film was released in Belgium, France, and Switzerland on November 5, the United Kingdom on November 7 and in additional territories in the following days.<sup><a href="#cite_note-WB-95">[94]</a></sup> For the limited North American release, <i>Interstellar</i> was projected from 70 mm and 35 mm film in 249 theaters that still supported those formats, including at least forty-one 70 mm IMAX theaters. A 70 mm IMAX projector was installed at the TCL Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles to display the format. The film's wide release expanded to theaters that showed it digitally.<sup><a href="#cite_note-mcclintock20141001-96">[95]</a></sup> Paramount Pictures distributed the film in North America, and Warner Bros. distributed it in the remaining territories.<sup><a href="#cite_note-deadline-32">[31]</a></sup> The film was released in over 770 IMAX screens worldwide, which was the largest global release in IMAX cinemas,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Guardian-Oct2014-97">[96]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-HR-Oct2014-98">[97]</a></sup> until surpassed by <a href="/wiki/Universal_Pictures">Universal Pictures</a>' <i><a href="/wiki/Furious_7">Furious 7</a></i> (2015) with 810 IMAX theaters.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Sommerlath-99">[98]</a></sup>
</p><p><i>Interstellar</i> was an exception to Paramount Pictures' goal to stop releasing films on <a href="/wiki/Film_stock">film stock</a> and to distribute them only in digital format.<sup><a href="#cite_note-LATimes-Jan2014-100">[99]</a></sup> According to Pamela McClintock of <i>The Hollywood Reporter</i>, the initiative to project <i>Interstellar</i> on film stock would help preserve an endangered format,<sup><a href="#cite_note-mcclintock20141001-96">[95]</a></sup> which was supported by Christopher Nolan, <a href="/wiki/J._J._Abrams">J. J. Abrams</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quentin_Tarantino">Quentin Tarantino</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judd_Apatow">Judd Apatow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Thomas_Anderson">Paul Thomas Anderson</a>, and other filmmakers.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McNary-Lang-Oct2014-101">[100]</a></sup> McClintock reported that theatre owners saw this as "backward," as nearly all theatres in the US had been converted to digital projection.<sup><a href="#cite_note-McClintock-Oct2014-102">[101]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Home media</h3>
<p><i>Interstellar</i> was released on <a href="/wiki/Home_video">home video</a> on March 31, 2015, in both the United Kingdom and United States.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Space.com-Feb2015-103">[102]</a></sup> It topped the home video sales chart for a total of two weeks.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Variety-Apr2015-104">[103]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Arnold-Apr2015-105">[104]</a></sup> It was reported that <i>Interstellar</i> was the most pirated film of 2015, with an estimated 46.7 million downloads on <a href="/wiki/BitTorrent">BitTorrent</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-ABC-Dec2015-106">[105]</a></sup> It was released in the <a href="/wiki/Ultra_HD_Blu-ray">Ultra HD Blu-ray</a> format on December 19, 2017.<sup><a href="#cite_note-107">[106]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Reception</h2>
<h3>Box office</h3>
<p><i>Interstellar</i> grossed $188 million in the US and Canada, and $489.4 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $677.4 million against a production budget of $165 million.<sup><a href="#cite_note-BOM-3">[3]</a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Deadline_Hollywood">Deadline Hollywood</a></i> calculated the net profit of the film to be $47.2 million, accounting for production budgets, marketing, talent participations, and other costs, with box office grosses, and ancillary revenues from home media, placing it twentieth on their list of 2014's "Most Valuable Blockbusters".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Deadline.com-Mar2015-108">[107]</a></sup> It sold an estimated 22 million tickets domestically.<sup><a href="#cite_note-BoxOfficeMojo-B-109">[108]</a></sup>
</p><p>The film set an IMAX opening record worldwide with $20.5 million from 574 IMAX theaters, surpassing the $17.1 million record held by <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hunger_Games:_Catching_Fire">The Hunger Games: Catching Fire</a></i> (2013), and is also the best opening for an IMAX 2D, non-sequel, and November IMAX release.<sup><a href="#cite_note-IMAX-110">[109]</a></sup> It had a worldwide opening of $132.6 million, which was the tenth-largest opening of 2014,<sup><a href="#cite_note-BoxOfficeMojo-111">[110]</a></sup> and it became the <a href="/wiki/2014_in_film#Highest-grossing_films">tenth-highest-grossing film of 2014</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-BoxOfficeMojo.com-112">[111]</a></sup> <i>Interstellar</i> is the fourth film to gross over $100 million worldwide from IMAX ticket sales.<sup><a href="#cite_note-THR-Dec2015-113">[112]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-DaveMcNary-114">[113]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Forbes-Jul2014-115">[114]</a></sup> <i>Interstellar</i> was released in the UK, Ireland and Malta on November 6, 2014, and debuted at number one earning £5.37 million ($8.6 million) in its opening weekend, which was lower than the openings of <i>The Dark Knight Rises</i> (£14.36 million), <i>Gravity</i> (£6.24 million), and <i>Inception</i> (£5.91 million).<sup><a href="#cite_note-TheGuardian-Nov2014-116">[115]</a></sup> The film was released in 35 markets on the same day, including major markets like Germany, Russia, Australia, and Brazil earning $8.7 million in total.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Anita_Busch-117">[116]</a></sup> Through Sunday, it earned an opening weekend total of $82.9 million from 11.1 million admissions from over 14,800 screens in 62 markets.<sup><a href="#cite_note-D'Alessandro-Tartaglione-118">[117]</a></sup> It earned $7.3 million from 206 IMAX screens, at an average of 35,400 viewers per theater.<sup><a href="#cite_note-VarietyIMAX-119">[118]</a></sup> It went to number one in South Korea ($14.4 million),<sup><a href="#cite_note-Shoard-Nov2014-120">[119]</a></sup> Russia ($8.9 million), and France ($5.3 million). Other strong openings occurred in Germany ($4.6 million), India ($4.3 million), Italy ($3.7 million), Australia ($3.7 million), Spain ($2.7 million), Mexico ($3.1 million), and Brazil ($1.9 million).<sup><a href="#cite_note-Subers-Nov2014-121">[120]</a></sup> <i>Interstellar</i> was released in China on November 12 and earned $5.4 million on its opening day on Wednesday, which is Nolan's biggest opening in China after surpassing the $4.61 million opening record of <i>The Dark Knight Rises</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-TheHollywoodReporter.com-122">[121]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Tartaglione-Nov2014-123">[122]</a></sup> It went on to earn $41.7 million in its opening weekend, accounting for 55% of the market share.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Frater-124">[123]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Deadline1-125">[124]</a></sup> It is Nolan's biggest opening in China, Warner Bros.' biggest 2D opening,<sup><a href="#cite_note-1China-126">[125]</a></sup> and the studio's third-biggest opening of all time, behind 2014's <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hobbit:_The_Battle_of_the_Five_Armies">The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies</a></i> ($49.5 million)<sup><a href="#cite_note-China-127">[126]</a></sup> and 2013's <i><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Rim_(film)">Pacific Rim</a></i> ($45.2 million).<sup><a href="#cite_note-PacificRim-128">[127]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-McClintock-129">[128]</a></sup>
</p><p>It topped the box office outside North America for two consecutive weekends before being overtaken by <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hunger_Games:_Mockingjay_%E2%80%93_Part_1">The Hunger Games: Mockingjay – Part 1</a></i> (2014) in its third weekend.<sup><a href="#cite_note-1China-126">[125]</a></sup> Just 31 days after its release, the film became the <a href="/wiki/List_of_highest-grossing_films_in_South_Korea">13th-most-successful film and 3rd-most-successful foreign film in South Korea</a> with 9.1 million admissions trailing only <i>Avatar</i> (13.3 million admissions), and 2013's <i><a href="/wiki/Frozen_(2013_film)">Frozen</a></i> (10.3 million admissions).<sup><a href="#cite_note-Hyo-won-130">[129]</a></sup> The film closed down its theatrical run in China on December 12, with total revenue of $122.6 million.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Brent_Lang-131">[130]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Deadline-132">[131]</a></sup> In total earnings, its largest markets outside North America and China were South Korea ($73.4 million), the UK, Ireland and Malta ($31.3 million), and Russia and the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States">Commonwealth of Independent States</a> (CIS) ($19 million).<sup><a href="#cite_note-BOM.com-133">[132]</a></sup> <i>Interstellar</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Big_Hero_6_(film)">Big Hero 6</a></i> opened the same weekend (November 7–9, 2014) in the US and Canada. Both were forecast to earn between $55 million and $60 million.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Forbes.com-134">[133]</a></sup> In North America, the film is the seventh-highest-grossing film to not hit No. 1, with a top rank of No. 2 on its opening weekend.<sup><a href="#cite_note-BOM1-135">[134]</a></sup> <i>Interstellar</i> had an early limited release in the US and Canada in selected theaters on November 4 at 8:00 pm, coinciding with the <a href="/wiki/2014_United_States_elections">2014 US midterm elections</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-WB.-136">[135]</a></sup> It topped the box office the following day, earning $1.35 million from 249 theaters (42 of which were IMAX screens); IMAX accounted for 62% of its total gross.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Nov2014-Deadline-137">[136]</a></sup> Two hundred and forty of those theaters played in 35 mm, 70 mm, and IMAX 70 mm film formats.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Busch-138">[137]</a></sup> It earned $3.6 million from late-night shows for a previews total of $4.9 million.<sup><a href="#cite_note-AnitaBusch-Deadline-139">[138]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Forbes-Mendelson-140">[139]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-VarietyMagazine-141">[140]</a></sup> The film was <a href="/wiki/Wide_release">widely released</a> on November 7 and topped the box office on its opening day, earning $17 million ahead of <i><a href="/wiki/Big_Hero_6_(film)">Big Hero 6</a></i> ($15.8 million).<sup><a href="#cite_note-VarietyMag-142">[141]</a></sup> On its opening weekend, the film earned $47.5 million<sup><a href="#cite_note-144">[b]</a></sup> from 3,561 theaters, debuting in second place after a neck-and-neck competition with <a href="/wiki/Walt_Disney_Pictures">Disney</a>'s <i>Big Hero 6</i> ($56.2 million).<sup><a href="#cite_note-BOX-145">[143]</a></sup> IMAX comprised $13.2 million (28%) of its opening weekend gross,<sup><a href="#cite_note-BOX-145">[143]</a></sup> while other premium large-format screens comprised $5.3 million (10.5%) of the gross.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Mendelson-Nov2014-146">[144]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-PamelaMcClintock-147">[145]</a></sup> In its second weekend, the film fell to No. 3 behind old rival <i>Big Hero 6</i> and newcomer <i><a href="/wiki/Dumb_and_Dumber_To">Dumb and Dumber To</a></i> (2014), and dropped 39% earning $29.1 million for a two-weekend total of $97.8 million.<sup><a href="#cite_note-ScottMendelson-Nov2014-148">[146]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Pamela-149">[147]</a></sup> It earned $7.4 million from IMAX theaters from 368 screens in its second weekend.<sup><a href="#cite_note-LangBrent-Variety-150">[148]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Deadline-ScottBowles-151">[149]</a></sup> In its third week, the film earned $15.1 million and remained at No. 3, below newcomer <i>The Hunger Games: Mockingjay – Part 1</i> and <i>Big Hero 6</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-BrentMagazine-152">[150]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Critical response</h3>
<p>On <a href="/wiki/Review_aggregator">review aggregator</a> <a href="/wiki/Rotten_Tomatoes">Rotten Tomatoes</a>, 72% of 373 critic reviews are positive, with an average rating of 7.10/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "<i>Interstellar</i> represents more of the thrilling, thought-provoking, and visually resplendent filmmaking moviegoers have come to expect from writer-director Christopher Nolan, even if its intellectual reach somewhat exceeds its grasp."<sup><a href="#cite_note-RT-153">[151]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Metacritic">Metacritic</a>, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 74 out of 100 based on 46 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".<sup><a href="#cite_note-MC-154">[152]</a></sup> Audiences polled by <a href="/wiki/CinemaScore">CinemaScore</a> gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.<sup><a href="#cite_note-CS-155">[153]</a></sup>
</p><p>Scott Foundas, chief film critic at <i><a href="/wiki/Variety_(magazine)">Variety</a></i>, said that <i>Interstellar</i> is "as visually and conceptually audacious as anything Nolan has yet done" and considered the film "more personal" than Nolan's previous films.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Varietyrev-156">[154]</a></sup> Claudia Puig of <i><a href="/wiki/USA_Today">USA Today</a></i> praised the visual spectacle and powerful themes, while criticizing the "dull" dialogue and "tedious patches inside the space vessel."<sup><a href="#cite_note-USAToday-157">[155]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/David_Stratton">David Stratton</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/At_the_Movies_(Australian_TV_program)">At the Movies</a></i> rated the film four-and-a-half stars out of five, commending its ambition, effects, and 70 mm IMAX presentation, though criticizing the sound for "being so loud" as to make some of the dialogue "inaudible". Conversely, co-host <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Pomeranz">Margaret Pomeranz</a> rated the film three out of five, as she felt the human drama got lost among the film's scientific concepts.<sup><a href="#cite_note-ABC.net.au-158">[156]</a></sup> Henry Barnes of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian">The Guardian</a></i> scored the film three out of five stars, calling it "a glorious spectacle, but a slight drama, with few characters and too-rare flashes of humour."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Barnes-Oct2014-159">[157]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/James_Berardinelli">James Berardinelli</a> called <i>Interstellar</i> "an amazing achievement" and "simultaneously a big-budget science fiction endeavor and a very simple tale of love and sacrifice. It is by turns edgy, breathtaking, hopeful, and heartbreaking."<sup><a href="#cite_note-160">[158]</a></sup> He named it the best film of 2014,<sup><a href="#cite_note-161">[159]</a></sup> and the second-best movie of the decade, deeming it a "<i>real</i> science fiction rather than the crowd-pleasing, watered-down version Hollywood typically offers".<sup><a href="#cite_note-162">[160]</a></sup>
</p>
<div>
<blockquote>
<p>"It's been a while since somebody has come out with such a big vision to things ... Even the elements, the fact that dust is everywhere, and they're living in this dust bowl that is just completely enveloping this area of the world. That's almost something you expect from <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Tarkovsky">Tarkovsky</a> or <a href="/wiki/Terrence_Malick">Malick</a>, not a science fiction adventure movie.<sup><a href="#cite_note-TomShone14-163">[161]</a></sup>
</p>
</blockquote>
<p><cite>—<a href="/wiki/Quentin_Tarantino">Quentin Tarantino</a> on <i>Interstellar</i>.</cite>
</p>
</div>
<p>Oliver Gettell of the <i><a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times">Los Angeles Times</a></i> reported that "film critics largely agree that <i>Interstellar</i> is an entertaining, emotional, and thought-provoking sci-fi saga, even if it can also be clunky and sentimental at times."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Gettell-164">[162]</a></sup> James Dyer of <i><a href="/wiki/Empire_(film_magazine)">Empire</a></i> awarded the film a full five stars, describing it as "brainy, barmy, and beautiful to behold ... a mind-bending opera of space and time with a soul wrapped up in all the science."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Dyer-165">[163]</a></sup> Dave Calhoun of <i><a href="/wiki/Time_Out_London">Time Out London</a></i> also granted the film a maximum score of five stars, stating that it is "a bold, beautiful cosmic adventure story with a touch of the surreal and the dreamlike."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Calhoun-166">[164]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Roeper">Richard Roeper</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Sun-Times">Chicago Sun-Times</a></i> awarded the film a full four stars and wrote, "This is one of the most beautiful films I have ever seen—in terms of its visuals, and its overriding message about the powerful forces of the one thing we all know but can't measure in scientific terms. Love."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Roeper-167">[165]</a></sup>
</p><p>Describing Nolan as a "merchant of awe," Tim Robey of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph">The Telegraph</a></i> thought that <i>Interstellar</i> was "agonisingly" close to a masterpiece, highlighting the conceptual boldness and "deep-digging intelligence" of the film.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Robey-Oct2014-168">[166]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Todd_McCarthy">Todd McCarthy</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hollywood_Reporter">The Hollywood Reporter</a></i> wrote, "This grandly conceived and executed epic tries to give equal weight to intimate human emotions and speculation about the cosmos, with mixed results, but is never less than engrossing, and sometimes more than that."<sup><a href="#cite_note-McCarthy-169">[167]</a></sup> In his review for the <a href="/wiki/Associated_Press">Associated Press</a>, Jake Coyle praised the film for its "big-screen grandeur," while finding some of the dialogue "clunky." He described it further as "an absurd endeavor" and "one of the most sublime movies of the decade."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Coyle-170">[168]</a></sup> Scott Mendelson of <i><a href="/wiki/Forbes">Forbes</a></i> listed <i>Interstellar</i> as one of the most disappointing films of 2014, stating that the film "has a lack of flow, loss of momentum following the climax, clumsy sound mixing," and "thin characters" despite seeing the film twice in order to "give it a second chance." He wrote that <i>Interstellar</i> "ends up as a stripped-down and somewhat muted variation on any number of 'go into space to save the world' movies."<sup><a href="#cite_note-ForbesReview-171">[169]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Matt_Zoller_Seitz">Matt Zoller Seitz</a> of <a href="/wiki/RogerEbert.com">RogerEbert.com</a> gave the film three-and-a-half out of four stars, saying that despite his usual quibbles regarding Nolan's excessive dialogue and its lack of a sense of composition, "[<i>Interstellar</i>] is still an impressive, at times astonishing movie that overwhelmed me to the point where my usual objections to Nolan's work melted away ... At times, the movie's one-stop-shopping storytelling evokes the tough-tender spirit of a <a href="/wiki/John_Ford">John Ford</a> picture ... a movie that would rather try to be eight or nine things than just one."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Seitz-Nov2014-172">[170]</a></sup>
</p><p><i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times">New York Times</a></i> columnist <a href="/wiki/David_Brooks_(commentator)">David Brooks</a> concludes that <i>Interstellar</i> explores the relationships among "science and faith and science and the humanities" and "illustrates the real symbiosis between these realms."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Brooks-NYT-173">[171]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Wai_Chee_Dimock">Wai Chee Dimock</a>, in the <i><a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Review_of_Books">Los Angeles Review of Books</a></i>, wrote that Nolan's films are "rotatable at 90, 180, and 360 degrees," and that "although there is considerable magical thinking here, making it almost an anti-sci-fi film, holding out hope that the end of the planet is not the end of everything, it reverses itself, however, when that magic falls short when the poetic license is naked and plain for all to see."<sup><a href="#cite_note-la_review_of_books-174">[172]</a></sup> Author <a href="/wiki/George_R._R._Martin">George R. R. Martin</a> called <i>Interstellar</i> "the most ambitious and challenging <a href="/wiki/Science_fiction">science fiction</a> film since Kubrick's <i>2001</i>."<sup><a href="#cite_note-RRMartin-175">[173]</a></sup> In 2020, <i><a href="/wiki/Empire_(film_magazine)">Empire</a></i> magazine ranked it as one of the best films of the 21st century.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Empire2020-176">[174]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Accolades</h3>
<p>At the <a href="/wiki/87th_Academy_Awards">87th Academy Awards</a>, <i>Interstellar</i> received nominations for <a href="/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Original_Score">Best Original Score</a>, <a href="/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Production_Design">Best Production Design</a>, <a href="/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Sound_Editing">Best Sound Editing</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Sound">Best Sound Mixing</a>, and 
won <a href="/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Visual_Effects">Best Visual Effects</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Oscar-177">[175]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>See also</h2>
<div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_holes_in_fiction">Black holes in fiction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Blanet">Blanet</a> – planet orbiting a black hole</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Causal_loop">Causal loop</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_travel">Interstellar travel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_American_films_of_2014">List of American films of 2014</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_films_of_2014">List of British films of 2014</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_featuring_drones">List of films featuring drones</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_featuring_space_stations">List of films featuring space stations</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_time_travel_works_of_fiction">List of time travel works of fiction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Starship">Starship</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wormholes_in_fiction">Wormholes in fiction</a></li></ul>
</div>
<h2>Notes</h2>
<div><ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b> Referred to only as "Cooper" or "Coop" in the film
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b> In total the film earned $2.2 million from the two late-night showings which would bring its opening weekend gross to $49.7 million.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Bowles-Busch-143">[142]</a></sup>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2>References</h2>
<div><ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-BBFC-Oct2014_1-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.bbfc.co.uk/release/interstellar-q29sbgvjdglvbjpwwc0zode4nzi">"Interstellar"</a>. <a href="/wiki/British_Board_of_Film_Classification">British Board of Film Classification</a>. October 20, 2014. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141020205535/http://www.bbfc.co.uk/releases/interstellar-film">Archived</a> from the original on October 20, 2014. Retrieved October 20, 2014.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-LUMIERE_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LUMIERE_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="http://lumiere.obs.coe.int/web/film_info/?id=46809">"Film: Interstellar"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Lumiere_(database)">Lumiere</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180623221030/http://lumiere.obs.coe.int/web/film_info/?id=46809">Archived</a> from the original on June 23, 2018. Retrieved November 8, 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-BOM_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BOM_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BOM_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="https://www.boxofficemojo.com/title/tt0816692/">"<i>Interstellar</i>"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Box_Office_Mojo">Box Office Mojo</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/IMDb">IMDb</a>. Retrieved September 15, 2021.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-NobelPrize_4-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2017/thorne/facts/">"The Nobel Prize in Physics 2017"</a>. <i>NobelPrize.org</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200603143207/https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2017/thorne/facts/">Archived</a> from the original on June 3, 2020. Retrieved September 6, 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b> <cite>Thorne, Kip. <a href="https://events.stanford.edu/event/applied_physicsphysics_colloquium_kip_thorne_-_the_physics_of_the_cult_movie_interstellar">"Applied Physics/Physics Colloquium: Kip Thorne – The Physics of the Cult Movie Interstellar"</a>. <i>Stanford University</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230302053611/https://events.stanford.edu/event/applied_physicsphysics_colloquium_kip_thorne_-_the_physics_of_the_cult_movie_interstellar">Archived</a> from the original on March 2, 2023. Retrieved March 2, 2023. <q>Christopher Nolan's cult science fiction film Interstellar (2014) sprang from a treatment co-authored by physicist Kip Thorne, and so had real science — both firm and speculative — embedded in it from the outset.</q></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://collider.com/10-sci-fi-films-based-on-actual-science/">"10 of the Best Sci-Fi Movies Based on Actual Science"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Collider_(website)">Collider</a></i>. September 19, 2022. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221206150811/https://collider.com/10-sci-fi-films-based-on-actual-science/">Archived</a> from the original on December 6, 2022. Retrieved December 6, 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://movieweb.com/interstellar-scientefically-accurate/">"Interstellar: How it Was One of the Most Scientifically Accurate Sci-Fi Movies Ever"</a>. August 31, 2022. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221206150812/https://movieweb.com/interstellar-scientefically-accurate/">Archived</a> from the original on December 6, 2022. Retrieved December 6, 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-jolin_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jolin_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jolin_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jolin_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jolin_9-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jolin_9-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jolin_9-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jolin_9-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jolin_9-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jolin_9-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jolin_9-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Jolin, Dan (November 2014). "The Ultimate Trip". <i><a href="/wiki/Empire_(magazine)">Empire</a></i>.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-wired_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wired_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Rogers, Adam (October 23, 2014). <a href="https://www.wired.com/2014/10/astrophysics-interstellar-black-hole/">"Wrinkles In Spacetime: The Warped Astrophysics of Interstellar"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Wired_(magazine)">Wired</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141025002411/http://www.wired.com/2014/10/astrophysics-interstellar-black-hole/">Archived</a> from the original on October 25, 2014. Retrieved October 25, 2014.</cite>
</li>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b> <cite>Berardinelli, James (March 7, 2020). <a href="https://www.reelviews.net/reelthoughts/the-2014-top-10">"The 2014 Top 10"</a>. <i>Reelviews.net</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200801215143/https://www.reelviews.net/reelthoughts/the-2014-top-10">Archived</a> from the original on August 1, 2020. Retrieved March 17, 2020.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b> <cite>Berardinelli, James (March 7, 2020). <a href="https://www.reelviews.net/reelthoughts/reelthought_1577378280">"A look back at the 2010s"</a>. <i>Reelviews.net</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200210052159/http://www.reelviews.net/reelthoughts/reelthought_1577378280">Archived</a> from the original on February 10, 2020. Retrieved March 17, 2020.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-TomShone14_163-0">^</a></b> <cite>Shone, Tom (November 4, 2014). <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/film/2014/nov/04/-sp-christopher-nolan-interstellar-rebooted-blockbuster">"Christopher Nolan: the man who rebooted the blockbuster"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150122014558/http://www.theguardian.com/film/2014/nov/04/-sp-christopher-nolan-interstellar-rebooted-blockbuster">Archived</a> from the original on January 22, 2015. Retrieved July 27, 2015.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gettell_164-0">^</a></b> <cite>Gettell, Oliver (November 5, 2014). <a href="https://www.latimes.com/entertainment/movies/moviesnow/la-et-mn-interstellar-movie-reviews-critics-20141105-story.html">"'Interstellar' is an ambitious, imperfect sci-fi epic, reviews say"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times">Los Angeles Times</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141108052023/http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/movies/moviesnow/la-et-mn-interstellar-movie-reviews-critics-20141105-story.html">Archived</a> from the original on November 8, 2014. Retrieved November 6, 2014.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dyer_165-0">^</a></b> <cite>Dyer, James (October 28, 2014). <a href="https://www.empireonline.com/reviews/reviewcomplete.asp?FID=138121">"Interstellar: Star Trek Into Greatness"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Empire_(film_magazine)">Empire</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150211040308/http://www.empireonline.com/reviews/reviewcomplete.asp?FID=138121">Archived</a> from the original on February 11, 2015. Retrieved October 29, 2014.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Calhoun_166-0">^</a></b> <cite>Calhoun, Dave (October 27, 2014). <a href="https://www.timeout.com/london/film/interstellar">"Interstellar"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Time_Out_(magazine)">Time Out London</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141029163530/http://www.timeout.com/london/film/interstellar">Archived</a> from the original on October 29, 2014. Retrieved October 29, 2014.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Roeper_167-0">^</a></b> <cite>Roeper, Richard (November 4, 2014). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141104175241/http://entertainment.suntimes.com/movies/interstellar-epic-beauty-effects-ideas/">"'Interstellar': Epic Beauty In Its Effects and Its Ideas"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Sun-Times">Chicago Sun-Times</a></i>. Archived from <a href="http://entertainment.suntimes.com/movies/interstellar-epic-beauty-effects-ideas/">the original</a> on November 4, 2014. Retrieved November 4, 2014.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Robey-Oct2014_168-0">^</a></b> <cite>Robey, Tim (October 27, 2014). <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/filmreviews/11174967/Interstellar-first-look-review-close-to-a-masterpiece.html">"Interstellar, first-look review: 'close to a masterpiece'"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph">The Daily Telegraph</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141028204817/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/filmreviews/11174967/Interstellar-first-look-review-close-to-a-masterpiece.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 28, 2014. Retrieved October 29, 2014.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-McCarthy_169-0">^</a></b> <cite>McCarthy, Todd (October 27, 2014). <a href="https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movie/interstellar/review/744059">"'Interstellar': Film Review"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hollywood_Reporter">The Hollywood Reporter</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141030045020/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movie/interstellar/review/744059">Archived</a> from the original on October 30, 2014. Retrieved October 27, 2014.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Coyle_170-0">^</a></b> <cite>Coyle, Jake (October 30, 2014). <a href="http://bigstory.ap.org/article/4df741cbc5d64f68a2051c117ee5b8a0/review-interstellar-sublime-cosmic-knockout">"Review: 'Interstellar' a sublime cosmic knockout"</a>. <i>ap.org</i>. <a href="/wiki/Associated_Press">Associated Press</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141031231529/http://bigstory.ap.org/article/4df741cbc5d64f68a2051c117ee5b8a0/review-interstellar-sublime-cosmic-knockout">Archived</a> from the original on October 31, 2014. Retrieved October 31, 2014.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-ForbesReview_171-0">^</a></b> <cite>Mendelson, Scott (December 26, 2014). <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/scottmendelson/2014/12/26/interstellar-the-interview-and-the-most-disappointing-films-of-2014/2/">"'Interstellar,' 'The Interview,' And The Most Disappointing Films Of 2014"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Forbes">Forbes</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141229131052/http://www.forbes.com/sites/scottmendelson/2014/12/26/interstellar-the-interview-and-the-most-disappointing-films-of-2014/2/">Archived</a> from the original on December 29, 2014. Retrieved December 29, 2014.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Seitz-Nov2014_172-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Matt_Zoller_Seitz">Seitz, Matt Zoller</a> (November 3, 2014). <a href="https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/interstellar-2014">"Interstellar Movie Review &amp; Film Summary (2014)"</a>. <i>rogerebert.com</i>. Ebert Digital LLC. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170616120413/http://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/interstellar-2014">Archived</a> from the original on June 16, 2017. Retrieved November 23, 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brooks-NYT_173-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/David_Brooks_(commentator)">Brooks, David</a> (November 21, 2014). <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/21/opinion/david-brooks-interstellar-love-and-gravity.html">"Love and Gravity"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141205105243/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/21/opinion/david-brooks-interstellar-love-and-gravity.html">Archived</a> from the original on December 5, 2014. Retrieved December 13, 2014.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-la_review_of_books_174-0">^</a></b> <cite>Dimock, Wai Chee (December 25, 2014). <a href="http://lareviewofbooks.org/essay/books-space-christopher-nolans-interstellar">"Books in Space: Christopher Nolan's "Interstellar""</a>. <i>The Los Angeles Review of Books</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141229234036/http://lareviewofbooks.org/essay/books-space-christopher-nolans-interstellar">Archived</a> from the original on December 29, 2014. Retrieved March 20, 2015.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-RRMartin_175-0">^</a></b> <cite>R. R. Martin, George (March 8, 2015). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150422021742/http://grrm.livejournal.com/410394.html">"For Your Consideration: Stuff Not By Me"</a>. <i>Not a Blog</i>. Archived from <a href="http://grrm.livejournal.com/410394.html">the original</a> on April 22, 2015. Retrieved May 23, 2015.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Empire2020_176-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.empireonline.com/movies/features/best-movies-century-page-9/"><i>The 100 Greatest Movies Of The 21st Century: 20 – 11</i></a>, <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200118234847/https://www.empireonline.com/movies/features/best-movies-century-page-9/">archived</a> from the original on January 18, 2020, retrieved January 17, 2020</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Oscar_177-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-news/oscars-2015-winners-list-776233/">"Oscars 2015: The Winners List"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hollywood_Reporter">The Hollywood Reporter</a></i>. February 22, 2015. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220510092242/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-news/oscars-2015-winners-list-776233/">Archived</a> from the original on May 10, 2022. Retrieved March 17, 2022.</cite>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2>Further reading</h2>
<ul><li><cite><a href="/wiki/Kip_Thorne">Thorne, Kip</a> (November 7, 2014). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Science_of_Interstellar">The Science of Interstellar</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/W._W._Norton_%26_Company">W. W. Norton &amp; Company</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-35137-8"><bdi>978-0-393-35137-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Keyes, Greg (November 11, 2014). <a href="https://archive.org/details/interstellaroffi0000keye"><i>Interstellar: The Official Movie Novelization</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Titan_Books">Titan Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1783293698"><bdi>978-1783293698</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Mark_Cotta_Vaz">Vaz, Mark Cotta</a> (November 11, 2014). <a href="https://archive.org/details/interstellar-beyond-time-and-space-organized/"><i>Interstellar: Beyond Time and Space</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Running_Press">Running Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7624-5683-3"><bdi>978-0-7624-5683-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>MacKay, John (2014). <a href="https://www.academia.edu/9240536">"On Interstellar"</a> – via <a href="/wiki/Academia.edu">Academia.edu</a>.</cite><code>{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: url-status (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_url-status">link</a>) (preliminary notes)</li></ul>
<h2>External links</h2>
<ul><li><a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0816692/"><i>Interstellar</i></a> at <a href="/wiki/IMDb">IMDb</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.allmovie.com/movie/v576585"><i>Interstellar</i></a> at <a href="/wiki/AllMovie">AllMovie</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/2004892/enwp"><i>Interstellar</i></a> at the <a href="/wiki/Turner_Classic_Movies">TCM Movie Database</a></li>
<li><a href="https://catalog.afi.com/Catalog/moviedetails/70145"><i>Interstellar</i></a> at the <a href="/wiki/AFI_Catalog_of_Feature_Films">American Film Institute Catalog</a></li></ul>
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 * 1 Plot
 * 2 Cast
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 + 3.2 Development and financing
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 + 3.4 Principal photography
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 Interstellar (film)

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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 Interstellar 
 Theatrical release poster
 Directed by Christopher Nolan 
 Written by * Jonathan Nolan 
 * Christopher Nolan 
 * Emma Thomas 
 Produced by * Christopher Nolan 
 * Lynda Obst 
 * Matthew McConaughey 
 * Anne Hathaway 
 Starring * Jessica Chastain 
 * Bill Irwin 
 * Ellen Burstyn 
 * Michael Caine 
 Cinematography Hoyte van Hoytema 
 Edited by Lee Smith 
 Music by Hans Zimmer 
 Production * Legendary Pictures 
 companies * Syncopy 
 * Lynda Obst Productions 
 Distributed by * Paramount Pictures (North America) 
 * Warner Bros. Pictures (International) 
 * October 26, 2014 (TCL Chinese Theatre)
 Release dates * November 5, 2014 (United States) 
 * November 7, 2014 (United Kingdom) 
 Running time 169 minutes[1] 
 Countries * United Kingdom[2] 
 * United States[2] 
 Language English 
 Budget $165 million[3] 
 Box office $773.8 million[3] 
 

 Interstellar is a 2014 epic science fiction film co-written, directed, and produced by Christopher Nolan. It stars Matthew McConaughey, Anne Hathaway, Jessica Chastain, Bill Irwin, Ellen Burstyn, Matt Damon, and Michael Caine. Set in a dystopian future where humanity is struggling to survive, the film follows a group of astronauts who travel through a wormhole near Saturn in search of a new home for mankind.

 Brothers Christopher and Jonathan Nolan wrote the screenplay, which had its origins in a script Jonathan developed in 2007. Caltech theoretical physicist and 2017 Nobel laureate in Physics[4] Kip Thorne was an executive producer, acted as a scientific consultant, and wrote a tie-in book, The Science of Interstellar. Cinematographer Hoyte van Hoytema shot it on 35 mm movie film in the Panavision anamorphic format and IMAX 70 mm. Principal photography began in late 2013 and took place in Alberta, Iceland, and Los Angeles. Interstellar uses extensive practical and miniature effects and the company Double Negative created additional digital effects.

 Interstellar premiered on October 26, 2014, in Los Angeles. In the United States, it was first released on film stock, expanding to venues using digital projectors. The film had a worldwide gross over $677 million (and $773 million with subsequent re-releases), making it the tenth-highest grossing film of 2014. It received acclaim for its performances, direction, screenplay, musical score, visual effects, ambition, themes, and emotional weight. It has also received praise from many astronomers for its scientific accuracy and portrayal of theoretical astrophysics. Since its premiere, Interstellar gained a cult following,[5] and now is regarded by many sci-fi experts as one of the best science-fiction films of all time.[6][7] Interstellar was nominated for five awards at the 87th Academy Awards, winning Best Visual Effects, and received numerous other accolades.

 Plot

 In 2067, a global famine caused humanity to abandon scientific pursuits such as space exploration. Ex-NASA pilot Joseph Cooper is forced to work as a farmer. One day, Cooper experiences a gravitational "anomaly" in his daughter Murph's bedroom. He deduces it to be a pattern of GPS coordinates and arrives at a secret NASA facility headed by Professor Brand. Brand explains to Cooper that it is engaged in a secret mission to discover an exoplanet capable of supporting life and that he is working on a gravity-equation. He enlists Cooper's help to pilot an exploratory spacecraft with three other scientists – Romilly, Doyle, and Brand’s daughter Amelia. The crew travels through a wormhole on board the Endurance to pass through to another galaxy. Their mission is to investigate three planets, orbiting a supermassive black hole called Gargantua, each of which was previously explored by a NASA scientist-explorer.

 The first planet is an aqua planet. The NASA explorer there is found dead, and one of their crew – Doyle – drowns after being caught in a massive tidal wave. The same tide also causes the probe's engines to be filled with water, forcing Cooper and Amelia to wait for them to dry out. They return to the Endurance in an hour, finding that 23 years have passed aboard due to the time dilation caused by the planet's proximity to Gargantua. In those 23 years, Murph has become a scientist, and begun working with Brand at NASA. She learns from a dying Professor Brand that he had given up on solving his gravity-equation, knowing that information is needed from inside a black hole. Instead, he put their mission's hopes on Cooper's team establishing a space colony using pre-fertilized eggs on a new habitable planet.

 At the second planet, the crew find its explorer, Mann, to be alive and awaken him from cryostasis. He eventually reveals to Cooper that he lied about the planet's habitability in the hope that NASA sent a mission to rescue him. Romilly dies in an explosion when he attempts to access the system's logs, while Mann tries to kill Cooper and hijack the Endurance spacecraft. Mann is killed when his craft fails to dock properly, and Cooper regains command of the Endurance. Cooper realizes that the Endurance only has enough resources for one person to safely complete their mission. He initiates a slingshot move around Gargantua, setting it to use gravity and be propelled to the final planet. At the last minute, he sacrifices himself by detaching from the spaceship and falling into the black hole, so that Amelia might safely complete the mission.

 Cooper survives and finds himself inside a five-dimensional tesseract, out of view from beyond the event horizon. From inside he can see moments in time from inside Murph's childhood bedroom. He finds her returning to look for clues to the gravity-equation, and he contacts her by manipulating items in the room with gravity to communicate through Morse code. Deducing that this construct has been created by future humans with the ability to time-travel, Cooper imparts to her the information she needs. With his mission completed, he is ejected by the future beings, who return him to the Solar System. He is reunited with a now elderly Murph, who he learns has used the gravity-equation to lead humanity's exodus from Earth. She advises him to seek out Amelia, and he sets off. Meanwhile, on the mission's final planet, Amelia is setting up a new colony for future humans to inhabit. She removes her helmet and breathes in the air, showing that the planet is capable of supporting human life.

 Cast

 Matthew McConaughey and Anne Hathaway played the protagonists of Interstellar.
 * Matthew McConaughey as Joseph Cooper,[a] a widowed NASA pilot who, after the agency was closed by the government, had become a farmer
 * Anne Hathaway as Dr. Amelia Brand, a NASA scientist, and astronaut
 * Jessica Chastain as Murphy "Murph" Cooper, Joseph's daughter, who eventually becomes a NASA scientist
 * Mackenzie Foy as young Murph
 * Ellen Burstyn as elderly Murph
 * John Lithgow as Donald, Cooper's elderly father-in-law
 * Michael Caine as Professor John Brand, a high-ranking NASA scientist, ideator of Plan A, former mentor of Cooper, and father of Amelia
 * David Gyasi as Romilly, another high-ranking NASA member, and Endurance crew member
 * Wes Bentley as Doyle, a high-ranking NASA member, and Endurance crew member
 * Casey Affleck as Tom Cooper, Joseph's son, who eventually grows up to become a farmer
 * Timothée Chalamet as young Tom
 * Matt Damon as Mann, a NASA astronaut sent to an icy planet during the Lazarus program
 * Bill Irwin as TARS (voice and puppetry) and CASE (puppetry)
 * Josh Stewart as CASE (voice)
 * Topher Grace as Getty, Murph's colleague and love interest
 * Leah Cairns as Lois, Tom's wife
 * David Oyelowo as School Principal
 * Collette Wolfe as Ms. Hanley
 * William Devane as Williams, another NASA member
 * Elyes Gabel as Administrator
 * Jeff Hephner as Doctor
 * Russ Fega as Crew Chief

 Production

 Crew

 * Christopher Nolan – Director, producer, writer
 * Jonathan Nolan – Writer
 * Emma Thomas – Producer
 * Lynda Obst – Producer
 * Hoyte van Hoytema – Cinematographer
 * Nathan Crowley – Production designer
 * Mary Zophres – Costume designer
 * Lee Smith – Editor
 * Hans Zimmer – Music composer
 * Paul Franklin – Visual effects supervisor
 * Kip Thorne – Consultant, executive producer

 Development and financing

 The premise for Interstellar was conceived by producer Lynda Obst and theoretical physicist Kip Thorne, who collaborated on the film Contact (1997), and had known each other since Carl Sagan set them up on a blind date.[8][9] The two conceived a scenario, based on Thorne's work, about "the most exotic events in the universe suddenly becoming accessible to humans," and attracted filmmaker Steven Spielberg's interest in directing.[10] The film began development in June 2006, when Spielberg and Paramount Pictures announced plans for a science-fiction film based on an eight-page treatment written by Obst and Thorne. Obst was attached to produce.[11][12] By March 2007, Jonathan Nolan was hired to write a screenplay.[13]

 After Spielberg moved his production studio DreamWorks from Paramount to Walt Disney Studios in 2009, Paramount needed a new director for Interstellar. Jonathan Nolan recommended his brother Christopher, who joined the project in 2012.[14] Christopher Nolan met with Thorne, then attached as executive producer, to discuss the use of spacetime in the story.[15] In January 2013, Paramount and Warner Bros. announced that Christopher Nolan was in negotiations to direct Interstellar.[16] Nolan said he wanted to encourage the goal of human spaceflight,[17] and intended to merge his brother's screenplay with his own.[18] By the following March, Nolan was confirmed to direct Interstellar, which would be produced under his label Syncopy and Lynda Obst Productions.[19] The Hollywood Reporter said Nolan would earn a salary of $20 million against 20% of the total gross.[20] To research for the film, Nolan visited NASA and the private space program at SpaceX.[15]

 Warner Bros. sought a stake in Nolan's production of Interstellar from Paramount, despite their traditional rivalry, and agreed to give Paramount its rights to co-finance the next film in the Friday the 13th horror franchise, with a stake in a future film based on the television series South Park. Warner Bros. also agreed to let Paramount co-finance an indeterminate "A-list" property.[21] In August 2013, Legendary Pictures finalized an agreement with Warner Bros. to finance approximately 25% of the film's production. Although it failed to renew its eight-year production partnership with Warner Bros., Legendary reportedly agreed to forgo financing Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) in exchange for the stake in Interstellar.[22]

 Writing and casting

 The Dust Bowl phenomenon of the 1930s, as documented by Ken Burns in The Dust Bowl (2012), served as inspiration for the blight.

 Screenwriter Jonathan Nolan worked on the script for four years.[8] To learn the scientific aspects, he studied relativity at the California Institute of Technology.[23] Jonathan was pessimistic about the Space Shuttle program ending and how NASA lacked financing for a human mission to Mars, drawing inspiration from science-fiction films with apocalyptic themes, such as WALL-E (2008) and Avatar (2009). Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly commented: "He set the story in a dystopian future ravaged by blight, but populated with hardy folk who refuse to bow to despair."[14] His brother Christopher had worked on other science fiction scripts but decided to take the Interstellar script and choose among the vast array of ideas presented by Jonathan and Thorne, picking what he felt, as director, he could get "across to the audience and hopefully not lose them," before he merged it with a script he had worked on for years on his own.[15][24] Christopher kept in place Jonathan's conception of the first hour, which is set on a resource depleted Earth in the near future. The setting was inspired by the Dust Bowl that took place in the United States during the Great Depression in the 1930s.[8] He revised the rest of the script, where a team travels into space, instead.[8] After watching the 2012 documentary The Dust Bowl for inspiration, Christopher contacted director Ken Burns and producer Dayton Duncan, requesting permission to use some of their featured interviews in Interstellar, which was granted.[25]

 Christopher Nolan wanted an actor who could bring to life his vision of the main character as an everyman with whom "the audience could experience the story."[26] He became interested in casting Matthew McConaughey after watching him in an early cut of the 2012 film Mud,[26] which he had seen as a friend of one of its producers, Aaron Ryder.[8] Nolan went to visit McConaughey while he was filming for the TV series True Detective.[27] Anne Hathaway was invited to Nolan's home, where she read the script for Interstellar.[28] In early 2013, both actors were cast in the starring roles.[29] Jessica Chastain was contacted while she was working on Miss Julie (2014) in Northern Ireland, and a script was delivered to her.[28] Originally, Irrfan Khan was offered the role of Dr. Mann but rejected due to scheduling conflicts. Matt Damon was cast as Mann in late August 2013 and completed filming his scenes in Iceland.[30]

 Principal photography

 Nolan shot Interstellar on 35 mm film in the Panavision anamorphic format and IMAX 70 mm photography.[31] Cinematographer Hoyte van Hoytema was hired for Interstellar, as Wally Pfister, Nolan's cinematographer on all of his previous films, was making his directorial debut working on Transcendence (2014).[32] More IMAX cameras were used for Interstellar than for any of Nolan's previous films. To minimize the use of computer-generated imagery (CGI), the director had practical locations built, such as the interior of a space shuttle.[26] Van Hoytema retooled an IMAX camera to be hand-held for shooting interior scenes.[8] Some of the film's sequences were shot with an IMAX camera installed in the nose cone of a Learjet.[33]

 Nolan, who is known for keeping details of his productions secret, strove to ensure secrecy for Interstellar. Writing for The Wall Street Journal, Ben Fritz stated, "The famously secretive filmmaker has gone to extreme lengths to guard the script to ... Interstellar, just as he did with the blockbuster Dark Knight trilogy."[34] As one security measure, Interstellar was filmed under the name Flora's Letter,[35] Flora being one of Nolan's four children with producer Emma Thomas.[15]

 The Svínafellsjökull glacier in Iceland was used as a filming location for Interstellar, doubling for Mann's planet.

 The film's principal photography was scheduled to last four months.[30] It began on August 6 , 2013, in the province of Alberta, Canada.[22] Towns in Alberta where shooting took place included Nanton, Longview, Lethbridge, Fort Macleod, and Okotoks. In Okotoks, filming took place at the Seaman Stadium and the Olde Town Plaza.[35] For a cornfield scene, production designer Nathan Crowley planted 500 acres (200 ha) of corn that would be destroyed in an apocalyptic dust storm scene,[14] intended to be similar to storms experienced during the Dust Bowl in 1930s America.[15] Additional scenes involving the dust storm and McConaughey's character were also shot in Fort Macleod, where the giant dust clouds were created on location using large fans to blow cellulose-based synthetic dust through the air.[36] Filming in the province lasted until September 9 , 2013, and involved hundreds of extras in addition to 130 crew members, most of whom were local.[35]

 Shooting also took place in Iceland, where Nolan had previously filmed scenes for Batman Begins (2005).[37] The location was chosen to represent two extraterrestrial planets: one covered in ice, and the other in water.[8] The crew transported mock spaceships weighing about 10,000 pounds (4,500 kg) to the country.[15] They spent two weeks shooting there,[30] during which a crew of about 350 people , including 130 locals , worked on the film. Locations included the Svínafellsjökull glacier and the town of Klaustur.[38][39] While filming a water scene in Iceland, Hathaway almost suffered hypothermia because the dry suit she was wearing had not been properly secured.[15]

 After the schedule in Iceland was completed, the crew moved to Los Angeles to shoot for 54 days . Filming locations included the Westin Bonaventure Hotel and Suites, the Los Angeles Convention Center, a Sony Pictures soundstage in Culver City, and a private residence in Altadena, California.[40] Principal photography concluded in December 2013.[41] Production had a budget of $165 million , $10 million less than was allotted by Paramount, Warner Bros., and Legendary Pictures.[15]

 Production design

 The Endurance spacecraft (left) is based on the International Space Station (right).

 Interstellar features three spacecraft— a ranger, the Endurance, and a lander. The ranger's function is similar to the Space Shuttle's, being able to enter and exit planetary atmospheres. The Endurance, the crew's mother ship, is a circular structure consisting of 12 capsules, laid flat to mimic a clock: Four capsules with planetary settling equipment, four with engines, and four with the permanent functions of cockpit, medical labs, and habitation. Production designer Nathan Crowley said the Endurance was based on the International Space Station: "It's a real mish-mash of different kinds of technology. You need analogue stuff, as well as digital stuff, you need backup systems and tangible switches. It's really like a submarine in space. Every inch of space is used, everything has a purpose." Lastly, the lander transports the capsules with settling equipment to planetary surfaces. Crowley compared it to "a heavy Russian helicopter."[8]

 The film also features two robots, CASE and TARS, as well as a dismantled third robot, KIPP. Nolan wanted to avoid making the robots anthropomorphic and chose a 1.5 m (4.9 ft) quadrilateral design. The director said: "It has a very complicated design philosophy. It's based on mathematics. You've got four main blocks and they can be joined in three ways. So, you have three combinations you follow. But then within that, it subdivides into a further three joints. And all the places we see lines—those can subdivide further. So you can unfold a finger, essentially, but it's all proportional." Actor Bill Irwin voiced and physically controlled both robots, but his image was digitally removed from the film, and actor Josh Stewart's voice replaced his voicing for CASE.[8] The human space habitats resemble O'Neill cylinders, a theoretical space habitat model proposed by physicist Gerard K. O'Neill in 1976.[42]

 Sound design and music

 Main article: Interstellar (soundtrack)

 Gregg Landaker and Gary Rizzo were the film's audio engineers tasked with audio mixing, while sound editor Richard King supervised the process.[43] Christopher Nolan sought to mix the sound to take maximum advantage of theater equipment[44] and paid close attention to designing the sound mix, like focusing on the sound of buttons being pressed with astronaut suit gloves.[14] The studio's website stated that the film was "mixed to maximize the power of the low-end frequencies in the main channels, as well as in the subwoofer channel."[45] Nolan deliberately intended some dialogue to seem drowned out by ambient noise or music, causing some theaters to post notices emphasizing that this effect was intentional and not a fault in their equipment.[46]

 Composer Hans Zimmer, who scored Nolan's The Dark Knight Trilogy and Inception (2010), returned to score Interstellar. Nolan chose not to provide Zimmer with a script or any plot details for writing the film's music but instead gave the composer a single page that told the story of a father leaving his child for work. It was through this connection that Zimmer created the early stages of the Interstellar soundtrack. Zimmer and Nolan later decided that the 1926 four-manual Harrison & Harrison organ of the Temple Church, London, would be the primary instrument for the score.[47][48] Zimmer conducted 45 scoring sessions for Interstellar, three times more than for Inception. The soundtrack was released on November 18, 2014.[14]

 Visual effects

 Visual effects company Double Negative, which worked on Inception, was brought back for Interstellar.[49] According to visual effects supervisor Paul Franklin, the number of effects in the film was not much greater than in Nolan's The Dark Knight Rises (2012) or Inception. However, for Interstellar, they created the effects first, allowing digital projectors to display them behind the actors, rather than having the actors perform in front of green screens.[8] Ultimately, the film contained 850 visual-effect shots at a resolution of 5600 × 4000 lines: 150 shots that were created in-camera using digital projectors, and another 700 were created in post-production. Of those, 620 were presented in IMAX, while the rest were anamorphic.[50]

 The ranger, Endurance, and lander spacecraft were created using miniature effects by Nathan Crowley in collaboration with effects company New Deal Studios, as opposed to using computer-generated imagery, as Nolan felt they offered the best way to give the ships a tangible presence in space. 3D-printed and hand-sculpted, the scale models earned the nickname "maxatures" by the crew due to their immense size; the 1/15th-scale miniature of the Endurance module spanned over 7.6 m (25 ft), while a pyrotechnic model of part of the craft was built at 1/5th scale. The Ranger and Lander miniatures spanned 14 m (46 ft) and over 15 m (49 ft), respectively, and were large enough for van Hoytema to mount IMAX cameras directly onto the spacecraft, thus mimicking the look of NASA IMAX documentaries. The models were then attached to a six-axis gimbal on a motion control system that allowed an operator to manipulate their movements, which were filmed against background plates of space using VistaVision cameras on a smaller motion control rig.[51] New Deal Studio's miniatures were used in 150 special effects shots.[50]

 Influences

 The director was influenced by what he called "key touchstones" of science fiction cinema, including Metropolis (1927), 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), Blade Runner (1982),[52] Star Wars (1977), and Alien (1979).[53] Andrei Tarkovsky's The Mirror (1975) influenced "elemental things in the story to do with wind and dust and water", according to Nolan,[54] who also compared Interstellar to The Treasure of the Sierra Madre (1948) as a film about human nature.[55] He sought to emulate films like Steven Spielberg's Jaws (1975) and Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977) for being family-friendly but also "as edgy and incisive and challenging as anything else on the blockbuster spectrum". He screened The Right Stuff (1983) for the crew before production,[8] following in its example by capturing reflections on the Interstellar astronauts' visors. For further inspiration, the director invited former astronaut Marsha Ivins to the set.[15] Nolan and his crew studied the IMAX NASA documentaries of filmmaker Toni Myers for visual reference of spacefaring missions, and strove to imitate their use of IMAX cameras in the enclosed spaces of spacecraft interiors.[56] Clark Kent's upbringing in Man of Steel (2013) was the inspiration for the farm setting in the Midwest.[24] Apart from films, Nolan drew inspiration from the architecture of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe.[15]

 Scientific accuracy

 Kip Thorne, a theoretical physicist and Nobel Laureate, served as scientific consultant and executive producer.

 Regarding the concepts of wormholes and black holes, Kip Thorne stated that he "worked on the equations that would enable tracing of light rays as they traveled through a wormhole or around a black hole—so what you see is based on Einstein's general relativity equations."[57] Early in the process, Thorne laid down two guidelines: "First, that nothing would violate established physical laws. Second, that all the wild speculations ... would spring from science and not from the fertile mind of a screenwriter." Nolan accepted these terms as long as they did not get in the way of making the film.[12] At one point, Thorne spent two weeks trying to talk Nolan out of an idea about a character traveling faster than light before Nolan finally gave up.[58] According to Thorne, the element which has the highest degree of artistic freedom is the clouds of ice on one of the planets they visit, which are structures that would go beyond the material strength that ice could support.[12]

 Astrobiologist David Grinspoon criticized the dire "blight" situation on Earth portrayed in the early scenes, pointing out that even with a voracious blight it would have taken millions of years to reduce the atmosphere's oxygen content. He also notes that gravity should have pulled down the ice clouds.[59] Neil deGrasse Tyson, an astrophysicist, explored the science behind the ending of Interstellar, concluding that it is theoretically possible to interact with the past, and that "we don't really know what's in a black hole, so take it and run with it."[60] Theoretical physicist Michio Kaku praised the film for its scientific accuracy and has said Interstellar "could set the gold standard for science fiction movies for years to come." Similarly, Timothy Reyes, a former NASA software engineer, said "Thorne's and Nolan's accounting of black holes and wormholes and the use of gravity is excellent."[61]

 Wormholes and black holes

 Miller's planet orbiting Gargantua

 To create the visual effects for the wormhole and a rotating, supermassive black hole (possessing an ergosphere, as opposed to a non-rotating black hole), Thorne collaborated with Franklin and a team of 30 people at Double Negative, providing pages of deeply sourced theoretical equations to the engineers, who then wrote new CGI rendering software based on these equations to create accurate simulations of the gravitational lensing caused by these phenomena. Some individual frames took up to 100 hours to render, totaling 800 terabytes of data.[9] Thorne described the accretion disk of the black hole as "anemic and at low temperature[62]—about the temperature of the surface of the sun," allowing it to emit appreciable light, but not enough gamma radiation and X-rays to threaten nearby astronauts and planets.[63] The resulting visual effects provided Thorne with new insight into the gravitational lensing and accretion disks surrounding black holes, resulting in the publication of three scientific papers.[64][65][66]

 The first image of the event horizon of a black hole, obtained by the Event Horizon Telescope. The asymmetric brightness of the accretion disk is well visible here.

 Christopher Nolan was initially concerned that a scientifically accurate depiction of a black hole would not be visually comprehensible to an audience, and would require the effects team to unrealistically alter its appearance. The visual representation of the black hole in the film does not account for the Doppler effect which, when added by the visual effects team, resulted in an asymmetrically lit black and blue-black hole, the purpose of which Nolan thought the audience would not understand. As a result, it was omitted in the finished product.[67] Nolan found the finished effect to be understandable, as long as he maintained consistent camera perspectives.[68]

 As a reference, the asymmetric brightness of the accretion disk is very well visible in the first image[69] of the event horizon of a black hole obtained by the Event Horizon Telescope team in 2019. Futura-Sciences praised the correct depiction of the Penrose process.[70]

 According to Space.com, the portrayal of what a wormhole would look like is considered scientifically correct. Rather than a two-dimensional hole in space, it is depicted as a sphere, showing a distorted view of the target galaxy.[71]

 Marketing

 The teaser trailer for Interstellar debuted December 13 , 2013, and featured clips related to space exploration, accompanied by a voiceover by Matthew McConaughey's character, Cooper.[72] The theatrical trailer debuted May 5 , 2014, at the Lockheed Martin IMAX Theater in Washington, D.C. and was made available online later that month. For the week ending on May 19 , it was the most-viewed film trailer, with over 19.5 million views on YouTube.[73]

 Christopher Nolan and McConaughey made their first appearances at San Diego Comic-Con in July 2014 to promote Interstellar. That same month, Paramount Pictures launched an interactive website, on which users uncovered a star chart related to the Apollo 11 Moon landing.[74]

 In October 2014, Paramount partnered with Google to promote Interstellar across multiple platforms.[75] The film's website was relaunched as a digital hub hosted on a Google domain,[76] which collected feedback from film audiences, and linked to a mobile app.[76] It featured a game in which players could build Solar System models and use a flight simulator for space travel.[77] The Paramount–Google partnership also included a virtual time capsule compiled with user-generated content, made available in 2015.[78] The initiative Google for Education used the film as a basis for promoting math and science lesson plans in schools.[75][79]

 Paramount provided a virtual reality walkthrough of the Endurance spacecraft using Oculus Rift technology. It hosted the walkthrough sequentially in New York City, Houston, Los Angeles, and Washington, D.C., from October 6 through November 19 , 2014.[80][81] The publisher Running Press released Interstellar: Beyond Time and Space, a book by Mark Cotta Vaz about the making of the film, on November 11 .[82] W. W. Norton & Company released The Science of Interstellar, a book by Thorne;[83] Titan Books released the official novelization, written by Greg Keyes;[84] and Wired magazine released a tie-in online comic, Absolute Zero, written by Christopher Nolan and drawn by Sean Gordon Murphy. The comic is a prequel to the film, with Mann as the protagonist.[85]

 Release

 Theatrical

 Before Interstellar ' s public release, Paramount CEO Brad Grey hosted a private screening on October 19 , 2014, at an IMAX theater in Lincoln Square, Manhattan.[86][87] Paramount then showed Interstellar to some of the industry's filmmakers and actors in a first-look screening at the California Science Center on October 22 .[88] On the following day, the film was screened at the TCL Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles, California for over 900 members of the Screen Actors Guild.[89] The film premiered on October 26 at the TCL Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles,[90] and in Europe on October 29 at the Odeon Leicester Square in London. The film premiered on November 7 in Canada.[91][92]

 Interstellar was released early on November 4 in various 70 mm IMAX film, 70 mm film and 35 mm film theaters, and had a limited release in North America (United States and Canada) on November 5 , with a wide release on November 7 .[93] The film was released in Belgium, France, and Switzerland on November 5 , the United Kingdom on November 7 and in additional territories in the following days.[94] For the limited North American release, Interstellar was projected from 70 mm and 35 mm film in 249 theaters that still supported those formats, including at least forty-one 70 mm IMAX theaters. A 70 mm IMAX projector was installed at the TCL Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles to display the format. The film's wide release expanded to theaters that showed it digitally.[95] Paramount Pictures distributed the film in North America, and Warner Bros. distributed it in the remaining territories.[31] The film was released in over 770 IMAX screens worldwide, which was the largest global release in IMAX cinemas,[96][97] until surpassed by Universal Pictures' Furious 7 (2015) with 810 IMAX theaters.[98]

 Interstellar was an exception to Paramount Pictures' goal to stop releasing films on film stock and to distribute them only in digital format.[99] According to Pamela McClintock of The Hollywood Reporter, the initiative to project Interstellar on film stock would help preserve an endangered format,[95] which was supported by Christopher Nolan, J. J. Abrams, Quentin Tarantino, Judd Apatow, Paul Thomas Anderson, and other filmmakers.[100] McClintock reported that theatre owners saw this as "backward," as nearly all theatres in the US had been converted to digital projection.[101]

 Home media

 Interstellar was released on home video on March 31, 2015, in both the United Kingdom and United States.[102] It topped the home video sales chart for a total of two weeks.[103][104] It was reported that Interstellar was the most pirated film of 2015, with an estimated 46.7 million downloads on BitTorrent.[105] It was released in the Ultra HD Blu-ray format on December 19, 2017.[106]

 Reception

 Box office

 Interstellar grossed $188 million in the US and Canada, and $489.4 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $677.4 million against a production budget of $165 million.[3] Deadline Hollywood calculated the net profit of the film to be $47.2 million, accounting for production budgets, marketing, talent participations, and other costs, with box office grosses, and ancillary revenues from home media, placing it twentieth on their list of 2014's "Most Valuable Blockbusters".[107] It sold an estimated 22 million tickets domestically.[108]

 The film set an IMAX opening record worldwide with $20.5 million from 574 IMAX theaters, surpassing the $17.1 million record held by The Hunger Games: Catching Fire (2013), and is also the best opening for an IMAX 2D, non-sequel, and November IMAX release.[109] It had a worldwide opening of $132.6 million, which was the tenth-largest opening of 2014,[110] and it became the tenth-highest-grossing film of 2014.[111] Interstellar is the fourth film to gross over $100 million worldwide from IMAX ticket sales.[112][113][114] Interstellar was released in the UK, Ireland and Malta on November 6, 2014, and debuted at number one earning £5.37 million ($8.6 million) in its opening weekend, which was lower than the openings of The Dark Knight Rises (£14.36 million), Gravity (£6.24 million), and Inception (£5.91 million).[115] The film was released in 35 markets on the same day, including major markets like Germany, Russia, Australia, and Brazil earning $8.7 million in total.[116] Through Sunday, it earned an opening weekend total of $82.9 million from 11.1 million admissions from over 14,800 screens in 62 markets.[117] It earned $7.3 million from 206 IMAX screens, at an average of 35,400 viewers per theater.[118] It went to number one in South Korea ($14.4 million),[119] Russia ($8.9 million), and France ($5.3 million). Other strong openings occurred in Germany ($4.6 million), India ($4.3 million), Italy ($3.7 million), Australia ($3.7 million), Spain ($2.7 million), Mexico ($3.1 million), and Brazil ($1.9 million).[120] Interstellar was released in China on November 12 and earned $5.4 million on its opening day on Wednesday, which is Nolan's biggest opening in China after surpassing the $4.61 million opening record of The Dark Knight Rises.[121][122] It went on to earn $41.7 million in its opening weekend, accounting for 55% of the market share.[123][124] It is Nolan's biggest opening in China, Warner Bros.' biggest 2D opening,[125] and the studio's third-biggest opening of all time, behind 2014's The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies ($49.5 million)[126] and 2013's Pacific Rim ($45.2 million).[127][128]

 It topped the box office outside North America for two consecutive weekends before being overtaken by The Hunger Games: Mockingjay – Part 1 (2014) in its third weekend.[125] Just 31 days after its release, the film became the 13th-most-successful film and 3rd-most-successful foreign film in South Korea with 9.1 million admissions trailing only Avatar (13.3 million admissions), and 2013's Frozen (10.3 million admissions).[129] The film closed down its theatrical run in China on December 12, with total revenue of $122.6 million.[130][131] In total earnings, its largest markets outside North America and China were South Korea ($73.4 million), the UK, Ireland and Malta ($31.3 million), and Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) ($19 million).[132] Interstellar and Big Hero 6 opened the same weekend ( November 7–9 , 2014) in the US and Canada. Both were forecast to earn between $55 million and $60 million .[133] In North America, the film is the seventh-highest-grossing film to not hit No. 1, with a top rank of No. 2 on its opening weekend.[134] Interstellar had an early limited release in the US and Canada in selected theaters on November 4 at 8:00 pm, coinciding with the 2014 US midterm elections.[135] It topped the box office the following day, earning $1.35 million from 249 theaters (42 of which were IMAX screens); IMAX accounted for 62% of its total gross.[136] Two hundred and forty of those theaters played in 35 mm, 70 mm, and IMAX 70 mm film formats.[137] It earned $3.6 million from late-night shows for a previews total of $4.9 million.[138][139][140] The film was widely released on November 7 and topped the box office on its opening day, earning $17 million ahead of Big Hero 6 ($15.8 million).[141] On its opening weekend, the film earned $47.5 million[b] from 3,561 theaters, debuting in second place after a neck-and-neck competition with Disney's Big Hero 6 ($56.2 million).[143] IMAX comprised $13.2 million (28%) of its opening weekend gross,[143] while other premium large-format screens comprised $5.3 million (10.5%) of the gross.[144][145] In its second weekend, the film fell to No. 3 behind old rival Big Hero 6 and newcomer Dumb and Dumber To (2014), and dropped 39% earning $29.1 million for a two-weekend total of $97.8 million.[146][147] It earned $7.4 million from IMAX theaters from 368 screens in its second weekend.[148][149] In its third week, the film earned $15.1 million and remained at No. 3, below newcomer The Hunger Games: Mockingjay – Part 1 and Big Hero 6.[150]

 Critical response

 On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, 72% of 373 critic reviews are positive, with an average rating of 7.10/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "Interstellar represents more of the thrilling, thought-provoking, and visually resplendent filmmaking moviegoers have come to expect from writer-director Christopher Nolan, even if its intellectual reach somewhat exceeds its grasp."[151] Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 74 out of 100 based on 46 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[152] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.[153]

 Scott Foundas, chief film critic at Variety, said that Interstellar is "as visually and conceptually audacious as anything Nolan has yet done" and considered the film "more personal" than Nolan's previous films.[154] Claudia Puig of USA Today praised the visual spectacle and powerful themes, while criticizing the "dull" dialogue and "tedious patches inside the space vessel."[155] David Stratton of At the Movies rated the film four-and-a-half stars out of five, commending its ambition, effects, and 70 mm IMAX presentation, though criticizing the sound for "being so loud" as to make some of the dialogue "inaudible". Conversely, co-host Margaret Pomeranz rated the film three out of five, as she felt the human drama got lost among the film's scientific concepts.[156] Henry Barnes of The Guardian scored the film three out of five stars, calling it "a glorious spectacle, but a slight drama, with few characters and too-rare flashes of humour."[157] James Berardinelli called Interstellar "an amazing achievement" and "simultaneously a big-budget science fiction endeavor and a very simple tale of love and sacrifice. It is by turns edgy, breathtaking, hopeful, and heartbreaking."[158] He named it the best film of 2014,[159] and the second-best movie of the decade, deeming it a "real science fiction rather than the crowd-pleasing, watered-down version Hollywood typically offers".[160]

 "It's been a while since somebody has come out with such a big vision to things ... Even the elements, the fact that dust is everywhere, and they're living in this dust bowl that is just completely enveloping this area of the world. That's almost something you expect from Tarkovsky or Malick, not a science fiction adventure movie.[161]

 —Quentin Tarantino on Interstellar.

 Oliver Gettell of the Los Angeles Times reported that "film critics largely agree that Interstellar is an entertaining, emotional, and thought-provoking sci-fi saga, even if it can also be clunky and sentimental at times."[162] James Dyer of Empire awarded the film a full five stars, describing it as "brainy, barmy, and beautiful to behold ... a mind-bending opera of space and time with a soul wrapped up in all the science."[163] Dave Calhoun of Time Out London also granted the film a maximum score of five stars, stating that it is "a bold, beautiful cosmic adventure story with a touch of the surreal and the dreamlike."[164] Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun-Times awarded the film a full four stars and wrote, "This is one of the most beautiful films I have ever seen—in terms of its visuals, and its overriding message about the powerful forces of the one thing we all know but can't measure in scientific terms. Love."[165]

 Describing Nolan as a "merchant of awe," Tim Robey of The Telegraph thought that Interstellar was "agonisingly" close to a masterpiece, highlighting the conceptual boldness and "deep-digging intelligence" of the film.[166] Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter wrote, "This grandly conceived and executed epic tries to give equal weight to intimate human emotions and speculation about the cosmos, with mixed results, but is never less than engrossing, and sometimes more than that."[167] In his review for the Associated Press, Jake Coyle praised the film for its "big-screen grandeur," while finding some of the dialogue "clunky." He described it further as "an absurd endeavor" and "one of the most sublime movies of the decade."[168] Scott Mendelson of Forbes listed Interstellar as one of the most disappointing films of 2014, stating that the film "has a lack of flow, loss of momentum following the climax, clumsy sound mixing," and "thin characters" despite seeing the film twice in order to "give it a second chance." He wrote that Interstellar "ends up as a stripped-down and somewhat muted variation on any number of 'go into space to save the world' movies."[169] Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com gave the film three-and-a-half out of four stars, saying that despite his usual quibbles regarding Nolan's excessive dialogue and its lack of a sense of composition, "[Interstellar] is still an impressive, at times astonishing movie that overwhelmed me to the point where my usual objections to Nolan's work melted away ... At times, the movie's one-stop-shopping storytelling evokes the tough-tender spirit of a John Ford picture ... a movie that would rather try to be eight or nine things than just one."[170]

 New York Times columnist David Brooks concludes that Interstellar explores the relationships among "science and faith and science and the humanities" and "illustrates the real symbiosis between these realms."[171] Wai Chee Dimock, in the Los Angeles Review of Books, wrote that Nolan's films are "rotatable at 90, 180, and 360 degrees," and that "although there is considerable magical thinking here, making it almost an anti-sci-fi film, holding out hope that the end of the planet is not the end of everything, it reverses itself, however, when that magic falls short when the poetic license is naked and plain for all to see."[172] Author George R. R. Martin called Interstellar "the most ambitious and challenging science fiction film since Kubrick's 2001."[173] In 2020, Empire magazine ranked it as one of the best films of the 21st century.[174]

 Accolades

 Main article: List of accolades received by Interstellar

 At the 87th Academy Awards, Interstellar received nominations for Best Original Score, Best Production Design, Best Sound Editing, and Best Sound Mixing, and won Best Visual Effects.[175]

 See also

 * Black holes in fiction
 * Blanet – planet orbiting a black hole
 * Causal loop
 * Interstellar travel
 * List of American films of 2014
 * List of British films of 2014
 * List of films featuring drones
 * List of films featuring space stations
 * List of time travel works of fiction
 * Starship
 * Wormholes in fiction

 Notes

 1. ^ Referred to only as "Cooper" or "Coop" in the film
 2. ^ In total the film earned $2.2 million from the two late-night showings which would bring its opening weekend gross to $49.7 million. [142]

 References

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 2. ^ a b "Film: Interstellar". Lumiere. Archived from the original on June 23, 2018 . Retrieved November 8, 2017 .
 3. ^ a b c "Interstellar". Box Office Mojo. IMDb . Retrieved September 15, 2021 .
 4. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2017". NobelPrize.org. Archived from the original on June 3, 2020 . Retrieved September 6, 2020 .
 5. ^ Thorne, Kip. "Applied Physics/Physics Colloquium: Kip Thorne – The Physics of the Cult Movie Interstellar". Stanford University. Archived from the original on March 2, 2023 . Retrieved March 2, 2023 . "Christopher Nolan's cult science fiction film Interstellar (2014) sprang from a treatment co-authored by physicist Kip Thorne, and so had real science — both firm and speculative — embedded in it from the outset."
 6. ^ "10 of the Best Sci-Fi Movies Based on Actual Science". Collider. September 19, 2022. Archived from the original on December 6, 2022 . Retrieved December 6, 2022 .
 7. ^ "Interstellar: How it Was One of the Most Scientifically Accurate Sci-Fi Movies Ever". August 31, 2022. Archived from the original on December 6, 2022 . Retrieved December 6, 2022 .
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 Further reading

 * Thorne, Kip (November 7, 2014). The Science of Interstellar. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-35137-8.
 * Keyes, Greg (November 11, 2014). Interstellar: The Official Movie Novelization. Titan Books. ISBN 978-1783293698.
 * Vaz, Mark Cotta (November 11, 2014). Interstellar: Beyond Time and Space. Running Press. ISBN 978-0-7624-5683-3.
 * MacKay, John (2014). "On Interstellar" – via Academia.edu.{{cite web}} : CS1 maint: url-status ( link ) (preliminary notes)

 External links

 Wikiquote has quotations related to Interstellar (film).
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Interstellar.
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Interstellar      Theatrical release poster    Directed by  Christopher Nolan    Written by  
  Jonathan Nolan 
Christopher Nolan 
    Produced by  
  Emma Thomas 
Christopher Nolan
 Lynda Obst  
    Starring  
  Matthew McConaughey 
 Anne Hathaway 
 Jessica Chastain 
 Bill Irwin 
 Ellen Burstyn 
 Michael Caine  
    Cinematography  Hoyte van Hoytema    Edited by  Lee Smith    Music by  Hans Zimmer     Productioncompanies   
  Legendary Pictures 
 Syncopy 
Lynda Obst Productions 
    Distributed by  
  Paramount Pictures (North America)
 Warner Bros. Pictures (International) 
     Release dates   
 October 26, 2014 (TCL Chinese Theatre)
November 5, 2014 (United States)
November 7, 2014 (United Kingdom) 
     Running time  169 minutes [1]     Countries  
 United Kingdom [2]  
United States [2]   
    Language English   Budget $165 million [3]     Box office $773.8 million [3]     
  Interstellar  is a 2014 epic science fiction film co-written, directed, and produced by Christopher Nolan. It stars Matthew McConaughey, Anne Hathaway, Jessica Chastain, Bill Irwin, Ellen Burstyn, Matt Damon, and Michael Caine. Set in a dystopian future where humanity is struggling to survive, the film follows a group of astronauts who travel through a wormhole near Saturn in search of a new home for mankind.
 Brothers Christopher and Jonathan Nolan wrote the screenplay, which had its origins in a script Jonathan developed in 2007. Caltech theoretical physicist and 2017 Nobel laureate in Physics  [4]  Kip Thorne was an executive producer, acted as a scientific consultant, and wrote a tie-in book,  The Science of Interstellar . Cinematographer Hoyte van Hoytema shot it on 35 mm movie film in the Panavision anamorphic format and IMAX 70 mm. Principal photography began in late 2013 and took place in Alberta, Iceland, and Los Angeles. Interstellar uses extensive practical and miniature effects and the company Double Negative created additional digital effects.
  Interstellar premiered on October 26, 2014, in Los Angeles. In the United States, it was first released on film stock, expanding to venues using digital projectors. The film had a worldwide gross over $677 million (and $773 million with subsequent re-releases), making it the tenth-highest grossing film of 2014. It received acclaim for its performances, direction, screenplay, musical score, visual effects, ambition, themes, and emotional weight. It has also received praise from many astronomers for its scientific accuracy and portrayal of theoretical astrophysics. Since its premiere, Interstellar gained a cult following, [5]  and now is regarded by many sci-fi experts as one of the best science-fiction films of all time. [6]   [7]  Interstellar was nominated for five awards at the 87th Academy Awards, winning Best Visual Effects, and received numerous other accolades.
Plot
In 2067, a global famine caused humanity to abandon scientific pursuits such as space exploration. Ex-NASA pilot Joseph Cooper is forced to work as a farmer. One day, Cooper experiences a gravitational "anomaly" in his daughter Murph's bedroom. He deduces it to be a pattern of GPS coordinates and arrives at a secret NASA facility headed by Professor Brand. Brand explains to Cooper that it is engaged in a secret mission to discover an exoplanet capable of supporting life and that he is working on a gravity-equation. He enlists Cooper's help to pilot an exploratory spacecraft with three other scientists – Romilly, Doyle, and Brand’s daughter Amelia. The crew travels through a wormhole on board the Endurance to pass through to another galaxy. Their mission is to investigate three planets, orbiting a supermassive black hole called Gargantua, each of which was previously explored by a NASA scientist-explorer. 
 The first planet is an aqua planet. The NASA explorer there is found dead, and one of their crew – Doyle – drowns after being caught in a massive tidal wave. The same tide also causes the probe's engines to be filled with water, forcing Cooper and Amelia to wait for them to dry out. They return to the Endurance in an hour, finding that 23 years have passed aboard due to the time dilation caused by the planet's proximity to Gargantua. In those 23 years, Murph has become a scientist, and begun working with Brand at NASA. She learns from a dying Professor Brand that he had given up on solving his gravity-equation, knowing that information is needed from inside a black hole. Instead, he put their mission's hopes on Cooper's team establishing a space colony using pre-fertilized eggs on a new habitable planet. 
 At the second planet, the crew find its explorer, Mann, to be alive and awaken him from cryostasis. He eventually reveals to Cooper that he lied about the planet's habitability in the hope that NASA sent a mission to rescue him. Romilly dies in an explosion when he attempts to access the system's logs, while Mann tries to kill Cooper and hijack the Endurance spacecraft. Mann is killed when his craft fails to dock properly, and Cooper regains command of the Endurance. Cooper realizes that the Endurance only has enough resources for one person to safely complete their mission. He initiates a slingshot move around Gargantua, setting it to use gravity and be propelled to the final planet. At the last minute, he sacrifices himself by detaching from the spaceship and falling into the black hole, so that Amelia might safely complete the mission. 
 Cooper survives and finds himself inside a five-dimensional tesseract, out of view from beyond the event horizon. From inside he can see moments in time from inside Murph's childhood bedroom. He finds her returning to look for clues to the gravity-equation, and he contacts her by manipulating items in the room with gravity to communicate through Morse code. Deducing that this construct has been created by future humans with the ability to time-travel, Cooper imparts to her the information she needs. With his mission completed, he is ejected by the future beings, who return him to the Solar System. He is reunited with a now elderly Murph, who he learns has used the gravity-equation to lead humanity's exodus from Earth. She advises him to seek out Amelia, and he sets off. Meanwhile, on the mission's final planet, Amelia is setting up a new colony for future humans to inhabit. She removes her helmet and breathes in the air, showing that the planet is capable of supporting human life. 
Cast
             
  Matthew McConaughey as Joseph Cooper, [a]  a widowed NASA pilot who, after the agency was closed by the government, had become a farmer
 Anne Hathaway as Dr. Amelia Brand, a NASA scientist, and astronaut
 Jessica Chastain as Murphy "Murph" Cooper, Joseph's daughter, who eventually becomes a NASA scientist
 Mackenzie Foy as young Murph
 Ellen Burstyn as elderly Murph
 John Lithgow as Donald, Cooper's elderly father-in-law
 Michael Caine as Professor John Brand, a high-ranking NASA scientist, ideator of Plan A, former mentor of Cooper, and father of Amelia
 David Gyasi as Romilly, another high-ranking NASA member, and Endurance crew member
 Wes Bentley as Doyle, a high-ranking NASA member, and Endurance crew member
 Casey Affleck as Tom Cooper, Joseph's son, who eventually grows up to become a farmer
 Timothée Chalamet as young Tom
 Matt Damon as Mann, a NASA astronaut sent to an icy planet during the Lazarus program
 Bill Irwin as TARS (voice and puppetry) and CASE (puppetry)
 Josh Stewart as CASE (voice)
 Topher Grace as Getty, Murph's colleague and love interest
 Leah Cairns as Lois, Tom's wife
 David Oyelowo as School Principal
 Collette Wolfe as Ms. Hanley
 William Devane as Williams, another NASA member
 Elyes Gabel as Administrator
 Jeff Hephner as Doctor
Russ Fega as Crew Chief 
Production
Crew
  Christopher Nolan – Director, producer, writer
 Jonathan Nolan – Writer
 Emma Thomas – Producer
 Lynda Obst – Producer
 Hoyte van Hoytema – Cinematographer
 Nathan Crowley – Production designer
 Mary Zophres – Costume designer
 Lee Smith – Editor
 Hans Zimmer – Music composer
 Paul Franklin – Visual effects supervisor
 Kip Thorne – Consultant, executive producer 
Development and financing
The premise for Interstellar was conceived by producer Lynda Obst and theoretical physicist Kip Thorne, who collaborated on the film  Contact  (1997), and had known each other since Carl Sagan set them up on a blind date. [8]   [9]  The two conceived a scenario, based on Thorne's work, about "the most exotic events in the universe suddenly becoming accessible to humans," and attracted filmmaker Steven Spielberg's interest in directing. [10]  The film began development in June 2006, when Spielberg and Paramount Pictures announced plans for a science-fiction film based on an eight-page treatment written by Obst and Thorne. Obst was attached to produce. [11]   [12]  By March 2007, Jonathan Nolan was hired to write a screenplay. [13] 
 After Spielberg moved his production studio DreamWorks from Paramount to Walt Disney Studios in 2009, Paramount needed a new director for Interstellar. Jonathan Nolan recommended his brother Christopher, who joined the project in 2012. [14]  Christopher Nolan met with Thorne, then attached as executive producer, to discuss the use of spacetime in the story. [15]  In January 2013, Paramount and Warner Bros. announced that Christopher Nolan was in negotiations to direct Interstellar. [16]  Nolan said he wanted to encourage the goal of human spaceflight, [17]  and intended to merge his brother's screenplay with his own. [18]  By the following March, Nolan was confirmed to direct Interstellar, which would be produced under his label Syncopy and Lynda Obst Productions. [19]   The Hollywood Reporter  said Nolan would earn a salary of $20 million against 20% of the total gross. [20]  To research for the film, Nolan visited NASA and the private space program at SpaceX. [15] 
 Warner Bros. sought a stake in Nolan's production of Interstellar from Paramount, despite their traditional rivalry, and agreed to give Paramount its rights to co-finance the next film in the  Friday the 13th  horror franchise, with a stake in a future film based on the television series  South Park . Warner Bros. also agreed to let Paramount co-finance an indeterminate "A-list" property. [21]  In August 2013, Legendary Pictures finalized an agreement with Warner Bros. to finance approximately 25% of the film's production. Although it failed to renew its eight-year production partnership with Warner Bros., Legendary reportedly agreed to forgo financing  Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice  (2016) in exchange for the stake in Interstellar. [22] 
Writing and casting
     
Screenwriter Jonathan Nolan worked on the script for four years. [8]  To learn the scientific aspects, he studied relativity at the California Institute of Technology. [23]  Jonathan was pessimistic about the Space Shuttle program ending and how NASA lacked financing for a human mission to Mars, drawing inspiration from science-fiction films with apocalyptic themes, such as  WALL-E  (2008) and  Avatar  (2009). Jeff Jensen of  Entertainment Weekly  commented: "He set the story in a dystopian future ravaged by blight, but populated with hardy folk who refuse to bow to despair." [14]  His brother Christopher had worked on other science fiction scripts but decided to take the Interstellar script and choose among the vast array of ideas presented by Jonathan and Thorne, picking what he felt, as director, he could get "across to the audience and hopefully not lose them," before he merged it with a script he had worked on for years on his own. [15]   [24]  Christopher kept in place Jonathan's conception of the first hour, which is set on a resource depleted Earth in the near future. The setting was inspired by the Dust Bowl that took place in the United States during the Great Depression in the 1930s. [8]  He revised the rest of the script, where a team travels into space, instead. [8]  After watching the 2012 documentary  The Dust Bowl  for inspiration, Christopher contacted director Ken Burns and producer Dayton Duncan, requesting permission to use some of their featured interviews in Interstellar, which was granted. [25] 
 Christopher Nolan wanted an actor who could bring to life his vision of the main character as an everyman with whom "the audience could experience the story." [26]  He became interested in casting Matthew McConaughey after watching him in an early cut of the 2012 film  Mud , [26]  which he had seen as a friend of one of its producers, Aaron Ryder. [8]  Nolan went to visit McConaughey while he was filming for the TV series  True Detective . [27]  Anne Hathaway was invited to Nolan's home, where she read the script for Interstellar. [28]  In early 2013, both actors were cast in the starring roles. [29]  Jessica Chastain was contacted while she was working on  Miss Julie  (2014) in Northern Ireland, and a script was delivered to her. [28]  Originally, Irrfan Khan was offered the role of Dr. Mann but rejected due to scheduling conflicts. Matt Damon was cast as Mann in late August 2013 and completed filming his scenes in Iceland. [30] 
Principal photography
Nolan shot Interstellar on 35 mm film in the Panavision anamorphic format and IMAX 70 mm photography. [31]  Cinematographer Hoyte van Hoytema was hired for Interstellar, as Wally Pfister, Nolan's cinematographer on all of his previous films, was making his directorial debut working on  Transcendence  (2014). [32]  More IMAX cameras were used for Interstellar than for any of Nolan's previous films. To minimize the use of computer-generated imagery (CGI), the director had practical locations built, such as the interior of a space shuttle. [26]  Van Hoytema retooled an IMAX camera to be hand-held for shooting interior scenes. [8]  Some of the film's sequences were shot with an IMAX camera installed in the nose cone of a Learjet. [33] 
 Nolan, who is known for keeping details of his productions secret, strove to ensure secrecy for Interstellar. Writing for  The Wall Street Journal , Ben Fritz stated, "The famously secretive filmmaker has gone to extreme lengths to guard the script to ... Interstellar, just as he did with the blockbuster Dark Knight trilogy." [34]  As one security measure, Interstellar was filmed under the name Flora's Letter, [35]  Flora being one of Nolan's four children with producer Emma Thomas. [15] 
      The Svínafellsjökull glacier in Iceland was used as a filming location for Interstellar, doubling for Mann's planet.  
The film's principal photography was scheduled to last four months. [30]  It began on August 6, 2013, in the province of Alberta, Canada. [22]  Towns in Alberta where shooting took place included Nanton, Longview, Lethbridge, Fort Macleod, and Okotoks. In Okotoks, filming took place at the Seaman Stadium and the Olde Town Plaza. [35]  For a cornfield scene, production designer Nathan Crowley planted 500 acres (200 ha) of corn that would be destroyed in an apocalyptic dust storm scene, [14]  intended to be similar to storms experienced during the Dust Bowl in 1930s America. [15]  Additional scenes involving the dust storm and McConaughey's character were also shot in Fort Macleod, where the giant dust clouds were created on location using large fans to blow cellulose-based synthetic dust through the air. [36]  Filming in the province lasted until September 9, 2013, and involved hundreds of extras in addition to 130 crew members, most of whom were local. [35] 
 Shooting also took place in Iceland, where Nolan had previously filmed scenes for  Batman Begins  (2005). [37]  The location was chosen to represent two extraterrestrial planets: one covered in ice, and the other in water. [8]  The crew transported mock spaceships weighing about 10,000 pounds (4,500 kg) to the country. [15]  They spent two weeks shooting there, [30]  during which a crew of about 350 people, including 130 locals, worked on the film. Locations included the Svínafellsjökull glacier and the town of Klaustur. [38]   [39]  While filming a water scene in Iceland, Hathaway almost suffered hypothermia because the dry suit she was wearing had not been properly secured. [15] 
 After the schedule in Iceland was completed, the crew moved to Los Angeles to shoot for 54 days. Filming locations included the Westin Bonaventure Hotel and Suites, the Los Angeles Convention Center, a Sony Pictures soundstage in Culver City, and a private residence in Altadena, California. [40]  Principal photography concluded in December 2013. [41]  Production had a budget of $165 million, $10 million less than was allotted by Paramount, Warner Bros., and Legendary Pictures. [15] 
Production design
             
 Interstellar features three spacecraft— a ranger, the Endurance, and a lander. The ranger's function is similar to the Space Shuttle's, being able to enter and exit planetary atmospheres. The Endurance, the crew's mother ship, is a circular structure consisting of 12 capsules, laid flat to mimic a clock: Four capsules with planetary settling equipment, four with engines, and four with the permanent functions of cockpit, medical labs, and habitation. Production designer Nathan Crowley said the Endurance was based on the International Space Station: "It's a real mish-mash of different kinds of technology. You need analogue stuff, as well as digital stuff, you need backup systems and tangible switches. It's really like a submarine in space. Every inch of space is used, everything has a purpose." Lastly, the lander transports the capsules with settling equipment to planetary surfaces. Crowley compared it to "a heavy Russian helicopter." [8] 
 The film also features two robots, CASE and TARS, as well as a dismantled third robot, KIPP. Nolan wanted to avoid making the robots anthropomorphic and chose a 1.5 m (4.9 ft) quadrilateral design. The director said: "It has a very complicated design philosophy. It's based on mathematics. You've got four main blocks and they can be joined in three ways. So, you have three combinations you follow. But then within that, it subdivides into a further three joints. And all the places we see lines—those can subdivide further. So you can unfold a finger, essentially, but it's all proportional." Actor Bill Irwin voiced and physically controlled both robots, but his image was digitally removed from the film, and actor Josh Stewart's voice replaced his voicing for CASE. [8]  The human space habitats resemble O'Neill cylinders, a theoretical space habitat model proposed by physicist Gerard K. O'Neill in 1976. [42] 
Sound design and music
 Gregg Landaker and Gary Rizzo were the film's audio engineers tasked with audio mixing, while sound editor Richard King supervised the process. [43]  Christopher Nolan sought to mix the sound to take maximum advantage of theater equipment [44]  and paid close attention to designing the sound mix, like focusing on the sound of buttons being pressed with astronaut suit gloves. [14]  The studio's website stated that the film was "mixed to maximize the power of the low-end frequencies in the main channels, as well as in the subwoofer channel." [45]  Nolan deliberately intended some dialogue to seem drowned out by ambient noise or music, causing some theaters to post notices emphasizing that this effect was intentional and not a fault in their equipment. [46] 
 Composer Hans Zimmer, who scored Nolan's The Dark Knight Trilogy  and  Inception  (2010), returned to score Interstellar. Nolan chose not to provide Zimmer with a script or any plot details for writing the film's music but instead gave the composer a single page that told the story of a father leaving his child for work. It was through this connection that Zimmer created the early stages of the Interstellar soundtrack. Zimmer and Nolan later decided that the 1926 four-manual Harrison &amp; Harrison organ of the Temple Church, London, would be the primary instrument for the score. [47]   [48]  Zimmer conducted 45 scoring sessions for Interstellar, three times more than for Inception. The soundtrack was released on November 18, 2014. [14] 
Visual effects
Visual effects company Double Negative, which worked on Inception, was brought back for Interstellar. [49]  According to visual effects supervisor Paul Franklin, the number of effects in the film was not much greater than in Nolan's  The Dark Knight Rises  (2012) or Inception. However, for Interstellar, they created the effects first, allowing digital projectors to display them behind the actors, rather than having the actors perform in front of green screens. [8]  Ultimately, the film contained 850 visual-effect shots at a resolution of 5600 × 4000 lines: 150 shots that were created in-camera using digital projectors, and another 700 were created in post-production. Of those, 620 were presented in IMAX, while the rest were anamorphic. [50] 
 The ranger, Endurance, and lander spacecraft were created using miniature effects by Nathan Crowley in collaboration with effects company New Deal Studios, as opposed to using computer-generated imagery, as Nolan felt they offered the best way to give the ships a tangible presence in space. 3D-printed and hand-sculpted, the scale models earned the nickname "maxatures" by the crew due to their immense size; the 1/15th-scale miniature of the Endurance module spanned over 7.6 m (25 ft), while a pyrotechnic model of part of the craft was built at 1/5th scale. The Ranger and Lander miniatures spanned 14 m (46 ft) and over 15 m (49 ft), respectively, and were large enough for van Hoytema to mount IMAX cameras directly onto the spacecraft, thus mimicking the look of NASA IMAX documentaries. The models were then attached to a six-axis gimbal on a motion control system that allowed an operator to manipulate their movements, which were filmed against background plates of space using VistaVision cameras on a smaller motion control rig. [51]  New Deal Studio's miniatures were used in 150 special effects shots. [50] 
Influences
The director was influenced by what he called "key touchstones" of science fiction cinema, including  Metropolis  (1927),  2001: A Space Odyssey  (1968),  Blade Runner  (1982), [52]   Star Wars  (1977), and  Alien  (1979). [53]  Andrei Tarkovsky's  The Mirror  (1975) influenced "elemental things in the story to do with wind and dust and water", according to Nolan, [54]  who also compared Interstellar to  The Treasure of the Sierra Madre  (1948) as a film about human nature. [55]  He sought to emulate films like Steven Spielberg's  Jaws  (1975) and  Close Encounters of the Third Kind  (1977) for being family-friendly but also "as edgy and incisive and challenging as anything else on the blockbuster spectrum". He screened  The Right Stuff  (1983) for the crew before production, [8]  following in its example by capturing reflections on the Interstellar astronauts' visors. For further inspiration, the director invited former astronaut Marsha Ivins to the set. [15]  Nolan and his crew studied the IMAX NASA documentaries of filmmaker Toni Myers for visual reference of spacefaring missions, and strove to imitate their use of IMAX cameras in the enclosed spaces of spacecraft interiors. [56]  Clark Kent's upbringing in  Man of Steel  (2013) was the inspiration for the farm setting in the Midwest. [24]  Apart from films, Nolan drew inspiration from the architecture of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. [15] 
Scientific accuracy
       Kip Thorne, a theoretical physicist and Nobel Laureate, served as scientific consultant and executive producer.  
Regarding the concepts of wormholes and black holes, Kip Thorne stated that he "worked on the equations that would enable tracing of light rays as they traveled through a wormhole or around a black hole—so what you see is based on Einstein's general relativity equations." [57]  Early in the process, Thorne laid down two guidelines: "First, that nothing would violate established physical laws. Second, that all the wild speculations ... would spring from science and not from the fertile mind of a screenwriter." Nolan accepted these terms as long as they did not get in the way of making the film. [12]  At one point, Thorne spent two weeks trying to talk Nolan out of an idea about a character traveling faster than light before Nolan finally gave up. [58]  According to Thorne, the element which has the highest degree of artistic freedom is the clouds of ice on one of the planets they visit, which are structures that would go beyond the material strength that ice could support. [12] 
 Astrobiologist David Grinspoon criticized the dire "blight" situation on Earth portrayed in the early scenes, pointing out that even with a voracious blight it would have taken millions of years to reduce the atmosphere's oxygen content. He also notes that gravity should have pulled down the ice clouds. [59]  Neil deGrasse Tyson, an astrophysicist, explored the science behind the ending of Interstellar, concluding that it is theoretically possible to interact with the past, and that "we don't really know what's in a black hole, so take it and run with it." [60]  Theoretical physicist Michio Kaku praised the film for its scientific accuracy and has said Interstellar "could set the gold standard for science fiction movies for years to come." Similarly, Timothy Reyes, a former NASA software engineer, said "Thorne's and Nolan's accounting of black holes and wormholes and the use of gravity is excellent." [61] 
Wormholes and black holes
      Miller's planet orbiting Gargantua  
To create the visual effects for the wormhole and a rotating, supermassive black hole (possessing an ergosphere, as opposed to a non-rotating black hole), Thorne collaborated with Franklin and a team of 30 people at Double Negative, providing pages of deeply sourced theoretical equations to the engineers, who then wrote new CGI rendering software based on these equations to create accurate simulations of the gravitational lensing caused by these phenomena. Some individual frames took up to 100 hours to render, totaling 800 terabytes of data. [9]  Thorne described the accretion disk of the black hole as "anemic and at low temperature [62] —about the temperature of the surface of the sun," allowing it to emit appreciable light, but not enough gamma radiation and X-rays to threaten nearby astronauts and planets. [63]  The resulting visual effects provided Thorne with new insight into the gravitational lensing and accretion disks surrounding black holes, resulting in the publication of three scientific papers. [64]   [65]   [66] 
      The first image of the event horizon of a black hole, obtained by the Event Horizon Telescope. The asymmetric brightness of the accretion disk is well visible here.  
Christopher Nolan was initially concerned that a scientifically accurate depiction of a black hole would not be visually comprehensible to an audience, and would require the effects team to unrealistically alter its appearance. The visual representation of the black hole in the film does not account for the Doppler effect which, when added by the visual effects team, resulted in an asymmetrically lit black and blue-black hole, the purpose of which Nolan thought the audience would not understand. As a result, it was omitted in the finished product. [67]  Nolan found the finished effect to be understandable, as long as he maintained consistent camera perspectives. [68] 
 As a reference, the asymmetric brightness of the accretion disk is very well visible in the first image [69]  of the event horizon of a black hole obtained by the Event Horizon Telescope team in 2019. Futura-Sciences praised the correct depiction of the Penrose process. [70] 
 According to Space.com, the portrayal of what a wormhole would look like is considered scientifically correct. Rather than a two-dimensional hole in space, it is depicted as a sphere, showing a distorted view of the target galaxy. [71] 
Marketing
The teaser trailer for Interstellar debuted December 13, 2013, and featured clips related to space exploration, accompanied by a voiceover by Matthew McConaughey's character, Cooper. [72]  The theatrical trailer debuted May 5, 2014, at the Lockheed Martin IMAX Theater in Washington, D.C. and was made available online later that month. For the week ending on May 19, it was the most-viewed film trailer, with over 19.5 million views on YouTube. [73] 
 Christopher Nolan and McConaughey made their first appearances at San Diego Comic-Con in July 2014 to promote Interstellar. That same month, Paramount Pictures launched an interactive website, on which users uncovered a star chart related to the Apollo 11 Moon landing. [74] 
 In October 2014, Paramount partnered with Google to promote Interstellar across multiple platforms. [75]  The film's website was relaunched as a digital hub hosted on a Google domain, [76]  which collected feedback from film audiences, and linked to a mobile app. [76]  It featured a game in which players could build Solar System models and use a flight simulator for space travel. [77]  The Paramount–Google partnership also included a virtual time capsule compiled with user-generated content, made available in 2015. [78]  The initiative Google for Education used the film as a basis for promoting math and science lesson plans in schools. [75]   [79] 
 Paramount provided a virtual reality walkthrough of the Endurance spacecraft using Oculus Rift technology. It hosted the walkthrough sequentially in New York City, Houston, Los Angeles, and Washington, D.C., from October 6 through November 19, 2014. [80]   [81]  The publisher Running Press released Interstellar: Beyond Time and Space, a book by Mark Cotta Vaz about the making of the film, on November 11. [82]  W. W. Norton &amp; Company released  The Science of Interstellar , a book by Thorne; [83]  Titan Books released the official novelization, written by Greg Keyes; [84]  and  Wired  magazine released a tie-in online comic, Absolute Zero, written by Christopher Nolan and drawn by Sean Gordon Murphy. The comic is a prequel to the film, with Mann as the protagonist. [85] 
Release
Theatrical
Before Interstellar's public release, Paramount CEO Brad Grey hosted a private screening on October 19, 2014, at an IMAX theater in Lincoln Square, Manhattan. [86]   [87]  Paramount then showed Interstellar to some of the industry's filmmakers and actors in a first-look screening at the California Science Center on October 22. [88]  On the following day, the film was screened at the TCL Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles, California for over 900 members of the Screen Actors Guild. [89]  The film premiered on October 26 at the TCL Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles, [90]  and in Europe on October 29 at the Odeon Leicester Square in London. The film premiered on November 7 in Canada. [91]   [92] 
  Interstellar was released early on November 4 in various 70 mm IMAX film, 70 mm film and 35 mm film theaters, and had a limited release in North America (United States and Canada) on November 5, with a wide release on November 7. [93]  The film was released in Belgium, France, and Switzerland on November 5, the United Kingdom on November 7 and in additional territories in the following days. [94]  For the limited North American release, Interstellar was projected from 70 mm and 35 mm film in 249 theaters that still supported those formats, including at least forty-one 70 mm IMAX theaters. A 70 mm IMAX projector was installed at the TCL Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles to display the format. The film's wide release expanded to theaters that showed it digitally. [95]  Paramount Pictures distributed the film in North America, and Warner Bros. distributed it in the remaining territories. [31]  The film was released in over 770 IMAX screens worldwide, which was the largest global release in IMAX cinemas, [96]   [97]  until surpassed by Universal Pictures'  Furious 7  (2015) with 810 IMAX theaters. [98] 
  Interstellar was an exception to Paramount Pictures' goal to stop releasing films on film stock and to distribute them only in digital format. [99]  According to Pamela McClintock of The Hollywood Reporter, the initiative to project Interstellar on film stock would help preserve an endangered format, [95]  which was supported by Christopher Nolan, J. J. Abrams, Quentin Tarantino, Judd Apatow, Paul Thomas Anderson, and other filmmakers. [100]  McClintock reported that theatre owners saw this as "backward," as nearly all theatres in the US had been converted to digital projection. [101] 
Home media
 Interstellar was released on home video on March 31, 2015, in both the United Kingdom and United States. [102]  It topped the home video sales chart for a total of two weeks. [103]   [104]  It was reported that Interstellar was the most pirated film of 2015, with an estimated 46.7 million downloads on BitTorrent. [105]  It was released in the Ultra HD Blu-ray format on December 19, 2017. [106] 
Reception
Box office
 Interstellar grossed $188 million in the US and Canada, and $489.4 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $677.4 million against a production budget of $165 million. [3]   Deadline Hollywood  calculated the net profit of the film to be $47.2 million, accounting for production budgets, marketing, talent participations, and other costs, with box office grosses, and ancillary revenues from home media, placing it twentieth on their list of 2014's "Most Valuable Blockbusters". [107]  It sold an estimated 22 million tickets domestically. [108] 
 The film set an IMAX opening record worldwide with $20.5 million from 574 IMAX theaters, surpassing the $17.1 million record held by  The Hunger Games: Catching Fire  (2013), and is also the best opening for an IMAX 2D, non-sequel, and November IMAX release. [109]  It had a worldwide opening of $132.6 million, which was the tenth-largest opening of 2014, [110]  and it became the tenth-highest-grossing film of 2014. [111]  Interstellar is the fourth film to gross over $100 million worldwide from IMAX ticket sales. [112]   [113]   [114]  Interstellar was released in the UK, Ireland and Malta on November 6, 2014, and debuted at number one earning £5.37 million ($8.6 million) in its opening weekend, which was lower than the openings of The Dark Knight Rises (£14.36 million), Gravity (£6.24 million), and Inception (£5.91 million). [115]  The film was released in 35 markets on the same day, including major markets like Germany, Russia, Australia, and Brazil earning $8.7 million in total. [116]  Through Sunday, it earned an opening weekend total of $82.9 million from 11.1 million admissions from over 14,800 screens in 62 markets. [117]  It earned $7.3 million from 206 IMAX screens, at an average of 35,400 viewers per theater. [118]  It went to number one in South Korea ($14.4 million), [119]  Russia ($8.9 million), and France ($5.3 million). Other strong openings occurred in Germany ($4.6 million), India ($4.3 million), Italy ($3.7 million), Australia ($3.7 million), Spain ($2.7 million), Mexico ($3.1 million), and Brazil ($1.9 million). [120]  Interstellar was released in China on November 12 and earned $5.4 million on its opening day on Wednesday, which is Nolan's biggest opening in China after surpassing the $4.61 million opening record of The Dark Knight Rises. [121]   [122]  It went on to earn $41.7 million in its opening weekend, accounting for 55% of the market share. [123]   [124]  It is Nolan's biggest opening in China, Warner Bros.' biggest 2D opening, [125]  and the studio's third-biggest opening of all time, behind 2014's  The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies  ($49.5 million) [126]  and 2013's  Pacific Rim  ($45.2 million). [127]   [128] 
 It topped the box office outside North America for two consecutive weekends before being overtaken by  The Hunger Games: Mockingjay – Part 1  (2014) in its third weekend. [125]  Just 31 days after its release, the film became the 13th-most-successful film and 3rd-most-successful foreign film in South Korea with 9.1 million admissions trailing only Avatar (13.3 million admissions), and 2013's  Frozen  (10.3 million admissions). [129]  The film closed down its theatrical run in China on December 12, with total revenue of $122.6 million. [130]   [131]  In total earnings, its largest markets outside North America and China were South Korea ($73.4 million), the UK, Ireland and Malta ($31.3 million), and Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) ($19 million). [132]  Interstellar and  Big Hero 6  opened the same weekend (November 7–9, 2014) in the US and Canada. Both were forecast to earn between $55 million and $60 million. [133]  In North America, the film is the seventh-highest-grossing film to not hit No. 1, with a top rank of No. 2 on its opening weekend. [134]  Interstellar had an early limited release in the US and Canada in selected theaters on November 4 at 8:00 pm, coinciding with the 2014 US midterm elections. [135]  It topped the box office the following day, earning $1.35 million from 249 theaters (42 of which were IMAX screens); IMAX accounted for 62% of its total gross. [136]  Two hundred and forty of those theaters played in 35 mm, 70 mm, and IMAX 70 mm film formats. [137]  It earned $3.6 million from late-night shows for a previews total of $4.9 million. [138]   [139]   [140]  The film was widely released on November 7 and topped the box office on its opening day, earning $17 million ahead of  Big Hero 6  ($15.8 million). [141]  On its opening weekend, the film earned $47.5 million [b]  from 3,561 theaters, debuting in second place after a neck-and-neck competition with Disney's Big Hero 6 ($56.2 million). [143]  IMAX comprised $13.2 million (28%) of its opening weekend gross, [143]  while other premium large-format screens comprised $5.3 million (10.5%) of the gross. [144]   [145]  In its second weekend, the film fell to No. 3 behind old rival Big Hero 6 and newcomer  Dumb and Dumber To  (2014), and dropped 39% earning $29.1 million for a two-weekend total of $97.8 million. [146]   [147]  It earned $7.4 million from IMAX theaters from 368 screens in its second weekend. [148]   [149]  In its third week, the film earned $15.1 million and remained at No. 3, below newcomer The Hunger Games: Mockingjay – Part 1 and Big Hero 6. [150] 
Critical response
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, 72% of 373 critic reviews are positive, with an average rating of 7.10/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "Interstellar represents more of the thrilling, thought-provoking, and visually resplendent filmmaking moviegoers have come to expect from writer-director Christopher Nolan, even if its intellectual reach somewhat exceeds its grasp." [151]  Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 74 out of 100 based on 46 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". [152]  Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale. [153] 
 Scott Foundas, chief film critic at  Variety , said that Interstellar is "as visually and conceptually audacious as anything Nolan has yet done" and considered the film "more personal" than Nolan's previous films. [154]  Claudia Puig of  USA Today  praised the visual spectacle and powerful themes, while criticizing the "dull" dialogue and "tedious patches inside the space vessel." [155]  David Stratton of  At the Movies  rated the film four-and-a-half stars out of five, commending its ambition, effects, and 70 mm IMAX presentation, though criticizing the sound for "being so loud" as to make some of the dialogue "inaudible". Conversely, co-host Margaret Pomeranz rated the film three out of five, as she felt the human drama got lost among the film's scientific concepts. [156]  Henry Barnes of  The Guardian  scored the film three out of five stars, calling it "a glorious spectacle, but a slight drama, with few characters and too-rare flashes of humour." [157]  James Berardinelli called Interstellar "an amazing achievement" and "simultaneously a big-budget science fiction endeavor and a very simple tale of love and sacrifice. It is by turns edgy, breathtaking, hopeful, and heartbreaking." [158]  He named it the best film of 2014, [159]  and the second-best movie of the decade, deeming it a "real science fiction rather than the crowd-pleasing, watered-down version Hollywood typically offers". [160] 
"It's been a while since somebody has come out with such a big vision to things ... Even the elements, the fact that dust is everywhere, and they're living in this dust bowl that is just completely enveloping this area of the world. That's almost something you expect from Tarkovsky or Malick, not a science fiction adventure movie. [161] 
 —Quentin Tarantino on Interstellar.
Oliver Gettell of the  Los Angeles Times  reported that "film critics largely agree that Interstellar is an entertaining, emotional, and thought-provoking sci-fi saga, even if it can also be clunky and sentimental at times." [162]  James Dyer of  Empire  awarded the film a full five stars, describing it as "brainy, barmy, and beautiful to behold ... a mind-bending opera of space and time with a soul wrapped up in all the science." [163]  Dave Calhoun of  Time Out London  also granted the film a maximum score of five stars, stating that it is "a bold, beautiful cosmic adventure story with a touch of the surreal and the dreamlike." [164]  Richard Roeper of  Chicago Sun-Times  awarded the film a full four stars and wrote, "This is one of the most beautiful films I have ever seen—in terms of its visuals, and its overriding message about the powerful forces of the one thing we all know but can't measure in scientific terms. Love." [165] 
 Describing Nolan as a "merchant of awe," Tim Robey of  The Telegraph  thought that Interstellar was "agonisingly" close to a masterpiece, highlighting the conceptual boldness and "deep-digging intelligence" of the film. [166]  Todd McCarthy of  The Hollywood Reporter  wrote, "This grandly conceived and executed epic tries to give equal weight to intimate human emotions and speculation about the cosmos, with mixed results, but is never less than engrossing, and sometimes more than that." [167]  In his review for the Associated Press, Jake Coyle praised the film for its "big-screen grandeur," while finding some of the dialogue "clunky." He described it further as "an absurd endeavor" and "one of the most sublime movies of the decade." [168]  Scott Mendelson of  Forbes  listed Interstellar as one of the most disappointing films of 2014, stating that the film "has a lack of flow, loss of momentum following the climax, clumsy sound mixing," and "thin characters" despite seeing the film twice in order to "give it a second chance." He wrote that Interstellar "ends up as a stripped-down and somewhat muted variation on any number of 'go into space to save the world' movies." [169]  Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com gave the film three-and-a-half out of four stars, saying that despite his usual quibbles regarding Nolan's excessive dialogue and its lack of a sense of composition, "[Interstellar] is still an impressive, at times astonishing movie that overwhelmed me to the point where my usual objections to Nolan's work melted away ... At times, the movie's one-stop-shopping storytelling evokes the tough-tender spirit of a John Ford picture ... a movie that would rather try to be eight or nine things than just one." [170] 
   New York Times  columnist David Brooks concludes that Interstellar explores the relationships among "science and faith and science and the humanities" and "illustrates the real symbiosis between these realms." [171]  Wai Chee Dimock, in the  Los Angeles Review of Books , wrote that Nolan's films are "rotatable at 90, 180, and 360 degrees," and that "although there is considerable magical thinking here, making it almost an anti-sci-fi film, holding out hope that the end of the planet is not the end of everything, it reverses itself, however, when that magic falls short when the poetic license is naked and plain for all to see." [172]  Author George R. R. Martin called Interstellar "the most ambitious and challenging science fiction film since Kubrick's 2001." [173]  In 2020,  Empire  magazine ranked it as one of the best films of the 21st century. [174] 
Accolades
At the 87th Academy Awards, Interstellar received nominations for Best Original Score, Best Production Design, Best Sound Editing, and Best Sound Mixing, and 
won Best Visual Effects. [175] 
See also
  Black holes in fiction 
 Blanet – planet orbiting a black hole
 Causal loop 
 Interstellar travel 
 List of American films of 2014 
 List of British films of 2014 
 List of films featuring drones 
 List of films featuring space stations 
 List of time travel works of fiction 
 Starship 
 Wormholes in fiction  
Notes
 
  ^  Referred to only as "Cooper" or "Coop" in the film
  ^  In total the film earned $2.2 million from the two late-night showings which would bring its opening weekend gross to $49.7 million. [142] 
 
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  ^   "Oscars 2015: The Winners List".  The Hollywood Reporter . February 22, 2015. Archived from the original on May 10, 2022. Retrieved March 17, 2022.
 
Further reading
   Thorne, Kip (November 7, 2014).  The Science of Interstellar . W. W. Norton &amp; Company. ISBN  978-0-393-35137-8 . 
 Keyes, Greg (November 11, 2014).  Interstellar: The Official Movie Novelization . Titan Books. ISBN  978-1783293698 . 
  Vaz, Mark Cotta (November 11, 2014).  Interstellar: Beyond Time and Space . Running Press. ISBN  978-0-7624-5683-3 . 
 MacKay, John (2014). "On Interstellar" – via Academia.edu. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) (preliminary notes) 
External links
   Interstellar  at IMDb 
  Interstellar  at AllMovie 
  Interstellar  at the TCM Movie Database 
  Interstellar  at the American Film Institute Catalog
Interstellar (film) - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstellar_(film)
https://www.amazon.com/Interstellar-Matthew-McConaughey/dp/B00TU9UFTS
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Interstellar travel - Wikipedia
2001-10-05
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<div><div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Bussard_Interstellar_Ramjet_Engine.jpg"></a></p><div><p>A <a href="/wiki/Bussard_ramjet">Bussard ramjet</a>, one of many possible methods that could serve to propel spacecraft.</p></div></div>
<p><b>Interstellar travel</b> is the hypothetical travel of <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft">spacecraft</a> from one <a href="/wiki/Star_system">star system</a>, solitary <a href="/wiki/Star">star</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Planetary_system">planetary system</a> to another. Interstellar travel is expected to prove much more difficult than <a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_spaceflight">interplanetary spaceflight</a> due to the vast difference in the scale of the involved distances. Whereas the distance between any two <a href="/wiki/Planet">planets</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System">Solar System</a> is less than 30 <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_unit">astronomical units</a> (AU), stars are typically separated by hundreds of thousands of AU, causing these distances to typically be expressed instead in <a href="/wiki/Light-year">light-years</a>. Because of the vastness of these distances, non-generational interstellar travel based on known physics would need to occur at a high percentage of the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light">speed of light</a>; even so, travel times would be long, at least decades and perhaps millennia or longer.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Mauldin-1">[1]</a></sup>
</p><p>As of 2022, <a href="/wiki/List_of_artificial_objects_leaving_the_Solar_System">five uncrewed spacecraft</a>, all launched and operated by the United States, have achieved the escape velocity required to leave the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System">Solar System</a> as part of missions to explore parts of the outer system. They will therefore continue to travel through interstellar space indefinitely. However, they will not approach another star for hundreds of thousands of years, long after they have ceased to operate (though in theory the <a href="/wiki/Voyager_Golden_Record">Voyager Golden Record</a> would be playable in the highly unlikely event that the spacecraft is retrieved by an <a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_civilization">extraterrestrial civilization</a>).
</p><p>The speeds required for interstellar travel in a human lifetime far exceed what current methods of space travel can provide. Even with a hypothetically perfectly efficient propulsion system, the <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy">kinetic energy</a> corresponding to those speeds is enormous by today's standards of <a href="/wiki/Energy_development">energy development</a>. Moreover, collisions by spacecraft with <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_dust">cosmic dust</a> and gas at such speeds would be very dangerous for both passengers and the spacecraft itself.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Mauldin-1">[1]</a></sup>
</p><p>A number of strategies have been proposed to deal with these problems, ranging from <a href="/wiki/Generation_ship">giant arks that would carry entire societies and ecosystems</a>, to microscopic <a href="/wiki/Space_probe">space probes</a>. Many different <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft_propulsion">spacecraft propulsion</a> systems have been proposed to give spacecraft the required speeds, including <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_propulsion">nuclear propulsion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beam-powered_propulsion">beam-powered propulsion</a>, and methods based on speculative physics.<sup><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup>
</p><p>Humanity would need to overcome considerable technological and economic challenges to achieve either crewed and uncrewed interstellar travel. Even the most optimistic views forecast that it will be decades before this milestone is reached. However, in spite of the challenges, a wide range of scientific benefits are expected should interstellar travel become a reality.<sup><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup>
</p><p>Most interstellar travel concepts require a developed space logistics system capable of moving millions of tonnes to a construction / operating location, and most would require gigawatt-scale power for construction or power (such as <a href="/wiki/Starwisp">Star Wisp</a>– or <a href="/wiki/Solar_sail">Light Sail</a>–type concepts). Such a system could grow organically if <a href="/wiki/Space-based_solar_power">space-based solar power</a> became a significant component of Earth's <a href="/wiki/Energy_mix">energy mix</a>. Consumer demand for a multi-terawatt system would create the necessary multi-million ton/year logistical system.<sup><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Challenges[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1">edit</a>]</h2>
<h3>Interstellar distances[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Distances between the planets in the Solar System are often measured in astronomical units (AU), defined as the average distance between the Sun and Earth, some 1.5×10<sup>8</sup> kilometers (93 million miles). <a href="/wiki/Venus">Venus</a>, the closest planet to Earth is (at closest approach) 0.28 AU away. <a href="/wiki/Neptune">Neptune</a>, the farthest planet from the Sun, is 29.8 AU away. As of January 20, 2023, <a href="/wiki/Voyager_1">Voyager 1</a>, the farthest human-made object from Earth, is 159 AU away.<sup><a href="#cite_note-voyager-5">[5]</a></sup>
</p><p>The closest known star, <a href="/wiki/Proxima_Centauri">Proxima Centauri</a>, is approximately 268,332 AU away, or over 9,000 times farther away than Neptune.
</p>
<table>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Object
</th>
<th>Distance<br />(AU)
</th>
<th>Light time
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Moon">Moon</a>
</td>
<td>0.0026
</td>
<td>1.3 seconds
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Sun">Sun</a>
</td>
<td>1
</td>
<td>8 minutes
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Venus">Venus</a> (nearest planet)
</td>
<td>0.28
</td>
<td>2.41 minutes
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Neptune">Neptune</a> (farthest planet)
</td>
<td>29.8
</td>
<td>4.1 hours
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Voyager_2">Voyager 2</a>
</td>
<td>133.1
</td>
<td>18.45 hours
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Voyager_1">Voyager 1</a>
</td>
<td>159.4
</td>
<td>22.1 hours
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Proxima_Centauri">Proxima Centauri</a> (nearest star and exoplanet)   
</td>
<td>268,332 
</td>
<td>4.24 years
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>Because of this, distances between stars are usually expressed in <a href="/wiki/Light-year">light-years</a> (defined as the distance that light travels in vacuum in one <a href="/wiki/Julian_year_(astronomy)">Julian year</a>) or in <a href="/wiki/Parsec">parsecs</a> (one parsec is 3.26 ly, the distance at which <a href="/wiki/Stellar_parallax">stellar parallax</a> is exactly one <a href="/wiki/Arcsecond">arcsecond</a>, hence the name). Light in a vacuum travels around 300,000 kilometres (186,000 mi) per second, so 1 light-year is about 9.461×10<sup>12</sup> kilometers (5.879 trillion miles) or 63,241 AU. Hence, Proxima Centauri is approximately 4.243 light-years from Earth.
</p><p>Another way of understanding the vastness of interstellar distances is by scaling: One of the closest stars to the Sun, <a href="/wiki/Alpha_Centauri_A">Alpha Centauri A</a> (a Sun-like star that is one of two companions of Proxima Centauri), can be pictured by scaling down the <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_unit">Earth–Sun distance</a> to one meter (3.28 ft). On this scale, the distance to Alpha Centauri A would be 276 kilometers (171 miles).
</p><p>The fastest outward-bound spacecraft yet sent, <a href="/wiki/Voyager_1#Interstellar_mission">Voyager 1</a>, has covered 1/600 of a light-year in 30 years and is currently moving at 1/18,000 the speed of light. At this rate, a journey to Proxima Centauri would take 80,000 years.<sup><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Required energy[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>A significant factor contributing to the difficulty is the energy that must be supplied to obtain a reasonable travel time. A lower bound for the required energy is the <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy">kinetic energy</a> where is the final mass. If <a href="/wiki/Deceleration">deceleration</a> on arrival is desired and cannot be achieved by any means other than the engines of the ship, then the lower bound for the required energy is doubled to .<sup><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup>
</p><p>The velocity for a crewed round trip of a few decades to even the nearest star is several thousand times greater than those of present space vehicles. This means that due to the term in the kinetic energy formula, millions of times as much energy is required. Accelerating one ton to one-tenth of the speed of light requires at least 450 petajoules or 4.50×10<sup>17</sup> joules or 125 terawatt-hours<sup><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> (<a href="/wiki/World_energy_consumption">world energy consumption</a> 2008 was 143,851 terawatt-hours),<sup><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup> without factoring in efficiency of the propulsion mechanism. This energy has to be generated onboard from stored fuel, harvested from the interstellar medium, or projected over immense distances.
</p>
<h3>Interstellar medium[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>A knowledge of the properties of the <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_medium">interstellar gas and dust</a> through which the vehicle must pass is essential for the design of any interstellar space mission.<sup><a href="#cite_note-ism-10">[10]</a></sup> A major issue with traveling at extremely high speeds is that due to the requisite high relative speeds and large kinetic energies, collisions with interstellar dust could cause considerable damage to the craft. Various shielding methods to mitigate this problem have been proposed.<sup><a href="#cite_note-NASA-11">[11]</a></sup> Larger objects (such as macroscopic dust grains) are far less common, but would be much more destructive. The risks of impacting such objects and mitigation methods have been discussed in literature, but many unknowns remain.<sup><a href="#cite_note-HGarrett-12">[12]</a></sup> An additional consideration is that due the non-homogeneous distribution of interstellar matter around the Sun, these risks would vary between different trajectories.<sup><a href="#cite_note-ism-10">[10]</a></sup> Although a high density interstellar medium may cause difficulties for many interstellar travel concepts, <a href="/wiki/Bussard_ramjet">interstellar ramjets</a>, and some proposed concepts for decelerating interstellar spacecraft, would actually benefit from a denser interstellar medium.<sup><a href="#cite_note-ism-10">[10]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Hazards[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>The crew of an interstellar ship would face several significant hazards, including the psychological effects of long-term <a href="/wiki/Solitude">isolation</a>, the physiological effects of extreme acceleration, the effects of exposure to <a href="/wiki/Ionising_radiation">ionising radiation</a>, and the physiological effects of <a href="/wiki/Weightlessness">weightlessness</a> to the muscles, joints, bones, immune system, and eyes. There also exists the risk of impact by <a href="/wiki/Micrometeoroid">micrometeoroids</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Space_debris">space debris</a>. These risks represent challenges that have yet to be overcome.<sup><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Wait calculation[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>The physicist <a href="/wiki/Robert_L._Forward">Robert L. Forward</a> has argued that an interstellar mission that cannot be completed within 50 years should not be started at all. Instead, assuming that a civilization is still on an increasing curve of propulsion system velocity and not yet having reached the limit, the resources should be invested in designing a better propulsion system. This is because a slow spacecraft would probably be passed by another mission sent later with more advanced propulsion (the incessant obsolescence postulate).<sup><a href="#cite_note-Bob_Forward_1996-14">[14]</a></sup>
</p><p>On the other hand, Andrew Kennedy has shown that if one calculates the journey time to a given destination as the rate of travel speed derived from growth (even exponential growth) increases, there is a clear minimum in the total time to that destination from now.<sup><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup> Voyages undertaken before the minimum will be overtaken by those that leave at the minimum, whereas voyages that leave after the minimum will never overtake those that left at the minimum.
</p>
<h2>Prime targets for interstellar travel[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>There are 59 known <a href="/wiki/Stellar_system">stellar systems</a> within 40 light years of the Sun, containing 81 visible stars. The following could be considered prime targets for interstellar missions:<sup><a href="#cite_note-Bob_Forward_1996-14">[14]</a></sup>
</p>
<table>
<tbody><tr>
<th>System</th>
<th>Distance (ly)</th>
<th>Remarks
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Alpha_Centauri">Alpha Centauri</a></td>
<td>4.3</td>
<td>Closest system. Three stars (G2, K1, M5). Component A <a href="/wiki/Solar_analog">is similar to the Sun</a> (a G2 star). On August 24, 2016, the discovery of an Earth-size <a href="/wiki/Exoplanet">exoplanet</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proxima_Centauri_b">Proxima Centauri b</a>) orbiting in the habitable zone of <a href="/wiki/Proxima_Centauri">Proxima Centauri</a> was announced.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Barnard%27s_Star">Barnard's Star</a></td>
<td>6</td>
<td>Small, low-luminosity M5 <a href="/wiki/Red_dwarf">red dwarf</a>. Second closest to Solar System.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Sirius">Sirius</a></td>
<td>8.7</td>
<td>Large, very bright A1 star with a <a href="/wiki/White_dwarf">white dwarf</a> companion.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Epsilon_Eridani">Epsilon Eridani</a></td>
<td>10.8</td>
<td>Single K2 star slightly smaller and colder than the Sun. It has two asteroid belts, might have a giant and one much smaller planet,<sup><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup> and may possess a Solar-System-type planetary system.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Tau_Ceti">Tau Ceti</a></td>
<td>11.8</td>
<td>Single <a href="/wiki/G-type_main-sequence_star">G8 star</a> similar to the Sun. High probability of possessing a Solar-System-type planetary system: current evidence shows 5 planets with potentially two in the habitable zone.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Luyten%27s_Star">Luyten's Star</a>
</td>
<td>12.36
</td>
<td>M3 red dwarf with the super-Earth <a href="/wiki/Luyten_b">Luyten b</a> orbiting in the habitable zone.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Wolf_1061">Wolf 1061</a></td>
<td>~14</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Wolf_1061_c">Wolf 1061 c</a> is 1.6 times the size of Earth; it may have rocky terrain. It also sits within the 'Goldilocks' zone where it might be possible for liquid water to exist.<sup><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Gliese_581_planetary_system">Gliese 581 planetary system</a></td>
<td>20.3</td>
<td>Multiple planet system. The unconfirmed exoplanet <a href="/wiki/Gliese_581g">Gliese 581g</a> and the confirmed exoplanet <a href="/wiki/Gliese_581d">Gliese 581d</a> are in the star's <a href="/wiki/Habitable_zone">habitable zone</a>.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Gliese_667C">Gliese 667C</a></td>
<td>22</td>
<td>A system with at least six planets. A record-breaking three of these planets are super-Earths lying in the zone around the star where liquid water could exist, making them possible candidates for the presence of life.<sup><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Vega">Vega</a></td>
<td>25</td>
<td>A very young system possibly in the process of planetary formation.<sup><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/TRAPPIST-1">TRAPPIST-1</a></td>
<td>39</td>
<td>A system which boasts 7 Earth-like planets, some of which may have liquid water. The discovery is a major advancement in finding a habitable planet and in finding a planet that could support life.
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>Existing astronomical technology is capable of finding planetary systems around these objects, increasing their potential for exploration.
</p>
<h2>Proposed methods[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8">edit</a>]</h2>
<h3>Slow, uncrewed probes[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>"Slow" interstellar missions (still fast by other standards) based on current and near-future propulsion technologies are associated with trip times starting from about several decades to thousands of years. These missions consist of sending a robotic probe to a nearby star for exploration, similar to interplanetary probes like those used in the <a href="/wiki/Voyager_program">Voyager program</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Administration-20">[20]</a></sup> By taking along no crew, the cost and complexity of the mission is significantly reduced, as is the mass that needs to be accelerated, although technology lifetime is still a significant issue next to obtaining a reasonable speed of travel. Proposed concepts include <a href="/wiki/Project_Daedalus">Project Daedalus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Project_Icarus_(interstellar)">Project Icarus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Project_Dragonfly_(space_study)">Project Dragonfly</a>, <a href="/wiki/Project_Longshot">Project Longshot</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-centauri-dreams.org-21">[21]</a></sup> and more recently <a href="/wiki/Breakthrough_Starshot">Breakthrough Starshot</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Fast, uncrewed probes[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10">edit</a>]</h3>
<h4>Nanoprobes[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11">edit</a>]</h4>
<p>Near-lightspeed nano spacecraft might be possible within the near future built on existing microchip technology with a newly developed nanoscale thruster. Researchers at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan">University of Michigan</a> are developing thrusters that use nanoparticles as propellant. Their technology is called "nanoparticle field extraction thruster", or <a href="/wiki/Nano-particle_field_extraction_thruster">nanoFET</a>. These devices act like small particle accelerators shooting conductive nanoparticles out into space.<sup><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Michio_Kaku">Michio Kaku</a>, a theoretical physicist, has suggested that clouds of "smart dust" be sent to the stars, which may become possible with advances in <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a>. Kaku also notes that a large number of nanoprobes would need to be sent due to the vulnerability of very small probes to be easily deflected by magnetic fields, micrometeorites and other dangers to ensure the chances that at least one nanoprobe will survive the journey and reach the destination.<sup><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup>
</p><p>As a near-term solution, small, laser-propelled interstellar probes, based on current CubeSat technology were proposed in the context of <a href="/wiki/Project_Dragonfly_(space_study)">Project Dragonfly</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-centauri-dreams.org-21">[21]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Slow, crewed missions[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>In crewed missions, the duration of a slow interstellar journey presents a major obstacle and existing concepts deal with this problem in different ways.<sup><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup> They can be distinguished by the "state" in which humans are transported on-board of the spacecraft.
</p>
<h4>Generation ships[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13">edit</a>]</h4>
<p>A <a href="/wiki/Generation_ship">generation ship</a> (or <b>world ship</b>) is a type of <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_ark">interstellar ark</a> in which the crew that arrives at the destination is descended from those who started the journey. Generation ships are not currently feasible because of the difficulty of constructing a ship of the enormous required scale and the great biological and sociological problems that life aboard such a ship raises.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Hein_2012_119–133-26">[26]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Hein_2020_75–104-27">[27]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Suspended animation[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14">edit</a>]</h4>
<p>Scientists and writers have postulated various techniques for <a href="/wiki/Suspended_animation">suspended animation</a>. These include human <a href="/wiki/Hibernation">hibernation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cryonics">cryonic preservation</a>. Although neither is currently practical, they offer the possibility of <a href="/wiki/Sleeper_ship">sleeper ships</a> in which the passengers lie inert for the long duration of the voyage.<sup><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Frozen embryos[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15">edit</a>]</h4>
<p>A <a href="/wiki/Robotic">robotic</a> interstellar mission carrying some number of frozen early stage human <a href="/wiki/Embryo">embryos</a> is another theoretical possibility. This method of <a href="/wiki/Space_colonization">space colonization</a> requires, among other things, the development of an <a href="/wiki/Artificial_uterus">artificial uterus</a>, the prior detection of a habitable <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_planet">terrestrial planet</a>, and advances in the field of fully autonomous <a href="/wiki/Robotics">mobile robots</a> and educational robots that would replace human parents.<sup><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Island hopping through interstellar space[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16">edit</a>]</h4>
<p>Interstellar space is not completely empty; it contains trillions of icy bodies ranging from small asteroids (<a href="/wiki/Oort_cloud">Oort cloud</a>) to possible <a href="/wiki/Rogue_planet">rogue planets</a>. There may be ways to take advantage of these resources for a good part of an interstellar trip, slowly hopping from body to body or setting up waystations along the way.<sup><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Fast, crewed missions[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>If a spaceship could average 10 percent of light speed (and decelerate at the destination, for human crewed missions), this would be enough to reach <a href="/wiki/Proxima_Centauri">Proxima Centauri</a> in forty years. Several propulsion concepts have been proposed<sup><a href="#cite_note-crawist-34">[34]</a></sup> that might be eventually developed to accomplish this (see <a href="#Propulsion">§ Propulsion</a> below), but none of them are ready for near-term (few decades) developments at acceptable cost.
</p>
<h4>Time dilation[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18">edit</a>]</h4>
<p>Physicists generally believe faster-than-light travel is impossible. 
Relativistic <a href="/wiki/Time_dilation">time dilation</a> allows a traveler to experience time more slowly, the closer their speed is to the speed of light.<sup><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup> This apparent slowing becomes noticeable when velocities above 80% of the speed of light are attained. Clocks aboard an interstellar ship would run slower than Earth clocks, so if a ship's engines were capable of continuously generating around 1 g of acceleration (which is comfortable for humans), the ship could reach almost anywhere in the galaxy and return to Earth within 40 years ship-time (see diagram). Upon return, there would be a difference between the time elapsed on the astronaut's ship and the time elapsed on Earth.
</p><p>For example, a spaceship could travel to a star 32 light-years away, initially accelerating at a constant 1.03g (i.e. 10.1 m/s<sup>2</sup>) for 1.32 years (ship time), then stopping its engines and coasting for the next 17.3 years (ship time) at a constant speed, then decelerating again for 1.32 ship-years, and coming to a stop at the destination. After a short visit, the astronaut could return to Earth the same way. After the full round-trip, the clocks on board the ship show that 40 years have passed, but according to those on Earth, the ship comes back 76 years after launch.
</p><p>From the viewpoint of the astronaut, onboard clocks seem to be running normally. The star ahead seems to be approaching at a speed of 0.87 light years per ship-year. The universe would appear contracted along the direction of travel to half the size it had when the ship was at rest; the distance between that star and the Sun would seem to be 16 light years as measured by the astronaut.
</p><p>At higher speeds, the time on board will run even slower, so the astronaut could travel to the center of the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way">Milky Way</a> (30,000 light years from Earth) and back in 40 years ship-time. But the speed according to Earth clocks will always be less than 1 light year per Earth year, so, when back home, the astronaut will find that more than 60 thousand years will have passed on Earth.
</p>
<h4>Constant acceleration[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19">edit</a>]</h4>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Roundtriptimes.png"></a></p><div><p>This plot shows a ship capable of 1-<a href="/wiki/Gravitational_acceleration">g</a> (10 m/s<sup>2</sup> or about 1.0 ly/y<sup>2</sup>) "felt" or proper-acceleration<sup><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup> can go far, except for the problem of accelerating on-board propellant.</p></div></div>
<p>Regardless of how it is achieved, a propulsion system that could produce acceleration continuously from departure to arrival would be the fastest method of travel. A constant acceleration journey is one where the propulsion system accelerates the ship at a constant rate for the first half of the journey, and then decelerates for the second half, so that it arrives at the destination stationary relative to where it began. If this were performed with an acceleration similar to that experienced at the Earth's surface, it would have the added advantage of producing artificial "gravity" for the crew. Supplying the energy required, however, would be prohibitively expensive with current technology.<sup><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup>
</p><p>From the perspective of a planetary observer, the ship will appear to accelerate steadily at first, but then more gradually as it approaches the speed of light (which it cannot exceed). It will undergo <a href="/wiki/Hyperbolic_motion_(relativity)">hyperbolic motion</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup> The ship will be close to the speed of light after about a year of accelerating and remain at that speed until it brakes for the end of the journey.
</p><p>From the perspective of an onboard observer, the crew will feel a <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_field">gravitational field</a> opposite the engine's acceleration, and the universe ahead will appear to fall in that field, undergoing hyperbolic motion. As part of this, distances between objects in the direction of the ship's motion will gradually contract until the ship begins to decelerate, at which time an onboard observer's experience of the gravitational field will be reversed.
</p><p>When the ship reaches its destination, if it were to exchange a message with its origin planet, it would find that less time had elapsed on board than had elapsed for the planetary observer, due to <a href="/wiki/Time_dilation">time dilation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Length_contraction">length contraction</a>.
</p><p>The result is an impressively fast journey for the crew.
</p>
<h2>Propulsion[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20">edit</a>]</h2>
<h3>Rocket concepts[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>All rocket concepts are limited by the <a href="/wiki/Rocket_equation">rocket equation</a>, which sets the characteristic velocity available as a function of exhaust velocity and mass ratio, the ratio of initial (<i>M</i><sub>0</sub>, including fuel) to final (<i>M</i><sub>1</sub>, fuel depleted) mass.
</p><p>Very high <a href="/wiki/Power-to-weight_ratio">specific power</a>, the ratio of thrust to total vehicle mass, is required to reach interstellar targets within sub-century time-frames.<sup><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup> Some heat transfer is inevitable and a tremendous heating load must be adequately handled.
</p><p>Thus, for interstellar rocket concepts of all technologies, a key engineering problem (seldom explicitly discussed) is limiting the heat transfer from the exhaust stream back into the vehicle.<sup><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Ion engine[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22">edit</a>]</h4>
<p>A type of electric propulsion, spacecraft such as <i><a href="/wiki/Dawn_(spacecraft)">Dawn</a></i> use an <a href="/wiki/Ion_engine">ion engine</a>. In an ion engine, electric power is used to create charged particles of the propellant, usually the gas xenon, and accelerate them to extremely high velocities. The exhaust velocity of conventional rockets is limited to about 5 km/s by the chemical energy stored in the fuel's molecular bonds. They produce a high thrust (about 10<sup>6</sup> N), but they have a low specific impulse, and that limits their top speed. By contrast, ion engines have low force, but the top speed in principle is limited only by the electrical power available on the spacecraft and on the gas ions being accelerated. The exhaust speed of the charged particles range from 15 km/s to 35 km/s.<sup><a href="#cite_note-http://www.iflscience.com-41">[41]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Nuclear fission powered[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23">edit</a>]</h4>
<h5>Fission-electric[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24">edit</a>]</h5>
<p>Nuclear-electric or plasma engines, operating for long periods at low thrust and powered by fission reactors, have the potential to reach speeds much greater than chemically powered vehicles or nuclear-thermal rockets. Such vehicles probably have the potential to power solar system exploration with reasonable trip times within the current century. Because of their low-thrust propulsion, they would be limited to off-planet, deep-space operation. <a href="/wiki/Electrically_powered_spacecraft_propulsion">Electrically powered spacecraft propulsion</a> powered by a portable power-source, say a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor">nuclear reactor</a>, producing only small accelerations, would take centuries to reach for example 15% of the <a href="/wiki/Velocity_of_light">velocity of light</a>, thus unsuitable for interstellar flight during a single human lifetime.<sup><a href="#cite_note-scholar.googleusercontent.com-42">[42]</a></sup>
</p>
<h5>Fission-fragment[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25">edit</a>]</h5>
<p><a href="/wiki/Fission-fragment_rocket">Fission-fragment rockets</a> use <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission">nuclear fission</a> to create high-speed jets of fission fragments, which are ejected at speeds of up to 12,000 km/s (7,500 mi/s). With fission, the energy output is approximately 0.1% of the total mass-energy of the reactor fuel and limits the effective exhaust velocity to about 5% of the velocity of light. For maximum velocity, the reaction mass should optimally consist of fission products, the "ash" of the primary energy source, so no extra reaction mass need be bookkept in the mass ratio.
</p>
<h5>Nuclear pulse[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=26">edit</a>]</h5>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Modern_Pulsed_Fission_Propulsion_Concept.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Modern Pulsed Fission Propulsion Concept.</p></div></div><p>Based on work in the late 1950s to the early 1960s, it has been technically possible to build spaceships with <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_pulse_propulsion">nuclear pulse propulsion</a> engines, i.e. driven by a series of nuclear explosions. This propulsion system contains the prospect of very high <a href="/wiki/Specific_impulse">specific impulse</a> (space travel's equivalent of fuel economy) and high <a href="/wiki/Power-to-weight_ratio">specific power</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-GeneralDynamics1964NuclearPulseVehicleCondensed-43">[43]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Project_Orion_(nuclear_propulsion)">Project Orion</a> team member <a href="/wiki/Freeman_Dyson">Freeman Dyson</a> proposed in 1968 an interstellar spacecraft using nuclear pulse propulsion that used pure <a href="/wiki/Deuterium_fusion">deuterium fusion</a> detonations with a very high fuel-<a href="/wiki/Burnup">burnup</a> fraction. He computed an exhaust velocity of 15,000 km/s and a 100,000-tonne space vehicle able to achieve a 20,000 km/s <a href="/wiki/Delta-v">delta-v</a> allowing a flight-time to <a href="/wiki/Alpha_Centauri">Alpha Centauri</a> of 130 years.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Interstellar_Transport-44">[44]</a></sup> Later studies indicate that the top cruise velocity that can theoretically be achieved by a Teller-Ulam thermonuclear unit powered Orion starship, assuming no fuel is saved for slowing back down, is about 8% to 10% of the speed of light (0.08-0.1c).<sup><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup> An atomic (fission) Orion can achieve perhaps 3%-5% of the speed of light. A nuclear pulse drive starship powered by fusion-antimatter catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion units would be similarly in the 10% range and pure matter-antimatter annihilation rockets would be theoretically capable of obtaining a velocity between 50% to 80% of the speed of light. In each case saving fuel for slowing down halves the maximum speed. The concept of using a <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_sail">magnetic sail</a> to decelerate the spacecraft as it approaches its destination has been discussed as an alternative to using propellant, this would allow the ship to travel near the maximum theoretical velocity.<sup><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup> Alternative designs utilizing similar principles include <a href="/wiki/Project_Longshot">Project Longshot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Project_Daedalus">Project Daedalus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mini-Mag_Orion">Mini-Mag Orion</a>. The principle of external nuclear pulse propulsion to maximize survivable power has remained common among serious concepts for interstellar flight without external power beaming and for very high-performance interplanetary flight.
</p><p>In the 1970s the Nuclear Pulse Propulsion concept further was refined by <a href="/wiki/Project_Daedalus">Project Daedalus</a> by use of externally triggered <a href="/wiki/Inertial_confinement_fusion">inertial confinement fusion</a>, in this case producing fusion explosions via compressing fusion fuel pellets with high-powered electron beams. Since then, <a href="/wiki/Laser">lasers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ion_beam">ion beams</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neutral_particle_beam">neutral particle beams</a> and hyper-kinetic projectiles have been suggested to produce nuclear pulses for propulsion purposes.<sup><a href="#cite_note-The_Release_of_Thermonuclear_Energy_by_Inertial_Confinement-47">[47]</a></sup>
</p><p>A current impediment to the development of <i>any</i> nuclear-explosion-powered spacecraft is the <a href="/wiki/Partial_Test_Ban_Treaty">1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty</a>, which includes a prohibition on the detonation of any nuclear devices (even non-weapon based) in outer space. This treaty would, therefore, need to be renegotiated, although a project on the scale of an interstellar mission using currently foreseeable technology would probably require international cooperation on at least the scale of the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station">International Space Station</a>.
</p><p>Another issue to be considered, would be the <a href="/wiki/G-force">g-forces</a> imparted to a rapidly accelerated spacecraft, cargo, and passengers inside (see <a href="/wiki/Inertia_negation">Inertia negation</a>).
</p>
<h4>Nuclear fusion rockets[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=27">edit</a>]</h4>
<p><a href="/wiki/Fusion_rocket">Fusion rocket</a> starships, powered by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion">nuclear fusion</a> reactions, should conceivably be able to reach speeds of the order of 10% of that of light, based on energy considerations alone. In theory, a large number of stages could push a vehicle arbitrarily close to the speed of light.<sup><a href="#cite_note-L.D._Jaffe_1963,_pp._49-58-48">[48]</a></sup> These would "burn" such light element fuels as deuterium, tritium, <sup>3</sup>He, <sup>11</sup>B, and <sup>7</sup>Li. Because fusion yields about 0.3–0.9% of the mass of the nuclear fuel as released energy, it is energetically more favorable than fission, which releases &lt;0.1% of the fuel's mass-energy. The maximum exhaust velocities potentially energetically available are correspondingly higher than for fission, typically 4–10% of the speed of light. However, the most easily achievable fusion reactions release a large fraction of their energy as high-energy neutrons, which are a significant source of energy loss. Thus, although these concepts seem to offer the best (nearest-term) prospects for travel to the nearest stars within a (long) human lifetime, they still involve massive technological and engineering difficulties, which may turn out to be intractable for decades or centuries.
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Daedalus_ship.png"></a></p><div><p>Daedalus interstellar probe.</p></div></div><p>Early studies include <a href="/wiki/Project_Daedalus">Project Daedalus</a>, performed by the <a href="/wiki/British_Interplanetary_Society">British Interplanetary Society</a> in 1973–1978, and <a href="/wiki/Project_Longshot">Project Longshot</a>, a student project sponsored by <a href="/wiki/NASA">NASA</a> and the <a href="/wiki/US_Naval_Academy">US Naval Academy</a>, completed in 1988. Another fairly detailed vehicle system, "Discovery II",<sup><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup> designed and optimized for crewed Solar System exploration, based on the D<sup>3</sup>He reaction but using hydrogen as reaction mass, has been described by a team from NASA's <a href="/wiki/Glenn_Research_Center">Glenn Research Center</a>. It achieves characteristic velocities of &gt;300 km/s with an acceleration of ~1.7•10<sup>−3</sup> <i>g</i>, with a ship initial mass of ~1700 metric tons, and payload fraction above 10%. Although these are still far short of the requirements for interstellar travel on human timescales, the study seems to represent a reasonable benchmark towards what may be approachable within several decades, which is not impossibly beyond the current state-of-the-art. Based on the concept's 2.2% <a href="/wiki/Burnup">burnup</a> fraction it could achieve a pure fusion product exhaust velocity of ~3,000 km/s.
</p><h4>Antimatter rockets[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=28">edit</a>]</h4>
<p>An <a href="/wiki/Antimatter_rocket">antimatter rocket</a> would have a far higher energy density and specific impulse than any other proposed class of rocket.<sup><a href="#cite_note-crawist-34">[34]</a></sup> If energy resources and efficient production methods are found to make <a href="/wiki/Antimatter">antimatter</a> in the quantities required and store<sup><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup> it safely, it would be theoretically possible to reach speeds of several tens of percent that of light.<sup><a href="#cite_note-crawist-34">[34]</a></sup> Whether antimatter propulsion could lead to the higher speeds (&gt;90% that of light) at which relativistic <a href="/wiki/Time_dilation">time dilation</a> would become more noticeable, thus making time pass at a slower rate for the travelers as perceived by an outside observer, is doubtful owing to the large quantity of antimatter that would be required.<sup><a href="#cite_note-crawist-34">[34]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup>
</p><p>Speculating that production and storage of antimatter should become feasible, two further issues need to be considered. First, in the annihilation of antimatter, much of the energy is lost as high-energy <a href="/wiki/Gamma_radiation">gamma radiation</a>, and especially also as <a href="/wiki/Neutrino">neutrinos</a>, so that only about 40% of <i>mc</i><sup>2</sup> would actually be available if the antimatter were simply allowed to annihilate into radiations thermally.<sup><a href="#cite_note-crawist-34">[34]</a></sup> Even so, the energy available for propulsion would be substantially higher than the ~1% of <i>mc</i><sup>2</sup> yield of nuclear fusion, the next-best rival candidate.
</p><p>Second, heat transfer from the exhaust to the vehicle seems likely to transfer enormous wasted energy into the ship (e.g. for 0.1<i>g</i> ship acceleration, approaching 0.3 trillion watts per ton of ship mass), considering the large fraction of the energy that goes into penetrating gamma rays. Even assuming shielding was provided to protect the payload (and passengers on a crewed vehicle), some of the energy would inevitably heat the vehicle, and may thereby prove a limiting factor if useful accelerations are to be achieved.
</p><p>More recently, <a href="/wiki/Friedwardt_Winterberg">Friedwardt Winterberg</a> proposed that a matter-antimatter GeV gamma ray laser photon rocket is possible by a relativistic proton-antiproton pinch discharge, where the recoil from the laser beam is transmitted by the <a href="/wiki/M%C3%B6ssbauer_effect">Mössbauer effect</a> to the spacecraft.<sup><a href="#cite_note-AA-20120821-53">[53]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Rockets with an external energy source[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=29">edit</a>]</h4>
<p>Rockets deriving their power from external sources, such as a <a href="/wiki/Laser">laser</a>, could replace their internal energy source with an energy collector, potentially reducing the mass of the ship greatly and allowing much higher travel speeds. <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_A._Landis">Geoffrey A. Landis</a> proposed an <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_probe">interstellar probe</a> propelled by an <a href="/wiki/Ion_thruster">ion thruster</a> powered by the energy beamed to it from a base station laser.<sup><a href="#cite_note-geoffreylandis.com-54">[54]</a></sup> Lenard and Andrews proposed using a base station laser to accelerate nuclear fuel pellets towards a <a href="/wiki/Mini-Mag_Orion">Mini-Mag Orion</a> spacecraft that ignites them for propulsion.<sup><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Non-rocket concepts[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=30">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>A problem with all traditional rocket propulsion methods is that the spacecraft would need to carry its fuel with it, thus making it very massive, in accordance with the <a href="/wiki/Rocket_equation">rocket equation</a>. Several concepts attempt to escape from this problem:<sup><a href="#cite_note-crawist-34">[34]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>RF resonant cavity thruster[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=31">edit</a>]</h4>
<p>A radio frequency (RF) resonant cavity thruster is a device that is claimed to be a <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft_propulsion">spacecraft thruster</a>. In 2016, the <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Propulsion_Physics_Laboratory">Advanced Propulsion Physics Laboratory</a> at <a href="/wiki/NASA">NASA</a> reported observing a small apparent thrust from one such test, a result not since replicated.<sup><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup> One of the designs is called EMDrive. In December 2002, Satellite Propulsion Research Ltd described a working prototype with an alleged total thrust of about 0.02 newtons powered by an 850 W <a href="/wiki/Cavity_magnetron">cavity magnetron</a>. The device could operate for only a few dozen seconds before the magnetron failed, due to overheating.<sup><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup> The latest test on the EMDrive concluded that it does not work.<sup><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Helical engine[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=32">edit</a>]</h4>
<p>Proposed in 2019 by NASA scientist Dr. David Burns, the helical engine concept would use a particle accelerator to accelerate particles to near the speed of light. Since particles traveling at such speeds acquire more mass, it is believed that this mass change could create acceleration. According to Burns, the spacecraft could theoretically reach 99% the speed of light.<sup><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Interstellar ramjets[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=33">edit</a>]</h4>
<p>In 1960, <a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Bussard">Robert W. Bussard</a> proposed the <a href="/wiki/Bussard_ramjet">Bussard ramjet</a>, a fusion rocket in which a huge scoop would collect the diffuse hydrogen in interstellar space, "burn" it on the fly using a <a href="/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93proton_chain_reaction">proton–proton chain reaction</a>, and expel it out of the back. Later calculations with more accurate estimates suggest that the thrust generated would be less than the drag caused by any conceivable scoop design.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> Yet the idea is attractive because the fuel would be collected <i>en route</i> (commensurate with the concept of <i>energy harvesting</i>), so the craft could theoretically accelerate to near the speed of light. The limitation is due to the fact that the reaction can only accelerate the propellant to 0.12c. Thus the drag of catching interstellar dust and the thrust of accelerating that same dust to 0.12c would be the same when the speed is 0.12c, preventing further acceleration.
</p>
<h4>Beamed propulsion[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=34">edit</a>]</h4>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Forward-sailcraft-scheme.png"></a></p></div>
<p>A <a href="/wiki/Solar_sail">light sail</a> or <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_sail">magnetic sail</a> powered by a massive <a href="/wiki/Laser">laser</a> or particle accelerator in the home star system could potentially reach even greater speeds than rocket- or pulse propulsion methods, because it would not need to carry its own <a href="/wiki/Reaction_mass">reaction mass</a> and therefore would only need to accelerate the craft's <a href="/wiki/Payload_(air_and_space_craft)">payload</a>. <a href="/wiki/Robert_L._Forward">Robert L. Forward</a> proposed a means for decelerating an interstellar craft with a light sail of 100 kilometers in the destination star system without requiring a laser array to be present in that system. In this scheme, a secondary sail of 30 kilometers is deployed to the rear of the spacecraft, while the large primary sail is detached from the craft to keep moving forward on its own. Light is reflected from the large primary sail to the secondary sail, which is used to decelerate the secondary sail and the spacecraft payload.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Forward1984RoundtripInterstellar-61">[61]</a></sup> In 2002, <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_A._Landis">Geoffrey A. Landis</a> of <a href="/wiki/NASA">NASA</a>'s Glen Research center also proposed a laser-powered, propulsion, sail ship that would host a diamond sail (of a few nanometers thick) powered with the use of <a href="/wiki/Solar_energy">solar energy</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></sup> With this proposal, this interstellar ship would, theoretically, be able to reach 10 percent the speed of light. It has also been proposed to use beamed-powered propulsion to accelerate a spacecraft, and electromagnetic propulsion to decelerate it; thus, eliminating the problem that the Bussard ramjet has with the drag produced during acceleration.<sup><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup>
</p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_sail">magnetic sail</a> could also decelerate at its destination without depending on carried fuel or a driving beam in the destination system, by interacting with the plasma found in the solar wind of the destination star and the interstellar medium.<sup><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup>
</p><p>The following table lists some example concepts using beamed laser propulsion as proposed by the physicist <a href="/wiki/Robert_L._Forward">Robert L. Forward</a>:<sup><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup>
</p>
<table>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Mission</th>
<th>Laser Power</th>
<th>Vehicle Mass</th>
<th>Acceleration</th>
<th>Sail Diameter</th>
<th>Maximum Velocity <br /> (% of the speed of light)
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>1. Flyby – Alpha Centauri, 40 years
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><i>outbound stage</i></td>
<td>65 GW</td>
<td>1 t</td>
<td>0.036 g</td>
<td>3.6 km</td>
<td>11% @ 0.17 ly
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>2. Rendezvous – Alpha Centauri, 41 years
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><i>outbound stage</i></td>
<td>7,200 GW</td>
<td>785 t</td>
<td>0.005 g</td>
<td>100 km</td>
<td>21% @ 4.29 ly<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Interstellar_travel#Dubious">discuss</a></i>]</sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><i>deceleration stage</i></td>
<td>26,000 GW</td>
<td>71 t</td>
<td>0.2 g</td>
<td>30 km</td>
<td>21% @ 4.29 ly
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>3. Crewed – Epsilon Eridani, 51 years (including 5 years exploring star system)
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><i>outbound stage</i></td>
<td>75,000,000 GW</td>
<td>78,500 t</td>
<td>0.3 g</td>
<td>1000 km</td>
<td>50% @ 0.4 ly
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><i>deceleration stage</i></td>
<td>21,500,000 GW</td>
<td>7,850 t</td>
<td>0.3 g</td>
<td>320 km</td>
<td>50% @ 10.4 ly
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><i>return stage</i></td>
<td>710,000 GW</td>
<td>785 t</td>
<td>0.3 g</td>
<td>100 km</td>
<td>50% @ 10.4 ly
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><i>deceleration stage</i></td>
<td>60,000 GW</td>
<td>785 t</td>
<td>0.3 g</td>
<td>100 km</td>
<td>50% @ 0.4 ly
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h5>Interstellar travel catalog to use photogravitational assists for a full stop[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=35">edit</a>]</h5>
<p>The following table is based on work by Heller, Hippke and Kervella.<sup><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></sup>
</p>
<table>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Name</th>
<th>Travel time<br /> (yr)</th>
<th>Distance<br /> (ly)</th>
<th>Luminosity<br /> (<a href="/wiki/Sun">L<sub>☉</sub></a>)
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td><i>Sirius A</i></td>
<td>68.90</td>
<td>8.58</td>
<td>24.20
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><i>α Centauri A</i></td>
<td>101.25</td>
<td>4.36</td>
<td>1.52
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><i>α Centauri B</i></td>
<td>147.58</td>
<td>4.36</td>
<td>0.50
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><i>Procyon A</i></td>
<td>154.06</td>
<td>11.44</td>
<td>6.94
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><i>Vega</i></td>
<td>167.39</td>
<td>25.02</td>
<td>50.05
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><i> Altair</i></td>
<td>176.67</td>
<td>16.69</td>
<td>10.70
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><i>Fomalhaut A</i></td>
<td>221.33</td>
<td>25.13</td>
<td>16.67
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><i>Denebola</i></td>
<td>325.56</td>
<td>35.78</td>
<td>14.66
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><i>Castor A</i></td>
<td>341.35</td>
<td>50.98</td>
<td>49.85
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><i>Epsilon Eridani</i></td>
<td>363.35</td>
<td>10.50</td>
<td>0.50
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<ul><li>Successive assists at α Cen A and B could allow travel times to 75 yr to both stars.</li>
<li>Lightsail has a nominal mass-to-surface ratio (σ<sub>nom</sub>) of 8.6×10<sup>−4</sup> gram m<sup>−2</sup> for a nominal graphene-class sail.</li>
<li>Area of the Lightsail, about 10<sup>5</sup> m<sup>2</sup> = (316 m)<sup>2</sup></li>
<li>Velocity up to 37,300 km s<sup>−1</sup> (12.5% c)</li></ul>
<h4>Pre-accelerated fuel[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=36">edit</a>]</h4>
<p>Achieving start-stop interstellar trip times of less than a human lifetime require mass-ratios of between 1,000 and 1,000,000, even for the nearer stars. This could be achieved by multi-staged vehicles on a vast scale.<sup><a href="#cite_note-L.D._Jaffe_1963,_pp._49-58-48">[48]</a></sup> Alternatively large linear accelerators could propel fuel to fission propelled space-vehicles, avoiding the limitations of the <a href="/wiki/Rocket_equation">Rocket equation</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Interstellar_rendezvous_missions_employing_fission_propulsion_systems-68">[68]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Dynamic soaring[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=37">edit</a>]</h4>
<p><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_soaring">Dynamic soaring</a> as a way to travel across <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_space">interstellar space</a> has been proposed.<sup><a href="#cite_note-SA-20221206-69">[69]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FST-20221128-70">[70]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Theoretical concepts[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=38">edit</a>]</h3>
<h4>Transmission of minds with light[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=39">edit</a>]</h4>
<p><a href="/wiki/Mind_uploading">Uploaded human minds</a> or <a href="/wiki/AI">AI</a> could be transmitted with laser or radio signals at the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light">speed of light</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></sup> This requires a receiver at the destination which would first have to be set up e.g. by humans, probes, <a href="/wiki/Self_replicating_machines">self replicating machines</a> (potentially along with AI or uploaded humans), or an alien civilization (which might also be in a different galaxy, perhaps a <a href="/wiki/Kardashev_scale">Kardashev type III civilization</a>).
</p>
<h4>Faster-than-light travel[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=40">edit</a>]</h4>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Wormhole_travel_as_envisioned_by_Les_Bossinas_for_NASA.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Scientists and authors have postulated a number of ways by which it might be possible to surpass the speed of light, but even the most serious-minded of these are highly speculative.<sup><a href="#cite_note-crawftl-72">[72]</a></sup>
</p><p>It is also debatable whether faster-than-light travel is physically possible, in part because of <a href="/wiki/Tachyonic_antitelephone">causality</a> concerns: travel faster than light may, under certain conditions, permit travel backwards in time within the context of <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity">special relativity</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></sup> Proposed mechanisms for <a href="/wiki/Faster-than-light">faster-than-light</a> travel within the theory of general relativity require the existence of <a href="/wiki/Exotic_matter">exotic matter</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-crawftl-72">[72]</a></sup> and, it is not known if it could be produced in sufficient quantities.
</p>
<h5>Alcubierre drive[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=41">edit</a>]</h5>
<p>In physics, the <a href="/wiki/Alcubierre_drive">Alcubierre drive</a> is based on an argument, within the framework of <a href="/wiki/General_relativity">general relativity</a> and without the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Wormhole">wormholes</a>, that it is possible to modify spacetime in a way that allows a spaceship to travel with an arbitrarily large speed by a local expansion of spacetime behind the spaceship and an opposite contraction in front of it.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Warp_Alcubierre-74">[74]</a></sup> Nevertheless, this concept would require the spaceship to incorporate a region of <a href="/wiki/Exotic_matter">exotic matter</a>, or the hypothetical concept of <a href="/wiki/Negative_mass">negative mass</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Warp_Alcubierre-74">[74]</a></sup>
</p>
<h5>Artificial black hole[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=42">edit</a>]</h5>
<p>A theoretical idea for enabling interstellar travel is to propel a starship by creating an artificial black hole and using a parabolic reflector to reflect its <a href="/wiki/Hawking_radiation">Hawking radiation</a>. Although beyond current technological capabilities, a black hole starship offers some advantages compared to other possible methods. Getting the black hole to act as a power source and engine also requires a way to convert the Hawking radiation into energy and thrust. One potential method involves placing the hole at the focal point of a parabolic reflector attached to the ship, creating forward thrust. A slightly easier, but less efficient method would involve simply absorbing all the gamma radiation heading towards the fore of the ship to push it onwards, and let the rest shoot out the back.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Crane_Westmoreland_p.-75">[75]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></sup>
</p>
<h5>Wormholes[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=43">edit</a>]</h5>
<p><a href="/wiki/Wormhole">Wormholes</a> are conjectural distortions in spacetime that theorists postulate could connect two arbitrary points in the universe, across an <a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Rosen_Bridge">Einstein–Rosen Bridge</a>. It is not known whether wormholes are possible in practice. Although there are solutions to the Einstein equation of general relativity that allow for wormholes, all of the currently known solutions involve some assumption, for example the existence of <a href="/wiki/Negative_mass">negative mass</a>, which may be unphysical.<sup><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></sup> However, Cramer <i>et al.</i> argue that such wormholes might have been created in the early universe, stabilized by <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_string">cosmic strings</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></sup> The general theory of wormholes is discussed by Visser in the book <i>Lorentzian Wormholes</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Designs and studies[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=44">edit</a>]</h2>
<h3>Enzmann starship[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=45">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>The Enzmann starship, as detailed by <a href="/wiki/G._Harry_Stine">G. Harry Stine</a> in the October 1973 issue of <i><a href="/wiki/Analog_Science_Fiction_and_Fact">Analog</a></i>, was a design for a future <a href="/wiki/Starship_(interstellar_spacecraft)">starship</a>, based on the ideas of Robert Duncan-Enzmann. The spacecraft itself as proposed used a 12,000,000 ton ball of frozen <a href="/wiki/Deuterium">deuterium</a> to power 12–24 thermonuclear pulse propulsion units. Twice as long as the <a href="/wiki/Empire_State_Building">Empire State Building</a> is tall and assembled in-orbit, the spacecraft was part of a larger project preceded by <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_probe">interstellar probes</a> and telescopic observation of target star systems.<sup><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Project Hyperion[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=46">edit</a>]</h3>
<p><a href="/wiki/Project_Hyperion_(interstellar)">Project Hyperion</a>, one of the projects of Icarus Interstellar has looked into various feasibility issues of crewed interstellar travel.<sup><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-HEIN-83">[83]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></sup> Its members continue to publish on crewed interstellar travel in collaboration with the <a href="/wiki/Initiative_for_Interstellar_Studies">Initiative for Interstellar Studies</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Hein_2020_75–104-27">[27]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>NASA research[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=47">edit</a>]</h3>
<p><a href="/wiki/National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Administration">NASA</a> has been researching interstellar travel since its formation, translating important foreign language papers and conducting early studies on applying fusion propulsion, in the 1960s, and laser propulsion, in the 1970s, to interstellar travel.
</p><p>In 1994, NASA and JPL cosponsored a "Workshop on Advanced Quantum/Relativity Theory Propulsion" to "establish and use new frames of reference for thinking about the faster-than-light (FTL) question".<sup><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Administration">NASA</a> <a href="/wiki/Breakthrough_Propulsion_Physics_Program">Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Program</a> (terminated in FY 2003 after a 6-year, $1.2-million study, because "No breakthroughs appear imminent.")<sup><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></sup> identified some breakthroughs that are needed for interstellar travel to be possible.<sup><a href="#cite_note-NASAWarpDriveBreakthruTechs-87">[87]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_A._Landis">Geoffrey A. Landis</a> of NASA's <a href="/wiki/Glenn_Research_Center">Glenn Research Center</a> states that a laser-powered interstellar sail ship could possibly be launched within 50 years, using new methods of space travel. "I think that ultimately we're going to do it, it's just a question of when and who," Landis said in an interview. Rockets are too slow to send humans on interstellar missions. Instead, he envisions interstellar craft with extensive sails, propelled by laser light to about one-tenth the speed of light. It would take such a ship about 43 years to reach Alpha Centauri if it passed through the system without stopping. Slowing down to stop at Alpha Centauri could increase the trip to 100 years,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Malik20020319-88">[88]</a></sup> whereas a journey without slowing down raises the issue of making sufficiently accurate and useful observations and measurements during a fly-by.
</p>
<h3>100 Year Starship study[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=48">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/100_Year_Starship">100 Year Starship</a> (100YSS) study was the name of a one-year project to assess the attributes of and lay the groundwork for an organization that can carry forward the 100 Year Starship vision. 100YSS-related symposia were organized between 2011 and 2015.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Harold_Sonny_White_(NASA_Scientist)">Harold ("Sonny") White</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a></sup> from NASA's Johnson Space Center is a member of Icarus Interstellar,<sup><a href="#cite_note-icarusinterstellar.org-90">[90]</a></sup> the nonprofit foundation whose mission is to realize interstellar flight before the year 2100. At the 2012 meeting of 100YSS, he reported using a <a href="/wiki/White%E2%80%93Juday_warp-field_interferometer">laser to try to warp spacetime</a> by 1 part in 10 million with the aim of helping to make interstellar travel possible.<sup><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Other designs[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=49">edit</a>]</h3>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Orion_(nuclear_propulsion)">Project Orion</a>, human crewed interstellar ship (1958–1968).</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Project_Daedalus">Project Daedalus</a>, uncrewed interstellar probe (1973–1978).</li>
<li>Starwisp, uncrewed interstellar probe (1985).<sup><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Project_Longshot">Project Longshot</a>, uncrewed interstellar probe (1987–1988).</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Starseed_launcher">Starseed/launcher</a>, fleet of uncrewed interstellar probes (1996)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Project_Valkyrie">Project Valkyrie</a>, human crewed interstellar ship (2009)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Project_Icarus_(interstellar)">Project Icarus</a>, uncrewed interstellar probe (2009–2014).</li>
<li>Sun-diver, uncrewed interstellar probe<sup><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Project_Dragonfly_(space_study)">Project Dragonfly</a>, small laser-propelled interstellar probe (2013-2015).</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Breakthrough_Starshot">Breakthrough Starshot</a>, fleet of uncrewed interstellar probes, announced on April 12, 2016.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Starshot_home-94">[94]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-concept'-95">[95]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solar_One_(interstellar)">Solar One</a>, crewed spacecraft that would combine beamed-powered propulsion, electromagnetic propulsion, and nuclear propulsion (2020).<sup><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></sup></li></ul>
<h2>Non-profit organizations[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=50">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>A few organisations dedicated to interstellar propulsion research and advocacy for the case exist worldwide. These are still in their infancy, but are already backed up by a membership of a wide variety of scientists, students and professionals.
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Initiative_for_Interstellar_Studies">Initiative for Interstellar Studies</a> (UK)<sup><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></sup></li>
<li>Tau Zero Foundation (USA)<sup><a href="#cite_note-https://tauzero.aero-99">[99]</a></sup></li>
<li>Limitless Space Institute (USA)<sup><a href="#cite_note-https://www.limitlessspace.org/-100">[100]</a></sup></li></ul>
<h2>Feasibility[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=51">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>The energy requirements make interstellar travel very difficult. It has been reported that at the 2008 Joint Propulsion Conference, multiple experts opined that it was improbable that humans would ever explore beyond the Solar System.<sup><a href="#cite_note-O'Neill-101">[101]</a></sup> Brice N. Cassenti, an associate professor with the Department of Engineering and Science at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, stated that at least 100 times the total energy output of the entire world [in a given year] would be required to send a probe to the nearest star.<sup><a href="#cite_note-O'Neill-101">[101]</a></sup>
</p><p>Astrophysicist Sten Odenwald stated that the basic problem is that through intensive studies of thousands of detected exoplanets, most of the closest destinations within 50 light years do not yield Earth-like planets in the star's habitable zones.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Odenwald-102">[102]</a></sup> Given the multitrillion-dollar expense of some of the proposed technologies, travelers will have to spend up to 200 years traveling at 20% the speed of light to reach the best known destinations. Moreover, once the travelers arrive at their destination (by any means), they will not be able to travel down to the surface of the target world and set up a colony unless the atmosphere is non-lethal. The prospect of making such a journey, only to spend the rest of the colony's life inside a sealed habitat and venturing outside in a spacesuit, may eliminate many prospective targets from the list.
</p><p>Moving at a speed close to the speed of light and encountering even a tiny stationary object like a grain of sand will have fatal consequences. For example, a gram of matter moving at 90% of the speed of light contains a kinetic energy corresponding to a small nuclear bomb (around 30kt TNT).
</p><p>One of the major stumbling blocks is having enough Onboard Spares &amp; Repairs facilities for such a lengthy time journey assuming all other considerations are solved, without access to all the resources available on Earth.<sup><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Interstellar missions not for human benefit[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=52">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>Explorative high-speed missions to <a href="/wiki/Alpha_Centauri">Alpha Centauri</a>, as planned for by the <a href="/wiki/Breakthrough_Starshot">Breakthrough Starshot initiative</a>, are projected to be realizable within the 21st century.<sup><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></sup> It is alternatively possible to plan for uncrewed slow-cruising missions taking millennia to arrive. These probes would not be for human benefit in the sense that one can not foresee whether there would be anybody around on Earth interested in then back-transmitted science data. An example would be the Genesis mission,<sup><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a></sup> which aims to bring unicellular life, in the spirit of <a href="/wiki/Directed_panspermia">directed panspermia</a>, to habitable but otherwise barren planets.<sup><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></sup> Comparatively slow cruising Genesis probes, with a typical speed of , corresponding to about , can be decelerated using a <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_sail">magnetic sail</a>. Uncrewed missions not for human benefit would hence be feasible.<sup><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a></sup> For <a href="/wiki/Biotic_ethics">biotic ethics</a>, and their extension to space as panbiotic ethics, it is a human purpose to secure and propagate life and to use space to maximize life.
</p>
<h2>Discovery of Earth-like planets[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=53">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>In February 2017, NASA announced that its <a href="/wiki/Spitzer_Space_Telescope">Spitzer Space Telescope</a> had revealed seven Earth-size planets in the TRAPPIST-1 system orbiting an ultra-cool dwarf star 40 light-years away from the Solar System.<sup><a href="#cite_note-NASA_Press_Release_Feb_22nd_2017-108">[108]</a></sup> Three of these planets are firmly located in the habitable zone, the area around the parent star where a rocky planet is most likely to have liquid water. The discovery sets a new record for greatest number of habitable-zone planets found around a single star outside the Solar System. All of these seven planets could have liquid water – the key to life as we know it – under the right atmospheric conditions, but the chances are highest with the three in the habitable zone.
</p>
<h2>See also[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=54">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body">Effect of spaceflight on the human body</a> – Medical issues associated with spaceflight</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Health_threat_from_cosmic_rays">Health threat from cosmic rays</a> – Dangers posed to astronauts</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Human_spaceflight">Human spaceflight</a> – Spaceflight with a crew or passengers</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intergalactic_travel">Intergalactic travel</a> – Hypothetical travel between galaxies</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_communication">Interstellar communication</a> – Communication between planetary systems</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_object">Interstellar object</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_artificial_objects_leaving_the_Solar_System">List of artificial objects leaving the Solar System</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nearest_terrestrial_exoplanet_candidates">List of nearest terrestrial exoplanet candidates</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spacecraft_propulsion">Spacecraft propulsion</a> – Method used to accelerate spacecraft</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_travel_in_science_fiction">Space travel in science fiction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Uploaded_astronaut">Uploaded astronaut</a> – Hypothetical process of digitally emulating a brain</li></ul>
<h2>References[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=55">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><ol>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mauldin_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mauldin_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Mauldin, John H. (May 1992). <a href="https://archive.org/details/prospectsforinte0000maul"><i>Prospects for interstellar travel</i></a>. Published for the American Astronautical Society by Univelt. <q>Interstellar travel.</q></cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170616131942/http://www.bis-space.com/what-we-do/advocacy/interstellar-travel">"Interstellar Travel"</a>. <i>www.bis-space.com</i>. Archived from <a href="http://www.bis-space.com/what-we-do/advocacy/interstellar-travel">the original</a> on 2017-06-16. Retrieved 2017-06-16.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b> <cite>Crawford, I. A. (2009). "The Astronomical, Astrobiological and Planetary Science Case for Interstellar Spaceflight". <i>Journal of the British Interplanetary Society</i>. <b>62</b>: 415–421. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1008.4893">1008.4893</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009JBIS...62..415C">2009JBIS...62..415C</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b> Conclusion of the 2016 Tennessee Valley Interstellar Workshop Space Solar Power Working Track run by Peter Garretson &amp; Robert Kennedy.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-voyager_5-0">^</a></b> <cite>Elizabeth Howell (January 19, 2022). <a href="https://www.space.com/17688-voyager-1.html">"Voyager 1: Earth's farthest spacecraft"</a>. <i>Space.com</i>. Retrieved 8 April 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/technology/warp/scales.html">"A Look at the Scaling"</a>. <i>nasa.gov</i>. NASA Glenn Research Center. 2015-03-11.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b> <cite>Millis, Marc G. (2011). "Energy, incessant obsolescence, and the first interstellar missions". <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1101.1066">1101.1066</a> [<a href="//arxiv.org/archive/physics.gen-ph">physics.gen-ph</a>].</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b> <cite>Zirnstein, E.J (2013). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0004-637x%2F778%2F2%2F112">"Simulating the Compton-Getting Effect for Hydrogen Flux Measurements: Implications for IBEX-Hi and -Lo Observations"</a>. <i>Astrophysical Journal</i>. <b>778</b> (2): 112–127. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013ApJ...778..112Z">2013ApJ...778..112Z</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0004-637x%2F778%2F2%2F112">10.1088/0004-637x/778/2/112</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b> <cite>Badescu, Viorel; Zacny, Kris (2018-04-28). <i>Outer Solar System : prospective energy and material resources</i>. Cham, Switzerland. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319738451"><bdi>9783319738451</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1033673323">1033673323</a>.</cite>
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<h2>Further reading[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=56">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li><cite>Crawford, Ian A. (1990). <a href="https://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/pdf/1990QJRAS..31..377C">"Interstellar Travel: A Review for Astronomers"</a>. <i>Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society</i>. <b>31</b>: 377–400. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990QJRAS..31..377C">1990QJRAS..31..377C</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Hein, A.M. (September 2012). <a href="https://www.academia.edu/2654836">"Evaluation of Technological-Social and Political Projections for the Next 100-300 Years and the Implications for an Interstellar Mission"</a>. <i>Journal of the British Interplanetary Society</i>. <b>33</b> (9/10): 330–340. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012JBIS...65..330H">2012JBIS...65..330H</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Long, Kelvin (2012). <i>Deep Space Propulsion: A Roadmap to Interstellar Flight</i>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-0606-8"><bdi>978-1-4614-0606-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Mallove, Eugene (1989). <a href="https://archive.org/details/starflighthandbo0000mall"><i>The Starflight Handbook</i></a>. John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-61912-3"><bdi>978-0-471-61912-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Odenwald, Sten (2015). <i>Interstellar Travel: An Astronomer's Guide</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5120-5627-3"><bdi>978-1-5120-5627-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Woodward, James (2013). <i>Making Starships and Stargates: The Science of Interstellar Transport and Absurdly Benign Wormholes</i>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-5622-3"><bdi>978-1-4614-5622-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Zubrin, Robert (1999). <a href="https://archive.org/details/enteringspacecre00zubr"><i>Entering Space: Creating a Spacefaring Civilization</i></a>. Tarcher / Putnam. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58542-036-0"><bdi>978-1-58542-036-0</bdi></a>.</cite></li></ul>
<h2>External links[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interstellar_travel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=57">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li><a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/id/3741674">Leonard David – Reaching for interstellar flight (2003) – MSNBC</a> (MSNBC Webpage)</li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040402092917/http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/bpp/">NASA Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Program</a> (NASA Webpage)</li>
<li><a href="http://www.ibiblio.org/lunar/school/library/bib.html">Bibliography of Interstellar Flight</a> (source list)</li>
<li><a href="http://news.cnet.com/8301-13772_3-20060476-52.html">DARPA seeks help for interstellar starship</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140304163503/http://news.cnet.com/8301-13772_3-20060476-52.html">Archived</a> 2014-03-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-build-a-starship-and-why-we-should-start-thinking-about-it-now-53417/">How to build a starship – and why we should start thinking about it now</a> (Article from <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk">The Conversation</a>, 2016)</li></ul>
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 Contents

 move to sidebar hide
 * (Top)
 * 1 Challenges
 Toggle Challenges subsection
 + 1.1 Interstellar distances
 + 1.2 Required energy
 + 1.3 Interstellar medium
 + 1.4 Hazards
 + 1.5 Wait calculation
 * 2 Prime targets for interstellar travel
 * 3 Proposed methods
 Toggle Proposed methods subsection
 + 3.1 Slow, uncrewed probes
 + 3.2 Fast, uncrewed probes
 o 3.2.1 Nanoprobes
 + 3.3 Slow, crewed missions
 o 3.3.1 Generation ships
 o 3.3.2 Suspended animation
 o 3.3.3 Frozen embryos
 o 3.3.4 Island hopping through interstellar space
 + 3.4 Fast, crewed missions
 o 3.4.1 Time dilation
 o 3.4.2 Constant acceleration
 * 4 Propulsion
 Toggle Propulsion subsection
 + 4.1 Rocket concepts
 o 4.1.1 Ion engine
 o 4.1.2 Nuclear fission powered
 - 4.1.2.1 Fission-electric
 - 4.1.2.2 Fission-fragment
 - 4.1.2.3 Nuclear pulse
 o 4.1.3 Nuclear fusion rockets
 o 4.1.4 Antimatter rockets
 o 4.1.5 Rockets with an external energy source
 + 4.2 Non-rocket concepts
 o 4.2.1 RF resonant cavity thruster
 o 4.2.2 Helical engine
 o 4.2.3 Interstellar ramjets
 o 4.2.4 Beamed propulsion
 - 4.2.4.1 Interstellar travel catalog to use photogravitational assists for a full stop
 o 4.2.5 Pre-accelerated fuel
 o 4.2.6 Dynamic soaring
 + 4.3 Theoretical concepts
 o 4.3.1 Transmission of minds with light
 o 4.3.2 Faster-than-light travel
 - 4.3.2.1 Alcubierre drive
 - 4.3.2.2 Artificial black hole
 - 4.3.2.3 Wormholes
 * 5 Designs and studies
 Toggle Designs and studies subsection
 + 5.1 Enzmann starship
 + 5.2 Project Hyperion
 + 5.3 NASA research
 + 5.4 100 Year Starship study
 + 5.5 Other designs
 * 6 Non-profit organizations
 * 7 Feasibility
 Toggle Feasibility subsection
 + 7.1 Interstellar missions not for human benefit
 * 8 Discovery of Earth-like planets
 * 9 See also
 * 10 References
 * 11 Further reading
 * 12 External links
 Toggle the table of contents
 Toggle the table of contents

 Interstellar travel

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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 A Bussard ramjet, one of many possible methods that could serve to propel spacecraft.
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 Interstellar travel is the hypothetical travel of spacecraft from one star system, solitary star, or planetary system to another. Interstellar travel is expected to prove much more difficult than interplanetary spaceflight due to the vast difference in the scale of the involved distances. Whereas the distance between any two planets in the Solar System is less than 30 astronomical units (AU), stars are typically separated by hundreds of thousands of AU, causing these distances to typically be expressed instead in light-years. Because of the vastness of these distances, non-generational interstellar travel based on known physics would need to occur at a high percentage of the speed of light; even so, travel times would be long, at least decades and perhaps millennia or longer.[1]

 As of 2022, five uncrewed spacecraft, all launched and operated by the United States, have achieved the escape velocity required to leave the Solar System as part of missions to explore parts of the outer system. They will therefore continue to travel through interstellar space indefinitely. However, they will not approach another star for hundreds of thousands of years, long after they have ceased to operate (though in theory the Voyager Golden Record would be playable in the highly unlikely event that the spacecraft is retrieved by an extraterrestrial civilization).

 The speeds required for interstellar travel in a human lifetime far exceed what current methods of space travel can provide. Even with a hypothetically perfectly efficient propulsion system, the kinetic energy corresponding to those speeds is enormous by today's standards of energy development. Moreover, collisions by spacecraft with cosmic dust and gas at such speeds would be very dangerous for both passengers and the spacecraft itself.[1]

 A number of strategies have been proposed to deal with these problems, ranging from giant arks that would carry entire societies and ecosystems, to microscopic space probes. Many different spacecraft propulsion systems have been proposed to give spacecraft the required speeds, including nuclear propulsion, beam-powered propulsion, and methods based on speculative physics.[2]

 Humanity would need to overcome considerable technological and economic challenges to achieve either crewed and uncrewed interstellar travel. Even the most optimistic views forecast that it will be decades before this milestone is reached. However, in spite of the challenges, a wide range of scientific benefits are expected should interstellar travel become a reality.[3]

 Most interstellar travel concepts require a developed space logistics system capable of moving millions of tonnes to a construction / operating location, and most would require gigawatt-scale power for construction or power (such as Star Wisp– or Light Sail–type concepts). Such a system could grow organically if space-based solar power became a significant component of Earth's energy mix. Consumer demand for a multi-terawatt system would create the necessary multi-million ton/year logistical system.[4]

 Challenges [ edit ]

 Interstellar distances [ edit ]

 Distances between the planets in the Solar System are often measured in astronomical units (AU), defined as the average distance between the Sun and Earth, some 1.5 × 108 kilometers (93 million miles). Venus, the closest planet to Earth is (at closest approach) 0.28 AU away. Neptune, the farthest planet from the Sun, is 29.8 AU away. As of January 20, 2023, Voyager 1, the farthest human-made object from Earth, is 159 AU away.[5]

 The closest known star, Proxima Centauri, is approximately 268,332 AU away, or over 9,000 times farther away than Neptune.

 Object Distance Light time 
 (AU) 
 Moon 0.0026 1.3 seconds 
 Sun 1 8 minutes 
 Venus (nearest planet) 0.28 2.41 minutes
 Neptune (farthest planet) 29.8 4.1 hours 
 Voyager 2 133.1 18.45 hours 
 Voyager 1 159.4 22.1 hours 
 Proxima Centauri (nearest star and exoplanet) 268,332 4.24 years 
 

 Because of this, distances between stars are usually expressed in light-years (defined as the distance that light travels in vacuum in one Julian year) or in parsecs (one parsec is 3.26 ly, the distance at which stellar parallax is exactly one arcsecond, hence the name). Light in a vacuum travels around 300,000 kilometres (186,000 mi) per second, so 1 light-year is about 9.461 × 1012 kilometers (5.879 trillion miles) or 63,241 AU. Hence, Proxima Centauri is approximately 4.243 light-years from Earth.

 Another way of understanding the vastness of interstellar distances is by scaling: One of the closest stars to the Sun, Alpha Centauri A (a Sun-like star that is one of two companions of Proxima Centauri), can be pictured by scaling down the Earth–Sun distance to one meter (3.28 ft). On this scale, the distance to Alpha Centauri A would be 276 kilometers (171 miles).

 The fastest outward-bound spacecraft yet sent, Voyager 1, has covered 1/600 of a light-year in 30 years and is currently moving at 1/18,000 the speed of light. At this rate, a journey to Proxima Centauri would take 80,000 years.[6]

 Required energy [ edit ]

 A significant factor contributing to the difficulty is the energy that must be supplied to obtain a reasonable travel time. A lower bound for the required energy is the kinetic energy where is the final mass. If deceleration on arrival is desired and cannot be achieved by any means other than the engines of the ship, then the lower bound for the required energy is doubled to .[7]

 The velocity for a crewed round trip of a few decades to even the nearest star is several thousand times greater than those of present space vehicles. This means that due to the term in the kinetic energy formula, millions of times as much energy is required. Accelerating one ton to one-tenth of the speed of light requires at least 450 petajoules or 4.50 × 1017 joules or 125 terawatt-hours[8] (world energy consumption 2008 was 143,851 terawatt-hours),[9] without factoring in efficiency of the propulsion mechanism. This energy has to be generated onboard from stored fuel, harvested from the interstellar medium, or projected over immense distances.

 Interstellar medium [ edit ]

 A knowledge of the properties of the interstellar gas and dust through which the vehicle must pass is essential for the design of any interstellar space mission.[10] A major issue with traveling at extremely high speeds is that due to the requisite high relative speeds and large kinetic energies, collisions with interstellar dust could cause considerable damage to the craft. Various shielding methods to mitigate this problem have been proposed.[11] Larger objects (such as macroscopic dust grains) are far less common, but would be much more destructive. The risks of impacting such objects and mitigation methods have been discussed in literature, but many unknowns remain.[12] An additional consideration is that due the non-homogeneous distribution of interstellar matter around the Sun, these risks would vary between different trajectories.[10] Although a high density interstellar medium may cause difficulties for many interstellar travel concepts, interstellar ramjets, and some proposed concepts for decelerating interstellar spacecraft, would actually benefit from a denser interstellar medium.[10]

 Hazards [ edit ]

 The crew of an interstellar ship would face several significant hazards, including the psychological effects of long-term isolation, the physiological effects of extreme acceleration, the effects of exposure to ionising radiation, and the physiological effects of weightlessness to the muscles, joints, bones, immune system, and eyes. There also exists the risk of impact by micrometeoroids and other space debris. These risks represent challenges that have yet to be overcome.[13]

 Wait calculation [ edit ]

 The physicist Robert L. Forward has argued that an interstellar mission that cannot be completed within 50 years should not be started at all. Instead, assuming that a civilization is still on an increasing curve of propulsion system velocity and not yet having reached the limit, the resources should be invested in designing a better propulsion system. This is because a slow spacecraft would probably be passed by another mission sent later with more advanced propulsion (the incessant obsolescence postulate).[14]

 On the other hand, Andrew Kennedy has shown that if one calculates the journey time to a given destination as the rate of travel speed derived from growth (even exponential growth) increases, there is a clear minimum in the total time to that destination from now.[15] Voyages undertaken before the minimum will be overtaken by those that leave at the minimum, whereas voyages that leave after the minimum will never overtake those that left at the minimum.

 Prime targets for interstellar travel [ edit ]

 There are 59 known stellar systems within 40 light years of the Sun, containing 81 visible stars. The following could be considered prime targets for interstellar missions:[14]

 System Distance (ly) Remarks    
 Alpha Centauri 4.3 Closest system. Three stars (G2, K1, M5). Component A is similar to the Sun (a G2 star). On August 24, 2016, the discovery of an Earth-size exoplanet (Proxima Centauri b) orbiting in the habitable zone of Proxima Centauri was announced.
 Barnard's Star 6 Small, low-luminosity M5 red dwarf. Second closest to Solar System.   
 Sirius 8.7 Large, very bright A1 star with a white dwarf companion.   
 Epsilon Eridani 10.8 Single K2 star slightly smaller and colder than the Sun. It has two asteroid belts, might have a giant and one much smaller planet,[16] and may possess a Solar-System-type planetary system. 
 Tau Ceti 11.8 Single G8 star similar to the Sun. High probability of possessing a Solar-System-type planetary system: current evidence shows 5 planets with potentially two in the habitable zone. 
 Luyten's Star 12.36 M3 red dwarf with the super-Earth Luyten b orbiting in the habitable zone.   
 Wolf 1061 ~14 Wolf 1061 c is 1.6 times the size of Earth; it may have rocky terrain. It also sits within the 'Goldilocks' zone where it might be possible for liquid water to exist.[17]  
 Gliese 581 planetary system 20.3 Multiple planet system. The unconfirmed exoplanet Gliese 581g and the confirmed exoplanet Gliese 581d are in the star's habitable zone.  
 Gliese 667C 22 A system with at least six planets. A record-breaking three of these planets are super-Earths lying in the zone around the star where liquid water could exist, making them possible candidates for the presence of life.[18] 
 Vega 25 A very young system possibly in the process of planetary formation.[19]   
 TRAPPIST-1 39 A system which boasts 7 Earth-like planets, some of which may have liquid water. The discovery is a major advancement in finding a habitable planet and in finding a planet that could support life. 
 

 Existing astronomical technology is capable of finding planetary systems around these objects, increasing their potential for exploration.

 Proposed methods [ edit ]

 Slow, uncrewed probes [ edit ]

 Main article: Interstellar probe

 "Slow" interstellar missions (still fast by other standards) based on current and near-future propulsion technologies are associated with trip times starting from about several decades to thousands of years. These missions consist of sending a robotic probe to a nearby star for exploration, similar to interplanetary probes like those used in the Voyager program.[20] By taking along no crew, the cost and complexity of the mission is significantly reduced, as is the mass that needs to be accelerated, although technology lifetime is still a significant issue next to obtaining a reasonable speed of travel. Proposed concepts include Project Daedalus, Project Icarus, Project Dragonfly, Project Longshot,[21] and more recently Breakthrough Starshot.[22]

 Fast, uncrewed probes [ edit ]

 Main article: Interstellar probe

 Nanoprobes [ edit ]

 Near-lightspeed nano spacecraft might be possible within the near future built on existing microchip technology with a newly developed nanoscale thruster. Researchers at the University of Michigan are developing thrusters that use nanoparticles as propellant. Their technology is called "nanoparticle field extraction thruster", or nanoFET. These devices act like small particle accelerators shooting conductive nanoparticles out into space.[23]

 Michio Kaku, a theoretical physicist, has suggested that clouds of "smart dust" be sent to the stars, which may become possible with advances in nanotechnology. Kaku also notes that a large number of nanoprobes would need to be sent due to the vulnerability of very small probes to be easily deflected by magnetic fields, micrometeorites and other dangers to ensure the chances that at least one nanoprobe will survive the journey and reach the destination.[24]

 As a near-term solution, small, laser-propelled interstellar probes, based on current CubeSat technology were proposed in the context of Project Dragonfly.[21]

 Slow, crewed missions [ edit ]

 In crewed missions, the duration of a slow interstellar journey presents a major obstacle and existing concepts deal with this problem in different ways.[25] They can be distinguished by the "state" in which humans are transported on-board of the spacecraft.

 Generation ships [ edit ]

 Main article: Generation ship

 A generation ship (or world ship) is a type of interstellar ark in which the crew that arrives at the destination is descended from those who started the journey. Generation ships are not currently feasible because of the difficulty of constructing a ship of the enormous required scale and the great biological and sociological problems that life aboard such a ship raises.[26][27][28][29][30]

 Suspended animation [ edit ]

 Main article: Sleeper ship

 Scientists and writers have postulated various techniques for suspended animation. These include human hibernation and cryonic preservation. Although neither is currently practical, they offer the possibility of sleeper ships in which the passengers lie inert for the long duration of the voyage.[31]

 Frozen embryos [ edit ]

 Main article: Embryo space colonization

 A robotic interstellar mission carrying some number of frozen early stage human embryos is another theoretical possibility. This method of space colonization requires, among other things, the development of an artificial uterus, the prior detection of a habitable terrestrial planet, and advances in the field of fully autonomous mobile robots and educational robots that would replace human parents.[32]

 Island hopping through interstellar space [ edit ]

 Interstellar space is not completely empty; it contains trillions of icy bodies ranging from small asteroids (Oort cloud) to possible rogue planets. There may be ways to take advantage of these resources for a good part of an interstellar trip, slowly hopping from body to body or setting up waystations along the way.[33]

 Fast, crewed missions [ edit ]

 If a spaceship could average 10 percent of light speed (and decelerate at the destination, for human crewed missions), this would be enough to reach Proxima Centauri in forty years. Several propulsion concepts have been proposed[34] that might be eventually developed to accomplish this (see § Propulsion below), but none of them are ready for near-term (few decades) developments at acceptable cost.

 Time dilation [ edit ]

 Main article: Time dilation

 Physicists generally believe faster-than-light travel is impossible. Relativistic time dilation allows a traveler to experience time more slowly, the closer their speed is to the speed of light.[35] This apparent slowing becomes noticeable when velocities above 80% of the speed of light are attained. Clocks aboard an interstellar ship would run slower than Earth clocks, so if a ship's engines were capable of continuously generating around 1 g of acceleration (which is comfortable for humans), the ship could reach almost anywhere in the galaxy and return to Earth within 40 years ship-time (see diagram). Upon return, there would be a difference between the time elapsed on the astronaut's ship and the time elapsed on Earth.

 For example, a spaceship could travel to a star 32 light-years away, initially accelerating at a constant 1.03g (i.e. 10.1 m/s2) for 1.32 years (ship time), then stopping its engines and coasting for the next 17.3 years (ship time) at a constant speed, then decelerating again for 1.32 ship-years, and coming to a stop at the destination. After a short visit, the astronaut could return to Earth the same way. After the full round-trip, the clocks on board the ship show that 40 years have passed, but according to those on Earth, the ship comes back 76 years after launch.

 From the viewpoint of the astronaut, onboard clocks seem to be running normally. The star ahead seems to be approaching at a speed of 0.87 light years per ship-year. The universe would appear contracted along the direction of travel to half the size it had when the ship was at rest; the distance between that star and the Sun would seem to be 16 light years as measured by the astronaut.

 At higher speeds, the time on board will run even slower, so the astronaut could travel to the center of the Milky Way (30,000 light years from Earth) and back in 40 years ship-time. But the speed according to Earth clocks will always be less than 1 light year per Earth year, so, when back home, the astronaut will find that more than 60 thousand years will have passed on Earth.

 Constant acceleration [ edit ]

 This plot shows a ship capable of 1-g (10 m/s2 or about 1.0 ly/y2) "felt" or proper-acceleration[36] can go far, except for the problem of accelerating on-board propellant.
 See also: Space travel under constant acceleration

 Regardless of how it is achieved, a propulsion system that could produce acceleration continuously from departure to arrival would be the fastest method of travel. A constant acceleration journey is one where the propulsion system accelerates the ship at a constant rate for the first half of the journey, and then decelerates for the second half, so that it arrives at the destination stationary relative to where it began. If this were performed with an acceleration similar to that experienced at the Earth's surface, it would have the added advantage of producing artificial "gravity" for the crew. Supplying the energy required, however, would be prohibitively expensive with current technology.[37]

 From the perspective of a planetary observer, the ship will appear to accelerate steadily at first, but then more gradually as it approaches the speed of light (which it cannot exceed). It will undergo hyperbolic motion.[38] The ship will be close to the speed of light after about a year of accelerating and remain at that speed until it brakes for the end of the journey.

 From the perspective of an onboard observer, the crew will feel a gravitational field opposite the engine's acceleration, and the universe ahead will appear to fall in that field, undergoing hyperbolic motion. As part of this, distances between objects in the direction of the ship's motion will gradually contract until the ship begins to decelerate, at which time an onboard observer's experience of the gravitational field will be reversed.

 When the ship reaches its destination, if it were to exchange a message with its origin planet, it would find that less time had elapsed on board than had elapsed for the planetary observer, due to time dilation and length contraction.

 The result is an impressively fast journey for the crew.

 Propulsion [ edit ]

 Rocket concepts [ edit ]

 All rocket concepts are limited by the rocket equation, which sets the characteristic velocity available as a function of exhaust velocity and mass ratio, the ratio of initial (M0, including fuel) to final (M1, fuel depleted) mass.

 Very high specific power, the ratio of thrust to total vehicle mass, is required to reach interstellar targets within sub-century time-frames.[39] Some heat transfer is inevitable and a tremendous heating load must be adequately handled.

 Thus, for interstellar rocket concepts of all technologies, a key engineering problem (seldom explicitly discussed) is limiting the heat transfer from the exhaust stream back into the vehicle.[40]

 Ion engine [ edit ]

 A type of electric propulsion, spacecraft such as Dawn use an ion engine. In an ion engine, electric power is used to create charged particles of the propellant, usually the gas xenon, and accelerate them to extremely high velocities. The exhaust velocity of conventional rockets is limited to about 5 km/s by the chemical energy stored in the fuel's molecular bonds. They produce a high thrust (about 106 N), but they have a low specific impulse, and that limits their top speed. By contrast, ion engines have low force, but the top speed in principle is limited only by the electrical power available on the spacecraft and on the gas ions being accelerated. The exhaust speed of the charged particles range from 15 km/s to 35 km/s.[41]

 Nuclear fission powered [ edit ]

 Fission-electric [ edit ]

 Nuclear-electric or plasma engines, operating for long periods at low thrust and powered by fission reactors, have the potential to reach speeds much greater than chemically powered vehicles or nuclear-thermal rockets. Such vehicles probably have the potential to power solar system exploration with reasonable trip times within the current century. Because of their low-thrust propulsion, they would be limited to off-planet, deep-space operation. Electrically powered spacecraft propulsion powered by a portable power-source, say a nuclear reactor, producing only small accelerations, would take centuries to reach for example 15% of the velocity of light, thus unsuitable for interstellar flight during a single human lifetime.[42]

 Fission-fragment [ edit ]

 Fission-fragment rockets use nuclear fission to create high-speed jets of fission fragments, which are ejected at speeds of up to 12,000 km/s (7,500 mi/s). With fission, the energy output is approximately 0.1% of the total mass-energy of the reactor fuel and limits the effective exhaust velocity to about 5% of the velocity of light. For maximum velocity, the reaction mass should optimally consist of fission products, the "ash" of the primary energy source, so no extra reaction mass need be bookkept in the mass ratio.

 Nuclear pulse [ edit ]

 Main article: Nuclear pulse propulsion
 Modern Pulsed Fission Propulsion Concept.

 Based on work in the late 1950s to the early 1960s, it has been technically possible to build spaceships with nuclear pulse propulsion engines, i.e. driven by a series of nuclear explosions. This propulsion system contains the prospect of very high specific impulse (space travel's equivalent of fuel economy) and high specific power.[43]

 Project Orion team member Freeman Dyson proposed in 1968 an interstellar spacecraft using nuclear pulse propulsion that used pure deuterium fusion detonations with a very high fuel-burnup fraction. He computed an exhaust velocity of 15,000 km/s and a 100,000-tonne space vehicle able to achieve a 20,000 km/s delta-v allowing a flight-time to Alpha Centauri of 130 years.[44] Later studies indicate that the top cruise velocity that can theoretically be achieved by a Teller-Ulam thermonuclear unit powered Orion starship, assuming no fuel is saved for slowing back down, is about 8% to 10% of the speed of light (0.08-0.1c).[45] An atomic (fission) Orion can achieve perhaps 3%-5% of the speed of light. A nuclear pulse drive starship powered by fusion-antimatter catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion units would be similarly in the 10% range and pure matter-antimatter annihilation rockets would be theoretically capable of obtaining a velocity between 50% to 80% of the speed of light. In each case saving fuel for slowing down halves the maximum speed. The concept of using a magnetic sail to decelerate the spacecraft as it approaches its destination has been discussed as an alternative to using propellant, this would allow the ship to travel near the maximum theoretical velocity.[46] Alternative designs utilizing similar principles include Project Longshot, Project Daedalus, and Mini-Mag Orion. The principle of external nuclear pulse propulsion to maximize survivable power has remained common among serious concepts for interstellar flight without external power beaming and for very high-performance interplanetary flight.

 In the 1970s the Nuclear Pulse Propulsion concept further was refined by Project Daedalus by use of externally triggered inertial confinement fusion, in this case producing fusion explosions via compressing fusion fuel pellets with high-powered electron beams. Since then, lasers, ion beams, neutral particle beams and hyper-kinetic projectiles have been suggested to produce nuclear pulses for propulsion purposes.[47]

 A current impediment to the development of any nuclear-explosion-powered spacecraft is the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty, which includes a prohibition on the detonation of any nuclear devices (even non-weapon based) in outer space. This treaty would, therefore, need to be renegotiated, although a project on the scale of an interstellar mission using currently foreseeable technology would probably require international cooperation on at least the scale of the International Space Station.

 Another issue to be considered, would be the g-forces imparted to a rapidly accelerated spacecraft, cargo, and passengers inside (see Inertia negation).

 Nuclear fusion rockets [ edit ]

 Fusion rocket starships, powered by nuclear fusion reactions, should conceivably be able to reach speeds of the order of 10% of that of light, based on energy considerations alone. In theory, a large number of stages could push a vehicle arbitrarily close to the speed of light.[48] These would "burn" such light element fuels as deuterium, tritium, 3He, 11B, and 7Li. Because fusion yields about 0.3–0.9% of the mass of the nuclear fuel as released energy, it is energetically more favorable than fission, which releases <0.1% of the fuel's mass-energy. The maximum exhaust velocities potentially energetically available are correspondingly higher than for fission, typically 4–10% of the speed of light. However, the most easily achievable fusion reactions release a large fraction of their energy as high-energy neutrons, which are a significant source of energy loss. Thus, although these concepts seem to offer the best (nearest-term) prospects for travel to the nearest stars within a (long) human lifetime, they still involve massive technological and engineering difficulties, which may turn out to be intractable for decades or centuries.

 Daedalus interstellar probe.

 Early studies include Project Daedalus, performed by the British Interplanetary Society in 1973–1978, and Project Longshot, a student project sponsored by NASA and the US Naval Academy, completed in 1988. Another fairly detailed vehicle system, "Discovery II",[49] designed and optimized for crewed Solar System exploration, based on the D3He reaction but using hydrogen as reaction mass, has been described by a team from NASA's Glenn Research Center. It achieves characteristic velocities of >300 km/s with an acceleration of ~1.7•10−3 g, with a ship initial mass of ~1700 metric tons, and payload fraction above 10%. Although these are still far short of the requirements for interstellar travel on human timescales, the study seems to represent a reasonable benchmark towards what may be approachable within several decades, which is not impossibly beyond the current state-of-the-art. Based on the concept's 2.2% burnup fraction it could achieve a pure fusion product exhaust velocity of ~3,000 km/s.

 Antimatter rockets [ edit ]

 Main article: Antimatter rocket
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 An antimatter rocket would have a far higher energy density and specific impulse than any other proposed class of rocket.[34] If energy resources and efficient production methods are found to make antimatter in the quantities required and store[50][51] it safely, it would be theoretically possible to reach speeds of several tens of percent that of light.[34] Whether antimatter propulsion could lead to the higher speeds (>90% that of light) at which relativistic time dilation would become more noticeable, thus making time pass at a slower rate for the travelers as perceived by an outside observer, is doubtful owing to the large quantity of antimatter that would be required.[34][52]

 Speculating that production and storage of antimatter should become feasible, two further issues need to be considered. First, in the annihilation of antimatter, much of the energy is lost as high-energy gamma radiation, and especially also as neutrinos, so that only about 40% of mc2 would actually be available if the antimatter were simply allowed to annihilate into radiations thermally.[34] Even so, the energy available for propulsion would be substantially higher than the ~1% of mc2 yield of nuclear fusion, the next-best rival candidate.

 Second, heat transfer from the exhaust to the vehicle seems likely to transfer enormous wasted energy into the ship (e.g. for 0.1g ship acceleration, approaching 0.3 trillion watts per ton of ship mass), considering the large fraction of the energy that goes into penetrating gamma rays. Even assuming shielding was provided to protect the payload (and passengers on a crewed vehicle), some of the energy would inevitably heat the vehicle, and may thereby prove a limiting factor if useful accelerations are to be achieved.

 More recently, Friedwardt Winterberg proposed that a matter-antimatter GeV gamma ray laser photon rocket is possible by a relativistic proton-antiproton pinch discharge, where the recoil from the laser beam is transmitted by the Mössbauer effect to the spacecraft.[53]

 Rockets with an external energy source [ edit ]

 Rockets deriving their power from external sources, such as a laser, could replace their internal energy source with an energy collector, potentially reducing the mass of the ship greatly and allowing much higher travel speeds. Geoffrey A. Landis proposed an interstellar probe propelled by an ion thruster powered by the energy beamed to it from a base station laser.[54] Lenard and Andrews proposed using a base station laser to accelerate nuclear fuel pellets towards a Mini-Mag Orion spacecraft that ignites them for propulsion.[55]

 Non-rocket concepts [ edit ]

 A problem with all traditional rocket propulsion methods is that the spacecraft would need to carry its fuel with it, thus making it very massive, in accordance with the rocket equation. Several concepts attempt to escape from this problem:[34][56]

 RF resonant cavity thruster [ edit ]

 A radio frequency (RF) resonant cavity thruster is a device that is claimed to be a spacecraft thruster. In 2016, the Advanced Propulsion Physics Laboratory at NASA reported observing a small apparent thrust from one such test, a result not since replicated.[57] One of the designs is called EMDrive. In December 2002, Satellite Propulsion Research Ltd described a working prototype with an alleged total thrust of about 0.02 newtons powered by an 850 W cavity magnetron. The device could operate for only a few dozen seconds before the magnetron failed, due to overheating.[58] The latest test on the EMDrive concluded that it does not work.[59]

 Helical engine [ edit ]

 Proposed in 2019 by NASA scientist Dr. David Burns, the helical engine concept would use a particle accelerator to accelerate particles to near the speed of light. Since particles traveling at such speeds acquire more mass, it is believed that this mass change could create acceleration. According to Burns, the spacecraft could theoretically reach 99% the speed of light.[60]

 Interstellar ramjets [ edit ]

 In 1960, Robert W. Bussard proposed the Bussard ramjet, a fusion rocket in which a huge scoop would collect the diffuse hydrogen in interstellar space, "burn" it on the fly using a proton–proton chain reaction, and expel it out of the back. Later calculations with more accurate estimates suggest that the thrust generated would be less than the drag caused by any conceivable scoop design.[ citation needed ] Yet the idea is attractive because the fuel would be collected en route (commensurate with the concept of energy harvesting), so the craft could theoretically accelerate to near the speed of light. The limitation is due to the fact that the reaction can only accelerate the propellant to 0.12c. Thus the drag of catching interstellar dust and the thrust of accelerating that same dust to 0.12c would be the same when the speed is 0.12c, preventing further acceleration.

 Beamed propulsion [ edit ]

 This diagram illustrates Robert L. Forward's scheme for slowing down an interstellar light-sail at the star system destination.

 A light sail or magnetic sail powered by a massive laser or particle accelerator in the home star system could potentially reach even greater speeds than rocket- or pulse propulsion methods, because it would not need to carry its own reaction mass and therefore would only need to accelerate the craft's payload. Robert L. Forward proposed a means for decelerating an interstellar craft with a light sail of 100 kilometers in the destination star system without requiring a laser array to be present in that system. In this scheme, a secondary sail of 30 kilometers is deployed to the rear of the spacecraft, while the large primary sail is detached from the craft to keep moving forward on its own. Light is reflected from the large primary sail to the secondary sail, which is used to decelerate the secondary sail and the spacecraft payload.[61] In 2002, Geoffrey A. Landis of NASA's Glen Research center also proposed a laser-powered, propulsion, sail ship that would host a diamond sail (of a few nanometers thick) powered with the use of solar energy.[62] With this proposal, this interstellar ship would, theoretically, be able to reach 10 percent the speed of light. It has also been proposed to use beamed-powered propulsion to accelerate a spacecraft, and electromagnetic propulsion to decelerate it; thus, eliminating the problem that the Bussard ramjet has with the drag produced during acceleration.[63]

 A magnetic sail could also decelerate at its destination without depending on carried fuel or a driving beam in the destination system, by interacting with the plasma found in the solar wind of the destination star and the interstellar medium.[64][65]

 The following table lists some example concepts using beamed laser propulsion as proposed by the physicist Robert L. Forward:[66]

 Mission  Laser Power Vehicle Mass Acceleration Sail Diameter Maximum Velocity 
   (% of the speed of light) 
 1. Flyby – Alpha Centauri, 40 years 
 outbound stage  65 GW 1 t 0.036 g 3.6 km 11% @ 0.17 ly 
 2. Rendezvous – Alpha Centauri, 41 years 
 outbound stage  7,200 GW 785 t 0.005 g 100 km 21% @ 4.29 ly[ dubious – discuss]
 deceleration stage 26,000 GW 71 t 0.2 g 30 km 21% @ 4.29 ly 
 3. Crewed – Epsilon Eridani, 51 years (including 5 years exploring star system)
 outbound stage  75,000,000 GW 78,500 t 0.3 g 1000 km 50% @ 0.4 ly 
 deceleration stage 21,500,000 GW 7,850 t 0.3 g 320 km 50% @ 10.4 ly 
 return stage  710,000 GW 785 t 0.3 g 100 km 50% @ 10.4 ly 
 deceleration stage 60,000 GW 785 t 0.3 g 100 km 50% @ 0.4 ly 
 

 Interstellar travel catalog to use photogravitational assists for a full stop [ edit ]

 The following table is based on work by Heller, Hippke and Kervella.[67]

 Name Travel time Distance Luminosity
 (yr) (ly) (L☉) 
 Sirius A 68.90 8.58 24.20 
 α Centauri A 101.25 4.36 1.52 
 α Centauri B 147.58 4.36 0.50 
 Procyon A 154.06 11.44 6.94 
 Vega 167.39 25.02 50.05 
 Altair 176.67 16.69 10.70 
 Fomalhaut A 221.33 25.13 16.67 
 Denebola 325.56 35.78 14.66 
 Castor A 341.35 50.98 49.85 
 Epsilon Eridani 363.35 10.50 0.50 
 
 * Successive assists at α Cen A and B could allow travel times to 75 yr to both stars.
 * Lightsail has a nominal mass-to-surface ratio (σnom) of 8.6×10−4 gram m−2 for a nominal graphene-class sail.
 * Area of the Lightsail, about 105 m2 = (316 m)2
 * Velocity up to 37,300 km s−1 (12.5% c)

 Pre-accelerated fuel [ edit ]

 Achieving start-stop interstellar trip times of less than a human lifetime require mass-ratios of between 1,000 and 1,000,000, even for the nearer stars. This could be achieved by multi-staged vehicles on a vast scale.[48] Alternatively large linear accelerators could propel fuel to fission propelled space-vehicles, avoiding the limitations of the Rocket equation.[68]

 Dynamic soaring [ edit ]

 Dynamic soaring as a way to travel across interstellar space has been proposed.[69][70]

 Theoretical concepts [ edit ]

 Transmission of minds with light [ edit ]

 Uploaded human minds or AI could be transmitted with laser or radio signals at the speed of light.[71] This requires a receiver at the destination which would first have to be set up e.g. by humans, probes, self replicating machines (potentially along with AI or uploaded humans), or an alien civilization (which might also be in a different galaxy, perhaps a Kardashev type III civilization).

 Faster-than-light travel [ edit ]

 Artist's depiction of a hypothetical Wormhole Induction Propelled Spacecraft, based loosely on the 1994 "warp drive" paper of Miguel Alcubierre.
 Main article: Faster-than-light

 Scientists and authors have postulated a number of ways by which it might be possible to surpass the speed of light, but even the most serious-minded of these are highly speculative.[72]

 It is also debatable whether faster-than-light travel is physically possible, in part because of causality concerns: travel faster than light may, under certain conditions, permit travel backwards in time within the context of special relativity.[73] Proposed mechanisms for faster-than-light travel within the theory of general relativity require the existence of exotic matter[72] and, it is not known if it could be produced in sufficient quantities.

 Alcubierre drive [ edit ]

 Main article: Alcubierre drive

 In physics, the Alcubierre drive is based on an argument, within the framework of general relativity and without the introduction of wormholes, that it is possible to modify spacetime in a way that allows a spaceship to travel with an arbitrarily large speed by a local expansion of spacetime behind the spaceship and an opposite contraction in front of it.[74] Nevertheless, this concept would require the spaceship to incorporate a region of exotic matter, or the hypothetical concept of negative mass.[74]

 Artificial black hole [ edit ]

 Main article: Black hole starship

 A theoretical idea for enabling interstellar travel is to propel a starship by creating an artificial black hole and using a parabolic reflector to reflect its Hawking radiation. Although beyond current technological capabilities, a black hole starship offers some advantages compared to other possible methods. Getting the black hole to act as a power source and engine also requires a way to convert the Hawking radiation into energy and thrust. One potential method involves placing the hole at the focal point of a parabolic reflector attached to the ship, creating forward thrust. A slightly easier, but less efficient method would involve simply absorbing all the gamma radiation heading towards the fore of the ship to push it onwards, and let the rest shoot out the back.[75][76][77]

 Wormholes [ edit ]

 Wormholes are conjectural distortions in spacetime that theorists postulate could connect two arbitrary points in the universe, across an Einstein–Rosen Bridge. It is not known whether wormholes are possible in practice. Although there are solutions to the Einstein equation of general relativity that allow for wormholes, all of the currently known solutions involve some assumption, for example the existence of negative mass, which may be unphysical.[78] However, Cramer et al. argue that such wormholes might have been created in the early universe, stabilized by cosmic strings.[79] The general theory of wormholes is discussed by Visser in the book Lorentzian Wormholes.[80]

 Designs and studies [ edit ]

 Enzmann starship [ edit ]

 Main article: Enzmann starship

 The Enzmann starship, as detailed by G. Harry Stine in the October 1973 issue of Analog, was a design for a future starship, based on the ideas of Robert Duncan-Enzmann. The spacecraft itself as proposed used a 12,000,000 ton ball of frozen deuterium to power 12–24 thermonuclear pulse propulsion units. Twice as long as the Empire State Building is tall and assembled in-orbit, the spacecraft was part of a larger project preceded by interstellar probes and telescopic observation of target star systems.[81]

 Project Hyperion [ edit ]

 Project Hyperion, one of the projects of Icarus Interstellar has looked into various feasibility issues of crewed interstellar travel.[82][83][84] Its members continue to publish on crewed interstellar travel in collaboration with the Initiative for Interstellar Studies.[27]

 NASA research [ edit ]

 NASA has been researching interstellar travel since its formation, translating important foreign language papers and conducting early studies on applying fusion propulsion, in the 1960s, and laser propulsion, in the 1970s, to interstellar travel.

 In 1994, NASA and JPL cosponsored a "Workshop on Advanced Quantum/Relativity Theory Propulsion" to "establish and use new frames of reference for thinking about the faster-than-light (FTL) question".[85]

 The NASA Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Program (terminated in FY 2003 after a 6-year, $1.2-million study, because "No breakthroughs appear imminent.")[86] identified some breakthroughs that are needed for interstellar travel to be possible.[87]

 Geoffrey A. Landis of NASA's Glenn Research Center states that a laser-powered interstellar sail ship could possibly be launched within 50 years, using new methods of space travel. "I think that ultimately we're going to do it, it's just a question of when and who," Landis said in an interview. Rockets are too slow to send humans on interstellar missions. Instead, he envisions interstellar craft with extensive sails, propelled by laser light to about one-tenth the speed of light. It would take such a ship about 43 years to reach Alpha Centauri if it passed through the system without stopping. Slowing down to stop at Alpha Centauri could increase the trip to 100 years,[88] whereas a journey without slowing down raises the issue of making sufficiently accurate and useful observations and measurements during a fly-by.

 100 Year Starship study [ edit ]

 The 100 Year Starship (100YSS) study was the name of a one-year project to assess the attributes of and lay the groundwork for an organization that can carry forward the 100 Year Starship vision. 100YSS-related symposia were organized between 2011 and 2015.

 Harold ("Sonny") White[89] from NASA's Johnson Space Center is a member of Icarus Interstellar,[90] the nonprofit foundation whose mission is to realize interstellar flight before the year 2100. At the 2012 meeting of 100YSS, he reported using a laser to try to warp spacetime by 1 part in 10 million with the aim of helping to make interstellar travel possible.[91]

 Other designs [ edit ]

 * Project Orion, human crewed interstellar ship (1958–1968).
 * Project Daedalus, uncrewed interstellar probe (1973–1978).
 * Starwisp, uncrewed interstellar probe (1985).[92]
 * Project Longshot, uncrewed interstellar probe (1987–1988).
 * Starseed/launcher, fleet of uncrewed interstellar probes (1996)
 * Project Valkyrie, human crewed interstellar ship (2009)
 * Project Icarus, uncrewed interstellar probe (2009–2014).
 * Sun-diver, uncrewed interstellar probe[93]
 * Project Dragonfly, small laser-propelled interstellar probe (2013-2015).
 * Breakthrough Starshot, fleet of uncrewed interstellar probes, announced on April 12, 2016.[94][95][96]
 * Solar One, crewed spacecraft that would combine beamed-powered propulsion, electromagnetic propulsion, and nuclear propulsion (2020).[97]

 Non-profit organizations [ edit ]

 A few organisations dedicated to interstellar propulsion research and advocacy for the case exist worldwide. These are still in their infancy, but are already backed up by a membership of a wide variety of scientists, students and professionals.

 * Initiative for Interstellar Studies (UK)[98]
 * Tau Zero Foundation (USA)[99]
 * Limitless Space Institute (USA)[100]

 Feasibility [ edit ]

 The energy requirements make interstellar travel very difficult. It has been reported that at the 2008 Joint Propulsion Conference, multiple experts opined that it was improbable that humans would ever explore beyond the Solar System.[101] Brice N. Cassenti, an associate professor with the Department of Engineering and Science at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, stated that at least 100 times the total energy output of the entire world [in a given year] would be required to send a probe to the nearest star.[101]

 Astrophysicist Sten Odenwald stated that the basic problem is that through intensive studies of thousands of detected exoplanets, most of the closest destinations within 50 light years do not yield Earth-like planets in the star's habitable zones.[102] Given the multitrillion-dollar expense of some of the proposed technologies, travelers will have to spend up to 200 years traveling at 20% the speed of light to reach the best known destinations. Moreover, once the travelers arrive at their destination (by any means), they will not be able to travel down to the surface of the target world and set up a colony unless the atmosphere is non-lethal. The prospect of making such a journey, only to spend the rest of the colony's life inside a sealed habitat and venturing outside in a spacesuit, may eliminate many prospective targets from the list.

 Moving at a speed close to the speed of light and encountering even a tiny stationary object like a grain of sand will have fatal consequences. For example, a gram of matter moving at 90% of the speed of light contains a kinetic energy corresponding to a small nuclear bomb (around 30kt TNT).

 One of the major stumbling blocks is having enough Onboard Spares & Repairs facilities for such a lengthy time journey assuming all other considerations are solved, without access to all the resources available on Earth.[103]

 Interstellar missions not for human benefit [ edit ]

 Explorative high-speed missions to Alpha Centauri, as planned for by the Breakthrough Starshot initiative, are projected to be realizable within the 21st century.[104] It is alternatively possible to plan for uncrewed slow-cruising missions taking millennia to arrive. These probes would not be for human benefit in the sense that one can not foresee whether there would be anybody around on Earth interested in then back-transmitted science data. An example would be the Genesis mission,[105] which aims to bring unicellular life, in the spirit of directed panspermia, to habitable but otherwise barren planets.[106] Comparatively slow cruising Genesis probes, with a typical speed of , corresponding to about , can be decelerated using a magnetic sail. Uncrewed missions not for human benefit would hence be feasible.[107] For biotic ethics, and their extension to space as panbiotic ethics, it is a human purpose to secure and propagate life and to use space to maximize life.

 Discovery of Earth-like planets [ edit ]

 In February 2017, NASA announced that its Spitzer Space Telescope had revealed seven Earth-size planets in the TRAPPIST-1 system orbiting an ultra-cool dwarf star 40 light-years away from the Solar System.[108] Three of these planets are firmly located in the habitable zone, the area around the parent star where a rocky planet is most likely to have liquid water. The discovery sets a new record for greatest number of habitable-zone planets found around a single star outside the Solar System. All of these seven planets could have liquid water – the key to life as we know it – under the right atmospheric conditions, but the chances are highest with the three in the habitable zone.

 See also [ edit ]

 * Effect of spaceflight on the human body – Medical issues associated with spaceflight
 * Health threat from cosmic rays – Dangers posed to astronauts
 * Human spaceflight – Spaceflight with a crew or passengers
 * Intergalactic travel – Hypothetical travel between galaxies
 * Interstellar communication – Communication between planetary systems
 * Interstellar object
 * List of artificial objects leaving the Solar System
 * List of nearest terrestrial exoplanet candidates
 * Spacecraft propulsion – Method used to accelerate spacecraft
 * Space travel in science fiction
 * Uploaded astronaut – Hypothetical process of digitally emulating a brain

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 Further reading [ edit ]

 * Crawford, Ian A. (1990). "Interstellar Travel: A Review for Astronomers". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society. 31: 377–400. Bibcode:1990QJRAS..31..377C.
 * Hein, A.M. (September 2012). "Evaluation of Technological-Social and Political Projections for the Next 100-300 Years and the Implications for an Interstellar Mission". Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 33 (9/10): 330–340. Bibcode:2012JBIS...65..330H.
 * Long, Kelvin (2012). Deep Space Propulsion: A Roadmap to Interstellar Flight. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4614-0606-8.
 * Mallove, Eugene (1989). The Starflight Handbook. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-0-471-61912-3.
 * Odenwald, Sten (2015). Interstellar Travel: An Astronomer's Guide. ISBN 978-1-5120-5627-3.
 * Woodward, James (2013). Making Starships and Stargates: The Science of Interstellar Transport and Absurdly Benign Wormholes. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4614-5622-3.
 * Zubrin, Robert (1999). Entering Space: Creating a Spacefaring Civilization. Tarcher / Putnam. ISBN 978-1-58542-036-0.

 External links [ edit ]

 * Leonard David – Reaching for interstellar flight (2003) – MSNBC (MSNBC Webpage)
 * NASA Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Program (NASA Webpage)
 * Bibliography of Interstellar Flight (source list)
 * DARPA seeks help for interstellar starship Archived 2014-03-04 at the Wayback Machine
 * How to build a starship – and why we should start thinking about it now (Article from The Conversation, 2016)
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 * 
A Bussard ramjet, one of many possible methods that could serve to propel spacecraft.  
 Interstellar travel is the hypothetical travel of spacecraft from one star system, solitary star, or planetary system to another. Interstellar travel is expected to prove much more difficult than interplanetary spaceflight due to the vast difference in the scale of the involved distances. Whereas the distance between any two planets in the Solar System is less than 30 astronomical units (AU), stars are typically separated by hundreds of thousands of AU, causing these distances to typically be expressed instead in light-years. Because of the vastness of these distances, non-generational interstellar travel based on known physics would need to occur at a high percentage of the speed of light; even so, travel times would be long, at least decades and perhaps millennia or longer. [1] 
 As of 2022, five uncrewed spacecraft, all launched and operated by the United States, have achieved the escape velocity required to leave the Solar System as part of missions to explore parts of the outer system. They will therefore continue to travel through interstellar space indefinitely. However, they will not approach another star for hundreds of thousands of years, long after they have ceased to operate (though in theory the Voyager Golden Record would be playable in the highly unlikely event that the spacecraft is retrieved by an extraterrestrial civilization).
 The speeds required for interstellar travel in a human lifetime far exceed what current methods of space travel can provide. Even with a hypothetically perfectly efficient propulsion system, the kinetic energy corresponding to those speeds is enormous by today's standards of energy development. Moreover, collisions by spacecraft with cosmic dust and gas at such speeds would be very dangerous for both passengers and the spacecraft itself. [1] 
 A number of strategies have been proposed to deal with these problems, ranging from giant arks that would carry entire societies and ecosystems, to microscopic space probes. Many different spacecraft propulsion systems have been proposed to give spacecraft the required speeds, including nuclear propulsion, beam-powered propulsion, and methods based on speculative physics. [2] 
 Humanity would need to overcome considerable technological and economic challenges to achieve either crewed and uncrewed interstellar travel. Even the most optimistic views forecast that it will be decades before this milestone is reached. However, in spite of the challenges, a wide range of scientific benefits are expected should interstellar travel become a reality. [3] 
 Most interstellar travel concepts require a developed space logistics system capable of moving millions of tonnes to a construction / operating location, and most would require gigawatt-scale power for construction or power (such as Star Wisp– or Light Sail–type concepts). Such a system could grow organically if space-based solar power became a significant component of Earth's energy mix. Consumer demand for a multi-terawatt system would create the necessary multi-million ton/year logistical system. [4] 
Challenges[edit]
Interstellar distances[edit]
Distances between the planets in the Solar System are often measured in astronomical units (AU), defined as the average distance between the Sun and Earth, some 1.5×108 kilometers (93 million miles). Venus, the closest planet to Earth is (at closest approach) 0.28 AU away. Neptune, the farthest planet from the Sun, is 29.8 AU away. As of January 20, 2023, Voyager 1, the farthest human-made object from Earth, is 159 AU away. [5] 
 The closest known star, Proxima Centauri, is approximately 268,332 AU away, or over 9,000 times farther away than Neptune.
 
Object
Distance(AU)
Light time
 
 Moon
0.0026
1.3 seconds
 
 Sun
1
8 minutes
 
 Venus (nearest planet)
0.28
2.41 minutes
 
 Neptune (farthest planet)
29.8
4.1 hours
 
 Voyager 2
133.1
18.45 hours
 
 Voyager 1
159.4
22.1 hours
 
 Proxima Centauri (nearest star and exoplanet)   
268,332 
4.24 years
   
Because of this, distances between stars are usually expressed in light-years (defined as the distance that light travels in vacuum in one Julian year) or in parsecs (one parsec is 3.26 ly, the distance at which stellar parallax is exactly one arcsecond, hence the name). Light in a vacuum travels around 300,000 kilometres (186,000 mi) per second, so 1 light-year is about 9.461×1012 kilometers (5.879 trillion miles) or 63,241 AU. Hence, Proxima Centauri is approximately 4.243 light-years from Earth.
 Another way of understanding the vastness of interstellar distances is by scaling: One of the closest stars to the Sun, Alpha Centauri A (a Sun-like star that is one of two companions of Proxima Centauri), can be pictured by scaling down the Earth–Sun distance to one meter (3.28 ft). On this scale, the distance to Alpha Centauri A would be 276 kilometers (171 miles).
 The fastest outward-bound spacecraft yet sent, Voyager 1, has covered 1/600 of a light-year in 30 years and is currently moving at 1/18,000 the speed of light. At this rate, a journey to Proxima Centauri would take 80,000 years. [6] 
Required energy[edit]
A significant factor contributing to the difficulty is the energy that must be supplied to obtain a reasonable travel time. A lower bound for the required energy is the kinetic energy where is the final mass. If deceleration on arrival is desired and cannot be achieved by any means other than the engines of the ship, then the lower bound for the required energy is doubled to . [7] 
 The velocity for a crewed round trip of a few decades to even the nearest star is several thousand times greater than those of present space vehicles. This means that due to the term in the kinetic energy formula, millions of times as much energy is required. Accelerating one ton to one-tenth of the speed of light requires at least 450 petajoules or 4.50×1017 joules or 125 terawatt-hours [8]  (world energy consumption 2008 was 143,851 terawatt-hours), [9]  without factoring in efficiency of the propulsion mechanism. This energy has to be generated onboard from stored fuel, harvested from the interstellar medium, or projected over immense distances.
Interstellar medium[edit]
A knowledge of the properties of the interstellar gas and dust through which the vehicle must pass is essential for the design of any interstellar space mission. [10]  A major issue with traveling at extremely high speeds is that due to the requisite high relative speeds and large kinetic energies, collisions with interstellar dust could cause considerable damage to the craft. Various shielding methods to mitigate this problem have been proposed. [11]  Larger objects (such as macroscopic dust grains) are far less common, but would be much more destructive. The risks of impacting such objects and mitigation methods have been discussed in literature, but many unknowns remain. [12]  An additional consideration is that due the non-homogeneous distribution of interstellar matter around the Sun, these risks would vary between different trajectories. [10]  Although a high density interstellar medium may cause difficulties for many interstellar travel concepts, interstellar ramjets, and some proposed concepts for decelerating interstellar spacecraft, would actually benefit from a denser interstellar medium. [10] 
Hazards[edit]
The crew of an interstellar ship would face several significant hazards, including the psychological effects of long-term isolation, the physiological effects of extreme acceleration, the effects of exposure to ionising radiation, and the physiological effects of weightlessness to the muscles, joints, bones, immune system, and eyes. There also exists the risk of impact by micrometeoroids and other space debris. These risks represent challenges that have yet to be overcome. [13] 
Wait calculation[edit]
The physicist Robert L. Forward has argued that an interstellar mission that cannot be completed within 50 years should not be started at all. Instead, assuming that a civilization is still on an increasing curve of propulsion system velocity and not yet having reached the limit, the resources should be invested in designing a better propulsion system. This is because a slow spacecraft would probably be passed by another mission sent later with more advanced propulsion (the incessant obsolescence postulate). [14] 
 On the other hand, Andrew Kennedy has shown that if one calculates the journey time to a given destination as the rate of travel speed derived from growth (even exponential growth) increases, there is a clear minimum in the total time to that destination from now. [15]  Voyages undertaken before the minimum will be overtaken by those that leave at the minimum, whereas voyages that leave after the minimum will never overtake those that left at the minimum.
Prime targets for interstellar travel[edit]
There are 59 known stellar systems within 40 light years of the Sun, containing 81 visible stars. The following could be considered prime targets for interstellar missions: [14] 
 
System
Distance (ly)
Remarks
 
 Alpha Centauri 
4.3
Closest system. Three stars (G2, K1, M5). Component A is similar to the Sun (a G2 star). On August 24, 2016, the discovery of an Earth-size exoplanet (Proxima Centauri b) orbiting in the habitable zone of Proxima Centauri was announced.
 
 Barnard's Star 
6
Small, low-luminosity M5 red dwarf. Second closest to Solar System.
 
 Sirius 
8.7
Large, very bright A1 star with a white dwarf companion.
 
 Epsilon Eridani 
10.8
Single K2 star slightly smaller and colder than the Sun. It has two asteroid belts, might have a giant and one much smaller planet, [16]  and may possess a Solar-System-type planetary system.
 
 Tau Ceti 
11.8
Single G8 star similar to the Sun. High probability of possessing a Solar-System-type planetary system: current evidence shows 5 planets with potentially two in the habitable zone.
 
 Luyten's Star
12.36
M3 red dwarf with the super-Earth Luyten b orbiting in the habitable zone.
 
 Wolf 1061 
~14
 Wolf 1061 c is 1.6 times the size of Earth; it may have rocky terrain. It also sits within the 'Goldilocks' zone where it might be possible for liquid water to exist. [17] 
 
 Gliese 581 planetary system 
20.3
Multiple planet system. The unconfirmed exoplanet Gliese 581g and the confirmed exoplanet Gliese 581d are in the star's habitable zone.
 
 Gliese 667C 
22
A system with at least six planets. A record-breaking three of these planets are super-Earths lying in the zone around the star where liquid water could exist, making them possible candidates for the presence of life. [18] 
 
 Vega 
25
A very young system possibly in the process of planetary formation. [19] 
 
 TRAPPIST-1 
39
A system which boasts 7 Earth-like planets, some of which may have liquid water. The discovery is a major advancement in finding a habitable planet and in finding a planet that could support life.
   
Existing astronomical technology is capable of finding planetary systems around these objects, increasing their potential for exploration.
Proposed methods[edit]
Slow, uncrewed probes[edit]
"Slow" interstellar missions (still fast by other standards) based on current and near-future propulsion technologies are associated with trip times starting from about several decades to thousands of years. These missions consist of sending a robotic probe to a nearby star for exploration, similar to interplanetary probes like those used in the Voyager program. [20]  By taking along no crew, the cost and complexity of the mission is significantly reduced, as is the mass that needs to be accelerated, although technology lifetime is still a significant issue next to obtaining a reasonable speed of travel. Proposed concepts include Project Daedalus, Project Icarus, Project Dragonfly, Project Longshot, [21]  and more recently Breakthrough Starshot. [22] 
Fast, uncrewed probes[edit]
Nanoprobes[edit]
Near-lightspeed nano spacecraft might be possible within the near future built on existing microchip technology with a newly developed nanoscale thruster. Researchers at the University of Michigan are developing thrusters that use nanoparticles as propellant. Their technology is called "nanoparticle field extraction thruster", or nanoFET. These devices act like small particle accelerators shooting conductive nanoparticles out into space. [23] 
  Michio Kaku, a theoretical physicist, has suggested that clouds of "smart dust" be sent to the stars, which may become possible with advances in nanotechnology. Kaku also notes that a large number of nanoprobes would need to be sent due to the vulnerability of very small probes to be easily deflected by magnetic fields, micrometeorites and other dangers to ensure the chances that at least one nanoprobe will survive the journey and reach the destination. [24] 
 As a near-term solution, small, laser-propelled interstellar probes, based on current CubeSat technology were proposed in the context of Project Dragonfly. [21] 
Slow, crewed missions[edit]
In crewed missions, the duration of a slow interstellar journey presents a major obstacle and existing concepts deal with this problem in different ways. [25]  They can be distinguished by the "state" in which humans are transported on-board of the spacecraft.
Generation ships[edit]
A generation ship (or world ship) is a type of interstellar ark in which the crew that arrives at the destination is descended from those who started the journey. Generation ships are not currently feasible because of the difficulty of constructing a ship of the enormous required scale and the great biological and sociological problems that life aboard such a ship raises. [26]   [27]   [28]   [29]   [30] 
Suspended animation[edit]
Scientists and writers have postulated various techniques for suspended animation. These include human hibernation and cryonic preservation. Although neither is currently practical, they offer the possibility of sleeper ships in which the passengers lie inert for the long duration of the voyage. [31] 
Frozen embryos[edit]
A robotic interstellar mission carrying some number of frozen early stage human embryos is another theoretical possibility. This method of space colonization requires, among other things, the development of an artificial uterus, the prior detection of a habitable terrestrial planet, and advances in the field of fully autonomous mobile robots and educational robots that would replace human parents. [32] 
Island hopping through interstellar space[edit]
Interstellar space is not completely empty; it contains trillions of icy bodies ranging from small asteroids (Oort cloud) to possible rogue planets. There may be ways to take advantage of these resources for a good part of an interstellar trip, slowly hopping from body to body or setting up waystations along the way. [33] 
Fast, crewed missions[edit]
If a spaceship could average 10 percent of light speed (and decelerate at the destination, for human crewed missions), this would be enough to reach Proxima Centauri in forty years. Several propulsion concepts have been proposed [34]  that might be eventually developed to accomplish this (see § Propulsion below), but none of them are ready for near-term (few decades) developments at acceptable cost.
Time dilation[edit]
Physicists generally believe faster-than-light travel is impossible. 
Relativistic time dilation allows a traveler to experience time more slowly, the closer their speed is to the speed of light. [35]  This apparent slowing becomes noticeable when velocities above 80% of the speed of light are attained. Clocks aboard an interstellar ship would run slower than Earth clocks, so if a ship's engines were capable of continuously generating around 1 g of acceleration (which is comfortable for humans), the ship could reach almost anywhere in the galaxy and return to Earth within 40 years ship-time (see diagram). Upon return, there would be a difference between the time elapsed on the astronaut's ship and the time elapsed on Earth.
 For example, a spaceship could travel to a star 32 light-years away, initially accelerating at a constant 1.03g (i.e. 10.1 m/s2) for 1.32 years (ship time), then stopping its engines and coasting for the next 17.3 years (ship time) at a constant speed, then decelerating again for 1.32 ship-years, and coming to a stop at the destination. After a short visit, the astronaut could return to Earth the same way. After the full round-trip, the clocks on board the ship show that 40 years have passed, but according to those on Earth, the ship comes back 76 years after launch.
 From the viewpoint of the astronaut, onboard clocks seem to be running normally. The star ahead seems to be approaching at a speed of 0.87 light years per ship-year. The universe would appear contracted along the direction of travel to half the size it had when the ship was at rest; the distance between that star and the Sun would seem to be 16 light years as measured by the astronaut.
 At higher speeds, the time on board will run even slower, so the astronaut could travel to the center of the Milky Way (30,000 light years from Earth) and back in 40 years ship-time. But the speed according to Earth clocks will always be less than 1 light year per Earth year, so, when back home, the astronaut will find that more than 60 thousand years will have passed on Earth.
Constant acceleration[edit]
      This plot shows a ship capable of 1-g (10 m/s2 or about 1.0 ly/y2) "felt" or proper-acceleration [36]  can go far, except for the problem of accelerating on-board propellant.  
Regardless of how it is achieved, a propulsion system that could produce acceleration continuously from departure to arrival would be the fastest method of travel. A constant acceleration journey is one where the propulsion system accelerates the ship at a constant rate for the first half of the journey, and then decelerates for the second half, so that it arrives at the destination stationary relative to where it began. If this were performed with an acceleration similar to that experienced at the Earth's surface, it would have the added advantage of producing artificial "gravity" for the crew. Supplying the energy required, however, would be prohibitively expensive with current technology. [37] 
 From the perspective of a planetary observer, the ship will appear to accelerate steadily at first, but then more gradually as it approaches the speed of light (which it cannot exceed). It will undergo hyperbolic motion. [38]  The ship will be close to the speed of light after about a year of accelerating and remain at that speed until it brakes for the end of the journey.
 From the perspective of an onboard observer, the crew will feel a gravitational field opposite the engine's acceleration, and the universe ahead will appear to fall in that field, undergoing hyperbolic motion. As part of this, distances between objects in the direction of the ship's motion will gradually contract until the ship begins to decelerate, at which time an onboard observer's experience of the gravitational field will be reversed.
 When the ship reaches its destination, if it were to exchange a message with its origin planet, it would find that less time had elapsed on board than had elapsed for the planetary observer, due to time dilation and length contraction.
 The result is an impressively fast journey for the crew.
Propulsion[edit]
Rocket concepts[edit]
All rocket concepts are limited by the rocket equation, which sets the characteristic velocity available as a function of exhaust velocity and mass ratio, the ratio of initial (M 0, including fuel) to final (M 1, fuel depleted) mass.
 Very high specific power, the ratio of thrust to total vehicle mass, is required to reach interstellar targets within sub-century time-frames. [39]  Some heat transfer is inevitable and a tremendous heating load must be adequately handled.
 Thus, for interstellar rocket concepts of all technologies, a key engineering problem (seldom explicitly discussed) is limiting the heat transfer from the exhaust stream back into the vehicle. [40] 
Ion engine[edit]
A type of electric propulsion, spacecraft such as  Dawn  use an ion engine. In an ion engine, electric power is used to create charged particles of the propellant, usually the gas xenon, and accelerate them to extremely high velocities. The exhaust velocity of conventional rockets is limited to about 5 km/s by the chemical energy stored in the fuel's molecular bonds. They produce a high thrust (about 106 N), but they have a low specific impulse, and that limits their top speed. By contrast, ion engines have low force, but the top speed in principle is limited only by the electrical power available on the spacecraft and on the gas ions being accelerated. The exhaust speed of the charged particles range from 15 km/s to 35 km/s. [41] 
Nuclear fission powered[edit]
Fission-electric[edit]
Nuclear-electric or plasma engines, operating for long periods at low thrust and powered by fission reactors, have the potential to reach speeds much greater than chemically powered vehicles or nuclear-thermal rockets. Such vehicles probably have the potential to power solar system exploration with reasonable trip times within the current century. Because of their low-thrust propulsion, they would be limited to off-planet, deep-space operation. Electrically powered spacecraft propulsion powered by a portable power-source, say a nuclear reactor, producing only small accelerations, would take centuries to reach for example 15% of the velocity of light, thus unsuitable for interstellar flight during a single human lifetime. [42] 
Fission-fragment[edit]
 Fission-fragment rockets use nuclear fission to create high-speed jets of fission fragments, which are ejected at speeds of up to 12,000 km/s (7,500 mi/s). With fission, the energy output is approximately 0.1% of the total mass-energy of the reactor fuel and limits the effective exhaust velocity to about 5% of the velocity of light. For maximum velocity, the reaction mass should optimally consist of fission products, the "ash" of the primary energy source, so no extra reaction mass need be bookkept in the mass ratio.
Nuclear pulse[edit]
      Modern Pulsed Fission Propulsion Concept.   Based on work in the late 1950s to the early 1960s, it has been technically possible to build spaceships with nuclear pulse propulsion engines, i.e. driven by a series of nuclear explosions. This propulsion system contains the prospect of very high specific impulse (space travel's equivalent of fuel economy) and high specific power. [43] 
  Project Orion team member Freeman Dyson proposed in 1968 an interstellar spacecraft using nuclear pulse propulsion that used pure deuterium fusion detonations with a very high fuel-burnup fraction. He computed an exhaust velocity of 15,000 km/s and a 100,000-tonne space vehicle able to achieve a 20,000 km/s delta-v allowing a flight-time to Alpha Centauri of 130 years. [44]  Later studies indicate that the top cruise velocity that can theoretically be achieved by a Teller-Ulam thermonuclear unit powered Orion starship, assuming no fuel is saved for slowing back down, is about 8% to 10% of the speed of light (0.08-0.1c). [45]  An atomic (fission) Orion can achieve perhaps 3%-5% of the speed of light. A nuclear pulse drive starship powered by fusion-antimatter catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion units would be similarly in the 10% range and pure matter-antimatter annihilation rockets would be theoretically capable of obtaining a velocity between 50% to 80% of the speed of light. In each case saving fuel for slowing down halves the maximum speed. The concept of using a magnetic sail to decelerate the spacecraft as it approaches its destination has been discussed as an alternative to using propellant, this would allow the ship to travel near the maximum theoretical velocity. [46]  Alternative designs utilizing similar principles include Project Longshot, Project Daedalus, and Mini-Mag Orion. The principle of external nuclear pulse propulsion to maximize survivable power has remained common among serious concepts for interstellar flight without external power beaming and for very high-performance interplanetary flight.
 In the 1970s the Nuclear Pulse Propulsion concept further was refined by Project Daedalus by use of externally triggered inertial confinement fusion, in this case producing fusion explosions via compressing fusion fuel pellets with high-powered electron beams. Since then, lasers, ion beams, neutral particle beams and hyper-kinetic projectiles have been suggested to produce nuclear pulses for propulsion purposes. [47] 
 A current impediment to the development of any nuclear-explosion-powered spacecraft is the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty, which includes a prohibition on the detonation of any nuclear devices (even non-weapon based) in outer space. This treaty would, therefore, need to be renegotiated, although a project on the scale of an interstellar mission using currently foreseeable technology would probably require international cooperation on at least the scale of the International Space Station.
 Another issue to be considered, would be the g-forces imparted to a rapidly accelerated spacecraft, cargo, and passengers inside (see Inertia negation).
Nuclear fusion rockets[edit]
 Fusion rocket starships, powered by nuclear fusion reactions, should conceivably be able to reach speeds of the order of 10% of that of light, based on energy considerations alone. In theory, a large number of stages could push a vehicle arbitrarily close to the speed of light. [48]  These would "burn" such light element fuels as deuterium, tritium, 3He, 11B, and 7Li. Because fusion yields about 0.3–0.9% of the mass of the nuclear fuel as released energy, it is energetically more favorable than fission, which releases &lt;0.1% of the fuel's mass-energy. The maximum exhaust velocities potentially energetically available are correspondingly higher than for fission, typically 4–10% of the speed of light. However, the most easily achievable fusion reactions release a large fraction of their energy as high-energy neutrons, which are a significant source of energy loss. Thus, although these concepts seem to offer the best (nearest-term) prospects for travel to the nearest stars within a (long) human lifetime, they still involve massive technological and engineering difficulties, which may turn out to be intractable for decades or centuries.
      Daedalus interstellar probe.   Early studies include Project Daedalus, performed by the British Interplanetary Society in 1973–1978, and Project Longshot, a student project sponsored by NASA and the US Naval Academy, completed in 1988. Another fairly detailed vehicle system, "Discovery II", [49]  designed and optimized for crewed Solar System exploration, based on the D3He reaction but using hydrogen as reaction mass, has been described by a team from NASA's Glenn Research Center. It achieves characteristic velocities of &gt;300 km/s with an acceleration of ~1.7•10−3 g, with a ship initial mass of ~1700 metric tons, and payload fraction above 10%. Although these are still far short of the requirements for interstellar travel on human timescales, the study seems to represent a reasonable benchmark towards what may be approachable within several decades, which is not impossibly beyond the current state-of-the-art. Based on the concept's 2.2% burnup fraction it could achieve a pure fusion product exhaust velocity of ~3,000 km/s.
 Antimatter rockets[edit]
An antimatter rocket would have a far higher energy density and specific impulse than any other proposed class of rocket. [34]  If energy resources and efficient production methods are found to make antimatter in the quantities required and store [50]   [51]  it safely, it would be theoretically possible to reach speeds of several tens of percent that of light. [34]  Whether antimatter propulsion could lead to the higher speeds (&gt;90% that of light) at which relativistic time dilation would become more noticeable, thus making time pass at a slower rate for the travelers as perceived by an outside observer, is doubtful owing to the large quantity of antimatter that would be required. [34]   [52] 
 Speculating that production and storage of antimatter should become feasible, two further issues need to be considered. First, in the annihilation of antimatter, much of the energy is lost as high-energy gamma radiation, and especially also as neutrinos, so that only about 40% of mc 2 would actually be available if the antimatter were simply allowed to annihilate into radiations thermally. [34]  Even so, the energy available for propulsion would be substantially higher than the ~1% of mc 2 yield of nuclear fusion, the next-best rival candidate.
 Second, heat transfer from the exhaust to the vehicle seems likely to transfer enormous wasted energy into the ship (e.g. for 0.1g ship acceleration, approaching 0.3 trillion watts per ton of ship mass), considering the large fraction of the energy that goes into penetrating gamma rays. Even assuming shielding was provided to protect the payload (and passengers on a crewed vehicle), some of the energy would inevitably heat the vehicle, and may thereby prove a limiting factor if useful accelerations are to be achieved.
 More recently, Friedwardt Winterberg proposed that a matter-antimatter GeV gamma ray laser photon rocket is possible by a relativistic proton-antiproton pinch discharge, where the recoil from the laser beam is transmitted by the Mössbauer effect to the spacecraft. [53] 
Rockets with an external energy source[edit]
Rockets deriving their power from external sources, such as a laser, could replace their internal energy source with an energy collector, potentially reducing the mass of the ship greatly and allowing much higher travel speeds. Geoffrey A. Landis proposed an interstellar probe propelled by an ion thruster powered by the energy beamed to it from a base station laser. [54]  Lenard and Andrews proposed using a base station laser to accelerate nuclear fuel pellets towards a Mini-Mag Orion spacecraft that ignites them for propulsion. [55] 
Non-rocket concepts[edit]
A problem with all traditional rocket propulsion methods is that the spacecraft would need to carry its fuel with it, thus making it very massive, in accordance with the rocket equation. Several concepts attempt to escape from this problem: [34]   [56] 
RF resonant cavity thruster[edit]
A radio frequency (RF) resonant cavity thruster is a device that is claimed to be a spacecraft thruster. In 2016, the Advanced Propulsion Physics Laboratory at NASA reported observing a small apparent thrust from one such test, a result not since replicated. [57]  One of the designs is called EMDrive. In December 2002, Satellite Propulsion Research Ltd described a working prototype with an alleged total thrust of about 0.02 newtons powered by an 850 W cavity magnetron. The device could operate for only a few dozen seconds before the magnetron failed, due to overheating. [58]  The latest test on the EMDrive concluded that it does not work. [59] 
Helical engine[edit]
Proposed in 2019 by NASA scientist Dr. David Burns, the helical engine concept would use a particle accelerator to accelerate particles to near the speed of light. Since particles traveling at such speeds acquire more mass, it is believed that this mass change could create acceleration. According to Burns, the spacecraft could theoretically reach 99% the speed of light. [60] 
Interstellar ramjets[edit]
In 1960, Robert W. Bussard proposed the Bussard ramjet, a fusion rocket in which a huge scoop would collect the diffuse hydrogen in interstellar space, "burn" it on the fly using a proton–proton chain reaction, and expel it out of the back. Later calculations with more accurate estimates suggest that the thrust generated would be less than the drag caused by any conceivable scoop design.[ citation needed ] Yet the idea is attractive because the fuel would be collected en route (commensurate with the concept of energy harvesting), so the craft could theoretically accelerate to near the speed of light. The limitation is due to the fact that the reaction can only accelerate the propellant to 0.12c. Thus the drag of catching interstellar dust and the thrust of accelerating that same dust to 0.12c would be the same when the speed is 0.12c, preventing further acceleration.
Beamed propulsion[edit]
     
A light sail or magnetic sail powered by a massive laser or particle accelerator in the home star system could potentially reach even greater speeds than rocket- or pulse propulsion methods, because it would not need to carry its own reaction mass and therefore would only need to accelerate the craft's payload. Robert L. Forward proposed a means for decelerating an interstellar craft with a light sail of 100 kilometers in the destination star system without requiring a laser array to be present in that system. In this scheme, a secondary sail of 30 kilometers is deployed to the rear of the spacecraft, while the large primary sail is detached from the craft to keep moving forward on its own. Light is reflected from the large primary sail to the secondary sail, which is used to decelerate the secondary sail and the spacecraft payload. [61]  In 2002, Geoffrey A. Landis of NASA's Glen Research center also proposed a laser-powered, propulsion, sail ship that would host a diamond sail (of a few nanometers thick) powered with the use of solar energy. [62]  With this proposal, this interstellar ship would, theoretically, be able to reach 10 percent the speed of light. It has also been proposed to use beamed-powered propulsion to accelerate a spacecraft, and electromagnetic propulsion to decelerate it; thus, eliminating the problem that the Bussard ramjet has with the drag produced during acceleration. [63] 
 A magnetic sail could also decelerate at its destination without depending on carried fuel or a driving beam in the destination system, by interacting with the plasma found in the solar wind of the destination star and the interstellar medium. [64]   [65] 
 The following table lists some example concepts using beamed laser propulsion as proposed by the physicist Robert L. Forward: [66] 
 
Mission
Laser Power
Vehicle Mass
Acceleration
Sail Diameter
Maximum Velocity  (% of the speed of light)
 
1. Flyby – Alpha Centauri, 40 years
 
 outbound stage 
65 GW
1 t
0.036 g
3.6 km
11% @ 0.17 ly
 
2. Rendezvous – Alpha Centauri, 41 years
 
 outbound stage 
7,200 GW
785 t
0.005 g
100 km
21% @ 4.29 ly[ dubious – discuss ]
 
 deceleration stage 
26,000 GW
71 t
0.2 g
30 km
21% @ 4.29 ly
 
3. Crewed – Epsilon Eridani, 51 years (including 5 years exploring star system)
 
 outbound stage 
75,000,000 GW
78,500 t
0.3 g
1000 km
50% @ 0.4 ly
 
 deceleration stage 
21,500,000 GW
7,850 t
0.3 g
320 km
50% @ 10.4 ly
 
 return stage 
710,000 GW
785 t
0.3 g
100 km
50% @ 10.4 ly
 
 deceleration stage 
60,000 GW
785 t
0.3 g
100 km
50% @ 0.4 ly
   
Interstellar travel catalog to use photogravitational assists for a full stop[edit]
The following table is based on work by Heller, Hippke and Kervella. [67] 
 
Name
Travel time (yr)
Distance (ly)
Luminosity (L☉ )
 
 Sirius A 
68.90
8.58
24.20
 
 α Centauri A 
101.25
4.36
1.52
 
 α Centauri B 
147.58
4.36
0.50
 
 Procyon A 
154.06
11.44
6.94
 
 Vega 
167.39
25.02
50.05
 
  Altair 
176.67
16.69
10.70
 
 Fomalhaut A 
221.33
25.13
16.67
 
 Denebola 
325.56
35.78
14.66
 
 Castor A 
341.35
50.98
49.85
 
 Epsilon Eridani 
363.35
10.50
0.50
   
 Successive assists at α Cen A and B could allow travel times to 75 yr to both stars.
Lightsail has a nominal mass-to-surface ratio (σnom) of 8.6×10−4 gram m−2 for a nominal graphene-class sail.
Area of the Lightsail, about 105 m2 = (316 m)2 
Velocity up to 37,300 km s−1 (12.5% c) 
Pre-accelerated fuel[edit]
Achieving start-stop interstellar trip times of less than a human lifetime require mass-ratios of between 1,000 and 1,000,000, even for the nearer stars. This could be achieved by multi-staged vehicles on a vast scale. [48]  Alternatively large linear accelerators could propel fuel to fission propelled space-vehicles, avoiding the limitations of the Rocket equation. [68] 
Dynamic soaring[edit]
 Dynamic soaring as a way to travel across interstellar space has been proposed. [69]   [70] 
Theoretical concepts[edit]
Transmission of minds with light[edit]
 Uploaded human minds or AI could be transmitted with laser or radio signals at the speed of light. [71]  This requires a receiver at the destination which would first have to be set up e.g. by humans, probes, self replicating machines (potentially along with AI or uploaded humans), or an alien civilization (which might also be in a different galaxy, perhaps a Kardashev type III civilization).
Faster-than-light travel[edit]
     
Scientists and authors have postulated a number of ways by which it might be possible to surpass the speed of light, but even the most serious-minded of these are highly speculative. [72] 
 It is also debatable whether faster-than-light travel is physically possible, in part because of causality concerns: travel faster than light may, under certain conditions, permit travel backwards in time within the context of special relativity. [73]  Proposed mechanisms for faster-than-light travel within the theory of general relativity require the existence of exotic matter  [72]  and, it is not known if it could be produced in sufficient quantities.
Alcubierre drive[edit]
In physics, the Alcubierre drive is based on an argument, within the framework of general relativity and without the introduction of wormholes, that it is possible to modify spacetime in a way that allows a spaceship to travel with an arbitrarily large speed by a local expansion of spacetime behind the spaceship and an opposite contraction in front of it. [74]  Nevertheless, this concept would require the spaceship to incorporate a region of exotic matter, or the hypothetical concept of negative mass. [74] 
Artificial black hole[edit]
A theoretical idea for enabling interstellar travel is to propel a starship by creating an artificial black hole and using a parabolic reflector to reflect its Hawking radiation. Although beyond current technological capabilities, a black hole starship offers some advantages compared to other possible methods. Getting the black hole to act as a power source and engine also requires a way to convert the Hawking radiation into energy and thrust. One potential method involves placing the hole at the focal point of a parabolic reflector attached to the ship, creating forward thrust. A slightly easier, but less efficient method would involve simply absorbing all the gamma radiation heading towards the fore of the ship to push it onwards, and let the rest shoot out the back. [75]   [76]   [77] 
Wormholes[edit]
 Wormholes are conjectural distortions in spacetime that theorists postulate could connect two arbitrary points in the universe, across an Einstein–Rosen Bridge. It is not known whether wormholes are possible in practice. Although there are solutions to the Einstein equation of general relativity that allow for wormholes, all of the currently known solutions involve some assumption, for example the existence of negative mass, which may be unphysical. [78]  However, Cramer et al. argue that such wormholes might have been created in the early universe, stabilized by cosmic strings. [79]  The general theory of wormholes is discussed by Visser in the book Lorentzian Wormholes. [80] 
Designs and studies[edit]
Enzmann starship[edit]
The Enzmann starship, as detailed by G. Harry Stine in the October 1973 issue of  Analog , was a design for a future starship, based on the ideas of Robert Duncan-Enzmann. The spacecraft itself as proposed used a 12,000,000 ton ball of frozen deuterium to power 12–24 thermonuclear pulse propulsion units. Twice as long as the Empire State Building is tall and assembled in-orbit, the spacecraft was part of a larger project preceded by interstellar probes and telescopic observation of target star systems. [81] 
Project Hyperion[edit]
 Project Hyperion, one of the projects of Icarus Interstellar has looked into various feasibility issues of crewed interstellar travel. [82]   [83]   [84]  Its members continue to publish on crewed interstellar travel in collaboration with the Initiative for Interstellar Studies. [27] 
NASA research[edit]
 NASA has been researching interstellar travel since its formation, translating important foreign language papers and conducting early studies on applying fusion propulsion, in the 1960s, and laser propulsion, in the 1970s, to interstellar travel.
 In 1994, NASA and JPL cosponsored a "Workshop on Advanced Quantum/Relativity Theory Propulsion" to "establish and use new frames of reference for thinking about the faster-than-light (FTL) question". [85] 
 The NASA Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Program (terminated in FY 2003 after a 6-year, $1.2-million study, because "No breakthroughs appear imminent.") [86]  identified some breakthroughs that are needed for interstellar travel to be possible. [87] 
  Geoffrey A. Landis of NASA's Glenn Research Center states that a laser-powered interstellar sail ship could possibly be launched within 50 years, using new methods of space travel. "I think that ultimately we're going to do it, it's just a question of when and who," Landis said in an interview. Rockets are too slow to send humans on interstellar missions. Instead, he envisions interstellar craft with extensive sails, propelled by laser light to about one-tenth the speed of light. It would take such a ship about 43 years to reach Alpha Centauri if it passed through the system without stopping. Slowing down to stop at Alpha Centauri could increase the trip to 100 years, [88]  whereas a journey without slowing down raises the issue of making sufficiently accurate and useful observations and measurements during a fly-by.
100 Year Starship study[edit]
The 100 Year Starship (100YSS) study was the name of a one-year project to assess the attributes of and lay the groundwork for an organization that can carry forward the 100 Year Starship vision. 100YSS-related symposia were organized between 2011 and 2015.
  Harold ("Sonny") White  [89]  from NASA's Johnson Space Center is a member of Icarus Interstellar, [90]  the nonprofit foundation whose mission is to realize interstellar flight before the year 2100. At the 2012 meeting of 100YSS, he reported using a laser to try to warp spacetime by 1 part in 10 million with the aim of helping to make interstellar travel possible. [91] 
Other designs[edit]
  Project Orion, human crewed interstellar ship (1958–1968).
 Project Daedalus, uncrewed interstellar probe (1973–1978).
Starwisp, uncrewed interstellar probe (1985). [92]  
 Project Longshot, uncrewed interstellar probe (1987–1988).
 Starseed/launcher, fleet of uncrewed interstellar probes (1996)
 Project Valkyrie, human crewed interstellar ship (2009)
 Project Icarus, uncrewed interstellar probe (2009–2014).
Sun-diver, uncrewed interstellar probe [93]  
 Project Dragonfly, small laser-propelled interstellar probe (2013-2015).
 Breakthrough Starshot, fleet of uncrewed interstellar probes, announced on April 12, 2016. [94]   [95]   [96]  
 Solar One, crewed spacecraft that would combine beamed-powered propulsion, electromagnetic propulsion, and nuclear propulsion (2020). [97]   
Non-profit organizations[edit]
A few organisations dedicated to interstellar propulsion research and advocacy for the case exist worldwide. These are still in their infancy, but are already backed up by a membership of a wide variety of scientists, students and professionals.
  Initiative for Interstellar Studies (UK) [98]  
Tau Zero Foundation (USA) [99]  
Limitless Space Institute (USA) [100]   
Feasibility[edit]
The energy requirements make interstellar travel very difficult. It has been reported that at the 2008 Joint Propulsion Conference, multiple experts opined that it was improbable that humans would ever explore beyond the Solar System. [101]  Brice N. Cassenti, an associate professor with the Department of Engineering and Science at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, stated that at least 100 times the total energy output of the entire world [in a given year] would be required to send a probe to the nearest star. [101] 
 Astrophysicist Sten Odenwald stated that the basic problem is that through intensive studies of thousands of detected exoplanets, most of the closest destinations within 50 light years do not yield Earth-like planets in the star's habitable zones. [102]  Given the multitrillion-dollar expense of some of the proposed technologies, travelers will have to spend up to 200 years traveling at 20% the speed of light to reach the best known destinations. Moreover, once the travelers arrive at their destination (by any means), they will not be able to travel down to the surface of the target world and set up a colony unless the atmosphere is non-lethal. The prospect of making such a journey, only to spend the rest of the colony's life inside a sealed habitat and venturing outside in a spacesuit, may eliminate many prospective targets from the list.
 Moving at a speed close to the speed of light and encountering even a tiny stationary object like a grain of sand will have fatal consequences. For example, a gram of matter moving at 90% of the speed of light contains a kinetic energy corresponding to a small nuclear bomb (around 30kt TNT).
 One of the major stumbling blocks is having enough Onboard Spares &amp; Repairs facilities for such a lengthy time journey assuming all other considerations are solved, without access to all the resources available on Earth. [103] 
Interstellar missions not for human benefit[edit]
Explorative high-speed missions to Alpha Centauri, as planned for by the Breakthrough Starshot initiative, are projected to be realizable within the 21st century. [104]  It is alternatively possible to plan for uncrewed slow-cruising missions taking millennia to arrive. These probes would not be for human benefit in the sense that one can not foresee whether there would be anybody around on Earth interested in then back-transmitted science data. An example would be the Genesis mission, [105]  which aims to bring unicellular life, in the spirit of directed panspermia, to habitable but otherwise barren planets. [106]  Comparatively slow cruising Genesis probes, with a typical speed of , corresponding to about , can be decelerated using a magnetic sail. Uncrewed missions not for human benefit would hence be feasible. [107]  For biotic ethics, and their extension to space as panbiotic ethics, it is a human purpose to secure and propagate life and to use space to maximize life.
Discovery of Earth-like planets[edit]
In February 2017, NASA announced that its Spitzer Space Telescope had revealed seven Earth-size planets in the TRAPPIST-1 system orbiting an ultra-cool dwarf star 40 light-years away from the Solar System. [108]  Three of these planets are firmly located in the habitable zone, the area around the parent star where a rocky planet is most likely to have liquid water. The discovery sets a new record for greatest number of habitable-zone planets found around a single star outside the Solar System. All of these seven planets could have liquid water – the key to life as we know it – under the right atmospheric conditions, but the chances are highest with the three in the habitable zone.
See also[edit]
  Effect of spaceflight on the human body – Medical issues associated with spaceflight
 Health threat from cosmic rays – Dangers posed to astronauts
 Human spaceflight – Spaceflight with a crew or passengers
 Intergalactic travel – Hypothetical travel between galaxies
 Interstellar communication – Communication between planetary systems
 Interstellar object 
 List of artificial objects leaving the Solar System 
 List of nearest terrestrial exoplanet candidates 
 Spacecraft propulsion – Method used to accelerate spacecraft
 Space travel in science fiction 
 Uploaded astronaut – Hypothetical process of digitally emulating a brain 
References[edit]
 
^    a       b    Mauldin, John H. (May 1992).  Prospects for interstellar travel . Published for the American Astronautical Society by Univelt. Interstellar travel. 
  ^   "Interstellar Travel". www.bis-space.com. Archived from the original on 2017-06-16. Retrieved 2017-06-16.
  ^  Crawford, I. A. (2009). "The Astronomical, Astrobiological and Planetary Science Case for Interstellar Spaceflight". Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 62: 415–421. arXiv:1008.4893. Bibcode:2009JBIS...62..415C.
  ^  Conclusion of the 2016 Tennessee Valley Interstellar Workshop Space Solar Power Working Track run by Peter Garretson &amp; Robert Kennedy.
  ^  Elizabeth Howell (January 19, 2022). "Voyager 1: Earth's farthest spacecraft". Space.com. Retrieved 8 April 2022.
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Further reading[edit]
  Crawford, Ian A. (1990). "Interstellar Travel: A Review for Astronomers". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society. 31: 377–400. Bibcode:1990QJRAS..31..377C. 
 Hein, A.M. (September 2012). "Evaluation of Technological-Social and Political Projections for the Next 100-300 Years and the Implications for an Interstellar Mission". Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 33 (9/10): 330–340. Bibcode:2012JBIS...65..330H. 
 Long, Kelvin (2012). Deep Space Propulsion: A Roadmap to Interstellar Flight. Springer. ISBN  978-1-4614-0606-8 . 
 Mallove, Eugene (1989).  The Starflight Handbook . John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc. ISBN  978-0-471-61912-3 . 
 Odenwald, Sten (2015). Interstellar Travel: An Astronomer's Guide. ISBN  978-1-5120-5627-3 . 
 Woodward, James (2013). Making Starships and Stargates: The Science of Interstellar Transport and Absurdly Benign Wormholes. Springer. ISBN  978-1-4614-5622-3 . 
 Zubrin, Robert (1999).  Entering Space: Creating a Spacefaring Civilization . Tarcher / Putnam. ISBN  978-1-58542-036-0 .  
External links[edit]
  Leonard David – Reaching for interstellar flight (2003) – MSNBC (MSNBC Webpage)
 NASA Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Program (NASA Webpage)
 Bibliography of Interstellar Flight (source list)
 DARPA seeks help for interstellar starship Archived 2014-03-04 at the Wayback Machine 
 How to build a starship – and why we should start thinking about it now (Article from The Conversation, 2016)
Interstellar travel - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstellar_travel
https://www.sciencealert.com/interstellar-travel-could-be-possible-even-without-spaceships-a-scientist-says
Interstellar Travel Could Be Possible Even Without Spaceships, Scientist Says
2022-06-01
ScienceAlert Staff
<div><div>
<p>In about 5 billion years, the Sun will leave the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_sequence">main sequence</a> and become a red giant. It'll expand and transform into a glowering, malevolent ball and consume and destroy <a href="https://www.sciencealert.com/mercury">Mercury</a>, <a href="https://www.sciencealert.com/venus">Venus</a>, Earth, and probably <a href="https://www.sciencealert.com/mars">Mars</a>.</p><p>Can humanity survive the Sun's red giant phase? Extraterrestrial Civilizations (ETCs) may have already faced this existential threat.</p><p>Could they have survived it by migrating to another star system without the use of spaceships?</p><p>Universe Today readers are well-versed in the difficulties of interstellar travel. Our nearest neighboring solar system is the Alpha Centauri system.</p><p>If humanity had to flee an existential threat in our Solar System, and if we could identify a planetary home in Alpha Centauri, it would still take us over four years to get there – if we could travel at the speed of light!</p><p>It still takes us five years to get an orbiter to <a href="https://www.sciencealert.com/the-weirdest-facts-about-jupiter">Jupiter</a> at our technological stage. There's lots of talk about generation starships, where humans could live for generations while en route to a distant habitable planet.</p><p>Those ships don't need to reach anywhere near the speed of light; instead, entire generations of humans would live and die on a journey to another star that takes hundreds or thousands of years. It's fun to think about but pure fantasy at this point.</p><p>Is there another way we, or other civilizations, could escape our doomed homes?</p><p>The author of a new research article in the <em>International Journal of Astrobiology</em> says that ETCs may not need starships to escape existential threats and travel to another star system.</p><p>They could instead use free-floating planets, also known as rogue planets. The article is "<a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-astrobiology/article/migrating-extraterrestrial-civilizations-and-interstellar-colonization-implications-for-seti-and-seta/BFFC1BB63FED869C85172BB3CC88DBBB">Migrating extraterrestrial civilizations and interstellar colonization: implications for SETI and SETA</a>". The author is Irina Romanovskaya. Romanovskaya is a Professor of Physics and Astronomy at Houston Community College.</p><p>"I propose that extraterrestrial civilizations may use free-floating planets as interstellar transportation to reach, explore, and colonize planetary systems," Romanovskaya writes. And when it comes to the search for other civilizations, these efforts could leave technosignatures and artifacts.</p><p>"I propose possible technosignatures and artifacts that may be produced by extraterrestrial civilizations using free-floating planets for interstellar migration and interstellar colonization, as well as strategies for the search for their technosignatures and artifacts," she said.</p><p>It's possible that rogue planets, either in the Milky Way or some of the other hundreds of billions of galaxies, carry their own life with them in subsurface oceans kept warm by radiogenic decay.</p><p>Then if they meet a star and become gravitationally bound, that life has effectively used a rogue planet to transport itself, hopefully, to somewhere more hospitable. So why couldn't a civilization mimic that?</p><p>We think of free-floating planets as dark, cold, and inhospitable. And they are unless they have warm subsurface oceans. But they also offer some advantages.</p><p>"Free-floating planets can provide constant surface gravity, large amounts of space and resources," Romanovskaya writes. "Free-floating planets with surface and subsurface oceans can provide water as a consumable resource and for protection from space radiation."</p><p>An advanced civilization could also engineer the planet for an even greater advantage by steering it and developing energy sources. Romanovskaya suggests that if we're on the verge of using controlled fusion, then advanced civilizations might already be using it, which could change a frigid rogue planet into something that could support life.</p><p>The author outlines four scenarios where ETCs could take advantage of rogue planets.</p><p>The first scenario involves a rogue planet that happens to pass by the home world of an ETC. How often that might occur is tied to the number of rogue planets in general.</p><p>So far, we don't know how many there are, but there are certainly some. In 2021, a team of researchers announced the discovery of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-021-01513-x">between 70 and 170 rogue planets</a>, each the size of Jupiter, in one region of the Milky Way. And in 2020, one study suggested there could be as many as <a href="https://arxiv.org/pdf/1902.04652.pdf">50 billion</a> of them in our galaxy.</p><p>Where do they all come from? Most are likely ejected from their solar systems due to gravitational events, but some may form via accretion as stars do.</p><p>Another source of rogue planets is our Solar System's Oort Cloud. If other systems also have a cloud of objects like this, they can be an abundant source of rogue planets ejected by stellar activity.</p><p>Romanovskaya writes: "Stars with 1–7 times solar mass undergoing the post-main-sequence evolution, as well as a supernova from a 7–20 times solar mass progenitor, can eject Oort-cloud objects from their systems so that such objects become unbound from their host stars."</p><p>But how often can an ETC, or our civilization, expect a rogue planet to come close enough to hitchhike on? A 2015 study showed that the binary star W0720 (Scholz's star) passed through our Solar System's Oort Cloud about 70,000 years ago.</p><p>While that was a star and not a planet, it shows that objects pass relatively close by. If the studies that predict billions of free-floating planets are correct, then some of them likely passed close by, or right through, the Oort Cloud long before we had the means to detect them.</p><p>The Oort Cloud is a long way away, but a sufficiently advanced civilization could have the capability to see a rogue planet approaching and go out and meet it.</p><p>The second scenario involves using technology to steer a rogue planet closer to a civilization's home. With sufficient technology, they could choose an object from their own Oort Cloud – assuming they have one – and use a propulsion system to direct it towards a safe orbit near their planet.</p><p>With sufficient lead time, they could adapt the object to their needs, for example, by building underground shelters and other infrastructure. Maybe, with adequate technology, they could alter or create an atmosphere.</p><p>The third scenario is similar to the second one. It also involves an object from the civilization's outer Solar System. Romanovskaya uses the dwarf planet <a href="https://www.universetoday.com/153879/2029-will-be-the-perfect-year-to-launch-a-mission-to-sedna/">Sedna</a> in our Solar System as an example.</p><p>Sedna has a highly eccentric orbit that takes it from 76 AUs from the Sun to 937 AU in about 11,000 years. With sufficient technology and lead time, an object like Sedna could be turned into an escape ship.</p><p>The author notes that "Civilizations capable of doing so would be advanced civilizations that already have their planetary systems explored to the distances of at least 60 AU from their host stars".</p><p>There are lots of potential problems. Bringing a dwarf planet from the distant reaches of the Solar System into the inner Solar System could disrupt the orbits of other planets, leading to all sorts of hazards.</p><p>But the dangers are mitigated if a civilization around a post-main sequence star has already migrated outward with the changing habitable zone. Romanovskaya discusses the energy needed and the timing required in more detail in her article.</p><p>The fourth scenario also involves objects like Sedna. When a star leaves the main sequence and expands, there's a critical distance where objects will be ejected from the system rather than remain gravitationally bound to the dying star.</p><p>If an ETC could accurately determine when these objects would be ejected as rogue planets, they could prepare it beforehand and ride it out of the dying solar system. That could be extraordinarily perilous, as periods of violent mass loss from the star creates an enormous hazard.</p><p>In all of these scenarios, the rogue planet or other body isn't a permanent home; it's a lifeboat.</p><p>"For all the above scenarios, free-floating planets may not serve as a permanent means of escape from existential threats," the author explains. "Because of the waning heat production in their interior, such planets eventually fail to sustain oceans of liquid water (if such oceans exist)."</p><p>Free-floating planets are also isolated and have fewer resources than planets in a solar system. There are no asteroids to mine, for example, and no free solar energy. There are no seasons and no night and day. There are no plants, animals, or even bacteria. They're simply a means to an end.</p><p>"Therefore, instead of making free-floating planets their permanent homes, extraterrestrial civilizations would use the free-floating planets as interstellar transportation to reach and colonize other planetary systems," writes Romanovskaya.</p><p>In her article, Professor Romanovskaya speculates where this could lead. She envisions a civilization that does this more than once, not to escape a dying star but to spread throughout a galaxy and colonize it.</p><p>"In this way, the parent-civilization may create unique and autonomous daughter-civilizations inhabiting different planets, moons, or regions of space.</p><p>"A civilization of Cosmic Hitchhikers would act as a 'parent-civilization' spreading the seeds of 'daughter-civilizations' in the form of its colonies in planetary systems," she writes. "This applies to both biological and post-biological species."</p><p>Humanity is only in the early stages of protecting ourselves from catastrophic <a href="https://www.sciencealert.com/asteroid">asteroid</a> impacts, and we can't yet manage our planet's climate with any degree of stability. So thinking about using rogue planets to keep humanity alive seems pretty far-fetched. But Romanovskaya's research isn't about us; it's about detecting other civilizations.</p><p>All of this activity could create technosignatures and artifacts that signified the presence of an ETC. The research article outlines what they might be and how we could detect them. Rogue planets used as lifeboats could create technosignatures like electromagnetic emissions or other phenomena.</p><p>An ETC could use <a href="https://www.planetary.org/articles/what-is-solar-sailing">solar sails</a> to control a rogue planet or use them on a spaceship launched from a rogue planet once they have reached their destination. In either case, solar sails produce a technosignature: cyclotron radiation.</p><p>Maneuvering either a spacecraft or a rogue planet with solar sails would produce "… cyclotron radiation caused by the interaction of the interstellar medium with the magnetic sail".</p><p>Infrared emissions could be another technosignature emitted as waste heat by an ETC on a rogue planet. An excessive amount of infrared or unnatural changes in the amount of infrared could be detected as a technosignature.</p><p>Infrared could be emitted unevenly across the planet's surface, indicating underlying engineering or technology. An unusual mix of different wavelengths of electromagnetic energy could also be a technosignature.</p><p>The atmosphere itself, if one existed, could also hold technosignatures. Depending on what was observed, it could contain evidence of terraforming.</p><p>For now, astronomers don't know how many rogue planets there are or if they're concentrated in some areas of the galaxy. We're at the starting line when it comes to figuring these things out. But soon, we may get a better idea.</p><p>The Vera Rubin Observatory should see first light by 2023. This powerful observatory will image the entire available sky every few nights, and it'll do it in fine detail. It houses the largest digital camera ever made: a 3.2 gigabyte CCD.</p><p>The Vera Rubin will be especially good at detecting transients, that is, anything that changes position or brightness in a couple of days. It'll have a good chance of spotting any interlopers like rogue planets that might approach our Solar System.</p><p>There's a strong possibility that some of those rogue planets will exhibit unusual emissions or puzzling phenomena. Scientists will probably puzzle over them as <a href="https://www.universetoday.com/140391/could-oumuamua-be-an-extra-terrestrial-solar-sail/">they did over Oumuamua</a>.</p><p>Maybe another civilization more advanced than us has already faced an existential threat from their dying star. Maybe they made a Herculean effort to capture a rogue planet and engineer it to suit their needs.</p><p>Maybe they've already boarded it and launched it towards a distant, stable, long-lived yellow star, with rocky planets in its habitable zone. Maybe they're wondering if there's any life at their destination and how they might be received after their long journey.</p><p><strong>This article was originally published by <a href="https://www.universetoday.com/">Universe Today</a>. Read the <a href="https://www.universetoday.com/156081/civilizations-dont-even-need-space-ships-to-migrate-from-star-system-to-star-system/">original article</a>.</strong></p>
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 Interstellar Travel Could Be Possible Even Without Spaceships, Scientist Says

 Space 01 June 2022
 By Evan Gough, Universe Today
 (Cavan Images/Getty Images)

 In about 5 billion years, the Sun will leave the main sequence and become a red giant. It'll expand and transform into a glowering, malevolent ball and consume and destroy Mercury, Venus, Earth, and probably Mars.

 Can humanity survive the Sun's red giant phase? Extraterrestrial Civilizations (ETCs) may have already faced this existential threat.

 Could they have survived it by migrating to another star system without the use of spaceships?

 Universe Today readers are well-versed in the difficulties of interstellar travel. Our nearest neighboring solar system is the Alpha Centauri system.

 If humanity had to flee an existential threat in our Solar System, and if we could identify a planetary home in Alpha Centauri, it would still take us over four years to get there – if we could travel at the speed of light!

 It still takes us five years to get an orbiter to Jupiter at our technological stage. There's lots of talk about generation starships, where humans could live for generations while en route to a distant habitable planet.

 Those ships don't need to reach anywhere near the speed of light; instead, entire generations of humans would live and die on a journey to another star that takes hundreds or thousands of years. It's fun to think about but pure fantasy at this point.

 Is there another way we, or other civilizations, could escape our doomed homes?

 The author of a new research article in the International Journal of Astrobiology says that ETCs may not need starships to escape existential threats and travel to another star system.

 They could instead use free-floating planets, also known as rogue planets. The article is "Migrating extraterrestrial civilizations and interstellar colonization: implications for SETI and SETA". The author is Irina Romanovskaya. Romanovskaya is a Professor of Physics and Astronomy at Houston Community College.

 "I propose that extraterrestrial civilizations may use free-floating planets as interstellar transportation to reach, explore, and colonize planetary systems," Romanovskaya writes. And when it comes to the search for other civilizations, these efforts could leave technosignatures and artifacts.

 "I propose possible technosignatures and artifacts that may be produced by extraterrestrial civilizations using free-floating planets for interstellar migration and interstellar colonization, as well as strategies for the search for their technosignatures and artifacts," she said.

 It's possible that rogue planets, either in the Milky Way or some of the other hundreds of billions of galaxies, carry their own life with them in subsurface oceans kept warm by radiogenic decay.

 Then if they meet a star and become gravitationally bound, that life has effectively used a rogue planet to transport itself, hopefully, to somewhere more hospitable. So why couldn't a civilization mimic that?

 We think of free-floating planets as dark, cold, and inhospitable. And they are unless they have warm subsurface oceans. But they also offer some advantages.

 "Free-floating planets can provide constant surface gravity, large amounts of space and resources," Romanovskaya writes. "Free-floating planets with surface and subsurface oceans can provide water as a consumable resource and for protection from space radiation."

 An advanced civilization could also engineer the planet for an even greater advantage by steering it and developing energy sources. Romanovskaya suggests that if we're on the verge of using controlled fusion, then advanced civilizations might already be using it, which could change a frigid rogue planet into something that could support life.

 The author outlines four scenarios where ETCs could take advantage of rogue planets.

 The first scenario involves a rogue planet that happens to pass by the home world of an ETC. How often that might occur is tied to the number of rogue planets in general.

 So far, we don't know how many there are, but there are certainly some. In 2021, a team of researchers announced the discovery of between 70 and 170 rogue planets, each the size of Jupiter, in one region of the Milky Way. And in 2020, one study suggested there could be as many as 50 billion of them in our galaxy.

 Where do they all come from? Most are likely ejected from their solar systems due to gravitational events, but some may form via accretion as stars do.

 Another source of rogue planets is our Solar System's Oort Cloud. If other systems also have a cloud of objects like this, they can be an abundant source of rogue planets ejected by stellar activity.

 Romanovskaya writes: "Stars with 1–7 times solar mass undergoing the post-main-sequence evolution, as well as a supernova from a 7–20 times solar mass progenitor, can eject Oort-cloud objects from their systems so that such objects become unbound from their host stars."

 But how often can an ETC, or our civilization, expect a rogue planet to come close enough to hitchhike on? A 2015 study showed that the binary star W0720 (Scholz's star) passed through our Solar System's Oort Cloud about 70,000 years ago.

 While that was a star and not a planet, it shows that objects pass relatively close by. If the studies that predict billions of free-floating planets are correct, then some of them likely passed close by, or right through, the Oort Cloud long before we had the means to detect them.

 The Oort Cloud is a long way away, but a sufficiently advanced civilization could have the capability to see a rogue planet approaching and go out and meet it.

 The second scenario involves using technology to steer a rogue planet closer to a civilization's home. With sufficient technology, they could choose an object from their own Oort Cloud – assuming they have one – and use a propulsion system to direct it towards a safe orbit near their planet.

 With sufficient lead time, they could adapt the object to their needs, for example, by building underground shelters and other infrastructure. Maybe, with adequate technology, they could alter or create an atmosphere.

 The third scenario is similar to the second one. It also involves an object from the civilization's outer Solar System. Romanovskaya uses the dwarf planet Sedna in our Solar System as an example.

 Sedna has a highly eccentric orbit that takes it from 76 AUs from the Sun to 937 AU in about 11,000 years. With sufficient technology and lead time, an object like Sedna could be turned into an escape ship.

 The author notes that "Civilizations capable of doing so would be advanced civilizations that already have their planetary systems explored to the distances of at least 60 AU from their host stars".

 There are lots of potential problems. Bringing a dwarf planet from the distant reaches of the Solar System into the inner Solar System could disrupt the orbits of other planets, leading to all sorts of hazards.

 But the dangers are mitigated if a civilization around a post-main sequence star has already migrated outward with the changing habitable zone. Romanovskaya discusses the energy needed and the timing required in more detail in her article.

 The fourth scenario also involves objects like Sedna. When a star leaves the main sequence and expands, there's a critical distance where objects will be ejected from the system rather than remain gravitationally bound to the dying star.

 If an ETC could accurately determine when these objects would be ejected as rogue planets, they could prepare it beforehand and ride it out of the dying solar system. That could be extraordinarily perilous, as periods of violent mass loss from the star creates an enormous hazard.

 In all of these scenarios, the rogue planet or other body isn't a permanent home; it's a lifeboat.

 "For all the above scenarios, free-floating planets may not serve as a permanent means of escape from existential threats," the author explains. "Because of the waning heat production in their interior, such planets eventually fail to sustain oceans of liquid water (if such oceans exist)."

 Free-floating planets are also isolated and have fewer resources than planets in a solar system. There are no asteroids to mine, for example, and no free solar energy. There are no seasons and no night and day. There are no plants, animals, or even bacteria. They're simply a means to an end.

 "Therefore, instead of making free-floating planets their permanent homes, extraterrestrial civilizations would use the free-floating planets as interstellar transportation to reach and colonize other planetary systems," writes Romanovskaya.

 In her article, Professor Romanovskaya speculates where this could lead. She envisions a civilization that does this more than once, not to escape a dying star but to spread throughout a galaxy and colonize it.

 "In this way, the parent-civilization may create unique and autonomous daughter-civilizations inhabiting different planets, moons, or regions of space.

 "A civilization of Cosmic Hitchhikers would act as a 'parent-civilization' spreading the seeds of 'daughter-civilizations' in the form of its colonies in planetary systems," she writes. "This applies to both biological and post-biological species."

 Humanity is only in the early stages of protecting ourselves from catastrophic asteroid impacts, and we can't yet manage our planet's climate with any degree of stability. So thinking about using rogue planets to keep humanity alive seems pretty far-fetched. But Romanovskaya's research isn't about us; it's about detecting other civilizations.

 All of this activity could create technosignatures and artifacts that signified the presence of an ETC. The research article outlines what they might be and how we could detect them. Rogue planets used as lifeboats could create technosignatures like electromagnetic emissions or other phenomena.

 An ETC could use solar sails to control a rogue planet or use them on a spaceship launched from a rogue planet once they have reached their destination. In either case, solar sails produce a technosignature: cyclotron radiation.

 Maneuvering either a spacecraft or a rogue planet with solar sails would produce "… cyclotron radiation caused by the interaction of the interstellar medium with the magnetic sail".

 Infrared emissions could be another technosignature emitted as waste heat by an ETC on a rogue planet. An excessive amount of infrared or unnatural changes in the amount of infrared could be detected as a technosignature.

 Infrared could be emitted unevenly across the planet's surface, indicating underlying engineering or technology. An unusual mix of different wavelengths of electromagnetic energy could also be a technosignature.

 The atmosphere itself, if one existed, could also hold technosignatures. Depending on what was observed, it could contain evidence of terraforming.

 For now, astronomers don't know how many rogue planets there are or if they're concentrated in some areas of the galaxy. We're at the starting line when it comes to figuring these things out. But soon, we may get a better idea.

 The Vera Rubin Observatory should see first light by 2023. This powerful observatory will image the entire available sky every few nights, and it'll do it in fine detail. It houses the largest digital camera ever made: a 3.2 gigabyte CCD.

 The Vera Rubin will be especially good at detecting transients, that is, anything that changes position or brightness in a couple of days. It'll have a good chance of spotting any interlopers like rogue planets that might approach our Solar System.

 There's a strong possibility that some of those rogue planets will exhibit unusual emissions or puzzling phenomena. Scientists will probably puzzle over them as they did over Oumuamua.

 Maybe another civilization more advanced than us has already faced an existential threat from their dying star. Maybe they made a Herculean effort to capture a rogue planet and engineer it to suit their needs.

 Maybe they've already boarded it and launched it towards a distant, stable, long-lived yellow star, with rocky planets in its habitable zone. Maybe they're wondering if there's any life at their destination and how they might be received after their long journey.

 This article was originally published by Universe Today. Read the original article.

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In about 5 billion years, the Sun will leave the main sequence and become a red giant. It'll expand and transform into a glowering, malevolent ball and consume and destroy Mercury, Venus, Earth, and probably Mars. Can humanity survive the Sun's red giant phase? Extraterrestrial Civilizations (ETCs) may have already faced this existential threat. Could they have survived it by migrating to another star system without the use of spaceships? Universe Today readers are well-versed in the difficulties of interstellar travel. Our nearest neighboring solar system is the Alpha Centauri system. If humanity had to flee an existential threat in our Solar System, and if we could identify a planetary home in Alpha Centauri, it would still take us over four years to get there – if we could travel at the speed of light! It still takes us five years to get an orbiter to Jupiter at our technological stage. There's lots of talk about generation starships, where humans could live for generations while en route to a distant habitable planet. Those ships don't need to reach anywhere near the speed of light; instead, entire generations of humans would live and die on a journey to another star that takes hundreds or thousands of years. It's fun to think about but pure fantasy at this point. Is there another way we, or other civilizations, could escape our doomed homes? The author of a new research article in the International Journal of Astrobiology says that ETCs may not need starships to escape existential threats and travel to another star system. They could instead use free-floating planets, also known as rogue planets. The article is "Migrating extraterrestrial civilizations and interstellar colonization: implications for SETI and SETA". The author is Irina Romanovskaya. Romanovskaya is a Professor of Physics and Astronomy at Houston Community College. "I propose that extraterrestrial civilizations may use free-floating planets as interstellar transportation to reach, explore, and colonize planetary systems," Romanovskaya writes. And when it comes to the search for other civilizations, these efforts could leave technosignatures and artifacts. "I propose possible technosignatures and artifacts that may be produced by extraterrestrial civilizations using free-floating planets for interstellar migration and interstellar colonization, as well as strategies for the search for their technosignatures and artifacts," she said. It's possible that rogue planets, either in the Milky Way or some of the other hundreds of billions of galaxies, carry their own life with them in subsurface oceans kept warm by radiogenic decay. Then if they meet a star and become gravitationally bound, that life has effectively used a rogue planet to transport itself, hopefully, to somewhere more hospitable. So why couldn't a civilization mimic that? We think of free-floating planets as dark, cold, and inhospitable. And they are unless they have warm subsurface oceans. But they also offer some advantages. "Free-floating planets can provide constant surface gravity, large amounts of space and resources," Romanovskaya writes. "Free-floating planets with surface and subsurface oceans can provide water as a consumable resource and for protection from space radiation." An advanced civilization could also engineer the planet for an even greater advantage by steering it and developing energy sources. Romanovskaya suggests that if we're on the verge of using controlled fusion, then advanced civilizations might already be using it, which could change a frigid rogue planet into something that could support life. The author outlines four scenarios where ETCs could take advantage of rogue planets. The first scenario involves a rogue planet that happens to pass by the home world of an ETC. How often that might occur is tied to the number of rogue planets in general. So far, we don't know how many there are, but there are certainly some. In 2021, a team of researchers announced the discovery of between 70 and 170 rogue planets, each the size of Jupiter, in one region of the Milky Way. And in 2020, one study suggested there could be as many as 50 billion of them in our galaxy. Where do they all come from? Most are likely ejected from their solar systems due to gravitational events, but some may form via accretion as stars do. Another source of rogue planets is our Solar System's Oort Cloud. If other systems also have a cloud of objects like this, they can be an abundant source of rogue planets ejected by stellar activity. Romanovskaya writes: "Stars with 1–7 times solar mass undergoing the post-main-sequence evolution, as well as a supernova from a 7–20 times solar mass progenitor, can eject Oort-cloud objects from their systems so that such objects become unbound from their host stars." But how often can an ETC, or our civilization, expect a rogue planet to come close enough to hitchhike on? A 2015 study showed that the binary star W0720 (Scholz's star) passed through our Solar System's Oort Cloud about 70,000 years ago. While that was a star and not a planet, it shows that objects pass relatively close by. If the studies that predict billions of free-floating planets are correct, then some of them likely passed close by, or right through, the Oort Cloud long before we had the means to detect them. The Oort Cloud is a long way away, but a sufficiently advanced civilization could have the capability to see a rogue planet approaching and go out and meet it. The second scenario involves using technology to steer a rogue planet closer to a civilization's home. With sufficient technology, they could choose an object from their own Oort Cloud – assuming they have one – and use a propulsion system to direct it towards a safe orbit near their planet. With sufficient lead time, they could adapt the object to their needs, for example, by building underground shelters and other infrastructure. Maybe, with adequate technology, they could alter or create an atmosphere. The third scenario is similar to the second one. It also involves an object from the civilization's outer Solar System. Romanovskaya uses the dwarf planet Sedna in our Solar System as an example. Sedna has a highly eccentric orbit that takes it from 76 AUs from the Sun to 937 AU in about 11,000 years. With sufficient technology and lead time, an object like Sedna could be turned into an escape ship. The author notes that "Civilizations capable of doing so would be advanced civilizations that already have their planetary systems explored to the distances of at least 60 AU from their host stars". There are lots of potential problems. Bringing a dwarf planet from the distant reaches of the Solar System into the inner Solar System could disrupt the orbits of other planets, leading to all sorts of hazards. But the dangers are mitigated if a civilization around a post-main sequence star has already migrated outward with the changing habitable zone. Romanovskaya discusses the energy needed and the timing required in more detail in her article. The fourth scenario also involves objects like Sedna. When a star leaves the main sequence and expands, there's a critical distance where objects will be ejected from the system rather than remain gravitationally bound to the dying star. If an ETC could accurately determine when these objects would be ejected as rogue planets, they could prepare it beforehand and ride it out of the dying solar system. That could be extraordinarily perilous, as periods of violent mass loss from the star creates an enormous hazard. In all of these scenarios, the rogue planet or other body isn't a permanent home; it's a lifeboat. "For all the above scenarios, free-floating planets may not serve as a permanent means of escape from existential threats," the author explains. "Because of the waning heat production in their interior, such planets eventually fail to sustain oceans of liquid water (if such oceans exist)." Free-floating planets are also isolated and have fewer resources than planets in a solar system. There are no asteroids to mine, for example, and no free solar energy. There are no seasons and no night and day. There are no plants, animals, or even bacteria. They're simply a means to an end. "Therefore, instead of making free-floating planets their permanent homes, extraterrestrial civilizations would use the free-floating planets as interstellar transportation to reach and colonize other planetary systems," writes Romanovskaya. In her article, Professor Romanovskaya speculates where this could lead. She envisions a civilization that does this more than once, not to escape a dying star but to spread throughout a galaxy and colonize it. "In this way, the parent-civilization may create unique and autonomous daughter-civilizations inhabiting different planets, moons, or regions of space. "A civilization of Cosmic Hitchhikers would act as a 'parent-civilization' spreading the seeds of 'daughter-civilizations' in the form of its colonies in planetary systems," she writes. "This applies to both biological and post-biological species." Humanity is only in the early stages of protecting ourselves from catastrophic asteroid impacts, and we can't yet manage our planet's climate with any degree of stability. So thinking about using rogue planets to keep humanity alive seems pretty far-fetched. But Romanovskaya's research isn't about us; it's about detecting other civilizations. All of this activity could create technosignatures and artifacts that signified the presence of an ETC. The research article outlines what they might be and how we could detect them. Rogue planets used as lifeboats could create technosignatures like electromagnetic emissions or other phenomena. An ETC could use solar sails to control a rogue planet or use them on a spaceship launched from a rogue planet once they have reached their destination. In either case, solar sails produce a technosignature: cyclotron radiation. Maneuvering either a spacecraft or a rogue planet with solar sails would produce "… cyclotron radiation caused by the interaction of the interstellar medium with the magnetic sail". Infrared emissions could be another technosignature emitted as waste heat by an ETC on a rogue planet. An excessive amount of infrared or unnatural changes in the amount of infrared could be detected as a technosignature. Infrared could be emitted unevenly across the planet's surface, indicating underlying engineering or technology. An unusual mix of different wavelengths of electromagnetic energy could also be a technosignature. The atmosphere itself, if one existed, could also hold technosignatures. Depending on what was observed, it could contain evidence of terraforming. For now, astronomers don't know how many rogue planets there are or if they're concentrated in some areas of the galaxy. We're at the starting line when it comes to figuring these things out. But soon, we may get a better idea. The Vera Rubin Observatory should see first light by 2023. This powerful observatory will image the entire available sky every few nights, and it'll do it in fine detail. It houses the largest digital camera ever made: a 3.2 gigabyte CCD. The Vera Rubin will be especially good at detecting transients, that is, anything that changes position or brightness in a couple of days. It'll have a good chance of spotting any interlopers like rogue planets that might approach our Solar System. There's a strong possibility that some of those rogue planets will exhibit unusual emissions or puzzling phenomena. Scientists will probably puzzle over them as they did over Oumuamua. Maybe another civilization more advanced than us has already faced an existential threat from their dying star. Maybe they made a Herculean effort to capture a rogue planet and engineer it to suit their needs. Maybe they've already boarded it and launched it towards a distant, stable, long-lived yellow star, with rocky planets in its habitable zone. Maybe they're wondering if there's any life at their destination and how they might be received after their long journey.  This article was originally published by Universe Today. Read the original article.
Interstellar Travel Could Be Possible Even Without Spaceships, Scientist Says
https://www.sciencealert.com/interstellar-travel-could-be-possible-even-without-spaceships-a-scientist-says
https://www.salon.com/2022/06/05/interstellar-travel-might-be-possible-without-spaceships-scientist-says/
Scientist says interstellar travel might be possible without spaceships
2022-06-05
Nicole Karlis
<div><article>
<p>While a <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/mach/features/why-warp-speed-will-never-happen-n716081">warp drive</a> almost certainly isn't a thing that will ever exist, there's no law of physics that says <a href="https://www.salon.com/2021/01/15/why-physicist-avi-loeb-thinks-theres-a-serious-possibility-that-oumuamua-was-an-alien-spacecraft/">interstellar travel</a> isn't possible. Perhaps that is one reason why the sci-fi idea isn't out of the realm of possibility, and why some scientists aren't afraid to seriously contemplate how such a thing might work.</p>
<p>Enter a <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-astrobiology/article/migrating-extraterrestrial-civilizations-and-interstellar-colonization-implications-for-seti-and-seta/BFFC1BB63FED869C85172BB3CC88DBBB">new research article in the International Journal of Astrobiology,</a> in which author Irina Romanovskaya, a professor of Physics and Astronomy at Houston Community College, proposes <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-astrobiology/article/migrating-extraterrestrial-civilizations-and-interstellar-colonization-implications-for-seti-and-seta/BFFC1BB63FED869C85172BB3CC88DBBB">extraterrestrial civilizations</a> could already be doing this in a peculiar way. Indeed, Romanovskaya says that interstellar travel would likely create <a href="https://www.salon.com/2022/02/27/pollution-james-webb-telescope-technosignatures/">technosignatures</a> — such as <a href="https://www.salon.com/2019/07/22/yes-im-searching-for-aliens-and-no-i-wont-be-going-to-area-51-to-look-for-them_partner/">radio waves</a>, <a href="https://www.salon.com/2022/02/27/pollution-james-webb-telescope-technosignatures/">industrial pollution</a>, light pollution, or anything that would suggest advanced technology is being used — when aliens engage in such travel.</p>
<p>Astronomers and astrophysicists have generally searched for extraterrestrial life by looking for <a href="https://www.salon.com/2021/11/06/astronomy-ten-year-plan-exoplanets/">biosignatures</a> — such as water, oxygen or chlorophyll — on other <a href="https://www.salon.com/2021/12/29/rogue-planets/">planets</a>. But interestingly, Romanovskaya proposes that interstellar travel might be happening via free-floating planets, not spaceships, like we see in the movies.</p>
<p>"Modern telescopes can search for various technosignatures that extraterrestrials, including migrating civilizations on free-floating planets, can produce," Romanovskaya wrote in an email to Salon. "For example, James Webb Space Telescope can search for signs of extraterrestrial life on planets in planetary systems, as well as technosignatures produced by extraterrestrial technologies on free-floating planets, which I propose in my research paper." </p>
<p><strong>RELATED: <a href="https://www.salon.com/2022/05/17/technosignatures-seti/">Are we looking for aliens all wrong?</a></strong></p>
<p>Indeed, in the paper, Romanovskaya suggested the free-floating planet scheme as a means of "migrating" to another planetary system, like a vast transport. Such a proposal is certainly a means for a civilization to flee a dying star that would engulf them otherwise; indeed, Earth's own sun will render the planet uninhabitable in less than a billion years, unless our orbit shifts. </p>
<p>"Some extraterrestrial civilizations may migrate from their home planetary systems to other planetary systems," Romanovskaya writes in the research paper. "They would most likely encounter serious or insurmountable technical problems when using spacecraft to transport large populations over interstellar distances."</p>
<p>"With little starlight reaching free-floating planets, extraterrestrials could use controlled nuclear fusion as the source of energy, and they could inhabit subsurface habitats and oceans of the free-floating planets to be protected from space radiation."</p>
<p>Essentially, Romanovskaya thinks that aliens could be "cosmic hitchhikers" by taking advantage of various flyby events via free-floating planets. Unlike Earth, free-floating planets are not gravitationally bound to their stars like Earth, hence making them more mobile. A study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-021-01513-x.epdf?sharing_token=ySlQnZwK9V1rIdLLdE2boNRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0MNRjP5-PHrAStec6uGZjltTsqpAxJ8QKqw0qQrGRD_qOn8aKNu97XMK7bCzxDALShHm5WASeGXXOn756lvmNn2lYS2I84KXvBbNeQvST3JR1CvpIYSVI7Mrd6MDyRE1QBM5AB_T-pgo5RttusnVwE9wz4sa5IxolIWieOQdPfwJnkUp0dLnnEN2s4VrUkHp30%3D&amp;tracking_referrer=www.theverge.com">Nature Astronomy</a> found at least 70 nomad exoplanets in our galaxy, suggesting that <a href="https://www.salon.com/2021/12/29/rogue-planets/">they're not as rare as scientists previously thought</a>. It's possible that these planets have liquid oceans under thick layers and some could even host simple life forms.</p>
<hr/>
<p><strong><em>Want more health and science stories in your inbox? Subscribe to Salon's weekly newsletter <a href="https://www.salon.com/newsletter">The Vulgar Scientist</a>.</em></strong></p>
<hr/>
<p>"Some advanced civilizations may send their populations or technologies to other stars during flyby events, some advanced civilizations may build stellar engines and some advanced civilizations may use free-floating planets as interstellar transportation to relocate their populations to other planetary systems," Romanovskaya wrote. "Various methods of interstellar migration and interstellar colonization may contribute to propagation of advanced extraterrestrial civilizations in the Galaxy, and each method of interstellar migration can produce a set of observable technosignatures."</p>
<p>OK, but how exactly would alien civilizations use these planets to travel through the galaxy?</p>
<p>"With little starlight reaching free-floating planets, extraterrestrials could use controlled nuclear fusion as the source of energy, and they could inhabit subsurface habitats and oceans of the free-floating planets to be protected from space radiation," Romanovskaya <a href="http://www.sci-news.com/astronomy/cosmic-hitchhikers-10856.html">said</a>. "That would also prepare them for colonization of oceans in planetary systems."</p>
<p>Not everyone in the astrophysics world agrees that hitching a ride on lost planets is a viable method of interstellar transit. <a href="https://www.salon.com/writer/avi-loeb">Avi Loeb</a>, the former chair of the astronomy department at Harvard University, told Salon that he saw "no obvious benefit to using a free floating planet instead of a spacecraft." Loeb has previously <a href="https://www.salon.com/2021/01/15/why-physicist-avi-loeb-thinks-theres-a-serious-possibility-that-oumuamua-was-an-alien-spacecraft/">argued</a> that a rare interstellar object, called '<a href="https://www.salon.com/2021/01/15/why-physicist-avi-loeb-thinks-theres-a-serious-possibility-that-oumuamua-was-an-alien-spacecraft/">Oumuamua</a>, bore almost all of the traits one might expect of an interstellar alien probe when it whizzed through our solar system in 2017. </p>
<p>"The only reason Earth is comfortable for 'life as we know it' is because it is warmed by the Sun," Loeb said. "But a free floating planet is not attached to a star, and its surface would naturally be frozen."</p>
<p>Moreover, Loeb said a free-floating planet's large mass would make it more difficult to navigate to a desired destination.</p>
<p>"It is much easier to design a small spacecraft that offers the ideal habitat, engine and navigation system," Loeb said. "It is far better to own a car than to hitchhike."</p>
<p>Romanovskaya responded to Loeb's criticism of the concept in an email to Salon, noting that manufactured interstellar spacecraft would be exceedingly difficult to manufacture for large populations. "As a means of interstellar migrations of large populations, free-floating planets offer obvious benefit of offering 'natural' gravity and huge resources for migrating civilizations," Romanovskaya noted, adding that scientific studies have suggested that it is "very unlikely that advanced civilizations can build world ships for large populations."</p>
<p>Romanovskaya noted that 'Oumuamua, were it some kind of interstellar craft, would certainly not be a transport.</p>
<p>"Oumuamua-type objects are too small (e.g., Oumuamua is less than 800 meters long) to carry tens of thousands or millions of intelligent beings," she noted. </p>
<p><em>Editor's note: This story was updated on June 6, 2022 to add additional comments from Dr. Romanovskaya. </em></p>
<p><strong>More stories on astronomy:</strong></p>
<ul>
<li><strong><a href="https://www.salon.com/2021/11/06/astronomy-ten-year-plan-exoplanets/">Astronomers plan to double-down on the search for extraterrestrial life</a></strong></li>
<li><strong><a href="https://www.salon.com/2021/07/19/the-hubble-space-telescope-glitch-explained/">The Hubble Space Telescope's weird computer glitch, explained</a></strong></li>
<li><strong><a href="https://www.salon.com/2021/09/15/oumuamua-debate-snowball-spacecraft-alien/">The once-sedate astronomy world is quarreling over whether 'Oumuamua was an alien craf</a></strong></li>
</ul>
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 Scientist says interstellar travel might be possible without spaceships

 Forget about spaceships: Aliens could be "cosmic hitchhikers" traveling on free-floating planets

 By Nicole Karlis

 Senior Writer

 Published June 5, 2022 10:00AM (EDT)

 Updated June 6, 2022 3:42AM (EDT)

 Space warp travels through the universe (Getty Images/pixelparticle)
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 While a warp drive almost certainly isn't a thing that will ever exist, there's no law of physics that says interstellar travel isn't possible. Perhaps that is one reason why the sci-fi idea isn't out of the realm of possibility, and why some scientists aren't afraid to seriously contemplate how such a thing might work.

 Enter a new research article in the International Journal of Astrobiology, in which author Irina Romanovskaya, a professor of Physics and Astronomy at Houston Community College, proposes extraterrestrial civilizations could already be doing this in a peculiar way. Indeed, Romanovskaya says that interstellar travel would likely create technosignatures — such as radio waves, industrial pollution, light pollution, or anything that would suggest advanced technology is being used — when aliens engage in such travel.

 Astronomers and astrophysicists have generally searched for extraterrestrial life by looking for biosignatures — such as water, oxygen or chlorophyll — on other planets. But interestingly, Romanovskaya proposes that interstellar travel might be happening via free-floating planets, not spaceships, like we see in the movies.

 "Modern telescopes can search for various technosignatures that extraterrestrials, including migrating civilizations on free-floating planets, can produce," Romanovskaya wrote in an email to Salon. "For example, James Webb Space Telescope can search for signs of extraterrestrial life on planets in planetary systems, as well as technosignatures produced by extraterrestrial technologies on free-floating planets, which I propose in my research paper."

 RELATED: Are we looking for aliens all wrong?

 Indeed, in the paper, Romanovskaya suggested the free-floating planet scheme as a means of "migrating" to another planetary system, like a vast transport. Such a proposal is certainly a means for a civilization to flee a dying star that would engulf them otherwise; indeed, Earth's own sun will render the planet uninhabitable in less than a billion years, unless our orbit shifts.

 "Some extraterrestrial civilizations may migrate from their home planetary systems to other planetary systems," Romanovskaya writes in the research paper. "They would most likely encounter serious or insurmountable technical problems when using spacecraft to transport large populations over interstellar distances."

 "With little starlight reaching free-floating planets, extraterrestrials could use controlled nuclear fusion as the source of energy, and they could inhabit subsurface habitats and oceans of the free-floating planets to be protected from space radiation."

 Essentially, Romanovskaya thinks that aliens could be "cosmic hitchhikers" by taking advantage of various flyby events via free-floating planets. Unlike Earth, free-floating planets are not gravitationally bound to their stars like Earth, hence making them more mobile. A study published in the journal Nature Astronomy found at least 70 nomad exoplanets in our galaxy, suggesting that they're not as rare as scientists previously thought. It's possible that these planets have liquid oceans under thick layers and some could even host simple life forms.

 Want more health and science stories in your inbox? Subscribe to Salon's weekly newsletter The Vulgar Scientist.

 "Some advanced civilizations may send their populations or technologies to other stars during flyby events, some advanced civilizations may build stellar engines and some advanced civilizations may use free-floating planets as interstellar transportation to relocate their populations to other planetary systems," Romanovskaya wrote. "Various methods of interstellar migration and interstellar colonization may contribute to propagation of advanced extraterrestrial civilizations in the Galaxy, and each method of interstellar migration can produce a set of observable technosignatures."

 OK, but how exactly would alien civilizations use these planets to travel through the galaxy?

 "With little starlight reaching free-floating planets, extraterrestrials could use controlled nuclear fusion as the source of energy, and they could inhabit subsurface habitats and oceans of the free-floating planets to be protected from space radiation," Romanovskaya said. "That would also prepare them for colonization of oceans in planetary systems."

 Not everyone in the astrophysics world agrees that hitching a ride on lost planets is a viable method of interstellar transit. Avi Loeb, the former chair of the astronomy department at Harvard University, told Salon that he saw "no obvious benefit to using a free floating planet instead of a spacecraft." Loeb has previously argued that a rare interstellar object, called 'Oumuamua, bore almost all of the traits one might expect of an interstellar alien probe when it whizzed through our solar system in 2017.

 "The only reason Earth is comfortable for 'life as we know it' is because it is warmed by the Sun," Loeb said. "But a free floating planet is not attached to a star, and its surface would naturally be frozen."

 Moreover, Loeb said a free-floating planet's large mass would make it more difficult to navigate to a desired destination.

 "It is much easier to design a small spacecraft that offers the ideal habitat, engine and navigation system," Loeb said. "It is far better to own a car than to hitchhike."

 Romanovskaya responded to Loeb's criticism of the concept in an email to Salon, noting that manufactured interstellar spacecraft would be exceedingly difficult to manufacture for large populations. "As a means of interstellar migrations of large populations, free-floating planets offer obvious benefit of offering 'natural' gravity and huge resources for migrating civilizations," Romanovskaya noted, adding that scientific studies have suggested that it is "very unlikely that advanced civilizations can build world ships for large populations."

 Romanovskaya noted that 'Oumuamua, were it some kind of interstellar craft, would certainly not be a transport.

 "Oumuamua-type objects are too small (e.g., Oumuamua is less than 800 meters long) to carry tens of thousands or millions of intelligent beings," she noted.

 Editor's note: This story was updated on June 6, 2022 to add additional comments from Dr. Romanovskaya.

 More stories on astronomy:

 * Astronomers plan to double-down on the search for extraterrestrial life
 * The Hubble Space Telescope's weird computer glitch, explained
 * The once-sedate astronomy world is quarreling over whether 'Oumuamua was an alien craf


 By Nicole Karlis

 Nicole Karlis is a senior writer at Salon, specializing in health and science. Tweet her @nicolekarlis.

 MORE FROM Nicole Karlis

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 Astronomy Extraterrestrial Life Interstellar Travel Reporting Science

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While a warp drive almost certainly isn't a thing that will ever exist, there's no law of physics that says interstellar travel isn't possible. Perhaps that is one reason why the sci-fi idea isn't out of the realm of possibility, and why some scientists aren't afraid to seriously contemplate how such a thing might work.
Enter a new research article in the International Journal of Astrobiology, in which author Irina Romanovskaya, a professor of Physics and Astronomy at Houston Community College, proposes extraterrestrial civilizations could already be doing this in a peculiar way. Indeed, Romanovskaya says that interstellar travel would likely create technosignatures — such as radio waves, industrial pollution, light pollution, or anything that would suggest advanced technology is being used — when aliens engage in such travel.
Astronomers and astrophysicists have generally searched for extraterrestrial life by looking for biosignatures — such as water, oxygen or chlorophyll — on other planets. But interestingly, Romanovskaya proposes that interstellar travel might be happening via free-floating planets, not spaceships, like we see in the movies.
"Modern telescopes can search for various technosignatures that extraterrestrials, including migrating civilizations on free-floating planets, can produce," Romanovskaya wrote in an email to Salon. "For example, James Webb Space Telescope can search for signs of extraterrestrial life on planets in planetary systems, as well as technosignatures produced by extraterrestrial technologies on free-floating planets, which I propose in my research paper." 
 RELATED: Are we looking for aliens all wrong?  
Indeed, in the paper, Romanovskaya suggested the free-floating planet scheme as a means of "migrating" to another planetary system, like a vast transport. Such a proposal is certainly a means for a civilization to flee a dying star that would engulf them otherwise; indeed, Earth's own sun will render the planet uninhabitable in less than a billion years, unless our orbit shifts. 
"Some extraterrestrial civilizations may migrate from their home planetary systems to other planetary systems," Romanovskaya writes in the research paper. "They would most likely encounter serious or insurmountable technical problems when using spacecraft to transport large populations over interstellar distances."
"With little starlight reaching free-floating planets, extraterrestrials could use controlled nuclear fusion as the source of energy, and they could inhabit subsurface habitats and oceans of the free-floating planets to be protected from space radiation."
Essentially, Romanovskaya thinks that aliens could be "cosmic hitchhikers" by taking advantage of various flyby events via free-floating planets. Unlike Earth, free-floating planets are not gravitationally bound to their stars like Earth, hence making them more mobile. A study published in the journal Nature Astronomy found at least 70 nomad exoplanets in our galaxy, suggesting that they're not as rare as scientists previously thought. It's possible that these planets have liquid oceans under thick layers and some could even host simple life forms.
  Want more health and science stories in your inbox? Subscribe to Salon's weekly newsletter The Vulgar Scientist.  
"Some advanced civilizations may send their populations or technologies to other stars during flyby events, some advanced civilizations may build stellar engines and some advanced civilizations may use free-floating planets as interstellar transportation to relocate their populations to other planetary systems," Romanovskaya wrote. "Various methods of interstellar migration and interstellar colonization may contribute to propagation of advanced extraterrestrial civilizations in the Galaxy, and each method of interstellar migration can produce a set of observable technosignatures."
OK, but how exactly would alien civilizations use these planets to travel through the galaxy?
"With little starlight reaching free-floating planets, extraterrestrials could use controlled nuclear fusion as the source of energy, and they could inhabit subsurface habitats and oceans of the free-floating planets to be protected from space radiation," Romanovskaya said. "That would also prepare them for colonization of oceans in planetary systems."
Not everyone in the astrophysics world agrees that hitching a ride on lost planets is a viable method of interstellar transit. Avi Loeb, the former chair of the astronomy department at Harvard University, told Salon that he saw "no obvious benefit to using a free floating planet instead of a spacecraft." Loeb has previously argued that a rare interstellar object, called 'Oumuamua, bore almost all of the traits one might expect of an interstellar alien probe when it whizzed through our solar system in 2017. 
"The only reason Earth is comfortable for 'life as we know it' is because it is warmed by the Sun," Loeb said. "But a free floating planet is not attached to a star, and its surface would naturally be frozen."
Moreover, Loeb said a free-floating planet's large mass would make it more difficult to navigate to a desired destination.
"It is much easier to design a small spacecraft that offers the ideal habitat, engine and navigation system," Loeb said. "It is far better to own a car than to hitchhike."
Romanovskaya responded to Loeb's criticism of the concept in an email to Salon, noting that manufactured interstellar spacecraft would be exceedingly difficult to manufacture for large populations. "As a means of interstellar migrations of large populations, free-floating planets offer obvious benefit of offering 'natural' gravity and huge resources for migrating civilizations," Romanovskaya noted, adding that scientific studies have suggested that it is "very unlikely that advanced civilizations can build world ships for large populations."
Romanovskaya noted that 'Oumuamua, were it some kind of interstellar craft, would certainly not be a transport.
"Oumuamua-type objects are too small (e.g., Oumuamua is less than 800 meters long) to carry tens of thousands or millions of intelligent beings," she noted. 
 Editor's note: This story was updated on June 6, 2022 to add additional comments from Dr. Romanovskaya.  
 More stories on astronomy: 
  Astronomers plan to double-down on the search for extraterrestrial life  
  The Hubble Space Telescope's weird computer glitch, explained  
  The once-sedate astronomy world is quarreling over whether 'Oumuamua was an alien craf
Scientist says interstellar travel might be possible without spaceships
https://www.salon.com/2022/06/05/interstellar-travel-might-be-possible-without-spaceships-scientist-says/
https://www.imdb.com/title/tt3659388/
The Martian (2015) - IMDb
2015-10-02
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<div><div><section><section><section><div><ul><li><a href="fullcredits/?ref_=tt_ql_cl">Cast &amp; crew</a></li><li><a href="reviews/?ref_=tt_ql_urv">User reviews</a></li><li><a href="trivia/?ref_=tt_ql_trv">Trivia</a></li></ul></div><div><ul><li><a href="/title/tt3659388/releaseinfo?ref_=tt_ov_rdat">2015</a>2015</li><li><a href="/title/tt3659388/parentalguide/certificates?ref_=tt_ov_pg">PG-13</a>PG-13</li><li>2h 24m</li></ul></div><div><div><p></p><a href="/title/tt3659388/mediaviewer/rm1391324160/?ref_=tt_ov_i"></a></div><div><div><div><p>An astronaut becomes stranded on Mars after his team assume him dead, and must rely on his ingenuity to find a way to signal to Earth that he is alive and can survive until a potential rescu... <a href="plotsummary?ref_=tt_ov_pl">Read all</a>An astronaut becomes stranded on Mars after his team assume him dead, and must rely on his ingenuity to find a way to signal to Earth that he is alive and can survive until a potential rescue.An astronaut becomes stranded on Mars after his team assume him dead, and must rely on his ingenuity to find a way to signal to Earth that he is alive and can survive until a potential rescue.</p></div><li><p><a href="https://pro.imdb.com/title/tt3659388/?rf=cons_tt_atf&amp;ref_=cons_tt_atf">See production, box office &amp; company info</a></p></li></div><div><ul><li><a href="/title/tt3659388/reviews/?ref_=tt_ov_rt">1.4KUser reviews</a></li><li><a href="/title/tt3659388/externalreviews/?ref_=tt_ov_rt">646Critic reviews</a></li><li><a href="/title/tt3659388/criticreviews/?ref_=tt_ov_rt">80Metascore</a></li></ul></div></div><li><p><a href="https://pro.imdb.com/title/tt3659388/?rf=cons_tt_atf&amp;ref_=cons_tt_atf">See more at IMDbPro</a></p></li></div></section></section><div><div><section><p><a href="/title/tt3659388/videogallery/?ref_=tt_vi_sm"><h3>Videos58</h3></a></p></section><div><hgroup><h3>More like this</h3></hgroup></div><section><a href="https://contribute.imdb.com/review/tt3659388/add?bus=imdb&amp;return_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.imdb.com%2Fclose_me&amp;site=web&amp;ref_=tt_urv_add"><p>Review</p></a><div><div> <p>Roasted, Mashed, Boiled, Sauteed? How'd you do your Potatoes?</p><div><p>If you've ever wondered if Tom Hanks went even further adrift in Castaway then this could be the answer you're looking for.</p><p>An Earth team are on Mars carrying out tests on the surface of The Red Planet, a message comes through from Earth warning of a huge and fast approaching storm. The team quickly assemble and flee, unfortunately Mark Watney is caught in the storm, loses his communication device and presumed dead. Watney has survived and has a harsh realism that he's abandoned on Mars with precious little supplies, no company and little chance of survival. Being 50 million miles away and 4 years away in terms of rescue life seems bleak. Watney has to defy the odds in order to survive.</p><p>Ridley Scott is responsible for so many wonderful films, and for many The Martian will sit among them.</p><p>This is a beautifully made film, it looks incredible, I love the realisation of Mars's surface, truly brilliant, wasn't going to be otherwise with the budget they had. The music is interesting, the score itself is quite subtle, but the tunes from Abba, Gloria Estefan etc are so random.</p><p>The pacing of the film is very cleverly done, never does it feel rushed, and on very few occasions does it feel slow or padded. If i'm honest at twenty minutes I was questioning how the film was possibly going to last over two hours.</p><p>Matt Damon shows his class, he carries the film on his shoulders, he gives a stellar performance as Mark, cannot be faulted. Some of the others in the film were a little hit and miss, I enjoyed Chiwetel Ejiofor very much. Jeff Daniels was fairly good. Kristen Wiig seemed an odd choice, but she was good too.</p><p>It was better then I expected, I enjoyed it a lot 8/10</p></div></div><div><ul><li><a href="/user/ur15311310/?ref_=tt_urv_usr">Sleepin_Dragon</a></li><li>Oct 18, 2015</li></ul></div></div></section><section><p><a href="/title/tt3659388/faq?ref_=tt_faq_sm"><h3>FAQ10</h3></a></p></section><div><hgroup><h3>Contribute to this page</h3></hgroup><p>Suggest an edit or add missing content</p></div></div><div><section><p><hgroup><h3>More to explore</h3></hgroup></p></section></div></div></section></div><div><hgroup><h3>Recently viewed</h3></hgroup></div>||||I|||| Menu
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 The Martian

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 An astronaut becomes stranded on Mars after his team assume him dead, and must rely on his ingenuity to find a way to signal to Earth that he is alive and can survive until a potential rescu... Read all An astronaut becomes stranded on Mars after his team assume him dead, and must rely on his ingenuity to find a way to signal to Earth that he is alive and can survive until a potential rescue. An astronaut becomes stranded on Mars after his team assume him dead, and must rely on his ingenuity to find a way to signal to Earth that he is alive and can survive until a potential rescue.
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 8 / 10
 Roasted, Mashed, Boiled, Sauteed? How'd you do your Potatoes?
 If you've ever wondered if Tom Hanks went even further adrift in Castaway then this could be the answer you're looking for.

 An Earth team are on Mars carrying out tests on the surface of The Red Planet, a message comes through from Earth warning of a huge and fast approaching storm. The team quickly assemble and flee, unfortunately Mark Watney is caught in the storm, loses his communication device and presumed dead. Watney has survived and has a harsh realism that he's abandoned on Mars with precious little supplies, no company and little chance of survival. Being 50 million miles away and 4 years away in terms of rescue life seems bleak. Watney has to defy the odds in order to survive.

 Ridley Scott is responsible for so many wonderful films, and for many The Martian will sit among them.

 This is a beautifully made film, it looks incredible, I love the realisation of Mars's surface, truly brilliant, wasn't going to be otherwise with the budget they had. The music is interesting, the score itself is quite subtle, but the tunes from Abba, Gloria Estefan etc are so random.

 The pacing of the film is very cleverly done, never does it feel rushed, and on very few occasions does it feel slow or padded. If i'm honest at twenty minutes I was questioning how the film was possibly going to last over two hours.

 Matt Damon shows his class, he carries the film on his shoulders, he gives a stellar performance as Mark, cannot be faulted. Some of the others in the film were a little hit and miss, I enjoyed Chiwetel Ejiofor very much. Jeff Daniels was fairly good. Kristen Wiig seemed an odd choice, but she was good too.

 It was better then I expected, I enjoyed it a lot 8/10
 helpful • 82
 46
 * Sleepin_Dragon
 * Oct 18, 2015

 FAQ 10

 * How did The MAV manage rendezvous with the HERMES if it was an emergency evacuation? Doesn't it require precise planning to rendezvous with an object in orbit?
 * Wouldn't Watney be negatively affected by the different day-night cycle on Mars?
 * Would Watney need to use antibiotics after being wounded in space?

 Details

 Edit
 * Release date
 + October 2, 2015 (United States)
 * Countries of origin
 + United States
 + United Kingdom
 + Hungary
 + Jordan
 * Official sites
 + Official Facebook
 + Official Site
 * Languages
 + English
 + Mandarin
 * Also known as
 + The Martian 3D
 * Filming locations
 + Wadi Rum, Jordan
 * Production companies
 + Twentieth Century Fox
 + TSG Entertainment
 + Scott Free Productions
 * See more company credits at IMDbPro

 Box office

 Edit
 * Budget
 + $108,000,000 (estimated)
 * Gross US & Canada
 + $228,433,663
 * Opening weekend US & Canada
 + $54,308,575
 + Oct 4, 2015
 * Gross worldwide
 + $630,620,818
 See detailed box office info on IMDbPro

 Technical specs

 Edit
 * Runtime
 2 hours 24 minutes
 * Color
 + Color
 * Sound mix
 + Dolby Digital
 + Dolby Atmos
 + Dolby Surround 7.1
 + Datasat
 + SDDS
 + Auro 11.1
 * Aspect ratio
 + 2.39 : 1

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Cast &amp; crew   User reviews   Trivia       20152015  PG-13PG-13 2h 24m             An astronaut becomes stranded on Mars after his team assume him dead, and must rely on his ingenuity to find a way to signal to Earth that he is alive and can survive until a potential rescu... Read allAn astronaut becomes stranded on Mars after his team assume him dead, and must rely on his ingenuity to find a way to signal to Earth that he is alive and can survive until a potential rescue.An astronaut becomes stranded on Mars after his team assume him dead, and must rely on his ingenuity to find a way to signal to Earth that he is alive and can survive until a potential rescue.    See production, box office &amp; company info       1.4KUser reviews   646Critic reviews   80Metascore       See more at IMDbPro           Videos58      More like this     Review    Roasted, Mashed, Boiled, Sauteed? How'd you do your Potatoes?  If you've ever wondered if Tom Hanks went even further adrift in Castaway then this could be the answer you're looking for. An Earth team are on Mars carrying out tests on the surface of The Red Planet, a message comes through from Earth warning of a huge and fast approaching storm. The team quickly assemble and flee, unfortunately Mark Watney is caught in the storm, loses his communication device and presumed dead. Watney has survived and has a harsh realism that he's abandoned on Mars with precious little supplies, no company and little chance of survival. Being 50 million miles away and 4 years away in terms of rescue life seems bleak. Watney has to defy the odds in order to survive. Ridley Scott is responsible for so many wonderful films, and for many The Martian will sit among them. This is a beautifully made film, it looks incredible, I love the realisation of Mars's surface, truly brilliant, wasn't going to be otherwise with the budget they had. The music is interesting, the score itself is quite subtle, but the tunes from Abba, Gloria Estefan etc are so random. The pacing of the film is very cleverly done, never does it feel rushed, and on very few occasions does it feel slow or padded. If i'm honest at twenty minutes I was questioning how the film was possibly going to last over two hours. Matt Damon shows his class, he carries the film on his shoulders, he gives a stellar performance as Mark, cannot be faulted. Some of the others in the film were a little hit and miss, I enjoyed Chiwetel Ejiofor very much. Jeff Daniels was fairly good. Kristen Wiig seemed an odd choice, but she was good too. It was better then I expected, I enjoyed it a lot 8/10      Sleepin_Dragon  Oct 18, 2015        FAQ10      Contribute to this page  Suggest an edit or add missing content       More to explore          Recently viewed
The Martian (2015) - IMDb
https://www.imdb.com/title/tt3659388/
https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0118884/
Contact (1997) - IMDb
1997-07-11
None
<div><div><section><p><a href="/title/tt0118884/videogallery/?ref_=tt_vi_sm"><h3>Videos2</h3></a></p><div><div><p></p><a href="/video/vi2509177369/?ref_=tt_vi_i_1"></a></div><div><p></p><a href="/video/vi2126446873/?ref_=tt_vi_i_2"></a></div></div></section><div><hgroup><h3>More like this</h3></hgroup></div><div><div><p>Astronomer Dr. Ellie Arroway (Jodie Foster) has long been interested in contact with faraway lands, a love fostered in her childhood by her father, Ted Arroway (David Morse), who dies when she was nine-years-old, leaving her an orphan. Her current work with SETI, the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence, is based on that love and is in part an homage to her father. Ever since funding from the National Science Foundation (N.S.F.) was pulled from the project, which was referred to as "more science fiction than science" by some, including her N.S.F. superior David Drumlin (Tom Skerritt), Ellie and her rogue scientist colleagues have looked for funding from where ever they could get it to continue their work. When Ellie and her colleagues hear chatter originating from the vicinity of the star Vega, Ellie feels vindicated. But that vindication is short lived when others, including politicians, the military, religious leaders, and rival scientists, such as Drumlin, try to take over her work. After the mysterious messages from space are decoded by her anonymous millionaire donor, S.R. Hadden (Sir John Hurt), the project takes on a whole new dimension, which strengthens for Ellie the quest for answers. —<a href="/search/title/?plot_author=Huggo&amp;view=simple&amp;sort=alpha&amp;ref_=tt_stry_pl">Huggo</a></p></div><ul><li><a href="/title/tt0118884/plotsummary?ref_=tt_stry_pl">Plot summary</a></li><li><a href="/title/tt0118884/synopsis?ref_=tt_stry_pl">Plot synopsis</a></li></ul></div><section><a href="https://contribute.imdb.com/review/tt0118884/add?bus=imdb&amp;return_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.imdb.com%2Fclose_me&amp;site=web&amp;ref_=tt_urv_add"><p>Review</p></a><div><div> <p>The 90s was the era of great thought provoking scifi</p><div><p>I had the luck of watching contact at the cinema when it came out . Being young meant that watching a movie of this grandure in a grand movie theatre with massive screen (something that was dying out at the time) means that this movie has been engraved in my mind .
But it is not due to nostalgia or corrupt memory .
Contact is a thought provoking mind bending movie ahead of its time .
In fact it is the Interstellar of the 90s .</p><p>Stunning gorgeous visuals , and a storyline and plot asking some hard questions and providing answers that many might not want to accept as the movie battles between science fitction , science fact and religion in a way that in the end no one is left wanting .</p><p>This is not just a movie , this is an event !</p></div></div><div><ul><li><a href="/user/ur87711953/?ref_=tt_urv_usr">tuomaspap-72674</a></li><li>Jan 27, 2019</li></ul></div></div></section><section><div><a href="/what-to-watch/top-picks/?ref_=tt_tpks_sm"><h3>Top picks</h3></a><p>Sign in to rate and Watchlist for personalized recommendations</p></div><a href="/registration/signin?ref_=tt_tpks_signin"><p>Sign in</p></a></section><section><p><a href="/title/tt0118884/faq?ref_=tt_faq_sm"><h3>FAQ6</h3></a></p></section><div><hgroup><h3>Contribute to this page</h3></hgroup><p>Suggest an edit or add missing content</p></div></div>||||I|||| Menu
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 Contact

 * 1997 1997
 * PG PG
 * 2h 30m
 IMDb RATING
 7.5 / 10
 279K
 YOUR RATING
 Rate
 POPULARITY
 1,664
 218
 Play trailer 0 :32
 2 Videos
 87 Photos
 Drama Mystery Sci-Fi
 Dr. Ellie Arroway, after years of searching, finds conclusive radio proof of extraterrestrial intelligence, sending plans for a mysterious machine. Dr. Ellie Arroway, after years of searching, finds conclusive radio proof of extraterrestrial intelligence, sending plans for a mysterious machine. Dr. Ellie Arroway, after years of searching, finds conclusive radio proof of extraterrestrial intelligence, sending plans for a mysterious machine.
 IMDb RATING
 7.5 / 10
 279K
 YOUR RATING
 Rate
 POPULARITY
 1,664
 218
 * Director
 + Robert Zemeckis
 * Writers
 + James V. Hart (screenplay by)
 + Michael Goldenberg (screenplay by)
 + Carl Sagan (based on the novel by)
 * Stars
 + Jodie Foster
 + Matthew McConaughey
 + Tom Skerritt
 Top credits
 * Director
 + Robert Zemeckis
 * Writers
 + James V. Hart (screenplay by)
 + Michael Goldenberg (screenplay by)
 + Carl Sagan (based on the novel by)
 * Stars
 + Jodie Foster
 + Matthew McConaughey
 + Tom Skerritt
 * See production, box office & company info
 Watch on Prime Video
 rent/buy from $3.99
 More watch options
 Add to Watchlist
 * 774 User reviews
 * 175 Critic reviews
 * 62 Metascore
 * See more at IMDbPro
 * Nominated for 1 Oscar
 + 14 wins & 32 nominations total

 Videos 2

 Trailer 0:32
 Watch Contact
 Trailer 0:31
 Watch Contact

 Photos 87

 Top cast

 Edit
 Jodie Foster
 * Eleanor Arroway
 Matthew McConaughey
 * Palmer Joss
 Tom Skerritt
 * David Drumlin
 John Hurt
 * S.R. Hadden
 Jena Malone
 * Young Ellie
 David Morse
 * Ted Arroway
 Geoffrey Blake
 * Fisher
 William Fichtner
 * Kent
 Sami Chester
 * Vernon
 * (as SaMi Chester)
 Timothy McNeil
 * Davio
 Laura Elena Surillo
 * Cantina Woman
 Henry Strozier
 * Minister
 Max Martini
 * Willie
 * (as Maximilian Martini)
 Larry King
 * Larry King
 Thomas Garner
 * Ian Broderick
 Conroy Chino
 * KOB-TV Reporter
 Dan Gifford
 * Jeremy Roth
 James Woods
 * Michael Kitz
 * Director
 + Robert Zemeckis
 * Writers
 + James V. Hart (screenplay by)
 + Michael Goldenberg (screenplay by)
 + Carl Sagan (based on the novel by) (based on the story by)
 * All cast & crew
 * Production, box office & more at IMDbPro

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 Storyline

 Edit
 Astronomer Dr. Ellie Arroway (Jodie Foster) has long been interested in contact with faraway lands, a love fostered in her childhood by her father, Ted Arroway (David Morse), who dies when she was nine-years-old, leaving her an orphan. Her current work with SETI, the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence, is based on that love and is in part an homage to her father. Ever since funding from the National Science Foundation (N.S.F.) was pulled from the project, which was referred to as "more science fiction than science" by some, including her N.S.F. superior David Drumlin (Tom Skerritt), Ellie and her rogue scientist colleagues have looked for funding from where ever they could get it to continue their work. When Ellie and her colleagues hear chatter originating from the vicinity of the star Vega, Ellie feels vindicated. But that vindication is short lived when others, including politicians, the military, religious leaders, and rival scientists, such as Drumlin, try to take over her work. After the mysterious messages from space are decoded by her anonymous millionaire donor, S.R. Hadden (Sir John Hurt), the project takes on a whole new dimension, which strengthens for Ellie the quest for answers. —Huggo
 first contact wormhole nasa religion message from outer space 173 more
 * Plot summary
 * Plot synopsis
 * Taglines
 + Get ready to take a chance on something that just might end up being the most profoundly impactful moment for humanity, for the history... of history.
 * Genres
 + Drama
 + Mystery
 + Sci-Fi
 + Thriller
 * Motion Picture Rating (MPAA)
 + Rated PG for some intense action, mild language and a scene of sensuality
 * Parents guide

 Did you know

 Edit
 * Trivia
 Author and producer Carl Sagan died during production. He was reportedly taking great care to ensure that science was accurately depicted in this movie.
 * Goofs
 Walkie-talkies and cell phones are not allowed near a radio telescope array. They would overpower the array, making it useless.
 * Quotes

 Alien: You're an interesting species. An interesting mix. You're capable of such beautiful dreams, and such horrible nightmares. You feel so lost, so cut off, so alone, only you're not. See, in all our searching, the only thing we've found that makes the emptiness bearable, is each other.

 * Crazy credits
 "For Carl"
 * Connections
 Edited into Zaum - Andare a parare: Lo spazio dell'orbita (2011)
 * Soundtracks
 Who Needs Wings to Fly
 Written by Dominic Frontiere and Sid Wayne

 User reviews 774

 Review
 Review
 Featured review
 9 / 10
 The 90s was the era of great thought provoking scifi
 I had the luck of watching contact at the cinema when it came out . Being young meant that watching a movie of this grandure in a grand movie theatre with massive screen (something that was dying out at the time) means that this movie has been engraved in my mind . But it is not due to nostalgia or corrupt memory . Contact is a thought provoking mind bending movie ahead of its time . In fact it is the Interstellar of the 90s .

 Stunning gorgeous visuals , and a storyline and plot asking some hard questions and providing answers that many might not want to accept as the movie battles between science fitction , science fact and religion in a way that in the end no one is left wanting .

 This is not just a movie , this is an event !
 helpful • 47
 10
 * tuomaspap-72674
 * Jan 27, 2019

 Top picks

 Sign in to rate and Watchlist for personalized recommendations
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 FAQ 6

 * What is 'Contact' about?
 * Is 'Contact' based on a book?
 * Where is Vega?

 Details

 Edit
 * Release date
 + July 11, 1997 (United States)
 * Country of origin
 + United States
 * Official sites
 + Official Facebook
 + Warner Bros. (United States)
 * Languages
 + English
 + Spanish
 + German
 + Russian
 * Also known as
 + Contacto
 * Filming locations
 + Canyon de Chelly National Monument, Arizona, USA
 * Production companies
 + Warner Bros.
 + South Side Amusement Company
 * See more company credits at IMDbPro

 Box office

 Edit
 * Budget
 + $90,000,000 (estimated)
 * Gross US & Canada
 + $100,920,329
 * Opening weekend US & Canada
 + $20,584,908
 + Jul 13, 1997
 * Gross worldwide
 + $171,120,329
 See detailed box office info on IMDbPro

 Technical specs

 Edit
 * Runtime
 2 hours 30 minutes
 * Color
 + Color
 * Sound mix
 + DTS
 + Dolby Digital
 + SDDS
 * Aspect ratio
 + 2.39 : 1

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Videos2                    More like this     Astronomer Dr. Ellie Arroway (Jodie Foster) has long been interested in contact with faraway lands, a love fostered in her childhood by her father, Ted Arroway (David Morse), who dies when she was nine-years-old, leaving her an orphan. Her current work with SETI, the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence, is based on that love and is in part an homage to her father. Ever since funding from the National Science Foundation (N.S.F.) was pulled from the project, which was referred to as "more science fiction than science" by some, including her N.S.F. superior David Drumlin (Tom Skerritt), Ellie and her rogue scientist colleagues have looked for funding from where ever they could get it to continue their work. When Ellie and her colleagues hear chatter originating from the vicinity of the star Vega, Ellie feels vindicated. But that vindication is short lived when others, including politicians, the military, religious leaders, and rival scientists, such as Drumlin, try to take over her work. After the mysterious messages from space are decoded by her anonymous millionaire donor, S.R. Hadden (Sir John Hurt), the project takes on a whole new dimension, which strengthens for Ellie the quest for answers. —Huggo     Plot summary   Plot synopsis      Review    The 90s was the era of great thought provoking scifi  I had the luck of watching contact at the cinema when it came out . Being young meant that watching a movie of this grandure in a grand movie theatre with massive screen (something that was dying out at the time) means that this movie has been engraved in my mind .
But it is not due to nostalgia or corrupt memory .
Contact is a thought provoking mind bending movie ahead of its time .
In fact it is the Interstellar of the 90s . Stunning gorgeous visuals , and a storyline and plot asking some hard questions and providing answers that many might not want to accept as the movie battles between science fitction , science fact and religion in a way that in the end no one is left wanting . This is not just a movie , this is an event !      tuomaspap-72674  Jan 27, 2019        Top picks  Sign in to rate and Watchlist for personalized recommendations   Sign in      FAQ6      Contribute to this page  Suggest an edit or add missing content
Contact (1997) - IMDb
https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0118884/
https://www.lionsgate.com/movies/voyagers
Voyagers
2024-01-01
None
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2022-01-15
Writer
<div><div><p>Best known for his cerebral, often nonlinear, storytelling, acclaimed writer-director <a href="/name/nm0634240/?ref_=nm_ov_bio_lk">Christopher Nolan</a> was born on July 30, 1970, in London, England. Over the course of 15 years of filmmaking, Nolan has gone from low-budget independent films to working on some of the biggest blockbusters ever made.</p><p>At 7 years old, Nolan began making short movies with his father's Super-8 camera. While studying English Literature at University College London, he shot 16-millimeter films at U.C.L.'s film society, where he learned the guerrilla techniques he would later use to make his first feature, <a href="/title/tt0154506/?ref_=nm_ov_bio_lk">Following (1998)</a>, on a budget of around $6,000. The noir thriller was recognized at a number of international film festivals prior to its theatrical release and gained Nolan enough credibility that he was able to gather substantial financing for his next film.</p><p>Nolan's second film was <a href="/title/tt0209144/?ref_=nm_ov_bio_lk">Memento (2000)</a>, which he directed from his own screenplay based on a short story by his brother Jonathan. Starring <a href="/name/nm0001602/?ref_=nm_ov_bio_lk">Guy Pearce</a>, the film brought Nolan numerous honors, including Academy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations for Best Original Screenplay. Nolan went on to direct the critically acclaimed psychological thriller, <a href="/title/tt0278504/?ref_=nm_ov_bio_lk">Insomnia (2002)</a>, starring <a href="/name/nm0000199/?ref_=nm_ov_bio_lk">Al Pacino</a>, <a href="/name/nm0000245/?ref_=nm_ov_bio_lk">Robin Williams</a> and <a href="/name/nm0005476/?ref_=nm_ov_bio_lk">Hilary Swank</a>.</p><p>The turning point in Nolan's career occurred when he was awarded the chance to revive the Batman franchise in 2005. In <a href="/title/tt0372784/?ref_=nm_ov_bio_lk">Batman Begins (2005)</a>, Nolan brought a level of gravitas back to the iconic hero, and his gritty, modern interpretation was greeted with praise from fans and critics alike. Before moving on to a Batman sequel, Nolan directed, co-wrote, and produced the mystery thriller <a href="/title/tt0482571/?ref_=nm_ov_bio_lk">The Prestige (2006)</a>, starring <a href="/name/nm0000288/?ref_=nm_ov_bio_lk">Christian Bale</a> and <a href="/name/nm0413168/?ref_=nm_ov_bio_lk">Hugh Jackman</a> as magicians whose obsessive rivalry leads to tragedy and murder.</p><p>In 2008, Nolan directed, co-wrote, and produced <a href="/title/tt0468569/?ref_=nm_ov_bio_lk">The Dark Knight (2008)</a> which went on to gross more than a billion dollars at the worldwide box office. Nolan was nominated for a Directors Guild of America (D.G.A.) Award, Writers Guild of America (W.G.A.) Award and Producers Guild of America (P.G.A.) Award, and the film also received eight Academy Award nominations.</p><p>In 2010, Nolan captivated audiences with the sci-fi thriller <a href="/title/tt1375666/?ref_=nm_ov_bio_lk">Inception (2010)</a>, which he directed and produced from his own original screenplay. The thought-provoking drama was a worldwide blockbuster, earning more than $800,000,000 and becoming one of the most discussed and debated films of the year. Among its many honors, Inception received four Academy Awards and eight nominations, including Best Picture and Best Screenplay. Nolan was recognized by his peers with D.G.A. and P.G.A. Award nominations, as well as a W.G.A. Award for his work on the film.</p><p>One of the best-reviewed and highest-grossing movies of 2012, <a href="/title/tt1345836/?ref_=nm_ov_bio_lk">The Dark Knight Rises (2012)</a> concluded Nolan's Batman trilogy. Due to his success rebooting the Batman character, Warner Bros. enlisted Nolan to produce their revamped Superman movie <a href="/title/tt0770828/?ref_=nm_ov_bio_lk">Man of Steel (2013)</a>, which opened in the summer of 2013. In 2014, Nolan directed, wrote, and produced the science-fiction epic <a href="/title/tt0816692/?ref_=nm_ov_bio_lk">Interstellar (2014)</a>, starring <a href="/name/nm0000190/?ref_=nm_ov_bio_lk">Matthew McConaughey</a>, <a href="/name/nm0004266/?ref_=nm_ov_bio_lk">Anne Hathaway</a> and <a href="/name/nm1567113/?ref_=nm_ov_bio_lk">Jessica Chastain</a>. Paramount Pictures and Warner Bros. released the film on November 5, 2014, to positive reviews and strong box-office results, grossing over $670 million dollars worldwide.</p><p>Nolan resides in Los Angeles, California with his wife, producer <a href="/name/nm0858799/?ref_=nm_ov_bio_lk">Emma Thomas</a>, and their children. Nolan and Thomas also have their own production company, Syncopy.</p></div>||||I|||| Menu
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 Christopher Nolan (I)

 * Producer
 * Writer
 * Director
 IMDbPro Starmeter
 Top 500 15
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 Best known for his cerebral, often nonlinear, storytelling, acclaimed writer-director Christopher Nolan was born on July 30, 1970, in London, England. Over the course of 15 years of filmmaking, Nolan has gone from low-budget independent films to working on some of the biggest blockbusters ever made.

 At 7 years old, Nolan began making short movies with his father's Super-8 camera. While studying English Literature at University College London, he shot 16-millimeter films at U.C.L.'s film society, where he learned the guerrilla techniques he would later use to make his first feature, Following (1998), on a budget of around $6,000. The noir thriller was recognized at a number of international film festivals prior to its theatrical release and gained Nolan enough credibility that he was able to gather substantial financing for his next film.

 Nolan's second film was Memento (2000), which he directed from his own screenplay based on a short story by his brother Jonathan. Starring Guy Pearce, the film brought Nolan numerous honors, including Academy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations for Best Original Screenplay. Nolan went on to direct the critically acclaimed psychological thriller, Insomnia (2002), starring Al Pacino, Robin Williams and Hilary Swank.

 The turning point in Nolan's career occurred when he was awarded the chance to revive the Batman franchise in 2005. In Batman Begins (2005), Nolan brought a level of gravitas back to the iconic hero, and his gritty, modern interpretation was greeted with praise from fans and critics alike. Before moving on to a Batman sequel, Nolan directed, co-wrote, and produced the mystery thriller The Prestige (2006), starring Christian Bale and Hugh Jackman as magicians whose obsessive rivalry leads to tragedy and murder.

 In 2008, Nolan directed, co-wrote, and produced The Dark Knight (2008) which went on to gross more than a billion dollars at the worldwide box office. Nolan was nominated for a Directors Guild of America (D.G.A.) Award, Writers Guild of America (W.G.A.) Award and Producers Guild of America (P.G.A.) Award, and the film also received eight Academy Award nominations.

 In 2010, Nolan captivated audiences with the sci-fi thriller Inception (2010), which he directed and produced from his own original screenplay. The thought-provoking drama was a worldwide blockbuster, earning more than $800,000,000 and becoming one of the most discussed and debated films of the year. Among its many honors, Inception received four Academy Awards and eight nominations, including Best Picture and Best Screenplay. Nolan was recognized by his peers with D.G.A. and P.G.A. Award nominations, as well as a W.G.A. Award for his work on the film.

 One of the best-reviewed and highest-grossing movies of 2012, The Dark Knight Rises (2012) concluded Nolan's Batman trilogy. Due to his success rebooting the Batman character, Warner Bros. enlisted Nolan to produce their revamped Superman movie Man of Steel (2013), which opened in the summer of 2013. In 2014, Nolan directed, wrote, and produced the science-fiction epic Interstellar (2014), starring Matthew McConaughey, Anne Hathaway and Jessica Chastain. Paramount Pictures and Warner Bros. released the film on November 5, 2014, to positive reviews and strong box-office results, grossing over $670 million dollars worldwide.

 Nolan resides in Los Angeles, California with his wife, producer Emma Thomas, and their children. Nolan and Thomas also have their own production company, Syncopy.
 Born July 30, 1970
 * More at IMDbPro
 + Contact info
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 + Resume
 Born July 30, 1970
 IMDbPro Starmeter
 Top 500 15
 Add to list
 * View contact info at IMDbPro
 * Nominated for 5 Oscars
 + 145 wins & 236 nominations total

 Photos 162

 Known for

 Tenet
 7.3
 * Producer (produced by, p.g.a.)
 * 2020
 Inception
 8.8
 * Producer
 * 2010
 Interstellar
 8.6
 * Producer
 * 2014
 The Prestige
 8.5
 * Producer
 * 2006

 Credits

 Edit
 Producer 20 Writer 18 Director 17
 Cinematographer 5 Editor 4 Composer 1 Art Department 1 Self 96 Thanks 29 Archive Footage 18
 IMDbPro
 Expand below

 Producer

 * Upcoming
 * 1
 * Oppenheimer
 + producer
 + Post-production
 + 2023
 * Previous
 * 19
 * Zack Snyder's Justice League
 + executive producer
 + 2021
 * Tenet
 + producer (produced by, p.g.a.)
 + 2020
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 + executive producer
 + Short
 + 2019
 * The Dunkirk Spirit: Behind the Making of the Movie
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 + Short
 + 2018
 * Justice League
 + executive producer
 + 2017
 * Dunkirk
 + producer (produced by, p.g.a.)
 + 2017
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 + executive producer
 + 2016
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 + 2016
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 + Short
 + 2015
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 * 2
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 + written for the screen by
 + Post-production
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 * Memento
 + based on the screenplay by
 + In Development
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 * Tenet
 + written by
 + 2020
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 + written by
 + 2017
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 + written by
 + 2014
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 + story
 + 2013
 * The Dark Knight Rises
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 + story
 + 2012
 * Inception: The Cobol Job
 + based on characters by
 + Video
 + 2010
 * Inception
 + written by
 + 2010
 * The Dark Knight
 + screenplay
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 + 2008
 * The Prestige
 + screenplay
 + 2006
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 + based on the movie written by (uncredited)
 + Video Game
 + 2005
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 + 2005
 * Memento
 + screenplay
 + 2000
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 + 1998
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 + 1997
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 * Dunkirk
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 + 2017
 * Quay
 + Director
 + Short
 + 2015
 * Interstellar
 + Director (directed by)
 + 2014
 * The Dark Knight Rises
 + Director (directed by)
 + 2012
 * Inception
 + Director (directed by)
 + 2010
 * The Dark Knight
 + Director
 + 2008
 * The Prestige
 + Director
 + 2006
 * Batman Begins
 + Director (directed by)
 + 2005
 * Cinema16: British Short Films
 + Director
 + Video
 + 2003
 * Insomnia
 + Director
 + 2002
 * Memento
 + Director
 + 2000
 * Following
 + Director
 + 1998
 * Doodlebug
 + Director (as Chris Nolan)
 + Short
 + 1997
 * Larceny
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 + Short
 + 1996
 See all
 * In-development projects at IMDbPro

 Videos 21

 Full Episode 8:03
 Episode: Interstellar
 Clip 1:50
 All About Oppenheimer
 Clip 5:09
 'Tenet' Fan Theories: What We Got Right (and Wrong)
 Clip 2:47
 What to Watch If You Love 'Inception'
 Clip 2:03
 A Guide to the Films of Christopher Nolan
 Clip 4:04
 'The Platform' & Future Films From the IMDb Top 250
 Clip 4:03
 Toss a Coin to Your "Witcher" Season 2 Theories
 Clip 4:46
 Is the New 'Joker' Most Like Jared, Heath, or Jack?
 Clip 2:55
 What We Know About 'Tenet' ... So Far
 Clip 3:36
 How 'The Batman' Could Connect to 'Joker'
 Clip 5:10
 'The Batman': How Will Director Matt Reeves Reboot the Caped Crusader?
 Clip 0:25
 IMDb Asks Christopher Nolan: What's Your First Movie in a Movie Theater?

 Personal details

 Edit
 * Alternative name
 + Chris Nolan
 * Height
 + 5′ 11¼″ (1.81 m)
 * Born
 + July 30 , 1970
 + London, England, UK
 * Spouse
 + Emma Thomas 1997 - present (4 children)
 * Children
 Flora Nolan
 * Parents
 Brendan Nolan
 * Relatives
 Jonathan Nolan (Sibling)
 * Publicity listings
 + 2 Biographical Movies
 + 6 Interviews
 + 8 Articles

 Did you know

 Edit
 * Trivia
 He initially directed his Batman films so he could get funding and support for his bigger films. The one he had planned for years was Inception (2010).
 * Quotes
 [on different acting styles] The best actors instinctively feel out what the other actors need, and they just accommodate it.
 * Trademarks
 Begins his movies and introduces his main characters with a close up of their hands performing an action.
 * Nickname
 + Chris
 * Salaries
 Dunkirk
 ( 2017)
 $20,000,000 + 20% of gross

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Best known for his cerebral, often nonlinear, storytelling, acclaimed writer-director Christopher Nolan was born on July 30, 1970, in London, England. Over the course of 15 years of filmmaking, Nolan has gone from low-budget independent films to working on some of the biggest blockbusters ever made. At 7 years old, Nolan began making short movies with his father's Super-8 camera. While studying English Literature at University College London, he shot 16-millimeter films at U.C.L.'s film society, where he learned the guerrilla techniques he would later use to make his first feature, Following (1998), on a budget of around $6,000. The noir thriller was recognized at a number of international film festivals prior to its theatrical release and gained Nolan enough credibility that he was able to gather substantial financing for his next film. Nolan's second film was Memento (2000), which he directed from his own screenplay based on a short story by his brother Jonathan. Starring Guy Pearce, the film brought Nolan numerous honors, including Academy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations for Best Original Screenplay. Nolan went on to direct the critically acclaimed psychological thriller, Insomnia (2002), starring Al Pacino, Robin Williams and Hilary Swank. The turning point in Nolan's career occurred when he was awarded the chance to revive the Batman franchise in 2005. In Batman Begins (2005), Nolan brought a level of gravitas back to the iconic hero, and his gritty, modern interpretation was greeted with praise from fans and critics alike. Before moving on to a Batman sequel, Nolan directed, co-wrote, and produced the mystery thriller The Prestige (2006), starring Christian Bale and Hugh Jackman as magicians whose obsessive rivalry leads to tragedy and murder. In 2008, Nolan directed, co-wrote, and produced The Dark Knight (2008) which went on to gross more than a billion dollars at the worldwide box office. Nolan was nominated for a Directors Guild of America (D.G.A.) Award, Writers Guild of America (W.G.A.) Award and Producers Guild of America (P.G.A.) Award, and the film also received eight Academy Award nominations. In 2010, Nolan captivated audiences with the sci-fi thriller Inception (2010), which he directed and produced from his own original screenplay. The thought-provoking drama was a worldwide blockbuster, earning more than $800,000,000 and becoming one of the most discussed and debated films of the year. Among its many honors, Inception received four Academy Awards and eight nominations, including Best Picture and Best Screenplay. Nolan was recognized by his peers with D.G.A. and P.G.A. Award nominations, as well as a W.G.A. Award for his work on the film. One of the best-reviewed and highest-grossing movies of 2012, The Dark Knight Rises (2012) concluded Nolan's Batman trilogy. Due to his success rebooting the Batman character, Warner Bros. enlisted Nolan to produce their revamped Superman movie Man of Steel (2013), which opened in the summer of 2013. In 2014, Nolan directed, wrote, and produced the science-fiction epic Interstellar (2014), starring Matthew McConaughey, Anne Hathaway and Jessica Chastain. Paramount Pictures and Warner Bros. released the film on November 5, 2014, to positive reviews and strong box-office results, grossing over $670 million dollars worldwide. Nolan resides in Los Angeles, California with his wife, producer Emma Thomas, and their children. Nolan and Thomas also have their own production company, Syncopy.
Christopher Nolan - IMDb
https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0634240/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Nolan
Christopher Nolan - Wikipedia
2003-02-02
Authority control
<div><div>
<table><tbody><tr><th><p>Christopher Nolan</p><br /><div><p><a href="/wiki/Commander_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire">CBE</a></p></div></th></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:Christopher_Nolan_Cannes_2018.jpg"></a><p>Nolan in 2018</p></td></tr><tr><th>Born</th><td><p>Christopher Edward Nolan</p><br />30 July 1970 (age 52)<p>London, England</p></td></tr><tr><th>Citizenship</th><td><div><ul><li>United Kingdom</li><li>United States</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Alma mater</th><td><a href="/wiki/University_College_London">University College London</a></td></tr><tr><th>Occupations</th><td><div><ul><li>Film director</li><li>film producer</li><li>screenwriter</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Years active</th><td>1998–present</td></tr><tr><th>Works</th><td><div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Nolan_filmography">Filmography</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cinematic_style_of_Christopher_Nolan">cinematic style</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Board member of</th><td><a href="/wiki/The_Film_Foundation">The Film Foundation</a></td></tr><tr><th>Spouse</th><td><div><div><p><a href="/wiki/Emma_Thomas">Emma Thomas</a></p></div> <p>​</p><p>(<abbr>m.</abbr> 1997)<wbr></wbr>​</p></div></td></tr><tr><th>Children</th><td>4</td></tr><tr><th>Relatives</th><td><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Nolan">Jonathan Nolan</a> (brother)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Nolan_(British_actor)">John Nolan</a> (uncle)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th>Awards</th><td><a href="/wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Christopher_Nolan">Full list</a></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Christopher Edward Nolan</b> <a href="/wiki/Commander_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire">CBE</a> (born 30 July 1970) is a British-American filmmaker. Known for his <a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_States">Hollywood</a> blockbusters with complex storytelling, Nolan is considered a leading filmmaker of the 21st century. <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Nolan_filmography">His films</a> have grossed $5 billion worldwide. The recipient of <a href="/wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Christopher_Nolan">many accolades</a>, he has been nominated for five <a href="/wiki/Academy_Awards">Academy Awards</a>, five <a href="/wiki/British_Academy_Film_Awards">British Academy Film Awards</a> and six <a href="/wiki/Golden_Globe_Awards">Golden Globe Awards</a>. In 2015, he was listed as one of the <a href="/wiki/Time_100">100 most influential people in the world</a> by <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)">Time</a></i>, and in 2019, he was appointed Commander of the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_British_Empire">Order of the British Empire</a> for his contributions to film.
</p><p>Nolan developed an interest in filmmaking from a young age. After studying <a href="/wiki/English_literature">English literature</a> at <a href="/wiki/University_College_London">University College London</a>, he made several short films before his feature film debut with <i><a href="/wiki/Following">Following</a></i> (1998). Nolan gained international recognition with his second film, <i><a href="/wiki/Memento_(film)">Memento</a></i> (2000), for which he was nominated for the <a href="/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Original_Screenplay">Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay</a>. He transitioned from independent to studio filmmaking with <i><a href="/wiki/Insomnia_(2002_film)">Insomnia</a></i> (2002), and found further critical and commercial success with <i><a href="/wiki/The_Dark_Knight_Trilogy">The Dark Knight Trilogy</a></i> (2005–2012), <i><a href="/wiki/The_Prestige_(film)">The Prestige</a></i> (2006) and <i><a href="/wiki/Inception">Inception</a></i> (2010); the last of these earned Nolan two Oscar nominations—<a href="/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Picture">Best Picture</a> and Best Original Screenplay. This was followed by <i><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_(film)">Interstellar</a></i> (2014), <i><a href="/wiki/Dunkirk_(2017_film)">Dunkirk</a></i> (2017) and <i><a href="/wiki/Tenet_(film)">Tenet</a></i> (2020). For <i>Dunkirk,</i> he earned two Academy Award nominations, including his first for <a href="/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Director">Best Director</a>.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Cinematic_style_of_Christopher_Nolan">Nolan's work</a> regularly feature in the listings of best films of their respective decades. They are typically characterised by <a href="/wiki/Epistemology">epistemology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Existentialism">existentialism</a>. Infused with a <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> outlook; they explore ethics, the construction of time, and the malleable nature of memory and personal identity. His work is permeated with <a href="/wiki/Mathematics_and_art">mathematically inspired</a> images and concepts, unconventional <a href="/wiki/Nonlinear_narrative">narrative structures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Practical_special_effects">practical special effects</a>, experimental soundscapes, <a href="/wiki/70_mm_film">large-format</a> film photography, and <a href="/wiki/Materialism">materialistic</a> perspectives. He has co-written several of his films with his brother <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Nolan">Jonathan</a>, and runs the production company <a href="/wiki/Syncopy_Inc.">Syncopy Inc.</a> with his wife <a href="/wiki/Emma_Thomas">Emma Thomas</a>.
</p>
<h2>Early life[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christopher_Nolan&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Flaxman_Gallery,_UCL.JPG"></a></p></div>
<p>Christopher Edward Nolan was born on 30 July 1970, in <a href="/wiki/Westminster">Westminster</a>, London. His father, Brendan, was a British advertising executive who worked as a <a href="/wiki/Creative_director">creative director</a>. His mother, Christina, was an American flight attendant from <a href="/wiki/Evanston,_Illinois">Evanston, Illinois</a>; she would later work as a teacher of English. He has an elder brother, Matthew, and a younger brother, <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Nolan">Jonathan</a>, also a filmmaker. The three were raised in London and would spend their summers in Evanston. Nolan has both UK and US citizenship.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENathan202212–13-2">[2]</a></sup>
</p><p>Growing up, Nolan was particularly influenced by the work of <a href="/wiki/Ridley_Scott">Ridley Scott</a> and the science fiction films <i><a href="/wiki/2001:_A_Space_Odyssey_(film)">2001: A Space Odyssey</a></i> (1968) and <i><a href="/wiki/Star_Wars_(film)">Star Wars</a></i> (1977).<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMooney20184-3">[3]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENathan2022116,_159-4">[4]</a></sup> He would repeatedly watch the latter film and extensively research its making.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENathan2022159-5">[5]</a></sup> Nolan began making films at the age of seven, borrowing his father's <a href="/wiki/Super_8_mm_film">Super 8 camera</a> and shooting short films with his action figures.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENathan202211,_16-6">[6]</a></sup> These films included a <a href="/wiki/Stop_motion">stop motion animation</a> homage to <i>Star Wars</i> called <i>Space Wars</i>. He cast his brother Jonathan and built sets from "clay, flour, egg boxes and toilet rolls".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMooney20184-3">[3]</a></sup> His uncle, who had worked at <a href="/wiki/NASA">NASA</a> building guidance systems for the <a href="/wiki/Apollo_program">Apollo</a> rockets, sent him some launch footage: "I re-filmed them off the screen and cut them in, thinking no-one would notice", Nolan later remarked.<sup><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> From the age of 11, he aspired to be a professional filmmaker.<sup><a href="#cite_note-telegraph-8">[8]</a></sup> Between 1981 and 1983, Nolan enrolled at Barrow Hills, a Catholic prep school in <a href="/wiki/Weybridge">Weybridge</a>, Surrey.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShone202026-9">[9]</a></sup> In his teenage years, Nolan started making films with Adrien and <a href="/wiki/Roko_Belic">Roko Belic</a>. Nolan and Roko co–directed the <a href="/wiki/Surrealism">surreal</a> <a href="/wiki/Super_8_film">8 mm</a> <i>Tarantella</i> (1989), which was shown on <i>Image Union</i>, an independent film and video showcase on the <a href="/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service">Public Broadcasting Service</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-11">[a]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMooney20185-12">[11]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShone202048-13">[12]</a></sup>
</p><p>Nolan was educated at <a href="/wiki/Haileybury_and_Imperial_Service_College">Haileybury and Imperial Service College</a>, an independent school in <a href="/wiki/Hertford_Heath">Hertford Heath</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hertfordshire">Hertfordshire</a>, and later studied <a href="/wiki/English_literature">English literature</a> at <a href="/wiki/University_College_London">University College London</a> (UCL). Opting out of a traditional film education, he pursued "a degree in something unrelated", which his father suggested "gives a different take on things".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMooney20186-14">[13]</a></sup> He chose UCL specifically for its filmmaking facilities, which comprised a <a href="/wiki/Steenbeck">Steenbeck editing suite</a> and <a href="/wiki/16_mm_film#Cameras">16 mm film cameras</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Tempest-15">[14]</a></sup> Nolan was president of the Union's Film Society,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Tempest-15">[14]</a></sup> and with <a href="/wiki/Emma_Thomas">Emma Thomas</a> (his girlfriend and future wife) he screened <a href="/wiki/Feature_film">feature films</a> of <a href="/wiki/35_mm_movie_film">35 mm</a> during the school year and used the money earned to produce 16 mm films over the summers.<sup><a href="#cite_note-British_Cinematographer_pt2-16">[15]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Career[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christopher_Nolan&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2">edit</a>]</h2>
<h3>1993–2003: Early career and breakthrough[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christopher_Nolan&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>After earning his bachelor's degree in English literature in 1993, Nolan worked as a <a href="/wiki/Script_analyst">script reader</a>, <a href="/wiki/Camera_operator">camera operator</a> and director of <a href="/wiki/Corporate_video">corporate videos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sponsored_film">industrial films</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Tempest-15">[14]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Feinberg-17">[16]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a></sup> He directed, wrote and edited the short film <i>Larceny</i> (1996),<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENathan202234-19">[18]</a></sup> which was filmed over a weekend in black and white with limited equipment and a small cast and crew.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMooney20185-12">[11]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a></sup> Funded by Nolan and shot with the <a href="/wiki/Students%27_Union_UCL">UCL Union</a> Film society's equipment, it appeared at the <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Film_Festival">Cambridge Film Festival</a> in 1996 and is considered one of UCL's best shorts.<sup><a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a></sup> For unknown reasons, the film has since been removed from public view.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENathan202234-19">[18]</a></sup> Nolan filmed a third short, <i><a href="/wiki/Doodlebug_(film)">Doodlebug</a></i> (1997), about a man seemingly chasing an insect with his shoe, only to discover that it is a miniature of himself.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMooney20186-14">[13]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-independent-22">[21]</a></sup> Nolan and Thomas first attempted to make a feature in the mid-1990s with <i>Larry Mahoney</i>, which they scrapped.<sup><a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a></sup> During this period in his career, Nolan had little to no success getting his projects off the ground, facing several rejections; he added, "[T]here's a very limited pool of finance in the UK. To be honest, it's a very clubby kind of place ... Never had any support whatsoever from the British film industry."<sup><a href="#cite_note-AndrewPulver05-24">[23]</a></sup>
</p><p>Shortly after abandoning <i>Larry Mahoney</i>, Nolan conceived the idea for his first feature, <i><a href="/wiki/Following">Following</a></i> (1998), which he wrote, directed, photographed and edited. The film depicts an unemployed young writer (<a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Theobald">Jeremy Theobald</a>) who trails strangers through London, hoping they will provide material for his first novel, but is drawn into a criminal underworld when he fails to keep his distance. It was inspired by Nolan's experience of living in London and having his apartment burgled; he observed that the common attribute between larceny and pursuing someone through a crowd was that they both cross social boundaries.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENathan202220–21-25">[24]</a></sup> Co-produced by Nolan with Thomas and Theobald,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShone2020441-26">[25]</a></sup> it was made on a budget of around £3,000. Most of the cast and crew were friends of the director, and shooting took place on weekends over the course of a year.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENathan202224,_42-27">[26]</a></sup> To conserve <a href="/wiki/Film_stock">film stock</a>, each scene was rehearsed extensively to ensure that the first or second take could be used in the final edit.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMooney20186-14">[13]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Tobias-28">[27]</a></sup> <i>Following</i> won several awards during its festival run and was well received by critics who labelled Nolan a majorly talented debutant.<sup><a href="#cite_note-29">[28]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENathan202230–31-30">[29]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Scott_Timberg">Scott Timberg</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/New_Times_LA">New Times LA</a></i> wrote that it "echoed <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Hitchcock">Hitchcock</a> classics", but was "leaner and meaner".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Timberg-31">[30]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Janet_Maslin">Janet Maslin</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times">The New York Times</a></i> was impressed with its "spare look" and "agile hand-held camerawork", saying, "As a result, the actors convincingly carry off the before, during and after modes that the film eventually, and artfully, weaves together."<sup><a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a></sup>
</p>
<div>
<blockquote>
<p>"[T]he difference between shooting <i><a href="/wiki/Following">Following</a></i> with a group of friends wearing our own clothes and my mum making sandwiches to spending $4 million of somebody else's money on <i><a href="/wiki/Memento_(film)">Memento</a></i> and having a crew of a hundred people is, to this day, by far the biggest leap I've ever made."
</p>
</blockquote>
<p><cite>—Nolan on the jump from his first film to his second (2012)<sup><a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a></sup></cite>
</p>
</div>
<p><i>Following</i>'s success afforded Nolan the opportunity to make <i><a href="/wiki/Memento_(film)">Memento</a></i> (2000), which became his breakthrough film. His brother Jonathan pitched the idea to him, about a man with <a href="/wiki/Anterograde_amnesia">anterograde amnesia</a> who uses notes and tattoos to hunt for his wife's murderer. Jonathan worked the idea into a short story, "<a href="/wiki/Memento_Mori_(short_story)">Memento Mori</a>" (2001), and Nolan developed it into a screenplay that told the story in reverse. Aaron Ryder, an executive for <a href="/wiki/Newmarket_Films">Newmarket Films</a>, said it was "perhaps the most innovative script I had ever seen".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMottram2002176-34">[33]</a></sup> The film was optioned and given a budget of $4.5 million, with <a href="/wiki/Guy_Pearce">Guy Pearce</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carrie-Anne_Moss">Carrie-Anne Moss</a> in the starring roles.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMottram2002177-35">[34]</a></sup> Newmarket also distributed the film after it was rejected by studios who feared that it would not attract a wide audience. Following a positive <a href="/wiki/Word_of_mouth">word of mouth</a> and screenings in 500 theatres, it earned $40 million.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENathan202245–48-36">[35]</a></sup> <i>Memento</i> premiered at the <a href="/wiki/Venice_International_Film_Festival">Venice International Film Festival</a> in September 2000 to critical acclaim.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMottram200262–64-37">[36]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Joe_Morgenstern">Joe Morgenstern</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a></i> wrote in his review, "I can't remember when a movie has seemed so clever, strangely affecting and slyly funny at the very same time."<sup><a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a></sup> In the book <i>The Philosophy of Neo-Noir</i>, Basil Smith drew a comparison with <a href="/wiki/John_Locke">John Locke</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/An_Essay_Concerning_Human_Understanding">An Essay Concerning Human Understanding</a></i>, which argues that conscious memories constitute our identities – a theme Nolan explores in the film.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith200735-39">[38]</a></sup> <i>Memento</i> earned Nolan many accolades, including nominations for an <a href="/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Writing_(Original_Screenplay)">Academy Award</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Golden_Globe_Award_for_Best_Screenplay">Golden Globe Award for Best Screenplay</a>, as well as two <a href="/wiki/Independent_Spirit_Award">Independent Spirit Awards</a>: <a href="/wiki/Independent_Spirit_Award_for_Best_Director">Best Director</a> and <a href="/wiki/Independent_Spirit_Award_for_Best_Screenplay">Best Screenplay</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-nytimesawards-40">[39]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShone202019-41">[40]</a></sup> Six critics listed it as one of the best <a href="/wiki/2000s_in_film">films of the 2000s</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Metadecade-42">[41]</a></sup> In 2001, Nolan and Emma Thomas founded the production company <a href="/wiki/Syncopy_Inc.">Syncopy Inc.</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-syncopy-43">[42]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-45">[b]</a></sup>
</p><p>Impressed by his work on <i>Memento</i>, filmmaker <a href="/wiki/Steven_Soderbergh">Steven Soderbergh</a> recommended Nolan to <a href="/wiki/Warner_Bros.">Warner Bros.</a> to direct the <a href="/wiki/Psychological_thriller">psychological thriller</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Insomnia_(2002_film)">Insomnia</a></i> (2002), although the studio initially wanted a more seasoned director.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEdeWaardTait201349-46">[44]</a></sup> A remake of the 1997 <a href="/wiki/Insomnia_(1997_film)">Norwegian thriller of the same name</a>, the film is viewed as "the outlier of Nolan's filmography" due to its perceived lack of unconventionality he is known for.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENathan202250-47">[45]</a></sup> Starring <a href="/wiki/Al_Pacino">Al Pacino</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robin_Williams">Robin Williams</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hilary_Swank">Hilary Swank</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShone2020442-48">[46]</a></sup> <i>Insomnia</i> follows two Los Angeles detectives sent to a northern Alaskan town to investigate the murder of a local teenager. It received positive reviews from critics and earned $113 million against a budget of $46 million.<sup><a href="#cite_note-49">[47]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-50">[48]</a></sup> Film critic <a href="/wiki/Roger_Ebert">Roger Ebert</a> praised the film for introducing new perspectives and ideas on the issues of morality and guilt, adding, "Unlike most remakes, the Nolan <i>Insomnia</i> is not a pale retread, but a re-examination of the material, like a new production of a good play."<sup><a href="#cite_note-51">[49]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Schickel">Richard Schickel</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)">Time</a></i> deemed <i>Insomnia</i> a "worthy successor" to <i>Memento</i> and "a triumph of atmosphere over a none-too-mysterious mystery".<sup><a href="#cite_note-52">[50]</a></sup> <i>Following</i>, <i>Memento</i> and <i>Insomnia</i> established Nolan's image as an "<a href="/wiki/Auteur">auteur</a>".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill-Parks201526-53">[51]</a></sup> After the lattermost, he wrote a screenplay for a <a href="/wiki/Howard_Hughes">Howard Hughes</a> biopic. Nolan reluctantly tabled his script after learning that <a href="/wiki/Martin_Scorsese">Martin Scorsese</a> was already making one such film: <i><a href="/wiki/The_Aviator_(2004_film)">The Aviator</a></i> (2004).<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENathan202264–65-54">[52]</a></sup> He turned down an offer to direct the historical epic <i><a href="/wiki/Troy_(film)">Troy</a></i> (2004).<sup><a href="#cite_note-55">[53]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>2003–2013: Widespread recognition[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christopher_Nolan&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>In early 2003, Nolan approached Warner Bros. with the idea of making a new <a href="/wiki/Batman">Batman</a> film, based on the character's origin story.<sup><a href="#cite_note-bb-latimes-56">[54]</a></sup> Nolan was fascinated by the notion of grounding it in a more realistic world than a comic-book fantasy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENathan202273–75-57">[55]</a></sup> He relied heavily on traditional <a href="/wiki/Stunt">stunts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Miniature_effect">miniature effects</a> during filming, with minimal use of <a href="/wiki/Computer-generated_imagery">computer-generated imagery</a> (CGI).<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENathan202269-58">[56]</a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Batman_Begins">Batman Begins</a></i> (2005), the biggest project Nolan had undertaken to that point,<sup><a href="#cite_note-59">[57]</a></sup> was released to critical acclaim and commercial success.<sup><a href="#cite_note-60">[58]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-:0-61">[59]</a></sup> Starring <a href="/wiki/Christian_Bale">Christian Bale</a> as <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Wayne_(The_Dark_Knight_trilogy)">Bruce Wayne / Batman</a>—along with <a href="/wiki/Michael_Caine">Michael Caine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gary_Oldman">Gary Oldman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morgan_Freeman">Morgan Freeman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liam_Neeson">Liam Neeson</a>—<i>Batman Begins</i> revived the franchise.<sup><a href="#cite_note-62">[60]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-63">[61]</a></sup> <i>Batman Begins</i> was 2005's ninth-highest-grossing film and was praised for its psychological depth and contemporary relevance;<sup><a href="#cite_note-:0-61">[59]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a></sup> it is cited as one of the most influential films of the 2000s.<sup><a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a></sup> Film author Ian Nathan wrote that within five years of his career, Nolan "[went] from unknown to indie darling to gaining creative control over one of the biggest properties in Hollywood, and (perhaps unwittingly) fomenting the genre that would redefine the entire industry".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENathan202258–59-66">[64]</a></sup>
</p><p>Nolan directed, co-wrote and produced <i><a href="/wiki/The_Prestige_(film)">The Prestige</a></i> (2006), an adaptation of <a href="/wiki/The_Prestige">the Christopher Priest novel</a> about two rival 19th-century magicians.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENathan202278-67">[65]</a></sup> The screenplay was the result of an intermittent, five-year collaboration between him and his brother Jonathan, who had begun writing it already in 2001. Nolan initially intended to make the film as early as 2003, but had postponed the project after agreeing to make <i>Batman Begins</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENathan202279-68">[66]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a></sup> Starring <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Jackman">Hugh Jackman</a> and Christian Bale in the lead roles of rival magicians, <i>The Prestige</i> received critical acclaim and received two Academy Award nominations.<sup><a href="#cite_note-70">[68]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a></sup> Roger Ebert described it as "quite a movie – atmospheric, obsessive, almost satanic",<sup><a href="#cite_note-72">[70]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Turan">Kenneth Turan</a> of the <i><a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times">Los Angeles Times</a></i> called it an "ambitious, unnerving melodrama".<sup><a href="#cite_note-73">[71]</a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>'s <a href="/wiki/Philip_French">Philip French</a> wrote: "In addition to the intellectual or philosophical excitement it engenders, <i>The Prestige</i> is gripping, suspenseful, mysterious, moving and often darkly funny."<sup><a href="#cite_note-74">[72]</a></sup> Despite a negative box-office prognosis, the film earned over $109 million against a budget of $40 million.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENathan202285,_94–95-75">[73]</a></sup>
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<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:The_Dark_Knight_European_Premier_-_Leicester_square2.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Nolan (left) with the cast and crew of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Dark_Knight">The Dark Knight</a></i> at the 2008 European premiere in London</p></div></div>
<p><i><a href="/wiki/The_Dark_Knight">The Dark Knight</a></i> (2008), the follow-up to <i>Batman Begins</i>, was Nolan's next venture. Initially reluctant to make a sequel, he agreed after Warner Bros. repeatedly insisted.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENathan202296–97-76">[74]</a></sup> Nolan wanted to expand on the <a href="/wiki/Film_noir">noir</a> quality of the first film by broadening the canvas and taking on "the dynamic of a story of the city, a large crime story ... where you're looking at the police, the justice system, the vigilante, the poor people, the rich people, the criminals".<sup><a href="#cite_note-77">[75]</a></sup> Continuing to minimalise the use of CGI, Nolan employed high-resolution IMAX cameras, making it the first major motion picture to use this technology.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJoy201513-78">[76]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-79">[77]</a></sup> <i>The Dark Knight</i> has been ranked as one of the best films of the 2000s and one of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_films_considered_the_best#Superhero">best superhero films ever made</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-84">[c]</a></sup> Many critics declare <i>The Dark Knight</i> to be "the most successful comic book film ever made".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZornadoReilly2021166-85">[82]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Manohla_Dargis">Manohla Dargis</a> of <i>The New York Times</i> found the film to be of higher artistic merit than many Hollywood blockbusters: "Pitched at the divide between art and industry, poetry and entertainment, it goes darker and deeper than any Hollywood movie of its comic-book kind."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Dargis-86">[83]</a></sup> Ebert expressed a similar point of view, describing it as a "haunted film that leaps beyond its origins and becomes an engrossing tragedy".<sup><a href="#cite_note-87">[84]</a></sup> <i>The Dark Knight</i> set many box-office records during its theatrical run,<sup><a href="#cite_note-88">[85]</a></sup> earning over $1 billion worldwide.<sup><a href="#cite_note-89">[86]</a></sup> At the <a href="/wiki/81st_Academy_Awards">81st Academy Awards</a>, the film was nominated in eight categories, winning two: <a href="/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Sound_Editing">Best Sound Editing</a> for <a href="/wiki/Richard_King_(sound_designer)">Richard King</a> and a posthumous <a href="/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Supporting_Actor">Best Supporting Actor award</a> for <a href="/wiki/Heath_Ledger">Heath Ledger</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-90">[87]</a></sup> The film's failure to garner a <a href="/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Picture">Best Picture</a> nomination was criticised by the media. Beginning in 2010, the <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Motion_Picture_Arts_and_Sciences">Academy</a> increased their Best Picture nominees from five to ten, a change known as "The Dark Knight Rule".<sup><a href="#cite_note-91">[88]</a></sup> Nolan received many <a href="/wiki/List_of_accolades_received_by_The_Dark_Knight">awards and nominations</a> for his work on the film.<sup><a href="#cite_note-nytimesawards-40">[39]</a></sup>
</p><p>The success of <i>The Dark Knight</i> allowed Warner Bros. to sign Nolan to write, direct and co-produce <i><a href="/wiki/Inception">Inception</a></i> (2010) – a film for which he had the idea around nine years before its release.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGowan2012147-92">[89]</a></sup> Nolan described the film as "a contemporary sci-fi actioner set within the architecture of the mind".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Tackles-93">[90]</a></sup> Starring a large ensemble cast led by <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_DiCaprio">Leonardo DiCaprio</a>, the film became a critical and commercial success upon its release.<sup><a href="#cite_note-94">[91]</a></sup> Film critic <a href="/wiki/Mark_Kermode">Mark Kermode</a> named it the best film of 2010, stating "<i>Inception</i> is proof that people are not stupid, that cinema is not trash, and that it is possible for blockbusters and art to be the same thing."<sup><a href="#cite_note-Kermode-95">[92]</a></sup> Philosophy professor <a href="/wiki/David_Kyle_Johnson">David Kyle Johnson</a> wrote that "<i>Inception</i> became a classic almost as soon as it was projected on silver screens", praising its exploration of philosophical ideas, including <a href="/wiki/Leap_of_faith">leap of faith</a> and <a href="/wiki/Allegory_of_the_cave">allegory of the cave</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson20202-96">[93]</a></sup> The film grossed over $836 million worldwide.<sup><a href="#cite_note-97">[94]</a></sup> Nominated for eight Academy Awards—including Best Picture and <a href="/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Original_Screenplay">Best Original Screenplay</a>—it won <a href="/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Cinematography">Best Cinematography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Sound">Best Sound Mixing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Sound_Editing">Best Sound Editing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Visual_Effects">Best Visual Effects</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Academy_Awards_2010_(83rd)-98">[95]</a></sup> Nolan was also nominated for a <a href="/wiki/BAFTA_Award_for_Best_Direction">BAFTA Award</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Golden_Globe_Award_for_Best_Director">Golden Globe Award for Best Director</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_accolades_received_by_Inception">among other accolades</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-nytimesawards-40">[39]</a></sup>
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<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Christopher_Nolan,_London,_2013_(crop).jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Around the release of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Dark_Knight_Rises">The Dark Knight Rises</a></i> (2012), Nolan's third and final Batman film, Joseph Bevan of the <a href="/wiki/British_Film_Institute">British Film Institute</a> wrote a profile on him: "In the space of just over a decade, Christopher Nolan has shot from promising British indie director to undisputed master of a new brand of intelligent escapism."<sup><a href="#cite_note-bevan-99">[96]</a></sup> After initial hesitation, Nolan agreed to return to direct <i>The Dark Knight Rises</i> and worked with his brother and <a href="/wiki/David_S._Goyer">David S. Goyer</a> to develop a story that he felt would end <a href="/wiki/The_Dark_Knight_trilogy">the trilogy</a> on a high note.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENathan2022138–139-100">[97]</a></sup> The film was released to positive reviews;<sup><a href="#cite_note-101">[98]</a></sup> Kenneth Turan found the film "potent, persuasive and hypnotic" and "more than an exceptional superhero movie, it is masterful filmmaking by any standard".<sup><a href="#cite_note-102">[99]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Christy_Lemire">Christy Lemire</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/HuffPost">HuffPost</a></i> wrote in her review that Nolan concluded his trilogy in a "typically spectacular, ambitious fashion", but disliked the "overloaded" story and excessive grimness.<sup><a href="#cite_note-103">[100]</a></sup> <i>The Dark Knight Rises</i> was a box office success, becoming the thirteenth film to gross $1 billion.<sup><a href="#cite_note-104">[101]</a></sup> During a midnight showing of the film in <a href="/wiki/Aurora,_Colorado">Aurora, Colorado</a>, <a href="/wiki/2012_Aurora,_Colorado_shooting">a gunman opened fire inside the theatre</a>, killing 12 people and injuring 58 others.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoole_et_al.2013147–148-105">[102]</a></sup> Nolan released a statement expressing his condolences for the victims of what he described as a "senseless tragedy".<sup><a href="#cite_note-106">[103]</a></sup>
</p><p><i>The Dark Knight</i> trilogy inspired a trend in future superhero films seeking to replicate its gritty, realistic tone to little success. The second installment in particular revitalised the genre at a time when recent superhero films had failed to meet expectations.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Child2015-107">[104]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-108">[105]</a></sup> Ben Child of <i>The Guardian</i> wrote that the three films "will remain thrilling totems of the genre for decades to come".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Child2015-107">[104]</a></sup> During story discussions for <i>The Dark Knight Rises</i>, Goyer told Nolan of his idea about <i><a href="/wiki/Man_of_Steel_(film)">Man of Steel</a></i> (2013), which the latter would produce.<sup><a href="#cite_note-109">[106]</a></sup> Impressed with <a href="/wiki/Zack_Snyder">Zack Snyder</a>'s work in <i><a href="/wiki/300_(film)">300</a></i> (2006) and <i><a href="/wiki/Watchmen_(film)">Watchmen</a></i> (2009), Nolan hired him to direct the film.<sup><a href="#cite_note-110">[107]</a></sup> Starring <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cavill">Henry Cavill</a> as <a href="/wiki/Superman_(DC_Extended_Universe)">Clark Kent</a> who learns that he is a powerful alien, <i>Man of Steel</i> received mixed reviews and grossed more than $660 million against a budget of $220 million.<sup><a href="#cite_note-111">[108]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-112">[109]</a></sup>
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<h3>2014–2019: <i>Interstellar</i>, <i>Dunkirk</i> and other activities[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christopher_Nolan&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5">edit</a>]</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Jonathan_Nolan_by_Gage_Skidmore.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Nolan and his younger brother, <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Nolan">Jonathan</a> (<i>pictured</i> in 2017), wrote several screenplays together, including for <i>Interstellar</i>.</p></div></div>
<p>Nolan next directed, wrote and produced the science-fiction film <i><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_(film)">Interstellar</a></i> (2014). The first drafts of the script were written by Jonathan Nolan, and it was originally to be directed by <a href="/wiki/Steven_Spielberg">Steven Spielberg</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENathan2022160–161-113">[110]</a></sup> Based on the scientific theories of <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physicist">theoretical physicist</a> <a href="/wiki/Kip_Thorne">Kip Thorne</a>, the film follows a group of <a href="/wiki/Astronaut">astronauts</a> who travel through a <a href="/wiki/Wormhole">wormhole</a> in search of a new home for humanity.<sup><a href="#cite_note-114">[111]</a></sup> In a 2014 discussion of the film's physics, Nolan expressed his admiration for <a href="/wiki/Scientific_objectivity">scientific objectivity</a>, wishing it were applied "in every aspect of our civilisation".<sup><a href="#cite_note-ThorneNolan-115">[112]</a></sup> <i>Interstellar</i> – starring <a href="/wiki/Matthew_McConaughey">Matthew McConaughey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anne_Hathaway">Anne Hathaway</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jessica_Chastain">Jessica Chastain</a> – was released to positive reviews and grossed $773 million worldwide.<sup><a href="#cite_note-116">[113]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-117">[114]</a></sup> Observing its "visual dazzle, thematic ambition", <i>The New York Times</i>'s <a href="/wiki/A._O._Scott">A. O. Scott</a> wrote that <i>Interstellar</i> is a "sweeping, futuristic adventure driven by grief, dread and regret".<sup><a href="#cite_note-118">[115]</a></sup> Documentary filmmaker <a href="/wiki/Toni_Myers">Toni Myers</a> called the film "a real work of art" and praised it for exploring a story spanning multiple generations.<sup><a href="#cite_note-119">[116]</a></sup> <i>Interstellar</i> was particularly praised for its scientific accuracy, which led to the publication of two <a href="/wiki/Scientific_papers">academic papers</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames_et_al.2015a-120">[117]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames_et_al.2015b-121">[118]</a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Physics">American Journal of Physics</a></i> called for it to be shown in school science lessons.<sup><a href="#cite_note-122">[119]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames_et_al.2015b486-123">[120]</a></sup> At the <a href="/wiki/87th_Academy_Awards">87th Academy Awards</a>, the film won Best Visual Effects and received four other nominations.<sup><a href="#cite_note-124">[121]</a></sup> Also in 2014, Nolan and Emma Thomas served as executive producers on <i><a href="/wiki/Transcendence_(2014_film)">Transcendence</a></i>, the directorial debut of his longtime cinematographer <a href="/wiki/Wally_Pfister">Wally Pfister</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-125">[122]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the mid-2010s, Nolan took part in several ventures for film preservation and distribution of the work of lesser-known filmmakers. His production company, Syncopy, formed a joint venture with <a href="/wiki/Zeitgeist_Films">Zeitgeist Films</a> to release <a href="/wiki/Blu-ray">Blu-ray</a> editions of Zeitgeist's films.<sup><a href="#cite_note-126">[123]</a></sup> As part of the Blu-ray release of the animation films of the <a href="/wiki/Brothers_Quay">Brothers Quay</a>, Nolan directed the documentary short <i><a href="/wiki/Quay_(film)">Quay</a></i> (2015). He also initiated a theatrical tour, showcasing the Quays' <i><a href="/wiki/In_Absentia_(film)">In Absentia</a></i>, <i>The Comb</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Street_of_Crocodiles">Street of Crocodiles</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/IndieWire">IndieWire</a> wrote that the brothers "will undoubtedly have hundreds, if not thousands more fans because of Nolan, and for that <i>The Quay Brothers in 35mm</i> will always be one of [the] latter's most important contributions to cinema".<sup><a href="#cite_note-127">[124]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-128">[125]</a></sup> An advocate for the survival of the analogue medium, Nolan and visual artist <a href="/wiki/Tacita_Dean">Tacita Dean</a> invited representatives from leading American film archives, laboratories and presenting institutions to participate in an informal summit entitled <i>Reframing the Future of Film</i> at the <a href="/wiki/J._Paul_Getty_Museum">Getty Museum</a> in March 2015.<sup><a href="#cite_note-filmvsdigital_2-129">[126]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-130">[127]</a></sup> Subsequent events were held at <a href="/wiki/Tate_Modern">Tate Modern</a> in London, <a href="/wiki/Museo_Rufino_Tamayo,_Mexico_City">Museo Tamayo</a> in Mexico City and <a href="/wiki/Tata_Theatre">Tata Theatre</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mumbai">Mumbai</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-131">[128]</a></sup> In April 2015, Nolan joined the board of directors of <a href="/wiki/The_Film_Foundation">The Film Foundation</a>, a non-profitable organisation dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Film_preservation">film preservation</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-132">[129]</a></sup> and was appointed, along with Martin Scorsese, by the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress">Library of Congress</a> to serve on the <a href="/wiki/National_Film_Preservation_Board">National Film Preservation Board</a> as DGA representatives.<sup><a href="#cite_note-133">[130]</a></sup> Nolan also serves on the <a href="/wiki/Motion_Picture_%26_Television_Fund">Motion Picture &amp; Television Fund</a> Board of Governors.<sup><a href="#cite_note-134">[131]</a></sup>
</p><p>After serving as an executive producer on Zack Snyder's <i><a href="/wiki/Batman_v_Superman:_Dawn_of_Justice">Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice</a></i> (2016) and <i><a href="/wiki/Justice_League_(film)">Justice League</a></i> (2017),<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENathan2022246-135">[132]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENathan2022247-136">[133]</a></sup> Nolan returned to directing with <i><a href="/wiki/Dunkirk_(2017_film)">Dunkirk</a></i> (2017). Based on his own original screenplay and co-produced with Thomas, the film is set amid World War II in 1940 and the <a href="/wiki/Dunkirk_evacuation">evacuation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II">Allied</a> soldiers from the beaches of <a href="/wiki/Dunkirk">Dunkirk</a>, France. Describing the film as a survival tale with a <a href="/wiki/Triptych">triptych</a> structure, Nolan wanted to make a "sensory, almost experimental movie" with minimal dialogue.<sup><a href="#cite_note-137">[134]</a></sup> He said he waited to make <i>Dunkirk</i> until he had earned the trust of a major studio to let him make it as a British film but with an American budget.<sup><a href="#cite_note-138">[135]</a></sup> Before filming, Nolan sought advice from Spielberg, who later said in an interview with <i><a href="/wiki/Variety_(magazine)">Variety</a></i>, "knowing and respecting that Chris [Nolan] is one of the world's most imaginative filmmakers, my advice to him was to leave his imagination, as I did on <i><a href="/wiki/Saving_Private_Ryan">Ryan</a></i>, in second position to the research he was doing to authentically acquit this historical drama".<sup><a href="#cite_note-LangVariety-139">[136]</a></sup> Starring an ensemble cast,<sup><a href="#cite_note-140">[137]</a></sup> <i>Dunkirk</i> was released to widespread critical acclaim and strong box office results.<sup><a href="#cite_note-141">[138]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-142">[139]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-143">[140]</a></sup> It grossed over $526 million worldwide, making it the highest-grossing World War II film of all time.<sup><a href="#cite_note-144">[141]</a></sup> In his review, <a href="/wiki/Mick_LaSalle">Mick LaSalle</a> of the <i><a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_Chronicle">San Francisco Chronicle</a></i> wrote: "It's one of the best <a href="/wiki/War_film">war films</a> ever made, distinct in its look, in its approach and in the effect it has on viewers. There are movies—they are rare—that lift you out of your present circumstances and immerse you so fully in another experience that you watch in a state of jaw-dropped awe. <i>Dunkirk</i> is that kind of movie."<sup><a href="#cite_note-145">[142]</a></sup> The film received <a href="/wiki/List_of_accolades_received_by_Dunkirk">many accolades</a>, including Nolan's first Oscar nomination for <a href="/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Director">Best Director</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Sharf-2020-146">[143]</a></sup>
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<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Cannes_2018_4.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>In 2018, Nolan supervised a new <a href="/wiki/70_mm_film">70 mm</a> print of <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Kubrick">Stanley Kubrick</a>'s <i>2001: A Space Odyssey</i> (1968), made from the <a href="/wiki/Original_camera_negative">original camera negative</a>; he presented it at the <a href="/wiki/2018_Cannes_Film_Festival">2018 Cannes Film Festival</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElsaesser202043-147">[144]</a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/USA_Today">USA Today</a></i> observed that festival-goers greeted the director "like a rock star with a standing ovation".<sup><a href="#cite_note-148">[145]</a></sup> A year later, Nolan and Thomas received executive producer credits on <i>The Doll's Breath</i> (2019), an animated short directed by the Quay brothers.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Quay-Doll-149">[146]</a></sup>
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<h3>2020–present: <i>Tenet</i> and <i>Oppenheimer</i>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christopher_Nolan&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6">edit</a>]</h3>
<p>The science fiction film <i><a href="/wiki/Tenet_(film)">Tenet</a></i> (2020) – described by <a href="/wiki/Tom_Shone">Tom Shone</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Sunday_Times">The Sunday Times</a></i> as "a globe-spinning riff on all things Nolanesque" – was his next directorial effort.<sup><a href="#cite_note-150">[147]</a></sup> Nolan had worked on the screenplay for more than five years after deliberating about its central ideas for over a decade.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Maytum-Jun2020-151">[148]</a></sup> Delayed three times due to the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a>, <i>Tenet</i> was the first Hollywood <a href="/wiki/Tent-pole_(entertainment)">tent-pole</a> to open in theatres after the pandemic shutdown.<sup><a href="#cite_note-152">[149]</a></sup> The film tells the story of an unnamed protagonist (played by <a href="/wiki/John_David_Washington">John David Washington</a>) who travels through time to stop a world-threatening attack.<sup><a href="#cite_note-153">[150]</a></sup> It grossed $363 million worldwide against a production budget of $200 million, becoming Nolan's first to underperform at the box-office.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENathan2022199-154">[151]</a></sup> <i>Tenet</i> was described as the most polarising effort of his career; critics praised the direction but found its story confusing.<sup><a href="#cite_note-155">[152]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Sharf-2020-146">[143]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Peter_Bradshaw">Peter Bradshaw</a> of <i>The Guardian</i> awarded the film a full five stars, calling it "a cerebral <a href="/wiki/Cadenza">cadenza</a>, a deadpan flourish of crazy implausibility—but supercharged with steroidal energy and imagination".<sup><a href="#cite_note-156">[153]</a></sup> Leslie Felperin of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hollywood_Reporter">The Hollywood Reporter</a></i> described it as "a chilly, cerebral film—easy to admire, especially since it's so rich in audacity and originality, but almost impossible to love, lacking as it is in a certain humanity".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Felperin-2020-157">[154]</a></sup> At the <a href="/wiki/93rd_Academy_Awards">93rd Academy Awards</a>, the film won Best Visual Effects and was nominated for <a href="/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Production_Design">Best Production Design</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-158">[155]</a></sup> Following the release of <i>Tenet</i>, Nolan joined the Advisory Board of the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Motion_Picture_and_Television_Engineers">Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-159">[156]</a></sup> He served as an executive producer on <i><a href="/wiki/Zack_Snyder%27s_Justice_League">Zack Snyder's Justice League</a></i> (2021), a <a href="/wiki/Director%27s_cut">director's cut</a> of 2017's <i>Justice League</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-160">[157]</a></sup>
</p><p>Nolan's twelfth directorial venture will be <i><a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_(film)">Oppenheimer</a></i> (2023), a biopic based on <a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer">J. Robert Oppenheimer</a> (played by <a href="/wiki/Cillian_Murphy">Cillian Murphy</a>) and his role in the development of the <a href="/wiki/Atom_bomb">atom bomb</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENathan2022216-161">[158]</a></sup> The film will be financed and distributed by <a href="/wiki/Universal_Pictures">Universal Pictures</a>, making it Nolan's first since <i>Memento</i> that was not made for Warner Bros. He was disillusioned with the latter's decision to simultaneously release their films in theatres and on <a href="/wiki/HBO_Max">HBO Max</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-162">[159]</a></sup> Nolan secured the deal with Universal after he was promised a production budget of around $100 million with an equal marketing budget, total creative control, 20 per cent of <a href="/wiki/First-dollar_gross">first-dollar gross</a>, a 100-day theatrical window and a blackout period from the studio wherein the company would not release another film three weeks before or after <i>Oppenheimer</i>'s release.<sup><a href="#cite_note-163">[160]</a></sup>
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<h2>Personal life and image[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christopher_Nolan&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Christopher_Nolan_and_Emma_Thomas.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Nolan is married to Emma Thomas, whom he met at University College London when he was 19.<sup><a href="#cite_note-telegraph-8">[8]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-British_Cinematographer_pt2-16">[15]</a></sup> She has worked as a producer on all of his films since 1997.<sup><a href="#cite_note-syncopy-43">[42]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-164">[161]</a></sup> The couple have four children and reside in Los Angeles.<sup><a href="#cite_note-165">[162]</a></sup>
</p><p>Rarely granting promotional interviews about his films, Nolan prefers to maintain a certain level of mystery about his work.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJoy20153-166">[163]</a></sup> Refusing to discuss his personal life,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Lewis-Kraus-167">[164]</a></sup> he feels that too much biographical information about a filmmaker detracts from the experience of his audiences. "I actually don't want people to have me in mind at all when they're watching the films." Author Stuart Joy felt that Nolan's unwillingness to talk about his personal life shows a desire for control, one of the recurring themes in his work.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJoy20153-166">[163]</a></sup> 
</p><p>Nolan was physically assaulted by fellow filmmaker <a href="/wiki/David_O._Russell">David O. Russell</a> in 2003 at a party in Hollywood. The latter reportedly put Nolan in a headlock and wrapped his arm around Nolan's neck.<sup><a href="#cite_note-168">[165]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-169">[166]</a></sup>
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<h2>Filmmaking style[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christopher_Nolan&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Nolan's films are majorly centred in <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> themes, exploring the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Time">time</a>, <a href="/wiki/Memory">memory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Personal_identity">personal identity</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoh20224,_76-170">[167]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlouin2013145–146,_149-171">[168]</a></sup> His work is characterised by <a href="/wiki/Mathematics_and_art">mathematically inspired</a> ideas and images, unconventional <a href="/wiki/Nonlinear_narrative">narrative structures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Materialism">materialistic</a> perspectives, and evocative use of music and sound.<sup><a href="#cite_note-176">[d]</a></sup> Filmmaker <a href="/wiki/Guillermo_del_Toro">Guillermo del Toro</a> called Nolan "an emotional mathematician".<sup><a href="#cite_note-177">[173]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/BBC">BBC</a>'s arts editor <a href="/wiki/Will_Gompertz">Will Gompertz</a> described him as "an art house auteur making intellectually ambitious blockbuster movies that can leave your pulse racing and your head spinning".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Gompertz-20-178">[174]</a></sup> Joseph Bevan wrote, "His films allow arthouse regulars to enjoy superhero flicks and multiplex crowds to engage with labyrinthine plot conceits."<sup><a href="#cite_note-bevan-99">[96]</a></sup> Nolan views himself as "an indie filmmaker working inside the studio system".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMolloy201340-179">[175]</a></sup>
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<div>
<blockquote>
<p>"Christopher Nolan doesn't make sense. And that is exactly how he likes it. In twenty-three years and through twelve films, he has defied the laws of Hollywood by creating startling, original genre pieces that have revelled in their own complexity, confounding every maxim by which the studios hope to appeal to the widest audience. And yet he does that too. Cinemas fill on the possibility of the next Nolan film. Whatever form it might take."
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</blockquote>
<p><cite>—Film author Ian Nathan on Nolan as a filmmaker (2022)<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENathan20225-180">[176]</a></sup></cite>
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<p>In the sixteen-essay book <i>The Philosophy of Christopher Nolan</i>, professional philosophers and writers analysed Nolan's work; they identified themes of self-destruction, the nature and value of the truth, and the political mindset of the hero and villain, among others.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELB2017Description-181">[177]</a></sup> Robbie B. H. Goh, a professor of English literature, described Nolan as a "philosophical filmmaker" who includes philosophical ideas—<a href="/wiki/Existentialism">existentialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morality">morality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epistemology">epistemology</a> and the distinction between appearance and reality—in films that frequently portray suspense, action and violence. Goh appreciated his ability to incorporate such themes in films that possess "elements of the Hollywood blockbuster"—which help keep the audiences engaged—but simultaneously remain "more thoughtful and self-reflexive than the typical consumerist action film".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoh20221–4-182">[178]</a></sup> He further wrote that Nolan's body of work reflect "a heterogeneity of conditions of products" extending from low-budget films to lucrative blockbusters, "a wide range of genres and settings" and "a diversity of styles that trumpet his versatility".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoh202212–13-183">[179]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/David_Bordwell">David Bordwell</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Film_theory">film theorist</a>, opined that Nolan has been able to blend his "experimental impulses" with the demands of mainstream entertainment, describing his oeuvre as "experiments with cinematic time by means of techniques of subjective viewpoint and crosscutting".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Bordwell2019-184">[180]</a></sup> Nolan's use of practical, in-camera effects, miniatures and models, as well as shooting on celluloid film, has been highly influential in early <a href="/wiki/Hollywood_cinema_in_21st_century">21st century cinema</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJoy20157-185">[181]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-IndieW-19-186">[182]</a></sup> IndieWire wrote in 2019 that the director "kept a viable alternate model of big-budget filmmaking alive" in an era where blockbuster filmmaking has become "a largely computer-generated art form".<sup><a href="#cite_note-IndieW-19-186">[182]</a></sup> Because of Nolan's deep involvement in the technical facet of his films, Stuart Joy described him as a "complete filmmaker" who "oversees all aspects of production while also managing cultural and industrial factors outside of the text".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJoy20156-187">[183]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Recognition[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christopher_Nolan&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9">edit</a>]</h2>
<p>Nolan has made some of the most influential and popular films of his time.<sup><a href="#cite_note-192">[e]</a></sup> Many of his films have been regarded by critics as among the best of their respective decades,<sup><a href="#cite_note-Metadecade-42">[41]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-193">[188]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-194">[189]</a></sup> and according to <i>The Wall Street Journal</i>, his "ability to combine box-office success with artistic ambition has given him an extraordinary amount of clout in the industry".<sup><a href="#cite_note-195">[190]</a></sup> His films have earned $5 billion.<sup><a href="#cite_note-196">[191]</a></sup> Nolan's films <i>Memento</i> and <i>The Dark Knight</i> have been selected by the US Library of Congress to be preserved in the <a href="/wiki/National_Film_Registry">National Film Registry</a> for being "culturally, historically or aesthetically" significant.<sup><a href="#cite_note-NFR1-197">[192]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-NFR2-198">[193]</a></sup> These films and <i>Inception</i> appeared in <a href="/wiki/BBC%27s_100_Greatest_Films_of_the_21st_Century">BBC's 100 Greatest Films of the 21st Century</a> and <i>The Hollywood Reporter</i>'s poll of best films ever made.<sup><a href="#cite_note-199">[194]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-200">[195]</a></sup> In 2017, <i>The Dark Knight</i>, <i>Inception</i> and <i>Interstellar</i> featured in <i><a href="/wiki/Empire_(film_magazine)">Empire</a></i> magazine's poll of "The 100 Greatest Movies".<sup><a href="#cite_note-201">[196]</a></sup> In 2018, <i>The Hollywood Reporter</i> listed Nolan as one of the 100 most powerful people in entertainment and described him as a "franchise unto himself".<sup><a href="#cite_note-202">[197]</a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Parade_(magazine)">Parade</a></i> ranked Nolan number eight in its 2022 list of 75 Best Movie Directors of All Time.<sup><a href="#cite_note-203">[198]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:National_Film_Registry_logo_vector.svg"></a></p></div>
<p>Nolan's work has been as "intensely embraced, analysed and debated by ordinary film fans as by critics and film academics".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Lewis-Kraus-167">[164]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Descriptions-204">[199]</a></sup> Calling him "a persuasively inventive storyteller", <a href="/wiki/Geoff_Andrew">Geoff Andrew</a> of the British Film Institute named Nolan one of the few contemporary filmmakers producing highly personal films within the Hollywood mainstream. Andrew wrote that Nolan's films are "not so much [notable] for their considerable technical virtuosity and visual flair as for their brilliant narrative ingenuity and their unusually adult interest in complex philosophical questions".<sup><a href="#cite_note-205">[200]</a></sup> David Bordwell observed that Nolan is "considered one of the most accomplished living filmmakers", citing his ability to turn genre movies into both art and event films, as well as his box office numbers, critical acclaim and popularity among cinemagoers.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Bordwell2019-184">[180]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-BordwellDunkirk-206">[201]</a></sup> In 2008, Philip French deemed Nolan "the first major talent to emerge this [21st] century".<sup><a href="#cite_note-French-50-207">[202]</a></sup> Mark Kermode complimented Nolan for bringing "the discipline and ethics of art-house independent moviemaking and apply[ing] them to Hollywood blockbusters. He's living proof that you don't have to appeal to the lowest common denominator to be profitable".<sup><a href="#cite_note-208">[203]</a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Observer">The Observer</a></i>'s Ryan Gilbey described Nolan as a "skillful, stylish storyteller, capable of combining the spectacle of Spielberg with the intellectual intricacy of <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Roeg">Nicolas Roeg</a> or <a href="/wiki/Alain_Resnais">Alain Resnais</a>".<sup><a href="#cite_note-Observer17-209">[204]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mark_Cousins_(film_critic)">Mark Cousins</a> applauded Nolan for embracing big ideas, "Hollywood filmmakers generally shy away from ideas—but not Christopher Nolan".<sup><a href="#cite_note-210">[205]</a></sup> Scott Foundas of <i>Variety</i> declared Nolan "the premier big-canvas storyteller of his generation",<sup><a href="#cite_note-211">[206]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Justin_Chang">Justin Chang</a> of the <i>Los Angeles Times</i> called him "the great <a href="/wiki/Proceduralist">proceduralist</a> of 21st century blockbuster filmmaking, a lover of nuts-and-bolts minutiae".<sup><a href="#cite_note-212">[207]</a></sup>
</p><p>Nolan has been praised by many of his contemporaries, and his work has influenced them.<sup><a href="#cite_note-213">[208]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-214">[209]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-215">[210]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Branagh">Kenneth Branagh</a> called Nolan's approach to large-scale filmmaking "unique in modern cinema", adding, "regardless of how popular his movies become, he remains an artist and an auteur. I think for that reason he has become a heroic figure for both the audience and the people working behind the camera."<sup><a href="#cite_note-216">[211]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Mann_(director)">Michael Mann</a> complimented Nolan for his "singular vision" and credited with "invent[ing] the post-heroic superhero".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShone202019–20-217">[212]</a></sup> Nicolas Roeg said of Nolan, "People talk about 'commercial art' and the term is usually self-negating; Nolan works in the commercial arena and yet there's something very poetic about his work."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShone202020-218">[213]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Martin_Scorsese">Martin Scorsese</a> identified Nolan as a filmmaker creating "beautifully made films on a big scale".<sup><a href="#cite_note-219">[214]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Damien_Chazelle">Damien Chazelle</a> lauded Nolan for his ability "to make the most seemingly impersonal projects—superhero epics, deep-space mind-benders—feel deeply personal".<sup><a href="#cite_note-220">[215]</a></sup> Discussing the difference between <a href="/wiki/Art_film">art films</a> and big studio blockbusters, <a href="/wiki/Steven_Spielberg">Steven Spielberg</a> referred to Nolan's <i>Dark Knight</i> series as an example of both;<sup><a href="#cite_note-221">[216]</a></sup> he has described <i>Memento</i> and <i>Inception</i> as "masterworks".<sup><a href="#cite_note-TIE-222">[217]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Denis_Villeneuve">Denis Villeneuve</a> was impressed by Nolan's ability "to keep his identity and create his own universe in that large scope ... To bring intellectual concepts and to bring them in that scope to the screen right now—it's very rare. Every movie that he comes out with, I have more admiration for his work."<sup><a href="#cite_note-223">[218]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/James_Cameron">James Cameron</a> expressed disappointment that Nolan was not nominated for an Academy Award as Best Director for <i>Inception</i>, calling it "the most astounding piece of film creation and direction of the year, hands down".<sup><a href="#cite_note-TIE-222">[217]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Filmography[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christopher_Nolan&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Following">Following</a></i> (1998)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Memento_(film)">Memento</a></i> (2000)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Insomnia_(2002_film)">Insomnia</a></i> (2002)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Batman_Begins">Batman Begins</a></i> (2005)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Prestige_(film)">The Prestige</a></i> (2006)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Dark_Knight">The Dark Knight</a></i> (2008)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Inception">Inception</a></i> (2010)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Dark_Knight_Rises">The Dark Knight Rises</a></i> (2012)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_(film)">Interstellar</a></i> (2014)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Dunkirk_(2017_film)">Dunkirk</a></i> (2017)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Tenet_(film)">Tenet</a></i> (2020)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_(film)">Oppenheimer</a></i> (2023)</li></ul>
<h2>Awards and honours[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christopher_Nolan&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Christopher_Nolan_TCL.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Nolan has been nominated for five <a href="/wiki/Academy_Award">Academy Awards</a>, five <a href="/wiki/British_Academy_Film_Awards">British Academy Film Awards</a> and six <a href="/wiki/Golden_Globe_Award">Golden Globe Awards</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-nytimesawards-40">[39]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENathan2022197-224">[219]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-225">[220]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-226">[221]</a></sup> Nolan was named an Honorary Fellow of UCL in 2006,<sup><a href="#cite_note-227">[222]</a></sup> and conferred an <a href="/wiki/Honorary_degree">honorary doctorate</a> in literature in 2017.<sup><a href="#cite_note-228">[223]</a></sup> From 2011 to 2014, he appeared in <a href="/wiki/Forbes_Celebrity_100"><i>Forbes</i> Celebrity 100</a> list based on his income and popularity.<sup><a href="#cite_note-229">[224]</a></sup> In 2012, he became the youngest director to receive a hand-and-footprint ceremony at <a href="/wiki/Grauman%27s_Chinese_Theatre">Grauman's Chinese Theatre</a> in Los Angeles.<sup><a href="#cite_note-230">[225]</a></sup> Nolan appeared in <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)">Time</a></i>'s <a href="/wiki/Time_100">100 most influential people in the world</a> in 2015.<sup><a href="#cite_note-231">[226]</a></sup> He was appointed Commander of the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_British_Empire">Order of the British Empire</a> in the <a href="/wiki/2019_New_Year_Honours">2019 New Year Honours</a> for services to film.<sup><a href="#cite_note-232">[227]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Notes[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christopher_Nolan&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b> Nolan has continued his collaboration with the Belic brothers, receiving a credit for his editorial assistance on their Oscar-nominated documentary <i><a href="/wiki/Genghis_Blues">Genghis Blues</a></i> (1999).<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMooney2018156-10">[10]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b> The name of the company is derived from <a href="/wiki/Syncope_(medicine)">syncope</a>, a medical term for fainting. Sorcha Ní Fhlainn, a lecturer specialising in film studies, alluded this wordplay to Nolan's style of "disorientation" in his work. She also associated the name with synthetic and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard">Jean Baudrillard</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Treatise">treatise</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Simulacra_and_Simulation">Simulacra and Simulation</a></i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENí_Fhlainn2015161-44">[43]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b> Attributed to multiple references<sup><a href="#cite_note-Metadecade-42">[41]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Paste-80">[78]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Empiredecade-81">[79]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-82">[80]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-83">[81]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b> Attributed to multiple references<sup><a href="#cite_note-172">[169]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-Shone2014-173">[170]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-174">[171]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-175">[172]</a></sup>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a></b> Attributed to multiple references<sup><a href="#cite_note-188">[184]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-189">[185]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-190">[186]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-191">[187]</a></sup>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2>References[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christopher_Nolan&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13">edit</a>]</h2>
<div><ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101122213601/http://filmlondon.org.uk/news/2010/july/nolans_mind_games">"Nolan's Mind Games"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Film_London">Film London</a>. 14 July 2010. Archived from <a href="http://filmlondon.org.uk/news/2010/july/nolans_mind_games">the original</a> on 22 November 2010. Retrieved 11 August 2010.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENathan202212–13_2-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFNathan2022">Nathan 2022</a>, pp. 12–13.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMooney20184_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMooney20184_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFMooney2018">Mooney 2018</a>, p. 4.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENathan2022116,_159_4-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFNathan2022">Nathan 2022</a>, pp. 116, 159.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENathan2022159_5-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFNathan2022">Nathan 2022</a>, p. 159.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENathan202211,_16_6-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFNathan2022">Nathan 2022</a>, pp. 11, 16.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b> <cite>Purcell, Andrew (4 November 2014). <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/movies/christopher-nolans-interstellar-brings-back-the-spielbergstyle-family-blockbuster-20141104-11gjqp.html">"Christopher Nolan's Interstellar brings back the Spielberg-style family blockbuster"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Sydney_Morning_Herald">The Sydney Morning Herald</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221209185721/https://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/movies/christopher-nolans-interstellar-brings-back-the-spielbergstyle-family-blockbuster-20141104-11gjqp.html">Archived</a> from the original on 9 December 2022. Retrieved 9 December 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-telegraph_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-telegraph_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Lawrence, Will (19 July 2012). <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/filmmakersonfilm/7894376/Christopher-Nolan-interview-for-Inception.html">"Christopher Nolan interview for <i>Inception</i>"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph">The Daily Telegraph</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131117141943/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/filmmakersonfilm/7894376/Christopher-Nolan-interview-for-Inception.html">Archived</a> from the original on 17 November 2013. Retrieved 3 January 2014.</cite> (subscription required)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShone202026_9-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFShone2020">Shone 2020</a>, p. 26.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMooney2018156_10-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMooney2018">Mooney 2018</a>, p. 156.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMooney20185_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMooney20185_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFMooney2018">Mooney 2018</a>, p. 5.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShone202048_13-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFShone2020">Shone 2020</a>, p. 48.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMooney20186_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMooney20186_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMooney20186_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFMooney2018">Mooney 2018</a>, p. 6.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tempest_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tempest_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tempest_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Tempest, Matthew (24 February 2011). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131005100119/http://www.theguardian.com/film/filmblog/2011/feb/24/inception-christopher-nolan-film-oscar-director">"I was there at the <i>Inception</i> of Christopher Nolan's film career"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>. Archived from <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/film/filmblog/2011/feb/24/inception-christopher-nolan-film-oscar-director">the original</a> on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 21 September 2011.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-British_Cinematographer_pt2_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-British_Cinematographer_pt2_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120411005825/http://www.thecinematographer.info/articles/18-wally-pfister.html">"Wally Pfister ASC on Christopher Nolan's <i>Inception</i>"</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Cinematographers">American Society of Cinematographers</a>. 2010. Archived from <a href="http://www.thecinematographer.info/articles/18-wally-pfister.html">the original</a> on 11 April 2012. Retrieved 12 February 2013.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Feinberg_17-0">^</a></b> <cite>Feinberg, Scott (3 January 2015). <a href="https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/race/christopher-nolan-interstellar-critics-making-760897">"Christopher Nolan on <i>Interstellar</i> Critics, Making Original Films and Shunning Cell Phones and Email (Q&amp;A)"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hollywood_Reporter">The Hollywood Reporter</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180117111636/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/race/christopher-nolan-interstellar-critics-making-760897">Archived</a> from the original on 17 January 2018. Retrieved 1 February 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b81581f07">"<i>Fearville</i> (1997)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/British_Film_Institute">British Film Institute</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171107104214/http://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b81581f07">Archived</a> from the original on 7 November 2017. Retrieved 1 February 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENathan202234_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENathan202234_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFNathan2022">Nathan 2022</a>, p. 34.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924064331/http://www.empireonline.com/interviews/interview.asp?IID=1052">"Christopher Nolan: The Movies. The Memories"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Empire_(magazine)">Empire</a></i>. No. 253. Archived from <a href="https://www.empireonline.com/interviews/interview.asp?IID=1052">the original</a> on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 12 February 2013.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~uczxflm/productions/archive/9495">"UCLU Film Society, London"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_College_London">University College London</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120810232748/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~uczxflm/productions/archive/9495/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 August 2012. Retrieved 12 February 2013.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-independent_22-0">^</a></b> <cite>Hooton, Christopher (10 April 2017). <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/news/christopher-nolan-director-dunkirk-short-first-film-doodlebug-student-ucl-london-a7675861.html">"Christopher Nolan's student short film <i>Doodlebug</i> shows the <i>Dunkirk</i> director's humble beginnings"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Independent">The Independent</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190722194629/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/news/christopher-nolan-director-dunkirk-short-first-film-doodlebug-student-ucl-london-a7675861.html">Archived</a> from the original on 22 July 2019. Retrieved 22 July 2019.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b> <cite>Whitington, Paul (22 August 2020). <a href="https://www.independent.ie/entertainment/movies/how-christopher-nolan-has-held-true-to-his-sweeping-vision-with-tenet-39466428.html">"How Christopher Nolan has held true to his sweeping vision with <i>Tenet</i>"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Irish_Independent">Irish Independent</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221210113740/https://www.independent.ie/entertainment/movies/how-christopher-nolan-has-held-true-to-his-sweeping-vision-with-tenet-39466428.html">Archived</a> from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 10 December 2022.</cite>(subscription required)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-AndrewPulver05_24-0">^</a></b> <cite>Pulver, Andrew (15 June 2005). <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/film/2005/jun/15/features.features11">"He's not a god – he's human"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131224110327/http://www.theguardian.com/film/2005/jun/15/features.features11">Archived</a> from the original on 24 December 2013. Retrieved 23 December 2013.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENathan202220–21_25-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFNathan2022">Nathan 2022</a>, pp. 20–21.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShone2020441_26-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFShone2020">Shone 2020</a>, p. 441.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENathan202224,_42_27-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFNathan2022">Nathan 2022</a>, pp. 24, 42.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tobias_28-0">^</a></b> <cite>Tobias, Scott (5 June 2002). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131018024630/http://www.avclub.com/articles/christopher-nolan,13769/">"Interview: Christopher Nolan"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_A.V._Club">The A.V. Club</a></i>. Archived from <a href="https://www.avclub.com/christopher-nolan-1798208223">the original</a> on 18 October 2013. Retrieved 10 December 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130121013119/http://www.filmfestivalrotterdam.com/en/about/awards-and-jury/tiger-awards/previous-winners/">"Tiger Awards Competition: previous winners"</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Film_Festival_Rotterdam">International Film Festival Rotterdam</a>. Archived from <a href="http://www.filmfestivalrotterdam.com/en/about/awards-and-jury/tiger-awards/previous-winners">the original</a> on 21 January 2013. Retrieved 12 February 2013.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENathan202230–31_30-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFNathan2022">Nathan 2022</a>, pp. 30–31.
</li>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.goldenglobes.com/winners-nominees/2018">"Winners &amp; Nominees"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hollywood_Foreign_Press_Association">Hollywood Foreign Press Association</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190410155641/https://www.goldenglobes.com/winners-nominees/2018">Archived</a> from the original on 10 April 2019. Retrieved 8 December 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/about-ucl/who-we-are/honorary-fellows">"Honorary Fellows of UCL"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_College_London">University College London</a>. 2006. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160923115521/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/about-ucl/who-we-are/honorary-fellows">Archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2016. Retrieved 11 March 2013.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/campaign/campaign-news/christopher_nolan_honorary_doctorate">"Back to where it all began: Christopher Nolan awarded honorary doctorate at UCL"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_College_London">University College London</a>. 12 September 2017. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170916074807/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/campaign/campaign-news/christopher_nolan_honorary_doctorate">Archived</a> from the original on 16 September 2017. Retrieved 15 September 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.forbes.com/pictures/eidm45ek/christopher-nolan/?sh=1a1bb5a821bf">"Christopher Nolan"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Forbes">Forbes</a></i>. 16 May 2011. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221215183913/https://www.forbes.com/pictures/eidm45ek/christopher-nolan/?sh=1a1bb5a821bf">Archived</a> from the original on 15 December 2022. Retrieved 15 December 2022.</cite><br /><cite><a href="https://www.forbes.com/pictures/mfl45jjii/christopher-nolan/?sh=37e68cede3df">"Christopher Nolan"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Forbes">Forbes</a></i>. 16 May 2012. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221215183911/https://www.forbes.com/pictures/mfl45jjii/christopher-nolan/?sh=37e68cede3df">Archived</a> from the original on 15 December 2022. Retrieved 15 December 2022.</cite><br /><cite><a href="https://www.forbes.com/pictures/fimi45egge/christopher-nolan/?sh=61ce769249fc">"Christopher Nolan"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Forbes">Forbes</a></i>. 28 June 2013. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221215183911/https://www.forbes.com/pictures/fimi45egge/christopher-nolan/?sh=61ce769249fc">Archived</a> from the original on 15 December 2022. Retrieved 15 December 2022.</cite><br /><cite><a href="https://www.forbes.com/pictures/mfl45ejldm/christopher-nolan-3/?sh=269e8ede7558">"Christopher Nolan"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Forbes">Forbes</a></i>. 27 June 2014. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221215183914/https://www.forbes.com/pictures/mfl45ejldm/christopher-nolan-3/?sh=269e8ede7558">Archived</a> from the original on 15 December 2022. Retrieved 15 December 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a></b> <cite>Rome, Emily (7 July 2012). <a href="https://ew.com/article/2012/07/07/christopher-nolan-hand-and-footprint-ceremony/">"<i>The Dark Knight Rises</i>: Christopher Nolan's hand and footprint ceremony"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Entertainment_Weekly">Entertainment Weekly</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120808193929/http://insidemovies.ew.com/2012/07/07/christopher-nolan-hand-and-footprint-ceremony/">Archived</a> from the original on 8 August 2012. Retrieved 14 December 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a></b> <cite><a href="/wiki/Michael_Caine">Caine, Michael</a> (17 April 2015). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150417010758/http://time.com/3822892/christopher-nolan-2015-time-100/">"Christopher Nolan"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)">Time</a></i>. Archived from <a href="http://time.com/3822892/christopher-nolan-2015-time-100">the original</a> on 17 April 2015. Retrieved 8 December 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/62507/supplement/N24">"No. 62507"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_London_Gazette">The London Gazette</a></i> (Supplement). 29 December 2018. p. N24.</cite>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2>Cited sources[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christopher_Nolan&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14">edit</a>]</h2>
<div>
<ul><li><cite>Blouin, Michael J. (2013). "Difference and Doubt in Christopher Nolan's <i>Inception</i>". <i>Japan and the Cosmopolitan Gothic: Specters of Modernity</i>. <a href="/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan">Palgrave Macmillan</a>. pp. 143–160. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-30522-0"><bdi>978-1-137-30522-0</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>deWaard, Andrew; Tait, R. Colin (2013). <i>The Cinema of Steven Soderbergh: Indie Sex, Corporate Lies, and Digital Videotape</i>. <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press">Columbia University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-16551-8"><bdi>978-0-231-16551-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Eberl, Jason T.; Dunn, George A., eds. (2017). <i>The Philosophy of Christopher Nolan</i>. <a href="/wiki/Lexington_Books">Lexington Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-498-51352-4"><bdi>978-1-498-51352-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Elsaesser, Thomas (2020). "Stanley Kubrick's Prototypes: The Author as World-Maker". In Szaniawski, Jeremi (ed.). <i>After Kubrick: A Filmmaker's Legacy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Bloomsbury_Publishing">Bloomsbury Publishing</a>. pp. 29–51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-501-34765-8"><bdi>978-1-501-34765-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Furby, Jacqueline; Joy, Stuart, eds. (2015). <i>The Cinema of Christopher Nolan: Imagining the Impossible</i>. <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press">Columbia University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-85076-6"><bdi>978-0-231-85076-6</bdi></a>.</cite>
<ul><li><cite>Joy, Stuart (2015). "Introduction: Dreaming a Little Bigger, Darling". <i>The Cinema of Christopher Nolan: Imagining the Impossible</i>. <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press">Columbia University Press</a>. pp. 1–16.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Hill-Parks, Erin (2015). "Chapter One: Developing an Auteur Through Reviews: The Critical Surround of Christopher Nolan". <i>The Cinema of Christopher Nolan: Imagining the Impossible</i>. <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press">Columbia University Press</a>. pp. 17–30.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Ní Fhlainn, Sorcha (2015). "Chapter Ten: 'You keep telling yourself what you know, but what do you believe?': Cultural Spin, Puzzle Films and Mind Games in the Cinema of Christopher Nolan". <i>The Cinema of Christopher Nolan: Imagining the Impossible</i>. <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press">Columbia University Press</a>. pp. 147–163.</cite></li></ul></li>
<li><cite>Goh, Robbie B. H. (2022). <i>Christopher Nolan: Filmmaker and Philosopher</i>. <a href="/wiki/Bloomsbury_Publishing">Bloomsbury Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-3501-3996-1"><bdi>978-1-3501-3996-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>James, Oliver; von Tunzelmann, Eugénie; <a href="/wiki/Paul_Franklin_(visual_effects_supervisor)">Franklin, Paul</a>; <a href="/wiki/Kip_Thorne">Thorne, Kip S.</a> (2015a). <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0264-9381/32/6/065001/pdf">"Gravitational lensing by spinning black holes in astrophysics, and in the movie Interstellar"</a> (PDF). <i><a href="/wiki/Classical_and_Quantum_Gravity">Classical and Quantum Gravity</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/IOP_Publishing">IOP Publishing</a>. <b>32</b> (6): 065001. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0264-9381%2F32%2F6%2F065001">10.1088/0264-9381/32/6/065001</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221230195500/https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0264-9381/32/6/065001/pdf">Archived</a> from the original on 30 December 2022. Retrieved 30 December 2022.</cite></li>
<li><cite>James, Oliver; von Tunzelmann, Eugénie; <a href="/wiki/Paul_Franklin_(visual_effects_supervisor)">Franklin, Paul</a>; <a href="/wiki/Kip_Thorne">Thorne, Kip S.</a> (2015b). <a href="https://aapt.scitation.org/doi/pdf/10.1119/1.4916949">"Visualizing Interstellar's Wormhole"</a> (PDF). <i><a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Physics">American Journal of Physics</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/American_Association_of_Physics_Teachers">American Association of Physics Teachers</a>. <b>83</b> (6): 486–499. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.4916949">10.1119/1.4916949</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221208182118/https://aapt.scitation.org/doi/pdf/10.1119/1.4916949">Archived</a> from the original on 8 December 2022. Retrieved 8 December 2022.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/David_Kyle_Johnson">Johnson, David Kyle</a> (2020). "Inception as Philosophy: Choose Your Dreams or Seek Reality". <i>The Palgrave Handbook of Popular Culture as Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Nature">Springer Nature</a>. pp. 1–20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-97134-6_5-1">10.1007/978-3-319-97134-6_5-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-97134-6"><bdi>978-3-319-97134-6</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Koole, Sander L.; Fockenberg, Daniel; Tops, Mattie; Schneider, Iris K. (2013). "The Birth and Death of the Superhero Film". In Sullivan, Daniel; Greenberg, Jeff (eds.). <i>Death in Classic and Contemporary Film</i>. <a href="/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan">Palgrave Macmillan</a>. pp. 135–150. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-27688-9"><bdi>978-1-137-27688-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>McGowan, Todd (2012). "A Plea for the Abandonment of Reality in <i>Inception</i>". <i>The Fictional Christopher Nolan</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas_Press">University of Texas Press</a>. pp. 147–170. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-73782-2"><bdi>978-0-292-73782-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Molloy, Claire (2013). "Christopher Nolan and Indie Sensibilities". <i>Revue Française d'études Américaines</i>. <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belin_%C3%A9diteur">Belin éditeur</a>. <b>136</b>: 40–51. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/43830999">43830999</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Mooney, Darren (2018). <i>Christopher Nolan: A Critical Study of the Films</i>. <a href="/wiki/McFarland_%26_Company">McFarland &amp; Company</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-14-766-7480-3"><bdi>978-14-766-7480-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Mottram, James (2002). <a href="https://archive.org/details/makingofmemento00mott"><i>The Making of Memento</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Faber_and_Faber">Faber and Faber</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-571-21488-6"><bdi>0-571-21488-6</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Nathan, Ian (2022). <i>Christopher Nolan: the Iconic Filmmaker and His Work</i>. <a href="/wiki/Quarto_Publishing">Quarto Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7112-7713-7"><bdi>978-0-7112-7713-7</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Tom_Shone">Shone, Tom</a> (2020). <i>The Nolan Variations: The Movies, Mysteries, and Marvels of Christopher Nolan</i>. <a href="/wiki/Faber_%26_Faber">Faber &amp; Faber</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5713-4800-8"><bdi>978-0-5713-4800-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Smith, Basil (2007). "John Locke, Personal Identity and <i>Memento</i>". In Conard, Mark (ed.). <i>The Philosophy of Neo-Noir</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_Kentucky">University Press of Kentucky</a>. pp. 35–46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-7230-9"><bdi>978-0-8131-7230-9</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Zornado, Joseph L.; Reilly, Sara (2021). "Superhero Fantasy in Crisis". <i>The Cinematic Superhero as Social Practice</i>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Nature">Springer Nature</a>. pp. 155–189. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-85458-4"><bdi>978-3-030-85458-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li></ul>
</div>
<h2>Further reading[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christopher_Nolan&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15">edit</a>]</h2>
<div>
<ul><li><cite>Belluomini, Lance (2020). "<i>Tenet</i> as Philosophy: Fatalism Isn't an Excuse to Do Nothing". In <a href="/wiki/David_Kyle_Johnson">Johnson, David Kyle</a> (ed.). <i>The Palgrave Handbook of Popular Culture as Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan">Palgrave Macmillan</a>. pp. 1–21. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-97134-6_99-1">10.1007/978-3-319-97134-6_99-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-97134-6"><bdi>978-3-319-97134-6</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Duncan Jesser, Jody; Pourroy, Janine (2012). <i>The Art and Making of </i>The Dark Knight<i> Trilogy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Abrams_Books">Abrams Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4197-0369-0"><bdi>978-1-4197-0369-0</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Fischer, Mark (2011). "The Lost Unconscious: Delusions and Dreams in <i>Inception</i>". <i><a href="/wiki/Film_Quarterly">Film Quarterly</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press">University of California Press</a>. <b>64</b> (3): 37–45. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2FFQ.2011.64.3.37">10.1525/FQ.2011.64.3.37</a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Kellner, Douglas M (2009). <i>Cinema Wars: Hollywood Film and Politics in the Bush-Cheney Era</i> (1st ed.). <a href="/wiki/Wiley-Blackwell">Wiley-Blackwell</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1405198240"><bdi>978-1405198240</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Rabiger, Michael; Hurbis-Cherrier, Mick (2013). <i>Directing: Film Techniques and Aesthetics</i>. <a href="/wiki/CRC_Press">CRC Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-09921-3"><bdi>978-1-135-09921-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li></ul>
</div>
<h2>External links[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christopher_Nolan&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16">edit</a>]</h2>
<ul><li><a href="https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0634240/">Christopher Nolan</a> at <a href="/wiki/IMDb">IMDb</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.rottentomatoes.com/celebrity/christopher_nolan">Christopher Nolan</a> at <a href="/wiki/Rotten_Tomatoes">Rotten Tomatoes</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.allmovie.com/artist/p240025">Christopher Nolan</a> at <a href="/wiki/AllMovie">AllMovie</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.tribute.ca/people/christopher-nolan/6453/35045/">Christopher Nolan Biography</a> at <a href="http://www.tribute.ca/">Tribute.ca</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.indiefilmhustle.com/christopher-nolan/">Christopher Nolan – How to Direct Your First Feature Film</a></li></ul>
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 Contents

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 * (Top)
 * 1 Early life
 * 2 Career
 + 2.1 1993–2003: Early career and breakthrough
 + 2.2 2003–2013: Widespread recognition
 + 2.3 2014–2019: Interstellar, Dunkirk and other activities
 + 2.4 2020–present: Tenet and Oppenheimer
 * 3 Personal life and image
 * 4 Filmmaking style
 * 5 Recognition
 * 6 Filmography
 * 7 Awards and honours
 * 8 Notes
 * 9 References
 * 10 Cited sources
 * 11 Further reading
 * 12 External links
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 Christopher Nolan

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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 For other uses, see Christopher Nolan (disambiguation).

 Christopher Nolan
 CBE 
 Nolan in 2018 
 Christopher Edward Nolan 
 Born 30 July 1970 (age 52) 
 London, England 
 Citizenship * United Kingdom 
 * United States 
 Alma mater University College London 
 * Film director 
 Occupations * film producer 
 * screenwriter 
 Years active 1998–present 
 Works * Filmography 
 * cinematic style 
 Board member of The Film Foundation 
 Spouse Emma Thomas ​(m. 1997)​ 
 Children 4 
 Relatives * Jonathan Nolan (brother)
 * John Nolan (uncle) 
 Awards Full list 
 

 Christopher Edward Nolan CBE (born 30 July 1970) is a British-American filmmaker. Known for his Hollywood blockbusters with complex storytelling, Nolan is considered a leading filmmaker of the 21st century. His films have grossed $5 billion worldwide. The recipient of many accolades, he has been nominated for five Academy Awards, five British Academy Film Awards and six Golden Globe Awards. In 2015, he was listed as one of the 100 most influential people in the world by Time, and in 2019, he was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire for his contributions to film.

 Nolan developed an interest in filmmaking from a young age. After studying English literature at University College London, he made several short films before his feature film debut with Following (1998). Nolan gained international recognition with his second film, Memento (2000), for which he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay. He transitioned from independent to studio filmmaking with Insomnia (2002), and found further critical and commercial success with The Dark Knight Trilogy (2005–2012), The Prestige (2006) and Inception (2010); the last of these earned Nolan two Oscar nominations—Best Picture and Best Original Screenplay. This was followed by Interstellar (2014), Dunkirk (2017) and Tenet (2020). For Dunkirk, he earned two Academy Award nominations, including his first for Best Director.

 Nolan's work regularly feature in the listings of best films of their respective decades. They are typically characterised by epistemology and existentialism. Infused with a metaphysical outlook; they explore ethics, the construction of time, and the malleable nature of memory and personal identity. His work is permeated with mathematically inspired images and concepts, unconventional narrative structures, practical special effects, experimental soundscapes, large-format film photography, and materialistic perspectives. He has co-written several of his films with his brother Jonathan, and runs the production company Syncopy Inc. with his wife Emma Thomas.

 Early life [ edit ]

 Nolan attended University College London and used its Flaxman Gallery for a scene in Inception (2010).[1]

 Christopher Edward Nolan was born on 30 July 1970, in Westminster, London. His father, Brendan, was a British advertising executive who worked as a creative director. His mother, Christina, was an American flight attendant from Evanston, Illinois; she would later work as a teacher of English. He has an elder brother, Matthew, and a younger brother, Jonathan, also a filmmaker. The three were raised in London and would spend their summers in Evanston. Nolan has both UK and US citizenship.[2]

 Growing up, Nolan was particularly influenced by the work of Ridley Scott and the science fiction films 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) and Star Wars (1977).[3][4] He would repeatedly watch the latter film and extensively research its making.[5] Nolan began making films at the age of seven, borrowing his father's Super 8 camera and shooting short films with his action figures.[6] These films included a stop motion animation homage to Star Wars called Space Wars. He cast his brother Jonathan and built sets from "clay, flour, egg boxes and toilet rolls".[3] His uncle, who had worked at NASA building guidance systems for the Apollo rockets, sent him some launch footage: "I re-filmed them off the screen and cut them in, thinking no-one would notice", Nolan later remarked.[7] From the age of 11, he aspired to be a professional filmmaker.[8] Between 1981 and 1983, Nolan enrolled at Barrow Hills, a Catholic prep school in Weybridge, Surrey.[9] In his teenage years, Nolan started making films with Adrien and Roko Belic. Nolan and Roko co–directed the surreal 8 mm Tarantella (1989), which was shown on Image Union, an independent film and video showcase on the Public Broadcasting Service.[a][11][12]

 Nolan was educated at Haileybury and Imperial Service College, an independent school in Hertford Heath, Hertfordshire, and later studied English literature at University College London (UCL). Opting out of a traditional film education, he pursued "a degree in something unrelated", which his father suggested "gives a different take on things".[13] He chose UCL specifically for its filmmaking facilities, which comprised a Steenbeck editing suite and 16 mm film cameras.[14] Nolan was president of the Union's Film Society,[14] and with Emma Thomas (his girlfriend and future wife) he screened feature films of 35 mm during the school year and used the money earned to produce 16 mm films over the summers.[15]

 Career [ edit ]

 1993–2003: Early career and breakthrough [ edit ]

 After earning his bachelor's degree in English literature in 1993, Nolan worked as a script reader, camera operator and director of corporate videos and industrial films.[14][16][17] He directed, wrote and edited the short film Larceny (1996),[18] which was filmed over a weekend in black and white with limited equipment and a small cast and crew.[11][19] Funded by Nolan and shot with the UCL Union Film society's equipment, it appeared at the Cambridge Film Festival in 1996 and is considered one of UCL's best shorts.[20] For unknown reasons, the film has since been removed from public view.[18] Nolan filmed a third short, Doodlebug (1997), about a man seemingly chasing an insect with his shoe, only to discover that it is a miniature of himself.[13][21] Nolan and Thomas first attempted to make a feature in the mid-1990s with Larry Mahoney, which they scrapped.[22] During this period in his career, Nolan had little to no success getting his projects off the ground, facing several rejections; he added, "[T]here's a very limited pool of finance in the UK. To be honest, it's a very clubby kind of place ... Never had any support whatsoever from the British film industry."[23]

 Shortly after abandoning Larry Mahoney, Nolan conceived the idea for his first feature, Following (1998), which he wrote, directed, photographed and edited. The film depicts an unemployed young writer (Jeremy Theobald) who trails strangers through London, hoping they will provide material for his first novel, but is drawn into a criminal underworld when he fails to keep his distance. It was inspired by Nolan's experience of living in London and having his apartment burgled; he observed that the common attribute between larceny and pursuing someone through a crowd was that they both cross social boundaries.[24] Co-produced by Nolan with Thomas and Theobald,[25] it was made on a budget of around £3,000. Most of the cast and crew were friends of the director, and shooting took place on weekends over the course of a year.[26] To conserve film stock, each scene was rehearsed extensively to ensure that the first or second take could be used in the final edit.[13][27] Following won several awards during its festival run and was well received by critics who labelled Nolan a majorly talented debutant.[28][29] Scott Timberg of New Times LA wrote that it "echoed Hitchcock classics", but was "leaner and meaner".[30] Janet Maslin of The New York Times was impressed with its "spare look" and "agile hand-held camerawork", saying, "As a result, the actors convincingly carry off the before, during and after modes that the film eventually, and artfully, weaves together."[31]

 "[T]he difference between shooting Following with a group of friends wearing our own clothes and my mum making sandwiches to spending $4 million of somebody else's money on Memento and having a crew of a hundred people is, to this day, by far the biggest leap I've ever made."

 —Nolan on the jump from his first film to his second (2012)[32]

 Following 's success afforded Nolan the opportunity to make Memento (2000), which became his breakthrough film. His brother Jonathan pitched the idea to him, about a man with anterograde amnesia who uses notes and tattoos to hunt for his wife's murderer. Jonathan worked the idea into a short story, "Memento Mori" (2001), and Nolan developed it into a screenplay that told the story in reverse. Aaron Ryder, an executive for Newmarket Films, said it was "perhaps the most innovative script I had ever seen".[33] The film was optioned and given a budget of $4.5 million, with Guy Pearce and Carrie-Anne Moss in the starring roles.[34] Newmarket also distributed the film after it was rejected by studios who feared that it would not attract a wide audience. Following a positive word of mouth and screenings in 500 theatres, it earned $40 million.[35] Memento premiered at the Venice International Film Festival in September 2000 to critical acclaim.[36] Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal wrote in his review, "I can't remember when a movie has seemed so clever, strangely affecting and slyly funny at the very same time."[37] In the book The Philosophy of Neo-Noir, Basil Smith drew a comparison with John Locke's An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, which argues that conscious memories constitute our identities – a theme Nolan explores in the film.[38] Memento earned Nolan many accolades, including nominations for an Academy Award and a Golden Globe Award for Best Screenplay, as well as two Independent Spirit Awards: Best Director and Best Screenplay.[39][40] Six critics listed it as one of the best films of the 2000s.[41] In 2001, Nolan and Emma Thomas founded the production company Syncopy Inc.[42][b]

 Impressed by his work on Memento, filmmaker Steven Soderbergh recommended Nolan to Warner Bros. to direct the psychological thriller Insomnia (2002), although the studio initially wanted a more seasoned director.[44] A remake of the 1997 Norwegian thriller of the same name, the film is viewed as "the outlier of Nolan's filmography" due to its perceived lack of unconventionality he is known for.[45] Starring Al Pacino, Robin Williams and Hilary Swank,[46] Insomnia follows two Los Angeles detectives sent to a northern Alaskan town to investigate the murder of a local teenager. It received positive reviews from critics and earned $113 million against a budget of $46 million.[47][48] Film critic Roger Ebert praised the film for introducing new perspectives and ideas on the issues of morality and guilt, adding, "Unlike most remakes, the Nolan Insomnia is not a pale retread, but a re-examination of the material, like a new production of a good play."[49] Richard Schickel of Time deemed Insomnia a "worthy successor" to Memento and "a triumph of atmosphere over a none-too-mysterious mystery".[50] Following, Memento and Insomnia established Nolan's image as an "auteur".[51] After the lattermost, he wrote a screenplay for a Howard Hughes biopic. Nolan reluctantly tabled his script after learning that Martin Scorsese was already making one such film: The Aviator (2004).[52] He turned down an offer to direct the historical epic Troy (2004).[53]

 2003–2013: Widespread recognition [ edit ]

 In early 2003, Nolan approached Warner Bros. with the idea of making a new Batman film, based on the character's origin story.[54] Nolan was fascinated by the notion of grounding it in a more realistic world than a comic-book fantasy.[55] He relied heavily on traditional stunts and miniature effects during filming, with minimal use of computer-generated imagery (CGI).[56] Batman Begins (2005), the biggest project Nolan had undertaken to that point,[57] was released to critical acclaim and commercial success.[58][59] Starring Christian Bale as Bruce Wayne / Batman—along with Michael Caine, Gary Oldman, Morgan Freeman and Liam Neeson—Batman Begins revived the franchise.[60][61] Batman Begins was 2005's ninth-highest-grossing film and was praised for its psychological depth and contemporary relevance;[59][62] it is cited as one of the most influential films of the 2000s.[63] Film author Ian Nathan wrote that within five years of his career, Nolan "[went] from unknown to indie darling to gaining creative control over one of the biggest properties in Hollywood, and (perhaps unwittingly) fomenting the genre that would redefine the entire industry".[64]

 Nolan directed, co-wrote and produced The Prestige (2006), an adaptation of the Christopher Priest novel about two rival 19th-century magicians.[65] The screenplay was the result of an intermittent, five-year collaboration between him and his brother Jonathan, who had begun writing it already in 2001. Nolan initially intended to make the film as early as 2003, but had postponed the project after agreeing to make Batman Begins.[66][67] Starring Hugh Jackman and Christian Bale in the lead roles of rival magicians, The Prestige received critical acclaim and received two Academy Award nominations.[68][69] Roger Ebert described it as "quite a movie – atmospheric, obsessive, almost satanic",[70] and Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times called it an "ambitious, unnerving melodrama".[71] The Guardian 's Philip French wrote: "In addition to the intellectual or philosophical excitement it engenders, The Prestige is gripping, suspenseful, mysterious, moving and often darkly funny."[72] Despite a negative box-office prognosis, the film earned over $109 million against a budget of $40 million.[73]

 Nolan (left) with the cast and crew of The Dark Knight at the 2008 European premiere in London

 The Dark Knight (2008), the follow-up to Batman Begins, was Nolan's next venture. Initially reluctant to make a sequel, he agreed after Warner Bros. repeatedly insisted.[74] Nolan wanted to expand on the noir quality of the first film by broadening the canvas and taking on "the dynamic of a story of the city, a large crime story ... where you're looking at the police, the justice system, the vigilante, the poor people, the rich people, the criminals".[75] Continuing to minimalise the use of CGI, Nolan employed high-resolution IMAX cameras, making it the first major motion picture to use this technology.[76][77] The Dark Knight has been ranked as one of the best films of the 2000s and one of the best superhero films ever made.[c] Many critics declare The Dark Knight to be "the most successful comic book film ever made".[82] Manohla Dargis of The New York Times found the film to be of higher artistic merit than many Hollywood blockbusters: "Pitched at the divide between art and industry, poetry and entertainment, it goes darker and deeper than any Hollywood movie of its comic-book kind."[83] Ebert expressed a similar point of view, describing it as a "haunted film that leaps beyond its origins and becomes an engrossing tragedy".[84] The Dark Knight set many box-office records during its theatrical run,[85] earning over $1 billion worldwide.[86] At the 81st Academy Awards, the film was nominated in eight categories, winning two: Best Sound Editing for Richard King and a posthumous Best Supporting Actor award for Heath Ledger.[87] The film's failure to garner a Best Picture nomination was criticised by the media. Beginning in 2010, the Academy increased their Best Picture nominees from five to ten, a change known as "The Dark Knight Rule".[88] Nolan received many awards and nominations for his work on the film.[39]

 The success of The Dark Knight allowed Warner Bros. to sign Nolan to write, direct and co-produce Inception (2010) – a film for which he had the idea around nine years before its release.[89] Nolan described the film as "a contemporary sci-fi actioner set within the architecture of the mind".[90] Starring a large ensemble cast led by Leonardo DiCaprio, the film became a critical and commercial success upon its release.[91] Film critic Mark Kermode named it the best film of 2010, stating "Inception is proof that people are not stupid, that cinema is not trash, and that it is possible for blockbusters and art to be the same thing."[92] Philosophy professor David Kyle Johnson wrote that "Inception became a classic almost as soon as it was projected on silver screens", praising its exploration of philosophical ideas, including leap of faith and allegory of the cave.[93] The film grossed over $836 million worldwide.[94] Nominated for eight Academy Awards—including Best Picture and Best Original Screenplay—it won Best Cinematography, Best Sound Mixing, Best Sound Editing and Best Visual Effects.[95] Nolan was also nominated for a BAFTA Award and a Golden Globe Award for Best Director, among other accolades.[39]

 Nolan at the 2013 premiere of Man of Steel in London

 Around the release of The Dark Knight Rises (2012), Nolan's third and final Batman film, Joseph Bevan of the British Film Institute wrote a profile on him: "In the space of just over a decade, Christopher Nolan has shot from promising British indie director to undisputed master of a new brand of intelligent escapism."[96] After initial hesitation, Nolan agreed to return to direct The Dark Knight Rises and worked with his brother and David S. Goyer to develop a story that he felt would end the trilogy on a high note.[97] The film was released to positive reviews;[98] Kenneth Turan found the film "potent, persuasive and hypnotic" and "more than an exceptional superhero movie, it is masterful filmmaking by any standard".[99] Christy Lemire of HuffPost wrote in her review that Nolan concluded his trilogy in a "typically spectacular, ambitious fashion", but disliked the "overloaded" story and excessive grimness.[100] The Dark Knight Rises was a box office success, becoming the thirteenth film to gross $1 billion.[101] During a midnight showing of the film in Aurora, Colorado, a gunman opened fire inside the theatre, killing 12 people and injuring 58 others.[102] Nolan released a statement expressing his condolences for the victims of what he described as a "senseless tragedy".[103]

 The Dark Knight trilogy inspired a trend in future superhero films seeking to replicate its gritty, realistic tone to little success. The second installment in particular revitalised the genre at a time when recent superhero films had failed to meet expectations.[104][105] Ben Child of The Guardian wrote that the three films "will remain thrilling totems of the genre for decades to come".[104] During story discussions for The Dark Knight Rises, Goyer told Nolan of his idea about Man of Steel (2013), which the latter would produce.[106] Impressed with Zack Snyder's work in 300 (2006) and Watchmen (2009), Nolan hired him to direct the film.[107] Starring Henry Cavill as Clark Kent who learns that he is a powerful alien, Man of Steel received mixed reviews and grossed more than $660 million against a budget of $220 million.[108][109]

 2014–2019: Interstellar , Dunkirk and other activities [ edit ]

 Nolan and his younger brother, Jonathan (pictured in 2017), wrote several screenplays together, including for Interstellar.

 Nolan next directed, wrote and produced the science-fiction film Interstellar (2014). The first drafts of the script were written by Jonathan Nolan, and it was originally to be directed by Steven Spielberg.[110] Based on the scientific theories of theoretical physicist Kip Thorne, the film follows a group of astronauts who travel through a wormhole in search of a new home for humanity.[111] In a 2014 discussion of the film's physics, Nolan expressed his admiration for scientific objectivity, wishing it were applied "in every aspect of our civilisation".[112] Interstellar – starring Matthew McConaughey, Anne Hathaway and Jessica Chastain – was released to positive reviews and grossed $773 million worldwide.[113][114] Observing its "visual dazzle, thematic ambition", The New York Times 's A. O. Scott wrote that Interstellar is a "sweeping, futuristic adventure driven by grief, dread and regret".[115] Documentary filmmaker Toni Myers called the film "a real work of art" and praised it for exploring a story spanning multiple generations.[116] Interstellar was particularly praised for its scientific accuracy, which led to the publication of two academic papers.[117][118] The American Journal of Physics called for it to be shown in school science lessons.[119][120] At the 87th Academy Awards, the film won Best Visual Effects and received four other nominations.[121] Also in 2014, Nolan and Emma Thomas served as executive producers on Transcendence, the directorial debut of his longtime cinematographer Wally Pfister.[122]

 In the mid-2010s, Nolan took part in several ventures for film preservation and distribution of the work of lesser-known filmmakers. His production company, Syncopy, formed a joint venture with Zeitgeist Films to release Blu-ray editions of Zeitgeist's films.[123] As part of the Blu-ray release of the animation films of the Brothers Quay, Nolan directed the documentary short Quay (2015). He also initiated a theatrical tour, showcasing the Quays' In Absentia, The Comb and Street of Crocodiles. IndieWire wrote that the brothers "will undoubtedly have hundreds, if not thousands more fans because of Nolan, and for that The Quay Brothers in 35mm will always be one of [the] latter's most important contributions to cinema".[124][125] An advocate for the survival of the analogue medium, Nolan and visual artist Tacita Dean invited representatives from leading American film archives, laboratories and presenting institutions to participate in an informal summit entitled Reframing the Future of Film at the Getty Museum in March 2015.[126][127] Subsequent events were held at Tate Modern in London, Museo Tamayo in Mexico City and Tata Theatre in Mumbai.[128] In April 2015, Nolan joined the board of directors of The Film Foundation, a non-profitable organisation dedicated to film preservation,[129] and was appointed, along with Martin Scorsese, by the Library of Congress to serve on the National Film Preservation Board as DGA representatives.[130] Nolan also serves on the Motion Picture & Television Fund Board of Governors.[131]

 After serving as an executive producer on Zack Snyder's Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) and Justice League (2017),[132][133] Nolan returned to directing with Dunkirk (2017). Based on his own original screenplay and co-produced with Thomas, the film is set amid World War II in 1940 and the evacuation of Allied soldiers from the beaches of Dunkirk, France. Describing the film as a survival tale with a triptych structure, Nolan wanted to make a "sensory, almost experimental movie" with minimal dialogue.[134] He said he waited to make Dunkirk until he had earned the trust of a major studio to let him make it as a British film but with an American budget.[135] Before filming, Nolan sought advice from Spielberg, who later said in an interview with Variety, "knowing and respecting that Chris [Nolan] is one of the world's most imaginative filmmakers, my advice to him was to leave his imagination, as I did on Ryan, in second position to the research he was doing to authentically acquit this historical drama".[136] Starring an ensemble cast,[137] Dunkirk was released to widespread critical acclaim and strong box office results.[138][139][140] It grossed over $526 million worldwide, making it the highest-grossing World War II film of all time.[141] In his review, Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle wrote: "It's one of the best war films ever made, distinct in its look, in its approach and in the effect it has on viewers. There are movies—they are rare—that lift you out of your present circumstances and immerse you so fully in another experience that you watch in a state of jaw-dropped awe. Dunkirk is that kind of movie."[142] The film received many accolades, including Nolan's first Oscar nomination for Best Director.[143]

 Nolan (right) with Keir Dullea, Katharina Kubrick, Ron Sanders and Jan Harlan at the 2018 Cannes Film Festival

 In 2018, Nolan supervised a new 70 mm print of Stanley Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), made from the original camera negative; he presented it at the 2018 Cannes Film Festival.[144] USA Today observed that festival-goers greeted the director "like a rock star with a standing ovation".[145] A year later, Nolan and Thomas received executive producer credits on The Doll's Breath (2019), an animated short directed by the Quay brothers.[146]

 2020–present: Tenet and Oppenheimer [ edit ]

 The science fiction film Tenet (2020) – described by Tom Shone of The Sunday Times as "a globe-spinning riff on all things Nolanesque" – was his next directorial effort.[147] Nolan had worked on the screenplay for more than five years after deliberating about its central ideas for over a decade.[148] Delayed three times due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Tenet was the first Hollywood tent-pole to open in theatres after the pandemic shutdown.[149] The film tells the story of an unnamed protagonist (played by John David Washington) who travels through time to stop a world-threatening attack.[150] It grossed $363 million worldwide against a production budget of $200 million, becoming Nolan's first to underperform at the box-office.[151] Tenet was described as the most polarising effort of his career; critics praised the direction but found its story confusing.[152][143] Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian awarded the film a full five stars, calling it "a cerebral cadenza, a deadpan flourish of crazy implausibility—but supercharged with steroidal energy and imagination".[153] Leslie Felperin of The Hollywood Reporter described it as "a chilly, cerebral film—easy to admire, especially since it's so rich in audacity and originality, but almost impossible to love, lacking as it is in a certain humanity".[154] At the 93rd Academy Awards, the film won Best Visual Effects and was nominated for Best Production Design.[155] Following the release of Tenet, Nolan joined the Advisory Board of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers.[156] He served as an executive producer on Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021), a director's cut of 2017's Justice League.[157]

 Nolan's twelfth directorial venture will be Oppenheimer (2023), a biopic based on J. Robert Oppenheimer (played by Cillian Murphy) and his role in the development of the atom bomb.[158] The film will be financed and distributed by Universal Pictures, making it Nolan's first since Memento that was not made for Warner Bros. He was disillusioned with the latter's decision to simultaneously release their films in theatres and on HBO Max.[159] Nolan secured the deal with Universal after he was promised a production budget of around $100 million with an equal marketing budget, total creative control, 20 per cent of first-dollar gross, a 100-day theatrical window and a blackout period from the studio wherein the company would not release another film three weeks before or after Oppenheimer 's release.[160]

 Personal life and image [ edit ]

 Nolan and his wife Emma Thomas in January 2011

 Nolan is married to Emma Thomas, whom he met at University College London when he was 19.[8][15] She has worked as a producer on all of his films since 1997.[42][161] The couple have four children and reside in Los Angeles.[162]

 Rarely granting promotional interviews about his films, Nolan prefers to maintain a certain level of mystery about his work.[163] Refusing to discuss his personal life,[164] he feels that too much biographical information about a filmmaker detracts from the experience of his audiences. "I actually don't want people to have me in mind at all when they're watching the films." Author Stuart Joy felt that Nolan's unwillingness to talk about his personal life shows a desire for control, one of the recurring themes in his work.[163]

 Nolan was physically assaulted by fellow filmmaker David O. Russell in 2003 at a party in Hollywood. The latter reportedly put Nolan in a headlock and wrapped his arm around Nolan's neck.[165][166]

 Filmmaking style [ edit ]

 Main article: Cinematic style of Christopher Nolan

 Nolan's films are majorly centred in metaphysical themes, exploring the concepts of time, memory and personal identity.[167][168] His work is characterised by mathematically inspired ideas and images, unconventional narrative structures, materialistic perspectives, and evocative use of music and sound.[d] Filmmaker Guillermo del Toro called Nolan "an emotional mathematician".[173] BBC's arts editor Will Gompertz described him as "an art house auteur making intellectually ambitious blockbuster movies that can leave your pulse racing and your head spinning".[174] Joseph Bevan wrote, "His films allow arthouse regulars to enjoy superhero flicks and multiplex crowds to engage with labyrinthine plot conceits."[96] Nolan views himself as "an indie filmmaker working inside the studio system".[175]

 "Christopher Nolan doesn't make sense. And that is exactly how he likes it. In twenty-three years and through twelve films, he has defied the laws of Hollywood by creating startling, original genre pieces that have revelled in their own complexity, confounding every maxim by which the studios hope to appeal to the widest audience. And yet he does that too. Cinemas fill on the possibility of the next Nolan film. Whatever form it might take."

 —Film author Ian Nathan on Nolan as a filmmaker (2022)[176]

 In the sixteen-essay book The Philosophy of Christopher Nolan, professional philosophers and writers analysed Nolan's work; they identified themes of self-destruction, the nature and value of the truth, and the political mindset of the hero and villain, among others.[177] Robbie B. H. Goh, a professor of English literature, described Nolan as a "philosophical filmmaker" who includes philosophical ideas—existentialism, morality, epistemology and the distinction between appearance and reality—in films that frequently portray suspense, action and violence. Goh appreciated his ability to incorporate such themes in films that possess "elements of the Hollywood blockbuster"—which help keep the audiences engaged—but simultaneously remain "more thoughtful and self-reflexive than the typical consumerist action film".[178] He further wrote that Nolan's body of work reflect "a heterogeneity of conditions of products" extending from low-budget films to lucrative blockbusters, "a wide range of genres and settings" and "a diversity of styles that trumpet his versatility".[179]

 David Bordwell, a film theorist, opined that Nolan has been able to blend his "experimental impulses" with the demands of mainstream entertainment, describing his oeuvre as "experiments with cinematic time by means of techniques of subjective viewpoint and crosscutting".[180] Nolan's use of practical, in-camera effects, miniatures and models, as well as shooting on celluloid film, has been highly influential in early 21st century cinema.[181][182] IndieWire wrote in 2019 that the director "kept a viable alternate model of big-budget filmmaking alive" in an era where blockbuster filmmaking has become "a largely computer-generated art form".[182] Because of Nolan's deep involvement in the technical facet of his films, Stuart Joy described him as a "complete filmmaker" who "oversees all aspects of production while also managing cultural and industrial factors outside of the text".[183]

 Recognition [ edit ]

 Nolan has made some of the most influential and popular films of his time.[e] Many of his films have been regarded by critics as among the best of their respective decades,[41][188][189] and according to The Wall Street Journal, his "ability to combine box-office success with artistic ambition has given him an extraordinary amount of clout in the industry".[190] His films have earned $5 billion.[191] Nolan's films Memento and The Dark Knight have been selected by the US Library of Congress to be preserved in the National Film Registry for being "culturally, historically or aesthetically" significant.[192][193] These films and Inception appeared in BBC's 100 Greatest Films of the 21st Century and The Hollywood Reporter 's poll of best films ever made.[194][195] In 2017, The Dark Knight, Inception and Interstellar featured in Empire magazine's poll of "The 100 Greatest Movies".[196] In 2018, The Hollywood Reporter listed Nolan as one of the 100 most powerful people in entertainment and described him as a "franchise unto himself".[197] Parade ranked Nolan number eight in its 2022 list of 75 Best Movie Directors of All Time.[198]

 Two of Nolan's films (Memento and The Dark Knight) have been selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the National Film Registry.[192][193]

 Nolan's work has been as "intensely embraced, analysed and debated by ordinary film fans as by critics and film academics".[164][199] Calling him "a persuasively inventive storyteller", Geoff Andrew of the British Film Institute named Nolan one of the few contemporary filmmakers producing highly personal films within the Hollywood mainstream. Andrew wrote that Nolan's films are "not so much [notable] for their considerable technical virtuosity and visual flair as for their brilliant narrative ingenuity and their unusually adult interest in complex philosophical questions".[200] David Bordwell observed that Nolan is "considered one of the most accomplished living filmmakers", citing his ability to turn genre movies into both art and event films, as well as his box office numbers, critical acclaim and popularity among cinemagoers.[180][201] In 2008, Philip French deemed Nolan "the first major talent to emerge this [21st] century".[202] Mark Kermode complimented Nolan for bringing "the discipline and ethics of art-house independent moviemaking and apply[ing] them to Hollywood blockbusters. He's living proof that you don't have to appeal to the lowest common denominator to be profitable".[203] The Observer 's Ryan Gilbey described Nolan as a "skillful, stylish storyteller, capable of combining the spectacle of Spielberg with the intellectual intricacy of Nicolas Roeg or Alain Resnais".[204] Mark Cousins applauded Nolan for embracing big ideas, "Hollywood filmmakers generally shy away from ideas—but not Christopher Nolan".[205] Scott Foundas of Variety declared Nolan "the premier big-canvas storyteller of his generation",[206] and Justin Chang of the Los Angeles Times called him "the great proceduralist of 21st century blockbuster filmmaking, a lover of nuts-and-bolts minutiae".[207]

 Nolan has been praised by many of his contemporaries, and his work has influenced them.[208][209][210] Kenneth Branagh called Nolan's approach to large-scale filmmaking "unique in modern cinema", adding, "regardless of how popular his movies become, he remains an artist and an auteur. I think for that reason he has become a heroic figure for both the audience and the people working behind the camera."[211] Michael Mann complimented Nolan for his "singular vision" and credited with "invent[ing] the post-heroic superhero".[212] Nicolas Roeg said of Nolan, "People talk about 'commercial art' and the term is usually self-negating; Nolan works in the commercial arena and yet there's something very poetic about his work."[213] Martin Scorsese identified Nolan as a filmmaker creating "beautifully made films on a big scale".[214]

 Damien Chazelle lauded Nolan for his ability "to make the most seemingly impersonal projects—superhero epics, deep-space mind-benders—feel deeply personal".[215] Discussing the difference between art films and big studio blockbusters, Steven Spielberg referred to Nolan's Dark Knight series as an example of both;[216] he has described Memento and Inception as "masterworks".[217] Denis Villeneuve was impressed by Nolan's ability "to keep his identity and create his own universe in that large scope ... To bring intellectual concepts and to bring them in that scope to the screen right now—it's very rare. Every movie that he comes out with, I have more admiration for his work."[218] James Cameron expressed disappointment that Nolan was not nominated for an Academy Award as Best Director for Inception, calling it "the most astounding piece of film creation and direction of the year, hands down".[217]

 Filmography [ edit ]

 Main article: Christopher Nolan filmography
 * Following (1998)
 * Memento (2000)
 * Insomnia (2002)
 * Batman Begins (2005)
 * The Prestige (2006)
 * The Dark Knight (2008)
 * Inception (2010)
 * The Dark Knight Rises (2012)
 * Interstellar (2014)
 * Dunkirk (2017)
 * Tenet (2020)
 * Oppenheimer (2023)

 Awards and honours [ edit ]

 Main article: List of awards and nominations received by Christopher Nolan
 Nolan's hand and shoeprints in front of the Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood

 Nolan has been nominated for five Academy Awards, five British Academy Film Awards and six Golden Globe Awards.[39][219][220][221] Nolan was named an Honorary Fellow of UCL in 2006,[222] and conferred an honorary doctorate in literature in 2017.[223] From 2011 to 2014, he appeared in Forbes Celebrity 100 list based on his income and popularity.[224] In 2012, he became the youngest director to receive a hand-and-footprint ceremony at Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles.[225] Nolan appeared in Time 's 100 most influential people in the world in 2015.[226] He was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 2019 New Year Honours for services to film.[227]

 Notes [ edit ]

 1. ^ Nolan has continued his collaboration with the Belic brothers, receiving a credit for his editorial assistance on their Oscar-nominated documentary Genghis Blues (1999). [10]
 2. ^ The name of the company is derived from syncope , a medical term for fainting. Sorcha Ní Fhlainn, a lecturer specialising in film studies, alluded this wordplay to Nolan's style of "disorientation" in his work. She also associated the name with synthetic and philosopher Jean Baudrillard 's treatise Simulacra and Simulation . [43]
 3. ^ Attributed to multiple references [41][78][79][80][81]
 4. ^ Attributed to multiple references [169][170][171][172]
 5. ^ Attributed to multiple references [184][185][186][187]

 References [ edit ]

 1. ^ "Nolan's Mind Games". Film London. 14 July 2010. Archived from the original on 22 November 2010 . Retrieved 11 August 2010 .
 2. ^ Nathan 2022 , pp. 12–13.
 3. ^ a b Mooney 2018 , p. 4.
 4. ^ Nathan 2022 , pp. 116, 159.
 5. ^ Nathan 2022 , p. 159.
 6. ^ Nathan 2022 , pp. 11, 16.
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 217. ^ a b "Christopher Nolan turns 49: Here is what Steven Spielberg, James Cameron and other directors say about him". The Indian Express. 30 July 2019. Archived from the original on 23 December 2021 . Retrieved 11 December 2022 .
 218. ^ O'Falt, Chris (22 December 2017). "Denis Villenueve Aspires to Be Like Christopher Nolan, and Why He Wants to Make Dune". IndieWire. Archived from the original on 23 December 2017 . Retrieved 23 December 2017 .
 219. ^ Nathan 2022 , p. 197.
 220. ^ "Christopher Nolan". AllMovie. Archived from the original on 8 December 2022 . Retrieved 8 December 2022 .
 221. ^ "Winners & Nominees". Hollywood Foreign Press Association. Archived from the original on 10 April 2019 . Retrieved 8 December 2022 .
 222. ^ "Honorary Fellows of UCL". University College London. 2006. Archived from the original on 23 September 2016 . Retrieved 11 March 2013 .
 223. ^ "Back to where it all began: Christopher Nolan awarded honorary doctorate at UCL". University College London. 12 September 2017. Archived from the original on 16 September 2017 . Retrieved 15 September 2017 .
 224. ^ "Christopher Nolan". Forbes. 16 May 2011. Archived from the original on 15 December 2022 . Retrieved 15 December 2022 .
 "Christopher Nolan". Forbes. 16 May 2012. Archived from the original on 15 December 2022 . Retrieved 15 December 2022 .
 "Christopher Nolan". Forbes. 28 June 2013. Archived from the original on 15 December 2022 . Retrieved 15 December 2022 .
 "Christopher Nolan". Forbes. 27 June 2014. Archived from the original on 15 December 2022 . Retrieved 15 December 2022 .
 225. ^ Rome, Emily (7 July 2012). "The Dark Knight Rises: Christopher Nolan's hand and footprint ceremony". Entertainment Weekly. Archived from the original on 8 August 2012 . Retrieved 14 December 2022 .
 226. ^ Caine, Michael (17 April 2015). "Christopher Nolan". Time. Archived from the original on 17 April 2015 . Retrieved 8 December 2022 .
 227. ^ "No. 62507". The London Gazette (Supplement). 29 December 2018. p. N24.

 Cited sources [ edit ]

 * Blouin, Michael J. (2013). "Difference and Doubt in Christopher Nolan's Inception". Japan and the Cosmopolitan Gothic: Specters of Modernity. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 143–160. ISBN 978-1-137-30522-0.
 * deWaard, Andrew; Tait, R. Colin (2013). The Cinema of Steven Soderbergh: Indie Sex, Corporate Lies, and Digital Videotape. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-16551-8.
 * Eberl, Jason T.; Dunn, George A., eds. (2017). The Philosophy of Christopher Nolan. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-1-498-51352-4.
 * Elsaesser, Thomas (2020). "Stanley Kubrick's Prototypes: The Author as World-Maker". In Szaniawski, Jeremi (ed.). After Kubrick: A Filmmaker's Legacy. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 29–51. ISBN 978-1-501-34765-8.
 * Furby, Jacqueline; Joy, Stuart, eds. (2015). The Cinema of Christopher Nolan: Imagining the Impossible. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-85076-6.
 + Joy, Stuart (2015). "Introduction: Dreaming a Little Bigger, Darling". The Cinema of Christopher Nolan: Imagining the Impossible. Columbia University Press. pp. 1–16.
 + Hill-Parks, Erin (2015). "Chapter One: Developing an Auteur Through Reviews: The Critical Surround of Christopher Nolan". The Cinema of Christopher Nolan: Imagining the Impossible. Columbia University Press. pp. 17–30.
 + Ní Fhlainn, Sorcha (2015). "Chapter Ten: 'You keep telling yourself what you know, but what do you believe?': Cultural Spin, Puzzle Films and Mind Games in the Cinema of Christopher Nolan". The Cinema of Christopher Nolan: Imagining the Impossible. Columbia University Press. pp. 147–163.
 * Goh, Robbie B. H. (2022). Christopher Nolan: Filmmaker and Philosopher. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-3501-3996-1.
 * James, Oliver; von Tunzelmann, Eugénie; Franklin, Paul; Thorne, Kip S. (2015a). "Gravitational lensing by spinning black holes in astrophysics, and in the movie Interstellar" (PDF) . Classical and Quantum Gravity. IOP Publishing. 32 (6): 065001. doi:10.1088/0264-9381/32/6/065001. Archived from the original on 30 December 2022 . Retrieved 30 December 2022 .
 * James, Oliver; von Tunzelmann, Eugénie; Franklin, Paul; Thorne, Kip S. (2015b). "Visualizing Interstellar's Wormhole" (PDF) . American Journal of Physics. American Association of Physics Teachers. 83 (6): 486–499. doi:10.1119/1.4916949. Archived from the original on 8 December 2022 . Retrieved 8 December 2022 .
 * Johnson, David Kyle (2020). "Inception as Philosophy: Choose Your Dreams or Seek Reality". The Palgrave Handbook of Popular Culture as Philosophy. Springer Nature. pp. 1–20. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-97134-6_5-1. ISBN 978-3-319-97134-6.
 * Koole, Sander L.; Fockenberg, Daniel; Tops, Mattie; Schneider, Iris K. (2013). "The Birth and Death of the Superhero Film". In Sullivan, Daniel; Greenberg, Jeff (eds.). Death in Classic and Contemporary Film. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 135–150. ISBN 978-1-137-27688-9.
 * McGowan, Todd (2012). "A Plea for the Abandonment of Reality in Inception". The Fictional Christopher Nolan. University of Texas Press. pp. 147–170. ISBN 978-0-292-73782-2.
 * Molloy, Claire (2013). "Christopher Nolan and Indie Sensibilities". Revue Française d'études Américaines. Belin éditeur. 136: 40–51. JSTOR 43830999.
 * Mooney, Darren (2018). Christopher Nolan: A Critical Study of the Films. McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-14-766-7480-3.
 * Mottram, James (2002). The Making of Memento. Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-571-21488-6.
 * Nathan, Ian (2022). Christopher Nolan: the Iconic Filmmaker and His Work. Quarto Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7112-7713-7.
 * Shone, Tom (2020). The Nolan Variations: The Movies, Mysteries, and Marvels of Christopher Nolan. Faber & Faber. ISBN 978-0-5713-4800-8.
 * Smith, Basil (2007). "John Locke, Personal Identity and Memento". In Conard, Mark (ed.). The Philosophy of Neo-Noir. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 35–46. ISBN 978-0-8131-7230-9.
 * Zornado, Joseph L.; Reilly, Sara (2021). "Superhero Fantasy in Crisis". The Cinematic Superhero as Social Practice. Springer Nature. pp. 155–189. ISBN 978-3-030-85458-4.

 Further reading [ edit ]

 * Belluomini, Lance (2020). "Tenet as Philosophy: Fatalism Isn't an Excuse to Do Nothing". In Johnson, David Kyle (ed.). The Palgrave Handbook of Popular Culture as Philosophy. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 1–21. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-97134-6_99-1. ISBN 978-3-319-97134-6.
 * Duncan Jesser, Jody; Pourroy, Janine (2012). The Art and Making of The Dark Knight Trilogy. Abrams Books. ISBN 978-1-4197-0369-0.
 * Fischer, Mark (2011). "The Lost Unconscious: Delusions and Dreams in Inception". Film Quarterly. University of California Press. 64 (3): 37–45. doi:10.1525/FQ.2011.64.3.37.
 * Kellner, Douglas M (2009). Cinema Wars: Hollywood Film and Politics in the Bush-Cheney Era (1st ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1405198240.
 * Rabiger, Michael; Hurbis-Cherrier, Mick (2013). Directing: Film Techniques and Aesthetics. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-135-09921-3.

 External links [ edit ]

 Christopher Nolan at Wikipedia's sister projects
 * Media from Commons
 * Quotations from Wikiquote
 * Data from Wikidata
 * Christopher Nolan at IMDb
 * Christopher Nolan at Rotten Tomatoes
 * Christopher Nolan at AllMovie
 * Christopher Nolan Biography at Tribute.ca
 * Christopher Nolan – How to Direct Your First Feature Film
 * v 
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 Christopher Nolan 
 * Filmography 
 * Accolades 
 * Cinematic style 
 * Following (1998) 
 * Memento (2000) 
 * Insomnia (2002) 
 * Batman Begins (2005) 
 * The Prestige (2006) 
 Features * The Dark Knight (2008) 
 * Inception (2010) 
 Films directed * The Dark Knight Rises (2012)
 * Interstellar (2014) 
 * Dunkirk (2017) 
 * Tenet (2020) 
 * Oppenheimer (2023) 
 Shorts * Doodlebug (1997) 
 * Quay (2015) 
  
 Film written and produced Man of Steel (2013, сo-story) 
 * Emma Thomas (wife) 
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 Relatives * Lisa Joy (sister-in-law) 
 * John Nolan (uncle) 
 * Kim Hartman (aunt) 
 Related * Syncopy Inc. 
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 Awards for Christopher Nolan   
 * v    
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 AACTA International Award for Best Direction   
 * Michel Hazanavicius (2011)   
 * David O. Russell (2012)   
 * Alfonso Cuarón (2013)   
 * Alejandro G. Iñárritu (2014)   
 * George Miller (2015)   
 * Mel Gibson (2016)   
 * Christopher Nolan (2017)   
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 * Denis Villeneuve (2021)   
    
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 * e    
 Austin Film Critics Association Award for Best Adapted Screenplay   
 * Larry McMurtry and Diana Ossana (2005)   
 * Alfonso Cuarón, Timothy J. Sexton, David Arata, Mark Fergus, and Hawk Ostby (2006)  
 * Joel Coen and Ethan Coen (2007)   
 * Jonathan Nolan and Christopher Nolan (2008)   
 * Jason Reitman and Sheldon Turner (2009)   
 * Aaron Sorkin (2010)   
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 * Chris Terrio (2012)   
 * John Ridley (2013)   
 * Gillian Flynn (2014)   
 * Emma Donoghue (2015)   
 * Eric Heisserer (2016)   
 * James Ivory (2017)   
 * Barry Jenkins (2018)   
 * Greta Gerwig (2019)   
 * Chloé Zhao (2020)   
 * Ryusuke Hamaguchi and Takamasa Oe (2021)   
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 * e   
 Britannia Awards   
 * Albert R. Broccoli (1989)   
 * Michael Caine (1990)   
 * Peter Ustinov (1992)   
 * Martin Scorsese (1993)   
 * Anthony Hopkins (1995)   
 * Bob Weinstein and Harvey Weinstein (1996)  
 * Dustin Hoffman (1997)   
 * John Travolta (1998)   
 * Stanley Kubrick (1999)   
 * Steven Spielberg (2000)   
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 * Hugh Grant (2003)   
 * Tom Hanks (2004)   
 Excellence in Film * Tom Cruise (2005)   
 * Clint Eastwood (2006)   
 * Denzel Washington (2007)   
 * Sean Penn (2008)   
 * Robert De Niro (2009)   
 * Jeff Bridges (2010)   
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 * Cate Blanchett (2018)   
 * Jane Fonda (2019)   
 * Peter Weir (2003)   
 * Jim Sheridan (2004)   
 * Mike Newell (2005)   
 * Anthony Minghella (2006)   
 * Martin Campbell (2007)   
 * Stephen Frears (2008)   
 * Danny Boyle (2009)   
 * Christopher Nolan (2010)   
 Excellence in Directing * David Yates (2011)   
 * Quentin Tarantino (2012)   
 * Kathryn Bigelow (2013)   
 * Mike Leigh (2014)   
 * Sam Mendes (2015)   
 * Ang Lee (2016)   
 * Ava DuVernay (2017)   
 * Steve McQueen (2018)   
 * Jordan Peele (2019)   
 * Howard Stringer (2003)   
 * Kirk Douglas (2009)   
 * Ridley Scott & Tony Scott (2010)   
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 Worldwide Contribution to * Ben Kingsley (2013)   
 Entertainment * Judi Dench (2014)   
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 British Artist of the Year * Daniel Craig (2012)   
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 Excellence in Comedy * Julia Louis-Dreyfus (2014)   
 * Amy Schumer (2015)   
 * Ricky Gervais (2016)   
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 Excellence in Television * Dick Van Dyke (2017)   
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 Humanitarian Award * Idris Elba (2013)   
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 Retired Awards * Helen Mirren (2004)   
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 * Bob Shaye and Michael Lynne (2007)   
    
 * v   
 * t   
 * e   
 Boston Society of Film Critics Award for Best Screenplay   
  * Bo Goldman (1980)  
  * Andre Gregory and Wallace Shawn (1981)  
  * Barry Levinson (1982)  
  * Éric Rohmer (1983)  
  * Alex Cox (1984)  
  * Woody Allen (1985)  
  * Woody Allen (1986)  
  * James L. Brooks (1987)  
  * Ron Shelton (1988)  
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 1980–2000 * Nicholas Kazan (1990)  
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  * Roger Avary and Quentin Tarantino (1994)  
  * Emma Thompson (1995)  
  * Joseph Tropiano and Stanley Tucci (1996)  
  * Curtis Hanson and Brian Helgeland (1997)  
  * Scott Frank (1998)  
  * Charlie Kaufman (1999)  
  * Cameron Crowe / Steve Kloves (2000)  
  * Christopher Nolan (2001)  
  * Charlie and Donald Kaufman (2002)  
  * Shari Springer Berman and Robert Pulcini (2003)  
  * Alexander Payne and Jim Taylor (2004)  
  * Dan Futterman (2005)  
  * William Monahan (2006)  
  * Brad Bird (2007)  
  * Dustin Lance Black (2008)  
  * Joel Coen and Ethan Coen (2009)  
  * Aaron Sorkin (2010)  
 2001–2021 * Steven Zaillian and Aaron Sorkin (2011)  
  * Tony Kushner (2012)  
  * Nicole Holofcener (2013)  
  * Alejandro G. Iñárritu, Nicolás Giacobone, Alexander Dinelaris Jr. and Armando Bo / Richard Linklater (2014) 
  * Tom McCarthy and Josh Singer (2015)  
  * Kenneth Lonergan (2016)  
  * Greta Gerwig (2017)  
  * Nicole Holofcener and Jeff Whitty (2018)  
  * Quentin Tarantino (2019)  
  * Charlie Kaufman (2020)  
  * Ryusuke Hamaguchi and Takamasa Oe (2021)  
    
 * v   
 * t   
 * e   
 Bram Stoker Award for Best Screenplay   
 * Alex Proyas / Bill Condon (1998)   
 * M. Night Shyamalan (1999)   
 * Steven Katz (2000)   
 * Christopher Nolan and Jonathan Nolan (2001)   
 * Brent Hanley (2002)   
 * Don Coscarelli (2003)   
 * Charlie Kaufman, Michel Gondry and Pierre Bismuth / Simon Pegg and Edgar Wright (2004)  
 * Jessica Sharzer (2011)   
 * Joss Whedon and Drew Goddard (2012)   
 * Glen Mazzara (2013)   
 * Jennifer Kent (2014)   
 * David Robert Mitchell (2015)   
 * Robert Eggers (2016)   
 * Jordan Peele (2017)   
 * Meredith Averill (2018)   
 * Jordan Peele (2019)   
 * Leigh Whannell (2020)   
 * Mike Flanagan, James Flanagan and Jeff Howard (2021)   
 * Novel (1988–)   
 * First Novel (1988–)   
 * Young Adult Novel (2012–)   
 * Graphic Novel (2012–)   
 * Long Fiction (1999–)   
 * Short Fiction (1999–)   
 * Fiction Collection (1999–)   
 * Best Screenplay (1999–2005, 2012–)   
 * Anthology (1999–)   
 * Non-Fiction (1988–)   
 * Poetry Collection ((2001–)   
 * Lifetime Achievement (1988–)   
    
 * v   
 * t   
 * e   
 Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Best Director   
 * Robert Zemeckis (1988)   
 * Spike Lee (1989)   
 * Martin Scorsese (1990)   
 * Jonathan Demme (1991)   
 * Robert Altman (1992)   
 * Steven Spielberg (1993)   
 * Quentin Tarantino (1994)   
 * Oliver Stone (1995)   
 * Joel Coen (1996)   
 * Curtis Hanson (1997)   
 * Terrence Malick (1998)   
 * Sam Mendes (1999)   
 * Steven Soderbergh (2000)   
 * David Lynch (2001)   
 * Todd Haynes (2002)   
 * Peter Jackson (2003)   
 * Clint Eastwood (2004)   
 * David Cronenberg (2005)   
 * Martin Scorsese (2006)   
 * Joel Coen and Ethan Coen (2007)   
 * Danny Boyle (2008)   
 * Kathryn Bigelow (2009)   
 * David Fincher (2010)   
 * Terrence Malick (2011)   
 * Kathryn Bigelow (2012)   
 * Steve McQueen (2013)   
 * Richard Linklater (2014)   
 * George Miller (2015)   
 * Barry Jenkins (2016)   
 * Christopher Nolan (2017)   
 * Alfonso Cuarón (2018)   
 * Bong Joon-ho (2019)   
 * Chloé Zhao (2020)   
 * Jane Campion (2021)   
 * Daniel Kwan and Daniel Scheinert (2022)   
    
 * v   
 * t   
 * e   
 Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Best Screenplay   
 * Nicholas Pileggi and Martin Scorsese (1990)   
 * No Award (1991)   
 * No Award (1992)   
 * Steven Zaillian (1993)   
 * Roger Avary and Quentin Tarantino (1994)   
 * Christopher McQuarrie (1995)   
 * Joel Coen and Ethan Coen (1996)   
 * Curtis Hanson and Brian Helgeland (1997)   
 * Marc Norman and Tom Stoppard (1998)   
 * Charlie Kaufman (1999)   
 * Cameron Crowe (2000)   
 * Christopher Nolan (2001)   
 * Charlie and Donald Kaufman (2002)   
 * Sofia Coppola (2003)   
 * Alexander Payne and Jim Taylor (2004)   
 * Paul Haggis and Bobby Moresco (2005)   
    
 * v   
 * t   
 * e   
 Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Best Original Screenplay  
 * Peter Morgan (2006)   
 * Diablo Cody (2007)   
 * Andrew Stanton and Jim Reardon (2008)   
 * Mark Boal (2009)   
 * Christopher Nolan (2010)   
 * Michel Hazanavicius (2011)   
 * Mark Boal (2012)   
 * Spike Jonze (2013)   
 * Wes Anderson (2014)   
 * Tom McCarthy and Josh Singer (2015)   
 * Kenneth Lonergan (2016)   
 * Jordan Peele (2017)   
 * Paul Schrader (2018)   
 * Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won (2019)   
 * Eliza Hittman (2020)   
 * Paul Thomas Anderson (2021)   
 * Martin McDonagh (2022)   
    
 * v   
 * t   
 * e   
 Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Screenplay   
 Best Screenplay * Emma Thompson (1995)  
 (1995–1996, 2001) * Anthony Minghella (1996)  
  * Christopher Nolan (2001)  
  * Charlie Kaufman (2002)  
  * Jim Sheridan, Naomi Sheridan, and Kirsten Sheridan (2003)  
 Best Writer * Alexander Payne and Jim Taylor (2004)  
 (2002–2018) * Paul Haggis and Bobby Moresco (2005)  
  * Michael Arndt (2006)  
  * Diablo Cody (2007)  
  * Simon Beaufoy (2008)  
  * Ben Affleck and Matt Damon (1997)  
  * Tom Stoppard and Marc Norman (1998)  
  * Alan Ball (1999)  
  * Cameron Crowe (2000)  
  * Quentin Tarantino (2009)  
  * David Seidler (2010)  
  * Woody Allen (2011)  
  * Quentin Tarantino (2012)  
 Best Original Screenplay * Spike Jonze (2013)  
 (1997–2000, 2009–present) * Alejandro G. Iñárritu, Nicolás Giacobone, Alexander Dinelaris Jr., and Armando Bó (2014) 
  * Tom McCarthy and Josh Singer (2015)  
  * Damien Chazelle / Kenneth Lonergan (2016)  
  * Jordan Peele (2017)  
  * Paul Schrader (2018)  
  * Quentin Tarantino (2019)  
  * Emerald Fennell (2020)  
  * Kenneth Branagh (2021)  
  * Daniel Kwan and Daniel Scheinert (2022)  
  * Curtis Hanson and Brian Helgeland (1997)  
  * Scott Smith (1998)  
  * Frank Darabont (1999)  
  * Stephen Gaghan / Steve Kloves (2000)  
  * Jason Reitman and Sheldon Turner (2009)  
  * Aaron Sorkin (2010)  
  * Steven Zaillian, Aaron Sorkin, and Stan Chervin (2011)  
  * Tony Kushner (2012)  
 Best Adapted Screenplay * John Ridley (2013)  
 (1997–2000, 2009–present) * Gillian Flynn (2014)  
  * Adam McKay and Charles Randolph (2015)  
  * Eric Heisserer (2016)  
  * James Ivory (2017)  
  * Barry Jenkins (2018)  
  * Greta Gerwig (2019)  
  * Chloé Zhao (2020)  
  * Jane Campion (2021)  
  * Sarah Polley (2022)  
    
 * v   
 * t   
 * e   
 Edgar Allan Poe Award for Best Motion Picture Screenplay  
 * John Paxton (1946)   
 * Anthony Veiller (1947)   
 * John Paxton (1948)   
 * Jerome Cady, Jay Dratler, Leonard Hoffman and Quentin Reynolds (1949)  
 * Mel Dinelli and Cornell Woolrich (1950)   
 * Ben Maddow (1951)   
 * Michael Wilson (1952)   
 * Michael Wilson and Otto Lang (1953)   
 * Sydney Boehm (1954)   
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 * Joseph Hayes (1956)   
 * Reginald Rose (1958)   
 * Nathan E. Douglas and Harold Jacob Smith (1959)   
 * Ernest Lehman (1960)   
 * Joseph Stefano (1961)   
 * William Archibald and Truman Capote (1962)   
 * Peter Stone (1964)   
 * Henry Farrell and Lukas Heller (1965)   
 * Paul Dehn and Guy Trosper (1966)   
 * William Goldman (1967)   
 * Stirling Silliphant (1968)   
 * Harry Kleiner and Alan Trustman (1969)   
 * Costa Gavras and Jorge Semprún (1970)   
 * Elio Petri and Ugo Pirro (1971)   
 * Ernest Tidyman (1972)   
 * Anthony Shaffer (1973)   
 * Anthony Perkins and Stephen Sondheim (1974)   
 * Robert Towne (1975)   
 * David Rayfiel and Lorenzo Semple, Jr. (1976)   
 * Ernest Lehman (1977)   
 * Robert Benton (1978)   
 * William Goldman (1979)   
 * Michael Crichton (1980)   
 * Joseph Wambaugh (1981)   
 * Jeffrey Alan Fiskin (1982)   
 * Barrie Keeffe (1983)   
 * Dennis Potter (1984)   
 * Charles Fuller (1985)   
 * William Kelley and Earl W. Wallace (1986)   
 * E. Max Frye (1987)   
 * Jim Kouf (1988)   
 * Errol Morris (1989)   
 * Daniel Waters (1990)   
 * Donald E. Westlake (1991)   
 * Ted Tally (1992)   
 * Michael Tolkin (1993)   
 * Ebbe Roe Smith (1994)   
 * Quentin Tarantino (1995)   
 * Christopher McQuarrie (1996)   
 * Billy Bob Thornton (1997)   
 * Curtis Hanson and Brian Helgeland (1998)   
 * Scott Frank and Elmore Leonard (1999)   
 * Guy Ritchie (2000)   
 * Stephen Gaghan and Simon Moore (2001)   
 * Christopher Nolan (2002)   
 * Bill Condon (2003)   
 * Steven Knight (2004)   
 * Jean-Pierre Jeunet and Sébastien Japrisot (2005)   
 * Stephen Gaghan and Robert Baer (2006)   
 * William Monahan (2007)   
 * Tony Gilroy (2008)   
 * Martin McDonagh (2009)   
    
 * v   
 * t   
 * e   
 Empire Award for Best Director   
 * Danny Boyle (1996)   
 * Terry Gilliam (1997)   
 * Cameron Crowe (1998)   
 * Steven Spielberg (1999)   
 * M. Night Shyamalan (2000)   
 * Bryan Singer (2001)   
 * Baz Luhrmann (2002)   
 * Steven Spielberg (2003)   
 * Quentin Tarantino (2004)   
 * Sam Raimi (2005)   
 * Nick Park and Steve Box (2006)   
 * Christopher Nolan (2007)   
 * David Yates (2008)   
 * Christopher Nolan (2009)   
 * James Cameron (2010)   
 * Edgar Wright (2011)   
 * David Yates (2012)   
 * Sam Mendes (2013)   
 * Alfonso Cuarón (2014)   
 * Christopher Nolan (2015)   
 * J. J. Abrams (2016)   
 * Gareth Edwards (2017)   
 * Rian Johnson (2018)   
    
 * v   
 * t   
 * e   
 Florida Film Critics Circle Award for Best Director  
 * Joel Coen (1996)   
 * Curtis Hanson (1997)   
 * Peter Weir (1998)   
 * Sam Mendes (1999)   
 * Steven Soderbergh (2000)   
 * Peter Jackson (2001)   
 * Martin Scorsese (2002)   
 * Peter Jackson (2003)   
 * Alexander Payne (2004)   
 * Ang Lee (2005)   
 * Martin Scorsese (2006)   
 * Joel Coen and Ethan Coen (2007)   
 * Danny Boyle (2008)   
 * Jason Reitman (2009)   
 * David Fincher (2010)   
 * Martin Scorsese (2011)   
 * Ben Affleck (2012)   
 * Steve McQueen (2013)   
 * Richard Linklater (2014)   
 * George Miller (2015)   
 * Damien Chazelle (2016)   
 * Christopher Nolan (2017)   
 * Alfonso Cuarón (2018)   
 * Céline Sciamma (2019)   
 * Chloé Zhao (2020)   
 * Jane Campion (2021)   
    
 * v   
 * t   
 * e   
 Florida Film Critics Circle Award for Best Screenplay  
  * Joel Coen and Ethan Coen (1996)  
  * Curtis Hanson and Brian Helgeland (1997)  
  * Marc Norman and Tom Stoppard (1998)  
  * Alexander Payne and Jim Taylor (1999)  
  * David Mamet (2000)  
  * Christopher Nolan (2001)  
 Screenplay * Charlie and Donald Kaufman (2002)  
 1996–2009 * Sofia Coppola (2003)  
  * Alexander Payne and Jim Taylor (2004)  
  * Larry McMurtry and Diana Ossana (2005)  
  * William Monahan (2006)  
  * Diablo Cody (2007)  
  * Simon Beaufoy (2008)  
  * Scott Neustadter and Michael H. Weber (2009)  
  * Christopher Nolan (2010)  
  * Michel Hazanavicius (2011)  
  * Rian Johnson (2012)  
  * Spike Jonze (2013)  
  * Wes Anderson and Hugo Guinness (2014)  
 Original Screenplay * Tom McCarthy and Josh Singer (2015)  
 2010–present * Efthymis Filippou and Yorgos Lanthimos (2016)  
  * Jordan Peele (2017)  
  * Boots Riley (2018)  
  * Ronald Bronstein and Benny and Josh Safdie (2019)  
  * Lee Isaac Chung (2020)  
  * Wes Anderson (2021)  
  * Aaron Sorkin (2010)  
  * Alexander Payne, Nat Faxon and Jim Rash (2011)  
  * Chris Terrio (2012)  
  * John Ridley (2013)  
  * Gillian Flynn (2014)  
 Adapted Screenplay * Adam McKay and Charles Randolph (2015)  
 2010–present * Whit Stillman (2016)  
  * James Ivory (2017)  
  * Nicole Holofcener and Jeff Whitty (2018)  
  * Greta Gerwig (2019)  
  * Charlie Kaufman (2020)  
  * Jane Campion (2021)  
    
 * v   
 * t   
 * e   
 Independent Spirit Award for Best Director   
 * Joel Coen / Martin Scorsese (1985)   
 * Oliver Stone (1986)   
 * John Huston (1987)   
 * Ramon Menendez (1988)   
 * Steven Soderbergh (1989)   
 * Charles Burnett (1990)   
 * Martha Coolidge (1991)   
 * Carl Franklin (1992)   
 * Robert Altman (1993)   
 * Quentin Tarantino (1994)   
 * Mike Figgis (1995)   
 * Joel Coen (1996)   
 * Robert Duvall (1997)   
 * Wes Anderson (1998)   
 * Alexander Payne (1999)   
 * Ang Lee (2000)   
 * Christopher Nolan (2001)   
 * Todd Haynes (2002)   
 * Sofia Coppola (2003)   
 * Alexander Payne (2004)   
 * Ang Lee (2005)   
 * Jonathan Dayton and Valerie Faris (2006)   
 * Julian Schnabel (2007)   
 * Tom McCarthy (2008)   
 * Lee Daniels (2009)   
 * Darren Aronofsky (2010)   
 * Michel Hazanavicius (2011)   
 * David O. Russell (2012)   
 * Steve McQueen (2013)   
 * Richard Linklater (2014)   
 * Tom McCarthy (2015)   
 * Barry Jenkins (2016)   
 * Jordan Peele (2017)   
 * Barry Jenkins (2018)   
 * Safdie brothers (2019)   
 * Chloé Zhao (2020)   
 * Maggie Gyllenhaal (2021)   
    
 * v   
 * t   
 * e   
 Independent Spirit Award for Best Screenplay   
 * Horton Foote (1985)   
 * Oliver Stone (1986)   
 * Neal Jimenez (1987)   
 * Ramon Menendez and Tom Musca (1988)   
 * Gus Van Sant and Daniel Yost (1989)   
 * Charles Burnett (1990)   
 * Gus Van Sant (1991)   
 * Neal Jimenez (1992)   
 * Robert Altman and Frank Barhydt (1993)   
 * Quentin Tarantino and Roger Avary (1994)   
 * Christopher McQuarrie (1995)   
 * Joel Coen and Ethan Coen (1996)   
 * Kevin Smith (1997)   
 * Don Roos (1998)   
 * Alexander Payne and Jim Taylor (1999)   
 * Kenneth Lonergan (2000)   
 * Christopher Nolan (2001)   
 * Mike White (2002)   
 * Sofia Coppola (2003)   
 * Alexander Payne and Jim Taylor (2004)   
 * Dan Futterman (2005)   
 * Jason Reitman (2006)   
 * Tamara Jenkins (2007)   
 * Woody Allen (2008)   
 * Scott Neustadter and Michael H. Weber (2009)  
 * Stuart Blumberg and Lisa Cholodenko (2010)  
 * Alexander Payne, Jim Rash, and Nat Faxon (2011)  
 * David O. Russell (2012)   
 * John Ridley (2013)   
 * Dan Gilroy (2014)   
 * Tom McCarthy and Josh Singer (2015)   
 * Barry Jenkins and Tarell Alvin McCraney (2016)  
 * Greta Gerwig (2017)   
 * Nicole Holofcener and Jeff Whitty (2018)   
 * Noah Baumbach (2019)   
 * Emerald Fennell (2020)   
 * Maggie Gyllenhaal (2021)   
    
 * v   
 * t   
 * e   
 Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Screenplay  
  * Joan Tewkesbury (1975)  
  * Paddy Chayefsky (1976)  
  * Woody Allen and Marshall Brickman (1977) 
  * Paul Mazursky (1978)  
  * Robert Benton (1979)  
  * John Sayles (1980)  
  * John Guare (1981)  
  * Larry Gelbart and Murray Schisgal (1982) 
  * James L. Brooks (1983)  
  * Peter Shaffer (1984)  
  * Terry Gilliam, Charles McKeown and Tom Stoppard (1985) 
  * Woody Allen (1986)  
 1975–2000 * John Boorman (1987)  
  * Ron Shelton (1988)  
  * Gus Van Sant and Daniel Yost (1989)  
  * Nicholas Kazan (1990)  
  * James Toback (1991)  
  * David Webb Peoples (1992)  
  * Jane Campion (1993)  
  * Quentin Tarantino and Roger Avary (1994) 
  * Emma Thompson (1995)  
  * Joel Coen and Ethan Coen (1996)  
  * Curtis Hanson and Brian Helgeland (1997) 
  * Warren Beatty and Jeremy Pikser (1998) 
  * Charlie Kaufman (1999)  
  * Kenneth Lonergan (2000)  
  * Christopher Nolan (2001)  
  * Alexander Payne and Jim Taylor (2002) 
  * Shari Springer Berman and Robert Pulcini (2003) 
  * Alexander Payne and Jim Taylor (2004) 
  * Noah Baumbach / Dan Futterman (2005)  
  * Peter Morgan (2006)  
  * Tamara Jenkins (2007)  
  * Mike Leigh (2008)  
  * Jason Reitman and Sheldon Turner (2009) 
  * Aaron Sorkin (2010)  
 2001–present * Asghar Farhadi (2011)  
  * Chris Terrio (2012)  
  * Richard Linklater, Ethan Hawke and Julie Delpy (2013) 
  * Wes Anderson (2014)  
  * Tom McCarthy and Josh Singer (2015)  
  * Yorgos Lanthimos and Efthymis Filippou (2016) 
  * Jordan Peele (2017)  
  * Nicole Holofcener and Jeff Whitty (2018) 
  * Noah Baumbach (2019)  
  * Emerald Fennell (2020)  
  * Ryusuke Hamaguchi and Takamasa Oe (2021) 
  * Todd Field (2022)  
    
 * v   
 * t   
 * e   
 MTV Movie Award for Best New Filmmaker   
 * John Singleton (1992)   
 * Carl Franklin (1993)   
 * Steven Zaillian (1994)   
 * Steve James (1995)   
 * Wes Anderson (1996)   
 * Doug Liman (1997)   
 * Peter Cattaneo (1998)   
 * Guy Ritchie (1999)   
 * Spike Jonze (2000)   
 * Sofia Coppola (2001)   
 * Christopher Nolan (2002)   
    
 * v   
 * t   
 * e   
 Nebula Award for Best Script/Ray Bradbury Award  
  * Soylent Green – Stanley R. Greenberg (1973)  
  * Sleeper – Woody Allen (1974)  
  * Young Frankenstein – Mel Brooks and Gene Wilder (1975) 
  * Star Wars – George Lucas (1977)  
  * The Sixth Sense – M. Night Shyamalan (1999)  
  * Galaxy Quest – David Howard and Robert Gordon (2000) 
 Nebula Award * Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon – James Schamus, Kuo Jung Tsai, and Hui-Ling Wang (2001) 
 for Best Script * The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring – Fran Walsh, Philippa Boyens, and Peter Jackson (2002) 
  * The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers – Fran Walsh, Philippa Boyens, Stephen Sinclair, and Peter Jackson (2003) 
  * The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King – Fran Walsh, Philippa Boyens, and Peter Jackson (2004) 
  * Serenity – Joss Whedon (2005)  
  * Howl's Moving Castle – Hayao Miyazaki, Cindy Davis Hewitt, and Donald H. Hewitt (2006) 
  * Pan's Labyrinth – Guillermo del Toro (2007)  
  * WALL-E – Andrew Stanton, Jim Reardon, and Pete Docter (2008) 
  * Terminator 2: Judgment Day – James Cameron (1992) 
  * Babylon 5 – J. Michael Straczynski (1999)  
  * 2000X – Tales of the Next Millennia – Yuri Rasovsky and Harlan Ellison (2001) 
  * Joss Whedon (2008)  
  * District 9 – Neill Blomkamp and Terri Tatchell (2009) 
  * Inception – Christopher Nolan (2010)  
  * Doctor Who: "The Doctor's Wife" – Richard Clark and Neil Gaiman (2011) 
 Ray Bradbury Award * Beasts of the Southern Wild – Benh Zeitlin and Lucy Alibar (2012) 
 for Outstanding * Gravity – Alfonso Cuarón and Jonás Cuarón (2013) 
 Dramatic Presentation * Guardians of the Galaxy – James Gunn and Nicole Perlman (2014) 
  * Mad Max: Fury Road – George Miller, Brendan McCarthy, and Nico Lathouris (2015) 
  * Arrival – Denis Villeneuve and Eric Heisserer (2016) 
  * Get Out – Jordan Peele (2017)  
  * Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse – Phil Lord and Rodney Rothman (2018) 
  * Good Omens: "Hard Times" – Neil Gaiman (2019)  
  * The Good Place: "Whenever You're Ready" – Michael Schur (2020) 
  * WandaVision – Jac Schaeffer and writing staff (2021) 
    
  * v   
  * t   
  * e   
 Online Film Critics Society Award for Best Director  
  * James Cameron (1997)   
  * Steven Spielberg (1998)   
  * Sam Mendes (1999)   
  * Darren Aronofsky (2000)   
  * David Lynch (2001)   
  * Peter Jackson (2002)   
  * Peter Jackson (2003)   
  * Michel Gondry (2004)   
  * David Cronenberg (2005)   
  * Martin Scorsese (2006)   
  * Joel Coen and Ethan Coen (2007)   
  * Christopher Nolan (2008)   
  * Kathryn Bigelow (2009)   
  * David Fincher (2010)   
  * Terrence Malick (2011)   
  * Paul Thomas Anderson (2012)   
  * Alfonso Cuarón (2013)   
  * Richard Linklater (2014)   
  * George Miller (2015)   
  * Barry Jenkins (2016)   
  * Christopher Nolan (2017)   
  * Alfonso Cuarón (2018)   
  * Bong Joon-ho (2019)   
  * Chloé Zhao (2020)   
  * Jane Campion (2021)   
  * Daniel Kwan and Daniel Scheinert (2022)  
    
  * v   
  * t   
  * e   
  Online Film Critics Society Award for Best Original Screenplay  
  * Paul Thomas Anderson (1997)   
  * Andrew Niccol (1998)   
  * Charlie Kaufman (1999)   
  * Cameron Crowe (2000)   
  * Alejandro Amenábar / David Lynch (2001)  
  * Todd Haynes (2002)   
  * Sofia Coppola (2003)   
  * Charlie Kaufman (2004)   
  * George Clooney and Grant Heslov (2005)  
  * Guillermo del Toro (2006)   
  * Diablo Cody (2007)   
  * Jim Reardon and Andrew Stanton (2008)  
  * Quentin Tarantino (2009)   
  * Christopher Nolan (2010)   
  * Woody Allen (2011)   
  * Wes Anderson and Roman Coppola (2012)  
  * Spike Jonze (2013)   
  * Wes Anderson (2014)   
  * Tom McCarthy and Josh Singer (2015)  
  * Taylor Sheridan (2016)   
  * Jordan Peele (2017)   
  * Boots Riley (2018)   
  * Bong Joon-ho and Han Jin-won (2019)  
  * Emerald Fennell (2020)   
  * Michael Sarnoski and Vanessa Block (2021)  
  * Martin McDonagh (2022)   
    
  * v   
  * t   
  * e   
  Online Film Critics Society Award for Best Adapted Screenplay  
  * Scott Frank (1998)   
  * Alexander Payne and Jim Taylor (1999)  
  * Christopher Nolan (2001)   
  * Charlie Kaufman and Donald Kaufman (2002)  
  * Philippa Boyens, Peter Jackson, and Fran Walsh (2003)  
  * Alexander Payne and Jim Taylor (2004)  
  * Larry McMurtry and Diana Ossana (2005)  
  * Alfonso Cuarón, Timothy J. Sexton, David Arata, Mark Fergus and Hawk Ostby (2006)  
  * Joel Coen and Ethan Coen (2007)  
  * John Ajvide Lindqvist (2008)   
  * Wes Anderson and Noah Baumbach (2009)  
  * Aaron Sorkin (2010)   
  * Bridget O'Connor and Peter Straughan (2011)  
  * Chris Terrio (2012)   
  * John Ridley (2013)   
  * Gillian Flynn (2014)   
  * Phyllis Nagy (2015)   
  * Eric Heisserer (2016)   
  * James Ivory (2017)   
  * Barry Jenkins (2018)   
  * Steven Zaillian (2019)   
  * Chloé Zhao (2020)   
  * Jane Campion (2021)   
  * Rian Johnson (2022)   
    
  * v   
  * t   
  * e   
  Online Film Critics Society Award for Best Breakthrough Filmmaker  
  * Spike Jonze (1999)   
  * Christopher Nolan (2001)   
  * Mark Romanek (2002)   
  * Shari Springer Berman and Robert Pulcini (2003)  
  * Zach Braff (2004)   
  * Paul Haggis (2005)   
  * Jonathan Dayton and Valerie Faris (2006)  
  * Sarah Polley (2007)   
  * Tomas Alfredson (2008)   
    
  * v   
  * t   
  * e   
  Saturn Award for Best Director  
  * Mel Brooks (1974/75)  
  * Dan Curtis (1976)  
  1970s * George Lucas / Steven Spielberg (1977)  
  * Philip Kaufman (1978)  
  * Ridley Scott (1979)  
  * Irvin Kershner (1980)  
  * Steven Spielberg (1981)  
  * Nicholas Meyer (1982)  
  * John Badham (1983)  
  1980s * Joe Dante (1984)  
  * Ron Howard (1985)  
  * James Cameron (1986)  
  * Paul Verhoeven (1987)  
  * Robert Zemeckis (1988)  
  * James Cameron (1989/90)  
  * James Cameron (1991)  
  * Francis Ford Coppola (1992)  
  * Steven Spielberg (1993)  
  * James Cameron (1994)  
  1990s * Kathryn Bigelow (1995)  
  * Roland Emmerich (1996)  
  * John Woo (1997)  
  * Michael Bay (1998)  
  * Lilly Wachowski and Lana Wachowski (1999)  
  * Bryan Singer (2000)  
  * Peter Jackson (2001)  
  * Steven Spielberg (2002)  
  * Peter Jackson (2003)  
  2000s * Sam Raimi (2004)  
  * Peter Jackson (2005)  
  * Bryan Singer (2006)  
  * Zack Snyder (2007)  
  * Jon Favreau (2008)  
  * James Cameron (2009)  
  * Christopher Nolan (2010)  
  * J. J. Abrams (2011)  
  * Joss Whedon (2012)  
  * Alfonso Cuarón (2013)  
  * James Gunn (2014)  
  2010s * Ridley Scott (2015)  
  * Gareth Edwards (2016)  
  * Ryan Coogler (2017)  
  * Jordan Peele (2018/2019)  
  * J. J. Abrams (2019/2020)  
  * Matt Reeves (2021/2022)  
    
  * v   
  * t   
  * e   
  Saturn Award for Best Writing  
  * William Peter Blatty (1973)  
  * Ib Melchior / Harlan Ellison (1974/75)  
  1970s * Jimmy Sangster (1976)  
  * George Lucas (1977)  
  * Elaine May and Warren Beatty (1978)  
  * Nicholas Meyer (1979)  
  * William Peter Blatty (1980)  
  * Lawrence Kasdan (1981)  
  * Melissa Mathison (1982)  
  * Ray Bradbury (1983)  
  1980s * James Cameron and Gale Anne Hurd (1984)  
  * Tom Holland (1985)  
  * James Cameron (1986)  
  * Michael Miner and Edward Neumeier (1987)  
  * Gary Ross and Anne Spielberg (1988)  
  * William Peter Blatty (1989/90)  
  * Ted Tally (1991)  
  * James V. Hart (1992)  
  * Michael Crichton and David Koepp (1993)  
  * Jim Harrison and Wesley Strick (1994)  
  1990s * Andrew Kevin Walker (1995)  
  * Kevin Williamson (1996)  
  * Mike Werb and Michael Colleary (1997)  
  * Andrew Niccol (1998)  
  * Charlie Kaufman (1999)  
  * David Hayter (2000)  
  * Steven Spielberg (2001)  
  * Scott Frank and Jon Cohen (2002)  
  * Fran Walsh , Philippa Boyens , and Peter Jackson (2003) 
  2000s * Alvin Sargent (2004)  
  * Christopher Nolan and David S. Goyer (2005)  
  * Michael Dougherty and Dan Harris (2006)  
  * Brad Bird (2007)  
  * Christopher and Jonathan Nolan (2008)  
  * James Cameron (2009)  
  * Christopher Nolan (2010)  
  * Jeff Nichols (2011)  
  * Quentin Tarantino (2012)  
  * Spike Jonze (2013)  
  * Christopher and Jonathan Nolan (2014)  
  2010s * Lawrence Kasdan , J. J. Abrams , and Michael Arndt (2015) 
  * Eric Heisserer (2016)  
  * Rian Johnson (2017)  
  * Bryan Woods , Scott Beck , and John Krasinski (2018/2019) 
  * Quentin Tarantino (2019/2020)  
  * Guillermo del Toro and Kim Morgan (2021/2022)  
    
  * v   
  * t   
  * e   
  Seattle Film Critics Society Award for Best Director  
  * Barry Jenkins (2016)   
  * Christopher Nolan (2017)  
  * Alfonso Cuarón (2018)  
  * Bong Joon-ho (2019)   
  * Chloé Zhao (2020)   
  * Ryusuke Hamaguchi (2021)  
  * Daniel Kwan and Daniel Scheinert (2022)  
    
  * v   
  * t   
  * e   
  Toronto Film Critics Association Award for Best Screenplay  
  * Paul Thomas Anderson / Charlie Kaufman (1999)  
  * Kenneth Lonergan (2000)  
  * Christopher Nolan (2001)  
  * Charlie and Donald Kaufman (2002)  
  * Denys Arcand / Sofia Coppola (2003)  
  * Charlie Kaufman (2004)  
  * Noah Baumbach (2005)  
  * Peter Morgan (2006)  
  * Joel Coen and Ethan Coen (2007)  
  * Jenny Lumet (2008)   
  * Quentin Tarantino / Jason Reitman and Sheldon Turner (2009)  
  * Aaron Sorkin (2010)  
  * Steven Zaillian and Aaron Sorkin (2011)  
  * Paul Thomas Anderson (2012)  
  * Spike Jonze (2013)   
  * Wes Anderson (2014)  
  * Adam McKay and Charles Randolph (2015)  
  * Kenneth Lonergan (2016)  
  * Jordan Peele (2017)  
  * Deborah Davis and Tony McNamara / Paul Schrader (2018)  
  * Steven Zaillian (2019)  
  * Lee Isaac Chung (2020)  
  * Ryusuke Hamaguchi and Takamasa Oe (2021)  
  * Martin McDonagh (2022)  
    
  * v   
  * t   
  * e   
  Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association Award for Best Director  
  * Spike Jonze / Sam Mendes / Denzel Washington (2002)  
  * Peter Jackson (2003)  
  * Michel Gondry (2004)  
  * Steven Spielberg (2005)  
  * Martin Scorsese (2006)  
  * Joel Coen and Ethan Coen (2007)  
  * Danny Boyle (2008)  
  * Kathryn Bigelow (2009)  
  * David Fincher (2010)  
  * Martin Scorsese (2011)  
  * Kathryn Bigelow (2012)  
  * Alfonso Cuarón (2013)  
  * Richard Linklater (2014)  
  * George Miller (2015)  
  * Damien Chazelle (2016)  
  * Christopher Nolan (2017)  
  * Alfonso Cuarón (2018)  
  * Bong Joon-ho (2019)  
  * Chloé Zhao (2020)  
  * Jane Campion (2021)  
  * Daniel Kwan and Daniel Scheinert (2022)  
    
  * v   
  * t   
  * e   
  Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association Award for Best Original Screenplay  
  * Nia Vardalos (2002)  
  * Sofia Coppola (2003)  
  * Charlie Kaufman (2004)  
  * Paul Haggis and Bobby Moresco (2005)  
  * Michael Arndt (2006)  
  * Diablo Cody (2007)  
  * Jenny Lumet (2008)  
  * Quentin Tarantino (2009)  
  * Christopher Nolan (2010)  
  * Will Reiser (2011)  
  * Rian Johnson (2012)  
  * Spike Jonze (2013)  
  * Alejandro G. Iñárritu, Nicolás Giacobone, Alexander Dinelaris, Jr. and Armando Bo (2014) 
  * Pete Docter, Meg LeFauve, Josh Cooley and Ronnie del Carmen (2015)  
  * Damien Chazelle (2016)  
  * Jordan Peele (2017)  
  * Deborah Davis and Tony McNamara (2018)  
  * Noah Baumbach (2019)  
  * Emerald Fennell (2020)  
  * Kenneth Branagh (2021)  
  * Daniel Kwan and Daniel Scheinert (2022)  
    
  * v   
  * t   
  * e   
  Writers Guild of America Award for Best Original Screenplay  
   * William Goldman (1969) 
   * Francis Ford Coppola & Edmund H. North (1970) 
   * Penelope Gilliatt (1971) 
   * Jeremy Larner (1972) 
   * Steve Shagan (1973) 
   * Robert Towne (1974) 
  Original Drama * Frank Pierson (1975) 
  (1969–1983) * Paddy Chayefsky (1976) 
   * Arthur Laurents (1977) 
   * Nancy Dowd, Robert C. Jones & Waldo Salt (1978) 
   * Mike Gray, T. S. Cook & James Bridges (1979) 
   * Bo Goldman (1980) 
   * Warren Beatty & Trevor Griffiths (1981) 
   * Melissa Mathison (1982) 
   * Horton Foote (1983) 
   * Paul Mazursky & Larry Tucker (1969) 
   * Neil Simon (1970) 
   * Paddy Chayefsky (1971) 
   * Peter Bogdanovich, Buck Henry, David Newman & Robert Benton (1972) 
   * Melvin Frank & Jack Rose (1973) 
   * Mel Brooks, Norman Steinberg, Andrew Bergman, Richard Pryor & Alan Uger (1974)
  Original Comedy * Robert Towne & Warren Beatty (1975) 
  (1969–1983) * Bill Lancaster (1976) 
   * Woody Allen & Marshall Brickman (1977) 
   * Larry Gelbart & Sheldon Keller (1978) 
   * Steve Tesich (1979) 
   * Nancy Meyers, Harvey Miller & Charles Shyer (1980) 
   * Steve Gordon (1981) 
   * Don McGuire, Larry Gelbart & Murray Schisgal (1982) 
   * Lawrence Kasdan & Barbara Benedek (1983) 
   * Woody Allen (1984) 
   * William Kelley & Earl W. Wallace (1985) 
   * Woody Allen (1986) 
   * John Patrick Shanley (1987) 
   * Ron Shelton (1988) 
   * Woody Allen (1989) 
   * Barry Levinson (1990) 
   * Callie Khouri (1991) 
   * Neil Jordan (1992) 
   * Jane Campion (1993) 
   * Richard Curtis (1994) 
   * Randall Wallace (1995) 
   * Joel Coen & Ethan Coen (1996) 
   * James L. Brooks & Mark Andrus (1997) 
   * Marc Norman & Tom Stoppard (1998) 
   * Alan Ball (1999) 
   * Kenneth Lonergan (2000) 
   * Julian Fellowes (2001) 
  Original Screenplay * Michael Moore (2002) 
  (1984–present) * Sofia Coppola (2003) 
   * Charlie Kaufman (2004) 
   * Paul Haggis & Bobby Moresco (2005) 
   * Michael Arndt (2006) 
   * Diablo Cody (2007) 
   * Dustin Lance Black (2008) 
   * Mark Boal (2009) 
   * Christopher Nolan (2010) 
   * Woody Allen (2011) 
   * Mark Boal (2012) 
   * Spike Jonze (2013) 
   * Wes Anderson & Hugo Guinness (2014) 
   * Tom McCarthy & Josh Singer (2015) 
   * Barry Jenkins & Tarell Alvin McCraney (2016) 
   * Jordan Peele (2017) 
   * Bo Burnham (2018) 
   * Bong Joon-ho & Han Jin-won (2019) 
   * Emerald Fennell (2020) 
   * Adam McKay & David Sirota (2021) 
    
 
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 * 
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Christopher Nolan    CBE         Nolan in 2018    Born  Christopher Edward Nolan 30 July 1970 (age 52)London, England    Citizenship    United Kingdom United States      Alma mater  University College London    Occupations    Film director film producer screenwriter      Years active 1998–present   Works     Filmography   cinematic style       Board member of  The Film Foundation    Spouse     Emma Thomas   ​ (m. 1997) ​     Children 4   Relatives  
  Jonathan Nolan (brother)
 John Nolan (uncle) 
    Awards  Full list    
 Christopher Edward Nolan CBE (born 30 July 1970) is a British-American filmmaker. Known for his Hollywood blockbusters with complex storytelling, Nolan is considered a leading filmmaker of the 21st century. His films have grossed $5 billion worldwide. The recipient of many accolades, he has been nominated for five Academy Awards, five British Academy Film Awards and six Golden Globe Awards. In 2015, he was listed as one of the 100 most influential people in the world by  Time , and in 2019, he was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire for his contributions to film.
 Nolan developed an interest in filmmaking from a young age. After studying English literature at University College London, he made several short films before his feature film debut with  Following  (1998). Nolan gained international recognition with his second film,  Memento  (2000), for which he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay. He transitioned from independent to studio filmmaking with  Insomnia  (2002), and found further critical and commercial success with  The Dark Knight Trilogy  (2005–2012),  The Prestige  (2006) and  Inception  (2010); the last of these earned Nolan two Oscar nominations—Best Picture and Best Original Screenplay. This was followed by  Interstellar  (2014),  Dunkirk  (2017) and  Tenet  (2020). For Dunkirk, he earned two Academy Award nominations, including his first for Best Director.
  Nolan's work regularly feature in the listings of best films of their respective decades. They are typically characterised by epistemology and existentialism. Infused with a metaphysical outlook; they explore ethics, the construction of time, and the malleable nature of memory and personal identity. His work is permeated with mathematically inspired images and concepts, unconventional narrative structures, practical special effects, experimental soundscapes, large-format film photography, and materialistic perspectives. He has co-written several of his films with his brother Jonathan, and runs the production company Syncopy Inc. with his wife Emma Thomas.
Early life[edit]
     
Christopher Edward Nolan was born on 30 July 1970, in Westminster, London. His father, Brendan, was a British advertising executive who worked as a creative director. His mother, Christina, was an American flight attendant from Evanston, Illinois; she would later work as a teacher of English. He has an elder brother, Matthew, and a younger brother, Jonathan, also a filmmaker. The three were raised in London and would spend their summers in Evanston. Nolan has both UK and US citizenship. [2] 
 Growing up, Nolan was particularly influenced by the work of Ridley Scott and the science fiction films  2001: A Space Odyssey  (1968) and  Star Wars  (1977). [3]   [4]  He would repeatedly watch the latter film and extensively research its making. [5]  Nolan began making films at the age of seven, borrowing his father's Super 8 camera and shooting short films with his action figures. [6]  These films included a stop motion animation homage to Star Wars called Space Wars. He cast his brother Jonathan and built sets from "clay, flour, egg boxes and toilet rolls". [3]  His uncle, who had worked at NASA building guidance systems for the Apollo rockets, sent him some launch footage: "I re-filmed them off the screen and cut them in, thinking no-one would notice", Nolan later remarked. [7]  From the age of 11, he aspired to be a professional filmmaker. [8]  Between 1981 and 1983, Nolan enrolled at Barrow Hills, a Catholic prep school in Weybridge, Surrey. [9]  In his teenage years, Nolan started making films with Adrien and Roko Belic. Nolan and Roko co–directed the surreal 8 mm Tarantella (1989), which was shown on Image Union, an independent film and video showcase on the Public Broadcasting Service. [a]   [11]   [12] 
 Nolan was educated at Haileybury and Imperial Service College, an independent school in Hertford Heath, Hertfordshire, and later studied English literature at University College London (UCL). Opting out of a traditional film education, he pursued "a degree in something unrelated", which his father suggested "gives a different take on things". [13]  He chose UCL specifically for its filmmaking facilities, which comprised a Steenbeck editing suite and 16 mm film cameras. [14]  Nolan was president of the Union's Film Society, [14]  and with Emma Thomas (his girlfriend and future wife) he screened feature films of 35 mm during the school year and used the money earned to produce 16 mm films over the summers. [15] 
Career[edit]
1993–2003: Early career and breakthrough[edit]
After earning his bachelor's degree in English literature in 1993, Nolan worked as a script reader, camera operator and director of corporate videos and industrial films. [14]   [16]   [17]  He directed, wrote and edited the short film Larceny (1996), [18]  which was filmed over a weekend in black and white with limited equipment and a small cast and crew. [11]   [19]  Funded by Nolan and shot with the UCL Union Film society's equipment, it appeared at the Cambridge Film Festival in 1996 and is considered one of UCL's best shorts. [20]  For unknown reasons, the film has since been removed from public view. [18]  Nolan filmed a third short,  Doodlebug  (1997), about a man seemingly chasing an insect with his shoe, only to discover that it is a miniature of himself. [13]   [21]  Nolan and Thomas first attempted to make a feature in the mid-1990s with Larry Mahoney, which they scrapped. [22]  During this period in his career, Nolan had little to no success getting his projects off the ground, facing several rejections; he added, "[T]here's a very limited pool of finance in the UK. To be honest, it's a very clubby kind of place ... Never had any support whatsoever from the British film industry." [23] 
 Shortly after abandoning Larry Mahoney, Nolan conceived the idea for his first feature,  Following  (1998), which he wrote, directed, photographed and edited. The film depicts an unemployed young writer (Jeremy Theobald) who trails strangers through London, hoping they will provide material for his first novel, but is drawn into a criminal underworld when he fails to keep his distance. It was inspired by Nolan's experience of living in London and having his apartment burgled; he observed that the common attribute between larceny and pursuing someone through a crowd was that they both cross social boundaries. [24]  Co-produced by Nolan with Thomas and Theobald, [25]  it was made on a budget of around £3,000. Most of the cast and crew were friends of the director, and shooting took place on weekends over the course of a year. [26]  To conserve film stock, each scene was rehearsed extensively to ensure that the first or second take could be used in the final edit. [13]   [27]  Following won several awards during its festival run and was well received by critics who labelled Nolan a majorly talented debutant. [28]   [29]  Scott Timberg of  New Times LA  wrote that it "echoed Hitchcock classics", but was "leaner and meaner". [30]  Janet Maslin of  The New York Times  was impressed with its "spare look" and "agile hand-held camerawork", saying, "As a result, the actors convincingly carry off the before, during and after modes that the film eventually, and artfully, weaves together." [31] 
"[T]he difference between shooting  Following  with a group of friends wearing our own clothes and my mum making sandwiches to spending $4 million of somebody else's money on  Memento  and having a crew of a hundred people is, to this day, by far the biggest leap I've ever made."
 —Nolan on the jump from his first film to his second (2012) [32]  
 Following's success afforded Nolan the opportunity to make  Memento  (2000), which became his breakthrough film. His brother Jonathan pitched the idea to him, about a man with anterograde amnesia who uses notes and tattoos to hunt for his wife's murderer. Jonathan worked the idea into a short story, "Memento Mori" (2001), and Nolan developed it into a screenplay that told the story in reverse. Aaron Ryder, an executive for Newmarket Films, said it was "perhaps the most innovative script I had ever seen". [33]  The film was optioned and given a budget of $4.5 million, with Guy Pearce and Carrie-Anne Moss in the starring roles. [34]  Newmarket also distributed the film after it was rejected by studios who feared that it would not attract a wide audience. Following a positive word of mouth and screenings in 500 theatres, it earned $40 million. [35]  Memento premiered at the Venice International Film Festival in September 2000 to critical acclaim. [36]  Joe Morgenstern of  The Wall Street Journal  wrote in his review, "I can't remember when a movie has seemed so clever, strangely affecting and slyly funny at the very same time." [37]  In the book The Philosophy of Neo-Noir, Basil Smith drew a comparison with John Locke's  An Essay Concerning Human Understanding , which argues that conscious memories constitute our identities – a theme Nolan explores in the film. [38]  Memento earned Nolan many accolades, including nominations for an Academy Award and a Golden Globe Award for Best Screenplay, as well as two Independent Spirit Awards: Best Director and Best Screenplay. [39]   [40]  Six critics listed it as one of the best films of the 2000s. [41]  In 2001, Nolan and Emma Thomas founded the production company Syncopy Inc.  [42]   [b] 
 Impressed by his work on Memento, filmmaker Steven Soderbergh recommended Nolan to Warner Bros. to direct the psychological thriller  Insomnia  (2002), although the studio initially wanted a more seasoned director. [44]  A remake of the 1997 Norwegian thriller of the same name, the film is viewed as "the outlier of Nolan's filmography" due to its perceived lack of unconventionality he is known for. [45]  Starring Al Pacino, Robin Williams and Hilary Swank, [46]  Insomnia follows two Los Angeles detectives sent to a northern Alaskan town to investigate the murder of a local teenager. It received positive reviews from critics and earned $113 million against a budget of $46 million. [47]   [48]  Film critic Roger Ebert praised the film for introducing new perspectives and ideas on the issues of morality and guilt, adding, "Unlike most remakes, the Nolan Insomnia is not a pale retread, but a re-examination of the material, like a new production of a good play." [49]  Richard Schickel of  Time  deemed Insomnia a "worthy successor" to Memento and "a triumph of atmosphere over a none-too-mysterious mystery". [50]  Following, Memento and Insomnia established Nolan's image as an "auteur". [51]  After the lattermost, he wrote a screenplay for a Howard Hughes biopic. Nolan reluctantly tabled his script after learning that Martin Scorsese was already making one such film:  The Aviator  (2004). [52]  He turned down an offer to direct the historical epic  Troy  (2004). [53] 
2003–2013: Widespread recognition[edit]
In early 2003, Nolan approached Warner Bros. with the idea of making a new Batman film, based on the character's origin story. [54]  Nolan was fascinated by the notion of grounding it in a more realistic world than a comic-book fantasy. [55]  He relied heavily on traditional stunts and miniature effects during filming, with minimal use of computer-generated imagery (CGI). [56]   Batman Begins  (2005), the biggest project Nolan had undertaken to that point, [57]  was released to critical acclaim and commercial success. [58]   [59]  Starring Christian Bale as Bruce Wayne / Batman—along with Michael Caine, Gary Oldman, Morgan Freeman and Liam Neeson—Batman Begins revived the franchise. [60]   [61]  Batman Begins was 2005's ninth-highest-grossing film and was praised for its psychological depth and contemporary relevance; [59]   [62]  it is cited as one of the most influential films of the 2000s. [63]  Film author Ian Nathan wrote that within five years of his career, Nolan "[went] from unknown to indie darling to gaining creative control over one of the biggest properties in Hollywood, and (perhaps unwittingly) fomenting the genre that would redefine the entire industry". [64] 
 Nolan directed, co-wrote and produced  The Prestige  (2006), an adaptation of the Christopher Priest novel about two rival 19th-century magicians. [65]  The screenplay was the result of an intermittent, five-year collaboration between him and his brother Jonathan, who had begun writing it already in 2001. Nolan initially intended to make the film as early as 2003, but had postponed the project after agreeing to make Batman Begins. [66]   [67]  Starring Hugh Jackman and Christian Bale in the lead roles of rival magicians, The Prestige received critical acclaim and received two Academy Award nominations. [68]   [69]  Roger Ebert described it as "quite a movie – atmospheric, obsessive, almost satanic", [70]  and Kenneth Turan of the  Los Angeles Times  called it an "ambitious, unnerving melodrama". [71]   The Guardian 's Philip French wrote: "In addition to the intellectual or philosophical excitement it engenders, The Prestige is gripping, suspenseful, mysterious, moving and often darkly funny." [72]  Despite a negative box-office prognosis, the film earned over $109 million against a budget of $40 million. [73] 
      Nolan (left) with the cast and crew of  The Dark Knight  at the 2008 European premiere in London  
  The Dark Knight  (2008), the follow-up to Batman Begins, was Nolan's next venture. Initially reluctant to make a sequel, he agreed after Warner Bros. repeatedly insisted. [74]  Nolan wanted to expand on the noir quality of the first film by broadening the canvas and taking on "the dynamic of a story of the city, a large crime story ... where you're looking at the police, the justice system, the vigilante, the poor people, the rich people, the criminals". [75]  Continuing to minimalise the use of CGI, Nolan employed high-resolution IMAX cameras, making it the first major motion picture to use this technology. [76]   [77]  The Dark Knight has been ranked as one of the best films of the 2000s and one of the best superhero films ever made. [c]  Many critics declare The Dark Knight to be "the most successful comic book film ever made". [82]  Manohla Dargis of The New York Times found the film to be of higher artistic merit than many Hollywood blockbusters: "Pitched at the divide between art and industry, poetry and entertainment, it goes darker and deeper than any Hollywood movie of its comic-book kind." [83]  Ebert expressed a similar point of view, describing it as a "haunted film that leaps beyond its origins and becomes an engrossing tragedy". [84]  The Dark Knight set many box-office records during its theatrical run, [85]  earning over $1 billion worldwide. [86]  At the 81st Academy Awards, the film was nominated in eight categories, winning two: Best Sound Editing for Richard King and a posthumous Best Supporting Actor award for Heath Ledger. [87]  The film's failure to garner a Best Picture nomination was criticised by the media. Beginning in 2010, the Academy increased their Best Picture nominees from five to ten, a change known as "The Dark Knight Rule". [88]  Nolan received many awards and nominations for his work on the film. [39] 
 The success of The Dark Knight allowed Warner Bros. to sign Nolan to write, direct and co-produce  Inception  (2010) – a film for which he had the idea around nine years before its release. [89]  Nolan described the film as "a contemporary sci-fi actioner set within the architecture of the mind". [90]  Starring a large ensemble cast led by Leonardo DiCaprio, the film became a critical and commercial success upon its release. [91]  Film critic Mark Kermode named it the best film of 2010, stating "Inception is proof that people are not stupid, that cinema is not trash, and that it is possible for blockbusters and art to be the same thing." [92]  Philosophy professor David Kyle Johnson wrote that "Inception became a classic almost as soon as it was projected on silver screens", praising its exploration of philosophical ideas, including leap of faith and allegory of the cave. [93]  The film grossed over $836 million worldwide. [94]  Nominated for eight Academy Awards—including Best Picture and Best Original Screenplay—it won Best Cinematography, Best Sound Mixing, Best Sound Editing and Best Visual Effects. [95]  Nolan was also nominated for a BAFTA Award and a Golden Globe Award for Best Director, among other accolades. [39] 
     
Around the release of  The Dark Knight Rises  (2012), Nolan's third and final Batman film, Joseph Bevan of the British Film Institute wrote a profile on him: "In the space of just over a decade, Christopher Nolan has shot from promising British indie director to undisputed master of a new brand of intelligent escapism." [96]  After initial hesitation, Nolan agreed to return to direct The Dark Knight Rises and worked with his brother and David S. Goyer to develop a story that he felt would end the trilogy on a high note. [97]  The film was released to positive reviews; [98]  Kenneth Turan found the film "potent, persuasive and hypnotic" and "more than an exceptional superhero movie, it is masterful filmmaking by any standard". [99]  Christy Lemire of  HuffPost  wrote in her review that Nolan concluded his trilogy in a "typically spectacular, ambitious fashion", but disliked the "overloaded" story and excessive grimness. [100]  The Dark Knight Rises was a box office success, becoming the thirteenth film to gross $1 billion. [101]  During a midnight showing of the film in Aurora, Colorado, a gunman opened fire inside the theatre, killing 12 people and injuring 58 others. [102]  Nolan released a statement expressing his condolences for the victims of what he described as a "senseless tragedy". [103] 
  The Dark Knight trilogy inspired a trend in future superhero films seeking to replicate its gritty, realistic tone to little success. The second installment in particular revitalised the genre at a time when recent superhero films had failed to meet expectations. [104]   [105]  Ben Child of The Guardian wrote that the three films "will remain thrilling totems of the genre for decades to come". [104]  During story discussions for The Dark Knight Rises, Goyer told Nolan of his idea about  Man of Steel  (2013), which the latter would produce. [106]  Impressed with Zack Snyder's work in  300  (2006) and  Watchmen  (2009), Nolan hired him to direct the film. [107]  Starring Henry Cavill as Clark Kent who learns that he is a powerful alien, Man of Steel received mixed reviews and grossed more than $660 million against a budget of $220 million. [108]   [109] 
2014–2019: Interstellar, Dunkirk and other activities[edit]
      Nolan and his younger brother, Jonathan (pictured in 2017), wrote several screenplays together, including for Interstellar.  
Nolan next directed, wrote and produced the science-fiction film  Interstellar  (2014). The first drafts of the script were written by Jonathan Nolan, and it was originally to be directed by Steven Spielberg. [110]  Based on the scientific theories of theoretical physicist Kip Thorne, the film follows a group of astronauts who travel through a wormhole in search of a new home for humanity. [111]  In a 2014 discussion of the film's physics, Nolan expressed his admiration for scientific objectivity, wishing it were applied "in every aspect of our civilisation". [112]  Interstellar – starring Matthew McConaughey, Anne Hathaway and Jessica Chastain – was released to positive reviews and grossed $773 million worldwide. [113]   [114]  Observing its "visual dazzle, thematic ambition", The New York Times's A. O. Scott wrote that Interstellar is a "sweeping, futuristic adventure driven by grief, dread and regret". [115]  Documentary filmmaker Toni Myers called the film "a real work of art" and praised it for exploring a story spanning multiple generations. [116]  Interstellar was particularly praised for its scientific accuracy, which led to the publication of two academic papers. [117]   [118]  The  American Journal of Physics  called for it to be shown in school science lessons. [119]   [120]  At the 87th Academy Awards, the film won Best Visual Effects and received four other nominations. [121]  Also in 2014, Nolan and Emma Thomas served as executive producers on  Transcendence , the directorial debut of his longtime cinematographer Wally Pfister. [122] 
 In the mid-2010s, Nolan took part in several ventures for film preservation and distribution of the work of lesser-known filmmakers. His production company, Syncopy, formed a joint venture with Zeitgeist Films to release Blu-ray editions of Zeitgeist's films. [123]  As part of the Blu-ray release of the animation films of the Brothers Quay, Nolan directed the documentary short  Quay  (2015). He also initiated a theatrical tour, showcasing the Quays'  In Absentia , The Comb and  Street of Crocodiles . IndieWire wrote that the brothers "will undoubtedly have hundreds, if not thousands more fans because of Nolan, and for that The Quay Brothers in 35mm will always be one of [the] latter's most important contributions to cinema". [124]   [125]  An advocate for the survival of the analogue medium, Nolan and visual artist Tacita Dean invited representatives from leading American film archives, laboratories and presenting institutions to participate in an informal summit entitled Reframing the Future of Film at the Getty Museum in March 2015. [126]   [127]  Subsequent events were held at Tate Modern in London, Museo Tamayo in Mexico City and Tata Theatre in Mumbai. [128]  In April 2015, Nolan joined the board of directors of The Film Foundation, a non-profitable organisation dedicated to film preservation, [129]  and was appointed, along with Martin Scorsese, by the Library of Congress to serve on the National Film Preservation Board as DGA representatives. [130]  Nolan also serves on the Motion Picture &amp; Television Fund Board of Governors. [131] 
 After serving as an executive producer on Zack Snyder's  Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice  (2016) and  Justice League  (2017), [132]   [133]  Nolan returned to directing with  Dunkirk  (2017). Based on his own original screenplay and co-produced with Thomas, the film is set amid World War II in 1940 and the evacuation of Allied soldiers from the beaches of Dunkirk, France. Describing the film as a survival tale with a triptych structure, Nolan wanted to make a "sensory, almost experimental movie" with minimal dialogue. [134]  He said he waited to make Dunkirk until he had earned the trust of a major studio to let him make it as a British film but with an American budget. [135]  Before filming, Nolan sought advice from Spielberg, who later said in an interview with  Variety , "knowing and respecting that Chris [Nolan] is one of the world's most imaginative filmmakers, my advice to him was to leave his imagination, as I did on  Ryan , in second position to the research he was doing to authentically acquit this historical drama". [136]  Starring an ensemble cast, [137]  Dunkirk was released to widespread critical acclaim and strong box office results. [138]   [139]   [140]  It grossed over $526 million worldwide, making it the highest-grossing World War II film of all time. [141]  In his review, Mick LaSalle of the  San Francisco Chronicle  wrote: "It's one of the best war films ever made, distinct in its look, in its approach and in the effect it has on viewers. There are movies—they are rare—that lift you out of your present circumstances and immerse you so fully in another experience that you watch in a state of jaw-dropped awe. Dunkirk is that kind of movie." [142]  The film received many accolades, including Nolan's first Oscar nomination for Best Director. [143] 
     
In 2018, Nolan supervised a new 70 mm print of Stanley Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), made from the original camera negative; he presented it at the 2018 Cannes Film Festival. [144]   USA Today  observed that festival-goers greeted the director "like a rock star with a standing ovation". [145]  A year later, Nolan and Thomas received executive producer credits on The Doll's Breath (2019), an animated short directed by the Quay brothers. [146] 
2020–present: Tenet and Oppenheimer[edit]
The science fiction film  Tenet  (2020) – described by Tom Shone of  The Sunday Times  as "a globe-spinning riff on all things Nolanesque" – was his next directorial effort. [147]  Nolan had worked on the screenplay for more than five years after deliberating about its central ideas for over a decade. [148]  Delayed three times due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Tenet was the first Hollywood tent-pole to open in theatres after the pandemic shutdown. [149]  The film tells the story of an unnamed protagonist (played by John David Washington) who travels through time to stop a world-threatening attack. [150]  It grossed $363 million worldwide against a production budget of $200 million, becoming Nolan's first to underperform at the box-office. [151]  Tenet was described as the most polarising effort of his career; critics praised the direction but found its story confusing. [152]   [143]  Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian awarded the film a full five stars, calling it "a cerebral cadenza, a deadpan flourish of crazy implausibility—but supercharged with steroidal energy and imagination". [153]  Leslie Felperin of  The Hollywood Reporter  described it as "a chilly, cerebral film—easy to admire, especially since it's so rich in audacity and originality, but almost impossible to love, lacking as it is in a certain humanity". [154]  At the 93rd Academy Awards, the film won Best Visual Effects and was nominated for Best Production Design. [155]  Following the release of Tenet, Nolan joined the Advisory Board of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers. [156]  He served as an executive producer on  Zack Snyder's Justice League  (2021), a director's cut of 2017's Justice League. [157] 
 Nolan's twelfth directorial venture will be  Oppenheimer  (2023), a biopic based on J. Robert Oppenheimer (played by Cillian Murphy) and his role in the development of the atom bomb. [158]  The film will be financed and distributed by Universal Pictures, making it Nolan's first since Memento that was not made for Warner Bros. He was disillusioned with the latter's decision to simultaneously release their films in theatres and on HBO Max. [159]  Nolan secured the deal with Universal after he was promised a production budget of around $100 million with an equal marketing budget, total creative control, 20 per cent of first-dollar gross, a 100-day theatrical window and a blackout period from the studio wherein the company would not release another film three weeks before or after Oppenheimer's release. [160] 
Personal life and image[edit]
     
Nolan is married to Emma Thomas, whom he met at University College London when he was 19. [8]   [15]  She has worked as a producer on all of his films since 1997. [42]   [161]  The couple have four children and reside in Los Angeles. [162] 
 Rarely granting promotional interviews about his films, Nolan prefers to maintain a certain level of mystery about his work. [163]  Refusing to discuss his personal life, [164]  he feels that too much biographical information about a filmmaker detracts from the experience of his audiences. "I actually don't want people to have me in mind at all when they're watching the films." Author Stuart Joy felt that Nolan's unwillingness to talk about his personal life shows a desire for control, one of the recurring themes in his work. [163]  
 Nolan was physically assaulted by fellow filmmaker David O. Russell in 2003 at a party in Hollywood. The latter reportedly put Nolan in a headlock and wrapped his arm around Nolan's neck. [165]   [166] 
Filmmaking style[edit]
Nolan's films are majorly centred in metaphysical themes, exploring the concepts of time, memory and personal identity. [167]   [168]  His work is characterised by mathematically inspired ideas and images, unconventional narrative structures, materialistic perspectives, and evocative use of music and sound. [d]  Filmmaker Guillermo del Toro called Nolan "an emotional mathematician". [173]  BBC's arts editor Will Gompertz described him as "an art house auteur making intellectually ambitious blockbuster movies that can leave your pulse racing and your head spinning". [174]  Joseph Bevan wrote, "His films allow arthouse regulars to enjoy superhero flicks and multiplex crowds to engage with labyrinthine plot conceits." [96]  Nolan views himself as "an indie filmmaker working inside the studio system". [175] 
"Christopher Nolan doesn't make sense. And that is exactly how he likes it. In twenty-three years and through twelve films, he has defied the laws of Hollywood by creating startling, original genre pieces that have revelled in their own complexity, confounding every maxim by which the studios hope to appeal to the widest audience. And yet he does that too. Cinemas fill on the possibility of the next Nolan film. Whatever form it might take."
 —Film author Ian Nathan on Nolan as a filmmaker (2022) [176]  
In the sixteen-essay book The Philosophy of Christopher Nolan, professional philosophers and writers analysed Nolan's work; they identified themes of self-destruction, the nature and value of the truth, and the political mindset of the hero and villain, among others. [177]  Robbie B. H. Goh, a professor of English literature, described Nolan as a "philosophical filmmaker" who includes philosophical ideas—existentialism, morality, epistemology and the distinction between appearance and reality—in films that frequently portray suspense, action and violence. Goh appreciated his ability to incorporate such themes in films that possess "elements of the Hollywood blockbuster"—which help keep the audiences engaged—but simultaneously remain "more thoughtful and self-reflexive than the typical consumerist action film". [178]  He further wrote that Nolan's body of work reflect "a heterogeneity of conditions of products" extending from low-budget films to lucrative blockbusters, "a wide range of genres and settings" and "a diversity of styles that trumpet his versatility". [179] 
  David Bordwell, a film theorist, opined that Nolan has been able to blend his "experimental impulses" with the demands of mainstream entertainment, describing his oeuvre as "experiments with cinematic time by means of techniques of subjective viewpoint and crosscutting". [180]  Nolan's use of practical, in-camera effects, miniatures and models, as well as shooting on celluloid film, has been highly influential in early 21st century cinema. [181]   [182]  IndieWire wrote in 2019 that the director "kept a viable alternate model of big-budget filmmaking alive" in an era where blockbuster filmmaking has become "a largely computer-generated art form". [182]  Because of Nolan's deep involvement in the technical facet of his films, Stuart Joy described him as a "complete filmmaker" who "oversees all aspects of production while also managing cultural and industrial factors outside of the text". [183] 
Recognition[edit]
Nolan has made some of the most influential and popular films of his time. [e]  Many of his films have been regarded by critics as among the best of their respective decades, [41]   [188]   [189]  and according to The Wall Street Journal, his "ability to combine box-office success with artistic ambition has given him an extraordinary amount of clout in the industry". [190]  His films have earned $5 billion. [191]  Nolan's films Memento and The Dark Knight have been selected by the US Library of Congress to be preserved in the National Film Registry for being "culturally, historically or aesthetically" significant. [192]   [193]  These films and Inception appeared in BBC's 100 Greatest Films of the 21st Century and The Hollywood Reporter's poll of best films ever made. [194]   [195]  In 2017, The Dark Knight, Inception and Interstellar featured in  Empire  magazine's poll of "The 100 Greatest Movies". [196]  In 2018, The Hollywood Reporter listed Nolan as one of the 100 most powerful people in entertainment and described him as a "franchise unto himself". [197]   Parade  ranked Nolan number eight in its 2022 list of 75 Best Movie Directors of All Time. [198] 
     
Nolan's work has been as "intensely embraced, analysed and debated by ordinary film fans as by critics and film academics". [164]   [199]  Calling him "a persuasively inventive storyteller", Geoff Andrew of the British Film Institute named Nolan one of the few contemporary filmmakers producing highly personal films within the Hollywood mainstream. Andrew wrote that Nolan's films are "not so much [notable] for their considerable technical virtuosity and visual flair as for their brilliant narrative ingenuity and their unusually adult interest in complex philosophical questions". [200]  David Bordwell observed that Nolan is "considered one of the most accomplished living filmmakers", citing his ability to turn genre movies into both art and event films, as well as his box office numbers, critical acclaim and popularity among cinemagoers. [180]   [201]  In 2008, Philip French deemed Nolan "the first major talent to emerge this [21st] century". [202]  Mark Kermode complimented Nolan for bringing "the discipline and ethics of art-house independent moviemaking and apply[ing] them to Hollywood blockbusters. He's living proof that you don't have to appeal to the lowest common denominator to be profitable". [203]   The Observer 's Ryan Gilbey described Nolan as a "skillful, stylish storyteller, capable of combining the spectacle of Spielberg with the intellectual intricacy of Nicolas Roeg or Alain Resnais". [204]  Mark Cousins applauded Nolan for embracing big ideas, "Hollywood filmmakers generally shy away from ideas—but not Christopher Nolan". [205]  Scott Foundas of Variety declared Nolan "the premier big-canvas storyteller of his generation", [206]  and Justin Chang of the Los Angeles Times called him "the great proceduralist of 21st century blockbuster filmmaking, a lover of nuts-and-bolts minutiae". [207] 
 Nolan has been praised by many of his contemporaries, and his work has influenced them. [208]   [209]   [210]  Kenneth Branagh called Nolan's approach to large-scale filmmaking "unique in modern cinema", adding, "regardless of how popular his movies become, he remains an artist and an auteur. I think for that reason he has become a heroic figure for both the audience and the people working behind the camera." [211]  Michael Mann complimented Nolan for his "singular vision" and credited with "invent[ing] the post-heroic superhero". [212]  Nicolas Roeg said of Nolan, "People talk about 'commercial art' and the term is usually self-negating; Nolan works in the commercial arena and yet there's something very poetic about his work." [213]  Martin Scorsese identified Nolan as a filmmaker creating "beautifully made films on a big scale". [214] 
  Damien Chazelle lauded Nolan for his ability "to make the most seemingly impersonal projects—superhero epics, deep-space mind-benders—feel deeply personal". [215]  Discussing the difference between art films and big studio blockbusters, Steven Spielberg referred to Nolan's Dark Knight series as an example of both; [216]  he has described Memento and Inception as "masterworks". [217]  Denis Villeneuve was impressed by Nolan's ability "to keep his identity and create his own universe in that large scope ... To bring intellectual concepts and to bring them in that scope to the screen right now—it's very rare. Every movie that he comes out with, I have more admiration for his work." [218]  James Cameron expressed disappointment that Nolan was not nominated for an Academy Award as Best Director for Inception, calling it "the most astounding piece of film creation and direction of the year, hands down". [217] 
Filmography[edit]
   Following  (1998)
  Memento  (2000)
  Insomnia  (2002)
  Batman Begins  (2005)
  The Prestige  (2006)
  The Dark Knight  (2008)
  Inception  (2010)
  The Dark Knight Rises  (2012)
  Interstellar  (2014)
  Dunkirk  (2017)
  Tenet  (2020)
  Oppenheimer  (2023) 
Awards and honours[edit]
     
Nolan has been nominated for five Academy Awards, five British Academy Film Awards and six Golden Globe Awards. [39]   [219]   [220]   [221]  Nolan was named an Honorary Fellow of UCL in 2006, [222]  and conferred an honorary doctorate in literature in 2017. [223]  From 2011 to 2014, he appeared in  Forbes Celebrity 100 list based on his income and popularity. [224]  In 2012, he became the youngest director to receive a hand-and-footprint ceremony at Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles. [225]  Nolan appeared in  Time 's 100 most influential people in the world in 2015. [226]  He was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 2019 New Year Honours for services to film. [227] 
Notes[edit]
 
  ^  Nolan has continued his collaboration with the Belic brothers, receiving a credit for his editorial assistance on their Oscar-nominated documentary  Genghis Blues  (1999). [10] 
  ^  The name of the company is derived from syncope, a medical term for fainting. Sorcha Ní Fhlainn, a lecturer specialising in film studies, alluded this wordplay to Nolan's style of "disorientation" in his work. She also associated the name with synthetic and philosopher Jean Baudrillard's treatise  Simulacra and Simulation . [43] 
  ^  Attributed to multiple references [41]   [78]   [79]   [80]   [81] 
  ^  Attributed to multiple references [169]   [170]   [171]   [172] 
  ^  Attributed to multiple references [184]   [185]   [186]   [187] 
 
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Cited sources[edit]
  Blouin, Michael J. (2013). "Difference and Doubt in Christopher Nolan's Inception". Japan and the Cosmopolitan Gothic: Specters of Modernity. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 143–160. ISBN  978-1-137-30522-0 . 
 deWaard, Andrew; Tait, R. Colin (2013). The Cinema of Steven Soderbergh: Indie Sex, Corporate Lies, and Digital Videotape. Columbia University Press. ISBN  978-0-231-16551-8 . 
 Eberl, Jason T.; Dunn, George A., eds. (2017). The Philosophy of Christopher Nolan. Lexington Books. ISBN  978-1-498-51352-4 . 
 Elsaesser, Thomas (2020). "Stanley Kubrick's Prototypes: The Author as World-Maker". In Szaniawski, Jeremi (ed.). After Kubrick: A Filmmaker's Legacy. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 29–51. ISBN  978-1-501-34765-8 . 
 Furby, Jacqueline; Joy, Stuart, eds. (2015). The Cinema of Christopher Nolan: Imagining the Impossible. Columbia University Press. ISBN  978-0-231-85076-6 .
  Joy, Stuart (2015). "Introduction: Dreaming a Little Bigger, Darling". The Cinema of Christopher Nolan: Imagining the Impossible. Columbia University Press. pp. 1–16. 
 Hill-Parks, Erin (2015). "Chapter One: Developing an Auteur Through Reviews: The Critical Surround of Christopher Nolan". The Cinema of Christopher Nolan: Imagining the Impossible. Columbia University Press. pp. 17–30. 
 Ní Fhlainn, Sorcha (2015). "Chapter Ten: 'You keep telling yourself what you know, but what do you believe?': Cultural Spin, Puzzle Films and Mind Games in the Cinema of Christopher Nolan". The Cinema of Christopher Nolan: Imagining the Impossible. Columbia University Press. pp. 147–163.   
 Goh, Robbie B. H. (2022). Christopher Nolan: Filmmaker and Philosopher. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN  978-1-3501-3996-1 . 
 James, Oliver; von Tunzelmann, Eugénie; Franklin, Paul; Thorne, Kip S. (2015a). "Gravitational lensing by spinning black holes in astrophysics, and in the movie Interstellar" (PDF).  Classical and Quantum Gravity . IOP Publishing. 32 (6): 065001. doi:10.1088/0264-9381/32/6/065001. Archived from the original on 30 December 2022. Retrieved 30 December 2022. 
 James, Oliver; von Tunzelmann, Eugénie; Franklin, Paul; Thorne, Kip S. (2015b). "Visualizing Interstellar's Wormhole" (PDF).  American Journal of Physics . American Association of Physics Teachers. 83 (6): 486–499. doi:10.1119/1.4916949. Archived from the original on 8 December 2022. Retrieved 8 December 2022. 
  Johnson, David Kyle (2020). "Inception as Philosophy: Choose Your Dreams or Seek Reality". The Palgrave Handbook of Popular Culture as Philosophy. Springer Nature. pp. 1–20. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-97134-6_5-1. ISBN  978-3-319-97134-6 . 
 Koole, Sander L.; Fockenberg, Daniel; Tops, Mattie; Schneider, Iris K. (2013). "The Birth and Death of the Superhero Film". In Sullivan, Daniel; Greenberg, Jeff (eds.). Death in Classic and Contemporary Film. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 135–150. ISBN  978-1-137-27688-9 . 
 McGowan, Todd (2012). "A Plea for the Abandonment of Reality in Inception". The Fictional Christopher Nolan. University of Texas Press. pp. 147–170. ISBN  978-0-292-73782-2 . 
 Molloy, Claire (2013). "Christopher Nolan and Indie Sensibilities". Revue Française d'études Américaines. Belin éditeur. 136: 40–51. JSTOR 43830999. 
 Mooney, Darren (2018). Christopher Nolan: A Critical Study of the Films. McFarland &amp; Company. ISBN  978-14-766-7480-3 . 
 Mottram, James (2002).  The Making of Memento . Faber and Faber. ISBN  0-571-21488-6 . 
 Nathan, Ian (2022). Christopher Nolan: the Iconic Filmmaker and His Work. Quarto Publishing. ISBN  978-0-7112-7713-7 . 
  Shone, Tom (2020). The Nolan Variations: The Movies, Mysteries, and Marvels of Christopher Nolan. Faber &amp; Faber. ISBN  978-0-5713-4800-8 . 
 Smith, Basil (2007). "John Locke, Personal Identity and Memento". In Conard, Mark (ed.). The Philosophy of Neo-Noir. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 35–46. ISBN  978-0-8131-7230-9 . 
 Zornado, Joseph L.; Reilly, Sara (2021). "Superhero Fantasy in Crisis". The Cinematic Superhero as Social Practice. Springer Nature. pp. 155–189. ISBN  978-3-030-85458-4 .  
Further reading[edit]
  Belluomini, Lance (2020). "Tenet as Philosophy: Fatalism Isn't an Excuse to Do Nothing". In Johnson, David Kyle (ed.). The Palgrave Handbook of Popular Culture as Philosophy. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 1–21. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-97134-6_99-1. ISBN  978-3-319-97134-6 . 
 Duncan Jesser, Jody; Pourroy, Janine (2012). The Art and Making of The Dark Knight Trilogy. Abrams Books. ISBN  978-1-4197-0369-0 . 
 Fischer, Mark (2011). "The Lost Unconscious: Delusions and Dreams in Inception".  Film Quarterly . University of California Press. 64 (3): 37–45. doi:10.1525/FQ.2011.64.3.37. 
 Kellner, Douglas M (2009). Cinema Wars: Hollywood Film and Politics in the Bush-Cheney Era (1st ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN  978-1405198240 . 
 Rabiger, Michael; Hurbis-Cherrier, Mick (2013). Directing: Film Techniques and Aesthetics. CRC Press. ISBN  978-1-135-09921-3 .  
External links[edit]
  Christopher Nolan at IMDb 
 Christopher Nolan at Rotten Tomatoes 
 Christopher Nolan at AllMovie 
 Christopher Nolan Biography at Tribute.ca 
 Christopher Nolan – How to Direct Your First Feature Film
Christopher Nolan - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Nolan