stanford's philosophy encyclopedia editorial board
https://plato.stanford.edu/board.html
Editorial Board
2023-01-01
None
<div><div>
<tbody><tr>
<td>Philosophy of Action:</td>
<td><a href="http://philosophy.ucr.edu/luca-ferrero/">Luca Ferrero</a> (University of California/Riverside) <br />
<a href="https://derkpereboom.philosophy.cornell.edu/">Derk Pereboom</a> (Cornell University)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Aesthetics:</td>
<td><a href="http://artsfaculty.auckland.ac.nz/staff/?UPI=sdav056">Stephen Davies</a> (University of Auckland) <br />
 <a href="https://www.cmich.edu/colleges/chsbs/PHLREL/philosophy/faculty/Pages/stecker.aspx">Robert Stecker</a> (Central Michigan University) <br />
 <a href="http://www.philosophy.soton.ac.uk/staff_pages/staffprofiles/neill.htm">Alex Neill</a> (University of Southampton) <br />
 <a href="http://www.cla.auburn.edu/philosophy/people/professorial-faculty/james-shelley/">James Shelley</a> (Auburn University) <br />
 <a href="http://www.ou.edu/cas/philosophy/people/faculty/sherri-irvin">Sherri Irvin</a> (University of Oklahoma)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>African and African-American Philosophy:</td>
<td><a href="https://aaas.fas.harvard.edu/people/tommie-shelby">Tommie Shelby</a> (Harvard University) <br />
 <a href="https://philosophy.columbia.edu/directories/faculty/souleymane-bachir-diagne">Souleymane Bachir Diagne</a> (Columbia University) <br />
 <a href="http://www.olufemiotaiwo.com/cv.html">Olúfẹ́mi Táíwò</a> (Cornell University) <br />
 <a href="https://lsa.umich.edu/philosophy/people/faculty/kldotson.html">Kristie Dotson</a> (University of Michigan)</td>
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<td>Ancient Philosophy</td>
<td></td>
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<tr>
<td>Ancient Philosophy:</td>
<td> <a href="http://www.classics.cam.ac.uk/directory/professor-gabor-betegh">Gábor Betegh</a> (University of Cambridge) <br />
 <a href="https://classics.yale.edu/people/brad-inwood">Brad Inwood</a> (Yale University) <br />
 <a href="https://philosophy.princeton.edu/content/benjamin-morison">Benjamin Morison</a> (Princeton University) <br />
 <a href="https://www.philosophy.pitt.edu/person/sara-magrin">Sara Magrin</a> (University of Pittsburgh)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Aristotle:</td>
<td><a href="http://philosophy.nd.edu/people/faculty/christopher-shields/">Christopher Shields</a> (University of Notre Dame)</td>
</tr>
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<td>Plato:</td>
<td><a href="http://www.philosophy.northwestern.edu/people/faculty/kraut.html">Richard Kraut</a> (Northwestern University)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Arabic and Islamic Philosophy:</td>
<td><a href="http://individual.utoronto.ca/dlblack/">Deborah Black</a> (University of Toronto) <br />
 <a href="https://www.philosophie.uni-muenchen.de/lehreinheiten/philosophie_6/personen/adamson/index.html">Peter Adamson</a> (LMU/Munich) <br />
 <a href="https://www.umsl.edu/~philo/People/Faculty/index.html">Jon McGinnis</a> (University of Missouri/St. Louis) <br />
 <a href="https://socialsciences.exeter.ac.uk/iais/staff/rizvi/">Sajjad Rizvi</a> (University of Exeter)</td>
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<tr>
<td>Philosophy of Biology:</td>
<td><a href="https://faculty.utah.edu/u0578517-JAMES_TABERY/biography/index.hml">James Tabery</a> (University of Utah) <br />
 <a href="http://www.rlm.net/">Roberta L. Millstein</a> (University of California/Davis) <br />
 <a href="http://philosophy.utah.edu/profile.php?unid=u0976724">Melinda Bonnie Fagan</a> (University of Utah) <br />
 <a href="http://jay-odenbaugh.squarespace.com/">Jay Odenbaugh</a> (Lewis &amp; Clark College) <br />
 <a href="https://www.angelapotochnik.com/">Angela Potochnik</a> (University of Cincinnati) <br />
 <a href="http://www.ucalgary.ca/%7Eereshefs/">Marc Ereshefsky</a> (University of Calgary)</td>
 </tr>
<tr>
<td>Chinese Philosophy:</td>
<td><a href="http://philosophy.berkeley.edu/people/detail/336">Kwong Loi Shun</a> (University of California/Berkeley) <br />
 <a href="http://philosophy.hku.hk/ch/">Chad Hansen</a> (University of Hong-Kong) <br />
 <a href="https://hal.arts.unsw.edu.au/about-us/people/karyn-lai/">Karyn Lai</a> (University of New South Wales) <br />
 <a href="https://socsc.smu.edu.sg/faculty/profile/156466/TAN-Sor-Hoon">Sor-hoon Tan</a> (Singapore Management University)</td>
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<td>Philosophy of Cognitive Science:</td>
<td><a href="https://sites.google.com/view/shaunbnichols/home">Shaun Nichols</a> (Cornell University) <br />
 <a href="https://philosophy.wustl.edu/people/ron-mallon">Ron Mallon</a> (Washington University in St. Louis) <br />
 <a href="https://www.daviddanks.org/">David Danks</a> (U. California/San Diego) <br />
 <a href="http://www.yorku.ca/andrewsk">Kristin Andrews</a> (York University) <br />
 <a href="http://colinallen.dnsalias.org/">Colin Allen</a> (University of Pittsburgh)</td>
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<tr>
<td>Epistemology:</td>
<td><a href="http://www.rochester.edu/College/phl/people/faculty/conee_earl/index.html">Earl Conee</a> (University of Rochester) <br />
 <a href="http://www.rochester.edu/College/phl/people/faculty/feldman_richard/index.html">Richard Feldman</a> (University of Rochester) <br />
 <a href="http://www.philosophy.northwestern.edu/people/faculty/lackey.html">Jennifer Lackey</a> (Northwestern University) <br />
 <a href="https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/philosophy/dept/staffprofiles/?staffid=94">Jessica Brown</a> (University of St. Andrews)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Formal Epistemology:</td>
<td><a href="http://faculty.sites.uci.edu/skyrms/">Brian Skyrms</a> (University of California/Irvine) <br />
 <a href="http://www-personal.umich.edu/~jjoyce/">James Joyce</a> (University of Michigan) <br />
 <a href="http://philosophy.anu.edu.au/profile/alan-hajek/">Alan Hájek</a> (Australian National University) <br />
 <a href="http://eis.bris.ac.uk/~rp3959/">Richard Pettigrew</a> (University of Bristol) <br />
 <a href="https://philosophy.stanford.edu/people/rachael-briggs">R. A. Briggs</a> (Stanford University)</td>
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<td>Ethics</td>
<td></td>
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<tr>
<td>Normative Ethics:</td>
<td><a href="http://philosophy.rutgers.edu/people/faculty/629-smith-holly">Holly Smith</a> (Rutgers University) <br />
 <a href="http://timmons.faculty.arizona.edu/">Mark Timmons</a> (University of Arizona) <br />
 <a href="https://philosophy.unc.edu/people/sarah-stroud/">Sarah Stroud</a> (University of North Carolina) <br />
 <a href="https://thomashurka.com/">Thomas Hurka</a> (University of Toronto) </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Moral Psychology:</td>
<td><a href="http://sites.duke.edu/wsa/">Walter Sinnott-Armstrong</a> (Duke University)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>History of Ethics:</td>
<td><a href="http://www-personal.umich.edu/~sdarwall/">Stephen Darwall</a> (Yale University)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Metaethics:</td>
<td>Connie S. Rosati (University of Texas/Austin) <br />
 <a href="https://sites.google.com/site/shaferlandau/home">Russ Shafer-Landau</a> (University of Wisconsin) <br />
 <a href="http://ase.tufts.edu/philosophy/faculty/svavarsdottir.asp">Sigrún Svavarsdóttir</a> (Tufts University)</td>
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<tr>
<td>Applied Ethics</td>
<td></td>
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<tr>
<td>Biomedical Ethics:</td>
<td><a href="http://philosophy.jhu.edu/bios/hilary-bok/">Hilary Bok</a> (Johns Hopkins University) <br />
 <a href="http://philosophy.duke.edu/people?Gurl=%2Faas%2FPhilosophy&amp;Uil=jen.hawkins&amp;subpage=profile">Jennifer Hawkins</a> (Duke University) <br />
 <a href="https://kennedyinstitute.georgetown.edu/people/sean-aas/">Sean Aas</a> (Georgetown University) <br />
 <a href="https://sites.google.com/site/danasarahhoward/">Dana Howard</a> (Ohio State University)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Ethics and Information Technology:</td>
<td><a href="https://spp.gatech.edu/people/person/79e785b1-0bad-5022-9bee-7126ced2c846">Jason Borenstein</a> (Georgia Tech) <br />
 <a href="http://udel.edu/~tpowers/">Thomas Powers</a> (University of Delaware)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Feminism:</td>
<td><a href="https://philosophy.as.uky.edu/users/superson">Anita Superson</a> (University of Kentucky) <br />
 <a href="http://philosophy.emory.edu/home/people/faculty/mcafee-noelle.html">Noëlle McAfee</a> (Emory University) <br />
 <a href="https://www.calstatela.edu/faculty/ann-garry/">Ann Garry</a> (California State University/Los Angeles) <br />
 <a href="http://www.middlebury.edu/academics/phil/faculty/node/16021">Heidi Grasswick</a> (Middlebury College) <br />
 <a href="https://www.serenekhader.com/">Serene Khader</a> (CUNY/Graduate Center and Brooklyn College)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Indian and Tibetan Philosophy:</td>
<td><a href="http://www.janwesterhoff.net/">Jan Christoph Westerhoff</a> (University of Oxford) <br />
 <a href="http://www.smith.edu/philosophy/jgarfield.html">Jay Garfield</a> (Smith College) <br />
 <a href="https://philosophy.utoronto.ca/jonardon-ganeri/">Jonardon Ganeri</a> (University of Toronto)</td>
</tr>
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<td>Japanese Philosophy:</td>
<td><a href="https://comparativestudies.osu.edu/people/kasulis.1">Thomas Kasulis</a> (Ohio State University)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Judaic Philosophy:</td>
<td><a href="http://www.philosophy.umd.edu/people/faculty/manekin_charles/">Charles Manekin</a> (University of Maryland) <br />
 <a href="http://www.indiana.edu/~phil/people/morgan.shtml">Michael Morgan</a> (Indiana University) <br />
 <a href="http://www.mcgill.ca/jewishstudies/faculty/fraenkel">Carlos Fraenkel</a> (McGill University) <br /></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Kant:</td>
<td><a href="http://www.brown.edu/academics/philosophy/paul-guyer">Paul Guyer</a> (Brown University) <br />
 <a href="https://philosophy.stanford.edu/people/r-lanier-anderson">R. Lanier Anderson</a> (Stanford University) <br />
 <a href="http://angelabreitenbach.weebly.com/">Angela Breitenbach</a> (University of Cambridge)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Korean Philosophy:</td>
<td><a href="https://www.unomaha.edu/college-of-arts-and-sciences/philosophy/about-us/directory/halla-kim.php">Halla Kim</a> (Sogang University) <br />
 <a href="https://www.american.edu/cas/faculty/jypark.cfm">Jin Y. Park</a> (American University) <br />
 <a href="http://research.ucc.ie/profiles/A026/kcawley">Kevin N. Cawley</a> (University College Cork)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Philosophy of Language:</td>
<td><a href="http://philosophy.rutgers.edu/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=105&amp;Itemid=210">Jeffrey C. King</a> (Rutgers University) <br />
 <a href="http://philosophy.ku.edu/ben-caplan">Ben Caplan</a> (University of Kansas) <br />
 <a href="https://philosophy.rutgers.edu/people/faculty/details/182-faculty1/faculty-profiles/736-camp-elisabeth">Elisabeth Camp</a> (Rutgers University) <br />
 <a href="http://dornsife.usc.edu/cf/phil/faculty_display.cfm?Person_ID=1003008">Robin Jeshion</a> (University of Southern California) <br />
 <a href="https://www.magidor.com/">Ofra Magidor</a> (Oxford University)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Latin American and Iberian Philosophy:</td>
<td><a href="http://www.as.miami.edu/personal/obueno/Site/Otavio_Bueno.html">Otávio Bueno</a> (University of Miami) <br />
 <a href="http://vargasphilosophy.com/">Manuel Vargas</a> (University of California, San Diego) <br />
 <a href="https://amyreedsandoval.com/">Amy Reed-Sandoval</a> (University of Nevada, Las Vegas)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Philosophy of Law:</td>
<td><a href="http://www.law.yale.edu/faculty/SShapiro.htm">Scott J. Shapiro</a> (Yale University) <br />
 <a href="https://www.law.upenn.edu/cf/faculty/kferzan/">Kimberly Ferzan</a> (University of Pennsylvania/School of Law) <br />
 <a href="https://cardozo.yu.edu/directory/martin-j-stone">Martin Stone</a> (Yeshiva University/Cardozo Law School) <br />
 <a href="https://philosophy.ubc.ca/profile/kimberley-brownlee/">Kimberley Brownlee</a> (University of British Columbia) <br />
 <a href="http://www.competition-law.ox.ac.uk/members/profile.phtml?lecturer_code=leslie.green">Leslie Green</a> (University of Oxford)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Logic</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Mathematical Logic:</td>
<td><a href="http://www.philosophy.su.se/english/research/our-researchers/faculty/dag-westerst%C3%A5hl-1.165620">Dag Westerståhl</a> (Stockholm University) <br />
 <a href="https://www.phil.uu.nl/~iemhoff/">Rosalie Iemhoff</a> (Utrecht University)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Philosophical Logic:</td>
<td><a href="http://wwwhomes.uni-bielefeld.de/mkracht/index-en.html">Marcus Kracht</a> (Universität Bielefeld) <br />
 <a href="http://www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/philosophy/logic/">Heinrich Wansing</a> (Ruhr-Universität Bochum) <br />
 <a href="http://www.ualberta.ca/~bimbo/">Katalin Bimbó</a> (University of Alberta) <br />
 <a href="https://sites.google.com/site/wesholliday/">Wesley Holliday</a> (University of California/Berkeley) <br />
 <a href="http://paulegre.free.fr/">Paul Egré</a> (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS)/Institut Jean-Nicod)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Philosophy of Logic:</td>
<td><a href="http://johnmacfarlane.net/">John MacFarlane</a> (University of California/Berkeley) <br />
 <a href="http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Philosophy/people-facultymember.php?key=16">Joshua Schechter</a> (Brown University) <br />
 <a href="https://gillianrussell.net/">Gillian Russell</a> (Australian Catholic University) <br />
 <a href="https://www.cdutilhnovaes.com/">Catarina Dutilh Novaes</a> (Vrije Univeriteit Amsterdam)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>History of Logic:</td>
<td><a href="http://philosophy.berkeley.edu/mancosu/">Paolo Mancosu</a> (University of California/Berkeley) <br />
 <a href="https://richardzach.org/">Richard Zach</a> (University of Calgary)
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Logic, Computation, and Agency:</td>
<td><a href="http://staff.science.uva.nl/~johan/">Johan van Benthem</a> (University of Amsterdam) <br />
 <a href="http://cswww.essex.ac.uk/staff/turnr/">Raymond Turner</a> (University of Essex) <br />
 <a href="http://www.philosophy.umd.edu/people/pacuit">Eric Pacuit</a> (University of Maryland) <br />
 <a href="http://www.philosophie1.uni-bayreuth.de/en/team/roy/">Olivier Roy</a> (Universität Bayreuth)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Logic and Language:</td>
<td><a href="http://stokhof.org/">Martin Stokhof</a> (University of Amsterdam) <br />
 <a href="https://www.patrickblackburn.org/">Patrick Blackburn</a> (Roskilde University)
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Philosophy of Mathematics:</td>
<td><a href="https://www.mcmp.philosophie.uni-muenchen.de/people/faculty/hannes_leitgeb/index.html">Hannes Leitgeb</a> (Ludwig-Maximilians Universität München) <br />
 <a href="http://www.maths.bris.ac.uk/~mapdw/">Philip Welch</a> (University of Bristol)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Medieval Philosophy:</td>
<td> <a href="https://faculty.fordham.edu/klima/">Gyula Klima</a> (Fordham University) <br />
 <a href="https://www.ualberta.ca/arts/about/people-collection/jack-zupko">Jack Zupko</a> (University of Alberta) <br />
 Thomas Williams (University of Georgetown)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Metaphysics:</td>
<td><a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/humanities/departments/philosophy/people/penelope.mackie">Penelope Mackie</a> (University of Nottingham) <br />
 <a href="http://philosophy.rutgers.edu/for-faculty/385-schaffer-jonathan">Jonathan Schaffer</a> (Rutgers University) <br />
 <a href="https://sites.google.com/site/professordanielnolan/">Daniel Nolan</a> (University of Notre Dame) <br />
 <a href="http://www.columbia.edu/~av72/">Achille Varzi</a> (Columbia University) <br />
 <a href="https://philosophy.rutgers.edu/people/faculty/details/182-faculty1/faculty-profiles/952-bennett-karen">Karen Bennett</a> (Rutgers University) <br />
 <a href="https://philosophy.berkeley.edu/people/detail/449">Shamik Dasgupta</a> (University of California/Berkeley) <br />
 <a href="http://www.krismcdaniel.com/">Kris McDaniel</a> (Notre Dame)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Philosophy of Mind:</td>
<td><a href="http://consc.net/chalmers/">David Chalmers</a> (New York University) <br />
 <a href="http://philosophy.cass.anu.edu.au/people/daniel-stoljar">Daniel Stoljar</a> (Australian National University) <br />
 <a href="https://philosophy.fas.harvard.edu/people/susanna-siegel">Susanna Siegel</a> (Harvard University) <br />
 <a href="http://web.mit.edu/philosophy/byrne.html">Alex Byrne</a> (MIT) <br />
 <a href="https://www.cmc.edu/academic/faculty/profile/amy-kind">Amy Kind</a> (Claremont McKenna College) <br />
 <a href="http://www3.nd.edu/~jspeaks/">Jeff Speaks</a> (Notre Dame) </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Philosophy of Physics</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Quantum Mechanics:</td>
<td><a href="http://publish.uwo.ca/~wmyrvold/">Wayne Myrvold</a> (University of Western Ontario)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Spacetime:</td>
<td><a href="http://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/jdnorton.html">John D. Norton</a> (University of Pittsburgh)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Philosophy of Religion:</td>
<td><a href="https://www.cla.purdue.edu/philosophy/directory/?p=paul_draper">Paul Draper</a> (Purdue University) <br />
 <a href="http://helendecruz.net/">Helen De Cruz</a> (St. Louis University) <br />
 <a href="https://fah.um.edu.mo/staff/staff-philosophy/victoria-harrison/">Victoria Harrison</a> (University of Macau) <br />
 <a href="https://sites.google.com/view/hud-hudson/home">Hud Hudson</a> (Western Washington University)</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Renaissance and 16th Century Philosophy:</td>
<td><a href="http://www.albany.edu/history/john_monfasani.php">John Monfasani</a> (State University of New York/Albany) <br />
 <a href="subject-editors/kraye.html">Jill Kraye</a> (Warburg Institute/University of London) <br />
 <a href="https://history.jhu.edu/directory/christopher-s-celenza/">Christopher S. Celenza</a> (Johns Hopkins University)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Philosophy of Science:</td>
<td> <a href="http://hss.divisions.caltech.edu/people/christopher-r-hitchcock">Christopher Hitchcock</a> (California Institute of Technology) <br />
 <a href="http://stephanhartmann.org/">Stephan Hartmann</a> (Universität München) <br />
 <a href="https://www.hps.pitt.edu/people/james-woodward">James Woodward</a> (University of Pittsburgh) <br />
 <a href="https://philosophy.artsci.wustl.edu/people/anya-plutynski">Anya Plutynski</a> (Washington University in St. Louis) <br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Philosophy of Social Science:</td>
<td> Christian List (Ludwig-Maximilians Universität München)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Social and Political Philosophy:</td>
<td> <a href="http://www.politics.ox.ac.uk/index.php/profile/zofia-stemplowska.html">Zofia Stemplowska</a> (Oxford University) <br />
 <a href="http://scholar.princeton.edu/astilz/home">Anna Stilz</a> (Princeton University) <br />
 <a href="https://researchers.anu.edu.au/researchers/barry-ch">Christian Barry</a> (Australian National University) <br />
 <a href="https://www.lauravalentini.net/">Laura Valentini</a> (Ludwig-Maximilians Universität München) <br />
 <a href="https://dornsife.usc.edu/cf/phil/faculty_display.cfm?Person_ID=1048339">Jonathan Quong</a> (University of Southern California) <br />
 <a href="http://sophos.berkeley.edu/kolodny">Niko Kolodny</a> (University of California/Berkeley) <br />
 <a href="https://cheshirecalhoun.com/">Cheshire Calhoun</a> (Arizona State University) <br />
 <a href="https://abizadeh.wixsite.com/arash">Arash Abizadeh</a> (McGill University) <br />
 <a href="https://as.tufts.edu/philosophy/people/faculty/mcPherson">Lionel McPherson</a> (Tufts University)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Women in the History of Philosophy:</td>
<td> <a href="http://philosophy.columbia.edu/directories/faculty/christia-mercer">Christia Mercer</a> (New York University)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>17th Century Philosophy:</td>
<td><a href="http://philosophy.unc.edu/people/faculty/alan-nelson/">Alan Nelson</a> (University of North Carolina/Chapel Hill) <br />
 <a href="http://www.yale.edu/philos/people/rocca_michael.html">Michael Della Rocca</a> (Yale University) <br />
 <a href="http://karolinahubner.org/">Karolina Hübner</a> (Cornell University) <br />
 <a href="https://philosophy.fas.harvard.edu/people/jeffrey-mcdonough">Jeffrey K. McDonough</a> (Harvard University)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>18th Century Philosophy:</td>
<td><a href="https://philosophy.osu.edu/people/downing.110">Lisa Downing</a> (Ohio State University) <br />
 <a href="http://philosophy.usf.edu/faculty/djesseph/">Douglas Jesseph</a> (University of South Florida) <br />
 <a href="https://philosophy.virginia.edu/faculty/profile/al4h">Antonia LoLordo</a> (University of Virginia) <br />
 <a href="https://scholars.duke.edu/person/janiak">Andrew Janiak</a> (Duke University)
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>19th Century Philosophy:</td>
<td><a href="http://www.stanford.edu/~allenw/">Allen Wood</a> (Stanford University) <br />
 <a href="https://sites.temple.edu/kristingjesdal/">Kristin Gjesdal</a> (Temple University) <br />
 <a href="http://www.philosophy.ox.ac.uk/people/william-mander">William Mander</a> (University of Oxford)
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>20th Century Philosophy:</td>
<td><a href="http://www.york.ac.uk/philosophy/staff/thomas-baldwin/">Tom Baldwin</a> (University of York) <br />
 <a href="http://www.bu.edu/philo/people/faculty/full-time/juliet-floyd/">Juliet Floyd</a> (Boston University) <br />
 <a href="http://www.hf.uio.no/ifikk/english/people/aca/dagfinnf/">Dagfinn Føllesdal</a> (University of Oslo/Stanford University)<br />
 <a href="https://www.jyu.fi/hytk/fi/laitokset/yfi/en/staff/heinamaa-sara/2022heinamaacv2017.pdf">Sara Heinämaa</a> (University of Jyväskylä) <br />
 <a href="http://philosophy.columbia.edu/directories/faculty/axel-honneth">Axel Honneth</a> (Columbia University) <br />
 <a href="http://artsfaculty.auckland.ac.nz/staff/?UPI=fkro002">Fred Kroon</a> (University of Auckland) <br />
 <a href="https://philosophy.la.psu.edu/people/lul19">Leonard Lawlor</a> (Pennsylvania State University) <br />
 <a href="http://www.utexas.edu/cola/philosophy/faculty/profile.php?id=jadems">David Sosa</a> (University of Texas/Austin) <br />
 <a href="http://cfs.ku.dk/staff/?pure=en/persons/34520">Dan Zahavi</a> (University of Copenhagen)
</td>
</tr>
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 Sigrún Svavarsdóttir (Tufts University) 
 Applied Ethics  
 Hilary Bok (Johns Hopkins University) 
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 Sean Aas (Georgetown University) 
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 Thomas Powers (University of Delaware) 
 Anita Superson (University of Kentucky) 
 Noëlle McAfee (Emory University) 
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 Heidi Grasswick (Middlebury College) 
 Serene Khader (CUNY/Graduate Center and Brooklyn College) 
 Jan Christoph Westerhoff (University of Oxford) 
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 Jonardon Ganeri (University of Toronto) 
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 Charles Manekin (University of Maryland) 
 Judaic Philosophy: Michael Morgan (Indiana University) 
 Carlos Fraenkel (McGill University) 
 Paul Guyer (Brown University) 
 Kant: R. Lanier Anderson (Stanford University) 
 Angela Breitenbach (University of Cambridge) 
 Halla Kim (Sogang University) 
 Korean Philosophy: Jin Y. Park (American University) 
 Kevin N. Cawley (University College Cork) 
 Jeffrey C. King (Rutgers University) 
 Ben Caplan (University of Kansas) 
 Philosophy of Language: Elisabeth Camp (Rutgers University) 
 Robin Jeshion (University of Southern California) 
 Ofra Magidor (Oxford University) 
 Otávio Bueno (University of Miami) 
 Latin American and Iberian Philosophy: Manuel Vargas (University of California, San Diego) 
 Amy Reed-Sandoval (University of Nevada, Las Vegas) 
 Scott J. Shapiro (Yale University) 
 Kimberly Ferzan (University of Pennsylvania/School of Law) 
 Philosophy of Law: Martin Stone (Yeshiva University/Cardozo Law School) 
 Kimberley Brownlee (University of British Columbia) 
 Leslie Green (University of Oxford) 
 Logic  
 Mathematical Logic: Dag Westerståhl (Stockholm University) 
 Rosalie Iemhoff (Utrecht University) 
 Marcus Kracht (Universität Bielefeld) 
 Heinrich Wansing (Ruhr-Universität Bochum) 
 Philosophical Logic: Katalin Bimbó (University of Alberta) 
 Wesley Holliday (University of California/Berkeley) 
 Paul Egré (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS)/Institut Jean-Nicod)
 John MacFarlane (University of California/Berkeley) 
 Philosophy of Logic: Joshua Schechter (Brown University) 
 Gillian Russell (Australian Catholic University) 
 Catarina Dutilh Novaes (Vrije Univeriteit Amsterdam) 
 History of Logic: Paolo Mancosu (University of California/Berkeley) 
 Richard Zach (University of Calgary) 
 Johan van Benthem (University of Amsterdam) 
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 Eric Pacuit (University of Maryland) 
 Olivier Roy (Universität Bayreuth) 
 Logic and Language: Martin Stokhof (University of Amsterdam) 
 Patrick Blackburn (Roskilde University) 
 Philosophy of Mathematics: Hannes Leitgeb (Ludwig-Maximilians Universität München) 
 Philip Welch (University of Bristol) 
 Gyula Klima (Fordham University) 
 Medieval Philosophy: Jack Zupko (University of Alberta) 
 Thomas Williams (University of Georgetown) 
 Penelope Mackie (University of Nottingham) 
 Jonathan Schaffer (Rutgers University) 
 Daniel Nolan (University of Notre Dame) 
 Metaphysics: Achille Varzi (Columbia University) 
 Karen Bennett (Rutgers University) 
 Shamik Dasgupta (University of California/Berkeley) 
 Kris McDaniel (Notre Dame) 
 David Chalmers (New York University) 
 Daniel Stoljar (Australian National University) 
 Philosophy of Mind: Susanna Siegel (Harvard University) 
 Alex Byrne (MIT)  
 Amy Kind (Claremont McKenna College) 
 Jeff Speaks (Notre Dame) 
 Philosophy of Physics  
 Quantum Mechanics: Wayne Myrvold (University of Western Ontario) 
 Spacetime: John D. Norton (University of Pittsburgh) 
 Paul Draper (Purdue University) 
 Philosophy of Religion: Helen De Cruz (St. Louis University) 
 Victoria Harrison (University of Macau) 
 Hud Hudson (Western Washington University) 
 John Monfasani (State University of New York/Albany) 
 Renaissance and 16th Century Philosophy: Jill Kraye (Warburg Institute/University of London) 
 Christopher S. Celenza (Johns Hopkins University) 
 Christopher Hitchcock (California Institute of Technology) 
 Philosophy of Science: Stephan Hartmann (Universität München) 
 James Woodward (University of Pittsburgh) 
 Anya Plutynski (Washington University in St. Louis) 
 Philosophy of Social Science: Christian List (Ludwig-Maximilians Universität München) 
 Zofia Stemplowska (Oxford University) 
 Anna Stilz (Princeton University) 
 Christian Barry (Australian National University) 
 Laura Valentini (Ludwig-Maximilians Universität München) 
 Social and Political Philosophy: Jonathan Quong (University of Southern California) 
 Niko Kolodny (University of California/Berkeley) 
 Cheshire Calhoun (Arizona State University) 
 Arash Abizadeh (McGill University) 
 Lionel McPherson (Tufts University) 
 Women in the History of Philosophy: Christia Mercer (New York University) 
 Alan Nelson (University of North Carolina/Chapel Hill) 
 17th Century Philosophy: Michael Della Rocca (Yale University) 
 Karolina Hübner (Cornell University) 
 Jeffrey K. McDonough (Harvard University) 
 Lisa Downing (Ohio State University) 
 18th Century Philosophy: Douglas Jesseph (University of South Florida) 
 Antonia LoLordo (University of Virginia) 
 Andrew Janiak (Duke University) 
 Allen Wood (Stanford University) 
 19th Century Philosophy: Kristin Gjesdal (Temple University) 
 William Mander (University of Oxford) 
 Tom Baldwin (University of York) 
 Juliet Floyd (Boston University) 
 Dagfinn Føllesdal (University of Oslo/Stanford University) 
 Sara Heinämaa (University of Jyväskylä) 
 20th Century Philosophy: Axel Honneth (Columbia University) 
 Fred Kroon (University of Auckland) 
 Leonard Lawlor (Pennsylvania State University) 
 David Sosa (University of Texas/Austin) 
 Dan Zahavi (University of Copenhagen) 
 

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 The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy is copyright © 2023 by The Metaphysics Research Lab, Department of Philosophy, Stanford University

 Library of Congress Catalog Data: ISSN 1095-5054

Philosophy of Action:
 Luca Ferrero (University of California/Riverside) 
Derk Pereboom (Cornell University)
Aesthetics:
 Stephen Davies (University of Auckland) 
 Robert Stecker (Central Michigan University) 
 Alex Neill (University of Southampton) 
 James Shelley (Auburn University) 
 Sherri Irvin (University of Oklahoma)
African and African-American Philosophy:
 Tommie Shelby (Harvard University) 
 Souleymane Bachir Diagne (Columbia University) 
 Olúfẹ́mi Táíwò (Cornell University) 
 Kristie Dotson (University of Michigan)
Ancient Philosophy
 
Ancient Philosophy:
 Gábor Betegh (University of Cambridge) 
 Brad Inwood (Yale University) 
 Benjamin Morison (Princeton University) 
 Sara Magrin (University of Pittsburgh)
Aristotle:
 Christopher Shields (University of Notre Dame)
Plato:
 Richard Kraut (Northwestern University)
Arabic and Islamic Philosophy:
 Deborah Black (University of Toronto) 
 Peter Adamson (LMU/Munich) 
 Jon McGinnis (University of Missouri/St. Louis) 
 Sajjad Rizvi (University of Exeter)
Philosophy of Biology:
 James Tabery (University of Utah) 
 Roberta L. Millstein (University of California/Davis) 
 Melinda Bonnie Fagan (University of Utah) 
 Jay Odenbaugh (Lewis &amp; Clark College) 
 Angela Potochnik (University of Cincinnati) 
 Marc Ereshefsky (University of Calgary)
 
Chinese Philosophy:
 Kwong Loi Shun (University of California/Berkeley) 
 Chad Hansen (University of Hong-Kong) 
 Karyn Lai (University of New South Wales) 
 Sor-hoon Tan (Singapore Management University)
Philosophy of Cognitive Science:
 Shaun Nichols (Cornell University) 
 Ron Mallon (Washington University in St. Louis) 
 David Danks (U. California/San Diego) 
 Kristin Andrews (York University) 
 Colin Allen (University of Pittsburgh)
Epistemology:
 Earl Conee (University of Rochester) 
 Richard Feldman (University of Rochester) 
 Jennifer Lackey (Northwestern University) 
 Jessica Brown (University of St. Andrews)
Formal Epistemology:
 Brian Skyrms (University of California/Irvine) 
 James Joyce (University of Michigan) 
 Alan Hájek (Australian National University) 
 Richard Pettigrew (University of Bristol) 
 R. A. Briggs (Stanford University)
Ethics
 
Normative Ethics:
 Holly Smith (Rutgers University) 
 Mark Timmons (University of Arizona) 
 Sarah Stroud (University of North Carolina) 
 Thomas Hurka (University of Toronto) 
Moral Psychology:
 Walter Sinnott-Armstrong (Duke University)
History of Ethics:
 Stephen Darwall (Yale University)
Metaethics:
Connie S. Rosati (University of Texas/Austin) 
 Russ Shafer-Landau (University of Wisconsin) 
 Sigrún Svavarsdóttir (Tufts University)
Applied Ethics
 
Biomedical Ethics:
 Hilary Bok (Johns Hopkins University) 
 Jennifer Hawkins (Duke University) 
 Sean Aas (Georgetown University) 
 Dana Howard (Ohio State University)
Ethics and Information Technology:
 Jason Borenstein (Georgia Tech) 
 Thomas Powers (University of Delaware)
Feminism:
 Anita Superson (University of Kentucky) 
 Noëlle McAfee (Emory University) 
 Ann Garry (California State University/Los Angeles) 
 Heidi Grasswick (Middlebury College) 
 Serene Khader (CUNY/Graduate Center and Brooklyn College)
Indian and Tibetan Philosophy:
 Jan Christoph Westerhoff (University of Oxford) 
 Jay Garfield (Smith College) 
 Jonardon Ganeri (University of Toronto)
Japanese Philosophy:
 Thomas Kasulis (Ohio State University)
Judaic Philosophy:
 Charles Manekin (University of Maryland) 
 Michael Morgan (Indiana University) 
 Carlos Fraenkel (McGill University)  
Kant:
 Paul Guyer (Brown University) 
 R. Lanier Anderson (Stanford University) 
 Angela Breitenbach (University of Cambridge)
Korean Philosophy:
 Halla Kim (Sogang University) 
 Jin Y. Park (American University) 
 Kevin N. Cawley (University College Cork)
Philosophy of Language:
 Jeffrey C. King (Rutgers University) 
 Ben Caplan (University of Kansas) 
 Elisabeth Camp (Rutgers University) 
 Robin Jeshion (University of Southern California) 
 Ofra Magidor (Oxford University)
Latin American and Iberian Philosophy:
 Otávio Bueno (University of Miami) 
 Manuel Vargas (University of California, San Diego) 
 Amy Reed-Sandoval (University of Nevada, Las Vegas)
Philosophy of Law:
 Scott J. Shapiro (Yale University) 
 Kimberly Ferzan (University of Pennsylvania/School of Law) 
 Martin Stone (Yeshiva University/Cardozo Law School) 
 Kimberley Brownlee (University of British Columbia) 
 Leslie Green (University of Oxford)
Logic
 
Mathematical Logic:
 Dag Westerståhl (Stockholm University) 
 Rosalie Iemhoff (Utrecht University)
Philosophical Logic:
 Marcus Kracht (Universität Bielefeld) 
 Heinrich Wansing (Ruhr-Universität Bochum) 
 Katalin Bimbó (University of Alberta) 
 Wesley Holliday (University of California/Berkeley) 
 Paul Egré (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS)/Institut Jean-Nicod)
Philosophy of Logic:
 John MacFarlane (University of California/Berkeley) 
 Joshua Schechter (Brown University) 
 Gillian Russell (Australian Catholic University) 
 Catarina Dutilh Novaes (Vrije Univeriteit Amsterdam)
History of Logic:
 Paolo Mancosu (University of California/Berkeley) 
 Richard Zach (University of Calgary)
Logic, Computation, and Agency:
 Johan van Benthem (University of Amsterdam) 
 Raymond Turner (University of Essex) 
 Eric Pacuit (University of Maryland) 
 Olivier Roy (Universität Bayreuth)
Logic and Language:
 Martin Stokhof (University of Amsterdam) 
 Patrick Blackburn (Roskilde University)
Philosophy of Mathematics:
 Hannes Leitgeb (Ludwig-Maximilians Universität München) 
 Philip Welch (University of Bristol)
Medieval Philosophy:
 Gyula Klima (Fordham University) 
 Jack Zupko (University of Alberta) 
 Thomas Williams (University of Georgetown)
Metaphysics:
 Penelope Mackie (University of Nottingham) 
 Jonathan Schaffer (Rutgers University) 
 Daniel Nolan (University of Notre Dame) 
 Achille Varzi (Columbia University) 
 Karen Bennett (Rutgers University) 
 Shamik Dasgupta (University of California/Berkeley) 
 Kris McDaniel (Notre Dame)
Philosophy of Mind:
 David Chalmers (New York University) 
 Daniel Stoljar (Australian National University) 
 Susanna Siegel (Harvard University) 
 Alex Byrne (MIT) 
 Amy Kind (Claremont McKenna College) 
 Jeff Speaks (Notre Dame) 
Philosophy of Physics
 
Quantum Mechanics:
 Wayne Myrvold (University of Western Ontario)
Spacetime:
 John D. Norton (University of Pittsburgh)
Philosophy of Religion:
 Paul Draper (Purdue University) 
 Helen De Cruz (St. Louis University) 
 Victoria Harrison (University of Macau) 
 Hud Hudson (Western Washington University) 
Renaissance and 16th Century Philosophy:
 John Monfasani (State University of New York/Albany) 
 Jill Kraye (Warburg Institute/University of London) 
 Christopher S. Celenza (Johns Hopkins University)
Philosophy of Science:
 Christopher Hitchcock (California Institute of Technology) 
 Stephan Hartmann (Universität München) 
 James Woodward (University of Pittsburgh) 
 Anya Plutynski (Washington University in St. Louis) 
Philosophy of Social Science:
 Christian List (Ludwig-Maximilians Universität München)
Social and Political Philosophy:
 Zofia Stemplowska (Oxford University) 
 Anna Stilz (Princeton University) 
 Christian Barry (Australian National University) 
 Laura Valentini (Ludwig-Maximilians Universität München) 
 Jonathan Quong (University of Southern California) 
 Niko Kolodny (University of California/Berkeley) 
 Cheshire Calhoun (Arizona State University) 
 Arash Abizadeh (McGill University) 
 Lionel McPherson (Tufts University)
Women in the History of Philosophy:
 Christia Mercer (New York University)
17th Century Philosophy:
 Alan Nelson (University of North Carolina/Chapel Hill) 
 Michael Della Rocca (Yale University) 
 Karolina Hübner (Cornell University) 
 Jeffrey K. McDonough (Harvard University)
18th Century Philosophy:
 Lisa Downing (Ohio State University) 
 Douglas Jesseph (University of South Florida) 
 Antonia LoLordo (University of Virginia) 
 Andrew Janiak (Duke University)
19th Century Philosophy:
 Allen Wood (Stanford University) 
 Kristin Gjesdal (Temple University) 
 William Mander (University of Oxford)
20th Century Philosophy:
 Tom Baldwin (University of York) 
 Juliet Floyd (Boston University) 
 Dagfinn Føllesdal (University of Oslo/Stanford University)
 Sara Heinämaa (University of Jyväskylä) 
 Axel Honneth (Columbia University) 
 Fred Kroon (University of Auckland) 
 Leonard Lawlor (Pennsylvania State University) 
 David Sosa (University of Texas/Austin) 
 Dan Zahavi (University of Copenhagen)
Editorial Board
https://plato.stanford.edu/board.html
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/brouwer/
Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer
2003-03-26
Van Atten; Mark
<div><div>
<h2><a>1. The Person</a></h2>
<p>
Brouwer studied at the (municipal) University of Amsterdam where his
most important teachers were Diederik Korteweg and Gerrit Mannoury.</p>
<p>
Korteweg (1848–1941) was professor of mathematics, mechanics and
astronomy at the University of Amsterdam from 1881–1918; the
last five years as <em>extraordinarius</em>, so as to make place for
Brouwer. Around 1900, Korteweg was the most important and influential
mathematician in the Netherlands, and he contributed much to the
internationalisation of Dutch mathematics. A mathematical physicist
trained by van der Waals, he had a particular interest in mechanics
and thermodynamics. Among his many results, the best-known is probably
the Korteweg-de Vries equation, describing the behaviour of waves in a
shallow channel. Korteweg also had a strong historical interest, and
was chief editor of vols. XI–XV of Christiaan Huygens’ collected
works (1908–1925). Part of the correspondence with his PhD
student Brouwer concerned the unification of physical theories (see
van Stigt, 1990, pp. 490–498).
</p>
<p>
Mannoury (1867–1956) was a philosopher, mathematician,
psychoanalyst, accountant, and political activist (Kirkels, 2019). Largely an
autodidact, it was he who introduced in the Netherlands both topology
(in a series of papers of 1897–1900) and Peano’s symbolic logic
(in a lecture in 1903). In 1903 he was
appointed <em>privaatdocent</em> (unpaid lecturer) in the logical
foundations of mathematics at the University of Amsterdam, where
Brouwer was among his first and most enthusiastic students. His
lectures have been published, in shortened and revised form, as
Mannoury, 1909. But it was Mannoury’s earlier, topological papers that
influenced the young Brouwer decisively: the “undertone”
of that work, Brouwer said in a speech in 1946, had changed his view
of mathematics from a collection of “truths fascinating by their
immovability, but horrifying by their lifelessness, like stones from
barren mountains of disconsolate infinity” to a concern with
what is “built ... out of the structural elements of our
thinking” (Brouwer, 1946B, pp. 192–193). Brouwer was also
very interested in Mannoury’s reflections on the uses and misuses of
language in mathematics and philosophy. In 1917 Mannoury became
professor <em>extraordinarius</em>, in 1918 <em>ordinarius</em> at the
University of Amsterdam, succeeding Korteweg at the chair of analytic
and descriptive geometry, mechanics and philosophy of mathematics,
until 1937. A large part of his career was devoted to furthering the
development of <em>significs</em>, an analysis of communicative acts
starting from the ideas laid down by Victoria, Lady Welby in her paper
“Sense, Meaning and Interpretation” (Welby, 1896). Brouwer
was also involved in that project.</p>
<p>
Brouwer’s principal (intuitionistic) students were Maurits Belinfante,
Arend Heyting, and Johan de Iongh; Heyting, in turn, was the teacher
of Anne Troelstra and Dirk van Dalen, and de Iongh of Wim
Veldman. Brouwer’s classes were also attended by Max Euwe, later to
become world chess champion, who published a game-theoretical paper on
chess from the intuitionistic point of view (Euwe, 1929), and who
would much later deliver Brouwer’s funeral speech. Among Brouwer’s
assistants were Heyting, Hans Freudenthal, Karl Menger, and Witold
Hurewicz, the latter two of whom were not intuitionistically
inclined. The most influential supporter of Brouwer’s intuitionism
outside the Netherlands at the time was, for a number of years,
Hermann Weyl (whose adaptation of intuitionistic analysis was not
wholly coherent); also Husserl’s student Oskar Becker should be
mentioned.</p>
<p>
Brouwer seems to have been an independent and brilliant man of high
moral standards, but with an exaggerated sense of justice, making him
at times pugnacious. As a consequence, in his life he energetically
fought many battles. To Mannoury’s daughter, Brouwer once said:
“Indeed, your father is one of the few people with whom I have
never had a quarrel. But he brought out the good in people, and I the
bad” (Schmitz, 1990, p. 383).</p>
<p>
From 1914 to 1928, Brouwer was member of the editiorial board of the
<em>Mathematische Annalen</em>, and he was the founding editor of
<em>Compositio Mathematica</em>, which first appeared in 1934.</p>
<p>
He was a member of, among others, the Royal Dutch Academy of
Sciences, the Royal Society in London, the Preußische Akademie
der Wissenschaften in Berlin, and the Akademie der Wissenschaften in
Göttingen.</p>
<p>
Brouwer received honorary doctorates from the universities of Oslo
(1929) and Cambridge (1954), and was made Knight in the Order of the
Dutch Lion in 1932.</p>
<h2><a>2. Chronology</a></h2>
<p>
<strong>1881</strong> February 27, born in Overschie (since 1941
part of Rotterdam), The Netherlands.</p>
<p>
<strong>1897</strong> Enters the University of Amsterdam to study
mathematics and physics.</p>
<p>
<strong>1904</strong> Obtains <em>doctorandus</em> title (MSc degree)
in mathematics; first publication (on rotations in four dimensional
space); marries Lize de Holl (born 1870). They would have no children,
but Lize had a daughter from an earlier marriage. They move to
Blaricum, near Amsterdam, where they would live for the rest of their
lives, although they also had houses in other places.</p>
<p>
<strong>1904–1907</strong> Doctoral studies. His mathematical
and philosophical notebooks towards his dissertation show strong
influence from notably Cantor, Hilbert, Russell, Poincaré, and
Couturat. He is aware of the Frege–Hilbert debate, and in that
matter sides with Frege. Some remarks betray a form of anti-semitism
that, unfortunately, often appeared in language at the time, as
codification of a common prejudice; an occasional remark goes further
and contrasts Jewish people unfavourably to Germanic ones. No such
utterances are known from other periods in his life; compare also the
entries for 1934–1935 and 1940–1945 below. There is no meaningful
connection between this fleeting anti-semitism and the philosophical
views on mathematics, language, and society he set out in his
dissertation and developed over the rest of his life.
</p>
<p>
<strong>1907</strong> Obtains <em>doctor</em> title with
dissertation <em>On the Foundations of Mathematics</em>, under
supervision of Korteweg at the University of Amsterdam. (The original
Dutch title of the dissertation was ‘Over de Grondslagen der
Wiskunde’. The present entry will for the most part refer to works
cited by using the titles of English translations, with the
bibliography providing information about the original publications.)
It marks the beginning of his intuitionistic reconstruction of
mathematics. Later that year, Brouwer’s wife graduates and becomes a
pharmacist. All his life, Brouwer did the bookkeeping for her and
filled out the tax forms, and sometimes he assisted behind the
counter.</p>
<p>
<strong>1908</strong> First publication of his argument against the
general validity of the Principle of the Excluded Middle in “The
unreliability of the logical principles”. First participation in
an international conference, the Fourth International Conference of
Mathematicians in Rome.</p>
<p>
<strong>1909–1913</strong> In a very productive four years,
Brouwer founds modern topology, as a chapter of classical mathematics.
Highlights: invariance of dimension, fixed point theorem, mapping
degree, definition of dimension. As van Dalen (2005, p. 450) observes,
Brouwer’s definition of dimension seems to be the first reformulation
of an inductive definition as a game. A pause in his intuitionistic
program.</p>
<p>
<strong>1909</strong> Becomes <em>privaatdocent</em> (unpaid lecturer)
at the University of Amsterdam. Inaugural lecture “The Nature of
Geometry”.</p>
<p>
<strong>1909</strong> Meets Hilbert in the Dutch seaside resort of
Scheveningen. Brouwer much admires Hilbert and describes their meeting
in a letter to a friend as “a beautiful new ray of light through
my life” (Brouwer &amp; Adama van Scheltema, 1984, p. 100). Twenty
years later, Brouwer’s relation with Hilbert would turn sour.</p>
<p>
<strong>1911</strong> First appearance of the names
“formalism” and “intuitionism” in Brouwer’s
writings, in a review of Mannoury’s <em>Methodological
and philosophical remarks on elementary mathematics</em> (1909).</p>
<p>
<strong>1912</strong> Elected member of the Royal Academy of
Sciences (during World War II “Dutch Academy of Sciences”,
afterward “Royal Dutch Academy of Sciences”).</p>
<p>
<strong>1912</strong> Appointed full professor
<em>extraordinarius</em> in the field of set theory, function
theory, and axiomatics. His philosophical inaugural lecture
“Intuïtionisme en Formalisme” is translated into English as
“Intuitionism and Formalism” and thus becomes, in 1913, the
first publication on intuitionism in that language.</p>
<p>
<strong>1913</strong> Appointed full professor <em>ordinarius</em>,
succeeding Korteweg, who had generously offered to vacate his chair for
the purpose.</p>
<p>
<strong>1914</strong> Invited to join the editorial board of the
<em>Mathematische Annalen</em>; accepts the honour.</p>
<p>
<strong>1918</strong> Brouwer begins the systematic intuitionistic
reconstruction of mathematics with his paper “Founding
Set Theory Independently of the Principle of the Excluded Middle. Part
One, General Set Theory”.</p>
<p>
<strong>1919</strong> Receives offers for professorships in
Göttingen and in Berlin; declines both.</p>
<p>
<strong>1919</strong> “Intuitionistic Set Theory” is the first piece of
intuitionistic mathematics in a widely read international journal, the
<em>Jahresbericht der Deutschen Mathematiker Vereinigung</em>.</p>
<p>
<strong>1920</strong> Start of the “Grundlagenstreit”
(Foundational Debate) with Brouwer’s lecture at the
“Naturforscherversammlung” in Bad Nauheim, published in
1921, “Does Every Real Number Have a
Decimal Expansion?”; the debate was amplified by Weyl’s defence of intuitionism
in 1921, “On the New Foundational Crisis of
Mathematics”; Hilbert responds in 1922,
“The New
Grounding of Mathematics”.</p>
<p>
<strong>1922</strong> Co-founds, with Gerrit Mannoury, the man of letters 
Frederik van Eeden, and others, the “Signific Circle”, 
aiming at spiritual and
political progress through language reform. The Circle ends its meetings in
1926, but Mannoury continues its work.</p>
<p>
<strong>1926</strong> Lecture in Göttingen; as a result of a
group dinner at Emmy Noether’s house, Hilbert and Brouwer are (for a
brief period) on good terms again.</p>
<p>
<strong>1927</strong> Lecture series in Berlin; Hans Reichenbach and
André Weil are in the audience, as is Brouwer’s later assistant
Hans Freudenthal. The newspaper <em>Berliner Tageblatt</em> proposes a
public debate between Brouwer and Hilbert, to be held in its pages,
but for some reason this is not realised. Neither does Brouwer
complete the book he is invited to write by the German publisher
Walter de Gruyter. The lectures and an incomplete book are published
posthumously (Brouwer, 1992).</p>
<p>
<strong>1928</strong> March 10 and 14: two lectures in Vienna.
Gödel is in the audience, as is Wittgenstein. It is said that the
first lecture made Wittgenstein return to philosophy. Brouwer spends a
day with Wittgenstein.</p>
<p>
<strong>1928</strong> April: conversations with Husserl, who is in
Amsterdam to lecture.</p>
<p>
<strong>1928</strong> Conflict over the Bologna conference. The German
mathematicians are, for the first time since the ending of World War
I, admitted to an international conference again, but not quite as
equals. Brouwer insists that this is not fair, and that the conference
should therefore be boycotted. Hilbert, who does not share this view,
is much chagrined by Brouwer’s action and attends the conference as
the leader of the German delegation, the largest present.</p>
<p>
<strong>1928–1929</strong> “Mathematische Annalenstreit”,
the conflict in the editorial board of <em>Mathematische
Annalen</em>. Hilbert, thinking he is about to die, feels a need to
make sure that after his death Brouwer will not become too
influential, and expels him from the board in an unlawful way.
(Hilbert’s motivation as described here is documented in letters from
people close to him: Carathéodory to Einstein, October 20,
1928; Blumenthal to the publisher and editors of the <em>Mathematische
Annalen</em>, November 16, 1928; Born to Einstein, November 20,
1928. Copies of these letters are in the Brouwer Papers 
at the Noord-Hollands Archief in Haarlem. 
Relevant quotations from these can be found in van Dalen,
2005, p. 604 and p. 613.) Einstein, also member of the board,
refuses to support Hilbert’s action and does not want to have anything
to do with the whole affair; most other board members do not want to
irritate Hilbert by opposing him. Brouwer vehemently protests. In the
end, the whole board is dissolved and immediately reassembled without
Brouwer, in a strongly reduced size (in particular, Einstein and
Carathéodory decline). The conflict leaves Brouwer mentally
broken and isolated, and puts an end to a very creative decade in his
work. Now that the two main contestants are no longer able to carry it
on, the “Grundlagenstreit” is over.</p>
<p>
<strong>1928–1930</strong> Conflict with Karl Menger over the
priority for the first correct definition of the notion of
dimension.</p>
<p>
<strong>1929</strong> August: theft of Brouwer’s briefcase on the
tram in Brussels, and with it of his mathematical notebook. When
neither the police nor a private detective hired for the purpose is
able to find it again, he despairs of ever being able to reconstruct
its contents. Brouwer later said that this loss was instrumental in the
shift of his main interest from mathematics to philosophy.</p>
<p>
<strong>1929</strong> Begins preparations for the foundation of a
new mathematical journal.</p>
<p>
<strong>1934</strong> Appearance of the first issue of Brouwer’s own
international journal, entitled <em>Compositio Mathematica</em>.</p>
<p>
<strong>1934</strong> Lecture series in Geneva, on invitation of
Ferdinand Gonseth. Plans for a course on intuitionistic mathematics
in Göttingen come very far, but are, in the end, not realised.</p>
<p>
<strong>1934–1935</strong> Ludwig Bieberbach, a German member of
the editorial board of
<em>Compositio Mathematica</em> who in 1933
had joined the National Socialist movement by entering the SA,
asks Brouwer to remove the Jewish members from that board. 
Brouwer refuses; Bieberbach resigns.
</p>
<p>
<strong>1935–1941</strong> Member of the municipal council of
Blaricum for the local Neutral Party (in 1939 he wins the elections by
receiving 310 of the 1601 votes).</p>
<p>
<strong>1940–1945</strong> During the German Occupation of the
Netherlands in World War II, Brouwer assists the resistance by letting
them use storage space in the Mathematical Institute, of which he was
the director. He offers hiding places to Jews and other persecuted
persons in small houses on his premises (as testified by a neighbour’s
daughter, herself involved in these operations, in van Dalen 2005,
vol. 2, p. 772–773). In 1943, he advises the students to sign
the declaration of loyalty demanded by the Germans; when some students
refuse and go into hiding, Brouwer and Heyting visit them to continue
their education. Part of Brouwer’s explanation, after the war, for
the advice to sign is that signing would provide the students with the
relative peace needed to build up and carry out resistance
activities. He is met with skepticism (but is supported by Mannoury).
Because of this and some similar perhaps unfortunate attempts at
shrewdness during the occupation, after the liberation he is suspended
for a few months. Deeply offended, Brouwer considers emigration to
South Africa or the USA.</p>
<p>
<strong>1941 and 1944</strong> Fires in Brouwer’s house destroy
significant parts of his archives and library. </p>
<p>
<strong>1942</strong> Publishes three short notes again on
intuitionistic foundations, the first since 1933.</p>
<p>
<strong>1945–1950</strong> Conflict over <em>Compositio
Mathematica</em>. The journal had not appeared during the war, and an
effort is made to bring it back to life. Difficulties in assembling a
new board of editors arise because of Brouwer’s damaged reputation. In
the end, Brouwer’s name remains on the title page, but in effect he is
removed from the board of the journal he had founded.</p>
<p>
<strong>1947–1951</strong> Annual lecture series in Cambridge,
England. Brouwer plans to turn them into a book, but this does not
happen. However, he completes five of the planned six chapters, and
these are published poshumously (Brouwer, 1981).</p>
<p>
<strong>1948</strong> Resumes his foundational program with a paper
that exploits the notion of the creating subject. Beginning of another
creative period.</p>
<p>
<strong>1949</strong> Opposes a plan to have his collected papers
published, on the ground that he has no time to write annotations that
reflect his original as well as his present views on them, which he
considers would be the scientifically responsible thing to do.</p>
<p>
<strong>1951</strong> Retires from the University of
Amsterdam. Cooling off of his relationship with Arend Heyting, his
successor at the post of director of the Mathematical Institute, as a
result of disagreement over the exact role the retired Brouwer could
still play there.</p>
<p>
<strong>1952</strong> Lectures in London and in Cape Town.</p>
<p>
<strong>1953</strong> Lectures in Helsinki, where he stays with Von
Wright. Lecture tour through the USA (among others MIT, Princeton,
University of Wisconsin-Madison, Berkeley, Chicago) and Canada
(Canadian Mathematical Congress in Kingston, Ontario). In Princeton,
he visits Gödel.</p>
<p>
<strong>1955</strong> Publishes his last new paper (based on his
lecture at the Boole conference in Dublin the year before).</p>
<p>
<strong>1959</strong> Death of Mrs Brouwer, 89 years old. Brouwer
declines an offer for a 1-year position at the University of British
Columbia in Vancouver.</p>
<p>
<strong>1962</strong> Brouwer is offered a position in Montana.</p>
<p>
<strong>1966</strong> December 2: dies in Blaricum, The Netherlands,
85 years old, when he is hit by a car in front of his house.
His library and archives are dispersed.
Beginning in the 1970s, 
Walter van Stigt and Dirk van Dalen reconstitute the archives
as much as possible;
the Brouwer Papers are now kept at the Noord-Hollands Archief in Haarlem.</p>
<h2><a>3. Brief Characterisation of Brouwer’s Intuitionism</a></h2>
<p>
Based on his philosophy of mind, on which Kant and Schopenhauer were
the main influences, Brouwer characterised mathematics primarily as
the free activity of exact thinking, an activity which is founded on
the pure intuition of (inner) time. No independent realm of objects
and no language play a fundamental role. He thus strived to avoid the
Scylla of platonism (with its epistemological problems) and the
Charybdis of formalism (with its poverty of content). As, on Brouwer’s
view, there is no determinant of mathematical truth outside the
activity of thinking, a proposition only becomes true when the subject
has experienced its truth (by having carried out an appropriate mental
construction); similarly, a proposition only becomes false when the
subject has experienced its falsehood (by realizing that an
appropriate mental construction is not possible). Hence Brouwer can
claim that “there are no non-experienced truths” (Brouwer,
1975, p.488).</p>
<p>
Brouwer was prepared to follow his philosophy of mind to its ultimate
conclusions; whether the reconstructed mathematics was compatible or
incompatible with classical mathematics was a secondary question, and
never decisive. In thus granting philosophy priority over traditional
mathematics, he showed himself a revisionist. And indeed, whereas
intuitionistic arithmetic is a subsystem of classical arithmetic, in
analysis the situation is different: not all of classical analysis is
intuitionistically acceptable, but neither is all of intuitionistic
analysis classically acceptable. Brouwer accepted this consequence
wholeheartedly.</p>
<h2><a>4. Brouwer’s Development of Intuitionism</a></h2>
<p>
The following is a brief history of Brouwer’s ideas in philosophy,
mathematics, and logic. There is also a more detailed separate article
on
 <a href="../intuitionistic-logic-development/">The Development of Intuitionistic Logic</a>.</p>
<p>
Brouwer’s little book <em>Life, Art and Mysticism</em> of 1905, while
not developing his foundations of mathematics as such, is a key to
those foundations as developed in his dissertation on which he was
working at the same time and which was finished two years later. Among
a variety of other things, such as his views on society and women
in particular, the book contains his basic ideas on mind, language,
ontology and epistemology. </p>
<p>
These ideas are applied to mathematics in his dissertation <em>On the
Foundations of Mathematics</em>, defended in 1907; it is the general
philosophy and not the paradoxes that initiates the development of
intuitionism (once this had begun, solutions to the paradoxes
emerged). As did Kant, Brouwer founds mathematics on a pure intuition
of time (but Brouwer rejects pure intuition of space).</p>
<p>
Brouwer holds that mathematics is an essentially languageless
activity, and that language can only give descriptions of mathematical
activity after the fact. This leads him to deny axiomatic approaches
any foundational role in mathematics. Also, he construes logic as the
study of patterns in linguistic renditions of mathematical activity,
and therefore logic is dependent on mathematics (as the study of
patterns) and not vice versa. It is these considerations that motivate
him to introduce the distinction between mathematics and
metamathematics (for which he used the term “second order
mathematics”), which he would explain to Hilbert in conversations
in 1909 (Brouwer, 1928A2, p. 375n.2).</p>
<p>
With this view in place, Brouwer sets out to reconstruct Cantorian
set theory. When an attempt (in a draft of the dissertation) at making
constructive sense out of Cantor’s second number class (the class of
all denumerably infinite ordinals) and higher classes of even greater
ordinals fails, he realises that this cannot be done and rejects the
higher number classes, leaving only all finite ordinals and an
unfinished or open-ended collection of denumerably infinite ordinals.
Thus, as a consequence of his philosophical views, he consciously puts
aside part of generally accepted mathematics. Soon he would do the same
with a principle of logic, the principle of the excluded middle (PEM),
but in the dissertation he still thinks of it as correct but useless,
interpreting \(p \vee \neg p\) as \(\neg p \rightarrow \neg p\).</p>
<p>
In “The Unreliability of the Logical Principles” of 1908,
Brouwer formulates, in general terms, his criticism of PEM: although in
the simple form of \(p \vee \neg p\), the principle will never lead to a contradiction,
there are instances of it for which one has, constructively speaking,
no positive grounds. Brouwer names some. Because they
do not in the strict sense refute PEM, they are known as “weak
counterexamples”. See the
supplement on <a href="weakcounterex.html">Weak Counterexamples</a>.</p>
<p>
The innovation that gives intuitionism a much wider range than other
varieties of constructive mathematics (including the one in Brouwer’s
dissertation) are the choice sequences. These are potentially infinite
sequences of numbers (or other mathematical objects) chosen one after
the other by the subject. Choice sequences made their
first appearance as intuitionistically acceptable objects in a book
review in 1914; the principle that makes them mathematically
tractable, the continuity principle, was formulated in Brouwer’s
lectures notes of 1916. The main use of choice sequences is the
reconstruction of analysis; points on the continuum (real numbers) are
identified with choice sequences satisfying certain conditions. Choice
sequences are collected together using a device called 
“spread”, which performs a function similar to that of the
Cantorian set in classical analysis, and initially, Brouwer even uses
the word “Menge” (“set”) for it. Brouwer
develops a theory of spreads, and a theory of point sets based on it,
in the two-part paper “Founding Set Theory Independently of the
Principle of the Excluded Middle” (1918/1919).</p>
<p>
The answer to the question in the title of Brouwer’s paper
“Does Every Real Number Have a Decimal Expansion?” (1921A)
turns out to be no. Brouwer demonstrates that one can construct choice
sequences satisfying the Cauchy condition that in their exact
development depend on an as yet open problem. No decimal expansion can
be constructed until the open problem is solved; on Brouwer’s strict
constructivist view, this means that no decimal expansion exists until
the open problem is solved. In this sense, one can construct real
numbers (i.e., converging choice sequences) that do not yet have a decimal
expansion.</p>
<p>
In a lecture in 1923, again using choice sequences and open problems,
Brouwer devises a general technique, now known as “Brouwerian
counterexamples”, to generate weak counterexamples to classical
principles: “On the Significance of the Principle of the
Excluded Middle in Mathematics” (Brouwer 1924N).</p>
<p>
The basic theorems of intuitionistic analysis — the bar theorem,
fan theorem, and continuity theorem — are in “On the
Domains of Definition of Functions” of 1927. The first two are
structural theorems on spreads; the third (not to be confused with the
continuity principle for choice sequences) states that every total
function \([0,1] \rightarrow \mathbb{R}\) is continuous and even
uniformly continuous. The fan theorem is, in fact, a corollary of the
bar theorem; combined with the continuity principle, which is not
classically valid, it yields the continuity theorem, which is not
classically valid either. The bar and fan theorems on the other hand
are classically valid, although the classical and intuitionistic
proofs for them are not exchangeable. The classical proofs are
intuitionistically not acceptable because of the way they depend on
PEM; the intuitionistic proofs are classically not acceptable because
they depend on reflection on the structure of mental proofs. In this
reflection, Brouwer introduced the notion of the “fully
analysed” or “canonical” form of a proof, which
would be adopted much later by Martin-Löf and by Dummett. In a
footnote, Brouwer mentions that such proofs, which he identifies with
mental objects in the subject’s mind, are often infinite.</p>
<p>
“Intuitionist Reflections on Formalism” of 1928 identifies
and discusses four key differences between formalism and intuitionism,
all having to do either with the role of PEM or with the relation
between mathematics and language. Brouwer emphasises, as he had done
in his dissertation, that formalism presupposes contentual mathematics
at the metalevel. He also here presents his first strong
counterexample, a refutation of PEM in the form
\(\forall x\in \mathbb{R}(Px \vee \neg Px)\), by showing that it is false that every
real number is either rational or irrational. See the supplement on
 <a href="strongcounterex.html">Strong Counterexamples</a>.
</p>
<p>
Of the two lectures held in Vienna in 1928 — “Mathematics,
Science and Language” (1929A) and “The Structure of the
Continuum” (1930A) — the first is for the most part of a
philosophical nature while the second is more mathematical. In
“Mathematics, Science and Language”, Brouwer states his
general views on the relations between the three subjects mentioned in
the title, following a genetic approach, and stressing the role of the
will. A longer version of this lecture was published as
“Will, Knowledge and Speech” (1933A2); it contains the
first explicit remarks about a notion that had been present from the
start, now known as that of the “ideal(ised) mathematician”
or “creating subject”.</p>
<p>
“Consciousness, Philosophy and Mathematics” (1949C) once
again goes through Brouwer’s philosophy of mind and some of its
consequences for mathematics. Comparison with <em>Life, Art, and
Mysticism</em>, “Mathematics, Science and Language”, and
“Volition, Knowledge, Language” reveals that Brouwer’s
general philosophy over the years developed considerably, but mainly
in depth.</p>
<p>
In 1949, Brouwer (1949A) publishes the first of a new class of
strong counterexamples, a class that differs from Brouwer’s earlier
strong counterexample (1928, see above) in that the type of argument,
which now goes by the name of “creating subject argument”,
involves essential reference to the temporal structure of the creating
subject’s mathematical activity (Heyting, 1956, chs. III and VIII; van
Atten, 2003, chs.4 and 5; van Atten, 2018).</p>
<p>
Brouwer’s example shows that there is a case where the double negation
principle in the form of
\(\forall x\in \mathbb{R}(\neg \neg Px \rightarrow Px)\), leads to a contradiction (“The
Non-equivalence of the Constructive and the Negative Order Relation on
the Continuum”, in Dutch). The first publication of a strong
counterexample in English had to wait till 1954, in “An Example
of Contradictority in Classical Theory of Functions”
(1954F). This polemical title should be understood as follows: if one
keeps to the letter of the classical theory but in its interpretation
substitutes intuitionistic notions for their classical counterparts,
one arrives at a contradiction. So it is not a counterexample in the
strict sense of the word, but rather a non-interpretability result. As
intuitionistic logic is, formally speaking, part of classical logic,
and intuitionistic arithmetic is part of classical arithmetic, the
existence of strong counterexamples must depend on an essentially
non-classical ingredient, and this is of course the choice
sequences.</p>
<p>
The creating subject argument is, after the earlier introduction of
choice sequences and the proof of the bar theorem, a new step in the
exploitation of the subjective aspects of intuitionism. There is no
principled reason why it should be the last.</p>
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 Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer

 First published Wed Mar 26, 2003; substantive revision Wed Feb 26, 2020

 Dutch mathematician and philosopher who lived from 1881 to 1966. He is traditionally referred to as “L.E.J. Brouwer”, with full initials, but was called “Bertus” by his friends.

 In classical mathematics, he founded modern topology by establishing, for example, the topological invariance of dimension and the fixpoint theorem. He also gave the first correct definition of dimension.

 In philosophy, his brainchild is intuitionism, a revisionist foundation of mathematics. Intuitionism views mathematics as a free activity of the mind, independent of any language or Platonic realm of objects, and therefore bases mathematics on a philosophy of mind. The implications are twofold. First, it leads to a form of constructive mathematics, in which large parts of classical mathematics are rejected. Second, the reliance on a philosophy of mind introduces features that are absent from classical mathematics as well as from other forms of constructive mathematics: unlike those, intuitionistic mathematics is not a proper part of classical mathematics.

 * 1. The Person
 * 2. Chronology
 * 3. Brief Characterisation of Brouwer’s Intuitionism
 * 4. Brouwer’s Development of Intuitionism
 * Bibliography
 * Academic Tools
 * Other Internet Resources
 * Related Entries

 1. The Person

 Brouwer studied at the (municipal) University of Amsterdam where his most important teachers were Diederik Korteweg and Gerrit Mannoury.

 Korteweg (1848–1941) was professor of mathematics, mechanics and astronomy at the University of Amsterdam from 1881–1918; the last five years as extraordinarius, so as to make place for Brouwer. Around 1900, Korteweg was the most important and influential mathematician in the Netherlands, and he contributed much to the internationalisation of Dutch mathematics. A mathematical physicist trained by van der Waals, he had a particular interest in mechanics and thermodynamics. Among his many results, the best-known is probably the Korteweg-de Vries equation, describing the behaviour of waves in a shallow channel. Korteweg also had a strong historical interest, and was chief editor of vols. XI–XV of Christiaan Huygens’ collected works (1908–1925). Part of the correspondence with his PhD student Brouwer concerned the unification of physical theories (see van Stigt, 1990, pp. 490–498).

 Mannoury (1867–1956) was a philosopher, mathematician, psychoanalyst, accountant, and political activist (Kirkels, 2019). Largely an autodidact, it was he who introduced in the Netherlands both topology (in a series of papers of 1897–1900) and Peano’s symbolic logic (in a lecture in 1903). In 1903 he was appointed privaatdocent (unpaid lecturer) in the logical foundations of mathematics at the University of Amsterdam, where Brouwer was among his first and most enthusiastic students. His lectures have been published, in shortened and revised form, as Mannoury, 1909. But it was Mannoury’s earlier, topological papers that influenced the young Brouwer decisively: the “undertone” of that work, Brouwer said in a speech in 1946, had changed his view of mathematics from a collection of “truths fascinating by their immovability, but horrifying by their lifelessness, like stones from barren mountains of disconsolate infinity” to a concern with what is “built ... out of the structural elements of our thinking” (Brouwer, 1946B, pp. 192–193). Brouwer was also very interested in Mannoury’s reflections on the uses and misuses of language in mathematics and philosophy. In 1917 Mannoury became professor extraordinarius, in 1918 ordinarius at the University of Amsterdam, succeeding Korteweg at the chair of analytic and descriptive geometry, mechanics and philosophy of mathematics, until 1937. A large part of his career was devoted to furthering the development of significs, an analysis of communicative acts starting from the ideas laid down by Victoria, Lady Welby in her paper “Sense, Meaning and Interpretation” (Welby, 1896). Brouwer was also involved in that project.

 Brouwer’s principal (intuitionistic) students were Maurits Belinfante, Arend Heyting, and Johan de Iongh; Heyting, in turn, was the teacher of Anne Troelstra and Dirk van Dalen, and de Iongh of Wim Veldman. Brouwer’s classes were also attended by Max Euwe, later to become world chess champion, who published a game-theoretical paper on chess from the intuitionistic point of view (Euwe, 1929), and who would much later deliver Brouwer’s funeral speech. Among Brouwer’s assistants were Heyting, Hans Freudenthal, Karl Menger, and Witold Hurewicz, the latter two of whom were not intuitionistically inclined. The most influential supporter of Brouwer’s intuitionism outside the Netherlands at the time was, for a number of years, Hermann Weyl (whose adaptation of intuitionistic analysis was not wholly coherent); also Husserl’s student Oskar Becker should be mentioned.

 Brouwer seems to have been an independent and brilliant man of high moral standards, but with an exaggerated sense of justice, making him at times pugnacious. As a consequence, in his life he energetically fought many battles. To Mannoury’s daughter, Brouwer once said: “Indeed, your father is one of the few people with whom I have never had a quarrel. But he brought out the good in people, and I the bad” (Schmitz, 1990, p. 383).

 From 1914 to 1928, Brouwer was member of the editiorial board of the Mathematische Annalen, and he was the founding editor of Compositio Mathematica, which first appeared in 1934.

 He was a member of, among others, the Royal Dutch Academy of Sciences, the Royal Society in London, the Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften in Berlin, and the Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen.

 Brouwer received honorary doctorates from the universities of Oslo (1929) and Cambridge (1954), and was made Knight in the Order of the Dutch Lion in 1932.

 2. Chronology

 1881 February 27, born in Overschie (since 1941 part of Rotterdam), The Netherlands.

 1897 Enters the University of Amsterdam to study mathematics and physics.

 1904 Obtains doctorandus title (MSc degree) in mathematics; first publication (on rotations in four dimensional space); marries Lize de Holl (born 1870). They would have no children, but Lize had a daughter from an earlier marriage. They move to Blaricum, near Amsterdam, where they would live for the rest of their lives, although they also had houses in other places.

 1904–1907 Doctoral studies. His mathematical and philosophical notebooks towards his dissertation show strong influence from notably Cantor, Hilbert, Russell, Poincaré, and Couturat. He is aware of the Frege–Hilbert debate, and in that matter sides with Frege. Some remarks betray a form of anti-semitism that, unfortunately, often appeared in language at the time, as codification of a common prejudice; an occasional remark goes further and contrasts Jewish people unfavourably to Germanic ones. No such utterances are known from other periods in his life; compare also the entries for 1934–1935 and 1940–1945 below. There is no meaningful connection between this fleeting anti-semitism and the philosophical views on mathematics, language, and society he set out in his dissertation and developed over the rest of his life.

 1907 Obtains doctor title with dissertation On the Foundations of Mathematics, under supervision of Korteweg at the University of Amsterdam. (The original Dutch title of the dissertation was ‘Over de Grondslagen der Wiskunde’. The present entry will for the most part refer to works cited by using the titles of English translations, with the bibliography providing information about the original publications.) It marks the beginning of his intuitionistic reconstruction of mathematics. Later that year, Brouwer’s wife graduates and becomes a pharmacist. All his life, Brouwer did the bookkeeping for her and filled out the tax forms, and sometimes he assisted behind the counter.

 1908 First publication of his argument against the general validity of the Principle of the Excluded Middle in “The unreliability of the logical principles”. First participation in an international conference, the Fourth International Conference of Mathematicians in Rome.

 1909–1913 In a very productive four years, Brouwer founds modern topology, as a chapter of classical mathematics. Highlights: invariance of dimension, fixed point theorem, mapping degree, definition of dimension. As van Dalen (2005, p. 450) observes, Brouwer’s definition of dimension seems to be the first reformulation of an inductive definition as a game. A pause in his intuitionistic program.

 1909 Becomes privaatdocent (unpaid lecturer) at the University of Amsterdam. Inaugural lecture “The Nature of Geometry”.

 1909 Meets Hilbert in the Dutch seaside resort of Scheveningen. Brouwer much admires Hilbert and describes their meeting in a letter to a friend as “a beautiful new ray of light through my life” (Brouwer & Adama van Scheltema, 1984, p. 100). Twenty years later, Brouwer’s relation with Hilbert would turn sour.

 1911 First appearance of the names “formalism” and “intuitionism” in Brouwer’s writings, in a review of Mannoury’s Methodological and philosophical remarks on elementary mathematics (1909).

 1912 Elected member of the Royal Academy of Sciences (during World War II “Dutch Academy of Sciences”, afterward “Royal Dutch Academy of Sciences”).

 1912 Appointed full professor extraordinarius in the field of set theory, function theory, and axiomatics. His philosophical inaugural lecture “Intuïtionisme en Formalisme” is translated into English as “Intuitionism and Formalism” and thus becomes, in 1913, the first publication on intuitionism in that language.

 1913 Appointed full professor ordinarius, succeeding Korteweg, who had generously offered to vacate his chair for the purpose.

 1914 Invited to join the editorial board of the Mathematische Annalen; accepts the honour.

 1918 Brouwer begins the systematic intuitionistic reconstruction of mathematics with his paper “Founding Set Theory Independently of the Principle of the Excluded Middle. Part One, General Set Theory”.

 1919 Receives offers for professorships in Göttingen and in Berlin; declines both.

 1919 “Intuitionistic Set Theory” is the first piece of intuitionistic mathematics in a widely read international journal, the Jahresbericht der Deutschen Mathematiker Vereinigung.

 1920 Start of the “Grundlagenstreit” (Foundational Debate) with Brouwer’s lecture at the “Naturforscherversammlung” in Bad Nauheim, published in 1921, “Does Every Real Number Have a Decimal Expansion?”; the debate was amplified by Weyl’s defence of intuitionism in 1921, “On the New Foundational Crisis of Mathematics”; Hilbert responds in 1922, “The New Grounding of Mathematics”.

 1922 Co-founds, with Gerrit Mannoury, the man of letters Frederik van Eeden, and others, the “Signific Circle”, aiming at spiritual and political progress through language reform. The Circle ends its meetings in 1926, but Mannoury continues its work.

 1926 Lecture in Göttingen; as a result of a group dinner at Emmy Noether’s house, Hilbert and Brouwer are (for a brief period) on good terms again.

 1927 Lecture series in Berlin; Hans Reichenbach and André Weil are in the audience, as is Brouwer’s later assistant Hans Freudenthal. The newspaper Berliner Tageblatt proposes a public debate between Brouwer and Hilbert, to be held in its pages, but for some reason this is not realised. Neither does Brouwer complete the book he is invited to write by the German publisher Walter de Gruyter. The lectures and an incomplete book are published posthumously (Brouwer, 1992).

 1928 March 10 and 14: two lectures in Vienna. Gödel is in the audience, as is Wittgenstein. It is said that the first lecture made Wittgenstein return to philosophy. Brouwer spends a day with Wittgenstein.

 1928 April: conversations with Husserl, who is in Amsterdam to lecture.

 1928 Conflict over the Bologna conference. The German mathematicians are, for the first time since the ending of World War I, admitted to an international conference again, but not quite as equals. Brouwer insists that this is not fair, and that the conference should therefore be boycotted. Hilbert, who does not share this view, is much chagrined by Brouwer’s action and attends the conference as the leader of the German delegation, the largest present.

 1928–1929 “Mathematische Annalenstreit”, the conflict in the editorial board of Mathematische Annalen. Hilbert, thinking he is about to die, feels a need to make sure that after his death Brouwer will not become too influential, and expels him from the board in an unlawful way. (Hilbert’s motivation as described here is documented in letters from people close to him: Carathéodory to Einstein, October 20, 1928; Blumenthal to the publisher and editors of the Mathematische Annalen, November 16, 1928; Born to Einstein, November 20, 1928. Copies of these letters are in the Brouwer Papers at the Noord-Hollands Archief in Haarlem. Relevant quotations from these can be found in van Dalen, 2005, p. 604 and p. 613.) Einstein, also member of the board, refuses to support Hilbert’s action and does not want to have anything to do with the whole affair; most other board members do not want to irritate Hilbert by opposing him. Brouwer vehemently protests. In the end, the whole board is dissolved and immediately reassembled without Brouwer, in a strongly reduced size (in particular, Einstein and Carathéodory decline). The conflict leaves Brouwer mentally broken and isolated, and puts an end to a very creative decade in his work. Now that the two main contestants are no longer able to carry it on, the “Grundlagenstreit” is over.

 1928–1930 Conflict with Karl Menger over the priority for the first correct definition of the notion of dimension.

 1929 August: theft of Brouwer’s briefcase on the tram in Brussels, and with it of his mathematical notebook. When neither the police nor a private detective hired for the purpose is able to find it again, he despairs of ever being able to reconstruct its contents. Brouwer later said that this loss was instrumental in the shift of his main interest from mathematics to philosophy.

 1929 Begins preparations for the foundation of a new mathematical journal.

 1934 Appearance of the first issue of Brouwer’s own international journal, entitled Compositio Mathematica.

 1934 Lecture series in Geneva, on invitation of Ferdinand Gonseth. Plans for a course on intuitionistic mathematics in Göttingen come very far, but are, in the end, not realised.

 1934–1935 Ludwig Bieberbach, a German member of the editorial board of Compositio Mathematica who in 1933 had joined the National Socialist movement by entering the SA, asks Brouwer to remove the Jewish members from that board. Brouwer refuses; Bieberbach resigns.

 1935–1941 Member of the municipal council of Blaricum for the local Neutral Party (in 1939 he wins the elections by receiving 310 of the 1601 votes).

 1940–1945 During the German Occupation of the Netherlands in World War II, Brouwer assists the resistance by letting them use storage space in the Mathematical Institute, of which he was the director. He offers hiding places to Jews and other persecuted persons in small houses on his premises (as testified by a neighbour’s daughter, herself involved in these operations, in van Dalen 2005, vol. 2, p. 772–773). In 1943, he advises the students to sign the declaration of loyalty demanded by the Germans; when some students refuse and go into hiding, Brouwer and Heyting visit them to continue their education. Part of Brouwer’s explanation, after the war, for the advice to sign is that signing would provide the students with the relative peace needed to build up and carry out resistance activities. He is met with skepticism (but is supported by Mannoury). Because of this and some similar perhaps unfortunate attempts at shrewdness during the occupation, after the liberation he is suspended for a few months. Deeply offended, Brouwer considers emigration to South Africa or the USA.

 1941 and 1944 Fires in Brouwer’s house destroy significant parts of his archives and library.

 1942 Publishes three short notes again on intuitionistic foundations, the first since 1933.

 1945–1950 Conflict over Compositio Mathematica. The journal had not appeared during the war, and an effort is made to bring it back to life. Difficulties in assembling a new board of editors arise because of Brouwer’s damaged reputation. In the end, Brouwer’s name remains on the title page, but in effect he is removed from the board of the journal he had founded.

 1947–1951 Annual lecture series in Cambridge, England. Brouwer plans to turn them into a book, but this does not happen. However, he completes five of the planned six chapters, and these are published poshumously (Brouwer, 1981).

 1948 Resumes his foundational program with a paper that exploits the notion of the creating subject. Beginning of another creative period.

 1949 Opposes a plan to have his collected papers published, on the ground that he has no time to write annotations that reflect his original as well as his present views on them, which he considers would be the scientifically responsible thing to do.

 1951 Retires from the University of Amsterdam. Cooling off of his relationship with Arend Heyting, his successor at the post of director of the Mathematical Institute, as a result of disagreement over the exact role the retired Brouwer could still play there.

 1952 Lectures in London and in Cape Town.

 1953 Lectures in Helsinki, where he stays with Von Wright. Lecture tour through the USA (among others MIT, Princeton, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Berkeley, Chicago) and Canada (Canadian Mathematical Congress in Kingston, Ontario). In Princeton, he visits Gödel.

 1955 Publishes his last new paper (based on his lecture at the Boole conference in Dublin the year before).

 1959 Death of Mrs Brouwer, 89 years old. Brouwer declines an offer for a 1-year position at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver.

 1962 Brouwer is offered a position in Montana.

 1966 December 2: dies in Blaricum, The Netherlands, 85 years old, when he is hit by a car in front of his house. His library and archives are dispersed. Beginning in the 1970s, Walter van Stigt and Dirk van Dalen reconstitute the archives as much as possible; the Brouwer Papers are now kept at the Noord-Hollands Archief in Haarlem.

 3. Brief Characterisation of Brouwer’s Intuitionism

 Based on his philosophy of mind, on which Kant and Schopenhauer were the main influences, Brouwer characterised mathematics primarily as the free activity of exact thinking, an activity which is founded on the pure intuition of (inner) time. No independent realm of objects and no language play a fundamental role. He thus strived to avoid the Scylla of platonism (with its epistemological problems) and the Charybdis of formalism (with its poverty of content). As, on Brouwer’s view, there is no determinant of mathematical truth outside the activity of thinking, a proposition only becomes true when the subject has experienced its truth (by having carried out an appropriate mental construction); similarly, a proposition only becomes false when the subject has experienced its falsehood (by realizing that an appropriate mental construction is not possible). Hence Brouwer can claim that “there are no non-experienced truths” (Brouwer, 1975, p.488).

 Brouwer was prepared to follow his philosophy of mind to its ultimate conclusions; whether the reconstructed mathematics was compatible or incompatible with classical mathematics was a secondary question, and never decisive. In thus granting philosophy priority over traditional mathematics, he showed himself a revisionist. And indeed, whereas intuitionistic arithmetic is a subsystem of classical arithmetic, in analysis the situation is different: not all of classical analysis is intuitionistically acceptable, but neither is all of intuitionistic analysis classically acceptable. Brouwer accepted this consequence wholeheartedly.

 4. Brouwer’s Development of Intuitionism

 The following is a brief history of Brouwer’s ideas in philosophy, mathematics, and logic. There is also a more detailed separate article on The Development of Intuitionistic Logic.

 Brouwer’s little book Life, Art and Mysticism of 1905, while not developing his foundations of mathematics as such, is a key to those foundations as developed in his dissertation on which he was working at the same time and which was finished two years later. Among a variety of other things, such as his views on society and women in particular, the book contains his basic ideas on mind, language, ontology and epistemology.

 These ideas are applied to mathematics in his dissertation On the Foundations of Mathematics, defended in 1907; it is the general philosophy and not the paradoxes that initiates the development of intuitionism (once this had begun, solutions to the paradoxes emerged). As did Kant, Brouwer founds mathematics on a pure intuition of time (but Brouwer rejects pure intuition of space).

 Brouwer holds that mathematics is an essentially languageless activity, and that language can only give descriptions of mathematical activity after the fact. This leads him to deny axiomatic approaches any foundational role in mathematics. Also, he construes logic as the study of patterns in linguistic renditions of mathematical activity, and therefore logic is dependent on mathematics (as the study of patterns) and not vice versa. It is these considerations that motivate him to introduce the distinction between mathematics and metamathematics (for which he used the term “second order mathematics”), which he would explain to Hilbert in conversations in 1909 (Brouwer, 1928A2, p. 375n.2).

 With this view in place, Brouwer sets out to reconstruct Cantorian set theory. When an attempt (in a draft of the dissertation) at making constructive sense out of Cantor’s second number class (the class of all denumerably infinite ordinals) and higher classes of even greater ordinals fails, he realises that this cannot be done and rejects the higher number classes, leaving only all finite ordinals and an unfinished or open-ended collection of denumerably infinite ordinals. Thus, as a consequence of his philosophical views, he consciously puts aside part of generally accepted mathematics. Soon he would do the same with a principle of logic, the principle of the excluded middle (PEM), but in the dissertation he still thinks of it as correct but useless, interpreting \(p \vee \neg p\) as \(\neg p \rightarrow \neg p\).

 In “The Unreliability of the Logical Principles” of 1908, Brouwer formulates, in general terms, his criticism of PEM: although in the simple form of \(p \vee \neg p\), the principle will never lead to a contradiction, there are instances of it for which one has, constructively speaking, no positive grounds. Brouwer names some. Because they do not in the strict sense refute PEM, they are known as “weak counterexamples”. See the supplement on Weak Counterexamples.

 The innovation that gives intuitionism a much wider range than other varieties of constructive mathematics (including the one in Brouwer’s dissertation) are the choice sequences. These are potentially infinite sequences of numbers (or other mathematical objects) chosen one after the other by the subject. Choice sequences made their first appearance as intuitionistically acceptable objects in a book review in 1914; the principle that makes them mathematically tractable, the continuity principle, was formulated in Brouwer’s lectures notes of 1916. The main use of choice sequences is the reconstruction of analysis; points on the continuum (real numbers) are identified with choice sequences satisfying certain conditions. Choice sequences are collected together using a device called “spread”, which performs a function similar to that of the Cantorian set in classical analysis, and initially, Brouwer even uses the word “Menge” (“set”) for it. Brouwer develops a theory of spreads, and a theory of point sets based on it, in the two-part paper “Founding Set Theory Independently of the Principle of the Excluded Middle” (1918/1919).

 The answer to the question in the title of Brouwer’s paper “Does Every Real Number Have a Decimal Expansion?” (1921A) turns out to be no. Brouwer demonstrates that one can construct choice sequences satisfying the Cauchy condition that in their exact development depend on an as yet open problem. No decimal expansion can be constructed until the open problem is solved; on Brouwer’s strict constructivist view, this means that no decimal expansion exists until the open problem is solved. In this sense, one can construct real numbers (i.e., converging choice sequences) that do not yet have a decimal expansion.

 In a lecture in 1923, again using choice sequences and open problems, Brouwer devises a general technique, now known as “Brouwerian counterexamples”, to generate weak counterexamples to classical principles: “On the Significance of the Principle of the Excluded Middle in Mathematics” (Brouwer 1924N).

 The basic theorems of intuitionistic analysis — the bar theorem, fan theorem, and continuity theorem — are in “On the Domains of Definition of Functions” of 1927. The first two are structural theorems on spreads; the third (not to be confused with the continuity principle for choice sequences) states that every total function \([0,1] \rightarrow \mathbb{R}\) is continuous and even uniformly continuous. The fan theorem is, in fact, a corollary of the bar theorem; combined with the continuity principle, which is not classically valid, it yields the continuity theorem, which is not classically valid either. The bar and fan theorems on the other hand are classically valid, although the classical and intuitionistic proofs for them are not exchangeable. The classical proofs are intuitionistically not acceptable because of the way they depend on PEM; the intuitionistic proofs are classically not acceptable because they depend on reflection on the structure of mental proofs. In this reflection, Brouwer introduced the notion of the “fully analysed” or “canonical” form of a proof, which would be adopted much later by Martin-Löf and by Dummett. In a footnote, Brouwer mentions that such proofs, which he identifies with mental objects in the subject’s mind, are often infinite.

 “Intuitionist Reflections on Formalism” of 1928 identifies and discusses four key differences between formalism and intuitionism, all having to do either with the role of PEM or with the relation between mathematics and language. Brouwer emphasises, as he had done in his dissertation, that formalism presupposes contentual mathematics at the metalevel. He also here presents his first strong counterexample, a refutation of PEM in the form \(\forall x\in \mathbb{R}(Px \vee \neg Px)\), by showing that it is false that every real number is either rational or irrational. See the supplement on Strong Counterexamples.

 Of the two lectures held in Vienna in 1928 — “Mathematics, Science and Language” (1929A) and “The Structure of the Continuum” (1930A) — the first is for the most part of a philosophical nature while the second is more mathematical. In “Mathematics, Science and Language”, Brouwer states his general views on the relations between the three subjects mentioned in the title, following a genetic approach, and stressing the role of the will. A longer version of this lecture was published as “Will, Knowledge and Speech” (1933A2); it contains the first explicit remarks about a notion that had been present from the start, now known as that of the “ideal(ised) mathematician” or “creating subject”.

 “Consciousness, Philosophy and Mathematics” (1949C) once again goes through Brouwer’s philosophy of mind and some of its consequences for mathematics. Comparison with Life, Art, and Mysticism, “Mathematics, Science and Language”, and “Volition, Knowledge, Language” reveals that Brouwer’s general philosophy over the years developed considerably, but mainly in depth.

 In 1949, Brouwer (1949A) publishes the first of a new class of strong counterexamples, a class that differs from Brouwer’s earlier strong counterexample (1928, see above) in that the type of argument, which now goes by the name of “creating subject argument”, involves essential reference to the temporal structure of the creating subject’s mathematical activity (Heyting, 1956, chs. III and VIII; van Atten, 2003, chs.4 and 5; van Atten, 2018).

 Brouwer’s example shows that there is a case where the double negation principle in the form of \(\forall x\in \mathbb{R}(\neg \neg Px \rightarrow Px)\), leads to a contradiction (“The Non-equivalence of the Constructive and the Negative Order Relation on the Continuum”, in Dutch). The first publication of a strong counterexample in English had to wait till 1954, in “An Example of Contradictority in Classical Theory of Functions” (1954F). This polemical title should be understood as follows: if one keeps to the letter of the classical theory but in its interpretation substitutes intuitionistic notions for their classical counterparts, one arrives at a contradiction. So it is not a counterexample in the strict sense of the word, but rather a non-interpretability result. As intuitionistic logic is, formally speaking, part of classical logic, and intuitionistic arithmetic is part of classical arithmetic, the existence of strong counterexamples must depend on an essentially non-classical ingredient, and this is of course the choice sequences.

 The creating subject argument is, after the earlier introduction of choice sequences and the proof of the bar theorem, a new step in the exploitation of the subjective aspects of intuitionism. There is no principled reason why it should be the last.

 Bibliography

 A full bibliography of Brouwer’s writings can be found in

 * van Dalen, D., 1997, “A bibliography of L.E.J. Brouwer”, Utrecht Logic Group Preprint Series, no. 175 [Available online]. Updated version in van Atten, M., Boldini, P., Bourdeau, M., and Heinzmann, G. (eds.), 2008, One Hundred Years of Intuitionism (1907–2007). The Cerisy Conference, Basel: Birkhäuser, pp. 343–390.

 The Brouwer Papers are kept at Noord-Hollands Archief in Haarlem, the Netherlands.

 Availability of Brouwer’s writings

 Facsimiles of almost all of Brouwer’s published papers can be found in

 * Brouwer, L.E.J., 1975, Collected Works 1. Philosophy and Foundations of Mathematics, A. Heyting (ed.), Amsterdam: North-Holland.
 * Brouwer, L.E.J., 1976, Collected Works 2. Geometry, Analysis, Topology and Mechanics, H. Freudenthal (ed.), Amsterdam: North-Holland.

 Full scans and transcriptions of Brouwer’s student notebooks (in Dutch) are available online.

 In the Collected Works, papers in Dutch have been translated into English (without naming the translator(s)), but papers in French or German have not. English translations of several of them can be found in

 * van Heijenoort, J., ed., 1967, From Frege to Gödel. A Sourcebook in Mathematical Logic, 1879–1931, Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press.
 * Mancosu, P., ed., 1998, From Hilbert to Brouwer. The Debate on the Foundations of Mathematics in the 1920s, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

 An English translation of Brouwer’s little book Leven, Kunst en Mystiek of 1905, of which the Collected Works contain only excerpts, is

 * Brouwer, L.E.J., 1996, “Life, Art and Mysticism”, Notre Dame Journal of Formal Logic, 37(3):389–429. Translated by Walter van Stigt, who provides an introduction on pp.381–387.

 The Berlin lectures of 1927 have been published in

 * Brouwer, L.E.J., 1992, Intuitionismus, D. van Dalen (ed.), Mannheim: BI-Wissenschaftsverlag.

 The Cambridge lectures of 1946–1951, which are recommended as Brouwer’s own introduction to intuitionism, have been published as

 * Brouwer, L.E.J., 1981, Brouwer’s Cambridge Lectures on Intuitionism, D. van Dalen (ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

 A selection of Brouwer’s correspondence has been published as

 * van Dalen, D., ed., 2011, The Selected Correspondence of L.E.J. Brouwer, London: Springer. An online supplement (link and password on the copyright page of the book) presents most of the extant correspondence, but without English translations.

 Of particular biographical interest is the correspondence between Brouwer and his friend, the socialist poet C.S. Adama van Scheltema, which covers the years 1898–1924. The Selected Correspondence presents a number of these letters in English. The full correspondence has been published in Dutch, with notes, an introduction, and an appendix on Brouwer, as

 * Brouwer, L.E.J., & Adama van Scheltema, C.S., 1984, Droeve Snaar, Vriend van Mij. Brieven, D. van Dalen (ed.), Amsterdam: De Arbeiderspers.

 Cited texts by Brouwer

 Brouwer’s writings are referred to according to the scheme in the bibliography van Dalen, 1997.

 * 1905, Leven, Kunst en Mystiek. Partial English translation in Brouwer, 1975, pp. 1–9. Full English translation (by W. van Stigt) in Notre Dame Journal of Formal Logic, 37(3):389–429.
 * 1907, Over de Grondslagen der Wiskunde, Ph.D. thesis, Universiteit van Amsterdam. English translation in Brouwer, 1975, pp. 11–101.
 * 1908, “De onbetrouwbaarheid der logische principes”, Tijdschrift voor Wijsbegeerte, 2: 152–158. English translation in Brouwer, 1975, pp. 107–111.
 * 1914, “A. Schoenflies und H. Hahn. Die Entwickelung der Mengenlehre und ihrer Anwendungen, Leipzig und Berlin 1913”, Jahresb. D.M.V., 23: 78–83.
 * 1918B, “Begründung der Mengenlehre unabhängig vom logischen Satz vom ausgeschlossenen Dritten. Erster Teil, Allgemeine Mengenlehre”, KNAW Verhandelingen, 5: 1–43.
 * 1919A, “Begründung der Mengenlehre unabhängig vom logischen Satz vom ausgeschlossenen Dritten. Zweiter Teil, Theorie der Punktmengen”, KNAW Verhandelingen, 7: 1–33.
 * 1919D, “ Intuitionistische Mengenlehre ”, Jahresb. D.M.V., 28: 203–208. English translation in Mancosu 1998 pp. 23–27.
 * 1921A, “Besitzt jede reelle Zahl eine Dezimalbruchentwicklung?”, Mathematische Annalen, 83: 201–210. English translation in Mancosu 1998 pp. 28–35.
 * 1924N, “Über die Bedeutung des Satzes vom ausgeschlossenen Dritten in der Mathematik, insbesondere in der Funktionentheorie”, Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik, 154: 1–7. English translation in van Heijenoort 1967, pp. 335–341.
 * 1927B, “Über Definitionsbereiche von Funktionen”, Mathematische Annalen, 97: 60–75. English translation of sections 1–3 in van Heijenoort 1967, pp. 457–463.
 * 1928A2, “Intuitionistische Betrachtungen über den Formalismus”, KNAW Proceedings, 31: 374–379. English translation in Mancosu 1998, pp. 40–44.
 * 1929A, “Mathematik, Wissenschaft und Sprache”, Monatshefte für Mathematik und Physik, 36: 153–164. English translation in Mancosu 1998, pp.45–53.
 * 1930A, Die Struktur des Kontinuums, Wien: Komitee zur Veranstaltung von Gastvorträgen ausländischer Gelehrter der exakten Wissenschaften. English translation in Mancosu 1998, pp. 54–63.
 * 1933A2, “Willen, weten, spreken”, in De Uitdrukkingswijze der Wetenschap, L.E.J. Brouwer et al., Groningen: Noordhoff, 45–63. English translation in van Stigt 1990, pp. 418–431.
 * 1946B, “Toespraak van Prof.Dr. L.E.J. Brouwer en antwoord van Prof.Dr. G. Mannoury”, Jaarboek der Universiteit van Amsterdam 1946–1947, II. English translation of Brouwer’s part in Brouwer, 1975, pp. 472–476. English translation of Mannoury’s reply: Synthese, 5: 514–515.
 * 1948A, “Essentieel negatieve eigenschappen”, Indagationes Mathematicae, 10: 322–323. English translation in Brouwer, 1975, pp. 478–479.
 * 1949A, “De non-aequivalentie van de constructieve en de negatieve orderelatie in het continuum”, Indagationes Mathematicae, 11: 37–39. English translation in Brouwer, 1975, pp. 495–496.
 * 1949B, “Contradictoriteit der elementaire meetkunde”, KNAW Proc., 52: 315–316. English translation in Brouwer, 1975, pp. 497–498.
 * 1949C, “Consciousness, philosophy and mathematics”, Proceedings of the 10th International Congress of Philosophy, Amsterdam 1948, 3: 1235–1249.
 * 1954F, “An example of contradictority in classical theory of functions”, Indag. Math., 16: 204–205.
 * 1955, “The effect of intuitionism on classical algebra of logic”, Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, 57: 113–116.

 Cited primary texts by others

 * Euwe, M., 1929, “Mengentheoretische Betrachtungen über das Schachspiel”, Ned. Akad. Wetensch. Proc., 32:633–644.
 * Hilbert, D., 1922, “Neubegründung der Mathematik. Erste Mitteilung”, Hamburger Math. Seminarabhandlungen, 1:157–177. English translation “The New Grounding of Mathematics: first report” in (Mancosu 1998).
 * Mannoury, G., 1909, Methodologisches und Philosophisches zur Elementar-Mathematik, Haarlem: Visser.
 * Welby, V., 1896, “Sense, Meaning and Interpretation”, Mind, N.S., 5(17):24–37; (18):186–202.
 * Weyl, H., 1921, “Über die neue Grundlagenkrise der Mathematik”, Mathematische Zeitschrift, 10:39–79. English translation “On the New Foundational Crisis of Mathematics” in (Mancosu 1998).

 Secondary Literature

 * Dubucs, J.-P., 1988, “L.E.J. Brouwer : Topologie et constructivisme”, Revue d’histoire des sciences, 41(2): 133–155.
 + An analysis of the relation between Brouwer’s topological work and his constructivist foundations.
 * Dummett, M., 1977, Elements of Intuitionism, Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2nd, revised edition, 2000, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
 + An overview of intuitionism. Philosophically, it seems closer to Wittgenstein than to Brouwer.
 * Franchella, M., 2015, “Brouwer and Nietzsche: Views about Life, Views about Logic”, History and Philosophy of Logic, 36(4): 367–391.
 + A comparison of Nietschze’s and Brouwer’s critical views on the role of logic.
 * Hesseling, D.E., 2003, Gnomes in the Fog. The Reception of Brouwer’s Intuitionism in the 1920s, Basel: Birkhauser.
 + A detailed historical discussion of the reactions to Brouwer’s mature intuitionism during the foundational debate.
 * Heyting, A., 1956, Intuitionism. An introduction, Amsterdam: North-Holland. 2nd, revised edition, 1966. 3rd, revised edition, 1971.
 + Probably the most influential book on the subject ever written. In a style that is more down-to-earth and oecumenical than Brouwer’s, Heyting presents the intuitionistic versions of various basic subjects in everyday mathematics. Brouwer and Heyting have some philosophical disagreements that make a difference in their appreciation of some aspects of intuitionistic mathematics. No comments of Brouwer on this book are known.
 * Kirkels, M., 2019, Gerrit Mannoury (1867–1956). Een Relativistisch Denker, Rotterdam: Erasmus Universiteit.
 + A thorough biography of the remarkable man who was Brouwer’s teacher and then lifelong close friend; in Dutch.
 * Largeault, J., 1993, Intuition et Intuitionisme, Paris: Vrin.
 + An overview of intuitionism, staying close to Brouwer, and showing a good sense of the historical background of Brouwer’s notion of intuition.
 * Placek, T., 1999, Mathematical Intuitionism and Intersubjectivity, Dordrecht: Kluwer.
 + A comparison of the arguments for intuitionism advanced by, respectively, Brouwer, Heyting, and Dummett, in particular with respect to the possibility of intersubjective validity of intuitionistic mathematics.
 * Schmitz, H.W., 1990, De Hollandse Significa. Een Reconstructie van de Geschiedenis van 1892 tot 1926, Assen: van Gorcum.
 + A detailed monograph on the development of the Signific Movement in the Netherlands, in Dutch (translated from the author’s German Habilitationsschrift).
 * Schmitz, H.W., ed., 1990, Essays on Significs: Papers Presented on the Occasion of the 150th Anniversary of the Birth of Victoria Lady Welby, 1837–1912, Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
 + Historical and systematical essays on Lady Welby, the relations between significs and semiotics, and the Signific Movement in the Netherlands.
 * Troelstra, A., 1969, Principles of Intuitionism, Heidelberg: Springer.
 + The first exposition of intuitionism after those by Brouwer and Heyting. While strongly mathematically oriented, it shows a strong appreciation of philosophical aspects. Written as lectures notes for the conference on Intuitionism and Proof Theory, Buffalo, 1968, after the author spent the academic year 1966–1967 with Kreisel.
 * van Atten, M., 2004, On Brouwer, Belmont (CA): Wadsworth.
 + A philosophical introduction to intuitionism as conceived by Brouwer, with extensive treatments of the proof of the bar theorem, the creating subject, and intersubjectivity.
 * van Atten, M., 2018, “The Creating Subject, the Brouwer-Kripke Schema, and infinite proofs”, Indagationes Mathematicae, 29(6): 1565–1636.
 + A discussion of philosophical, mathematical, and historical aspects of Brouwer’s Creating Subject arguments. Issues 29(1) and 29(6) of Indagationes make up a voluminous virtual special issue in commemoration of the 50th anniversary of Brouwer’s death.
 * van Atten, M., Boldini, P., Bourdeau, M., and Heinzmann, G., eds., 2008, One Hundred Years of Intuitionism (1907–2007). The Cerisy Conference, Basel: Birkhäuser.
 + Part I consists of a number of historical and systematical papers on Brouwer and Brouwerian intuitionism. Part II contains, among others, two papers on Brouwer in relation to French recursors of intuitionism. Part III includes a paper on the Hilbert-Brouwer controversy from a historical-mathematical perspective.
 * van Atten, M. and Tragesser, R., “Mysticism and Mathematics: Brouwer, Gödel and the Common Core Thesis”, in Klarheit in Religionsdingen, Deppert, W. & Rahnfeld, M., eds., Leipzig: Leipziger Universitatsverlag, 145–160.
 + A comparison of Brouwer’s and Gödel’s interest in mysticism and of their views on its relation to mathematics.
 * van Dalen, D., 1999/2005, Mystic, Geometer, and Intuitionist, 2 volumes, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
 + The standard biography of Brouwer. Volume 1, The Dawning Revolution, covers the years 1881–1928, volume 2, Hope and Disillusion, covers 1929–1966.
 * van Dalen, D., 2001, L.E.J. Brouwer 1881–1966. Een Biografie. Het Heldere Licht van de Wiskunde, Amsterdam: Bert Bakker.
 + A popular biography in 1 volume, in Dutch.
 * van Dalen, D., 2013, L.E.J. Brouwer—Topologist, Intuitionist, Philosopher. How Mathematics Is Rooted in Life, London: Springer.
 + A somewhat revised version in 1 volume of the biography (van Dalen 1999/2005).
 * van Stigt, W., 1990, Brouwer’s Intuitionism, Amsterdam: North-Holland.
 + Contains interesting philosophical discussions and gives English translations of material from the Brouwer archive. The biographical sketch has now been superseded by (van Dalen, 1999/2005) and (van Dalen, 2001). Van Stigt also contributed to the introductions to the papers on intuitionism in Mancosu 1998 (see above).

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 Related Entries

 Cantor, Georg | Frege, Gottlob: controversy with Hilbert | Hilbert, David | Hilbert, David: program in the foundations of mathematics | Kant, Immanuel: philosophy of mathematics | logic, history of: intuitionistic logic | logic: classical | logic: intuitionistic | mathematics, philosophy of | mathematics, philosophy of: formalism | mathematics, philosophy of: intuitionism | mathematics: constructive | Platonism: in metaphysics | Platonism: in the philosophy of mathematics | set theory: early development | Weyl, Hermann | Wittgenstein, Ludwig: philosophy of mathematics

 Acknowledgments

 I thank Dirk van Dalen and the editors for their comments on earlier versions.

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 Mark van Atten <vanattenmark@gmail.com>

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1. The Person 
Brouwer studied at the (municipal) University of Amsterdam where his
most important teachers were Diederik Korteweg and Gerrit Mannoury.
Korteweg (1848–1941) was professor of mathematics, mechanics and
astronomy at the University of Amsterdam from 1881–1918; the
last five years as extraordinarius, so as to make place for
Brouwer. Around 1900, Korteweg was the most important and influential
mathematician in the Netherlands, and he contributed much to the
internationalisation of Dutch mathematics. A mathematical physicist
trained by van der Waals, he had a particular interest in mechanics
and thermodynamics. Among his many results, the best-known is probably
the Korteweg-de Vries equation, describing the behaviour of waves in a
shallow channel. Korteweg also had a strong historical interest, and
was chief editor of vols. XI–XV of Christiaan Huygens’ collected
works (1908–1925). Part of the correspondence with his PhD
student Brouwer concerned the unification of physical theories (see
van Stigt, 1990, pp. 490–498).
Mannoury (1867–1956) was a philosopher, mathematician,
psychoanalyst, accountant, and political activist (Kirkels, 2019). Largely an
autodidact, it was he who introduced in the Netherlands both topology
(in a series of papers of 1897–1900) and Peano’s symbolic logic
(in a lecture in 1903). In 1903 he was
appointed privaatdocent (unpaid lecturer) in the logical
foundations of mathematics at the University of Amsterdam, where
Brouwer was among his first and most enthusiastic students. His
lectures have been published, in shortened and revised form, as
Mannoury, 1909. But it was Mannoury’s earlier, topological papers that
influenced the young Brouwer decisively: the “undertone”
of that work, Brouwer said in a speech in 1946, had changed his view
of mathematics from a collection of “truths fascinating by their
immovability, but horrifying by their lifelessness, like stones from
barren mountains of disconsolate infinity” to a concern with
what is “built ... out of the structural elements of our
thinking” (Brouwer, 1946B, pp. 192–193). Brouwer was also
very interested in Mannoury’s reflections on the uses and misuses of
language in mathematics and philosophy. In 1917 Mannoury became
professor extraordinarius, in 1918 ordinarius at the
University of Amsterdam, succeeding Korteweg at the chair of analytic
and descriptive geometry, mechanics and philosophy of mathematics,
until 1937. A large part of his career was devoted to furthering the
development of significs, an analysis of communicative acts
starting from the ideas laid down by Victoria, Lady Welby in her paper
“Sense, Meaning and Interpretation” (Welby, 1896). Brouwer
was also involved in that project.
Brouwer’s principal (intuitionistic) students were Maurits Belinfante,
Arend Heyting, and Johan de Iongh; Heyting, in turn, was the teacher
of Anne Troelstra and Dirk van Dalen, and de Iongh of Wim
Veldman. Brouwer’s classes were also attended by Max Euwe, later to
become world chess champion, who published a game-theoretical paper on
chess from the intuitionistic point of view (Euwe, 1929), and who
would much later deliver Brouwer’s funeral speech. Among Brouwer’s
assistants were Heyting, Hans Freudenthal, Karl Menger, and Witold
Hurewicz, the latter two of whom were not intuitionistically
inclined. The most influential supporter of Brouwer’s intuitionism
outside the Netherlands at the time was, for a number of years,
Hermann Weyl (whose adaptation of intuitionistic analysis was not
wholly coherent); also Husserl’s student Oskar Becker should be
mentioned.
Brouwer seems to have been an independent and brilliant man of high
moral standards, but with an exaggerated sense of justice, making him
at times pugnacious. As a consequence, in his life he energetically
fought many battles. To Mannoury’s daughter, Brouwer once said:
“Indeed, your father is one of the few people with whom I have
never had a quarrel. But he brought out the good in people, and I the
bad” (Schmitz, 1990, p. 383).
From 1914 to 1928, Brouwer was member of the editiorial board of the
Mathematische Annalen, and he was the founding editor of
Compositio Mathematica, which first appeared in 1934.
He was a member of, among others, the Royal Dutch Academy of
Sciences, the Royal Society in London, the Preußische Akademie
der Wissenschaften in Berlin, and the Akademie der Wissenschaften in
Göttingen.
Brouwer received honorary doctorates from the universities of Oslo
(1929) and Cambridge (1954), and was made Knight in the Order of the
Dutch Lion in 1932.
 2. Chronology 
1881 February 27, born in Overschie (since 1941
part of Rotterdam), The Netherlands.
1897 Enters the University of Amsterdam to study
mathematics and physics.
1904 Obtains doctorandus title (MSc degree)
in mathematics; first publication (on rotations in four dimensional
space); marries Lize de Holl (born 1870). They would have no children,
but Lize had a daughter from an earlier marriage. They move to
Blaricum, near Amsterdam, where they would live for the rest of their
lives, although they also had houses in other places.
1904–1907 Doctoral studies. His mathematical
and philosophical notebooks towards his dissertation show strong
influence from notably Cantor, Hilbert, Russell, Poincaré, and
Couturat. He is aware of the Frege–Hilbert debate, and in that
matter sides with Frege. Some remarks betray a form of anti-semitism
that, unfortunately, often appeared in language at the time, as
codification of a common prejudice; an occasional remark goes further
and contrasts Jewish people unfavourably to Germanic ones. No such
utterances are known from other periods in his life; compare also the
entries for 1934–1935 and 1940–1945 below. There is no meaningful
connection between this fleeting anti-semitism and the philosophical
views on mathematics, language, and society he set out in his
dissertation and developed over the rest of his life.
1907 Obtains doctor title with
dissertation On the Foundations of Mathematics, under
supervision of Korteweg at the University of Amsterdam. (The original
Dutch title of the dissertation was ‘Over de Grondslagen der
Wiskunde’. The present entry will for the most part refer to works
cited by using the titles of English translations, with the
bibliography providing information about the original publications.)
It marks the beginning of his intuitionistic reconstruction of
mathematics. Later that year, Brouwer’s wife graduates and becomes a
pharmacist. All his life, Brouwer did the bookkeeping for her and
filled out the tax forms, and sometimes he assisted behind the
counter.
1908 First publication of his argument against the
general validity of the Principle of the Excluded Middle in “The
unreliability of the logical principles”. First participation in
an international conference, the Fourth International Conference of
Mathematicians in Rome.
1909–1913 In a very productive four years,
Brouwer founds modern topology, as a chapter of classical mathematics.
Highlights: invariance of dimension, fixed point theorem, mapping
degree, definition of dimension. As van Dalen (2005, p. 450) observes,
Brouwer’s definition of dimension seems to be the first reformulation
of an inductive definition as a game. A pause in his intuitionistic
program.
1909 Becomes privaatdocent (unpaid lecturer)
at the University of Amsterdam. Inaugural lecture “The Nature of
Geometry”.
1909 Meets Hilbert in the Dutch seaside resort of
Scheveningen. Brouwer much admires Hilbert and describes their meeting
in a letter to a friend as “a beautiful new ray of light through
my life” (Brouwer &amp; Adama van Scheltema, 1984, p. 100). Twenty
years later, Brouwer’s relation with Hilbert would turn sour.
1911 First appearance of the names
“formalism” and “intuitionism” in Brouwer’s
writings, in a review of Mannoury’s Methodological
and philosophical remarks on elementary mathematics (1909).
1912 Elected member of the Royal Academy of
Sciences (during World War II “Dutch Academy of Sciences”,
afterward “Royal Dutch Academy of Sciences”).
1912 Appointed full professor
extraordinarius in the field of set theory, function
theory, and axiomatics. His philosophical inaugural lecture
“Intuïtionisme en Formalisme” is translated into English as
“Intuitionism and Formalism” and thus becomes, in 1913, the
first publication on intuitionism in that language.
1913 Appointed full professor ordinarius,
succeeding Korteweg, who had generously offered to vacate his chair for
the purpose.
1914 Invited to join the editorial board of the
Mathematische Annalen; accepts the honour.
1918 Brouwer begins the systematic intuitionistic
reconstruction of mathematics with his paper “Founding
Set Theory Independently of the Principle of the Excluded Middle. Part
One, General Set Theory”.
1919 Receives offers for professorships in
Göttingen and in Berlin; declines both.
1919 “Intuitionistic Set Theory” is the first piece of
intuitionistic mathematics in a widely read international journal, the
Jahresbericht der Deutschen Mathematiker Vereinigung.
1920 Start of the “Grundlagenstreit”
(Foundational Debate) with Brouwer’s lecture at the
“Naturforscherversammlung” in Bad Nauheim, published in
1921, “Does Every Real Number Have a
Decimal Expansion?”; the debate was amplified by Weyl’s defence of intuitionism
in 1921, “On the New Foundational Crisis of
Mathematics”; Hilbert responds in 1922,
“The New
Grounding of Mathematics”.
1922 Co-founds, with Gerrit Mannoury, the man of letters 
Frederik van Eeden, and others, the “Signific Circle”, 
aiming at spiritual and
political progress through language reform. The Circle ends its meetings in
1926, but Mannoury continues its work.
1926 Lecture in Göttingen; as a result of a
group dinner at Emmy Noether’s house, Hilbert and Brouwer are (for a
brief period) on good terms again.
1927 Lecture series in Berlin; Hans Reichenbach and
André Weil are in the audience, as is Brouwer’s later assistant
Hans Freudenthal. The newspaper Berliner Tageblatt proposes a
public debate between Brouwer and Hilbert, to be held in its pages,
but for some reason this is not realised. Neither does Brouwer
complete the book he is invited to write by the German publisher
Walter de Gruyter. The lectures and an incomplete book are published
posthumously (Brouwer, 1992).
1928 March 10 and 14: two lectures in Vienna.
Gödel is in the audience, as is Wittgenstein. It is said that the
first lecture made Wittgenstein return to philosophy. Brouwer spends a
day with Wittgenstein.
1928 April: conversations with Husserl, who is in
Amsterdam to lecture.
1928 Conflict over the Bologna conference. The German
mathematicians are, for the first time since the ending of World War
I, admitted to an international conference again, but not quite as
equals. Brouwer insists that this is not fair, and that the conference
should therefore be boycotted. Hilbert, who does not share this view,
is much chagrined by Brouwer’s action and attends the conference as
the leader of the German delegation, the largest present.
1928–1929 “Mathematische Annalenstreit”,
the conflict in the editorial board of Mathematische
Annalen. Hilbert, thinking he is about to die, feels a need to
make sure that after his death Brouwer will not become too
influential, and expels him from the board in an unlawful way.
(Hilbert’s motivation as described here is documented in letters from
people close to him: Carathéodory to Einstein, October 20,
1928; Blumenthal to the publisher and editors of the Mathematische
Annalen, November 16, 1928; Born to Einstein, November 20,
1928. Copies of these letters are in the Brouwer Papers 
at the Noord-Hollands Archief in Haarlem. 
Relevant quotations from these can be found in van Dalen,
2005, p. 604 and p. 613.) Einstein, also member of the board,
refuses to support Hilbert’s action and does not want to have anything
to do with the whole affair; most other board members do not want to
irritate Hilbert by opposing him. Brouwer vehemently protests. In the
end, the whole board is dissolved and immediately reassembled without
Brouwer, in a strongly reduced size (in particular, Einstein and
Carathéodory decline). The conflict leaves Brouwer mentally
broken and isolated, and puts an end to a very creative decade in his
work. Now that the two main contestants are no longer able to carry it
on, the “Grundlagenstreit” is over.
1928–1930 Conflict with Karl Menger over the
priority for the first correct definition of the notion of
dimension.
1929 August: theft of Brouwer’s briefcase on the
tram in Brussels, and with it of his mathematical notebook. When
neither the police nor a private detective hired for the purpose is
able to find it again, he despairs of ever being able to reconstruct
its contents. Brouwer later said that this loss was instrumental in the
shift of his main interest from mathematics to philosophy.
1929 Begins preparations for the foundation of a
new mathematical journal.
1934 Appearance of the first issue of Brouwer’s own
international journal, entitled Compositio Mathematica.
1934 Lecture series in Geneva, on invitation of
Ferdinand Gonseth. Plans for a course on intuitionistic mathematics
in Göttingen come very far, but are, in the end, not realised.
1934–1935 Ludwig Bieberbach, a German member of
the editorial board of
Compositio Mathematica who in 1933
had joined the National Socialist movement by entering the SA,
asks Brouwer to remove the Jewish members from that board. 
Brouwer refuses; Bieberbach resigns.
1935–1941 Member of the municipal council of
Blaricum for the local Neutral Party (in 1939 he wins the elections by
receiving 310 of the 1601 votes).
1940–1945 During the German Occupation of the
Netherlands in World War II, Brouwer assists the resistance by letting
them use storage space in the Mathematical Institute, of which he was
the director. He offers hiding places to Jews and other persecuted
persons in small houses on his premises (as testified by a neighbour’s
daughter, herself involved in these operations, in van Dalen 2005,
vol. 2, p. 772–773). In 1943, he advises the students to sign
the declaration of loyalty demanded by the Germans; when some students
refuse and go into hiding, Brouwer and Heyting visit them to continue
their education. Part of Brouwer’s explanation, after the war, for
the advice to sign is that signing would provide the students with the
relative peace needed to build up and carry out resistance
activities. He is met with skepticism (but is supported by Mannoury).
Because of this and some similar perhaps unfortunate attempts at
shrewdness during the occupation, after the liberation he is suspended
for a few months. Deeply offended, Brouwer considers emigration to
South Africa or the USA.
1941 and 1944 Fires in Brouwer’s house destroy
significant parts of his archives and library. 
1942 Publishes three short notes again on
intuitionistic foundations, the first since 1933.
1945–1950 Conflict over Compositio
Mathematica. The journal had not appeared during the war, and an
effort is made to bring it back to life. Difficulties in assembling a
new board of editors arise because of Brouwer’s damaged reputation. In
the end, Brouwer’s name remains on the title page, but in effect he is
removed from the board of the journal he had founded.
1947–1951 Annual lecture series in Cambridge,
England. Brouwer plans to turn them into a book, but this does not
happen. However, he completes five of the planned six chapters, and
these are published poshumously (Brouwer, 1981).
1948 Resumes his foundational program with a paper
that exploits the notion of the creating subject. Beginning of another
creative period.
1949 Opposes a plan to have his collected papers
published, on the ground that he has no time to write annotations that
reflect his original as well as his present views on them, which he
considers would be the scientifically responsible thing to do.
1951 Retires from the University of
Amsterdam. Cooling off of his relationship with Arend Heyting, his
successor at the post of director of the Mathematical Institute, as a
result of disagreement over the exact role the retired Brouwer could
still play there.
1952 Lectures in London and in Cape Town.
1953 Lectures in Helsinki, where he stays with Von
Wright. Lecture tour through the USA (among others MIT, Princeton,
University of Wisconsin-Madison, Berkeley, Chicago) and Canada
(Canadian Mathematical Congress in Kingston, Ontario). In Princeton,
he visits Gödel.
1955 Publishes his last new paper (based on his
lecture at the Boole conference in Dublin the year before).
1959 Death of Mrs Brouwer, 89 years old. Brouwer
declines an offer for a 1-year position at the University of British
Columbia in Vancouver.
1962 Brouwer is offered a position in Montana.
1966 December 2: dies in Blaricum, The Netherlands,
85 years old, when he is hit by a car in front of his house.
His library and archives are dispersed.
Beginning in the 1970s, 
Walter van Stigt and Dirk van Dalen reconstitute the archives
as much as possible;
the Brouwer Papers are now kept at the Noord-Hollands Archief in Haarlem.
 3. Brief Characterisation of Brouwer’s Intuitionism 
Based on his philosophy of mind, on which Kant and Schopenhauer were
the main influences, Brouwer characterised mathematics primarily as
the free activity of exact thinking, an activity which is founded on
the pure intuition of (inner) time. No independent realm of objects
and no language play a fundamental role. He thus strived to avoid the
Scylla of platonism (with its epistemological problems) and the
Charybdis of formalism (with its poverty of content). As, on Brouwer’s
view, there is no determinant of mathematical truth outside the
activity of thinking, a proposition only becomes true when the subject
has experienced its truth (by having carried out an appropriate mental
construction); similarly, a proposition only becomes false when the
subject has experienced its falsehood (by realizing that an
appropriate mental construction is not possible). Hence Brouwer can
claim that “there are no non-experienced truths” (Brouwer,
1975, p.488).
Brouwer was prepared to follow his philosophy of mind to its ultimate
conclusions; whether the reconstructed mathematics was compatible or
incompatible with classical mathematics was a secondary question, and
never decisive. In thus granting philosophy priority over traditional
mathematics, he showed himself a revisionist. And indeed, whereas
intuitionistic arithmetic is a subsystem of classical arithmetic, in
analysis the situation is different: not all of classical analysis is
intuitionistically acceptable, but neither is all of intuitionistic
analysis classically acceptable. Brouwer accepted this consequence
wholeheartedly.
 4. Brouwer’s Development of Intuitionism 
The following is a brief history of Brouwer’s ideas in philosophy,
mathematics, and logic. There is also a more detailed separate article
on
 The Development of Intuitionistic Logic.
Brouwer’s little book Life, Art and Mysticism of 1905, while
not developing his foundations of mathematics as such, is a key to
those foundations as developed in his dissertation on which he was
working at the same time and which was finished two years later. Among
a variety of other things, such as his views on society and women
in particular, the book contains his basic ideas on mind, language,
ontology and epistemology. 
These ideas are applied to mathematics in his dissertation On the
Foundations of Mathematics, defended in 1907; it is the general
philosophy and not the paradoxes that initiates the development of
intuitionism (once this had begun, solutions to the paradoxes
emerged). As did Kant, Brouwer founds mathematics on a pure intuition
of time (but Brouwer rejects pure intuition of space).
Brouwer holds that mathematics is an essentially languageless
activity, and that language can only give descriptions of mathematical
activity after the fact. This leads him to deny axiomatic approaches
any foundational role in mathematics. Also, he construes logic as the
study of patterns in linguistic renditions of mathematical activity,
and therefore logic is dependent on mathematics (as the study of
patterns) and not vice versa. It is these considerations that motivate
him to introduce the distinction between mathematics and
metamathematics (for which he used the term “second order
mathematics”), which he would explain to Hilbert in conversations
in 1909 (Brouwer, 1928A2, p. 375n.2).
With this view in place, Brouwer sets out to reconstruct Cantorian
set theory. When an attempt (in a draft of the dissertation) at making
constructive sense out of Cantor’s second number class (the class of
all denumerably infinite ordinals) and higher classes of even greater
ordinals fails, he realises that this cannot be done and rejects the
higher number classes, leaving only all finite ordinals and an
unfinished or open-ended collection of denumerably infinite ordinals.
Thus, as a consequence of his philosophical views, he consciously puts
aside part of generally accepted mathematics. Soon he would do the same
with a principle of logic, the principle of the excluded middle (PEM),
but in the dissertation he still thinks of it as correct but useless,
interpreting \(p \vee \neg p\) as \(\neg p \rightarrow \neg p\).
In “The Unreliability of the Logical Principles” of 1908,
Brouwer formulates, in general terms, his criticism of PEM: although in
the simple form of \(p \vee \neg p\), the principle will never lead to a contradiction,
there are instances of it for which one has, constructively speaking,
no positive grounds. Brouwer names some. Because they
do not in the strict sense refute PEM, they are known as “weak
counterexamples”. See the
supplement on Weak Counterexamples.
The innovation that gives intuitionism a much wider range than other
varieties of constructive mathematics (including the one in Brouwer’s
dissertation) are the choice sequences. These are potentially infinite
sequences of numbers (or other mathematical objects) chosen one after
the other by the subject. Choice sequences made their
first appearance as intuitionistically acceptable objects in a book
review in 1914; the principle that makes them mathematically
tractable, the continuity principle, was formulated in Brouwer’s
lectures notes of 1916. The main use of choice sequences is the
reconstruction of analysis; points on the continuum (real numbers) are
identified with choice sequences satisfying certain conditions. Choice
sequences are collected together using a device called 
“spread”, which performs a function similar to that of the
Cantorian set in classical analysis, and initially, Brouwer even uses
the word “Menge” (“set”) for it. Brouwer
develops a theory of spreads, and a theory of point sets based on it,
in the two-part paper “Founding Set Theory Independently of the
Principle of the Excluded Middle” (1918/1919).
The answer to the question in the title of Brouwer’s paper
“Does Every Real Number Have a Decimal Expansion?” (1921A)
turns out to be no. Brouwer demonstrates that one can construct choice
sequences satisfying the Cauchy condition that in their exact
development depend on an as yet open problem. No decimal expansion can
be constructed until the open problem is solved; on Brouwer’s strict
constructivist view, this means that no decimal expansion exists until
the open problem is solved. In this sense, one can construct real
numbers (i.e., converging choice sequences) that do not yet have a decimal
expansion.
In a lecture in 1923, again using choice sequences and open problems,
Brouwer devises a general technique, now known as “Brouwerian
counterexamples”, to generate weak counterexamples to classical
principles: “On the Significance of the Principle of the
Excluded Middle in Mathematics” (Brouwer 1924N).
The basic theorems of intuitionistic analysis — the bar theorem,
fan theorem, and continuity theorem — are in “On the
Domains of Definition of Functions” of 1927. The first two are
structural theorems on spreads; the third (not to be confused with the
continuity principle for choice sequences) states that every total
function \([0,1] \rightarrow \mathbb{R}\) is continuous and even
uniformly continuous. The fan theorem is, in fact, a corollary of the
bar theorem; combined with the continuity principle, which is not
classically valid, it yields the continuity theorem, which is not
classically valid either. The bar and fan theorems on the other hand
are classically valid, although the classical and intuitionistic
proofs for them are not exchangeable. The classical proofs are
intuitionistically not acceptable because of the way they depend on
PEM; the intuitionistic proofs are classically not acceptable because
they depend on reflection on the structure of mental proofs. In this
reflection, Brouwer introduced the notion of the “fully
analysed” or “canonical” form of a proof, which
would be adopted much later by Martin-Löf and by Dummett. In a
footnote, Brouwer mentions that such proofs, which he identifies with
mental objects in the subject’s mind, are often infinite.
“Intuitionist Reflections on Formalism” of 1928 identifies
and discusses four key differences between formalism and intuitionism,
all having to do either with the role of PEM or with the relation
between mathematics and language. Brouwer emphasises, as he had done
in his dissertation, that formalism presupposes contentual mathematics
at the metalevel. He also here presents his first strong
counterexample, a refutation of PEM in the form
\(\forall x\in \mathbb{R}(Px \vee \neg Px)\), by showing that it is false that every
real number is either rational or irrational. See the supplement on
 Strong Counterexamples.
Of the two lectures held in Vienna in 1928 — “Mathematics,
Science and Language” (1929A) and “The Structure of the
Continuum” (1930A) — the first is for the most part of a
philosophical nature while the second is more mathematical. In
“Mathematics, Science and Language”, Brouwer states his
general views on the relations between the three subjects mentioned in
the title, following a genetic approach, and stressing the role of the
will. A longer version of this lecture was published as
“Will, Knowledge and Speech” (1933A2); it contains the
first explicit remarks about a notion that had been present from the
start, now known as that of the “ideal(ised) mathematician”
or “creating subject”.
“Consciousness, Philosophy and Mathematics” (1949C) once
again goes through Brouwer’s philosophy of mind and some of its
consequences for mathematics. Comparison with Life, Art, and
Mysticism, “Mathematics, Science and Language”, and
“Volition, Knowledge, Language” reveals that Brouwer’s
general philosophy over the years developed considerably, but mainly
in depth.
In 1949, Brouwer (1949A) publishes the first of a new class of
strong counterexamples, a class that differs from Brouwer’s earlier
strong counterexample (1928, see above) in that the type of argument,
which now goes by the name of “creating subject argument”,
involves essential reference to the temporal structure of the creating
subject’s mathematical activity (Heyting, 1956, chs. III and VIII; van
Atten, 2003, chs.4 and 5; van Atten, 2018).
Brouwer’s example shows that there is a case where the double negation
principle in the form of
\(\forall x\in \mathbb{R}(\neg \neg Px \rightarrow Px)\), leads to a contradiction (“The
Non-equivalence of the Constructive and the Negative Order Relation on
the Continuum”, in Dutch). The first publication of a strong
counterexample in English had to wait till 1954, in “An Example
of Contradictority in Classical Theory of Functions”
(1954F). This polemical title should be understood as follows: if one
keeps to the letter of the classical theory but in its interpretation
substitutes intuitionistic notions for their classical counterparts,
one arrives at a contradiction. So it is not a counterexample in the
strict sense of the word, but rather a non-interpretability result. As
intuitionistic logic is, formally speaking, part of classical logic,
and intuitionistic arithmetic is part of classical arithmetic, the
existence of strong counterexamples must depend on an essentially
non-classical ingredient, and this is of course the choice
sequences.
The creating subject argument is, after the earlier introduction of
choice sequences and the proof of the bar theorem, a new step in the
exploitation of the subjective aspects of intuitionism. There is no
principled reason why it should be the last.
Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/brouwer/
https://plato.stanford.edu/support/friends.html
Become a Friend of the SEP and Access PDFs
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<div><div>
<p>You can support the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy by
joining the 
 <a href="https://leibniz.stanford.edu/friends/"><em>Friends of the SEP Society</em></a>. 
By paying modest, annual membership dues to join the <em>Society</em>,
members will receive the following benefits: (a) download access to
high quality PDF (Portable Document Format, a.k.a. Acrobat) versions
of SEP entries and (b) quarterly email notifications (if you
‘opt-in’) that inform you when PDFs you've downloaded have
been updated in the most recent quarterly SEP Archive.</p>
 
 <blockquote>
 <a href="https://leibniz.stanford.edu/friends/"><strong>Go to the <em>Friends of the SEP Society</em> Home Page</strong></a> 
 <br />
The home page for the Society is located at 
 <a href="https://leibniz.stanford.edu/friends/">https://leibniz.stanford.edu/friends/</a>.
 </blockquote>
 
<h2>Sample PDFs</h2>
 
<blockquote>
 <table>
 <tbody><tr>
 <th>Paper Size: US Letter<br />(8½ × 11 in)</th>
 <th> </th>
 <th>Paper Size: A4<br />(210 × 297 mm)</th>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td><a href="https://leibniz.stanford.edu/previews/sample/turing-machine-sample.pdf"></a></td>
 <td> </td>
 <td><a href="https://leibniz.stanford.edu/previews/sample/turing-machine-sample_a4.pdf"></a></td>
 </tr>
 
 <tr>
 <td><a href="https://leibniz.stanford.edu/previews/sample/turing-machine-sample.pdf"><b>Sample PDF<br />Entry on Turing Machines</b></a></td>
 <td> </td>
 <td><a href="https://leibniz.stanford.edu/previews/sample/turing-machine-sample_a4.pdf"><b>Sample PDF<br />Entry on Turing Machines</b></a></td>
 </tr>
 </tbody></table>
 </blockquote>
<p>
We also release our PDFs in 
 <strong>single-column half-sheets</strong> (5½ × 8½ in)—see the 
<strong><a href="https://leibniz.stanford.edu/previews/sample/turing-machine-sample_sc.pdf">Sample PDF</a></strong>. 
You might find this format especially useful for mobile devices.</p>
<h2>Membership Levels</h2>
<p>You can
 <a href="https://leibniz.stanford.edu/friends/join/"><b>join the Friends of the SEP Society</b></a>,
using our secure online payment system, at one of the following levels: </p>
 <ul>
 <li><b>Associate Member</b>: Associate members may download any of
 the PDF versions in the PDF Library but are limited to
 downloading a maximum of 5 different entries per day.</li>
 <li><b>Student Member</b>: Student members have the same privileges
 as Associate Members, but annual membership dues are priced lower.</li>
 <li><b>Professional Member</b>: Professional members may download any
 of the PDF versions in the PDF Library, with <em>no</em>
daily limits on the number of different entries that can be downloaded each day. </li>
 </ul>
<p>For pricing information, see the section on Membership Levels at the 
page <a href="https://leibniz.stanford.edu/friends/info/about/"><b>About the Society</b></a>. 
</p>
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 You can support the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy by joining the Friends of the SEP Society. By paying modest, annual membership dues to join the Society, members will receive the following benefits: (a) download access to high quality PDF (Portable Document Format, a.k.a. Acrobat) versions of SEP entries and (b) quarterly email notifications (if you ‘opt-in’) that inform you when PDFs you've downloaded have been updated in the most recent quarterly SEP Archive.

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 Paper Size: US Letter Paper Size: A4 
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 We also release our PDFs in single-column half-sheets (5½ × 8½ in)—see the Sample PDF. You might find this format especially useful for mobile devices.

 Membership Levels

 You can join the Friends of the SEP Society, using our secure online payment system, at one of the following levels:

 * Associate Member: Associate members may download any of the PDF versions in the PDF Library but are limited to downloading a maximum of 5 different entries per day.
 * Student Member: Student members have the same privileges as Associate Members, but annual membership dues are priced lower.
 * Professional Member: Professional members may download any of the PDF versions in the PDF Library, with no daily limits on the number of different entries that can be downloaded each day.

 For pricing information, see the section on Membership Levels at the page About the Society.

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 The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy is copyright © 2023 by The Metaphysics Research Lab, Department of Philosophy, Stanford University

 Library of Congress Catalog Data: ISSN 1095-5054

You can support the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy by
joining the 
  Friends of the SEP Society . 
By paying modest, annual membership dues to join the Society,
members will receive the following benefits: (a) download access to
high quality PDF (Portable Document Format, a.k.a. Acrobat) versions
of SEP entries and (b) quarterly email notifications (if you
‘opt-in’) that inform you when PDFs you've downloaded have
been updated in the most recent quarterly SEP Archive.
 
 
  Go to the Friends of the SEP Society Home Page  
 
The home page for the Society is located at 
 https://leibniz.stanford.edu/friends/.
 
 
Sample PDFs
 
 
  
 Paper Size: US Letter(8½ × 11 in)
  
 Paper Size: A4(210 × 297 mm)
 
 
    
  
    
 
 
 
   Sample PDFEntry on Turing Machines  
  
   Sample PDFEntry on Turing Machines  
 
  
 
We also release our PDFs in 
 single-column half-sheets (5½ × 8½ in)—see the 
 Sample PDF . 
You might find this format especially useful for mobile devices.
Membership Levels
You can
  join the Friends of the SEP Society ,
using our secure online payment system, at one of the following levels: 
 
  Associate Member: Associate members may download any of
 the PDF versions in the PDF Library but are limited to
 downloading a maximum of 5 different entries per day.
  Student Member: Student members have the same privileges
 as Associate Members, but annual membership dues are priced lower.
  Professional Member: Professional members may download any
 of the PDF versions in the PDF Library, with no
daily limits on the number of different entries that can be downloaded each day. 
 
For pricing information, see the section on Membership Levels at the 
page  About the Society .
Become a Friend of the SEP and Access PDFs
https://plato.stanford.edu/support/friends.html
https://plato.stanford.edu/index.html
Search
2023-01-01
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<div><div>
	<div>
	<h2>Search</h2>
	</div> 
	 
	<div>
	<p>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy organizes scholars from around the world in philosophy and related disciplines to create and maintain an up-to-date reference work.</p>
	<p>Co-Principal Editors: Edward N. Zalta and Uri Nodelman</p>
	</div> 
	<div>
	<h4>Current Operations Are Supported By:</h4>
	 <ul>
	 	<li>The Offices of the Provost, the Dean of Humanities and Sciences, and the Dean of Research, Stanford University</li>
	 	<li>The SEP Library Fund: containing contributions from the National Endowment for the Humanities and the membership dues of academic and research libraries that have joined SEPIA.</li>
	 	<li>The John Perry Fund and The SEP Fund: containing contributions from individual donors.</li>
	 	<li>The Friends of the SEP Society Fund: containing membership dues from individuals who have joined to obtain such member benefits as nicely formatted PDF versions of SEP entries.</li>
 <li>A gift from the O.C. Tanner Company</li>
	 </ul>
	<p>The SEP gratefully acknowledges founding support from the National Endowment for the Humanities, the National Science Foundation, The American Philosophical Association/Pacific Division, The Canadian Philosophical Association, and the Philosophy Documentation Center. Fundraising efforts were supported by a grant from The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation.</p>
	</div> 
 
 </div>||||I|||| Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
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 + Chronological
 + Archives
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 Search

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 The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy organizes scholars from around the world in philosophy and related disciplines to create and maintain an up-to-date reference work.

 Co-Principal Editors: Edward N. Zalta and Uri Nodelman

 Masthead | Editorial Board

 Current Operations Are Supported By:

 * The Offices of the Provost, the Dean of Humanities and Sciences, and the Dean of Research, Stanford University
 * The SEP Library Fund: containing contributions from the National Endowment for the Humanities and the membership dues of academic and research libraries that have joined SEPIA.
 * The John Perry Fund and The SEP Fund: containing contributions from individual donors.
 * The Friends of the SEP Society Fund: containing membership dues from individuals who have joined to obtain such member benefits as nicely formatted PDF versions of SEP entries.
 * A gift from the O.C. Tanner Company

 The SEP gratefully acknowledges founding support from the National Endowment for the Humanities, the National Science Foundation, The American Philosophical Association/Pacific Division, The Canadian Philosophical Association, and the Philosophy Documentation Center. Fundraising efforts were supported by a grant from The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation.

 Browse

 * Table of Contents
 * What's New
 * Random Entry
 * Chronological
 * Archives

 About

 * Editorial Information
 * About the SEP
 * Editorial Board
 * How to Cite the SEP
 * Special Characters
 * Advanced Tools
 * Contact

 Support SEP

 * Support the SEP
 * PDFs for SEP Friends
 * Make a Donation
 * SEPIA for Libraries

 Mirror Sites

 View this site from another server:

 USA (Main Site) Philosophy, Stanford University
 * Info about mirror sites

 The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy is copyright © 2023 by The Metaphysics Research Lab, Department of Philosophy, Stanford University

 Library of Congress Catalog Data: ISSN 1095-5054

Search
	 
	 
	
	The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy organizes scholars from around the world in philosophy and related disciplines to create and maintain an up-to-date reference work.
	Co-Principal Editors: Edward N. Zalta and Uri Nodelman
	 
	
	Current Operations Are Supported By:
	 
	 	The Offices of the Provost, the Dean of Humanities and Sciences, and the Dean of Research, Stanford University
	 	The SEP Library Fund: containing contributions from the National Endowment for the Humanities and the membership dues of academic and research libraries that have joined SEPIA.
	 	The John Perry Fund and The SEP Fund: containing contributions from individual donors.
	 	The Friends of the SEP Society Fund: containing membership dues from individuals who have joined to obtain such member benefits as nicely formatted PDF versions of SEP entries.
 A gift from the O.C. Tanner Company
	 
	The SEP gratefully acknowledges founding support from the National Endowment for the Humanities, the National Science Foundation, The American Philosophical Association/Pacific Division, The Canadian Philosophical Association, and the Philosophy Documentation Center. Fundraising efforts were supported by a grant from The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation.
Search
https://plato.stanford.edu/index.html
https://plato.stanford.edu/about.html
About the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2023-01-01
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<div><div>
<ul>
 <li><a href="#desc">Brief Description</a></li>
 <li><a href="#pubmod">The SEP's Publishing Model</a></li>
 <li><a href="#hist">History</a></li>
 <li><a href="#grants">History of Grants</a></li>
 <li><a href="#pubs">Publications</a></li>
 <li><a href="#ack">Acknowledgements</a></li>
</ul>
<h3><a></a>Brief Description</h3>
<p>
 Welcome to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (SEP), which as of
March 2018, has nearly 1600 entries online. From its inception, the
SEP was designed so that each entry is maintained and kept up-to-date
by an expert or group of experts in the field. All entries and
substantive updates are refereed by the members of a distinguished
 <a href="board.html">Editorial Board</a>
 before they are made public. Consequently, our dynamic reference work
maintains academic standards while evolving and adapting in response
to new research. You can cite fixed editions that are created on a
quarterly basis and stored in our 
 <a href="archives/">Archives</a> (every entry contains a
link to its complete archival history, identifying the fixed edition
the reader should cite). The
 <a href="contents.html">Table of Contents</a>
 lists entries that are published or assigned. The
 <a href="projected-contents.html">Projected Table of Contents</a>
 also lists entries which are currently unassigned but nevertheless
projected.</p>
<h3><a></a>The SEP's Publishing Model</h3>
<p>
 The combination of features exhibited by the SEP publishing model
distinguishes it from other attempts to build scholarly resources on
the web. Our open access model has the following features: (1) a
password-protected web interface for authors, which allows them to
download entry templates, submit private drafts for review, and
remotely edit/update their entries; (2) a password-protected web
interface for the subject editors, which allows them to add new
topics, commission new entries, referee unpublished entries and
updates (updates can be displayed with the original and updated
versions side-by-side <em>with the differences highlighted</em>) and
accept/reject entries and revisions; (3) a secure administrative web
interface for the principal editor, by which the entire collaborative
process can be managed with a very small staff (the principal editor
can add people, add entries, assign entries to editors, issue
invitations, track deadlines, publish entries and updates, etc.); (4)
a tracking system which logs the actions taken at the web interfaces,
monitors the state of every entry, determines who owes work and when,
automatically sends occasional, friendly email reminders, and provides
a summary to the principal editor; (5) software which dynamically
cross-references the SEP when new entries are published, and which
periodically checks for broken links throughout the content; (6)
software which automatically creates an archive every quarter,
providing the proper basis for scholarly citation; and (7) mirror
sites at universities in other parts of the world, which provide
faster access to readers worldwide, provide access when the Stanford
server is down for maintenance, and safeguard the digital content as
extra backups. The SEP's publishing model therefore has the ability
to deliver, with very low administrative and production costs, quality
content meeting the highest of academic standards via a medium that is
universally accessible.</p>
<p>
 Few dynamic reference works have been built to the specifications
described in the previous paragraph. Most of the other encyclopedia
projects available on the web lack some of the dynamic and scholarly
features of the SEP. Either they (a) are costly and behind a
subscription wall, invisible to search engines and so not as useful to
academics and the general public; or (b) don't have an administrative
system capable of screening new entries and updates prior to
publication and ensuring that entries are responsive to new research;
or (c) don't allow the authors/editors to directly contact the server
to update/referee the content of the entries; or (d) lack a system of
archives for stable, scholarly citation (thus, when entries change,
the old content is just lost, and any citations to, or quotations
from, prior content become impossible to verify); or (e) lack a
university-based Advisory Board to vet the members of its Editorial
Board.</p>
<p>
 The SEP's model may therefore represent a unique digital library
concept: a scholarly dynamic reference work. A scholarly dynamic
reference work differs from an academic journal, for academic journals
(1) do not typically update the articles they publish, (2) do not aim
to publish articles on a comprehensive set of topics, but rather, for
the most part, publish articles that are randomly submitted by the
members of the profession, (3) do not aim to cross-reference and
create links among the concepts used in the articles they publish, (4)
typically serve a narrow audience of specialists, and (5) do not have
to deal with the <em>asynchronous</em> activity of updating,
refereeing, and tracking separate deadlines for entries, since they
are published on a <em>synchronized</em> schedule. Moreover, our
reference work differs from preprint exchanges, for the latter not
only exhibit features (1), (2), (3), and (4) just mentioned, but also
do not referee their publications and so need not incorporate a
work-flow system that handles the asynchronous refereeing process that
occurs between upload and publication in a dynamic reference work.
None of this is to say that electronic journals and preprint exchanges
have a faulty design, but rather that a scholarly dynamic reference
work is a distinctive new kind of publication that represents a unique
digital library concept.</p>
<h3><a></a>History</h3>
<p>
 The SEP project began in September 1995 when
 <a href="https://www-csli.stanford.edu/people/perry-john">John Perry</a>
 was the Director of the Center for the Study of Language and
Information (CSLI). Perry's suggestion that CSLI enhance its web presence
by creating a (static) online dictionary of philosophy was taken up by
 <a href="http://mally.stanford.edu/zalta.html">Edward N. Zalta</a>,
 who developed the idea into that of a dynamic reference work.
Zalta then started designing the SEP to be an online encyclopedia
that would satisfy the highest academic standards. After two years of
support from CSLI, our prototype became a proof of concept that earned
the first of a series of successful grant applications. (See the
 <a href="#grants">History of Grants</a>
 below.) The addition of
 <a href="http://colinallen.dnsalias.org/">Colin Allen</a>
 and 
 <a href="http://ai.stanford.edu/~nodelman/">Uri Nodelman</a> 
 to the project in 1998 resulted in significant enhancements to the
design and implementation of our new academic publishing model. They
introduced browser-based file-upload, workflow principles that
categorized the state of every entry and possible state transitions,
remote HTML editing, an engine which compares an original and revised
entry side-by-side in the browser with the differences highlighted,
etc. 
 <a href="http://pdaniell.org/">Paul Daniell</a>
 programmed/developed the new search engine that the
SEP brought online in September 2006. The SEP project
moved to the Department of Philosophy in September 2021.</p>
 
<p>
 See the masthead on the
 <a href="info.html">Editorial Information</a> page,
 for a list of other people involved in the project.</p>
<h3><a></a>History of Grants</h3>
<blockquote>
<table>
<tbody><tr>
<td><strong>Grant Duration</strong></td>
<td><strong>Grant Number</strong></td>
<td><strong>Granting Organization</strong></td>
<td><strong>Amount</strong></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>10/1998–09/2000</td>
<td>#PA-23167-98</td>
<td> NEH/Preservation and Access Division</td>
<td>$131,400</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>10/2000–09/2003</td>
<td>#IIS-9981549</td>
<td> NSF/Information and Intelligent Systems <br />
 (with support from NEH)</td>
<td>$528,900</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>02/2002–08/2002</td>
<td>Officer's Grant</td>
<td>Andrew W. Mellon Foundation</td>
<td>$43,000</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>10/2003–09/2005</td>
<td>#PA-50133-03</td>
<td>NEH/Preservation and Access Division</td>
<td>$300,828</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>01/2005–12/2008</td>
<td>#CH-50156</td>
<td>NEH/Office of Challenge Grants <br />
 (awarded to SOLINET for the SEP)</td>
<td>$500,000</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>10/2005–09/2007</td>
<td>#PA-51255-05</td>
<td>NEH/Preservation and Access Division</td>
<td>$150,000</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>09/2005–08/2007</td>
<td>#2005-6238</td>
<td>William and Flora Hewlett Foundation <br />Education, Technology, 
Open Content</td>
<td>$190,000</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</blockquote>
<h3><a></a>Publications About the Stanford Encyclopedia</h3>
<p> 
Information about our dynamic reference work can be found in
the following papers and abstracts:</p>
 <ul>
 <li>“<a href="https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4919&amp;context=atg">From SEP to SEPIA: How and why Indiana University is helping
the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>”,
 by Colin Allen and Cecile Jagodzinski, in 
 <em>Against the Grain</em>,
 18/4 (September 2006): 42–43.</li>
 <li>“<a href="http://crln.acrl.org/index.php/crlnews/article/view/7670/7670">The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: A University/Library Partnership in Support of Scholarly Communications and Open Access</a>,”
by Edward N. Zalta, in 
 <a href="http://crln.acrl.org/"><em>College &amp; Research Libraries News</em></a>
 (a publication of the Association of College and Research Libraries),
 67/8 (September 2006): 502–504, 507.</li>
 <li>“<a href="pubs/against-grain.pdf">I Hear the Train A Comin'</a> ”,
 by Greg Tananbaum, in <em>Against the Grain</em>, 18/1 (February 2006): 84–85.</li> 
 <li>Abstracts: 
 <ul>
 <li>“<a href="pubs/jcdl3.pdf">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: A Dynamic Reference Work</a>”,
 by Colin Allen, Uri Nodelman, and Edward N. Zalta, in <em>Proceedings
of the Third ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Conference on Digital Libraries</em>
(May 27–31, 2003), New York: Association for Computing Machinery
Publications, p. 383.</li>
 <li>“<a href="pubs/jcdl2.pdf">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: A Dynamic Reference Work</a>”,
 by Uri Nodelman, Colin Allen, and Edward N. Zalta, in <em>Proceedings
of the Second ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Conference on Digital Libraries</em>
(July 14–18, 2002), New York: Association for Computing Machinery
Publications, p. 380.</li>
 <li>“<a href="pubs/jcdl.pdf">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: A Dynamic Reference Work</a>”,
 by Edward N. Zalta, Colin Allen, and Uri Nodelman, in <em>Proceedings
of the First ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Conference on Digital Libraries</em>
(June 24–28, 2001), New York: Association for Computing Machinery
Publications, p. 457.</li>
 <li>“<a href="http://www.luc.edu/roman-emperors/zalta.htm">Digital Workflow Concepts for Dynamic Reference Works</a>”,
 abstract of talk delivered by Edward N. Zalta at the <em>Ancient
Studies — New Technology Conference</em>, Salve Regina
University, December 2000.</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>“<a href="pubs/sep.pdf">The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: A Developed Dynamic Reference Work</a>”
 (285K PDF document),
 by Colin Allen, Uri Nodelman, and Edward N. Zalta, in 
 <em>Metaphilosophy</em>, 33/1-2 (January 2002): 210–228;
 reprinted in <em>CyberPhilosophy: The Intersection of Philosophy and
Computing</em>, James H. Moor and Terrell Ward Bynum, (eds.), Oxford:
Blackwell, pp. 201–218.</li>
 <li>“<a href="pubs/sparc-oct99.html">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>”,
 by Edward N. Zalta,
<em>SPARC E-News</em> (October/November 1999), published by The
Scholarly Publishing and Academic Resources Coalition, online
publication. (This issue is now archived offline; the above link
is to our preprint.)</li>
 <li>“<a href="pubs/updating-encyclopedias.pdf">A Solution to the Problem of Updating Encyclopedias</a>”, 
by Eric Hammer and Edward N. Zalta,
<em>Computers and the Humanities</em>, 31/1 (1997): 47–60.
[Note: The ftp-based file upload system described in this paper was 
superseded by a browser-based file upload system which uses special
password-protected web interfaces for the authors and editors.]</li>
 <li>“<a href="pubs/why.html">Why Philosophy Needs a ‘Dynamic’ Encyclopedia</a>”,
 by John Perry and Edward N. Zalta, 
 URL = &lt;https://plato.stanford.edu/pubs/why.html&gt;, November 1997.</li>
 </ul>
<h3><a></a>Acknowledgments</h3>
<p>
 The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy is indebted to many people,
both at Stanford and elsewhere, who have supported the efforts of the
project in significant ways. First, and foremost, we'd like to thank
Professor John Perry, who has served as the principal investigator on
the SEP grants, provided high-level supervision on the project, serves
as the SEP's advocate to the Stanford administration, and gave
generously of his time in SEP fund-raising activities. After Perry
served as the SEP's Faculty Sponsor for many years, the role finally
turned over first to Helen Longino, and then to R. Lanier
Anderson.</p>
<h4><a>Administrative Assistance</a></h4> 
<p>The SEP would like to acknowledge significant support from the
Administrative Staff of the Center for the Study of Language and
Information (CSLI) from Fall 1995 (when the SEP project started)
through Fall 2021, when the SEP moved to the Department of
Philosophy. We especially thank
<a href="https://www-csli.stanford.edu/people/amita-kumar">Amita Kumar</a>
and
<a href="https://www-csli.stanford.edu/people/michelle-lodwick">Michelle Lodwick</a>
for their tireless efforts on behalf of the SEP. The project would not
be what it is today without their work.</p>
<h4>Editorial Assistance</h4>
<p>
The SEP would also like to thank the following people: Nathan Tawil,
Paul E. Oppenheimer, Jesse Alama, Ben Wolfson, Tamar Lando, Matthew
Barrett, and Arezoo Islami have provided, and in some cases continue
to provide, valuable editorial and document-editing assistance.
Kirsta Anderson (M.A./Philosophy) served as Assistant Editor during
the 2003–2004 academic year, and did an outstanding job in SEP
communications and control, offering many suggestions on how to
improve our workflow system. Also, Daniel McKenzie served as
Assistant Editor during the 2004–2005 academic year, and did a
great job juggling communications/control and copy-editing. Others,
including Matthew Barrett and Justin Pront, have helped on a smaller
scale with SEP editorial duties. Benjamin Patrick Przybocki also
helped convert entries to HTML/MathJax.</p>
<h4>Fund-Raising Assistance</h4>
<p>
 We are especially indebted to the O.C. Tanner Company for a generous
gift to the SEP in 2022, as well as The Byrne Foundation for a
generous gift to the SEP in 2007, creating the John Perry Fund. We are
also deeply indebted to Michelle Wachs (J.D., Harvard, 1993) of Giving
Solutions, whose tireless and enthusiastic efforts as the SEP's
fund-raising consultant during the 2005–2006 and 2006–2007
academic years helped us achieve our fund-raising goals for those
years. We were able to hire Michelle with funds from a generous grant
by the Hewlett Foundation. We would also like to acknowledge the
contribution of Javier Ergueta (M.B.A., Stanford, 1980), for his
efforts and work in developing a business plan for the Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy during the first six months of 2002.
Javier's time was paid for through a generous grant by the Mellon
Foundation. Thanks go the following students in John Perry's Fall
2004 Proseminar, for their help and assistance in implementing an
important element of the SEP's fund-raising plan: Dan Giberman,
Tomohiro Hoshi, Alistair Isaac, Daniel Long, Lindsay McLeary, Sarah
Paul, Josh Snyder, Quayshawn Spencer and Johanna Wolff.</p>
<h4>Programming Assistance</h4>
 <p>
 The Associate Editor (Colin Allen) and the Senior Editor (Uri
Nodelman) have been the Principal and Associate Perl Programmers,
respectively, on this project since 1998. 
 <a href="http://pdaniell.org/">Paul Daniell</a> not only
developed a customized search engine for the SEP, but
also developed the software that administers the
 <a href="https://leibniz.stanford.edu/friends/">Friends of the SEP
 Society</a>. During the 2007–2008 and 2008–2009 years,
 Jesse Alama has contributed his programming skills, in addition to
 his document editing skills. Eric Hammer (Expedia.com) programmed on
 the project in its early years, from 1995 to 1997. During the
 2000–2001 and 2001–2002 academic years, David James
 Anderson (M.A./Philosophy) wrote important Perl programs and made
 other contributions to the project. We'd also like to thank John
 MacFarlane for developing a program that produces PDF versions of SEP
 entries in two-column landscape mode. </p>
<h4>Web Design Assistance</h4>
<p>In March 2014, the SEP launched a new website design. We are
indebted to the team at
 <a href="https://swsblog.stanford.edu/about-stanford-web-services">Stanford Web Services</a>,
and especially Sara Worrell-Berg, Megan Miller, Anna Cobb, and Brian
Young. They did a terrific job with the new design. In this
connection, we are also indebted to Scott Stocker, Zach Chandler, Lisa
Lapin, and John Etchemendy, for playing a role and helping to
facilitate this initiative.</p>
<h4>New Technologies Assistance</h4>
<p>
The <em>Encyclopedia</em>
would like acknowledge and thank the researchers and programmers
who are contributing to SEP-enhancement initiatives being pursued by the
<a href="https://www.inphoproject.org/">Internet Philosophy Ontology project</a>
(InPhO), directed by Colin Allen. Special thanks go to:
 <a href="http://cameronbuckner.net/professional/">Cameron Buckner</a>,
 <a href="http://cogs.indiana.edu/people/profile.php?u=reberle">Ruth Eberle</a>,
 Nubli Kasa, and
 <a href="http://www.cs.indiana.edu/~jammurdo/">Jaimie Murdock</a>,
 <a href="http://www.matlog.net/">Mathias Niepert</a>,
 <a href="https://plus.google.com/103110477502811794272/posts">Scott Weingart</a>.
Using a combination of text mining, human feedback, and machine reasoning,
the InPhO project is enhancing such critical functions as cross-referencing
the SEP, classifying topics, and organizing its bibliographic database. We also
indebted to the InPhO team for hosting a backup server for the SEP.</p>
<p>
We are grateful for the 
 <a href="http://www.mathjax.org/">MathJax</a> project which we are now 
starting to use for mathematical formatting in our entries.
And we would also like to acknowledge 
 <a href="http://johnmacfarlane.net/">John MacFarlane</a>'s
 work on
 <a href="http://johnmacfarlane.net/pandoc/">pandoc</a>, which has become an 
important part of our workflow in converting LaTeX document to HTML
with MathJax.
</p>
<h4><a>General Assistance</a></h4>
<p>
 The <em>Encyclopedia</em> would like to acknowledge the volunteer
services of Gintautas Miliauskas, Greg Stokley, Jason Wu, Yong Wei
Chong Gabrielle, and Emily Fox-Penner for carefully reading and
copy-editing SEP entries and notifying us about typographical and
other errors found therein. We'd like to thank Nathan Tawil, who
helped design the <em>Encyclopedia</em> entry format when the project
started in 1995, and who has assisted the Principal Editor in editing
certain entries. We're also indebted to
 <a href="https://www-csli.stanford.edu/people/barker-plummer-dave">David Barker-Plummer</a>,
 Mark Greaves,
 <a href="https://www-csli.stanford.edu/people/pease-emma">Emma Pease</a>,
 <a href="http://www.ai.sri.com/people/riehemann/">Susanne Riehemann</a>, 
 and Lynn Allen for their many helpful suggestions concerning the
<em>Encyclopedia</em> project and the construction of this Web site.</p>
 </div>||||I|||| Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
 Menu
 * Browse
 + Table of Contents
 + What's New
 + Random Entry
 + Chronological
 + Archives
 * About
 + Editorial Information
 + About the SEP
 + Editorial Board
 + How to Cite the SEP
 + Special Characters
 + Advanced Tools
 + Contact
 * Support SEP
 + Support the SEP
 + PDFs for SEP Friends
 + Make a Donation
 + SEPIA for Libraries

 About the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

 * Brief Description
 * The SEP's Publishing Model
 * History
 * History of Grants
 * Publications
 * Acknowledgements

 Brief Description

 Welcome to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (SEP), which as of March 2018, has nearly 1600 entries online. From its inception, the SEP was designed so that each entry is maintained and kept up-to-date by an expert or group of experts in the field. All entries and substantive updates are refereed by the members of a distinguished Editorial Board before they are made public. Consequently, our dynamic reference work maintains academic standards while evolving and adapting in response to new research. You can cite fixed editions that are created on a quarterly basis and stored in our Archives (every entry contains a link to its complete archival history, identifying the fixed edition the reader should cite). The Table of Contents lists entries that are published or assigned. The Projected Table of Contents also lists entries which are currently unassigned but nevertheless projected.

 The SEP's Publishing Model

 The combination of features exhibited by the SEP publishing model distinguishes it from other attempts to build scholarly resources on the web. Our open access model has the following features: (1) a password-protected web interface for authors, which allows them to download entry templates, submit private drafts for review, and remotely edit/update their entries; (2) a password-protected web interface for the subject editors, which allows them to add new topics, commission new entries, referee unpublished entries and updates (updates can be displayed with the original and updated versions side-by-side with the differences highlighted) and accept/reject entries and revisions; (3) a secure administrative web interface for the principal editor, by which the entire collaborative process can be managed with a very small staff (the principal editor can add people, add entries, assign entries to editors, issue invitations, track deadlines, publish entries and updates, etc.); (4) a tracking system which logs the actions taken at the web interfaces, monitors the state of every entry, determines who owes work and when, automatically sends occasional, friendly email reminders, and provides a summary to the principal editor; (5) software which dynamically cross-references the SEP when new entries are published, and which periodically checks for broken links throughout the content; (6) software which automatically creates an archive every quarter, providing the proper basis for scholarly citation; and (7) mirror sites at universities in other parts of the world, which provide faster access to readers worldwide, provide access when the Stanford server is down for maintenance, and safeguard the digital content as extra backups. The SEP's publishing model therefore has the ability to deliver, with very low administrative and production costs, quality content meeting the highest of academic standards via a medium that is universally accessible.

 Few dynamic reference works have been built to the specifications described in the previous paragraph. Most of the other encyclopedia projects available on the web lack some of the dynamic and scholarly features of the SEP. Either they (a) are costly and behind a subscription wall, invisible to search engines and so not as useful to academics and the general public; or (b) don't have an administrative system capable of screening new entries and updates prior to publication and ensuring that entries are responsive to new research; or (c) don't allow the authors/editors to directly contact the server to update/referee the content of the entries; or (d) lack a system of archives for stable, scholarly citation (thus, when entries change, the old content is just lost, and any citations to, or quotations from, prior content become impossible to verify); or (e) lack a university-based Advisory Board to vet the members of its Editorial Board.

 The SEP's model may therefore represent a unique digital library concept: a scholarly dynamic reference work. A scholarly dynamic reference work differs from an academic journal, for academic journals (1) do not typically update the articles they publish, (2) do not aim to publish articles on a comprehensive set of topics, but rather, for the most part, publish articles that are randomly submitted by the members of the profession, (3) do not aim to cross-reference and create links among the concepts used in the articles they publish, (4) typically serve a narrow audience of specialists, and (5) do not have to deal with the asynchronous activity of updating, refereeing, and tracking separate deadlines for entries, since they are published on a synchronized schedule. Moreover, our reference work differs from preprint exchanges, for the latter not only exhibit features (1), (2), (3), and (4) just mentioned, but also do not referee their publications and so need not incorporate a work-flow system that handles the asynchronous refereeing process that occurs between upload and publication in a dynamic reference work. None of this is to say that electronic journals and preprint exchanges have a faulty design, but rather that a scholarly dynamic reference work is a distinctive new kind of publication that represents a unique digital library concept.

 History

 The SEP project began in September 1995 when John Perry was the Director of the Center for the Study of Language and Information (CSLI). Perry's suggestion that CSLI enhance its web presence by creating a (static) online dictionary of philosophy was taken up by Edward N. Zalta, who developed the idea into that of a dynamic reference work. Zalta then started designing the SEP to be an online encyclopedia that would satisfy the highest academic standards. After two years of support from CSLI, our prototype became a proof of concept that earned the first of a series of successful grant applications. (See the History of Grants below.) The addition of Colin Allen and Uri Nodelman to the project in 1998 resulted in significant enhancements to the design and implementation of our new academic publishing model. They introduced browser-based file-upload, workflow principles that categorized the state of every entry and possible state transitions, remote HTML editing, an engine which compares an original and revised entry side-by-side in the browser with the differences highlighted, etc. Paul Daniell programmed/developed the new search engine that the SEP brought online in September 2006. The SEP project moved to the Department of Philosophy in September 2021.

 See the masthead on the Editorial Information page, for a list of other people involved in the project.

 History of Grants

 Grant Duration Grant Number Granting Organization Amount 
 10/1998–09/2000 #PA-23167-98 NEH/Preservation and Access Division $131,400
 10/2000–09/2003 #IIS-9981549 NSF/Information and Intelligent Systems $528,900
 (with support from NEH) 
 02/2002–08/2002 Officer's Grant Andrew W. Mellon Foundation $43,000 
 10/2003–09/2005 #PA-50133-03 NEH/Preservation and Access Division $300,828
 01/2005–12/2008 #CH-50156 NEH/Office of Challenge Grants $500,000
 (awarded to SOLINET for the SEP) 
 10/2005–09/2007 #PA-51255-05 NEH/Preservation and Access Division $150,000
 09/2005–08/2007 #2005-6238 William and Flora Hewlett Foundation $190,000
 Education, Technology, Open Content 
 

 Publications About the Stanford Encyclopedia

 Information about our dynamic reference work can be found in the following papers and abstracts:

 * “From SEP to SEPIA: How and why Indiana University is helping the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy”, by Colin Allen and Cecile Jagodzinski, in Against the Grain, 18/4 (September 2006): 42–43.
 * “The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: A University/Library Partnership in Support of Scholarly Communications and Open Access,” by Edward N. Zalta, in College & Research Libraries News (a publication of the Association of College and Research Libraries), 67/8 (September 2006): 502–504, 507.
 * “I Hear the Train A Comin' ”, by Greg Tananbaum, in Against the Grain, 18/1 (February 2006): 84–85.
 * Abstracts:
 + “Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: A Dynamic Reference Work”, by Colin Allen, Uri Nodelman, and Edward N. Zalta, in Proceedings of the Third ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Conference on Digital Libraries (May 27–31, 2003), New York: Association for Computing Machinery Publications, p. 383.
 + “Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: A Dynamic Reference Work”, by Uri Nodelman, Colin Allen, and Edward N. Zalta, in Proceedings of the Second ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Conference on Digital Libraries (July 14–18, 2002), New York: Association for Computing Machinery Publications, p. 380.
 + “Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: A Dynamic Reference Work”, by Edward N. Zalta, Colin Allen, and Uri Nodelman, in Proceedings of the First ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Conference on Digital Libraries (June 24–28, 2001), New York: Association for Computing Machinery Publications, p. 457.
 + “Digital Workflow Concepts for Dynamic Reference Works”, abstract of talk delivered by Edward N. Zalta at the Ancient Studies — New Technology Conference, Salve Regina University, December 2000.
 * “The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: A Developed Dynamic Reference Work” (285K PDF document), by Colin Allen, Uri Nodelman, and Edward N. Zalta, in Metaphilosophy, 33/1-2 (January 2002): 210–228; reprinted in CyberPhilosophy: The Intersection of Philosophy and Computing, James H. Moor and Terrell Ward Bynum, (eds.), Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 201–218.
 * “Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy”, by Edward N. Zalta, SPARC E-News (October/November 1999), published by The Scholarly Publishing and Academic Resources Coalition, online publication. (This issue is now archived offline; the above link is to our preprint.)
 * “A Solution to the Problem of Updating Encyclopedias”, by Eric Hammer and Edward N. Zalta, Computers and the Humanities, 31/1 (1997): 47–60. [Note: The ftp-based file upload system described in this paper was superseded by a browser-based file upload system which uses special password-protected web interfaces for the authors and editors.]
 * “Why Philosophy Needs a ‘Dynamic’ Encyclopedia”, by John Perry and Edward N. Zalta, URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/pubs/why.html>, November 1997.

 Acknowledgments

 The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy is indebted to many people, both at Stanford and elsewhere, who have supported the efforts of the project in significant ways. First, and foremost, we'd like to thank Professor John Perry, who has served as the principal investigator on the SEP grants, provided high-level supervision on the project, serves as the SEP's advocate to the Stanford administration, and gave generously of his time in SEP fund-raising activities. After Perry served as the SEP's Faculty Sponsor for many years, the role finally turned over first to Helen Longino, and then to R. Lanier Anderson.

 Administrative Assistance

 The SEP would like to acknowledge significant support from the Administrative Staff of the Center for the Study of Language and Information (CSLI) from Fall 1995 (when the SEP project started) through Fall 2021, when the SEP moved to the Department of Philosophy. We especially thank Amita Kumar and Michelle Lodwick for their tireless efforts on behalf of the SEP. The project would not be what it is today without their work.

 Editorial Assistance

 The SEP would also like to thank the following people: Nathan Tawil, Paul E. Oppenheimer, Jesse Alama, Ben Wolfson, Tamar Lando, Matthew Barrett, and Arezoo Islami have provided, and in some cases continue to provide, valuable editorial and document-editing assistance. Kirsta Anderson (M.A./Philosophy) served as Assistant Editor during the 2003–2004 academic year, and did an outstanding job in SEP communications and control, offering many suggestions on how to improve our workflow system. Also, Daniel McKenzie served as Assistant Editor during the 2004–2005 academic year, and did a great job juggling communications/control and copy-editing. Others, including Matthew Barrett and Justin Pront, have helped on a smaller scale with SEP editorial duties. Benjamin Patrick Przybocki also helped convert entries to HTML/MathJax.

 Fund-Raising Assistance

 We are especially indebted to the O.C. Tanner Company for a generous gift to the SEP in 2022, as well as The Byrne Foundation for a generous gift to the SEP in 2007, creating the John Perry Fund. We are also deeply indebted to Michelle Wachs (J.D., Harvard, 1993) of Giving Solutions, whose tireless and enthusiastic efforts as the SEP's fund-raising consultant during the 2005–2006 and 2006–2007 academic years helped us achieve our fund-raising goals for those years. We were able to hire Michelle with funds from a generous grant by the Hewlett Foundation. We would also like to acknowledge the contribution of Javier Ergueta (M.B.A., Stanford, 1980), for his efforts and work in developing a business plan for the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy during the first six months of 2002. Javier's time was paid for through a generous grant by the Mellon Foundation. Thanks go the following students in John Perry's Fall 2004 Proseminar, for their help and assistance in implementing an important element of the SEP's fund-raising plan: Dan Giberman, Tomohiro Hoshi, Alistair Isaac, Daniel Long, Lindsay McLeary, Sarah Paul, Josh Snyder, Quayshawn Spencer and Johanna Wolff.

 Programming Assistance

 The Associate Editor (Colin Allen) and the Senior Editor (Uri Nodelman) have been the Principal and Associate Perl Programmers, respectively, on this project since 1998. Paul Daniell not only developed a customized search engine for the SEP, but also developed the software that administers the Friends of the SEP Society. During the 2007–2008 and 2008–2009 years, Jesse Alama has contributed his programming skills, in addition to his document editing skills. Eric Hammer (Expedia.com) programmed on the project in its early years, from 1995 to 1997. During the 2000–2001 and 2001–2002 academic years, David James Anderson (M.A./Philosophy) wrote important Perl programs and made other contributions to the project. We'd also like to thank John MacFarlane for developing a program that produces PDF versions of SEP entries in two-column landscape mode.

 Web Design Assistance

 In March 2014, the SEP launched a new website design. We are indebted to the team at Stanford Web Services, and especially Sara Worrell-Berg, Megan Miller, Anna Cobb, and Brian Young. They did a terrific job with the new design. In this connection, we are also indebted to Scott Stocker, Zach Chandler, Lisa Lapin, and John Etchemendy, for playing a role and helping to facilitate this initiative.

 New Technologies Assistance

 The Encyclopedia would like acknowledge and thank the researchers and programmers who are contributing to SEP-enhancement initiatives being pursued by the Internet Philosophy Ontology project (InPhO), directed by Colin Allen. Special thanks go to: Cameron Buckner, Ruth Eberle, Nubli Kasa, and Jaimie Murdock, Mathias Niepert, Scott Weingart. Using a combination of text mining, human feedback, and machine reasoning, the InPhO project is enhancing such critical functions as cross-referencing the SEP, classifying topics, and organizing its bibliographic database. We also indebted to the InPhO team for hosting a backup server for the SEP.

 We are grateful for the MathJax project which we are now starting to use for mathematical formatting in our entries. And we would also like to acknowledge John MacFarlane's work on pandoc, which has become an important part of our workflow in converting LaTeX document to HTML with MathJax.

 General Assistance

 The Encyclopedia would like to acknowledge the volunteer services of Gintautas Miliauskas, Greg Stokley, Jason Wu, Yong Wei Chong Gabrielle, and Emily Fox-Penner for carefully reading and copy-editing SEP entries and notifying us about typographical and other errors found therein. We'd like to thank Nathan Tawil, who helped design the Encyclopedia entry format when the project started in 1995, and who has assisted the Principal Editor in editing certain entries. We're also indebted to David Barker-Plummer, Mark Greaves, Emma Pease, Susanne Riehemann, and Lynn Allen for their many helpful suggestions concerning the Encyclopedia project and the construction of this Web site.

 Browse

 * Table of Contents
 * What's New
 * Random Entry
 * Chronological
 * Archives

 About

 * Editorial Information
 * About the SEP
 * Editorial Board
 * How to Cite the SEP
 * Special Characters
 * Advanced Tools
 * Contact

 Support SEP

 * Support the SEP
 * PDFs for SEP Friends
 * Make a Donation
 * SEPIA for Libraries

 Mirror Sites

 View this site from another server:

 USA (Main Site) Philosophy, Stanford University
 * Info about mirror sites

 The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy is copyright © 2023 by The Metaphysics Research Lab, Department of Philosophy, Stanford University

 Library of Congress Catalog Data: ISSN 1095-5054

Brief Description 
  The SEP's Publishing Model 
  History 
  History of Grants 
  Publications 
  Acknowledgements 
  Brief Description
 Welcome to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (SEP), which as of
March 2018, has nearly 1600 entries online. From its inception, the
SEP was designed so that each entry is maintained and kept up-to-date
by an expert or group of experts in the field. All entries and
substantive updates are refereed by the members of a distinguished
 Editorial Board
 before they are made public. Consequently, our dynamic reference work
maintains academic standards while evolving and adapting in response
to new research. You can cite fixed editions that are created on a
quarterly basis and stored in our 
 Archives (every entry contains a
link to its complete archival history, identifying the fixed edition
the reader should cite). The
 Table of Contents
 lists entries that are published or assigned. The
 Projected Table of Contents
 also lists entries which are currently unassigned but nevertheless
projected.
  The SEP's Publishing Model
 The combination of features exhibited by the SEP publishing model
distinguishes it from other attempts to build scholarly resources on
the web. Our open access model has the following features: (1) a
password-protected web interface for authors, which allows them to
download entry templates, submit private drafts for review, and
remotely edit/update their entries; (2) a password-protected web
interface for the subject editors, which allows them to add new
topics, commission new entries, referee unpublished entries and
updates (updates can be displayed with the original and updated
versions side-by-side with the differences highlighted) and
accept/reject entries and revisions; (3) a secure administrative web
interface for the principal editor, by which the entire collaborative
process can be managed with a very small staff (the principal editor
can add people, add entries, assign entries to editors, issue
invitations, track deadlines, publish entries and updates, etc.); (4)
a tracking system which logs the actions taken at the web interfaces,
monitors the state of every entry, determines who owes work and when,
automatically sends occasional, friendly email reminders, and provides
a summary to the principal editor; (5) software which dynamically
cross-references the SEP when new entries are published, and which
periodically checks for broken links throughout the content; (6)
software which automatically creates an archive every quarter,
providing the proper basis for scholarly citation; and (7) mirror
sites at universities in other parts of the world, which provide
faster access to readers worldwide, provide access when the Stanford
server is down for maintenance, and safeguard the digital content as
extra backups. The SEP's publishing model therefore has the ability
to deliver, with very low administrative and production costs, quality
content meeting the highest of academic standards via a medium that is
universally accessible.
 Few dynamic reference works have been built to the specifications
described in the previous paragraph. Most of the other encyclopedia
projects available on the web lack some of the dynamic and scholarly
features of the SEP. Either they (a) are costly and behind a
subscription wall, invisible to search engines and so not as useful to
academics and the general public; or (b) don't have an administrative
system capable of screening new entries and updates prior to
publication and ensuring that entries are responsive to new research;
or (c) don't allow the authors/editors to directly contact the server
to update/referee the content of the entries; or (d) lack a system of
archives for stable, scholarly citation (thus, when entries change,
the old content is just lost, and any citations to, or quotations
from, prior content become impossible to verify); or (e) lack a
university-based Advisory Board to vet the members of its Editorial
Board.
 The SEP's model may therefore represent a unique digital library
concept: a scholarly dynamic reference work. A scholarly dynamic
reference work differs from an academic journal, for academic journals
(1) do not typically update the articles they publish, (2) do not aim
to publish articles on a comprehensive set of topics, but rather, for
the most part, publish articles that are randomly submitted by the
members of the profession, (3) do not aim to cross-reference and
create links among the concepts used in the articles they publish, (4)
typically serve a narrow audience of specialists, and (5) do not have
to deal with the asynchronous activity of updating,
refereeing, and tracking separate deadlines for entries, since they
are published on a synchronized schedule. Moreover, our
reference work differs from preprint exchanges, for the latter not
only exhibit features (1), (2), (3), and (4) just mentioned, but also
do not referee their publications and so need not incorporate a
work-flow system that handles the asynchronous refereeing process that
occurs between upload and publication in a dynamic reference work.
None of this is to say that electronic journals and preprint exchanges
have a faulty design, but rather that a scholarly dynamic reference
work is a distinctive new kind of publication that represents a unique
digital library concept.
  History
 The SEP project began in September 1995 when
 John Perry
 was the Director of the Center for the Study of Language and
Information (CSLI). Perry's suggestion that CSLI enhance its web presence
by creating a (static) online dictionary of philosophy was taken up by
 Edward N. Zalta,
 who developed the idea into that of a dynamic reference work.
Zalta then started designing the SEP to be an online encyclopedia
that would satisfy the highest academic standards. After two years of
support from CSLI, our prototype became a proof of concept that earned
the first of a series of successful grant applications. (See the
 History of Grants
 below.) The addition of
 Colin Allen
 and 
 Uri Nodelman 
 to the project in 1998 resulted in significant enhancements to the
design and implementation of our new academic publishing model. They
introduced browser-based file-upload, workflow principles that
categorized the state of every entry and possible state transitions,
remote HTML editing, an engine which compares an original and revised
entry side-by-side in the browser with the differences highlighted,
etc. 
 Paul Daniell
 programmed/developed the new search engine that the
SEP brought online in September 2006. The SEP project
moved to the Department of Philosophy in September 2021.
 
 See the masthead on the
 Editorial Information page,
 for a list of other people involved in the project.
  History of Grants
 
 Grant Duration 
 Grant Number 
 Granting Organization 
 Amount 
10/1998–09/2000
#PA-23167-98
 NEH/Preservation and Access Division
$131,400
10/2000–09/2003
#IIS-9981549
 NSF/Information and Intelligent Systems 
 (with support from NEH)
$528,900
02/2002–08/2002
Officer's Grant
Andrew W. Mellon Foundation
$43,000
10/2003–09/2005
#PA-50133-03
NEH/Preservation and Access Division
$300,828
01/2005–12/2008
#CH-50156
NEH/Office of Challenge Grants 
 (awarded to SOLINET for the SEP)
$500,000
10/2005–09/2007
#PA-51255-05
NEH/Preservation and Access Division
$150,000
09/2005–08/2007
#2005-6238
William and Flora Hewlett Foundation Education, Technology, 
Open Content
$190,000
 
  Publications About the Stanford Encyclopedia
 
Information about our dynamic reference work can be found in
the following papers and abstracts:
 
 “From SEP to SEPIA: How and why Indiana University is helping
the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy”,
 by Colin Allen and Cecile Jagodzinski, in 
 Against the Grain,
 18/4 (September 2006): 42–43.
 “The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: A University/Library Partnership in Support of Scholarly Communications and Open Access,”
by Edward N. Zalta, in 
  College &amp; Research Libraries News 
 (a publication of the Association of College and Research Libraries),
 67/8 (September 2006): 502–504, 507.
 “I Hear the Train A Comin' ”,
 by Greg Tananbaum, in Against the Grain, 18/1 (February 2006): 84–85. 
 Abstracts: 
 
 “Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: A Dynamic Reference Work”,
 by Colin Allen, Uri Nodelman, and Edward N. Zalta, in Proceedings
of the Third ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Conference on Digital Libraries
(May 27–31, 2003), New York: Association for Computing Machinery
Publications, p. 383.
 “Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: A Dynamic Reference Work”,
 by Uri Nodelman, Colin Allen, and Edward N. Zalta, in Proceedings
of the Second ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Conference on Digital Libraries
(July 14–18, 2002), New York: Association for Computing Machinery
Publications, p. 380.
 “Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: A Dynamic Reference Work”,
 by Edward N. Zalta, Colin Allen, and Uri Nodelman, in Proceedings
of the First ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Conference on Digital Libraries
(June 24–28, 2001), New York: Association for Computing Machinery
Publications, p. 457.
 “Digital Workflow Concepts for Dynamic Reference Works”,
 abstract of talk delivered by Edward N. Zalta at the Ancient
Studies — New Technology Conference, Salve Regina
University, December 2000.
 
 
 “The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: A Developed Dynamic Reference Work”
 (285K PDF document),
 by Colin Allen, Uri Nodelman, and Edward N. Zalta, in 
 Metaphilosophy, 33/1-2 (January 2002): 210–228;
 reprinted in CyberPhilosophy: The Intersection of Philosophy and
Computing, James H. Moor and Terrell Ward Bynum, (eds.), Oxford:
Blackwell, pp. 201–218.
 “Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy”,
 by Edward N. Zalta,
SPARC E-News (October/November 1999), published by The
Scholarly Publishing and Academic Resources Coalition, online
publication. (This issue is now archived offline; the above link
is to our preprint.)
 “A Solution to the Problem of Updating Encyclopedias”, 
by Eric Hammer and Edward N. Zalta,
Computers and the Humanities, 31/1 (1997): 47–60.
[Note: The ftp-based file upload system described in this paper was 
superseded by a browser-based file upload system which uses special
password-protected web interfaces for the authors and editors.]
 “Why Philosophy Needs a ‘Dynamic’ Encyclopedia”,
 by John Perry and Edward N. Zalta, 
 URL = &lt;https://plato.stanford.edu/pubs/why.html&gt;, November 1997.
 
  Acknowledgments
 The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy is indebted to many people,
both at Stanford and elsewhere, who have supported the efforts of the
project in significant ways. First, and foremost, we'd like to thank
Professor John Perry, who has served as the principal investigator on
the SEP grants, provided high-level supervision on the project, serves
as the SEP's advocate to the Stanford administration, and gave
generously of his time in SEP fund-raising activities. After Perry
served as the SEP's Faculty Sponsor for many years, the role finally
turned over first to Helen Longino, and then to R. Lanier
Anderson.
 Administrative Assistance  
The SEP would like to acknowledge significant support from the
Administrative Staff of the Center for the Study of Language and
Information (CSLI) from Fall 1995 (when the SEP project started)
through Fall 2021, when the SEP moved to the Department of
Philosophy. We especially thank
Amita Kumar
and
Michelle Lodwick
for their tireless efforts on behalf of the SEP. The project would not
be what it is today without their work.
Editorial Assistance
The SEP would also like to thank the following people: Nathan Tawil,
Paul E. Oppenheimer, Jesse Alama, Ben Wolfson, Tamar Lando, Matthew
Barrett, and Arezoo Islami have provided, and in some cases continue
to provide, valuable editorial and document-editing assistance.
Kirsta Anderson (M.A./Philosophy) served as Assistant Editor during
the 2003–2004 academic year, and did an outstanding job in SEP
communications and control, offering many suggestions on how to
improve our workflow system. Also, Daniel McKenzie served as
Assistant Editor during the 2004–2005 academic year, and did a
great job juggling communications/control and copy-editing. Others,
including Matthew Barrett and Justin Pront, have helped on a smaller
scale with SEP editorial duties. Benjamin Patrick Przybocki also
helped convert entries to HTML/MathJax.
Fund-Raising Assistance
 We are especially indebted to the O.C. Tanner Company for a generous
gift to the SEP in 2022, as well as The Byrne Foundation for a
generous gift to the SEP in 2007, creating the John Perry Fund. We are
also deeply indebted to Michelle Wachs (J.D., Harvard, 1993) of Giving
Solutions, whose tireless and enthusiastic efforts as the SEP's
fund-raising consultant during the 2005–2006 and 2006–2007
academic years helped us achieve our fund-raising goals for those
years. We were able to hire Michelle with funds from a generous grant
by the Hewlett Foundation. We would also like to acknowledge the
contribution of Javier Ergueta (M.B.A., Stanford, 1980), for his
efforts and work in developing a business plan for the Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy during the first six months of 2002.
Javier's time was paid for through a generous grant by the Mellon
Foundation. Thanks go the following students in John Perry's Fall
2004 Proseminar, for their help and assistance in implementing an
important element of the SEP's fund-raising plan: Dan Giberman,
Tomohiro Hoshi, Alistair Isaac, Daniel Long, Lindsay McLeary, Sarah
Paul, Josh Snyder, Quayshawn Spencer and Johanna Wolff.
Programming Assistance
 
 The Associate Editor (Colin Allen) and the Senior Editor (Uri
Nodelman) have been the Principal and Associate Perl Programmers,
respectively, on this project since 1998. 
 Paul Daniell not only
developed a customized search engine for the SEP, but
also developed the software that administers the
 Friends of the SEP
 Society. During the 2007–2008 and 2008–2009 years,
 Jesse Alama has contributed his programming skills, in addition to
 his document editing skills. Eric Hammer (Expedia.com) programmed on
 the project in its early years, from 1995 to 1997. During the
 2000–2001 and 2001–2002 academic years, David James
 Anderson (M.A./Philosophy) wrote important Perl programs and made
 other contributions to the project. We'd also like to thank John
 MacFarlane for developing a program that produces PDF versions of SEP
 entries in two-column landscape mode. 
Web Design Assistance
In March 2014, the SEP launched a new website design. We are
indebted to the team at
 Stanford Web Services,
and especially Sara Worrell-Berg, Megan Miller, Anna Cobb, and Brian
Young. They did a terrific job with the new design. In this
connection, we are also indebted to Scott Stocker, Zach Chandler, Lisa
Lapin, and John Etchemendy, for playing a role and helping to
facilitate this initiative.
New Technologies Assistance
The Encyclopedia
would like acknowledge and thank the researchers and programmers
who are contributing to SEP-enhancement initiatives being pursued by the
Internet Philosophy Ontology project
(InPhO), directed by Colin Allen. Special thanks go to:
 Cameron Buckner,
 Ruth Eberle,
 Nubli Kasa, and
 Jaimie Murdock,
 Mathias Niepert,
 Scott Weingart.
Using a combination of text mining, human feedback, and machine reasoning,
the InPhO project is enhancing such critical functions as cross-referencing
the SEP, classifying topics, and organizing its bibliographic database. We also
indebted to the InPhO team for hosting a backup server for the SEP.
We are grateful for the 
 MathJax project which we are now 
starting to use for mathematical formatting in our entries.
And we would also like to acknowledge 
 John MacFarlane's
 work on
 pandoc, which has become an 
important part of our workflow in converting LaTeX document to HTML
with MathJax.
 General Assistance 
 The Encyclopedia would like to acknowledge the volunteer
services of Gintautas Miliauskas, Greg Stokley, Jason Wu, Yong Wei
Chong Gabrielle, and Emily Fox-Penner for carefully reading and
copy-editing SEP entries and notifying us about typographical and
other errors found therein. We'd like to thank Nathan Tawil, who
helped design the Encyclopedia entry format when the project
started in 1995, and who has assisted the Principal Editor in editing
certain entries. We're also indebted to
 David Barker-Plummer,
 Mark Greaves,
 Emma Pease,
 Susanne Riehemann, 
 and Lynn Allen for their many helpful suggestions concerning the
Encyclopedia project and the construction of this Web site.
About the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
https://plato.stanford.edu/about.html
https://shc.stanford.edu/arcade/about/executive-team
Executive Team | Stanford Humanities Center
2023-01-01T00:00:00Z

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 April 19
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 Letter from the Editor | Apply to the Editorial Board
 Nadia Jo
   •  
 April 5
 Editorial Board
 Editorial Board | What is an education without honesty?
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   •  
 March 14
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 Editorial Board | Picking a president: What really matters
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   •  
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 Editorial Board
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 Nov. 24
 Opinions
 Editorial Board | Revive Stanford’s student publications
 Editorial Board
   •  
 Nov. 13
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 Editorial Board | Keeping Stanford’s speech free
 Editorial Board
   •  
 Oct. 29
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 Letter from the Editor | Apply to the Editorial Board
 Joyce Chen
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 Sept. 29
 Editorial Board
 Editorial Board | Don’t make Stanford the next Berkeley
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   •  
 June 8
 Editorial Board
 Editorial Board | MTL is abusing the concept of Academic Freedom
 Editorial Board
   •  
 May 29
 Opinions
 Editorial Board | Holding admin accountable: How the Stanford community can strike back
 Editorial Board
   •  
 May 16
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 Editorial Board | The Faculty Senate has broken undergraduate trust
 Editorial Board
   •  
 April 30, 2023
 Editorial Board
 Editorial Board | Greek life is not the solution for Stanford’s social problem
 Editorial Board
   •  
 April 25, 2023
 Editorial Board
 Editorial Board | What does Stanford stand for?
 Editorial Board
   •  
 April 20, 2023
 Opinions
 People’s Board | Stanford students speak out against University reforms
 Vol. 260 Editorial Board, Zora Ilunga-Reed, Andy Huynh, Ben Lees, Aya Aziz and Zhenwei Gao
   •  
 Nov. 29, 2021
 Opinions
 Editorial board’s picks for ASSU Executive and Undergraduate Senate seats
 Vol. 259 Editorial Board
   •  
 April 28, 2021
 Opinions
 Editorial Board: Stanford needs to better serve the disability community
 Vol. 259 Editorial Board
   •  
 April 15, 2021
 Editorial Board: Students deserve transparency and accountability from the ASSU and the University
 Vol. 259 Editorial Board
   •  
 Feb. 21, 2021
 Opinions
 The new SHARE Office needs to be reformed and expanded
 Vol. 258 Editorial Board
   •  
 Jan. 17, 2021
 Opinions
 It’s time for Stanford to separate itself from Hoover
 Vol. 258 Editorial Board
   •  
 Nov. 23, 2020
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Editorial Board - The Stanford Daily
https://stanforddaily.com/category/opinions/edit-board/
https://www.springer.com/gp/authors-editors/editors/editorial-boards
Editorial Boards
2023-01-01
None
<div><div><p>Editors are ultimately accountable for the quality of their journal’s content. Editors are responsible for identifying important ‘hot topics’, sourcing high quality manuscripts, handling day-to-day paperwork, and organizing the flow of manuscripts (i.e. from author to referees and back and finally to the publisher).</p>
<p>The two most important attributes of a good editor are (1) having a detailed knowledge of the subject area and (2) being organized. Depending on the size of the journal, the number of editors can range from one or two people to many more.</p>
<p>Common roles and responsibilities of journal editors include: </p>
<div>
 
 
 <p>The most senior editor who has overall responsibility for the journal.</p>
 
</div>
<div>
 
 
 <p>A managing editor who commissions articles; coordinates peer review; liaises with authors, reviewers and board members; writes short editorials, news and research highlights, and carries out heavy developmental/technical editing of manuscripts.</p>
 
</div>
<div>
 
 
 <p>An editor responsible for lighter copyediting of manuscripts.</p>
 
</div>
<div>
 
 
 <p>Responsible for the online content.</p>
 
</div>
<p>In reality, many of these roles have overlapping responsibilities, especially in small journals where one person may be responsible for running the entire journal.</p>
<p>If there are other editors, expect to have regular interaction with them as you are working with them as a team. It is important to have people who you trust to carry out whatever is required to get the papers peer reviewed, edited and published with consistent levels of quality and timekeeping. Some editors may be specialists who only deal with certain journal topics; some may manage specific regions of the world and others may only handle certain types of articles.</p></div>||||I||||skip to context
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 Editorial Boards

 The editorial board (sometimes known as an advisory board) typically consists of a group of prominent people in the journal’s field. Having an editorial board is very important: they act as ambassadors for journals. To some extent the quality of a journal is judged by the members and academic credentials of its editorial board.

 Objectives of the editorial board

 Aside from providing prestige, the role of the editorial board is to advise and support the editor. Functions may include:

 * Identifying new topics for commissions, special editions and advising on direction for the journal—giving feedback on past issues and making suggestions for both subject matter and potential authors
 * Provide content by writing occasional editorials and other short articles
 * Approaching potential contributors
 * Peer review; also help to identify peer reviewers and provide second opinions on papers (i.e. where there is a conflict between reviewers)
 * Identify appropriate conferences for editors to attend
 * Endorse the journal to authors, readers and subscribers and encourage colleagues to submit their best work.

 Recruiting board members

 Editorial board members must be peers whose judgement is highly regarded within the journal’s main discipline; or their decisions may not be regarded as valid. Publication number and academic aptitude are the top factors for editorial board membership.

 Identifying potential candidates

 Potential candidates might be recruited from authors or peer reviewers that have worked for your journal or from recommendations by other board members.

 When recruiting potential board members, it is useful to provide them with a brief description of the role, outlining the responsibilities, and clearly stating that this is a voluntary position with no remuneration related to the post.

 A good working relationship is needed between the editorial board and the journal. The board works for the journal. It is worthwhile nominating people to the board for a period of time, which is renewable depending upon performance. A term of office of three years is fairly normal for many journals. You should maintain an up-to-date list of board members, including their particular areas of expertise, and keep notes on how useful they have been in the past.

 Internationalizing your board

 The size of editorial boards varies across journals and between disciplines and there is no perfect number, but what is particularly important is to globalize your editorial board as much as possible to promote the journal across multiple regions, including developing countries.

 Editorial staff

 Editors are ultimately accountable for the quality of their journal’s content. Editors are responsible for identifying important ‘hot topics’, sourcing high quality manuscripts, handling day-to-day paperwork, and organizing the flow of manuscripts (i.e. from author to referees and back and finally to the publisher).

 The two most important attributes of a good editor are (1) having a detailed knowledge of the subject area and (2) being organized. Depending on the size of the journal, the number of editors can range from one or two people to many more.

 Common roles and responsibilities of journal editors include:

 Editor-in-Chief

 The most senior editor who has overall responsibility for the journal.

 Associate editor

 A managing editor who commissions articles; coordinates peer review; liaises with authors, reviewers and board members; writes short editorials, news and research highlights, and carries out heavy developmental/technical editing of manuscripts.

 Manuscript editor

 An editor responsible for lighter copyediting of manuscripts.

 Web editor

 Responsible for the online content.

 In reality, many of these roles have overlapping responsibilities, especially in small journals where one person may be responsible for running the entire journal.

 If there are other editors, expect to have regular interaction with them as you are working with them as a team. It is important to have people who you trust to carry out whatever is required to get the papers peer reviewed, edited and published with consistent levels of quality and timekeeping. Some editors may be specialists who only deal with certain journal topics; some may manage specific regions of the world and others may only handle certain types of articles.

 Editorial board meetings

 Editorial board meetings are useful opportunities to meet with some or all of the editorial board members to brief them on issues, take questions and also gain ideas for policies and upcoming journal editions. They can be done face to face, or via telephone or video conferencing.

 Where board meetings are not possible, try to arrange to meet with board members on an individual basis at conferences or other events. Meeting board members is a key way of networking and building and strengthening the relationship with your editorial board.

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Editors are ultimately accountable for the quality of their journal’s content. Editors are responsible for identifying important ‘hot topics’, sourcing high quality manuscripts, handling day-to-day paperwork, and organizing the flow of manuscripts (i.e. from author to referees and back and finally to the publisher).
The two most important attributes of a good editor are (1) having a detailed knowledge of the subject area and (2) being organized. Depending on the size of the journal, the number of editors can range from one or two people to many more.
Common roles and responsibilities of journal editors include: 
 
 
 The most senior editor who has overall responsibility for the journal.
 
 
 
 A managing editor who commissions articles; coordinates peer review; liaises with authors, reviewers and board members; writes short editorials, news and research highlights, and carries out heavy developmental/technical editing of manuscripts.
 
 
 
 An editor responsible for lighter copyediting of manuscripts.
 
 
 
 Responsible for the online content.
 
In reality, many of these roles have overlapping responsibilities, especially in small journals where one person may be responsible for running the entire journal.
If there are other editors, expect to have regular interaction with them as you are working with them as a team. It is important to have people who you trust to carry out whatever is required to get the papers peer reviewed, edited and published with consistent levels of quality and timekeeping. Some editors may be specialists who only deal with certain journal topics; some may manage specific regions of the world and others may only handle certain types of articles.
Editorial Boards
https://www.springer.com/gp/authors-editors/editors/editorial-boards
https://www.elsevier.com/editors/editorial-boards
Editorial Boards
2019-05-06
None
<div><div>
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <div>
 <p>Most journals operate under the guidance of an Editorial Board, providing expert advice on content, attracting new authors and encouraging submissions.</p><p>The Editorial Board, or (Editorial) Advisory Board, is a team of experts in the journal's field. Editorial Board members:</p><ul><li>Review submitted manuscripts.</li><li>Advise on journal policy and scope.</li><li>Identify topics for special issues, which they may guest edit.</li><li>Attract new authors and submissions.</li><li>Promote the journal to their colleagues and peers.</li><li>Assist the editor(s) in decision making over issues such as plagiarism claims and submissions where reviewers can’t agree on a decision.</li></ul>
 </div><div>
 <h2>Selecting Editorial Board members</h2><p>Editorial Board members are selected by the journal’s editor(s), with input from the publisher. Editorial Boards generally undergo a complete revision every two or three years, with members joining, stepping down or continuing for another term. Changes also occur in the interim, for example if a member resigns.</p><p>A journal’s Editorial Board can affect its quality, so editors should consider the following:</p><ul><li>The location of Board members should represent the reach of the journal</li><li>Board members' expertise should represent the journal's scope</li><li>Representatives should be appointed from key research institutes</li><li>Former guest editors of special issues, and authors of key reviews, and top reviewers may be suitable</li><li>Existing Board members may have suggestions for new members</li></ul><p>If you’re interested in joining a journal’s Editorial Board, <a href="https://www.elsevier.com/catalog?producttype=journals">locate the journal</a>, and contact the editor via the Editorial Board listings page. Please do be aware, however, that Board members are normally invited directly by editors based on the above criteria; it is unusual for requests to join a Board to be accepted.</p><h2>Tools and resources</h2><h3>Researcher Academy modules</h3><ul><li><a href="https://researcheracademy.elsevier.com/publication-process/fundamentals-publishing/gender-bias-academic-publishing">Gender Bias in academic publishing</a></li></ul><h3>Editors' Update articles</h3><ul><li><a href="https://www.elsevier.com/connect/editors-update/what-makes-a-strong-editorial-board">What makes a strong editorial board?</a></li><li><a href="https://www.elsevier.com/connect/editors-update/why-and-how-we-need-to-kick-the-habit-exploring-unconscious-bias">Why (and how) we need to kick the habit: exploring unconscious bias</a></li><li><a href="https://www.elsevier.com/connect/archive/editors-update/The-importance-of-a-gender-balanced-editorial-team">The importance of a gender-balanced editorial team</a></li><li><a href="https://www.elsevier.com/connect/editors-update/increasing-gender-diversity-on-a-journal-a-case-study">Increasing (gender) diversity on a journal: a case study</a></li><li><a href="https://www.elsevier.com/connect/editors-update/healthy-habits-working-towards-inclusive-editorial-boards">Healthy habits: working towards inclusive Editorial Boards</a></li></ul>
 </div> 
 
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 1. Home
 2. Editors
 3. Editorial boards

 Editorial Boards

 Most journals operate under the guidance of an Editorial Board, providing expert advice on content, attracting new authors and encouraging submissions.

 The Editorial Board, or (Editorial) Advisory Board, is a team of experts in the journal's field. Editorial Board members:

 * Review submitted manuscripts.
 * Advise on journal policy and scope.
 * Identify topics for special issues, which they may guest edit.
 * Attract new authors and submissions.
 * Promote the journal to their colleagues and peers.
 * Assist the editor(s) in decision making over issues such as plagiarism claims and submissions where reviewers can’t agree on a decision.

 Selecting Editorial Board members

 Editorial Board members are selected by the journal’s editor(s), with input from the publisher. Editorial Boards generally undergo a complete revision every two or three years, with members joining, stepping down or continuing for another term. Changes also occur in the interim, for example if a member resigns.

 A journal’s Editorial Board can affect its quality, so editors should consider the following:

 * The location of Board members should represent the reach of the journal
 * Board members' expertise should represent the journal's scope
 * Representatives should be appointed from key research institutes
 * Former guest editors of special issues, and authors of key reviews, and top reviewers may be suitable
 * Existing Board members may have suggestions for new members

 If you’re interested in joining a journal’s Editorial Board, locate the journal, and contact the editor via the Editorial Board listings page. Please do be aware, however, that Board members are normally invited directly by editors based on the above criteria; it is unusual for requests to join a Board to be accepted.

 Tools and resources

 Researcher Academy modules

 * Gender Bias in academic publishing

 Editors' Update articles

 * What makes a strong editorial board?
 * Why (and how) we need to kick the habit: exploring unconscious bias
 * The importance of a gender-balanced editorial team
 * Increasing (gender) diversity on a journal: a case study
 * Healthy habits: working towards inclusive Editorial Boards

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Most journals operate under the guidance of an Editorial Board, providing expert advice on content, attracting new authors and encouraging submissions. The Editorial Board, or (Editorial) Advisory Board, is a team of experts in the journal's field. Editorial Board members:  Review submitted manuscripts. Advise on journal policy and scope. Identify topics for special issues, which they may guest edit. Attract new authors and submissions. Promote the journal to their colleagues and peers. Assist the editor(s) in decision making over issues such as plagiarism claims and submissions where reviewers can’t agree on a decision. 
  
 Selecting Editorial Board members Editorial Board members are selected by the journal’s editor(s), with input from the publisher. Editorial Boards generally undergo a complete revision every two or three years, with members joining, stepping down or continuing for another term. Changes also occur in the interim, for example if a member resigns. A journal’s Editorial Board can affect its quality, so editors should consider the following:  The location of Board members should represent the reach of the journal Board members' expertise should represent the journal's scope Representatives should be appointed from key research institutes Former guest editors of special issues, and authors of key reviews, and top reviewers may be suitable Existing Board members may have suggestions for new members  If you’re interested in joining a journal’s Editorial Board, locate the journal, and contact the editor via the Editorial Board listings page. Please do be aware, however, that Board members are normally invited directly by editors based on the above criteria; it is unusual for requests to join a Board to be accepted. Tools and resources Researcher Academy modules   Gender Bias in academic publishing   Editors' Update articles   What makes a strong editorial board?   Why (and how) we need to kick the habit: exploring unconscious bias   The importance of a gender-balanced editorial team   Increasing (gender) diversity on a journal: a case study   Healthy habits: working towards inclusive Editorial Boards
Editorial Boards
https://www.elsevier.com/editors/editorial-boards
https://editorresources.taylorandfrancis.com/the-editors-role/managing-editorial-boards/
Managing your editorial board - Editor Resources
2018-09-11
None
<div><div>
	<div><p></p><div><h3>Building your editorial board</h3><p>Editorial boards come in a variety of shapes and sizes, but most journals will have one. They are a key factor in creating a sustainable and successful publication.</p>
<p>As editor-in-chief it’s up to you to build and manage an effective editorial board. This post will help you build an editorial board that truly works for your journal.</p>
</div></div>
	<div><div><h3>Engaging the editorial board</h3><p>You’ve created your editorial board and they’re coming up with some great ideas to progress your journal. But that’s just the beginning. As editor-in-chief you need to continually review the effectiveness of the board and tackle any areas that need improvement.</p>
<p>Find out the two key ways to keep your board engaged.</p>
</div><p></p></div>
	<div><p></p><div><h3>Getting the most out of your editorial board meeting</h3><p>Editorial board meetings provide a chance for board members to make key decisions and discuss the journal’s progress. Getting everyone together is a great opportunity to spot areas for development and share ideas, but it’s up to the editor-in-chief to make the most of the opportunity.</p>
<p>Whether you’re new to the role or struggling to make editorial board meetings work for you, this post is for you. We’ll take you through the essentials for running an effective board meeting as well as sharing some top tips from fellow editors.</p>
</div></div>
	<div><div><h3>Increasing diversity on your editorial board</h3><p>Improving diversity on editorial boards is a pressing concern in the academic community. The direction and success of a journal can live or die by its editorial board. And for an editorial board to be effective, it needs to be as diverse as the research community it represents.</p>
<p>Yana Suchy, Editor-in-Chief of <a href="https://tandfonline.com/toc/ntcn20/current"><em>The Clinical Neuropsychologist</em></a> faced this challenge with her own board. Here she reveals the steps she took to increase diversity as well as the results she’s seen.</p>
</div><p></p></div>
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 * Editor Resources
 * 
 * The editor’s role
 * 
 * Managing your editorial board

 Managing your editorial board

 Building your editorial board

 Editorial boards come in a variety of shapes and sizes, but most journals will have one. They are a key factor in creating a sustainable and successful publication.

 As editor-in-chief it’s up to you to build and manage an effective editorial board. This post will help you build an editorial board that truly works for your journal.

 Read more

 Engaging the editorial board

 You’ve created your editorial board and they’re coming up with some great ideas to progress your journal. But that’s just the beginning. As editor-in-chief you need to continually review the effectiveness of the board and tackle any areas that need improvement.

 Find out the two key ways to keep your board engaged.

 Read more

 Getting the most out of your editorial board meeting

 Editorial board meetings provide a chance for board members to make key decisions and discuss the journal’s progress. Getting everyone together is a great opportunity to spot areas for development and share ideas, but it’s up to the editor-in-chief to make the most of the opportunity.

 Whether you’re new to the role or struggling to make editorial board meetings work for you, this post is for you. We’ll take you through the essentials for running an effective board meeting as well as sharing some top tips from fellow editors.

 Read more

 Increasing diversity on your editorial board

 Improving diversity on editorial boards is a pressing concern in the academic community. The direction and success of a journal can live or die by its editorial board. And for an editorial board to be effective, it needs to be as diverse as the research community it represents.

 Yana Suchy, Editor-in-Chief of The Clinical Neuropsychologist faced this challenge with her own board. Here she reveals the steps she took to increase diversity as well as the results she’s seen.

 Read more

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Building your editorial board Editorial boards come in a variety of shapes and sizes, but most journals will have one. They are a key factor in creating a sustainable and successful publication.
As editor-in-chief it’s up to you to build and manage an effective editorial board. This post will help you build an editorial board that truly works for your journal.
 
	  Engaging the editorial board You’ve created your editorial board and they’re coming up with some great ideas to progress your journal. But that’s just the beginning. As editor-in-chief you need to continually review the effectiveness of the board and tackle any areas that need improvement.
Find out the two key ways to keep your board engaged.
   
	    Getting the most out of your editorial board meeting Editorial board meetings provide a chance for board members to make key decisions and discuss the journal’s progress. Getting everyone together is a great opportunity to spot areas for development and share ideas, but it’s up to the editor-in-chief to make the most of the opportunity.
Whether you’re new to the role or struggling to make editorial board meetings work for you, this post is for you. We’ll take you through the essentials for running an effective board meeting as well as sharing some top tips from fellow editors.
 
	  Increasing diversity on your editorial board Improving diversity on editorial boards is a pressing concern in the academic community. The direction and success of a journal can live or die by its editorial board. And for an editorial board to be effective, it needs to be as diverse as the research community it represents.
Yana Suchy, Editor-in-Chief of  The Clinical Neuropsychologist  faced this challenge with her own board. Here she reveals the steps she took to increase diversity as well as the results she’s seen.
Managing your editorial board - Editor Resources
https://editorresources.taylorandfrancis.com/the-editors-role/managing-editorial-boards/