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https://www.britannica.com/biography/Theodore-Roosevelt
Theodore Roosevelt | Biography, Facts, Presidency, National Parks, & Accomplishments
2024-04-23
John Milton Cooper
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<dt>Bynames: </dt>
<dd>Teddy Roosevelt and TR</dd>
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	</p><div><div><h3><p>When was Theodore Roosevelt born and when did he die?<em></em></p></h3></div><div><h3><p>Where did Theodore Roosevelt get his education?<em></em></p></h3></div><div><h3><p>How did Theodore Roosevelt become famous?<em></em></p></h3></div><div><h3><p>What were Theodore Roosevelt’s accomplishments?<em></em></p></h3></div></div></div><section><p><strong>Theodore Roosevelt</strong> (born October 27, 1858, New York, New York, U.S.—died January 6, 1919, Oyster Bay, New York) was the 26th <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/president-government-official">president</a> of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States">United States</a> (1901–09) and a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/writing">writer</a>, naturalist, and soldier. He expanded the powers of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/presidency-of-the-United-States-of-America">presidency</a> and of the federal government in support of the public interest in conflicts between big business and labour and steered the nation toward an active role in world politics, particularly in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Europe">Europe</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Asia">Asia</a>. He won the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nobel-Prize">Nobel Prize</a> for Peace in 1906 for mediating an end to the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Russo-Japanese-War">Russo-Japanese War</a> (1904–05), and he secured the route and began construction of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Panama-Canal">Panama Canal</a> (1904–14).</p><p><em><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Eleanor-Roosevelt-on-Franklin-Delano-Roosevelt-2215548">(Read Eleanor Roosevelt’s Britannica essay on Franklin Roosevelt.)</a></em></p></section> <section> <h2>The early years</h2> <p>Roosevelt was the second of four children born into a socially prominent family of Dutch and English ancestry; his father, Theodore Roosevelt, Sr., was a noted businessman and philanthropist, and his mother, Martha Bulloch of Georgia, came from a wealthy, slave-owning plantation family. In frail health as a boy, Roosevelt was educated by private tutors. From boyhood he displayed intense, wide-ranging <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/intellectual">intellectual</a> curiosity. He graduated from <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Harvard-University">Harvard College</a>, where he was elected to <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Phi-Beta-Kappa">Phi Beta Kappa</a>, in 1880. He then studied briefly at <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Columbia-University">Columbia Law School</a> but soon turned to writing and politics as a career. In 1880 he married Alice Hathaway Lee, by whom he had one daughter, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alice-Roosevelt-Longworth">Alice</a>. After his first wife’s death, in 1886 he married Edith Kermit Carow (<a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Edith-Roosevelt">Edith Roosevelt</a>), with whom he lived for the rest of his life at Sagamore Hill, an estate near <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Oyster-Bay">Oyster Bay</a>, Long Island, New York. They had five children: Theodore, Jr., Kermit, Ethel, Archibald, and Quentin.</p> <p>As a child, Roosevelt had suffered from severe <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/asthma">asthma</a>, and weak eyesight plagued him throughout his life. By dint of a program of physical exertion, he developed a strong physique and a lifelong love of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/vigorous">vigorous</a> activity. He adopted “the strenuous life,” as he entitled his 1901 book, as his ideal, both as an outdoorsman and as a politician.</p><a href="https://www.britannica.com/quiz/famous-figures-in-american-military-history-quiz">
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</a> <p>Elected as a Republican to the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/New-York-state">New York</a> State Assembly at 23, Roosevelt quickly made a name for himself as a foe of corrupt machine politics. In 1884, overcome by grief by the deaths of both his mother and his wife on the same day, he left politics to spend two years on his cattle ranch in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/badland">badlands</a> of the Dakota Territory, where he became increasingly concerned about environmental damage to the West and its wildlife. Nonetheless, he did participate as a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/delegate">delegate</a> to the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Republican-National-Convention">Republican National Convention</a> in 1884. His attempt to reenter public life in 1886 was unsuccessful; he was defeated in a bid to become mayor of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/New-York-City">New York City</a>. Roosevelt remained active in politics and again battled corruption as a member of the U.S. Civil Service Commission (1889–95) and as president of the New York City Board of Police Commissioners. Appointed assistant secretary of the navy by President <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-McKinley">William McKinley</a>, he vociferously championed a bigger navy and agitated for war with <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Spain">Spain</a>. When war was declared in 1898, he organized the 1st Volunteer Cavalry, known as the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rough-Rider-United-States-cavalry">Rough Riders</a>, who were sent to fight in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Cuba">Cuba</a>. Roosevelt was a brave and well-publicized <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/armed-force">military</a> leader. The charge of the Rough Riders (on foot) up Kettle Hill during the Battle of Santiago made him the biggest national hero to come out of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Spanish-American-War">Spanish-American War</a>.</p> <p>On his return, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Republican-Party">Republican</a> bosses in New York tapped Roosevelt to run for governor, despite their doubts about his political loyalty. Elected in 1898, he became an energetic reformer, removing corrupt officials and enacting legislation to regulate corporations and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/civil-service">civil service</a>. His actions irked the party’s bosses so much that they conspired to get rid of him by drafting him for the Republican vice presidential nomination in 1900, assuming that his would be a largely ceremonial role.</p><div>
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</div> <p>Elected with McKinley, Roosevelt chafed at his powerless office until September 14, 1901, when McKinley died after being shot by an assassin and he became president. Six weeks short of his 43rd birthday, Roosevelt was the youngest person ever to enter the presidency. Although he promised <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/continuity">continuity</a> with McKinley’s policies, he transformed the public image of the office at once. He renamed the executive mansion the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/White-House-Washington-DC">White House</a> and threw open its doors to entertain cowboys, prizefighters, explorers, writers, and artists. His refusal to shoot a bear cub on a 1902 hunting trip inspired a toy maker to name a stuffed bear after him, and the teddy bear fad soon swept the nation. His young children romped on the White House lawn, and the marriage of his daughter Alice in 1905 to Representative Nicholas Longworth of Ohio became the biggest social event of the decade.</p> <p>From what he called the presidency’s “bully pulpit,” Roosevelt gave speeches aimed at raising public <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/consciousness">consciousness</a> about the nation’s role in world politics, the need to control the trusts that dominated the economy, the regulation of railroads, and the impact of political corruption. He appointed young, college-educated men to administrative positions. But active as he was, he was cautious in his approach to domestic affairs. Roosevelt recognized that he had become president by accident, and he wanted above all to be elected in 1904. Likewise, as sensitive as he was to popular discontent about big business and political machines, he knew that <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/conservative">conservative</a> Republicans who were bitterly opposed to all reforms controlled both houses of Congress. Roosevelt focused his activities on foreign affairs and used his executive power to address problems of business and labour and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/conservation-ecology">conservation</a> of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/natural-resource">natural resources</a>.</p> <p>Above all, Roosevelt relished the power of the office and viewed the presidency as an outlet for his unbounded energy. He was a proud and <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/fervent">fervent</a> nationalist who willingly bucked the passive Jeffersonian tradition of fearing the rise of a strong chief executive and a powerful central government. “I believe in a strong executive; I believe in power,” he wrote to British historian Sir George Otto Trevelyan. “While President, I have <em>been</em> President, emphatically; I have used every ounce of power there was in the office.…I do not believe that any President ever had as thoroughly good a time as I have had, or has ever enjoyed himself as much.”</p> </section> </div></div>||||I|||| Search Britannica Click here to search
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 Theodore Roosevelt
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 Home Politics, Law & Government World Leaders Presidents & Heads of States

 Theodore Roosevelt

 president of United States
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 Also known as: TR, Teddy Roosevelt
 Written by
 John Milton Cooper
 Professor of History, University of Wisconsin, Madison. Author of The Warrior and the Priest and others.
 John Milton Cooper
 Fact-checked by
 The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
 Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.
 The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
 Last Updated: Apr 23, 2024 • Article History
 Table of Contents
 Theodore Roosevelt
 See all media
 Bynames: Teddy Roosevelt and TR (Show more)
 Born: October 27, 1858, New York, New York, U.S. (Show more)
 Died: January 6, 1919, Oyster Bay, New York (aged 60) (Show more)
 Title / Office: presidency of the United States of America (1901-1909), United States vice president of the United States of America (1901-1901), United States governor (1899-1901), New York (Show more)
 Founder: Rough Rider (Show more)
 Political Affiliation: Bull Moose Party Republican Party (Show more)
 On the Web: University of Virginia - Transforming American Democracy: TR and The Bull Moose Campaign of 1912 (Apr. 05, 2024) (Show more)
 See all related content →

 Recent News

 Apr. 23, 2024, 6:14 PM ET (AP)
 Federal money eyed for Theodore Roosevelt Presidential Library in North Dakota
 Apr. 12, 2024, 5:47 AM ET (AP)
 US, Japan and South Korea hold drills in disputed sea as Biden hosts leaders of Japan, Philippines
 Top Questions

 When was Theodore Roosevelt born and when did he die?

 Teddy Roosevelt was born on October 27, 1858. He died on January 6, 1919, at age 60.

 Where did Theodore Roosevelt get his education?

 Teddy Roosevelt graduated from Harvard College and briefly studied at Columbia Law School, though he did not finish.

 How did Theodore Roosevelt become famous?

 Though he had already been a public servant for nearly two decades, Theodore Roosevelt became a national hero for his role in the Spanish-American War, especially in leading the Rough Riders regiment. He was president of the United States from 1901 to 1909.

 What were Theodore Roosevelt’s accomplishments?

 Among Theodore Roosevelt’s many achievements, he is perhaps best known for expanding the powers of the presidency, the federal government, and American foreign policy. He is also known for “trust-busting” (that is, breaking up monopolies), mediating an end to the Russo-Japanese War, and initiating the construction of the Panama Canal.

 Theodore Roosevelt
 Learn about Theodore Roosevelt's progressive Square Deal and big-stick approach to foreign policy. (more)
 See all videos for this article

 Theodore Roosevelt presidential timeline
 Key events in the life of Theodore Roosevelt. (more)

 Theodore Roosevelt (born October 27, 1858, New York, New York, U.S.—died January 6, 1919, Oyster Bay, New York) was the 26th president of the United States (1901–09) and a writer, naturalist, and soldier. He expanded the powers of the presidency and of the federal government in support of the public interest in conflicts between big business and labour and steered the nation toward an active role in world politics, particularly in Europe and Asia. He won the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1906 for mediating an end to the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05), and he secured the route and began construction of the Panama Canal (1904–14).

 (Read Eleanor Roosevelt’s Britannica essay on Franklin Roosevelt.)

 The early years

 Roosevelt was the second of four children born into a socially prominent family of Dutch and English ancestry; his father, Theodore Roosevelt, Sr., was a noted businessman and philanthropist, and his mother, Martha Bulloch of Georgia, came from a wealthy, slave-owning plantation family. In frail health as a boy, Roosevelt was educated by private tutors. From boyhood he displayed intense, wide-ranging intellectual curiosity. He graduated from Harvard College, where he was elected to Phi Beta Kappa, in 1880. He then studied briefly at Columbia Law School but soon turned to writing and politics as a career. In 1880 he married Alice Hathaway Lee, by whom he had one daughter, Alice. After his first wife’s death, in 1886 he married Edith Kermit Carow (Edith Roosevelt), with whom he lived for the rest of his life at Sagamore Hill, an estate near Oyster Bay, Long Island, New York. They had five children: Theodore, Jr., Kermit, Ethel, Archibald, and Quentin.

 Theodore Roosevelt
 Theodore Roosevelt as a young man. (more)

 As a child, Roosevelt had suffered from severe asthma, and weak eyesight plagued him throughout his life. By dint of a program of physical exertion, he developed a strong physique and a lifelong love of vigorous activity. He adopted “the strenuous life,” as he entitled his 1901 book, as his ideal, both as an outdoorsman and as a politician.

 Britannica Quiz
 Famous Figures in American Military History Quiz

 Theodore Roosevelt and the Rough Riders
 Theodore Roosevelt (centre left with glasses) and the Rough Riders, July 1898. (more)

 Theodore Roosevelt on horseback
 Theodore Roosevelt riding a horse. (more)

 Elected as a Republican to the New York State Assembly at 23, Roosevelt quickly made a name for himself as a foe of corrupt machine politics. In 1884, overcome by grief by the deaths of both his mother and his wife on the same day, he left politics to spend two years on his cattle ranch in the badlands of the Dakota Territory, where he became increasingly concerned about environmental damage to the West and its wildlife. Nonetheless, he did participate as a delegate to the Republican National Convention in 1884. His attempt to reenter public life in 1886 was unsuccessful; he was defeated in a bid to become mayor of New York City. Roosevelt remained active in politics and again battled corruption as a member of the U.S. Civil Service Commission (1889–95) and as president of the New York City Board of Police Commissioners. Appointed assistant secretary of the navy by President William McKinley, he vociferously championed a bigger navy and agitated for war with Spain. When war was declared in 1898, he organized the 1st Volunteer Cavalry, known as the Rough Riders, who were sent to fight in Cuba. Roosevelt was a brave and well-publicized military leader. The charge of the Rough Riders (on foot) up Kettle Hill during the Battle of Santiago made him the biggest national hero to come out of the Spanish-American War.

 On his return, the Republican bosses in New York tapped Roosevelt to run for governor, despite their doubts about his political loyalty. Elected in 1898, he became an energetic reformer, removing corrupt officials and enacting legislation to regulate corporations and the civil service. His actions irked the party’s bosses so much that they conspired to get rid of him by drafting him for the Republican vice presidential nomination in 1900, assuming that his would be a largely ceremonial role.

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 Theodore Roosevelt campaign button
 Campaign button for Theodore Roosevelt, c. 1900. (more)

 Elected with McKinley, Roosevelt chafed at his powerless office until September 14, 1901, when McKinley died after being shot by an assassin and he became president. Six weeks short of his 43rd birthday, Roosevelt was the youngest person ever to enter the presidency. Although he promised continuity with McKinley’s policies, he transformed the public image of the office at once. He renamed the executive mansion the White House and threw open its doors to entertain cowboys, prizefighters, explorers, writers, and artists. His refusal to shoot a bear cub on a 1902 hunting trip inspired a toy maker to name a stuffed bear after him, and the teddy bear fad soon swept the nation. His young children romped on the White House lawn, and the marriage of his daughter Alice in 1905 to Representative Nicholas Longworth of Ohio became the biggest social event of the decade.

 From what he called the presidency’s “bully pulpit,” Roosevelt gave speeches aimed at raising public consciousness about the nation’s role in world politics, the need to control the trusts that dominated the economy, the regulation of railroads, and the impact of political corruption. He appointed young, college-educated men to administrative positions. But active as he was, he was cautious in his approach to domestic affairs. Roosevelt recognized that he had become president by accident, and he wanted above all to be elected in 1904. Likewise, as sensitive as he was to popular discontent about big business and political machines, he knew that conservative Republicans who were bitterly opposed to all reforms controlled both houses of Congress. Roosevelt focused his activities on foreign affairs and used his executive power to address problems of business and labour and the conservation of natural resources.

 Above all, Roosevelt relished the power of the office and viewed the presidency as an outlet for his unbounded energy. He was a proud and fervent nationalist who willingly bucked the passive Jeffersonian tradition of fearing the rise of a strong chief executive and a powerful central government. “I believe in a strong executive; I believe in power,” he wrote to British historian Sir George Otto Trevelyan. “While President, I have been President, emphatically; I have used every ounce of power there was in the office.…I do not believe that any President ever had as thoroughly good a time as I have had, or has ever enjoyed himself as much.”

Bynames: 
Teddy Roosevelt and TR
 
	Recent News
 
	Top Questions
	    When was Theodore Roosevelt born and when did he die?       Where did Theodore Roosevelt get his education?       How did Theodore Roosevelt become famous?       What were Theodore Roosevelt’s accomplishments?         Theodore Roosevelt (born October 27, 1858, New York, New York, U.S.—died January 6, 1919, Oyster Bay, New York) was the 26th president of the United States (1901–09) and a writer, naturalist, and soldier. He expanded the powers of the presidency and of the federal government in support of the public interest in conflicts between big business and labour and steered the nation toward an active role in world politics, particularly in Europe and Asia. He won the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1906 for mediating an end to the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05), and he secured the route and began construction of the Panama Canal (1904–14).   (Read Eleanor Roosevelt’s Britannica essay on Franklin Roosevelt.)     The early years Roosevelt was the second of four children born into a socially prominent family of Dutch and English ancestry; his father, Theodore Roosevelt, Sr., was a noted businessman and philanthropist, and his mother, Martha Bulloch of Georgia, came from a wealthy, slave-owning plantation family. In frail health as a boy, Roosevelt was educated by private tutors. From boyhood he displayed intense, wide-ranging intellectual curiosity. He graduated from Harvard College, where he was elected to Phi Beta Kappa, in 1880. He then studied briefly at Columbia Law School but soon turned to writing and politics as a career. In 1880 he married Alice Hathaway Lee, by whom he had one daughter, Alice. After his first wife’s death, in 1886 he married Edith Kermit Carow (Edith Roosevelt), with whom he lived for the rest of his life at Sagamore Hill, an estate near Oyster Bay, Long Island, New York. They had five children: Theodore, Jr., Kermit, Ethel, Archibald, and Quentin. As a child, Roosevelt had suffered from severe asthma, and weak eyesight plagued him throughout his life. By dint of a program of physical exertion, he developed a strong physique and a lifelong love of vigorous activity. He adopted “the strenuous life,” as he entitled his 1901 book, as his ideal, both as an outdoorsman and as a politician. 
Britannica Quiz
Famous Figures in American Military History Quiz
 Elected as a Republican to the New York State Assembly at 23, Roosevelt quickly made a name for himself as a foe of corrupt machine politics. In 1884, overcome by grief by the deaths of both his mother and his wife on the same day, he left politics to spend two years on his cattle ranch in the badlands of the Dakota Territory, where he became increasingly concerned about environmental damage to the West and its wildlife. Nonetheless, he did participate as a delegate to the Republican National Convention in 1884. His attempt to reenter public life in 1886 was unsuccessful; he was defeated in a bid to become mayor of New York City. Roosevelt remained active in politics and again battled corruption as a member of the U.S. Civil Service Commission (1889–95) and as president of the New York City Board of Police Commissioners. Appointed assistant secretary of the navy by President William McKinley, he vociferously championed a bigger navy and agitated for war with Spain. When war was declared in 1898, he organized the 1st Volunteer Cavalry, known as the Rough Riders, who were sent to fight in Cuba. Roosevelt was a brave and well-publicized military leader. The charge of the Rough Riders (on foot) up Kettle Hill during the Battle of Santiago made him the biggest national hero to come out of the Spanish-American War. On his return, the Republican bosses in New York tapped Roosevelt to run for governor, despite their doubts about his political loyalty. Elected in 1898, he became an energetic reformer, removing corrupt officials and enacting legislation to regulate corporations and the civil service. His actions irked the party’s bosses so much that they conspired to get rid of him by drafting him for the Republican vice presidential nomination in 1900, assuming that his would be a largely ceremonial role. 
 
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 Elected with McKinley, Roosevelt chafed at his powerless office until September 14, 1901, when McKinley died after being shot by an assassin and he became president. Six weeks short of his 43rd birthday, Roosevelt was the youngest person ever to enter the presidency. Although he promised continuity with McKinley’s policies, he transformed the public image of the office at once. He renamed the executive mansion the White House and threw open its doors to entertain cowboys, prizefighters, explorers, writers, and artists. His refusal to shoot a bear cub on a 1902 hunting trip inspired a toy maker to name a stuffed bear after him, and the teddy bear fad soon swept the nation. His young children romped on the White House lawn, and the marriage of his daughter Alice in 1905 to Representative Nicholas Longworth of Ohio became the biggest social event of the decade. From what he called the presidency’s “bully pulpit,” Roosevelt gave speeches aimed at raising public consciousness about the nation’s role in world politics, the need to control the trusts that dominated the economy, the regulation of railroads, and the impact of political corruption. He appointed young, college-educated men to administrative positions. But active as he was, he was cautious in his approach to domestic affairs. Roosevelt recognized that he had become president by accident, and he wanted above all to be elected in 1904. Likewise, as sensitive as he was to popular discontent about big business and political machines, he knew that conservative Republicans who were bitterly opposed to all reforms controlled both houses of Congress. Roosevelt focused his activities on foreign affairs and used his executive power to address problems of business and labour and the conservation of natural resources. Above all, Roosevelt relished the power of the office and viewed the presidency as an outlet for his unbounded energy. He was a proud and fervent nationalist who willingly bucked the passive Jeffersonian tradition of fearing the rise of a strong chief executive and a powerful central government. “I believe in a strong executive; I believe in power,” he wrote to British historian Sir George Otto Trevelyan. “While President, I have been President, emphatically; I have used every ounce of power there was in the office.…I do not believe that any President ever had as thoroughly good a time as I have had, or has ever enjoyed himself as much.”
Theodore Roosevelt | Biography, Facts, Presidency, National Parks, & Accomplishments
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt
Theodore Roosevelt - Wikipedia
2001-09-19
Authority control
<div><div>
<table><tbody><tr><th><p>Theodore Roosevelt</p></th></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/File:President_Roosevelt_-_Pach_Bros_(cropped).jpg"></a><div><p>Portrait by <a href="/wiki/Pach_Bros.">Pach Bros.</a>, <abbr>c.</abbr> 1904</p></div></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><th>26th <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States">President of the United States</a></th></tr><tr><td><b>In office</b><br />September 14, 1901 – March 4, 1909</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States">Vice President</a></th><td><div>
<ul><li><i>None</i> (1901–1905)<sup><a href="#cite_note-1">[a]</a></sup></li>
<li><div><p><a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Fairbanks">Charles W. Fairbanks</a><br />(1905–1909)</p></div></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th>Preceded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/William_McKinley">William McKinley</a></td></tr><tr><th>Succeeded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft">William Howard Taft</a></td></tr><tr><th>25th <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States">Vice President of the United States</a></th></tr><tr><td><b>In office</b><br />March 4, 1901 – September 14, 1901</td></tr><tr><th>President</th><td>William McKinley</td></tr><tr><th>Preceded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/Garret_Hobart">Garret Hobart</a></td></tr><tr><th>Succeeded by</th><td>Charles W. Fairbanks</td></tr><tr><th>33rd <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_New_York">Governor of New York</a></th></tr><tr><td><b>In office</b><br />January 1, 1899 – December 31, 1900</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_of_New_York">Lieutenant</a></th><td><a href="/wiki/Timothy_L._Woodruff">Timothy L. Woodruff</a></td></tr><tr><th>Preceded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/Frank_S._Black">Frank S. Black</a></td></tr><tr><th>Succeeded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Barker_Odell_Jr.">Benjamin Barker Odell Jr.</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_the_Navy">Assistant Secretary of the Navy</a></th></tr><tr><td><b>In office</b><br />April 19, 1897 – May 10, 1898</td></tr><tr><th>President</th><td>William McKinley</td></tr><tr><th>Preceded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/William_McAdoo_(New_Jersey_politician)">William McAdoo</a></td></tr><tr><th>Succeeded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/Charles_Herbert_Allen">Charles Herbert Allen</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/New_York_City_Police_Commissioner">President of the New York City Board of Police Commissioners</a></th></tr><tr><td><b>In office</b><br />May 6, 1895 – April 19, 1897</td></tr><tr><th>Appointed by</th><td><a href="/wiki/William_Lafayette_Strong">William Lafayette Strong</a></td></tr><tr><th>Preceded by</th><td>James J. Martin</td></tr><tr><th>Succeeded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/Frank_Moss_(lawyer)">Frank Moss</a></td></tr><tr><th>Commissioner of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Civil_Service_Commission">United States Civil Service Commission</a></th></tr><tr><td><b>In office</b><br />May 7, 1889<sup><a href="#cite_note-2">[1]</a></sup> – May 6, 1895</td></tr><tr><th>Appointed by</th><td><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison">Benjamin Harrison</a></td></tr><tr><th>Preceded by</th><td>John H. Oberly<sup><a href="#cite_note-3">[2]</a></sup></td></tr><tr><th>Succeeded by</th><td>John B. Harlow<sup><a href="#cite_note-4">[3]</a></sup></td></tr><tr><th>Minority Leader of the <a href="/wiki/New_York_State_Assembly">New York State Assembly</a></th></tr><tr><td><b>In office</b><br />January 1, 1883 – December 31, 1883</td></tr><tr><th>Preceded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/Thomas_G._Alvord">Thomas G. Alvord</a></td></tr><tr><th>Succeeded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/Frank_Rice_(politician)">Frank Rice</a></td></tr><tr><th>Member of the <a href="/wiki/New_York_State_Assembly">New York State Assembly</a><br />from the 21st district</th></tr><tr><td><b>In office</b><br />January 1, 1882 – December 31, 1884</td></tr><tr><th>Preceded by</th><td>William J. Trimble</td></tr><tr><th>Succeeded by</th><td><a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Barnum">Henry A. Barnum</a></td></tr><tr><th>Personal details</th></tr><tr><th>Born</th><td><p>Theodore Roosevelt Jr.</p><br />October 27, 1858<br />New York City, U.S.</td></tr><tr><th>Died</th><td>January 6, 1919 (aged 60)<br /><a href="/wiki/Oyster_Bay,_New_York">Oyster Bay, New York</a>, U.S.</td></tr><tr><th>Resting place</th><td><a href="/wiki/Youngs_Memorial_Cemetery">Youngs Memorial Cemetery</a>, Oyster Bay</td></tr><tr><th>Political party</th><td><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)">Republican</a> (1880–1912, 1916–1919)</td></tr><tr><th>Other political<br />affiliations</th><td><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Party_(United_States,_1912)">Progressive "Bull Moose"</a> (1912–1916)</td></tr><tr><th>Spouses</th><td><div><ul><li><div><div><p><a href="/wiki/Alice_Hathaway_Lee_Roosevelt">Alice Lee</a></p></div>
 <p>​</p> <p>​</p><p>(<abbr>m.</abbr> ; died </p><p>)<wbr></wbr>​</p></div></li><li><div><div><p><a href="/wiki/Edith_Carow">Edith Carow</a><br /></p></div>
 <p>​</p> <p>​</p><p>(<abbr>m.</abbr></p><p>)<wbr></wbr>​</p></div></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Children</th><td><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Roosevelt_Longworth">Alice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Jr.">Theodore III</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kermit_Roosevelt">Kermit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethel_Roosevelt_Derby">Ethel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Roosevelt">Archibald</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quentin_Roosevelt">Quentin</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th>Parents</th><td><div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Sr.">Theodore Roosevelt Sr.</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Bulloch_Roosevelt">Martha Bulloch Roosevelt</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Relatives</th><td><a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_family">Roosevelt family</a></td></tr><tr><th>Education</th><td><div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_University">Harvard University</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts">AB</a>)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_Law_School">Columbia Law School</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Occupation</th><td><div><ul><li>Author</li><li>conservationist</li><li>explorer</li><li>historian</li><li>naturalist</li><li>police commissioner</li><li>politician</li><li>soldier</li><li>sportsman</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Civilian awards</th><td><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize">Nobel Peace Prize</a> (1906)</td></tr><tr><th>Signature</th><td><a href="/wiki/File:Theodore_Roosevelt_Signature-2.svg"></a></td></tr><tr><th>Military service</th></tr><tr><th>Branch/service</th><td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army">United States Army</a></td></tr><tr><th>Years of service</th><td><div><ul><li>1882–1886 (<a href="/wiki/New_York_National_Guard">New York National Guard</a>)</li><li>1898</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th>Rank</th><td><a href="/wiki/Colonel_(United_States)">Colonel</a></td></tr><tr><th>Commands</th><td><a href="/wiki/Rough_Riders">1st U.S. Volunteer Cavalry</a></td></tr><tr><th>Battles/wars</th><td><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War">Spanish–American War</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Las_Guasimas">Battle of Las Guasimas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_Hill">Battle of San Juan Hill</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th>Military awards</th><td><a href="/wiki/Medal_of_Honor">Medal of Honor</a> (<a href="/wiki/Posthumous_award">posthumous</a>, 2001)</td></tr><tr><td><div><p>Roosevelt giving a speech during his <a href="/wiki/1912_United_States_presidential_election">third presidential campaign</a><br />Recorded 1912</p></div></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Theodore Roosevelt Jr.</b> ( <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key"><i>ROH-zə-velt</i></a>;<sup><a href="#cite_note-6">[b]</a></sup> October 27, 1858 – January 6, 1919), often referred to as <b>Teddy</b> or by his initials, <b>T. R.</b>, was an American politician, statesman, soldier, conservationist, naturalist, historian, and writer who served as the 26th <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States">president of the United States</a> from 1901 to 1909. He previously served as the 25th <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States">vice president</a> under President <a href="/wiki/William_McKinley">William McKinley</a> from March to September 1901 and as the 33rd <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_New_York">governor of New York</a> from 1899 to 1900. Assuming the presidency after <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_William_McKinley">McKinley's assassination</a>, Roosevelt emerged as a leader of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republican_Party_(United_States)">Republican Party</a> and became a driving force for <a href="/wiki/United_States_antitrust_law">anti-trust</a> and <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era">Progressive</a> policies.
</p><p>A sickly child with debilitating asthma, he overcame his health problems as he grew by embracing <a href="/wiki/The_Strenuous_Life">a strenuous lifestyle</a>. Roosevelt integrated his exuberant personality and a vast range of interests and achievements into a "cowboy" persona defined by robust masculinity. He was home-schooled and began a lifelong naturalist avocation before attending <a href="/wiki/Harvard_College">Harvard College</a>. His book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Naval_War_of_1812">The Naval War of 1812</a></i> (1882) established his reputation as a learned historian and popular writer. Upon entering politics, Roosevelt became the leader of the reform faction of Republicans in <a href="/wiki/New_York_State_Legislature">New York's state legislature</a>. His first wife and mother died on the same night, devastating him psychologically. He recuperated by buying and operating a cattle ranch in the Dakotas. Roosevelt served as <a href="/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_the_Navy">Assistant Secretary of the Navy</a> under President McKinley, and in 1898 helped plan the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War">highly successful naval war against Spain</a>. He resigned to help form and lead the <a href="/wiki/Rough_Riders">Rough Riders</a>, a unit that fought the Spanish army in Cuba to great publicity. Returning a war hero, Roosevelt was <a href="/wiki/1898_New_York_state_election">elected governor of New York</a> in 1898. The New York state party leadership disliked his ambitious agenda and convinced McKinley to choose him as his running mate in the <a href="/wiki/1900_United_States_presidential_election">1900 election</a>. Roosevelt campaigned vigorously and the McKinley–Roosevelt ticket won a landslide victory based on a platform of victory, peace, and prosperity.
</p><p>Roosevelt assumed the presidency at age 42, and remains the <a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States_by_age">youngest person to become president of the United States</a>. As a leader of the <a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_the_United_States">progressive movement</a> he championed his "<a href="/wiki/Square_Deal">Square Deal</a>" domestic policies. It called for fairness for all citizens, breaking of <a href="/wiki/Trust_(business)">bad trusts</a>, regulation of railroads, and pure food and drugs. Roosevelt prioritized <a href="/wiki/Conservation_movement">conservation</a> and established <a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_the_United_States">national parks</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_national_forests_of_the_United_States">forests</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_national_monuments_of_the_United_States">monuments</a> to preserve the nation's natural resources. In foreign policy, he <a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Corollary">focused on Central America</a>, where he began construction of the <a href="/wiki/Panama_Canal">Panama Canal</a>. Roosevelt expanded the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy">Navy</a> and sent the <a href="/wiki/Great_White_Fleet">Great White Fleet</a> on a world tour to project American naval power. His successful efforts to broker the end of the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War">Russo-Japanese War</a> won him the 1906 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize">Nobel Peace Prize</a>. Roosevelt was elected to a full term in <a href="/wiki/1904_United_States_presidential_election">1904</a> and promoted policies more to the left, despite growing opposition from Republican leaders. During his presidency, he groomed his close ally <a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft">William Howard Taft</a> to succeed him in the <a href="/wiki/1908_United_States_presidential_election">1908 presidential election</a>.
</p><p>Roosevelt grew frustrated with Taft's conservatism and belatedly tried to win the <a href="/wiki/1912_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries">1912 Republican nomination for president</a>. He failed, walked out, and founded the new <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Party_(United_States,_1912)">Progressive Party</a>. He ran in the <a href="/wiki/1912_United_States_presidential_election">1912 presidential election</a> and the split allowed the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Democratic_Party_(United_States)">Democratic</a> nominee <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> to win the election. Following the defeat, Roosevelt led a <a href="/wiki/Roosevelt%E2%80%93Rondon_Scientific_Expedition">two-year expedition to the Amazon basin</a> where he nearly died of tropical disease. During <a href="/wiki/World_War_I">World War I</a>, he criticized Wilson for keeping the country out of the war, and his offer to lead volunteers to France was rejected. Roosevelt considered running for president again in <a href="/wiki/1920_United_States_presidential_election">1920</a>, but his health continued to deteriorate and he died in 1919. <a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_presidents_of_the_United_States#Murray–Blessing_1982_survey">Polls of historians and political scientists</a> rank him as one of the greatest presidents in American history.
</p>
<h2>Early life and family</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:TR_Age_11_Paris.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Theodore Roosevelt at age 11</p></div></div> 
<p>Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was born on October 27, 1858, at <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Birthplace_National_Historic_Site">28 East 20th Street</a> in <a href="/wiki/Manhattan">Manhattan</a>, New York City.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris19793-7">[5]</a></sup> He was the second of four children born to socialite <a href="/wiki/Martha_Bulloch_Roosevelt">Martha Stewart Bulloch</a> and businessman and philanthropist <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Sr.">Theodore Roosevelt Sr.</a> He had an older sister (<a href="/wiki/Bamie_Roosevelt">Anna</a>), a younger brother (<a href="/wiki/Elliott_Roosevelt_(socialite)">Elliott</a>) and a younger sister (<a href="/wiki/Corinne_Roosevelt_Robinson">Corinne</a>).<sup><a href="#cite_note-8">[6]</a></sup> Elliott was later the father of <a href="/wiki/Anna_Eleanor_Roosevelt">Anna Eleanor Roosevelt</a> who married Theodore's distant cousin, <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt">Franklin Delano Roosevelt</a>. His paternal grandfather was of Dutch descent;<sup><a href="#cite_note-9">[7]</a></sup> his other ancestry included primarily Scottish and Scots-Irish, English<sup><a href="#cite_note-10">[8]</a></sup> and smaller amounts of German, Welsh, and French.<sup><a href="#cite_note-vought-11">[9]</a></sup> Theodore Sr. was the fifth son of businessman <a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Roosevelt">Cornelius Van Schaack "C. V. S." Roosevelt</a> and Margaret Barnhill as well as a brother of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Roosevelt">Robert Roosevelt</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_A._Roosevelt">James A. Roosevelt</a>. Theodore's fourth cousin, <a href="/wiki/James_Roosevelt_I">James Roosevelt I</a>, who was also a businessman, was the father of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Martha was the younger daughter of Major <a href="/wiki/James_Stephens_Bulloch">James Stephens Bulloch</a> and Martha P. "Patsy" Stewart.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPutnam1958ch_1–2-12">[10]</a></sup> Through the Van Schaacks, Roosevelt was a descendant of the <a href="/wiki/Schuyler_family">Schuyler family</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-13">[11]</a></sup>
</p><p>Roosevelt's youth was largely shaped by his poor health and debilitating <a href="/wiki/Asthma">asthma</a>. He repeatedly experienced sudden nighttime asthma attacks that caused the experience of being smothered to death, which terrified both Theodore and his parents. Doctors had no cure.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough1981[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnuzmvrqPvdICpgPA93_93–108]-14">[12]</a></sup> Nevertheless, he was energetic and mischievously inquisitive.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPutnam195823–27-15">[13]</a></sup> His lifelong interest in <a href="/wiki/Zoology">zoology</a> began at age seven when he saw a dead <a href="/wiki/Pinniped">seal</a> at a local market; after obtaining the seal's head, Roosevelt and two cousins formed what they called the "Roosevelt Museum of Natural History". Having learned the rudiments of <a href="/wiki/Taxidermy">taxidermy</a>, he filled his makeshift museum with animals that he killed or caught; he then studied the animals and prepared them for exhibition. At age nine, he recorded his observation of insects in a paper entitled "The Natural History of Insects".<sup><a href="#cite_note-environment-16">[14]</a></sup>
</p><p>Roosevelt's father significantly influenced him. His father was a prominent leader in New York's cultural affairs; he helped to found the <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>, and had been especially active in mobilizing support for the Union during the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War">American Civil War</a>, even though his in-laws included Confederate leaders. Roosevelt said, "My father, Theodore Roosevelt, was the best man I ever knew. He combined strength and courage with gentleness, tenderness, and great unselfishness. He would not tolerate in us children selfishness or cruelty, idleness, cowardice, or untruthfulness."
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Lincoln_Funeral_Procession_Roosevelt_Mansion_Broadway.jpg"></a></p><div><p>6-year-old Theodore and 5-year-old Elliott watch Lincoln's funeral procession from the second-floor window of their grandfather's mansion (at top left, facing the camera), Manhattan, April 25, 1865.</p></div></div><p> Family trips abroad, including tours of <a href="/wiki/Europe">Europe</a> in 1869 and 1870, and <a href="/wiki/Egypt">Egypt</a> in 1872, shaped his cosmopolitan perspective.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoosevelt191313-17">[15]</a></sup> Hiking with his family in the <a href="/wiki/Alps">Alps</a> in 1869, Roosevelt found that he could keep pace with his father. He had discovered the significant benefits of physical exertion to minimize his asthma and bolster his spirits.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPutnam195863–70-18">[16]</a></sup> Roosevelt began a heavy regime of exercise. After being manhandled by two older boys on a camping trip, he found a boxing coach to teach him to fight and strengthen his body.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThayer191920-19">[17]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-20">[18]</a></sup>
</p><p>A 6-year-old Roosevelt witnessed the <a href="/wiki/Funeral_and_burial_of_Abraham_Lincoln">funeral procession of Abraham Lincoln</a> from his <a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Roosevelt">grandfather's</a> mansion in <a href="/wiki/Union_Square_(Manhattan)">Union Square</a>, New York City where he was photographed in the window along with his brother Elliott, as confirmed by his second wife, Edith, who was also present.<sup><a href="#cite_note-21">[19]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Education</h3>
<p>Roosevelt was <a href="/wiki/Homeschooling">homeschooled</a>, mostly by tutors and his parents.<sup><a href="#cite_note-22">[20]</a></sup> Biographer <a href="/wiki/H._W._Brands">H. W. Brands</a> argued that "The most obvious drawback to his home schooling was uneven coverage of the various areas of human knowledge."<sup><a href="#cite_note-23">[21]</a></sup> He was solid in geography and bright in history, biology, French, and German; however, he struggled in mathematics and the classical languages. When he entered Harvard College on September 27, 1876, his father advised: "Take care of your morals first, your health next, and finally your studies."<sup><a href="#cite_note-24">[22]</a></sup> His father's sudden death on February 9, 1878, devastated Roosevelt, but he eventually recovered and doubled his activities.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller199280–82-25">[23]</a></sup>
</p><p>He did well in science, philosophy, and rhetoric courses but continued to struggle in Latin and Greek. He studied biology intently and was already an accomplished naturalist and a published <a href="/wiki/Ornithology">ornithologist</a>. He read prodigiously with an almost photographic memory.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands199762-26">[24]</a></sup> While at Harvard, Roosevelt participated in rowing and <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Boxing_Club">boxing</a>; he was once runner-up in an intramural boxing tournament.<sup><a href="#cite_note-27">[25]</a></sup> Roosevelt was a member of the <a href="/wiki/Alpha_Delta_Phi">Alpha Delta Phi</a> literary society (later the <a href="/wiki/Fly_Club">Fly Club</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Delta_Kappa_Epsilon">Delta Kappa Epsilon</a> fraternity, and the prestigious <a href="/wiki/Porcellian_Club">Porcellian Club</a>; he was also an editor of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Harvard_Advocate">The Harvard Advocate</a></i>. In 1880, Roosevelt graduated <a href="/wiki/Phi_Beta_Kappa">Phi Beta Kappa</a> (22nd of 177) from Harvard with an <a href="/wiki/Bachelors_of_Arts">A.B.</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Magna_cum_laude">magna cum laude</a></i>. Biographer <a href="/wiki/Henry_F._Pringle">Henry F. Pringle</a> states:
</p>
<blockquote><p>Roosevelt, attempting to analyze his college career and weigh the benefits he had received, felt that he had obtained little from Harvard. He had been depressed by the formalistic treatment of many subjects, by the rigidity, the attention to minutiae that were important in themselves, but which somehow were never linked up with the whole.<sup><a href="#cite_note-28">[26]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Theodore_Roosevelt_Birthplace_from_west.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>After his father's death, Roosevelt had inherited $65,000 (equivalent to $1,825,155 in 2021), enough wealth on which he could live comfortably for the rest of his life.<sup><a href="#cite_note-NYT14-29">[27]</a></sup> Roosevelt gave up his earlier plan of studying natural science and decided to attend <a href="/wiki/Columbia_Law_School">Columbia Law School</a> instead, moving back into his family's home in New York City. Although Roosevelt was an able law student, he often found law to be irrational. He spent much of his time writing a book on the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812">War of 1812</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997110–212,_123–133._quote_p._126-30">[28]</a></sup>
</p><p>Determined to enter politics, Roosevelt began attending meetings at Morton Hall, the 59th Street headquarters of New York's 21st District Republican Association. Though Roosevelt's father had been a prominent member of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republican_Party_(United_States)">Republican Party</a>, the younger Roosevelt made an unorthodox career choice for someone of his class, as most of Roosevelt's peers refrained from becoming too closely involved in politics. Roosevelt found allies in the local Republican Party and defeated an incumbent Republican state assemblyman tied to the political machine of Senator <a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Conkling">Roscoe Conkling</a> closely. After his election victory, Roosevelt decided to drop out of law school, later saying, "I intended to be one of the governing class."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997110–112,_123–133._quote_p._126-31">[29]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Naval history and strategy</h3>
<p>While at Harvard, Roosevelt began a systematic study of the role played by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy">United States Navy</a> in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812">War of 1812</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoosevelt191335-32">[30]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris1979565-33">[31]</a></sup> Assisted by two uncles, he scrutinized original source materials and official U.S. Navy records, ultimately publishing <i><a href="/wiki/The_Naval_War_of_1812">The Naval War of 1812</a></i> in 1882. The book contained drawings of individual and combined ship maneuvers, charts depicting the differences in iron throw weights of cannon shot between rival forces, and analyses of the differences and similarities between British and American leadership down to the ship-to-ship level. Upon release, <i>The Naval War of 1812</i> was praised for its scholarship and style and it remains a standard study of the war.<sup><a href="#cite_note-mjcrawford1-34">[32]</a></sup>
</p><p>With the publication of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Influence_of_Sea_Power_upon_History">The Influence of Sea Power upon History</a>, 1660–1783</i> in 1890, Navy Captain <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Thayer_Mahan">Alfred Thayer Mahan</a> was hailed as the world's outstanding naval theorist by the leaders of Europe immediately. Roosevelt paid very close attention to Mahan's emphasis that only a nation with the world's most powerful fleet could dominate the world's oceans, exert its diplomacy to the fullest, and defend its own borders.<sup><a href="#cite_note-35">[33]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-36">[34]</a></sup> He incorporated Mahan's ideas into his views on naval strategy for the remainder of his career.<sup><a href="#cite_note-37">[35]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-38">[36]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>First marriage and widowerhood</h3>
<p>In 1880, Roosevelt married socialite <a href="/wiki/Alice_Hathaway_Lee_Roosevelt">Alice Hathaway Lee</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-39">[37]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-40">[38]</a></sup> Their daughter, <a href="/wiki/Alice_Roosevelt_Longworth">Alice Lee Roosevelt</a>, was born on February 12, 1884. Two days later, the new mother died of undiagnosed <a href="/wiki/Kidney_failure">kidney failure</a> that the pregnancy masked. In his diary, Roosevelt wrote a large "X" on the page and then, "The light has gone out of my life." His mother, Martha, had died of <a href="/wiki/Typhoid_fever">typhoid fever</a> eleven hours earlier at 3:00 a.m., in the same house on <a href="/wiki/57th_Street_(Manhattan)">57th Street</a> in Manhattan. Distraught, Roosevelt left baby Alice in the care of his sister Bamie while he grieved; he assumed custody of Alice when she was three.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992154–158-41">[39]</a></sup>
</p><p>After the deaths of his wife and mother, Roosevelt focused on his work, specifically by re-energizing a legislative investigation into corruption of the <a href="/wiki/New_York_City_government">New York City government</a>, which arose from a concurrent bill proposing that power be centralized in the mayor's office.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997166-42">[40]</a></sup> For the rest of his life, he rarely spoke about his wife Alice and did not write about her in his autobiography.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris1979232-43">[41]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Early political career</h2>
<h3>State Assemblyman</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:TR_NY_State_Assemblyman_1883_crop.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Roosevelt as New York State Assemblyman, 1883</p></div></div>
<p>Roosevelt was a member of the <a href="/wiki/New_York_State_Assembly">New York State Assembly</a> (New York Co., 21st D.) in <a href="/wiki/105th_New_York_State_Legislature">1882</a>, <a href="/wiki/106th_New_York_State_Legislature">1883</a>, and <a href="/wiki/107th_New_York_State_Legislature">1884</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:1-44">[42]</a></sup> He began making his mark immediately and in handling in corporate corruption issues specifically.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:1-44">[42]</a></sup> He blocked a corrupt effort of financier <a href="/wiki/Jay_Gould">Jay Gould</a> to lower his taxes. Roosevelt also exposed the suspected collusion of Gould and Judge <a href="/wiki/Theodoric_R._Westbrook">Theodore Westbrook</a> and argued for and received approval for an investigation to proceed, aiming for the judge to be impeached. Although the investigation committee rejected the proposed impeachment, Roosevelt had exposed the potential corruption in <a href="/wiki/Albany,_New_York">Albany</a> and assumed a high and positive political profile in multiple New York publications.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997134–140-45">[43]</a></sup>
</p><p>Roosevelt's anti-corruption efforts helped him win re-election in <a href="/wiki/1882_New_York_state_election">1882</a> by a margin greater than two-to-one, an achievement made even more impressive by the victory that Democratic gubernatorial candidate <a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a> won in Roosevelt's district.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992138–139-46">[44]</a></sup> With Conkling's <a href="/wiki/Stalwart_(politics)">Stalwart</a> faction of the Republican Party in disarray following the assassination of President <a href="/wiki/James_Garfield">James Garfield</a>, Roosevelt won election as the Republican party leader in the state assembly. He allied with Governor Cleveland to win passage of a civil service reform bill.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992140–142-47">[45]</a></sup> Roosevelt won re-election a second time and sought the office of <a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_New_York_State_Assembly">Speaker of the New York State Assembly</a>, but <a href="/wiki/Titus_Sheard">Titus Sheard</a> obtained the position in a 41 to 29 vote of the GOP caucus instead.<sup><a href="#cite_note-48">[46]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992153-49">[47]</a></sup> In his final term, Roosevelt served as Chairman of the Committee on Affairs of Cities, during which he wrote more bills than any other legislator.<sup><a href="#cite_note-50">[48]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Presidential election of 1884</h3>
<p>With numerous presidential hopefuls from whom to choose, Roosevelt supported Senator <a href="/wiki/George_F._Edmunds">George F. Edmunds</a> of Vermont, a colorless reformer. The state GOP preferred the incumbent president, New York City's <a href="/wiki/Chester_Arthur">Chester Arthur</a>, known for passing the <a href="/wiki/Pendleton_Civil_Service_Reform_Act">Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act</a>. Roosevelt fought for and succeeded in influencing the Manhattan delegates at the state convention in Utica. He then took control of the state convention, bargaining through the night and outmaneuvering the supporters of Arthur and <a href="/wiki/James_G._Blaine">James G. Blaine</a>; consequently, he gained a national reputation as a key politician in his state.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPutnam1958413–424-51">[49]</a></sup>
</p><p>Roosevelt attended the 1884 <a href="/wiki/1884_Republican_National_Convention">GOP National Convention</a> in Chicago and gave a speech convincing delegates to nominate <a href="/wiki/African_American">African American</a> <a href="/wiki/John_R._Lynch">John R. Lynch</a>, an Edmunds supporter, to be the temporary chair. Roosevelt fought alongside the <a href="/wiki/Mugwump">Mugwump</a> reformers against Blaine. However Blaine gained support from Arthur's and Edmunds's delegates, and won the nomination on the fourth ballot. In a crucial moment of his budding political career, Roosevelt resisted the demand of his fellow Mugwumps that he bolt from Blaine. He bragged about his one small success: "We achieved a victory in getting up a combination to beat the Blaine nominee for temporary chairman... To do this needed a mixture of skill, boldness and energy... to get the different factions to come in... to defeat the common foe."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997171-52">[50]</a></sup> He was also impressed by an invitation to speak before an audience of ten thousand, the largest crowd he had addressed up to that date. Having gotten a taste of national politics, Roosevelt felt less aspiration for advocacy on the state level; he then retired to his new "Chimney Butte Ranch" on the <a href="/wiki/Little_Missouri_River_(North_Dakota)">Little Missouri River</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPutnam1958445–450-53">[51]</a></sup> Roosevelt refused to join other Mugwumps in supporting Grover Cleveland, the governor of New York and the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Democratic_Party">Democratic</a> nominee in the general election. He debated the pros and cons of staying loyal with his political friend, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge">Henry Cabot Lodge</a>. After Blaine won the nomination, Roosevelt had said carelessly that he would give "hearty support to any decent Democrat". He distanced himself from the promise, saying that it had not been meant "for publication".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPringle195661-54">[52]</a></sup> When a reporter asked if he would support Blaine, Roosevelt replied, "That question I decline to answer. It is a subject I do not care to talk about."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPutnam1958445-55">[53]</a></sup> In the end, he realized that he had to support Blaine to maintain his role in the GOP and he did so in a press release on July 19.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPutnam1958467-56">[54]</a></sup> Having lost the support of many reformers, Roosevelt decided to retire from politics and move to <a href="/wiki/North_Dakota">North Dakota</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992161-57">[55]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Cattle rancher in Dakota</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:TR_Buckskin_Tiffany_Knife.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Theodore Roosevelt as <a href="/wiki/Badlands">Badlands</a> hunter in 1885. New York studio photo.</p></div></div>
<p>Roosevelt first visited the <a href="/wiki/Dakota_Territory">Dakota Territory</a> in 1883 to hunt <a href="/wiki/Bison">bison</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-58">[56]</a></sup> Exhilarated by the <a href="/wiki/Western_lifestyle">western lifestyle</a> and with the cattle business booming in the territory, Roosevelt invested $14,000 in hopes of becoming a prosperous cattle rancher. For the next several years, he shuttled between his home in New York and his ranch in Dakota.<sup><a href="#cite_note-59">[57]</a></sup>
</p><p>Following the <a href="/wiki/1884_United_States_presidential_election">1884 United States presidential election</a>, Roosevelt built a <a href="/wiki/Elkhorn_Ranch">ranch named Elkhorn</a>, which was 35 mi (56 km) north of the boomtown of <a href="/wiki/Medora,_North_Dakota">Medora, North Dakota</a>. Roosevelt learned to ride western style, rope, and hunt on the banks of the <a href="/wiki/Little_Missouri_River_(North_Dakota)">Little Missouri</a>. Though he earned the respect of the authentic <a href="/wiki/Cowboy">cowboys</a>, they were not overly impressed.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997182-60">[58]</a></sup> However, he identified with the herdsman of history, a man he said possesses "few of the emasculated, milk-and-water moralities admired by the pseudo-philanthropists; but he does possess, to a very high degree, the stern, manly qualities that are invaluable to a nation".<sup><a href="#cite_note-61">[59]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-62">[60]</a></sup> He reoriented and began writing about frontier life for national magazines; he also published three books: <i>Hunting Trips of a Ranchman</i>, <i>Ranch Life and the Hunting-Trail</i>, and <i>The Wilderness Hunter</i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997191-63">[61]</a></sup>
</p><p>Roosevelt successfully led efforts to organize ranchers there to address the problems of overgrazing and other shared concerns, which resulted in the formation of the Little Missouri Stockmen's Association. He felt compelled to promote conservation and was able to form the <a href="/wiki/Boone_and_Crockett_Club">Boone and Crockett Club</a>, whose primary goal was the conservation of large game animals and their habitats.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997189-64">[62]</a></sup> In 1886, Roosevelt served as a <a href="/wiki/Sheriffs_in_the_United_States">deputy sheriff</a> in <a href="/wiki/Billings_County,_North_Dakota">Billings County, North Dakota</a>. During this time he and two ranch hands hunted down three boat thieves.<sup><a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a></sup>
</p><p>The uniquely severe U.S. <a href="/wiki/Winter_of_1886%E2%80%931887">winter of 1886–1887</a> wiped out his herd of cattle and those of his competitors and over half of his $80,000 investment.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris1979376-66">[64]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a></sup> He ended his ranching life and returned to New York, where he escaped the damaging label of an ineffectual intellectual.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992163–164-68">[66]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Second marriage</h2>
<p>On December 2, 1886, Roosevelt married his childhood friend, <a href="/wiki/Edith_Roosevelt">Edith Kermit Carow</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a></sup> Roosevelt felt deeply troubled that his second marriage had taken place very quickly after the death of his first wife and he also faced resistance from his sisters.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992181–182-70">[68]</a></sup> Nonetheless, the couple married at <a href="/wiki/St_George%27s,_Hanover_Square">St George's, Hanover Square</a> in London, England.<sup><a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a></sup> The couple had five children: <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Jr.">Theodore "Ted" III</a> in 1887, <a href="/wiki/Kermit_Roosevelt">Kermit</a> in 1889, <a href="/wiki/Ethel_Roosevelt_Derby">Ethel</a> in 1891, <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Roosevelt">Archibald</a> in 1894, and <a href="/wiki/Quentin_Roosevelt">Quentin</a> in 1897. They also raised Roosevelt's daughter from his first marriage, Alice, who often clashed with her stepmother.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992193–194-72">[70]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Reentering public life</h2>
<p>Upon Roosevelt's return to New York in 1886, Republican leaders quickly approached him about running for <a href="/wiki/Mayor_of_New_York_City">mayor of New York City</a> in the <a href="/wiki/1886_New_York_City_mayoral_election">1886 election</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-73">[71]</a></sup> Roosevelt accepted the nomination despite having little hope of winning the race against <a href="/wiki/Labor_Party_(United_States,_19th_century)">United Labor Party</a> candidate <a href="/wiki/Henry_George">Henry George</a> and Democratic candidate <a href="/wiki/Abram_Hewitt">Abram Hewitt</a>. Roosevelt campaigned hard for the position, but Hewitt won with 41% (90,552 votes), taking the votes of many Republicans who feared George's radical policies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-everything-74">[72]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992183–185-75">[73]</a></sup> George was held to 31% (68,110 votes), and Roosevelt took third place with 27% (60,435 votes). Fearing that his political career might never recover, Roosevelt turned his attention to writing <i>The Winning of the West</i>, a historical work tracking the westward movement of Americans; the book was a great success for Roosevelt, earning favorable reviews and selling numerous<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify">clarification needed</a></i>]</sup> copies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992197–200-76">[74]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Civil Service Commission</h3>
<p>After <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison">Benjamin Harrison</a> unexpectedly defeated Blaine for the presidential nomination at the <a href="/wiki/1888_Republican_National_Convention">1888 Republican National Convention</a>, Roosevelt gave <a href="/wiki/Stump_speech_(politics)">stump speeches</a> in the Midwest in support of Harrison.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992201-77">[75]</a></sup> On the insistence of <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge">Henry Cabot Lodge</a>, President Harrison appointed Roosevelt to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Civil_Service_Commission">United States Civil Service Commission</a>, where he served until 1895.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992203-78">[76]</a></sup> While many of his predecessors had approached the office as a <a href="/wiki/Sinecure">sinecure</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992206–207-79">[77]</a></sup> Roosevelt vigorously fought the <a href="/wiki/Spoils_system">spoilsmen</a> and demanded enforcement of civil service laws.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThayer19191–2ch._VI-80">[78]</a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Sun_(New_York)">The Sun</a></i> then described Roosevelt as "irrepressible, belligerent, and enthusiastic".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBishop2007[httpsbooksgooglecomidKPMEAAAAYAAJprintsecfrontcoverdqTheodoreRooseveltandHisTimeShowninHisOwnLettersPPA2M1_51]-81">[79]</a></sup> Roosevelt frequently clashed with Postmaster General <a href="/wiki/John_Wanamaker">John Wanamaker</a>, who handed out numerous patronage positions to Harrison supporters, and Roosevelt's attempt to force out several postal workers damaged Harrison politically.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992216–221-82">[80]</a></sup> Despite Roosevelt's support for Harrison's reelection bid in the <a href="/wiki/1892_U.S._presidential_election">presidential election of 1892</a>, the eventual winner, Grover Cleveland, reappointed him to the same post.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBishop2007[httpsbooksgooglecomidKPMEAAAAYAAJprintsecfrontcoverdqTheodoreRooseveltandHisTimeShowninHisOwnLettersPPA2M1_53]-83">[81]</a></sup> Roosevelt's close friend and biographer, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Bucklin_Bishop">Joseph Bucklin Bishop</a>, described his assault on the spoils system:
</p>
<blockquote><p> The very citadel of spoils politics, the hitherto impregnable fortress that had existed unshaken since it was erected on the foundation laid by <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a>, was tottering to its fall under the assaults of this audacious and irrepressible young man... Whatever may have been the feelings of the (fellow Republican party) President (Harrison)—and there is little doubt that he had no idea when he appointed Roosevelt that he would prove to be so veritable a bull in a china shop—he refused to remove him and stood by him firmly till the end of his term.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBishop2007[httpsbooksgooglecomidKPMEAAAAYAAJprintsecfrontcoverdqTheodoreRooseveltandHisTimeShowninHisOwnLettersPPA2M1_51]-81">[79]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<h3>New York City Police Commissioner</h3>
<p>In 1894, a group of reform Republicans approached Roosevelt about running for Mayor of New York again; he declined, mostly due to his wife's resistance to being removed from the Washington social set. Soon after he declined, he realized that he had missed an opportunity to reinvigorate a dormant political career. He retreated to the Dakotas for a time; his wife Edith regretted her role in the decision and vowed that there would be no repeat of it.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997265–268-84">[82]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/William_Lafayette_Strong">William Lafayette Strong</a>, a reform-minded Republican, won the 1894 mayoral election and offered Roosevelt a position on the board of the <a href="/wiki/New_York_City_Police_Commissioner">New York City Police Commissioners</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992201-77">[75]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-85">[83]</a></sup> Roosevelt became president of the board of commissioners and radically reformed the police force. Roosevelt implemented regular inspections of firearms and annual physical exams, appointed recruits based on their physical and mental qualifications rather than political affiliation, established <a href="/wiki/Meritorious_Service_Medal_(United_States)">Meritorious Service Medals</a>, and closed corrupt police hostelries. During his tenure, a Municipal Lodging House was established by the Board of Charities, and Roosevelt required officers to register with the Board; he also had telephones installed in station houses.<sup><a href="#cite_note-86">[84]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1894, Roosevelt met <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Riis">Jacob Riis</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Muckraker">muckraking</a> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Sun_(New_York_City)">Evening Sun</a></i> newspaper journalist who was opening the eyes of New Yorkers to the terrible conditions of the city's millions of poor immigrants with such books as <i><a href="/wiki/How_the_Other_Half_Lives">How the Other Half Lives</a>.</i> Riis described how his book affected Roosevelt:
</p>
<blockquote><p>When Roosevelt read [my] book, he came... No one ever helped as he did. For two years we were brothers in (New York City's crime-ridden) <a href="/wiki/Mulberry_Street_(Manhattan)">Mulberry Street</a>. When he left I had seen its golden age... There is very little ease where Theodore Roosevelt leads, as we all of us found out. The lawbreaker found it out who predicted scornfully that he would "knuckle down to politics the way they all did", and lived to respect him, though he swore at him, as the one of them all who was stronger than pull... that was what made the age golden, that for the first time a moral purpose came into the street. In the light of it everything was transformed.<sup><a href="#cite_note-87">[85]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>Roosevelt made a habit of walking officers' <a href="/wiki/Beat_(police)">beats</a> late at night and early in the morning to make sure that they were on duty.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997277-88">[86]</a></sup> He made a concerted effort to uniformly enforce New York's <a href="/wiki/Raines_law">Sunday closing law</a>; in this, he ran up against boss <a href="/wiki/Thomas_C._Platt">Tom Platt</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Tammany_Hall">Tammany Hall</a>—he was notified that the Police Commission was being legislated out of existence. His crackdowns led to protests and demonstrations. Invited to one large demonstration, not only did he surprisingly accept, he delighted in the insults, caricatures, and lampoons directed at him, and earned some surprising good will.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Bully_Pulpit-89">[87]</a></sup> Roosevelt chose to defer rather than split with his party.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997293-90">[88]</a></sup> As Governor of New York State, he would later sign an act replacing the Police Commission with a single Police Commissioner.<sup><a href="#cite_note-91">[89]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Emergence as a national figure</h2>
<h3>Assistant Secretary of the Navy</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:LC-USZC4-701_(17518506711).jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>In the <a href="/wiki/1896_United_States_presidential_election">1896 presidential election</a>, Roosevelt backed Speaker of the House <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Brackett_Reed">Thomas Brackett Reed</a> for the Republican nomination, but <a href="/wiki/William_McKinley">William McKinley</a> won the nomination and defeated <a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan">William Jennings Bryan</a> in the general election.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992242–243-92">[90]</a></sup> Roosevelt strongly opposed Bryan's <a href="/wiki/Free_silver">free silver</a> platform, viewing many of Bryan's followers as dangerous fanatics. He gave scores of campaign speeches for McKinley.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992243–246-93">[91]</a></sup> Urged by Senator <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge">Henry Cabot Lodge</a>, President McKinley appointed Roosevelt as the <a href="/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_the_Navy">Assistant Secretary of the Navy</a> in 1897.<sup><a href="#cite_note-94">[92]</a></sup> Secretary of the Navy <a href="/wiki/John_D._Long">John D. Long</a> was more concerned about formalities than functions, was in poor health, and left many major decisions to Roosevelt. Influenced by <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Thayer_Mahan">Alfred Thayer Mahan</a>, Roosevelt called for a build-up in the country's naval strength, particularly the construction of <a href="/wiki/Battleship">battleships</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992253-95">[93]</a></sup> Roosevelt also began pressing his national security views regarding the Pacific and the Caribbean on McKinley, and was particularly adamant that Spain be ejected from Cuba.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997310–212-96">[94]</a></sup> He explained his priorities to one of the Navy's planners in late 1897:
</p>
<blockquote><p>I would regard war with Spain from two viewpoints: first, the advisability on the grounds both of humanity and self-interest of interfering on behalf of the Cubans, and of taking one more step toward the complete freeing of America from European dominion; second, the benefit done our people by giving them something to think of which is not material gain, and especially the benefit done our military forces by trying both the Navy and Army in actual practice.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoosevelt2001157–158-97">[95]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>On February 15, 1898, <a href="/wiki/USS_Maine_(ACR-1)">USS <i>Maine</i></a>, an armored cruiser, exploded in the harbor of <a href="/wiki/Havana,_Cuba">Havana, Cuba</a>, killing hundreds of crew members. While Roosevelt and many other Americans blamed Spain for the explosion, McKinley sought a diplomatic solution.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992267–268-98">[96]</a></sup> Without approval from Long or McKinley, Roosevelt sent out orders to several naval vessels, directing them to prepare for war.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992267–268-98">[96]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997325–326-99">[97]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/George_Dewey">George Dewey</a>, who had received an appointment to lead the <a href="/wiki/Asiatic_Squadron">Asiatic Squadron</a> with the backing of Roosevelt, later credited his victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_Bay">Battle of Manila Bay</a> to Roosevelt's orders.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992261,_268-100">[98]</a></sup> After finally giving up hope of a peaceful solution, McKinley asked Congress to declare war upon Spain, beginning the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War">Spanish–American War</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992271–272-101">[99]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>War in Cuba</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Theodore_Rooseveltnewtry.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Colonel Theodore Roosevelt</p></div></div>
<p>With the beginning of the Spanish–American War in late April 1898, Roosevelt resigned from his post as Assistant Secretary of the Navy. Along with Army Colonel <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Wood">Leonard Wood</a>, he formed the <a href="/wiki/Rough_Riders">First U.S. Volunteer Cavalry Regiment</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-LOC-102">[100]</a></sup> His wife and many of his friends begged Roosevelt to remain in his post in Washington, but Roosevelt was determined to see battle. When the newspapers reported the formation of the new regiment, Roosevelt and Wood were flooded with applications from all over the country.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992272–274-103">[101]</a></sup> Referred to by the press as the "Rough Riders", the regiment was one of many temporary units active only for the duration of the war.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuels1997148-104">[102]</a></sup>
</p><p>The regiment trained for several weeks in <a href="/wiki/San_Antonio,_Texas">San Antonio, Texas</a>, and in his autobiography, Roosevelt wrote that his prior experience with the <a href="/wiki/New_York_National_Guard">New York National Guard</a> had been invaluable, in that it enabled him to immediately begin teaching his men basic soldiering skills.<sup><a href="#cite_note-105">[103]</a></sup> The Rough Riders used some standard issue gear and some of their own design, purchased with gift money. Diversity characterized the regiment, which included <a href="/wiki/Ivy_League">Ivy Leaguers</a>, professional and amateur athletes, upscale gentlemen, cowboys, frontiersmen, <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States">Native Americans</a>, hunters, miners, prospectors, former soldiers, tradesmen, and sheriffs. The Rough Riders were part of the cavalry division commanded by former Confederate general <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Wheeler">Joseph Wheeler</a>, which itself was one of three divisions in the V Corps under Lieutenant General <a href="/wiki/William_Rufus_Shafter">William Rufus Shafter</a>. Roosevelt and his men landed in <a href="/wiki/Daiquir%C3%AD">Daiquirí</a>, Cuba, on June 23, 1898, and marched to <a href="/wiki/Siboney,_Cuba">Siboney</a>. Wheeler sent parts of the 1st and 10th Regular Cavalry on the lower road northwest and sent the "Rough Riders" on the parallel road running along a ridge up from the beach. To throw off his infantry rival, Wheeler left one regiment of his Cavalry Division, the 9th, at Siboney so that he could claim that his move north was only a limited reconnaissance if things went wrong. Roosevelt was promoted to colonel and took command of the regiment when Wood was put in command of the brigade. The Rough Riders had a short, minor skirmish known as the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Las_Guasimas">Battle of Las Guasimas</a>; they fought their way through Spanish resistance and, together with the Regulars, forced the Spaniards to abandon their positions.<sup><a href="#cite_note-The_Rough_Riders-106">[104]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:TR_San_Juan_Hill_1898.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Colonel Roosevelt and the Rough Riders after capturing <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_Hill#Kettle_Hill">Kettle Hill</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cuba">Cuba</a> in July 1898, along with members of the 3rd Volunteers and the regular Army black <a href="/wiki/10th_Cavalry_Regiment_(United_States)">10th Cavalry</a></p></div></div>
<p>Under Roosevelt's leadership, the Rough Riders became famous for the charge up <a href="/wiki/Kettle_Hill">Kettle Hill</a> on July 1, 1898, while supporting the regulars. Roosevelt had the only horse, and rode back and forth between rifle pits at the forefront of the advance up Kettle Hill, an advance that he urged despite the absence of any orders from superiors. He was forced to walk up the last part of Kettle Hill because his horse had been entangled in <a href="/wiki/Barbed_wire">barbed wire</a>. The victories came at a cost of 200 killed and 1,000 wounded.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997356-107">[105]</a></sup>
</p><p>In August, Roosevelt and other officers demanded that the soldiers be returned home. Roosevelt always recalled the Battle of Kettle Hill (part of the San Juan Heights) as "the great day of my life" and "my crowded hour". In 2001, Roosevelt was posthumously awarded the <a href="/wiki/Medal_of_Honor">Medal of Honor</a> for his actions;<sup><a href="#cite_note-MoH2001-108">[106]</a></sup> he had been nominated during the war, but Army officials, annoyed at his grabbing the headlines, blocked it.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuels1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1v7PSGbzhDwCpgPA266_266]-109">[107]</a></sup> After returning to civilian life, Roosevelt preferred to be known as "Colonel Roosevelt" or "The Colonel", though "Teddy" remained much more popular with the public, even though Roosevelt openly despised that moniker. Men working closely with Roosevelt customarily called him "Colonel" or "Theodore".<sup><a href="#cite_note-HandyBook-110">[108]</a></sup><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources">page needed</a></i>]</sup> Henceforth, political cartoons of Roosevelt usually depicted him in his Rough Rider garb.<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h3>Governor of New York</h3>
<p>After leaving Cuba in August 1898, the Rough Riders were transported to a camp at <a href="/wiki/Montauk_County_Park">Montauk Point</a>, <a href="/wiki/Long_Island">Long Island</a>, where Roosevelt and his men were briefly quarantined due to the War Department's fear of spreading <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever">yellow fever</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992308–310-111">[109]</a></sup> Shortly after Roosevelt's return to the United States, Republican Congressman <a href="/wiki/Lemuel_E._Quigg">Lemuel E. Quigg</a>, a lieutenant of party boss Tom Platt, asked Roosevelt to run in the <a href="/wiki/1898_New_York_state_election">1898 gubernatorial election</a>. Prospering politically from the <a href="/wiki/Platt_machine">Platt machine</a>, Roosevelt's gradual rise to power was marked by the pragmatic decisions of New York machine boss <a href="/wiki/Thomas_C._Platt">T. C. "Tom" Platt</a>, who served as a U.S. senator from the state.<sup><a href="#cite_note-112">[110]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-113">[111]</a></sup> The demonstrated willingness of Platt to compromise with the GOP progressive wing led by Roosevelt and <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_B._Odell,_Jr.">Benjamin B. Odell, Jr.</a>, resulted, over time, in their growth of political strength at the expense of the "easy boss," whose machine faced collapse in 1903 at the hands of Odell.<sup><a href="#cite_note-114">[112]</a></sup>
Platt disliked Roosevelt personally, feared that Roosevelt would oppose Platt's interests in office, and was reluctant to propel Roosevelt to the forefront of national politics. However, Platt also needed a strong candidate due to the unpopularity of the incumbent Republican governor, <a href="/wiki/Frank_S._Black">Frank S. Black</a>. Roosevelt agreed to become the nominee and to try not to "make war" with the Republican establishment once in office. Roosevelt defeated Black in the Republican caucus by a vote of 753 to 218, and faced Democrat <a href="/wiki/Augustus_Van_Wyck">Augustus Van Wyck</a>, a well-respected judge, in the general election.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992309–311,_318-115">[113]</a></sup> Roosevelt campaigned vigorously on his war record, winning the election by a margin of just one percent.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris1979674–687-116">[114]</a></sup>
</p><p>As governor, Roosevelt learned much about ongoing economic issues and political techniques that later proved valuable in his presidency. He studied the problems of trusts, monopolies, labor relations, and conservation. Chessman argues that Roosevelt's program "rested firmly upon the concept of the square deal by a neutral state". The rules for the Square Deal were "honesty in public affairs, an equitable sharing of privilege and responsibility, and subordination of party and local concerns to the interests of the state at large".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChessman19656-117">[115]</a></sup>
</p><p>By holding twice-daily press conferences—which was an innovation—Roosevelt remained connected with his middle-class political base.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris1979693-118">[116]</a></sup> Roosevelt successfully pushed the Ford Franchise-Tax bill, which taxed public franchises granted by the state and controlled by corporations, declaring that "a corporation which derives its powers from the State, should pay to the State a just percentage of its earnings as a return for the privileges it enjoys".<sup><a href="#cite_note-119">[117]</a></sup> He rejected "boss" Thomas C. Platt's worries that this approached Bryanite Socialism, explaining that without it, New York voters might get angry and adopt public ownership of streetcar lines and other franchises.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997378–379-120">[118]</a></sup>
</p><p>The New York state government affected many interests, and the power to make appointments to policy-making positions was a key role for the governor. Platt insisted that he be consulted on major appointments; Roosevelt appeared to comply, but then made his own decisions. Historians marvel that Roosevelt managed to appoint so many first-rate men with Platt's approval. He even enlisted Platt's help in securing reform, such as in the spring of 1899, when Platt pressured state senators to vote for a civil service bill that the secretary of the Civil Service Reform Association called "superior to any civil service statute heretofore secured in America".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChessman196579-121">[119]</a></sup>
</p><p>G. Wallace Chessman argues that as governor, Roosevelt developed the principles that shaped his presidency, especially insistence upon the public responsibility of large corporations, publicity as a first remedy for trusts, regulation of railroad rates, mediation of the conflict of capital and labor, conservation of natural resources and protection of the less fortunate members of society.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChessman19656-117">[115]</a></sup> Roosevelt sought to position himself against the excesses of large corporations on the one hand and radical movements on the other.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992322-122">[120]</a></sup>
</p><p>As the chief executive of the most populous state in the union, Roosevelt was widely considered a potential future presidential candidate, and supporters such as <a href="/wiki/William_Allen_White">William Allen White</a> encouraged him to run for president.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992331–333-123">[121]</a></sup> Roosevelt had no interest in challenging McKinley for the Republican nomination in 1900, and was denied his preferred post of <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_War">Secretary of War</a>. As his term progressed, Roosevelt pondered a 1904 presidential run, but was uncertain about whether he should seek re-election as governor in 1900.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992333–334-124">[122]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Vice presidency (1901)</h3>
<p>In November 1899, Vice President <a href="/wiki/Garret_Hobart">Garret Hobart</a> died of heart failure, leaving an open spot on the 1900 Republican national ticket. Though <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge">Henry Cabot Lodge</a> and others urged him to run for vice president in 1900, Roosevelt was reluctant to take the powerless position and issued a public statement saying that he would not accept the nomination.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992333–334,_338-125">[123]</a></sup> Additionally, Roosevelt was informed by President McKinley and campaign manager <a href="/wiki/Mark_Hanna">Mark Hanna</a> that he was not being considered for the role of vice president due to his actions prior to the Spanish–American War<sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify">clarification needed</a></i>]</sup>. Eager to be rid of Roosevelt, Platt nonetheless began a newspaper campaign in favor of Roosevelt's nomination for the vice presidency.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992338-126">[124]</a></sup> Roosevelt attended the <a href="/wiki/1900_Republican_National_Convention">1900 Republican National Convention</a> as a state delegate and struck a bargain with Platt: Roosevelt would accept the nomination for vice president if the convention offered it to him, but would otherwise serve another term as governor. Platt asked Pennsylvania party boss <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Quay">Matthew Quay</a> to lead the campaign for Roosevelt's nomination, and Quay outmaneuvered Hanna at the convention to put Roosevelt on the ticket.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992340–341-127">[125]</a></sup> Roosevelt won the nomination unanimously.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992342-128">[126]</a></sup>
</p><p>Roosevelt's vice-presidential campaigning proved highly energetic and an equal match for Democratic presidential nominee William Jennings Bryan's famous barnstorming style of campaigning. In a whirlwind campaign that displayed his energy to the public, Roosevelt made 480 stops in 23 states. He denounced the radicalism of Bryan, contrasting it with the heroism of the soldiers and sailors who fought and won the war against Spain. Bryan had strongly supported the war itself, but he denounced the annexation of the <a href="/wiki/Philippines">Philippines</a> as <a href="/wiki/Imperialism">imperialism</a>, which would spoil America's innocence. Roosevelt countered that it was best for the <a href="/wiki/Filipinos">Filipinos</a> to have stability and the Americans to have a proud place in the world. With the nation basking in peace and prosperity, the voters gave McKinley an even larger victory than that which he had achieved in 1896.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997388–405-129">[127]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-130">[128]</a></sup>
</p><p>After the campaign, Roosevelt took office as vice president in March 1901. The office of vice president was a powerless sinecure and did not suit Roosevelt's aggressive temperament.<sup><a href="#cite_note-131">[129]</a></sup> Roosevelt's six months as vice president were uneventful and boring for a man of action. He had no power; he presided over the Senate for a mere four days before it adjourned.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992346-132">[130]</a></sup> On September 2, 1901, Roosevelt first publicized an <a href="/wiki/Aphorism">aphorism</a> that thrilled his supporters: "<a href="/wiki/Big_Stick_ideology">Speak softly and carry a big stick, and you will go far."</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-133">[131]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Presidency (1901–1909)</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Theodore_Roosevelt_by_John_Singer_Sargent,_1903.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>On September 6, 1901, President McKinley was attending the <a href="/wiki/Pan-American_Exposition">Pan-American Exposition</a> in <a href="/wiki/Buffalo,_New_York">Buffalo, New York</a> when he <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_William_McKinley">was shot</a> by anarchist <a href="/wiki/Leon_Czolgosz">Leon Czolgosz</a>. Roosevelt was vacationing in <a href="/wiki/Isle_La_Motte,_Vermont">Isle La Motte, Vermont</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-134">[132]</a></sup> and traveled to Buffalo to visit McKinley in the hospital. It appeared that McKinley would recover, so Roosevelt resumed his vacation in the <a href="/wiki/Adirondack_Mountains">Adirondack Mountains</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-135">[133]</a></sup> When McKinley's condition worsened, Roosevelt again rushed back to Buffalo. McKinley died on September 14, and Roosevelt was informed while he was in <a href="/wiki/North_Creek,_New_York">North Creek</a>; he continued on to Buffalo and was <a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Theodore_Roosevelt">sworn in as the nation's 26th president</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Inaugural_National_Historic_Site">Ansley Wilcox House</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992348–352-136">[134]</a></sup>
</p><p>McKinley's supporters were nervous about the new president, and Ohio Senator <a href="/wiki/Mark_Hanna">Mark Hanna</a> was particularly bitter that the man he had opposed so vigorously at the convention had succeeded McKinley. Roosevelt assured party leaders that he intended to adhere to McKinley's policies, and he retained McKinley's Cabinet. Nonetheless, Roosevelt sought to position himself as the party's undisputed leader, seeking to bolster the role of the president and position himself for the 1904 election.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992354–356-137">[135]</a></sup> The vice presidency remained vacant, as there was no constitutional provision for filling an intra-term vacancy in that office (prior to the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution">25th Amendment</a> in 1967).
</p><p>Shortly after taking office, Roosevelt invited <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington">Booker T. Washington</a> to dinner at the <a href="/wiki/White_House">White House</a>. This sparked a bitter, and at times vicious, reaction among whites across the heavily segregated South.<sup><a href="#cite_note-138">[136]</a></sup> Roosevelt reacted with astonishment and protest, saying that he looked forward to many future dinners with Washington. Upon further reflection, Roosevelt wanted to ensure that this had no effect on political support in the white South, and further dinner invitations to Washington were avoided;<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997422–423-139">[137]</a></sup> their next meeting was scheduled as typical business at 10:00 a.m. instead.<sup><a href="#cite_note-140">[138]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Domestic policies: The Square Deal</h3>
<h4>Trust busting and regulation</h4>
<p>For his aggressive use of the 1890 <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act">Sherman Antitrust Act</a>, compared to his predecessors, Roosevelt was hailed as the "trust-buster"; but in reality he was more of a trust regulator.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuddy2016-141">[139]</a></sup> Roosevelt viewed big business as a necessary part of the American economy, and sought only to prosecute the "bad trusts" that restrained trade and charged unfair prices.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992365–366-142">[140]</a></sup> He brought 44 antitrust suits, breaking up the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Securities_Company">Northern Securities Company</a>, the largest railroad monopoly; and regulating <a href="/wiki/Standard_Oil">Standard Oil</a>, the largest oil company.<sup><a href="#cite_note-143">[141]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuddy2016-141">[139]</a></sup> Presidents Benjamin Harrison, Grover Cleveland, and William McKinley combined had prosecuted only 18 antitrust violations under the Sherman Antitrust Act.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuddy2016-141">[139]</a></sup>
</p><p>Bolstered by his party's winning large majorities in the <a href="/wiki/1902_United_States_elections">1902 elections</a>, Roosevelt proposed the creation of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Commerce_and_Labor">United States Department of Commerce and Labor</a>, which would include the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Corporations">Bureau of Corporations</a>. While Congress was receptive to the Department of Commerce and Labor, it was more skeptical of the antitrust powers that Roosevelt sought to endow within the Bureau of Corporations. Roosevelt successfully appealed to the public to pressure Congress, and Congress overwhelmingly voted to pass Roosevelt's version of the bill.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992378–381-144">[142]</a></sup>
</p><p>In a moment of frustration, House Speaker <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Gurney_Cannon">Joseph Gurney Cannon</a> commented on Roosevelt's desire for executive branch control in domestic policy-making: "That fellow at the other end of the avenue wants everything from the birth of Christ to the death of the devil." Biographer Brands states, "Even his friends occasionally wondered whether there wasn't any custom or practice too minor for him to try to regulate, update or otherwise improve."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997552–553-145">[143]</a></sup> In fact, Roosevelt's willingness to exercise his power included attempted rule changes in the game of <a href="/wiki/American_football">football</a>; at the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Naval_Academy">U.S. Naval Academy</a>, he sought to force retention of martial arts classes and to revise disciplinary rules. He even ordered changes made in the minting of a coin whose design he disliked, and ordered the Government Printing Office to adopt simplified spellings for a core list of 300 words, according to reformers on the <a href="/wiki/Simplified_Spelling_Board">Simplified Spelling Board</a>. He was forced to rescind the latter after substantial ridicule from the press and a resolution of protest from the <a href="/wiki/U.S._House_of_Representatives">U.S. House of Representatives</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997553–556-146">[144]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Coal strike</h4>
<p>In May 1902, <a href="/wiki/United_Mine_Workers">anthracite coal miners</a> went on strike, threatening a national energy shortage. After threatening the coal operators with intervention by federal troops, Roosevelt won their agreement to dispute arbitration by a commission, which succeeded in stopping the strike. The accord with <a href="/wiki/J._P._Morgan">J. P. Morgan</a> resulted in the miners getting more pay for fewer hours, but with no union recognition.<sup><a href="#cite_note-147">[145]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997450–483-148">[146]</a></sup> Roosevelt said, "My action on labor should always be considered in connection with my action as regards capital, and both are reducible to my favorite formula—a square deal for every man."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997509-149">[147]</a></sup> Roosevelt was the first president to help settle a labor dispute.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992376–377-150">[148]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Prosecuted misconduct</h4>
<p>During Roosevelt's second year in office it was discovered there was corruption in the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs">Indian Service</a>, the <a href="/wiki/General_Land_Office">Land Office</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Postal_Service">Post Office Department</a>. Roosevelt investigated and prosecuted corrupt Indian agents who had cheated the <a href="/wiki/Muscogee">Creeks</a> and various <a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes">Native American tribes</a> out of land parcels. Land fraud and speculation were found involving Oregon federal timberlands. In November 1902, Roosevelt and Secretary <a href="/wiki/Ethan_A._Hitchcock_(Interior)">Ethan A. Hitchcock</a> forced <a href="/wiki/Binger_Hermann">Binger Hermann</a>, the General Land Office Commissioner, to resign from office. On November 6, 1903 <a href="/wiki/Francis_J._Heney">Francis J. Heney</a> was appointed special prosecutor and obtained 146 indictments involving an <a href="/wiki/Oregon">Oregon</a> Land Office bribery ring. U.S. Senator <a href="/wiki/John_H._Mitchell">John H. Mitchell</a> was indicted for bribery to expedite illegal land patents, found guilty in July 1905, and sentenced to six months in prison.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambers1974207-151">[149]</a></sup> More corruption was found in the Postal Department, that brought on the indictments of 44 government employees on charges of bribery and fraud.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambers1974208-152">[150]</a></sup> Historians generally agree that Roosevelt moved "quickly and decisively" to prosecute misconduct in his administration.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambers1974209-153">[151]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Railroads</h4>
<p>Merchants complained that some railroad rates were too high. In the 1906 <a href="/wiki/Hepburn_Act">Hepburn Act</a>, Roosevelt sought to give the <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Commission">Interstate Commerce Commission</a> the power to regulate rates, but the Senate, led by conservative <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Aldrich">Nelson Aldrich</a>, fought back. Roosevelt worked with the Democratic Senator <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tillman">Benjamin Tillman</a> to pass the bill. Roosevelt and Aldrich ultimately reached a compromise that gave the ICC the power to replace existing rates with "just-and-reasonable" maximum rates, but allowed railroads to appeal to the federal courts on what was "reasonable".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992453–459-154">[152]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-155">[153]</a></sup> In addition to rate-setting, the Hepburn Act also granted the ICC regulatory power over pipeline fees, storage contracts, and several other aspects of railroad operations.<sup><a href="#cite_note-156">[154]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Pure food and drugs</h4>
<p>Roosevelt responded to public anger over the abuses in the food packing industry by pushing Congress to pass the <a href="/wiki/Meat_Inspection_Act">Meat Inspection Act</a> of 1906 and the <a href="/wiki/Pure_Food_and_Drug_Act">Pure Food and Drug Act</a>. Though conservatives initially opposed the bill, <a href="/wiki/Upton_Sinclair">Upton Sinclair</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Jungle">The Jungle</a></i>, published in 1906, helped galvanize support for reform.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992459–460-157">[155]</a></sup> The Meat Inspection Act of 1906 banned misleading labels and <a href="/wiki/Preservatives">preservatives</a> that contained harmful chemicals. The Pure Food and Drug Act banned food and drugs that were impure or falsely labeled from being made, sold, and shipped. Roosevelt also served as honorary president of the <a href="/wiki/American_School_Hygiene_Association">American School Hygiene Association</a> from 1907 to 1908, and in 1909 he convened the first <a href="/wiki/White_House">White House</a> Conference on the Care of Dependent Children.<sup><a href="#cite_note-ProgHealth21-158">[156]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Conservation</h4>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:President_Theodore_Roosevelt_Driving_Through_the_Wawona_Tunnel_Tree,_in_Yellowstone_National_Park_(14994749857).jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Of all Roosevelt's achievements, he was proudest of his work in the conservation of natural resources and extending federal protection to land and wildlife.<sup><a href="#cite_note-159">[157]</a></sup> Roosevelt worked closely with Interior Secretary <a href="/wiki/James_Rudolph_Garfield">James Rudolph Garfield</a> and Chief of the United States Forest Service <a href="/wiki/Gifford_Pinchot">Gifford Pinchot</a> to enact a series of conservation programs that often met with resistance from Western members of Congress, such as <a href="/wiki/Charles_William_Fulton">Charles William Fulton</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992469–471-160">[158]</a></sup> Nonetheless, Roosevelt established the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Forest_Service">United States Forest Service</a>, signed into law the creation of five <a href="/wiki/National_parks_(United_States)">National Parks</a>, and signed the 1906 <a href="/wiki/Antiquities_Act">Antiquities Act</a>, under which he proclaimed 18 new <a href="/wiki/U.S._National_Monument">U.S. National Monuments</a>. He also established the first 51 <a href="/wiki/Bird_reserve">bird reserves</a>, four <a href="/wiki/Game_preservation">game preserves</a>, and 150 <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Forest">National Forests</a>. The area of the United States that he placed under public protection totals approximately 230 million acres (930,000 square kilometers).<sup><a href="#cite_note-161">[159]</a></sup>
</p><p>Roosevelt extensively used <a href="/wiki/Executive_order_(United_States)">executive orders</a> on a number of occasions to protect forest and wildlife lands during his tenure as president.<sup><a href="#cite_note-162">[160]</a></sup> By the end of his second term in office, Roosevelt used executive orders to establish 150 million acres (600,000 square kilometers) of reserved forestry land.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Take_up_Your_Pen-163">[161]</a></sup> Roosevelt was unapologetic about his extensive use of executive orders to protect the environment, despite the perception in Congress that he was encroaching on too many lands.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Take_up_Your_Pen-163">[161]</a></sup> Eventually, Senator <a href="/wiki/Charles_William_Fulton">Charles Fulton</a> (R-OR) attached an amendment to an agricultural appropriations bill that effectively prevented the president from reserving any further land.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Take_up_Your_Pen-163">[161]</a></sup> Before signing that bill into law, Roosevelt used executive orders to establish an additional 21 forest reserves, waiting until the last minute to sign the bill into law.<sup><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-164">[162]</a></sup> In total, Roosevelt used executive orders to establish 121 forest reserves in 31 states.<sup><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-164">[162]</a></sup> Prior to Roosevelt, only one president had issued over 200 executive orders, Grover Cleveland (253). The first 25 presidents issued a total of 1,262 executive orders; Roosevelt issued 1,081.<sup><a href="#cite_note-executiveorders-165">[163]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Business panic of 1907</h4>
<p>In 1907, Roosevelt faced the greatest domestic economic crisis since the <a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1893">Panic of 1893</a>. Wall Street's stock market entered a slump in early 1907, and many investors blamed Roosevelt's regulatory policies for the decline in stock prices.<sup><a href="#cite_note-166">[164]</a></sup> Roosevelt helped calm the crisis by meeting on November 4, 1907, with the leaders of <a href="/wiki/U.S._Steel">U.S. Steel</a> and approving their plan to purchase a Tennessee steel company near bankruptcy—its failure would ruin a major New York bank. He thus approved the growth of one of the largest and most hated trusts, while the public announcement calmed the markets.<sup><a href="#cite_note-167">[165]</a></sup>
</p><p>
Roosevelt exploded in anger at the super-rich for the economic malfeasance, calling them "malefactors of great wealth." in a major speech in August entitled, "The Puritan Spirit and the Regulation of Corporations." Trying to restore confidence, he blamed the crisis primarily on Europe, but then, after saluting the unbending rectitude of the Puritans, he went on:<sup><a href="#cite_note-168">[166]</a></sup> </p><blockquote><p>It may well be that the determination of the government...to punish certain malefactors of great wealth, has been responsible for something of the trouble; at least to the extent of having caused these men to combine to bring about as much financial stress as possible, in order to discredit the policy of the government and thereby secure a reversal of that policy, so that they may enjoy unmolested the fruits of their own evil-doing.</p></blockquote>
<p>Regarding the very wealthy, Roosevelt privately scorned. "their entire unfitness to govern the country, and ... the lasting damage they do by much of what they think are the legitimate big business operations of the day."<sup><a href="#cite_note-169">[167]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Foreign policy</h3>
<h4>Japan</h4>
<p>The American <a href="/wiki/Newlands_Resolution">annexation of Hawaii</a> in 1898 was stimulated in part by fear that otherwise Japan would dominate or seize the Hawaiian Republic.<sup><a href="#cite_note-170">[168]</a></sup> Similarly, Germany was the alternative to American takeover of the Philippines in 1900, and Tokyo strongly preferred the U.S. to take over. As the U.S. became a naval world power, it needed to find a way to avoid a military confrontation in the Pacific with Japan.<sup><a href="#cite_note-171">[169]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the 1890s, Roosevelt had been an ardent <a href="/wiki/American_imperialism">imperialist</a> and vigorously defended the permanent acquisition of the Philippines in the 1900 campaign. After the <a href="/wiki/Philippine%E2%80%93American_War">local insurrection</a> ended in 1902, Roosevelt wished to have a strong U.S. presence in the region as a symbol of democratic values, but he did not envision any new acquisitions. One of Roosevelt's priorities during his presidency and afterwards, was the maintenance of friendly relations with Japan.<sup><a href="#cite_note-172">[170]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-173">[171]</a></sup> From 1904 to 1905 <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War">Japan and Russia were at war</a>. Both sides asked Roosevelt to mediate a peace conference, held successfully in <a href="/wiki/Portsmouth,_New_Hampshire">Portsmouth, New Hampshire</a>. Roosevelt won the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize">Nobel Peace Prize</a> for his efforts.<sup><a href="#cite_note-174">[172]</a></sup>
</p><p>Though he proclaimed that the United States would be neutral during the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War">Russo-Japanese War</a>, Roosevelt secretly favored the Imperial Japan to emerge victorious against the Russian Empire. He wanted the influence of the Russians to weaken in order to take them out in the Pacific diplomatic equation, with the Japanese emerging to their spot as the Russian replacement.<sup><a href="#cite_note-175">[173]</a></sup>
</p><p>In California, <a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment_in_the_United_States">anti-Japanese hostility was growing</a>, and Tokyo protested. Roosevelt <a href="/wiki/Gentlemen%27s_Agreement_of_1907">negotiated a "Gentleman's Agreement" in 1907</a>. It ended explicit discrimination against the Japanese, and Japan agreed not to allow unskilled immigrants into the United States.<sup><a href="#cite_note-176">[174]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Great_White_Fleet">Great White Fleet</a> of American battleships visited Japan in 1908 during its round-the-world tour. Roosevelt intended to emphasize the superiority of the American fleet over the smaller Japanese navy, but instead of resentment the visitors arrived to a joyous welcome by Japanese elite as well as the general public. This good-will facilitated the <a href="/wiki/Root%E2%80%93Takahira_Agreement">Root–Takahira Agreement</a> of November 1908 which reaffirmed the status quo of Japanese control of Korea and American control of the Philippines.<sup><a href="#cite_note-177">[175]</a></sup>
<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997614–616-178">[176]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Europe</h4>
<p>Success in the war against Spain and the new empire, plus having the largest economy in the world, meant that the United States had emerged as a world power.<sup><a href="#cite_note-179">[177]</a></sup> Roosevelt searched for ways to win recognition for the position abroad.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992382–383-180">[178]</a></sup>
</p><p>Roosevelt also played a major role in mediating the <a href="/wiki/First_Moroccan_Crisis">First Moroccan Crisis</a> by calling the <a href="/wiki/Algeciras_Conference">Algeciras Conference</a>, which averted war between France and Germany.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992450–451-181">[179]</a></sup>
</p><p>Roosevelt's presidency saw the strengthening of ties with Great Britain. <a href="/wiki/The_Great_Rapprochement">The Great Rapprochement</a> had begun with British support of the United States during the Spanish–American War, and it continued as Britain withdrew its fleet from the Caribbean in favor of focusing on the rising <a href="/wiki/Anglo-German_naval_arms_race">German naval threat</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992387–388-182">[180]</a></sup> In 1901, Britain and the United States signed the <a href="/wiki/Hay%E2%80%93Pauncefote_Treaty">Hay–Pauncefote Treaty</a>, abrogating the <a href="/wiki/Clayton%E2%80%93Bulwer_Treaty">Clayton–Bulwer Treaty</a>, which had prevented the United States from constructing a canal connecting the Pacific and the Atlantic Ocean.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992399–400-183">[181]</a></sup> The long-standing <a href="/wiki/Alaska_boundary_dispute">Alaska boundary dispute</a> was settled on terms favorable to the United States, as Great Britain was unwilling to alienate the United States over what it considered to be a secondary issue. As Roosevelt later put it, the resolution of the Alaskan boundary dispute "settled the last serious trouble between the British Empire and ourselves."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992397–398-184">[182]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Latin America and Panama Canal</h4>
<p>As president, he primarily focused the nation's overseas ambitions on the Caribbean, especially locations that had a bearing on the defense of his pet project, the <a href="/wiki/Panama_Canal">Panama Canal</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997615–616-185">[183]</a></sup> Roosevelt also increased the size of the navy, and by the end of his second term the United States had more battleships than any other country besides Britain. The Panama Canal, when it opened in 1914, allowed the U.S. Navy to rapidly move back and forth from the Pacific to the Caribbean to European waters.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992384-186">[184]</a></sup>
</p><p>In December 1902, the Germans, British, and Italians blockaded the ports of <a href="/wiki/Venezuela">Venezuela</a> in order to force the repayment of delinquent loans. Roosevelt was particularly concerned with the motives of German Emperor <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_II,_German_Emperor">Wilhelm II</a>. He succeeded in getting the three nations to agree to arbitration by tribunal at <a href="/wiki/The_Hague">The Hague</a>, and successfully defused the <a href="/wiki/Venezuela_Crisis_of_1902%E2%80%931903">crisis</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997464-187">[185]</a></sup> The latitude granted to the Europeans by the arbiters was in part responsible for the "<a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Corollary">Roosevelt Corollary</a>" to the <a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a>, which the President issued in 1904: "Chronic wrongdoing or an impotence which results in a general loosening of the ties of civilized society, may in America, as elsewhere, ultimately require intervention by some civilized nation, and in the Western Hemisphere, the adherence of the United States to the Monroe doctrine may force the United States, however reluctantly, in flagrant cases of such wrongdoing or impotence, to the exercise of an international police power."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997527-188">[186]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Panama_canal_cartooon_1903.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>The pursuit of an <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Panama_Canal">isthmus canal</a> in Central America during this period focused on two possible routes—<a href="/wiki/Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a> and Panama, which was then a rebellious district within <a href="/wiki/Colombia">Colombia</a>. Roosevelt convinced Congress to approve the Panamanian alternative, and a treaty was approved, only to be rejected by the Colombian government. When the Panamanians learned of this, a rebellion followed, was supported by Roosevelt, and succeeded. A <a href="/wiki/Hay%E2%80%93Bunau-Varilla_Treaty">treaty</a> with the new Panama government for construction of the canal was then reached in 1903.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997482–486-189">[187]</a></sup> Roosevelt received criticism for paying the bankrupt Panama Canal Company and the New Panama Canal Company $40,000,000 (equivalent to $12.06 billion in 2021) for the rights and equipment to build the canal.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambers1974209-153">[151]</a></sup> Critics charged that an American investor syndicate allegedly divided the large payment among themselves. There was also controversy over whether a French company engineer influenced Roosevelt in choosing the Panama route for the canal over the Nicaragua route. Roosevelt denied charges of corruption concerning the canal in a January 8, 1906, message to Congress. In January 1909, Roosevelt, in an unprecedented move, brought criminal libel charges against the <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_World">New York World</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Indianapolis_News">Indianapolis News</a></i> known as the "Roosevelt-Panama Libel Cases".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambers1974209–210-190">[188]</a></sup> Both cases were dismissed by U.S. District Courts, and on January 3, 1911, the U.S. Supreme Court, upon federal appeal, upheld the lower courts' rulings.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambers1974213–214-191">[189]</a></sup> Historians are sharply critical of Roosevelt's criminal prosecutions of the <i>World</i> and the <i>News</i>, but are divided on whether actual corruption in acquiring and building the Panama Canal took place.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambers1974215-192">[190]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1906, following a disputed election, an insurrection ensued in Cuba; Roosevelt sent Taft, the Secretary of War, to monitor the situation; he was convinced that he had the authority to unilaterally authorize Taft to deploy Marines if necessary, without congressional approval.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997570-193">[191]</a></sup>
</p><p>Examining the work of numerous scholars, Ricard (2014) reports that:
</p>
<blockquote><p>The most striking evolution in the twenty-first-century historiography of Theodore Roosevelt is the switch from a partial arraignment of the imperialist to a quasi-unanimous celebration of the master diplomatist.... [Recent works] have underlined cogently Roosevelt's exceptional statesmanship in the construction of the nascent twentieth-century "special relationship". ...The twenty-sixth president's reputation as a brilliant diplomatist and real politician has undeniably reached new heights in the twenty-first century...yet, his Philippine policy still prompts criticism.<sup><a href="#cite_note-194">[192]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>On November 6, 1906, Roosevelt was the first president to depart the continental United States on an official diplomatic trip. Roosevelt made a 17-day trip to Panama and Puerto Rico. Roosevelt checked on the progress of the Canal's construction and talked to workers about the importance of the project. In Puerto Rico, he recommended that Puerto Ricans become U.S. citizens.<sup><a href="#cite_note-195">[193]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-196">[194]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Media</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Go_Away_Little_Man_Charles_Green_Bush.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>Building on McKinley's effective use of the press, Roosevelt made the White House the center of news every day, providing interviews and photo opportunities. After noticing the reporters huddled outside the White House in the rain one day, he gave them their own room inside, effectively inventing the presidential <a href="/wiki/Press_briefing">press briefing</a>. The grateful press, with unprecedented access to the White House, rewarded Roosevelt with ample coverage.<sup><a href="#cite_note-american_chronicle-197">[195]</a></sup>
</p><p>Roosevelt normally enjoyed very close relationships with the press, which he used to keep in daily contact with his middle-class base. While out of office, he made a living as a writer and magazine editor. He loved talking with intellectuals, authors, and writers. He drew the line, however, at exposé-oriented scandal-mongering journalists who, during his term, sent magazine subscriptions soaring by their attacks on corrupt politicians, mayors, and corporations. Roosevelt himself was not usually a target, but a speech of his from 1906 coined the term "<a href="/wiki/Muckraker">muckraker</a>" for unscrupulous journalists making wild charges. "The liar", he said, "is no whit better than the thief, and if his mendacity takes the form of slander he may be worse than most thieves."<sup><a href="#cite_note-198">[196]</a></sup>
</p><p>The press did briefly target Roosevelt in one instance. After 1904, he was periodically criticized for the manner in which he facilitated the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Panama_Canal">Panama Canal</a>. According to biographer Brands, Roosevelt, near the end of his term, demanded that the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Justice_Department">U.S. Justice Department</a> bring charges of criminal libel against <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Pulitzer">Joseph Pulitzer</a>'s <i>New York World</i>. The publication had accused him of "deliberate misstatements of fact" in defense of family members who were criticized as a result of the Panama affair. Though an indictment was obtained, the case was ultimately dismissed in federal court—it was not a federal offense, but one enforceable in state courts. The Justice Department had predicted that result, and had also advised Roosevelt accordingly.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997633–634-199">[197]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Election of 1904</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:ElectoralCollege1904.svg"></a></p></div>
<p>The control and management of the Republican Party lay in the hands of Ohio Senator and Republican Party chairman Mark Hanna until McKinley's death. Roosevelt and Hanna frequently cooperated during Roosevelt's first term, but Hanna left open the possibility of a challenge to Roosevelt for the 1904 Republican nomination. Roosevelt and Ohio's other Senator, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_B._Foraker">Joseph B. Foraker</a>, forced Hanna's hand by calling for Ohio's state Republican convention to endorse Roosevelt for the 1904 nomination.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992436–437-200">[198]</a></sup> Unwilling to break with the president, Hanna was forced to publicly endorse Roosevelt. Hanna and Pennsylvania Senator <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Quay">Matthew Quay</a> both died in early 1904, and with the waning of Thomas Platt's power, Roosevelt faced little effective opposition for the 1904 nomination.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992437–438-201">[199]</a></sup> In deference to Hanna's conservative loyalists, Roosevelt at first offered the party chairmanship to <a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Bliss">Cornelius Bliss</a>, but he declined. Roosevelt turned to his own man, <a href="/wiki/George_B._Cortelyou">George B. Cortelyou</a> of New York, the first Secretary of Commerce and Labor. To buttress his hold on the party's nomination, Roosevelt made it clear that anyone opposing Cortelyou would be considered to be opposing the President.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997501–503-202">[200]</a></sup> The President secured his own nomination, but his preferred vice-presidential running mate, <a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Hitt">Robert R. Hitt</a>, was not nominated.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997504-203">[201]</a></sup> Senator <a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Fairbanks">Charles Warren Fairbanks</a> of Indiana, a favorite of conservatives, gained the nomination.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992437–438-201">[199]</a></sup>
</p><p>While Roosevelt followed the tradition of incumbents in not actively campaigning on the stump, he sought to control the campaign's message through specific instructions to Cortelyou. He also attempted to manage the press's release of White House statements by forming the <a href="/wiki/Ananias_Club">Ananias Club</a>. Any journalist who repeated a statement made by the president without approval was penalized by restriction of further access.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997507-204">[202]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Democratic Party's nominee in 1904 was <a href="/wiki/Alton_B._Parker">Alton Brooks Parker</a>. Democratic newspapers charged that Republicans were extorting large campaign contributions from corporations, putting ultimate responsibility on Roosevelt, himself.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambers1974215–216-205">[203]</a></sup> Roosevelt denied corruption while at the same time he ordered Cortelyou to return $100,000 (equivalent to $3 million in 2021) of a campaign contribution from <a href="/wiki/Standard_Oil">Standard Oil</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambers1974216-206">[204]</a></sup> Parker said that Roosevelt was accepting corporate donations to keep damaging information from the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Corporations">Bureau of Corporations</a> from going public.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambers1974216-206">[204]</a></sup> Roosevelt strongly denied Parker's charge and responded that he would "go into the Presidency unhampered by any pledge, promise, or understanding of any kind, sort, or description...".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambers1974216–217-207">[205]</a></sup> Allegations from Parker and the Democrats, however, had little impact on the election, as Roosevelt promised to give every American a "<a href="/wiki/Square_Deal">square deal</a>".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambers1974216–217-207">[205]</a></sup> Roosevelt won 56% of the popular vote, and Parker received 38%; Roosevelt also won the <a href="/wiki/Electoral_College_(United_States)">Electoral College</a> vote, 336 to 140. Before his inauguration ceremony, Roosevelt declared that he would not serve another term.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997513–514-208">[206]</a></sup> Democrats afterwards would continue to charge Roosevelt and the Republicans of being influenced by corporate donations during Roosevelt's second term.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambers1974217–218-209">[207]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Second term</h3>
<p>As his second term progressed, Roosevelt moved to the left of his Republican Party base and called for a series of reforms, most of which Congress failed to pass.<sup><a href="#cite_note-210">[208]</a></sup> In his last year in office, he was assisted by his friend <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Butt">Archibald Butt</a> (who later perished in the sinking of <a href="/wiki/RMS_Titanic">RMS <i>Titanic</i></a>).<sup><a href="#cite_note-Obit-211">[209]</a></sup> Roosevelt's influence waned as he approached the end of his second term, as his promise to forego a third term made him a <a href="/wiki/Lame_duck_(politics)">lame duck</a> and his concentration of power provoked a backlash from many Congressmen.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992463–464-212">[210]</a></sup> He sought a national <a href="/wiki/Incorporation_(business)">incorporation</a> law (at a time when all corporations had state charters), called for a federal <a href="/wiki/Income_tax_in_the_United_States">income tax</a> (despite the Supreme Court's ruling in <i><a href="/wiki/Pollock_v._Farmers%27_Loan_%26_Trust_Co.">Pollock v. Farmers' Loan &amp; Trust Co.</a></i>), and an <a href="/wiki/Estate_tax_in_the_United_States">inheritance tax</a>. In the area of labor legislation, Roosevelt called for limits on the use of court injunctions against labor unions during strikes; injunctions were a powerful weapon that mostly helped business. He wanted an employee liability law for industrial injuries (pre-empting state laws) and an <a href="/wiki/Eight-hour_day">eight-hour work day</a> for federal employees. In other areas he also sought a <a href="/wiki/Postal_savings_system">postal savings system</a> (to provide competition for local banks), and he asked for campaign reform laws.<sup><a href="#cite_note-213">[211]</a></sup>
</p><p>The election of 1904 continued to be a source of contention between Republicans and Democrats. A Congressional investigation in 1905 revealed that corporate executives donated tens of thousands of dollars in 1904 to the <a href="/wiki/Republican_National_Committee">Republican National Committee</a>. In 1908, a month before the general presidential election, Governor <a href="/wiki/Charles_N._Haskell">Charles N. Haskell</a> of Oklahoma, former Democratic Treasurer, said that Senators beholden to Standard Oil lobbied Roosevelt, in the summer of 1904, to authorize the leasing of Indian oil lands by Standard Oil subsidiaries. He said Roosevelt overruled his <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Interior">Secretary of the Interior</a> <a href="/wiki/Ethan_A._Hitchcock_(Interior)">Ethan A. Hitchcock</a> and granted a pipeline franchise to run through the <a href="/wiki/Osage_Nation">Osage lands</a> to the Prairie Oil and Gas Company. The New York <i>Sun</i> made a similar accusation and said that Standard Oil, a refinery who financially benefited from the pipeline, had contributed $150,000 to the Republicans in 1904 (equivalent to $4.5 million in 2021) after Roosevelt's alleged reversal allowing the pipeline franchise. Roosevelt branded Haskell's allegation as "a lie, pure and simple" and obtained a denial from Treasury Secretary <a href="/wiki/L._M._Shaw">Shaw</a> that Roosevelt had neither coerced Shaw nor overruled him.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambers1974219-214">[212]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Rhetoric of righteousness</h4><p>
Roosevelt's rhetoric was characterized by an intense moralism of personal righteousness.<sup><a href="#cite_note-215">[213]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-216">[214]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-217">[215]</a></sup> The tone was typified by his denunciation of "predatory wealth" in a message he sent Congress in January 1908 calling for passage of new labor laws: </p><blockquote><p>Predatory wealth--of the wealth accumulated on a giant scale by all forms of iniquity, ranging from the oppression of wageworkers to unfair and unwholesome methods of crushing out competition, and to defrauding the public by stock jobbing and the manipulation of securities. Certain wealthy men of this stamp, whose conduct should be abhorrent to every man of ordinarily decent conscience, and who commit the hideous wrong of teaching our young men that phenomenal business success must ordinarily be based on dishonesty, have during the last few months made it apparent that they have banded together to work for a reaction. Their endeavor is to overthrow and discredit all who honestly administer the law, to prevent any additional legislation which would check and restrain them, and to secure if possible a freedom from all restraint which will permit every unscrupulous wrongdoer to do what he wishes unchecked provided he has enough money....The methods by which the Standard Oil people and those engaged in the other combinations of which I have spoken above have achieved great fortunes can only be justified by the advocacy of a system of morality which would also justify every form of criminality on the part of a labor union, and every form of violence, corruption, and fraud, from murder to bribery and ballot box stuffing in politics.<sup><a href="#cite_note-218">[216]</a></sup> </p></blockquote>
<h2>Post-presidency (1909–1919)</h2>
<h3>Election of 1908</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:TR_smiling_in_automobile.tif"></a></p><div><p>Roosevelt shortly after leaving office, October 1910</p></div></div>
<p>Roosevelt enjoyed being president and was still relatively youthful, but felt that a limited number of terms provided a check against dictatorship. Roosevelt ultimately decided to stick to his 1904 pledge not to run for a third term. He personally favored Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/Elihu_Root">Elihu Root</a> as his successor, but Root's ill health made him an unsuitable candidate. New York Governor <a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes">Charles Evans Hughes</a> loomed as a potentially strong candidate and shared Roosevelt's progressivism, but Roosevelt disliked him and considered him to be too independent. Instead, Roosevelt settled on his Secretary of War, William Howard Taft, who had ably served under Presidents Harrison, McKinley, and Roosevelt in various positions. Roosevelt and Taft had been friends since 1890, and Taft had consistently supported President Roosevelt's policies.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992483–485-219">[217]</a></sup> Roosevelt was determined to install the successor of his choice, and wrote the following to Taft: "Dear Will: Do you want any action about those federal officials? I will break their necks with the utmost cheerfulness if you say the word!". Just weeks later he branded as "false and malicious" the charge that he was using the offices at his disposal to favor Taft.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997626-220">[218]</a></sup> At the 1908 Republican convention, many chanted for "four years more" of a Roosevelt presidency, but Taft won the nomination after <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge">Henry Cabot Lodge</a> made it clear that Roosevelt was not interested in a third term.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992488–489-221">[219]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/1908_United_States_presidential_election">1908 election</a>, Taft easily defeated the Democratic nominee, three-time candidate <a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan">William Jennings Bryan</a>. Taft promoted a progressivism that stressed the rule of law; he preferred that judges rather than administrators or politicians make the basic decisions about fairness. Taft usually proved to be a less adroit politician than Roosevelt and lacked the energy and personal magnetism, along with the publicity devices, the dedicated supporters, and the broad base of public support that made Roosevelt so formidable. When Roosevelt realized that lowering the tariff would risk creating severe tensions inside the Republican Party by pitting producers (manufacturers, industrial workers, and farmers) against merchants and consumers, he stopped talking about the issue. Taft ignored the risks and tackled the tariff boldly, encouraging reformers to fight for lower rates, and then cutting deals with conservative leaders that kept overall rates high. The resulting <a href="/wiki/Payne-Aldrich_tariff">Payne-Aldrich tariff</a> of 1909, signed into law early in President Taft's tenure, was too high for most reformers, and Taft's handling of the tariff alienated all sides. While the crisis was building inside the Party, Roosevelt was touring Africa and Europe, to allow Taft space to be his own man.<sup><a href="#cite_note-222">[220]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Africa and Europe (1909–1910)</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Roosevelt_safari_elephant.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Roosevelt standing next to the elephant he shot on safari</p></div></div>
<p>In March 1909, the ex-president left the country for the <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian-Roosevelt_African_Expedition">Smithsonian-Roosevelt African Expedition</a>, a safari in <a href="/wiki/East_Africa">east</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Africa">central Africa</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Science1908-223">[221]</a></sup> Roosevelt's party landed in <a href="/wiki/Mombasa">Mombasa</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_East_Africa">East Africa</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Kenya">Kenya</a>) and traveled to the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo">Belgian Congo</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>) before following the Nile River to <a href="/wiki/Khartoum">Khartoum</a> in modern <a href="/wiki/Sudan">Sudan</a>. Well-financed by <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Carnegie">Andrew Carnegie</a> and by his own writings, Roosevelt's large party hunted for specimens for the <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution">Smithsonian Institution</a> and for the <a href="/wiki/American_Museum_of_Natural_History">American Museum of Natural History</a> in New York.<sup><a href="#cite_note-SIA-224">[222]</a></sup> The group, led by the hunter-tracker R.J. Cunninghame, included scientists from the Smithsonian, and was joined from time to time by <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Selous">Frederick Selous</a>, the famous big game hunter and explorer. Participants on the expedition included <a href="/wiki/Kermit_Roosevelt">Kermit Roosevelt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Alexander_Mearns">Edgar Alexander Mearns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Heller">Edmund Heller</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Alden_Loring">John Alden Loring</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-225">[223]</a></sup>
</p><p>The team killed or trapped 11,400 animals,<sup><a href="#cite_note-SIA-224">[222]</a></sup> from insects and moles to hippopotamuses and elephants. The 1,000 large animals included 512 <a href="/wiki/Big-game_hunting">big game</a> animals, including six rare <a href="/wiki/White_rhinoceros">white rhinos</a>. Tons of salted carcases and skins were shipped to Washington; it took years to mount them all, and the Smithsonian shared duplicate specimens with other museums. Regarding the large number of animals taken, Roosevelt said, "I can be condemned only if the existence of the <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History">National Museum</a>, the <a href="/wiki/American_Museum_of_Natural_History">American Museum of Natural History</a>, and all similar zoological institutions are to be condemned".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Toole200567-226">[224]</a></sup> He wrote a detailed account of the safari in the book <i>African Game Trails</i>, recounting the excitement of the chase, the people he met, and the flora and fauna he collected in the name of science.<sup><a href="#cite_note-227">[225]</a></sup>
</p><p>After his safari, Roosevelt traveled north to embark on a tour of Europe. Stopping first in Egypt, he commented favorably on British rule of the region, giving his opinion that Egypt was not yet ready for independence.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992505-228">[226]</a></sup> He refused a meeting with the <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_X">Pope</a> due to a dispute over a group of <a href="/wiki/Methodists">Methodists</a> active in Rome. He met with Emperor <a href="/wiki/Franz_Joseph">Franz Joseph</a> of <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a>, Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, King <a href="/wiki/George_V">George V</a> of Great Britain, and other European leaders. In Oslo, Norway, Roosevelt delivered a speech calling for limitations on naval armaments, a strengthening of the <a href="/wiki/Permanent_Court_of_Arbitration">Permanent Court of Arbitration</a>, and the creation of a "League of Peace" among the world powers.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992505–509-229">[227]</a></sup> He also delivered the <a href="/wiki/Romanes_Lecture">Romanes Lecture</a> at Oxford, in which he denounced those who sought parallels between the evolution of animal life and the development of society.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992511-230">[228]</a></sup> Though Roosevelt attempted to avoid domestic politics, he quietly met with <a href="/wiki/Gifford_Pinchot">Gifford Pinchot</a>, who related his own disappointment with the Taft Administration.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992506–507-231">[229]</a></sup> Pinchot had been forced to resign as head of the forest service after clashing with Taft's Interior Secretary, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Ballinger">Richard Ballinger</a>, who had prioritized development over conservation. Roosevelt returned to the United States in June 1910.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992503,_511-232">[230]</a></sup>
</p><p>In October 1910, Roosevelt became the first U.S. president to fly in an airplane, staying aloft for four minutes in a <a href="/wiki/Wright_Brothers">Wright Brothers</a>-designed craft <a href="/wiki/Kinloch,_Missouri">near St. Louis</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-233">[231]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Republican Party schism</h3>
<p>Roosevelt had attempted to refashion Taft into a copy of himself, but he recoiled as Taft began to display his individuality. He was offended on election night when Taft indicated that his success had been possible not just through the efforts of Roosevelt, but also Taft's half-brother <a href="/wiki/Charles_Phelps_Taft">Charles</a>. Roosevelt was further alienated when Taft, intent on becoming his own man, did not consult him about cabinet appointments.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997665–666-234">[232]</a></sup> Roosevelt and other progressives were ideologically dissatisfied over Taft's conservation policies and his handling of the tariff when he concentrated more power in the hands of conservative party leaders in Congress.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992502–503-235">[233]</a></sup> Stanley Solvick argues that as president Taft abided by the goals and procedures of the "<a href="/wiki/Square_Deal">Square Deal</a>" promoted by Roosevelt in his first term. The problem was that Roosevelt and the more radical progressives had moved on to more aggressive goals, such as curbing the judiciary, which Taft rejected.<sup><a href="#cite_note-236">[234]</a></sup> Regarding radicalism and liberalism, Roosevelt wrote a British friend in 1911:
</p>
<dl><dd>Fundamentally it is the radical liberal with whom I sympathize. He is at least working toward the end for which I think we should all of us strive; and when he adds sanity in moderation to courage and enthusiasm for high ideals he develops into the kind of statesman whom alone I can wholeheartedly support.<sup><a href="#cite_note-237">[235]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<p>Roosevelt urged progressives to take control of the Republican Party at the state and local level and to avoid splitting the party in a way that would hand the presidency to the Democrats in 1912. To that end Roosevelt publicly expressed optimism about the Taft Administration after meeting with the president in June 1910.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992512–513-238">[236]</a></sup>
</p><p>In August 1910, Roosevelt escalated the rivalry with a speech at <a href="/wiki/Osawatomie,_Kansas">Osawatomie, Kansas</a>, which was the most radical of his career. It marked his public break with Taft and the conservative Republicans. Advocating a program he called the "<a href="/wiki/New_Nationalism_(Theodore_Roosevelt)">New Nationalism</a>", Roosevelt emphasized the priority of labor over capital interests, and the need to control corporate creation and combination. He called for a ban on corporate political contributions.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997675-239">[237]</a></sup> Returning to New York, Roosevelt began a battle to take control of the state Republican party from <a href="/wiki/William_Barnes_Jr.">William Barnes Jr.</a>, Tom Platt's successor as the state party boss. Taft had pledged his support to Roosevelt in this endeavor, and Roosevelt was outraged when Taft's support failed to materialize at the 1910 state convention.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992515–516-240">[238]</a></sup> Roosevelt campaigned for the Republicans in the <a href="/wiki/1910_United_States_elections">1910 elections</a>, in which the Democrats gained control of the House for the first time since 1892. Among the newly elected Democrats was New York state senator <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt">Franklin Delano Roosevelt</a>, who argued that he represented his distant cousin's policies better than his Republican opponent.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992517-241">[239]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Republican progressives interpreted the 1910 defeats as a compelling argument for the complete reorganization of the party in 1911.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997683-242">[240]</a></sup> Senator <a href="/wiki/Robert_M._La_Follette">Robert M. La Follette</a> of Wisconsin joined with Pinchot, William White, and California Governor <a href="/wiki/Hiram_Johnson">Hiram Johnson</a> to create the National Progressive Republican League; their objectives were to defeat the power of political bossism at the state level and to replace Taft at the national level.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992518-243">[241]</a></sup> Despite his skepticism of La Follette's new league, Roosevelt expressed general support for progressive principles. Between January and April 1911, Roosevelt wrote a series of articles for <i>The Outlook,</i> defending what he called "the great movement of our day, the progressive nationalist movement against special privilege, and in favor of an honest and efficient political and <a href="/wiki/Industrial_democracy">industrial democracy</a>".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997684-244">[242]</a></sup> With Roosevelt apparently uninterested in running in 1912, La Follette declared his own candidacy in June 1911.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992518-243">[241]</a></sup> Roosevelt continually criticized Taft after the 1910 elections, and the break between the two men became final after the Justice Department filed an <a href="/wiki/Antitrust">antitrust</a> lawsuit against US Steel in September 1911; Roosevelt was humiliated by this suit because he had personally approved of an acquisition that the Justice Department was now challenging. However, Roosevelt was still unwilling to run against Taft in 1912; he instead hoped to run in 1916 against whichever Democrat beat Taft in 1912.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992519-245">[243]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Battling Taft over arbitration treaties</h4>
<p>Taft was world leader for arbitration as a guarantee of world peace. In 1911 he and his Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/Philander_C._Knox">Philander C. Knox</a> negotiated major treaties with Great Britain and France providing that differences be arbitrated. Disputes had to be submitted to the <a href="/wiki/Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907#Hague_Convention_of_1907">Hague Court</a> or other tribunal. These were signed in August 1911 but had to be ratified by a two-thirds vote of the Senate. Neither Taft or Knox consulted with leaders of the Senate during the negotiating process. By then many Republicans were opposed to Taft, and the president felt that lobbying too hard for the treaties might cause their defeat. He made some speeches supporting the treaties in October, but the Senate added amendments Taft could not accept, killing the agreements.<sup><a href="#cite_note-246">[244]</a></sup>
</p><p>The arbitration issue revealed a deep philosophical dispute among American progressives. One faction, led by Taft looked to legal arbitration as the best alternative to warfare. Taft was a constitutional lawyer with a deep understanding of the legal issues.<sup><a href="#cite_note-247">[245]</a></sup> Taft's political base was the conservative business community that largely supported peace movements before 1914. However, he failed to mobilize that base. The businessmen believed that economic rivalries were the cause of war, and that extensive trade led to an interdependent world that would make war a very expensive and useless anachronism.<sup><a href="#cite_note-248">[246]</a></sup>
</p><p>However, an opposing faction of progressives, led by Roosevelt, ridiculed arbitration as foolhardy idealism, and insisted on the realism of warfare as the only solution to serious international disputes. Roosevelt worked with his close friend Senator <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge">Henry Cabot Lodge</a> to impose those amendments that ruined the goals of the treaties. Lodge's motivation was that he complained the treaties impinged too much on senatorial prerogatives.<sup><a href="#cite_note-249">[247]</a></sup> Roosevelt, however, was acting to sabotage Taft's campaign promises.<sup><a href="#cite_note-250">[248]</a></sup> At a deeper level, Roosevelt truly believed that arbitration was a naïve solution and the great issues had to be decided by warfare. The Rooseveltian approach incorporated a near-mystical faith of the ennobling nature of war. It endorsed jingoistic nationalism as opposed to the businessmen's calculation of profit and national interest.<sup><a href="#cite_note-251">[249]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-252">[250]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Election of 1912</h3>
<h4>Republican primaries and convention</h4>
<p>In November 1911, a group of Ohio Republicans endorsed Roosevelt for the party's nomination for president; the endorsers included James R. Garfield and Dan Hanna. This endorsement was made by leaders of President Taft's home state. Roosevelt conspicuously declined to make a statement—requested by Garfield—that he would flatly refuse a nomination. Soon thereafter, Roosevelt said, "I am really sorry for Taft... I am sure he means well, but he means well feebly, and he does not know how! He is utterly unfit for leadership and this is a time when we need leadership." In January 1912, Roosevelt declared "if the people make a draft on me I shall not decline to serve".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997698-253">[251]</a></sup> Later that year, Roosevelt spoke before the Constitutional Convention in Ohio, openly identifying as a progressive and endorsing progressive reforms—even endorsing popular review of state judicial decisions.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997703-254">[252]</a></sup> In reaction to Roosevelt's proposals for popular overrule of court decisions, Taft said, "Such extremists are not progressives—they are political emotionalists or neurotics".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997709-255">[253]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:For_Auld_Lang_Syne_-_Leonard_Raven-Hill.jpg"></a></p><div><p><i>Punch</i> in May 1912 depicts no-holds-barred fight between Taft and Roosevelt.</p></div></div>
<p>Roosevelt began to envision himself as the savior of the Republican Party from defeat in the upcoming presidential election. In February 1912, Roosevelt announced in Boston, "I will accept the nomination for president if it is tendered to me. I hope that so far as possible the people may be given the chance through direct primaries to express who shall be the nominee.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997705-256">[254]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-gloriousr-257">[255]</a></sup> Elihu Root and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge">Henry Cabot Lodge</a> thought that division of the party would lead to its defeat in the next election, while Taft believed that he would be defeated either in the Republican primary or in the general election.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997706-258">[256]</a></sup>
</p><p>The 1912 primaries represented the first extensive use of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_primary">presidential primary</a>, a reform achievement of the progressive movement.<sup><a href="#cite_note-259">[257]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_presidential_primaries,_1912">Republican primaries</a> in the South, where party regulars dominated, went for Taft, as did results in New York, Indiana, Michigan, Kentucky, and Massachusetts. Meanwhile, Roosevelt won in Illinois, Minnesota, Nebraska, South Dakota, California, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. The greatest primary fight came in Ohio, Taft's base. Both the Taft and Roosevelt campaigns worked furiously, and La Follette joined in. Each team sent in big name speakers. Roosevelt's train went 1,800 miles back and forth in the one state, where he made 75 speeches. Taft's train went 3,000 miles criss-crossing Ohio and he made over 100 speeches.Roosevelt swept the state, convincing Roosevelt that he should intensify his campaigning, and letting Taft know he should work from the White House not the stump.<sup><a href="#cite_note-260">[258]</a></sup> Only a third of the states held primaries; elsewhere the state organization chose the delegations to the national convention and they favored Taft. The final credentials of the state delegates at the national convention were determined by the national committee, which was controlled by Taft men.<sup><a href="#cite_note-261">[259]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-262">[260]</a></sup>
</p><p>Prior to the <a href="/wiki/1912_Republican_National_Convention">1912 Republican National Convention</a> in Chicago, Roosevelt expressed doubt about his prospects for victory, noting that Taft had more delegates and control of the credentials committee. His only hope was to convince party leaders that the nomination of Taft would hand the election to the Democrats, but party leaders were determined not to cede their leadership to Roosevelt.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992524-263">[261]</a></sup> The credentials committee awarded 235 contested delegates to Taft and 19 to Roosevelt. Taft won the nomination on the first ballot with 561 votes against 107 for Roosevelt and 41 for La Follette. Of the Roosevelt delegates, 344 refused to vote so they would not be committed to the Republican ticket.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992524–526-264">[262]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-265">[263]</a></sup> Black delegates from the South played a key role: they voted heavily for Taft and put him over the top.<sup><a href="#cite_note-266">[264]</a></sup> La Follette hoped that a deadlocked convention would result in his own nomination, and refused to release his delegates to support Roosevelt.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992524–526-264">[262]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Roosevelt denounces the election</h4><p>
According to <a href="/wiki/Lewis_L._Gould">Lewis L. Gould</a>, in 1912 </p><blockquote><p> Roosevelt saw Taft as the agent of "the forces of reaction and of political crookedness".... Roosevelt had become the most dangerous man in American history, said Taft, "because of his hold upon the less intelligent voters and the discontented." The Republican National Committee, dominated by the Taft forces, awarded 235 delegates to the president and 19 to Roosevelt, thereby ensuring Taft's renomination. Roosevelt believed himself entitled to 72 delegates from Arizona, California, Texas and Washington that had been given to Taft. Firm in his conviction that the nomination was being stolen from him, Roosevelt ....told cheering supporters that there was "a great moral issue" at stake and he should have "sixty to eighty lawfully elected delegates" added to his total....Roosevelt ended his speech declaring: "Fearless of the future; unheeding of our individual fates; with unflinching hearts and undimmed eyes; we stand at Armageddon, and we battle for the Lord!"<sup><a href="#cite_note-267">[265]</a></sup>
</p></blockquote>
<h4>The Progressive ("Bull Moose") Party</h4>
<div>
<div><p></p></div>
<div>
<p>Excerpts from a speech given by Theodore Roosevelt at <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Hall">Carnegie Hall</a>, March 12, 1912. Recorded August 1912 by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison">Thomas Edison</a>. Duration 4:07.</p></div></div>
<p>Once his defeat at the Republican convention appeared probable, Roosevelt announced that he would "accept the progressive nomination on a progressive platform and I shall fight to the end, win or lose". At the same time, Roosevelt prophetically said, "My feeling is that the Democrats will probably win if they nominate a progressive".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997717-268">[266]</a></sup>
</p><p>Roosevelt left the Republican Party and created the Progressive Party, structuring it as a permanent organization that would field complete tickets at the presidential and state level. The new party included many reformers, including <a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams">Jane Addams</a>. Although many Republican politicians had announced for Roosevelt before Taft won the nomination, he was stunned to discover that very few incumbent politicians followed him into the new party. The main exception was California, where the Progressive faction took control of the Republican Party. Loyalty to the old party was a powerful factor for incumbents; only five senators now supported Roosevelt.<sup><a href="#cite_note-269">[267]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-270">[268]</a></sup> Roosevelt's daughter <a href="/wiki/Alice_Roosevelt_Longworth">Alice</a> had a White House marriage to Congressman <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Longworth">Nicholas Longworth</a>, who represented Taft's base in Cincinnati. Roosevelt reassured him in 1912 that of course he had to endorse Taft. However, Alice was her father's biggest cheerleader—the public conflict between spouses ruined the marriage.<sup><a href="#cite_note-271">[269]</a></sup>
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Perkins-pinchot.JPG"></a></p><div><p>1912 editorial cartoon showing George Perkins (left, with checkbook symbolizing control of money) and <a href="/wiki/Amos_Pinchot">Amos Pinchot</a> (wielding an endorsement from Roosevelt campaign manager, Senator <a href="/wiki/Joseph_M._Dixon">Joseph M. Dixon</a>) in battle for Progressive party control</p></div></div>
<p>The leadership of the new party included a wide range of reformers. Jane Addams campaigned vigorously for the new party as a breakthrough in social reform.<sup><a href="#cite_note-272">[270]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gifford_Pinchot">Gifford Pinchot</a> represented the environmentalists and anti-trust crusaders. Publisher <a href="/wiki/Frank_Munsey">Frank Munsey</a> provided much of the cash.<sup><a href="#cite_note-273">[271]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/George_Walbridge_Perkins">George W. Perkins</a>, a leading Wall Street financier and senior partner of <a href="/wiki/J.P._Morgan_%26_Co.">J.P. Morgan bank</a> came from the <a href="/wiki/Efficiency_movement">efficiency movement</a>. He handled the new party's finances efficiently, but was deeply distrusted by many reformers.<sup><a href="#cite_note-274">[272]</a></sup>
</p><p>The new party was popularly known as the "Bull Moose Party" after Roosevelt told reporters, "I'm as fit as a bull moose".<sup><a href="#cite_note-275">[273]</a></sup> At the <a href="/wiki/1912_Progressive_National_Convention">1912 Progressive National Convention</a>, Roosevelt cried out, "We stand at <a href="/wiki/Armageddon">Armageddon</a> and we battle for the Lord." Governor <a href="/wiki/Hiram_Johnson">Hiram Johnson</a> controlled the California party, forcing out the Taft supporters. He was nominated as Roosevelt's running mate.<sup><a href="#cite_note-276">[274]</a></sup>
</p><p>Roosevelt's platform echoed his radical 1907–1908 proposals, calling for vigorous government intervention to protect the people from selfish interests:
</p>
<blockquote><p>To destroy this invisible Government, to dissolve the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/unholy_alliance">unholy alliance</a> between corrupt business and corrupt politics is the first task of the statesmanship of the day.<sup><a href="#cite_note-277">[275]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoosevelt1913[httpwwwbartlebycom5515bhtml_XV._The_Peace_of_Righteousness,_Appendix_B]-278">[276]</a></sup> This country belongs to the people. Its resources, its business, its laws, its institutions, should be utilized, maintained, or altered in whatever manner will best promote the general interest. This assertion is explicit... Mr. Wilson must know that every monopoly in the United States opposes the Progressive party... I challenge him... to name the monopoly that did support the Progressive party, whether... the Sugar Trust, the US Steel Trust, the Harvester Trust, the Standard Oil Trust, the Tobacco Trust, or any other... Ours was the only program to which they objected, and they supported either Mr. Wilson or Mr. Taft.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThayer191925–31Chapter_XXII-279">[277]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>Though many Progressive party activists in the North opposed the steady loss of civil rights for blacks, Roosevelt ran a "<a href="/wiki/Lily-white_movement">lily-white</a>" campaign in the South. Rival all-white and all-black delegations from four southern states arrived at the Progressive national convention, and Roosevelt decided to seat the all-white delegations.<sup><a href="#cite_note-280">[278]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-281">[279]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-282">[280]</a></sup> Nevertheless, he won few votes outside a few traditional Republican strongholds. Out of 1,100 counties in the South, Roosevelt won two counties in Alabama, one in Arkansas, seven in North Carolina, three in Georgia, 17 in Tennessee, two in Texas, one in Virginia, and none in Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, or South Carolina.<sup><a href="#cite_note-283">[281]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Assassination attempt</h4>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Theodore_Roosevelt%27s_medical_x-ray_on_October_14,_1912_assassination_attempt_showing_bullet_to_remain_inside_his_body_for_life,_from-_X-Ray_of_Roosevelt_(shows_bullet)_LCCN2014690853_(cropped).tif"></a></p><div><p>Theodore Roosevelt's medical x-ray on October 14, 1912, after the assassination attempt, showing the bullet that would remain inside his body for life</p></div></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:TR_Assassination_Bullet_Damage.jpg"></a></p></div>
<p>On October 14, 1912, while arriving at a campaign event in <a href="/wiki/Milwaukee,_Wisconsin">Milwaukee, Wisconsin</a>, Roosevelt was shot from seven feet away in front of the Gilpatrick Hotel by a delusional saloonkeeper named <a href="/wiki/John_Flammang_Schrank">John Flammang Schrank</a>, who believed that the ghost of assassinated president William McKinley had directed him to kill Roosevelt.<sup><a href="#cite_note-284">[282]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-285">[283]</a></sup> The bullet lodged in his chest after penetrating his steel eyeglass case and passing through a 50-page-thick single-folded copy of the speech titled "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Progressive_Cause_Greater_Than_Any_Individual">Progressive Cause Greater Than Any Individual</a>", which he was carrying in his jacket.<sup><a href="#cite_note-286">[284]</a></sup> Schrank was immediately disarmed (by <a href="/wiki/Czech_people">Czech</a> immigrant Frank Bukovsky), captured, and might have been lynched had Roosevelt not shouted for Schrank to remain unharmed.<sup><a href="#cite_note-287">[285]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-288">[286]</a></sup> Roosevelt assured the crowd he was all right, then ordered police to take charge of Schrank and to make sure no violence was done to him.<sup><a href="#cite_note-remey-289">[287]</a></sup>
</p><p>As an experienced hunter and anatomist, Roosevelt correctly concluded that since he was not coughing blood, the bullet had not reached his lung. He declined suggestions to go to the hospital immediately and instead delivered a <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/I_have_just_been_shot">90 minute speech</a> with blood seeping into his shirt.<sup><a href="#cite_note-290">[288]</a></sup><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources">unreliable source?</a></i>]</sup> His opening comments to the gathered crowd were, "Ladies and gentlemen, I don't know whether you fully understand that I have just been shot, but it takes more than that to kill a Bull Moose."<sup><a href="#cite_note-291">[289]</a></sup><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources">unreliable source?</a></i>]</sup> Only after finishing his address did he accept medical attention.
</p><p>Subsequent probes and an <a href="/wiki/X-ray">x-ray</a> showed that the bullet had lodged in Roosevelt's chest muscle, but did not penetrate the <a href="/wiki/Pleura">pleura</a>. Doctors concluded that it would be less dangerous to leave it in place than to attempt to remove it, and Roosevelt carried the bullet with him for the rest of his life.<sup><a href="#cite_note-292">[290]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-293">[291]</a></sup> Both Taft and Democratic nominee Woodrow Wilson suspended their own campaigning until Roosevelt recovered and resumed his. When asked if the shooting would affect his election campaign, he said to the reporter "I'm fit as a bull moose." The bull moose became a symbol of both Roosevelt and the Progressive Party, and it often was referred to as simply the Bull Moose Party. He spent two weeks recuperating before returning to the campaign trail. He later wrote a friend about the bullet inside him, "I do not mind it any more than if it were in my waistcoat pocket."<sup><a href="#cite_note-294">[292]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Democratic victory</h4>
<p>After the Democrats nominated Governor <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> of New Jersey, Roosevelt did not expect to win the general election, as Wilson had compiled a record attractive to many progressive Democrats who might have otherwise considered voting for Roosevelt.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992529-295">[293]</a></sup> Roosevelt still campaigned vigorously, and the election developed into a two-person contest despite Taft's quiet presence in the race. Roosevelt respected Wilson, but the two differed on various issues; Wilson opposed any federal intervention regarding <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage">women's suffrage</a> or <a href="/wiki/Child_labor">child labor</a> (he viewed these as state issues), and attacked Roosevelt's tolerance of large businesses.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992529–530-296">[294]</a></sup>
</p><p>Roosevelt won 4.1 million votes (27%), compared to Taft's 3.5 million (23%) and Wilson's gained 6.3 million (42%). Wilson scored a massive landslide in the <a href="/wiki/Electoral_College_(United_States)">Electoral College</a>, with 435 electoral votes; Roosevelt won 88 electoral votes, while Taft won 8. Pennsylvania was the only eastern state won by Roosevelt; in the Midwest, he carried Michigan, Minnesota, and South Dakota; in the West, California, and Washington.<sup><a href="#cite_note-297">[295]</a></sup> Wilson's victory was the first for a Democrat since Cleveland in <a href="/wiki/1892_United_States_presidential_election">1892</a>. It was the party's best <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_presidential_elections_by_Electoral_College_margin">performance in the Electoral College</a> since <a href="/wiki/1852_United_States_presidential_election">1852</a>. Roosevelt, meanwhile, garnered a <a href="/wiki/List_of_third_party_performances_in_United_States_presidential_elections">higher share of the popular vote</a> than any other third-party presidential candidate in history and won the most states of any third-party candidate after the Civil War.<sup><a href="#cite_note-cnnthirdparty1-298">[296]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>South American expedition (1913–1914)</h3>
<p>In 1907 a friend of Roosevelt's, <a href="/wiki/John_Augustine_Zahm">John Augustine Zahm</a>, a professor at the University of Notre Dame, invited Roosevelt to help plan a research expedition to South America. Now was the time to escape politics. To finance it, Roosevelt obtained support from the <a href="/wiki/American_Museum_of_Natural_History">American Museum of Natural History</a> in return for promising to bring back many new animal specimens. Roosevelt's popular book, <i>Through the Brazilian Wilderness</i><sup><a href="#cite_note-299">[297]</a></sup> describes his expedition into the Brazilian jungle in 1913 as a member of the <a href="/wiki/Roosevelt-Rondon_Scientific_Expedition">Roosevelt-Rondon Scientific Expedition</a>, co-named after its leader, Brazilian explorer <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A2ndido_Rondon">Cândido Rondon</a>.
</p>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:River-doubt-team.jpg"></a></p><div><p>From left to right (seated): fr. John Augustine Zahm, Cândido Rondon, Kermit Roosevelt, Cherrie, Miller, four Brazilians, Roosevelt, Fiala. Only Roosevelt, Kermit, Cherrie, Rondon, and the Brazilians traveled down the River of Doubt.</p></div></div>
<p>Once in South America, a new, far more ambitious goal was added: to find the headwaters of the Rio da Duvida (Portuguese for "River of Doubt"), and trace it north to the <a href="/wiki/Madeira_River">Madeira</a> and thence to the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_River">Amazon River</a>. It was later renamed <a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_River">Roosevelt River</a> in honor of the former president. Roosevelt's crew consisted of his son <a href="/wiki/Kermit_Roosevelt">Kermit</a>, Colonel Rondon, naturalist <a href="/wiki/George_Kruck_Cherrie">George Kruck Cherrie</a> (sent by the American Museum of Natural History), Brazilian Lieutenant João Lira, team physician Dr. José Antonio Cajazeira, and 16 skilled paddlers and porters. Roosevelt also identified Leo Miller (another AMNH recommendation), <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Fiala">Anthony Fiala</a>, Frank Harper, and Jacob Sigg as crew members.<sup><a href="#cite_note-300">[298]</a></sup> The initial expedition started somewhat tenuously on December 9, 1913, at the height of the rainy season. The trip down the River of Doubt started on February 27, 1914.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Millard,_2009-301">[299]</a></sup>
</p><p>During the trip down the river, Roosevelt suffered a minor leg wound after he jumped into the river to try to prevent two canoes from smashing against the rocks. The flesh wound he received, however, soon gave him <a href="/wiki/Tropical_fever">tropical fever</a> that resembled the <a href="/wiki/Malaria">malaria</a> he had contracted while in Cuba fifteen years before.<sup><a href="#cite_note-oimjjac-302">[300]</a></sup> Because the bullet lodged in his chest from the assassination attempt in 1912 was never removed, his health worsened from the infection.<sup><a href="#cite_note-DeathNews-303">[301]</a></sup> This weakened Roosevelt so greatly that six weeks into the adventure, he had to be attended to day and night by the expedition's physician and his son Kermit. By then, he could not walk because of the infection in his injured leg and an infirmity in the other, which was due to a traffic accident a decade earlier. Roosevelt was riddled with chest pains, fighting a fever that soared to 103 °F (39 °C) and at times made him delirious, at one point constantly reciting the first two lines of <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge">Samuel Taylor Coleridge</a>'s poem "<a href="/wiki/Kubla_Khan">Kubla Khan</a>": "In Xanadu did Kubla Khan / A stately pleasure dome decree". Regarding his condition as a threat to the survival of the others, Roosevelt insisted he be left behind to allow the poorly provisioned expedition to proceed as rapidly as it could, preparing to commit suicide with an overdose of <a href="/wiki/Morphine">morphine</a>. Only an appeal by his son persuaded him to continue.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Millard,_2009-301">[299]</a></sup>
</p><p>Despite Roosevelt's continued decline and loss of over 50 pounds (23 kg), Colonel Rondon reduced the pace of the expedition to allow for his commission's mapmaking and other geographical tasks, which required regular stops to fix the expedition's position by sun-based survey. Upon Roosevelt's return to New York, friends and family were startled by his physical appearance and fatigue. Roosevelt wrote, perhaps prophetically, to a friend that the trip had cut his life short by ten years. For the rest of his few remaining years, he would be plagued by flare-ups of malaria and leg inflammations so severe as to require surgery.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThayer19194–7-304">[302]</a></sup> Before Roosevelt had even completed his sea voyage home, critics raised doubts over his claims of exploring and navigating a completely uncharted river over 625 miles (1,006 km) long. When he had recovered sufficiently, he addressed a standing-room-only convention organized in Washington, D.C., by the <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Society">National Geographic Society</a> and satisfactorily defended his claims.<sup><a href="#cite_note-Millard,_2009-301">[299]</a></sup><sup>[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources">page needed</a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h3>Final years</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:1914_-_Theodore_Roosevelt_on_balcony_of_Hotel_Allen.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Former President Theodore Roosevelt in Allentown, Pennsylvania, 1914</p></div></div>
<p>Roosevelt returned to the United States in May 1914. Though he was outraged by the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Woodrow_Wilson">Wilson Administration</a>'s conclusion of a treaty that expressed "sincere regret" for the way in which the United States had acquired the <a href="/wiki/Panama_Canal_Zone">Panama Canal Zone</a>, he was impressed by many of the reforms passed under Wilson. Roosevelt made several campaign appearances for the Progressives, but the <a href="/wiki/1914_United_States_elections">1914 elections</a> were a disaster for the fledgling third party.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992539–540-305">[303]</a></sup> Roosevelt began to envision another campaign for president, this time with himself at the head of the Republican Party, but conservative party leaders remained opposed to Roosevelt.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992548–549-306">[304]</a></sup> In hopes of engineering a joint nomination, the Progressives scheduled the <a href="/wiki/1916_Progressive_National_Convention">1916 Progressive National Convention</a> at the same time as the <a href="/wiki/1916_Republican_National_Convention">1916 Republican National Convention</a>. When the Republicans nominated Charles Evans Hughes, Roosevelt declined the Progressive nomination and urged his Progressive followers to support the Republican candidate.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992550–551-307">[305]</a></sup> Though Roosevelt had long disliked Hughes, he disliked Wilson even more, and he campaigned energetically for the Republican nominee. However, Wilson won the <a href="/wiki/1916_United_States_presidential_election">1916 election</a> by a narrow margin.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992552–553-308">[306]</a></sup> The Progressives disappeared as a party following the 1916 election, and Roosevelt and many of his followers permanently re-joined the Republican Party.<sup><a href="#cite_note-mmcgeary1-309">[307]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>World War I</h4>
<p>When the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War">First World War</a> began in 1914, Roosevelt strongly supported the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I">Allies</a> and demanded a harsher policy against Germany, especially regarding submarine warfare. Roosevelt angrily denounced the foreign policy of President Wilson, calling it a failure regarding the <a href="/wiki/Rape_of_Belgium">atrocities in Belgium</a> and the violations of American rights.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997749–751,_806–809-310">[308]</a></sup> In 1916, while campaigning for Hughes, Roosevelt repeatedly denounced Irish-Americans and German-Americans whom he described as unpatriotic, saying they put the interests of Ireland and Germany ahead of America's by supporting neutrality. He insisted that one had to be 100% American, not a "<a href="/wiki/Hyphenated_American">hyphenated American</a>" who juggled multiple loyalties. In March 1917, Congress gave Roosevelt the authority to raise a maximum of four divisions similar to the <a href="/wiki/Rough_Riders">Rough Riders</a>, and Major <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Russell_Burnham">Frederick Russell Burnham</a> was put in charge of both the general organization and recruitment.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoosevelt1917347-311">[309]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-NYT-1917-0313-312">[310]</a></sup> However, President Wilson announced to the press that he would not send Roosevelt and his volunteers to France, but instead would send an American Expeditionary Force under the command of General <a href="/wiki/John_J._Pershing">John J. Pershing</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-NYT-1917-0517-313">[311]</a></sup> Roosevelt never forgave Wilson, and quickly published <i>The Foes of Our Own Household,</i> an indictment of the sitting president.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoosevelt1917-314">[312]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997781–784-315">[313]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-316">[314]</a></sup> Roosevelt's youngest son, Quentin, a pilot with the American forces in France, was killed when shot down behind German lines on July 14, 1918, at the age of 20. It is said that Quentin's death distressed Roosevelt so much that he never recovered from his loss.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalton2002507-317">[315]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>League of Nations</h4>
<p>Roosevelt was an early supporter of the modern view that there needs to be a global order. In his Nobel prize address of 1910, he said, "it would be a master stroke if those great Powers honestly bent on peace would form a League of Peace, not only to keep the peace among themselves, but to prevent, by force if necessary, its being broken by others."<sup><a href="#cite_note-318">[316]</a></sup> It would have executive power such as the <a href="/wiki/Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907">Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907</a> lacked. He called for American participation.
</p><p>When World War I broke out, Roosevelt proposed "a World League for the Peace of Righteousness", in September 1914, which would preserve sovereignty but limit armaments and require arbitration. He added that it should be "solemnly covenanted that if any nations refused to abide by the decisions of such a court, then others draw the sword in behalf of peace and justice."<sup><a href="#cite_note-319">[317]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-320">[318]</a></sup> In 1915 he outlined this plan more specifically, urging that nations guarantee their entire military force, if necessary, against any nation that refused to carry out arbitration decrees or violated rights of other nations. Though Roosevelt had some concerns about the impact on United States sovereignty, he insisted that such a league would only work if the United States participated as one of the "joint guarantors".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992562–564-321">[319]</a></sup> Roosevelt referred to this plan in a 1918 speech as "the most feasible for...a league of nations."<sup><a href="#cite_note-322">[320]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-323">[321]</a></sup> By this time Wilson was strongly hostile to Roosevelt and Lodge, and developed his own plans for a rather different League of Nations. It became reality along Wilson's lines at the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)">Paris Peace Conference</a> in 1919. Roosevelt denounced Wilson's approach but died before it was adopted at Paris. However, Lodge was willing to accept it with serious reservations. In the end, on March 19, 1920, Wilson had Democratic Senators vote against the League with the <a href="/wiki/Lodge_Reservations">Lodge Reservations</a> and the United States never joined the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations">League of Nations</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-324">[322]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4>Final political activities</h4>
<p>Roosevelt's attacks on Wilson helped the Republicans win control of Congress in the midterm elections of 1918. He declined a request from New York Republicans to run for another gubernatorial term, but attacked Wilson's <a href="/wiki/Fourteen_Points">Fourteen Points</a>, calling instead for the unconditional surrender of Germany. Though his health was uncertain, he was seen as a leading contender for the 1920 Republican nomination, but insisted that, "If they take me, they'll have to take me without a single modification of the things that I have always stood for! <sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992559-325">[323]</a></sup> He wrote <a href="/wiki/William_Allen_White">William Allen White</a>, "I wish to do everything in my power to make the Republican Party the Party of sane, constructive radicalism, just as it was under Lincoln." Accordingly, he told the 1918 state convention of the Maine Republican Party that he stood for old-age pensions, insurance for sickness and unemployment, construction of public housing for low-income families, the reduction of working hours, aid to farmers, and more regulation of large corporations.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992559-325">[323]</a></sup>
</p><p>While his political profile remained high, Roosevelt's physical condition continued to deteriorate throughout 1918 due to the long-term effects of jungle diseases. He was hospitalized for seven weeks late in the year and never fully recovered.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1992564–566-326">[324]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Death</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Theodore_and_Edith_Roosevelt_Grave.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Theodore and Edith Roosevelt's Grave at Youngs Memorial Cemetery</p></div></div>
<p>On the night of January 5, 1919, Roosevelt suffered breathing problems. After receiving treatment from his physician, Dr. George W. Faller, he felt better and went to bed. Roosevelt's last words were "Please put out that light, James" to his family servant <a href="/wiki/James_E._Amos">James E. Amos</a>. Between 4:00 and 4:15 the next morning, Roosevelt, at the age of 60, died in his sleep at <a href="/wiki/Sagamore_Hill_(house)">Sagamore Hill</a> after a blood clot detached from a vein and traveled to his lungs.<sup><a href="#cite_note-DeathNews-303">[301]</a></sup>
</p><p>Upon receiving word of his death, his son Archibald telegraphed his siblings: "The old lion is dead."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalton2002507-317">[315]</a></sup> Woodrow Wilson's vice president, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_R._Marshall">Thomas R. Marshall</a>, said that "Death had to take Roosevelt sleeping, for if he had been awake, there would have been a fight."<sup><a href="#cite_note-327">[325]</a></sup> Following a private farewell service in the North Room at Sagamore Hill, a simple funeral was held at <a href="/wiki/Christ_Episcopal_Church_in_Oyster_Bay">Christ Episcopal Church in Oyster Bay</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris2010556-328">[326]</a></sup> Vice President Thomas R. Marshall, Charles Evans Hughes, <a href="/wiki/Warren_G._Harding">Warren G. Harding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge">Henry Cabot Lodge</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft">William Howard Taft</a> were among the mourners.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris2010556-328">[326]</a></sup> The snow-covered procession route to <a href="/wiki/Youngs_Memorial_Cemetery">Youngs Memorial Cemetery</a> was lined with spectators and a squad of mounted policemen who had ridden from New York City.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris2010554,_556–557-329">[327]</a></sup> Roosevelt was buried on a hillside overlooking Oyster Bay.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris2010554,_557-330">[328]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Writer</h2>
<div>
<div><p></p></div>
<div>
<p>A speech by Roosevelt as a former President</p></div></div>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:T_Rooosevelts_writings.jpg"></a></p><div><p>Part of the <i>Works of Theodore Roosevelt</i></p></div></div>
<p>Roosevelt was a prolific author, writing with passion on subjects ranging from foreign policy to the importance of the national park system. Roosevelt was also an avid reader of poetry. Poet <a href="/wiki/Robert_Frost">Robert Frost</a> said that Roosevelt "was our kind. He quoted poetry to me. He knew poetry."<sup><a href="#cite_note-331">[329]</a></sup>
</p><p>As an editor of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Outlook_(New_York_City)">The Outlook</a></i>, Roosevelt had weekly access to a large, educated national audience. In all, Roosevelt wrote about 18 books (each in several editions), including his autobiography,<sup><a href="#cite_note-332">[330]</a></sup> <i>The Rough Riders</i>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-333">[331]</a></sup> <i>History of the Naval War of 1812</i>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-334">[332]</a></sup> and others on subjects such as ranching, explorations, and wildlife. His most ambitious book was the four volume narrative <i>The Winning of the West</i>, focused on the <a href="/wiki/American_frontier">American frontier</a> in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Roosevelt said that the American character—indeed a new "American race" (ethnic group) had emerged from the heroic wilderness hunters and Indian fighters, acting on the frontier with little government help.<sup><a href="#cite_note-335">[333]</a></sup> Roosevelt also published an account of his 1909–10 African expedition entitled <i>African Game Trails</i>.
</p><p>In 1907, Roosevelt became embroiled in a widely publicized literary debate known as the <a href="/wiki/Nature_fakers_controversy">nature fakers controversy</a>. A few years earlier, naturalist <a href="/wiki/John_Burroughs">John Burroughs</a> had published an article entitled "Real and Sham Natural History" in the <i><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Monthly">Atlantic Monthly</a></i>, attacking popular writers of the day such as <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Thompson_Seton">Ernest Thompson Seton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_G._D._Roberts">Charles G. D. Roberts</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_J._Long">William J. Long</a> for their fantastical representations of wildlife. Roosevelt agreed with Burroughs's criticisms, and published several essays of his own denouncing the booming genre of "naturalistic" animal stories as "yellow journalism of the woods". It was the President himself who popularized the negative term "nature faker" to describe writers who depicted their animal characters with excessive anthropomorphism.<sup><a href="#cite_note-336">[334]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Character and beliefs</h2>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:SagamoreHill.JPG"></a></p></div>
<p>Roosevelt intensely disliked being called "Teddy", despite the widespread public association with said moniker, and was quick to point out this to those who referred to him as such, though it would become widely used by newspapers during his political career.
</p><p>He was an active <a href="/wiki/Freemason">Freemason</a><sup><a href="#cite_note-337">[335]</a></sup> and member of the <a href="/wiki/Sons_of_the_American_Revolution">Sons of the American Revolution</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-338">[336]</a></sup>
</p><p>British scholar <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cunliffe">Marcus Cunliffe</a> evaluates the liberal argument that Roosevelt was an opportunist, exhibitionist, and imperialist. Cunliffe praises TR's versatility, his respect for law, and his sincerity. He argues that Roosevelt's foreign policy was better than his detractors allege. Cunliffe calls him "a big man in several respects," ranking him below Washington, Lincoln, and Jefferson, and on the same level as Franklin D. Roosevelt.<sup><a href="#cite_note-339">[337]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Strenuous life</h3>
<p>Roosevelt had a lifelong interest in pursuing what he called, in an 1899 speech, "<a href="/wiki/The_Strenuous_Life">The Strenuous Life</a>". To this end, he exercised regularly and took up boxing, tennis, hiking, rowing, polo, and horseback riding. He also continued his habit of <a href="/wiki/Skinny-dipping">skinny-dipping</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Potomac_River">Potomac River</a> during the winter.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThayer191922–24Chapter_XVII-340">[338]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-341">[339]</a></sup> As governor of New York, he boxed with sparring partners several times each week, a practice he regularly continued as president until being hit so hard in the face he became blind in his left eye (a fact not made public until many years later). As president, he practiced <a href="/wiki/Judo">judo</a> for two 2-month periods in 1902 and 1904, not attaining any rank.<sup><a href="#cite_note-342">[340]</a></sup> Roosevelt began to believe in the utility of <a href="/wiki/Jiu-jitsu">jiu-jitsu</a> training after training with <a href="/wiki/Yamashita_Yoshitsugu">Yoshitsugu Yamashita</a>. Concerned that the United States would lose its military supremacy to rising powers like Japan, Roosevelt began to advocate for jiu-jitsu training for American soldiers.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:0-343">[341]</a></sup> Feminists annoyed by the posturing of men like Roosevelt, insisted that women were just as capable of learning jiu-jitsu. To prove their point, Martha Blow Wadsworth and Maria Louise ("Hallie") Davis Elkins hired Fude Yamashita, a highly skilled jiu-jitsu instructor and the wife of Yoshitsugu Yamashita, to teach a jiu-jitsu class for women and girls in Washington, DC in 1904. Women had already begun training in boxing in the United States as a means of personal and political empowerment. Jiu-jitsu training thus soon also became popular with American women, coinciding with the origins of a women's self-defense movement.<sup><a href="#cite_note-344">[342]</a></sup>
</p><p>Roosevelt was an enthusiastic <a href="/wiki/Singlestick">singlestick</a> player and, according to <i><a href="/wiki/Harper%27s_Weekly">Harper's Weekly</a></i>, showed up at a White House reception with his arm bandaged after a bout with General <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Wood">Leonard Wood</a> in 1905.<sup><a href="#cite_note-345">[343]</a></sup> Roosevelt was an avid reader, reading tens of thousands of books, at a rate of several per day in multiple languages. Along with Thomas Jefferson, Roosevelt was the most well-read of all American presidents.<sup><a href="#cite_note-346">[344]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Warrior</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:1905_cartoon_Theodore_Roosevelt_first_and_war_first_in_peace.jpg"></a></p><div><p>"The Man of the Hour" Roosevelt as Warrior in 1898 and Peacemaker in 1905 settling war between Russia and Japan</p></div></div>
<p>Historians have often emphasized Roosevelt's warrior persona.<sup><a href="#cite_note-347">[345]</a></sup> He took aggressive positions regarding war with Spain in 1898, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Panama_Canal">Colombia in 1903</a>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-348">[346]</a></sup> and especially with Germany, from 1915 to 1917. As a demonstration of American naval might, he sent the "<a href="/wiki/Great_White_Fleet">Great White Fleet</a>" around the world in 1907–1909.<sup><a href="#cite_note-349">[347]</a></sup> The implicit threat of the "big stick" of military power provided leverage to "speak softly" and quietly resolve conflict in numerous cases.<sup><a href="#cite_note-350">[348]</a></sup> He boasted in his autobiography:
</p>
<blockquote><p>When I left the Presidency I finished seven and a half years of administration, during which not one shot had been fired against a foreign foe. We were at absolute peace, and there was no nation in the world with whom a war cloud threatened, no nation in the world whom we had wronged, or from whom we had anything to fear. The cruise of the battle fleet was not the least of the causes which ensured so peaceful an outlook.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoosevelt1913602-351">[349]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>Richard D. White Jr states, "Roosevelt's warrior spirit framed his views of national politics, [and] international relations."<sup><a href="#cite_note-352">[350]</a></sup>
</p><p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Howard_K._Beale">Howard K. Beale</a> has argued:
</p>
<blockquote><p>He and his associates came close to seeking war for its own sake. Ignorant of modern war, Roosevelt romanticized war. ... Like many young men tamed by civilization into law-abiding but adventurous living, he needed an outlet for the pent-up primordial man in him and found it in fighting and killing, vicariously or directly, in hunting or in war. Indeed he had a fairly good time in war when war came. ... There was something dull and effeminate about peace. ... He gloried in war, was thrilled by military history, and placed warlike qualities high in his scale of values. Without consciously desiring it, he thought a little war now and then stimulated admirable qualities in men. Certainly preparedness for war did.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeale195648-353">[351]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<h3>Religion</h3>
<p>Roosevelt attended church regularly and was a lifelong adherent of the <a href="/wiki/Reformed_Church_in_America">Reformed Church in America</a>, the American affiliate of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Reformed_Church">Dutch Reformed Church</a>. He often praised moral behavior but apparently never made a spiritual confession of his own faith. After the 1885 death of his wife, he almost never mentioned Jesus Christ in public or private. Dr. Benjamin J. Wetzel says, "There is little in Roosevelt suggestive of grace, mercy, or redemption."<sup><a href="#cite_note-354">[352]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-355">[353]</a></sup> His rejection of dogma and spirituality, says biographer William Harbaugh, led to a broad tolerance. He campaigned among Protestants, Catholics and Jews, and appointed them to office. He was suspicious of Mormons until they renounced polygamy.<sup><a href="#cite_note-356">[354]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1907, concerning the proposed motto "<a href="/wiki/In_God_We_Trust">In God We Trust</a>" on money, he wrote, "It seems to me eminently unwise to cheapen such a motto by use on coins, just as it would be to cheapen it by use on postage stamps, or in advertisements." Roosevelt talked a great deal about religion. Biographer <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Morris_(writer)">Edmund Morris</a> states:
</p>
<blockquote><p>When consoling bereaved people, he would awkwardly invoke 'unseen and unknown powers.' Aside from a few clichés of Protestant rhetoric, the gospel he preached had always been political and pragmatic. He was inspired less by the <a href="/wiki/Passion_of_Christ">Passion of Christ</a> than by the Golden Rule—that appeal to reason amounting, in his mind, to a worldly rather than heavenly law.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris201062-357">[355]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>Roosevelt publicly encouraged church attendance and was a conscientious churchgoer himself. When gas rationing was introduced during the First World War, he walked the three miles from his home at Sagamore Hill to the local church and back, even after a serious operation had made it difficult for him to travel by foot.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReisner1922355-358">[356]</a></sup> It was said that Roosevelt "allowed no engagement to keep him from going to church," and he remained a fervent advocate of the Bible throughout his adult life.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReisner1922305–323,_355-359">[357]</a></sup> According to Christian F. Reisner, "Religion was as natural to Mr. Roosevelt as breathing,"<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReisner1922324-360">[358]</a></sup> and when the travel library for Roosevelt's famous <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian%E2%80%93Roosevelt_African_Expedition">Smithsonian-sponsored African expedition</a> was being assembled, the Bible was, according to his sister, "the first book selected."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReisner1922306-361">[359]</a></sup> In an address delivered to the Long Island Bible Society in 1901, Roosevelt declared that:
</p>
<blockquote><p>Every thinking man, when he thinks, realizes what a very large number of people tend to forget, that the teachings of the Bible are so interwoven and entwined with our whole civic and social life that it would be literally—I do not mean figuratively, I mean literally—impossible for us to figure to ourselves what that life would be if these teachings were removed. We would lose almost all the standards by which we now judge both public and private morals; all the standards toward which we, with more or less of resolution, strive to raise ourselves. Almost every man who has by his lifework added to the sum of human achievement of which the race is proud, has based his lifework largely upon the teachings of the Bible ... Among the greatest men a disproportionately large number have been diligent and close students of the Bible at first hand.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReisner1922306-361">[359]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<h2>Political positions</h2>
<p>When he assumed the presidency, Roosevelt reassured many conservatives, stating that "the mechanism of modern business is so delicate that extreme care must be taken not to interfere with it in a spirit of rashness or ignorance."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeuchtenburg201530–31-362">[360]</a></sup> The following year, Roosevelt asserted the president's independence from business interests by opposing the merger which created the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Securities_Company">Northern Securities Company</a>, and many were surprised that any president, much less an unelected one, would challenge powerful banker <a href="/wiki/J.P._Morgan">J.P. Morgan</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeuchtenburg201532–33-363">[361]</a></sup> In his last two years as president, Roosevelt became increasingly distrustful of <a href="/wiki/Big_business">big business</a>, despite its close ties to the Republican Party.<sup><a href="#cite_note-364">[362]</a></sup> Roosevelt sought to replace the 19th-century <i><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire">laissez-faire</a></i> economic environment with a new economic model which included a larger regulatory role for the federal government. He believed that 19th-century entrepreneurs had risked their fortunes on innovations and new businesses, and that these capitalists had been rightly rewarded. By contrast, he believed that 20th-century capitalists risked little but nonetheless reaped huge and, given the lack of risk, unjust, economic rewards. Without a redistribution of wealth away from the upper class, Roosevelt feared that the country would turn to radicals or fall to revolution.<sup><a href="#cite_note-365">[363]</a></sup> His <a href="/wiki/Square_Deal">Square Deal</a> domestic program had three main goals: conservation of natural resources, control of corporations, and consumer protection.<sup><a href="#cite_note-366">[364]</a></sup> The Square Deal evolved into his program of "<a href="/wiki/New_Nationalism_(Theodore_Roosevelt)">New Nationalism</a>", which emphasized the priority of labor over capital interests and a need to more effectively control corporate creation and combination, and proposed a ban on corporate political contributions.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997675-239">[237]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Foreign policy beliefs</h3>
<p>In the analysis by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Kissinger">Henry Kissinger</a>, Roosevelt was the first president to develop the guideline that it was the duty of the United States to make its enormous power and potential influence felt globally. The idea of being a passive "city on the hill" model that others could look up to, he rejected. Roosevelt, trained in biology, was a <a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinist">social Darwinist</a> who believed in survival of the fittest. The international world in his view was a realm of violence and conflict. The United States had all the economic and geographical potential to be the fittest nation on the globe.<sup><a href="#cite_note-367">[365]</a></sup> The United States had a duty to act decisively. For example, in terms of the <a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a>, America had to prevent European incursions in the Western Hemisphere. But there was more, as he expressed in his famous <a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Corollary">Roosevelt Corollary</a> to the Monroe Doctrine: the U.S. had to be the policeman of the region because unruly, corrupt smaller nations had to be controlled, and if United States did not do it, European powers would in fact intervene and develop their own base of power in the hemisphere in contravention to the Monroe Doctrine.<sup><a href="#cite_note-368">[366]</a></sup>
</p><p>
Roosevelt was a realist and a conservative.<sup><a href="#cite_note-369">[367]</a></sup> He deplored many of the increasingly popular idealistic liberal themes, such as were promoted by <a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan">William Jennings Bryan</a>, the anti-imperialists, and <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a>. Kissinger says he rejected the efficacy of international law. Roosevelt argued that if a country could not protect its own interests, the international community could not help very much. He ridiculed disarmament proposals that were increasingly common. He saw no likelihood of an international power capable of checking wrongdoing on a major scale. As for world government:</p><blockquote><p> I regard the Wilson–Bryan attitude of trusting to fantastic peace treaties, too impossible promises, to all kinds of scraps of paper without any backing in efficient force, as abhorrent. It is infinitely better for a nation and for the world to have the <a href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great">Frederick the Great</a> and <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck">Bismarck</a> tradition as regards foreign policy than to have the Bryan or Bryan–Wilson attitude as a permanent national attitude.... A milk-and-water righteousness unbacked by force is...as wicked as and even more mischievous than force divorced from righteousness.<sup><a href="#cite_note-370">[368]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>On his international outlook, Roosevelt favored <a href="/wiki/Spheres_of_influence">spheres of influence</a>, whereby one great power would generally prevail, such as the United States in the Western Hemisphere or Great Britain in the Indian subcontinent. Japan fit that role and he approved. However he had deep distrust of both Germany and Russia.<sup><a href="#cite_note-371">[369]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Legacy</h2>
<p>Historians credit Roosevelt for changing the nation's political system by permanently placing the "<a href="/wiki/Bully_pulpit">bully pulpit</a>" of the presidency at center stage and making <a href="/wiki/Character_(persona)">character</a> as important as the issues. His accomplishments include trust busting and conservationism. He is a hero to <a href="/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States">liberals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_the_United_States">progressives</a> for his proposals in 1907–1912 that presaged the modern welfare state of the <a href="/wiki/New_Deal">New Deal</a> Era, including <a href="/wiki/Direct_tax">direct federal taxation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Labour_movement">labor reforms</a>, and more <a href="/wiki/Direct_democracy">direct democracy</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Conservationists">conservationists</a> admire Roosevelt for putting the <a href="/wiki/Environmentalism">environment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Altruism">selflessness</a> towards future generations on the national agenda, and <a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States">conservatives</a> and <a href="/wiki/American_nationalism">nationalists</a> respect his commitment to <a href="/wiki/Law_and_order_(politics)">law and order</a>, <a href="/wiki/Civic_engagement">civic duty</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States">military values</a>, as well as his personality of individual <a href="/wiki/Personal_responsibility">self-responsibility</a> and hardiness. Dalton says, "Today he is heralded as the architect of the modern presidency, as a world leader who boldly reshaped the office to meet the needs of the new century and redefined America's place in the world."<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalton20024–5-372">[370]</a></sup>
</p><p>Liberals and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_socialist_movement_in_the_United_States">socialists</a> have also criticized him for his <a href="/wiki/Intervention_(international_law)">interventionist</a> and <a href="/wiki/American_imperialism">imperialist</a> approach to nations he considered "<a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States">uncivilized</a>". Conservatives and <a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_in_the_United_States">libertarians</a> reject his vision of the welfare state and emphasis on the superiority of government over private action. <a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_presidents_of_the_United_States">Historians typically rank</a> Roosevelt among the top five presidents in American history.<sup><a href="#cite_note-373">[371]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-374">[372]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3>Persona and masculinity</h3>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Many_Roles_of_Theodore_Roosevelt.JPG"></a></p><div><p>1910 cartoon showing Roosevelt's many roles from 1899 to 1910</p></div></div>
<p>Dalton says Roosevelt is remembered as "one of the most picturesque personalities who has ever enlivened the landscape".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalton20025-375">[373]</a></sup> His friend, historian <a href="/wiki/Henry_Adams">Henry Adams</a>, proclaimed: "Roosevelt, more than any other man... showed the singular primitive quality that belongs to ultimate matter—the quality that medieval theology assigned to God—he was pure act."<sup><a href="#cite_note-376">[374]</a></sup>
</p><p>Roosevelt's biographers have stressed his personality. <a href="/wiki/Henry_F._Pringle">Henry F. Pringle</a>, who won the <a href="/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize">Pulitzer Prize</a> in biography for his <i>Theodore Roosevelt</i> (1931) stated: "The Theodore Roosevelt of later years was the most adolescent of men... Failure to receive the Medal of Honor for his exploits [in Cuba] had been a grief as real as any of those which swamp childhood in despair. 'You must always remember,' wrote <a href="/wiki/Cecil_Spring_Rice">Cecil Spring Rice</a> in 1904, 'that the President is about six.'"<sup><a href="#cite_note-377">[375]</a></sup>
</p><p>Cooper compared him with Woodrow Wilson and argued that both of them played the roles of warrior and priest.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper1983-378">[376]</a></sup> Dalton stressed Roosevelt's strenuous life.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalton2002-379">[377]</a></sup> Sarah Watts examined the desires of the "Rough Rider in the White House".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2003-380">[378]</a></sup> Brands calls Roosevelt "the last <a href="/wiki/Romanticism">romantic</a>", arguing that his romantic concept of life emerged from his belief that "physical bravery was the highest virtue and war the ultimate test of bravery".<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997x-381">[379]</a></sup>
</p><p>Roosevelt as the exemplar of American masculinity has become a major theme.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETesti1995-382">[380]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-383">[381]</a></sup> As president, he repeatedly warned men that they were becoming too office-bound, too complacent, too comfortable with physical ease and moral laxity, and were failing in their duties to propagate the race and exhibit masculine vigor.<sup><a href="#cite_note-384">[382]</a></sup> French historian <a href="/wiki/Serge_Ricard">Serge Ricard</a> says, "the ebullient apostle of the Strenuous Life offers ideal material for a detailed psycho-historical analysis of aggressive manhood in the changing socio-cultural environment of his era; McKinley, Taft, or Wilson would perhaps inadequately serve that purpose".<sup><a href="#cite_note-385">[383]</a></sup> He promoted competitive sports like boxing and jiu-jitsu for physically strengthening American men.<sup><a href="#cite_note-:0-343">[341]</a></sup> He also believed that organizations like the <a href="/wiki/Boy_Scouts_of_America">Boy Scouts of America</a>, founded in 1910, could help mold and strengthen the character of American boys.<sup><a href="#cite_note-386">[384]</a></sup> Brands shows that heroic displays of bravery were essential to Roosevelt's image and mission:
</p>
<blockquote><p> What makes the hero a hero is the romantic notion that he stands above the tawdry give and take of everyday politics, occupying an ethereal realm where partisanship gives way to patriotism, and division to unity, and where the nation regains its lost innocence, and the people their shared sense of purpose.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands1997372-387">[385]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<h3>Relations with Andrew Carnegie</h3><p>
According to <a href="/wiki/David_Nasaw">David Nasaw</a>, after 1898, when the United States entered a war with Spain, industrialist <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Carnegie">Andrew Carnegie</a> increasingly devoted his energy to supporting pacifism. He sold his steel company and now had the time and the dollars to make an impact. Carnegie strongly opposed the war with Spain and the subsequent imperialistic American takeover of the Philippines. When Roosevelt became president in 1901, Carnegie and Roosevelt were in frequent contact. They exchanged letters, communicated through mutual friends such as Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/John_Hay">John Hay</a>, and met in person. Carnegie offered a steady stream of advice on foreign policy, especially on arbitration. Carnegie hoped that Roosevelt would turn the Philippines free, not realizing he was more of an imperialist and believer in warrior virtues than President McKinley had been. He saluted Roosevelt for forcing Germany and Britain to arbitrate their conflict with Venezuela in 1903, and especially for becoming the mediator who negotiated an end to the war between Russia and Japan in 1907–1908. Roosevelt relied on Carnegie for financing his expedition to <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian%E2%80%93Roosevelt_African_Expedition">Africa in 1909</a>. In return he asked the ex-president to mediate the growing conflict between the two cousins who ruled Britain and Germany. Roosevelt started to do so but the scheme collapsed when king <a href="/wiki/Edward_VII">Edward VII</a> suddenly died.<sup><a href="#cite_note-388">[386]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-389">[387]</a></sup> Nasaw argues that Roosevelt systematically deceived and manipulated Carnegie, and held the elderly man in contempt. Nasaw quotes a private letter Roosevelt wrote to <a href="/wiki/Whitelaw_Reid">Whitelaw Reid</a> in 1905:<sup><a href="#cite_note-390">[388]</a></sup> </p><blockquote><p>[I have] tried hard to like Carnegie, but it is pretty difficult. There is no type of man for whom I feel a more contemptuous abhorrence than for the one who makes a God of mere money-making and at the same time is always yelling out that kind of utterly stupid condemnation of war which in almost every case springs from a combination of defective physical courage, of unmanly shrinking from pain and effort, and of hopelessly twisted ideals. All the suffering from Spanish war comes far short of the suffering, preventable and non-preventable, among the operators of the Carnegie steel works, and among the small investors, during the time that Carnegie was making his fortune....It is as noxious folly to denounce war per se as it is to denounce business per se. Unrighteous war is a hideous evil; but I am not at all sure that it is worse evil than business unrighteousness.</p></blockquote>
<h3>Memorials and cultural depictions</h3>
<div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:South_Dakota_-_Rushmore_American_Flag.jpg"></a></p><p>Theodore Roosevelt on Mount Rushmore (second from right)</p></div><div><p><a href="/wiki/File:MtRushmore_TR_close.jpg"></a></p><p>A close-up of Roosevelt's face</p></div></div>
<p>Roosevelt was included with Presidents George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln at the <a href="/wiki/Mount_Rushmore">Mount Rushmore Memorial</a>, designed in 1927 with the approval of Republican President <a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge">Calvin Coolidge</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-391">[389]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-392">[390]</a></sup>
</p><p>For his gallantry at San Juan Hill, Roosevelt's commanders recommended him for the <a href="/wiki/Medal_of_Honor">Medal of Honor</a>. However, the initial recommendation lacked any eyewitnesses, and the effort was eventually tainted by Roosevelt's own lobbying of the War Department.<sup><a href="#cite_note-393">[391]</a></sup> In the late 1990s, Roosevelt's supporters again recommended the award, which was denied by the <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_the_Army">Secretary of the Army</a> on basis that the decorations board determined "Roosevelt's bravery in battle did not rise to the level that would justify the Medal of Honor and, indeed, it did not rise to the level of men who fought in that engagement."<sup><a href="#cite_note-394">[392]</a></sup> Nevertheless, politicians apparently convinced the secretary to reconsider the award a third time and reverse himself, leading to the charge that it was a "politically motivated award."<sup><a href="#cite_note-395">[393]</a></sup> On January 16, 2001, President <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> awarded Theodore Roosevelt the Medal of Honor posthumously for his charge on San Juan Hill.<sup><a href="#cite_note-MoH2001-108">[106]</a></sup> He is the only president to have received the Medal of Honor.<sup><a href="#cite_note-396">[394]</a></sup>
</p><p>The United States Navy named two ships for Roosevelt: the <a href="/wiki/USS_Theodore_Roosevelt_(SSBN-600)">USS <i>Theodore Roosevelt</i> (SSBN-600)</a>, a submarine that was in commission from 1961 to 1982, and the <a href="/wiki/USS_Theodore_Roosevelt_(CVN-71)">USS <i>Theodore Roosevelt</i> (CVN-71)</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_carrier">aircraft carrier</a> that has been on active duty in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atlantic_Fleet">Atlantic Fleet</a> since 1986.
</p><p>On November 18, 1956, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Postal_Service">United States Postal Service</a> released a 6¢ <a href="/wiki/Liberty_Issue">Liberty Issue</a> postage stamp honoring Roosevelt. A 32¢ stamp was issued on February 3, 1998, as part of the <a href="/wiki/Celebrate_the_Century">Celebrate the Century</a> stamp sheet series.<sup><a href="#cite_note-397">[395]</a></sup> In 2008, <a href="/wiki/Columbia_Law_School">Columbia Law School</a> awarded Roosevelt a <a href="/wiki/Juris_Doctor">Juris Doctor</a> degree, posthumously making him a member of the class of 1882.<sup><a href="#cite_note-398">[396]</a></sup>
</p><p>Roosevelt's "<a href="/wiki/Big_Stick_ideology">Speak Softly and Carry a Big Stick</a>" ideology is still quoted by politicians and columnists in different countries—not only in English, but also in translations to various other languages.<sup><a href="#cite_note-399">[397]</a></sup> Another lasting, popular legacy of Roosevelt is the stuffed toy bears—<a href="/wiki/Teddy_bear">teddy bears</a>—named after him following an incident on a hunting trip in <a href="/wiki/Mississippi">Mississippi</a> in 1902.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeuchtenburg201530-400">[398]</a></sup>
</p><p>Roosevelt has been portrayed in films and television series such as <i><a href="/wiki/Brighty_of_the_Grand_Canyon">Brighty of the Grand Canyon</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wind_and_the_Lion">The Wind and the Lion</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Rough_Riders_(film)">Rough Riders</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/My_Friend_Flicka_(TV_series)">My Friend Flicka</a></i>,<sup><a href="#cite_note-401">[399]</a></sup><i> and <a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Plainsman">Law of the Plainsman</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-402">[400]</a></sup></i> <a href="/wiki/Robin_Williams">Robin Williams</a> portrayed Roosevelt in the form of a wax <a href="/wiki/Mannequin">mannequin</a> that comes to life in <i><a href="/wiki/Night_at_the_Museum">Night at the Museum</a></i> and its sequels <i><a href="/wiki/Night_at_the_Museum:_Battle_of_the_Smithsonian">Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Night_at_the_Museum:_Secret_of_the_Tomb">Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb</a></i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECullinane2017-403">[401]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-404">[402]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-405">[403]</a></sup> In 2017, it was announced that <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_DiCaprio">Leonardo DiCaprio</a> will portray Roosevelt in a biopic to be directed by <a href="/wiki/Martin_Scorsese">Martin Scorsese</a>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-406">[404]</a></sup> Additionally, Roosevelt appears as the leader of the American civilization in the 2016 <a href="/wiki/Firaxis_Games">Firaxis Games</a>-developed video game <i><a href="/wiki/Civilization_VI">Civilization VI</a></i>.<sup><a href="#cite_note-407">[405]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_National_Park">Theodore Roosevelt National Park</a> in the <a href="/wiki/U.S._state">state</a> of <a href="/wiki/North_Dakota">North Dakota</a> is named after him.<sup><a href="#cite_note-408">[406]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/America_the_Beautiful_Quarters">America the Beautiful Quarters</a> series features Roosevelt riding a horse on the national park's quarter.
</p><p>Asteroid <a href="/wiki/188693_Roosevelt">188693 Roosevelt</a>, discovered by astronomers with the <a href="/wiki/Catalina_Sky_Survey">Catalina Sky Survey</a> in 2005, was named after him.<sup><a href="#cite_note-MPC-object-409">[407]</a></sup> The official <a href="/wiki/Meanings_of_minor_planet_names:_188001%E2%80%93189000#693">naming citation</a> was published by the <a href="/wiki/Minor_Planet_Center">Minor Planet Center</a> on November 8, 2019 (<a href="/wiki/Minor_Planet_Circulars">M.P.C.</a> 118221).<sup><a href="#cite_note-MPC-Circulars-Archive-410">[408]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Peary">Robert Peary</a> named the <a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Range">Roosevelt Range</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Land">Roosevelt Land</a> after him.<sup><a href="#cite_note-411">[409]</a></sup>
</p><p>For eighty years, <a href="/wiki/Equestrian_Statue_of_Theodore_Roosevelt_(New_York_City)">an equestrian statue</a> of the former president, sitting above a <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States">Native American</a> and an <a href="/wiki/African_American">African American</a>, stood in front of New York's <a href="/wiki/American_Museum_of_Natural_History">American Museum of Natural History</a>. In January 2022, after years of lobbying by activists, the statue was removed. Museum president <a href="/wiki/Ellen_V._Futter">Ellen V. Futter</a> said the decision did not reflect a judgment about Roosevelt but was driven by the sculpture's "hierarchical composition".<sup><a href="#cite_note-412">[410]</a></sup><sup><a href="#cite_note-pogrebin-413">[411]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2>Audiovisual media</h2>
<ul><li>Theodore Roosevelt was one of the first presidents whose voice was recorded for posterity. Several of his recorded speeches survive.<sup><a href="#cite_note-414">[412]</a></sup> A 4.6-minute voice recording,<sup><a href="#cite_note-415">[413]</a></sup> which preserves Roosevelt's lower timbre ranges particularly well for its time, is among those available from the <a href="/wiki/Michigan_State_University">Michigan State University</a> libraries (this is the 1912 recording of <i>The Right of the People to Rule</i>, recorded by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison">Thomas Edison</a> at <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Hall">Carnegie Hall</a>). The audio clip sponsored by the Authentic History Center includes his defense<sup><a href="#cite_note-416">[414]</a></sup> of the Progressive Party in 1912, wherein he proclaims it the "party of the people" – in contrast with the other major parties.</li></ul>
<div><div><p>Parade for the school children of San Francisco, down Van Ness Avenue</p></div><div><p>Collection of film clips of Roosevelt</p></div></div>
<ul><li><a href="https://www.loc.gov/item/mp76000114/">Roosevelt goes for a ride</a> in <a href="/wiki/Arch_Hoxsey">Arch Hoxsey</a>'s plane in October 1910<sup><a href="#cite_note-417">[415]</a></sup></li></ul>
<div><p><a href="/wiki/File:Theodore_Roosevelt_and_Archibald_Hoxsey_(1910).jpg"></a></p><div><p>Theodore Roosevelt and pilot Hoxsey at St. Louis, October 11, 1910</p></div></div>
<h2>See also</h2>
<div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_history_of_Theodore_Roosevelt">Electoral history of Theodore Roosevelt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Theodore_Roosevelt">First inauguration of Theodore Roosevelt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_famous_big_game_hunters">List of famous big game hunters</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Theodore_Roosevelt">Second inauguration of Theodore Roosevelt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Digital_Library">Theodore Roosevelt Digital Library</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Presidents_of_the_United_States_on_U.S._postage_stamps">Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Teddy_bear#History">Teddy bear</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/SS_President_Roosevelt_(1921)">SS <i>President Roosevelt</i> (1921)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/SS_President_Roosevelt_(1944)">SS <i>President Roosevelt</i> (1944)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/SS_Roosevelt_(1905)">SS <i>Roosevelt</i> (1905)</a></li></ul></div>
<h2>Notes</h2>
<div><ol>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b> He was vice president under <a href="/wiki/William_McKinley">William McKinley</a> and became president upon <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_William_McKinley">McKinley's assassination</a> on September 14, 1901. This was prior to the adoption of the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution">Twenty-fifth Amendment</a> in 1967, and a vacancy in the office of vice president was not filled until the next election and inauguration.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b> His last name is, according to Roosevelt himself, "pronounced as if it was spelled 'Rosavelt.' That is in three syllables. The first syllable as if it was 'Rose.'"<sup><a href="#cite_note-5">[4]</a></sup>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2>References</h2>
<div><ol>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b> <a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.d0005439849&amp;view=1up&amp;seq=116&amp;skin=2021&amp;q1=Theodore%20Roosevelt,%20of%20New%20York">Congressional record : proceedings and debates ... v.021 pt.01 yr.1889-90 mo.DEC02-FEB03</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220318232711/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.d0005439849&amp;view=1up&amp;seq=116&amp;skin=2021&amp;q1=Theodore%20Roosevelt,%20of%20New%20York">Archived</a> March 18, 2022, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain">public domain</a><i>.</i>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b> <a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015073069703&amp;view=1up&amp;seq=12&amp;skin=2021&amp;q1=Theodore%20Roosevelt,%20resigned">Journal of the executive proceedings of the Senate ... v.30 1895-1897</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220318231049/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015073069703&amp;view=1up&amp;seq=12&amp;skin=2021&amp;q1=Theodore%20Roosevelt,%20resigned">Archived</a> March 18, 2022, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain">public domain</a><i>.</i>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b> <cite>Hart, Albert B.; Ferleger, Herbert R (1989). <a href="https://www.theodoreroosevelt.org/TR%20Web%20Book/TR_CD_to_HTML571.html">"Theodore Roosevelt Cyclopedia"</a> (CD-ROM). Theodore Roosevelt Association. pp. 534–535. Retrieved June 10, 2007.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorris19793_7-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMorris1979">Morris 1979</a>, p. 3.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.nps.gov/thrb/learn/historyculture/annaroosevelt.htm">"Anna Roosevelt – Theodore Roosevelt Birthplace National Historic Site (U.S. National Park Service)"</a>. National Park Service. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210517084507/https://www.nps.gov/thrb/learn/historyculture/annaroosevelt.htm">Archived</a> from the original on May 17, 2021. Retrieved April 4, 2021.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b> <cite>Schriftgiesser, Karl (1942). <i>The Amazing Roosevelt Family, 1613–1942</i>. Wildred Funk, Inc.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b> <cite>Byrne, James Patrick; Coleman, Philip; Jason Francis King. <i>Ireland and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History</i>. p. 848.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-vought_11-0">^</a></b> <cite>Vought, Hans P. (2004). <i>The Bully Pulpit and the Melting Pot: American Presidents and the Immigrant, 1897–1933</i>. Macon, Georgia: Mercer University Press. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86554-887-0"><bdi>0-86554-887-0</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPutnam1958ch_1–2_12-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPutnam1958">Putnam 1958</a>, ch 1–2.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b> Genealogy of the Oyster Bay Roosevelts. <i>Almanac of Theodore Roosevelt</i> <a href="http://www.theodore-roosevelt.com/trfamily.html">online</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161122053608/http://www.theodore-roosevelt.com/trfamily.html">Archived</a> November 22, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Accessed March 14, 2015.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough1981[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnuzmvrqPvdICpgPA93_93–108]_14-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMcCullough1981">McCullough 1981</a>, pp. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nuzmvrqPvdIC&amp;pg=PA93">93–108</a>.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPutnam195823–27_15-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPutnam1958">Putnam 1958</a>, pp. 23–27.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-environment_16-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081224215129/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/tr/envir.html"><i>TR's Legacy — The Environment</i></a>, PBS, archived from <a href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/tr/envir.html">the original</a> on December 24, 2008, retrieved March 6, 2006</cite>.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoosevelt191313_17-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoosevelt1913">Roosevelt 1913</a>, p. 13.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPutnam195863–70_18-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPutnam1958">Putnam 1958</a>, pp. 63–70.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThayer191920_19-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFThayer1919">Thayer 1919</a>, p. 20.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b> Arnaldo Testi, "The gender of reform politics: Theodore Roosevelt and the culture of masculinity." <i>Journal of American History</i> 81.4 (1995): 1509–1533. <a href="https://www.academia.edu/1143163/The_Gender_of_Reform_Politics_Theodore_Roosevelt_and_the_Culture_of_Masculinity_1995_full_text_teaching_material_">online</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191025180531/https://www.academia.edu/1143163/The_Gender_of_Reform_Politics_Theodore_Roosevelt_and_the_Culture_of_Masculinity_1995_full_text_teaching_material_">Archived</a> October 25, 2019, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b> <cite>Beschloss, Michael (May 21, 2014), <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/22/upshot/when-tr-saw-lincoln.html">"When T.R. Saw Lincoln"</a>, <i>New York Times</i>, <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190107021330/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/22/upshot/when-tr-saw-lincoln.html">archived</a> from the original on January 7, 2019, retrieved January 6, 2019</cite>.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://homeschoollifemag.com/blog/topics-in-history-teddy-roosevelt">"Topics in History: Teddy Roosevelt"</a>. <i>home / school / life</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210814081753/https://homeschoollifemag.com/blog/topics-in-history-teddy-roosevelt">Archived</a> from the original on August 14, 2021. Retrieved April 4, 2021.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b> <cite>Brands (1998). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J7jMw0bwRy8C&amp;pg=PA49"><i>T.R.: The Last Romantic</i></a>. p. 49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-06959-0"><bdi>978-0-465-06959-0</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170415214921/https://books.google.com/books?id=J7jMw0bwRy8C&amp;pg=PA49">Archived</a> from the original on April 15, 2017. Retrieved April 15, 2017.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b> <cite>Kohn, Edward P. (2013). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EcZWAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT26"><i>Heir to the Empire City: New York and the Making of Theodore Roosevelt</i></a>. p. 26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-06975-0"><bdi>978-0-465-06975-0</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170415213639/https://books.google.com/books?id=EcZWAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT26">Archived</a> from the original on April 15, 2017. Retrieved April 15, 2017.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller199280–82_25-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, pp. 80–82.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands199762_26-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBrands1997">Brands 1997</a>, p. 62.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b> <cite>Clark, Suzanne (2000). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9trgvNHupVoC&amp;pg=PA74"><i>Cold Warriors: Manliness on Trial in the Rhetoric of the West</i></a>. SIU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8093-2302-9"><bdi>978-0-8093-2302-9</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161119054021/https://books.google.com/books?id=9trgvNHupVoC&amp;pg=PA74">Archived</a> from the original on November 19, 2016. Retrieved October 4, 2016.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b> <cite>Pringle, Henry F. (1931). <a href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.58403"><i>Theodore Roosevelt</i></a>. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.58403/page/n42">27</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-NYT14_29-0">^</a></b> <cite>Bulik, Mark (July 18, 2014). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201222113116/https://www.nytimes.com/times-insider/2014/07/18/1878-theodore-roosevelt-inherits-a-fortune/">"First Glimpses: 1878: Theodore Roosevelt Inherits a Fortune"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times">The New York Times</a></i>. Archived from <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/times-insider/2014/07/18/1878-theodore-roosevelt-inherits-a-fortune/">the original</a> on December 22, 2020. Retrieved December 22, 2020.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands1997110–212,_123–133._quote_p._126_30-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBrands1997">Brands 1997</a>, pp. 110–212, 123–133. quote p. 126.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands1997110–112,_123–133._quote_p._126_31-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBrands1997">Brands 1997</a>, pp. 110–112, 123–133. quote p. 126.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoosevelt191335_32-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFRoosevelt1913">Roosevelt 1913</a>, p. 35.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorris1979565_33-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMorris1979">Morris 1979</a>, p. 565.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-mjcrawford1_34-0">^</a></b> <cite>Crawford, Michael J. (April 2002). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180713113248/http://www.ijnhonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/pdf_crawford.pdf">"The Lasting Influence of Theodore Roosevelt's Naval War of 1812"</a> (PDF). <i>International Journal of Naval History</i>. <b>1</b> (1). Archived from <a href="http://www.ijnhonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/pdf_crawford.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on July 13, 2018. Retrieved October 6, 2017.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b> <cite>Karsten, Peter (1971). "The Nature of "Influence": Roosevelt, Mahan and the Concept of Sea Power". <i>American Quarterly</i>. <b>23</b> (4): 585–600. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2711707">10.2307/2711707</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/2711707">2711707</a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b> Richard W. Turk, <i>The Ambiguous Relationship: Theodore Roosevelt and Alfred Thayer Mahan</i> (1987) <a href="https://www.questia.com/library/2008464/the-ambiguous-relationship-theodore-roosevelt-and">online</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160611162223/https://www.questia.com/library/2008464/the-ambiguous-relationship-theodore-roosevelt-and">Archived</a> June 11, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b> Carl Cavanagh Hodge, "The Global Strategist: The Navy as the Nation's Big Stick", in Serge Ricard, ed., <i>A Companion to Theodore Roosevelt</i> (2011) pp. 257–273
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b> Stephen G. Rabe, <i>Theodore Roosevelt, the Panama Canal, and the Roosevelt Corollary: Sphere of Influence Diplomacy</i>, in Ricard, ed., <i>A Companion to Theodore Roosevelt</i> (2011) pp. 274–292.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org/Research/Digital-Library/Record/ImageViewer?libID=o288503&amp;imageNo=46">"TR Center – ImageViewer"</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170225132633/http://www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org/Research/Digital-Library/Record/ImageViewer?libID=o288503&amp;imageNo=46">Archived</a> from the original on February 25, 2017. Retrieved February 25, 2017.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org/Research/Digital-Library/Record/ImageViewer?libID=o278913&amp;imageNo=1">"TR Center – ImageViewer"</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170225133800/http://www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org/Research/Digital-Library/Record/ImageViewer?libID=o278913&amp;imageNo=1">Archived</a> from the original on February 25, 2017. Retrieved February 25, 2017.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992154–158_41-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, pp. 154–158.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands1997166_42-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBrands1997">Brands 1997</a>, p. 166.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorris1979232_43-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMorris1979">Morris 1979</a>, p. 232.
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Edward P. Kohn, "Theodore Roosevelt's Early Political Career: The Making of an Independent Republican and Urban Progressive" in Ricard, <i>A Companion to Theodore Roosevelt</i> (2011) pp: 27–44.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands1997134–140_45-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBrands1997">Brands 1997</a>, pp. 134–140.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992138–139_46-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, pp. 138–139.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992140–142_47-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, pp. 140–142.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1884/01/01/106134466.pdf">"Mr Sheard to be Speaker"</a> (PDF), <i>The New York Times</i>, January 1, 1884, <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225073137/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1884/01/01/106134466.pdf">archived</a> (PDF) from the original on February 25, 2021, retrieved June 13, 2018</cite>.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992153_49-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, p. 153.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b> Edward P. Kohn, "'A Most Revolting State of Affairs': Theodore Roosevelt's Aldermanic Bill and the New York Assembly City Investigating Committee of 1884", <i>American Nineteenth Century History</i> (2009) 10#1 pp: 71–92.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPutnam1958413–424_51-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPutnam1958">Putnam 1958</a>, pp. 413–424.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands1997171_52-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBrands1997">Brands 1997</a>, p. 171.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPutnam1958445–450_53-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPutnam1958">Putnam 1958</a>, pp. 445–450.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPringle195661_54-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPringle1956">Pringle 1956</a>, p. 61.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPutnam1958445_55-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPutnam1958">Putnam 1958</a>, p. 445.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPutnam1958467_56-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFPutnam1958">Putnam 1958</a>, p. 467.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992161_57-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, p. 161.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.nps.gov/thro/learn/historyculture/theodore-roosevelt-the-rancher.htm">"Theodore Roosevelt the Rancher – Theodore Roosevelt National Park (U.S. National Park Service)"</a>. National Park Service. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210416034727/https://www.nps.gov/thro/learn/historyculture/theodore-roosevelt-the-rancher.htm">Archived</a> from the original on April 16, 2021. Retrieved April 4, 2021.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.nps.gov/thro/learn/historyculture/theodore-roosevelt-the-rancher.htm">"Theodore Roosevelt the Rancher"</a>. <i>Theodore Roosevelt National Park, North Dakota</i>. National Park Service. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190902213054/https://www.nps.gov/thro/learn/historyculture/theodore-roosevelt-the-rancher.htm">Archived</a> from the original on September 2, 2019. Retrieved November 27, 2019.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands1997182_60-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBrands1997">Brands 1997</a>, p. 182.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b> <cite>Roosevelt, Theodore (1902). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BY4-AAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA56"><i>Ranch Life and the Hunting Trail</i></a>. Century. pp. 55–56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-47340-6"><bdi>978-0-486-47340-6</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150407023213/http://books.google.com/books?id=BY4-AAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA56">Archived</a> from the original on April 7, 2015. Retrieved October 17, 2015.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b> <cite>Morrisey, Will (2009). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oS2Kcqjl-VgC&amp;pg=PA41"><i>The Dilemma of Progressivism: How Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson Reshaped the American Regime of Self-Government</i></a>. Rowman &amp; Littlefield. p. 41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-6618-7"><bdi>978-0-7425-6618-7</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150406172847/http://books.google.com/books?id=oS2Kcqjl-VgC&amp;pg=PA41">Archived</a> from the original on April 6, 2015. Retrieved October 17, 2015.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands1997191_63-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBrands1997">Brands 1997</a>, p. 191.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands1997189_64-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBrands1997">Brands 1997</a>, p. 189.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b> Theodore Roosevelt National Park , "Roosevelt Pursues the Boat Thieves" <a href="https://www.nps.gov/thro/learn/historyculture/roosevelt-pursues-boat-thieves.htm">online</a>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorris1979376_66-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMorris1979">Morris 1979</a>, p. 376.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.nps.gov/thro/historyculture/theodore-roosevelt-the-rancher.htm">"Theodore Roosevelt the Rancher"</a>. <i>nps.gov</i>. National Park Service. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150208112452/http://www.nps.gov/thro/historyculture/theodore-roosevelt-the-rancher.htm">Archived</a> from the original on February 8, 2015. Retrieved January 13, 2015. <q>The blow proved disastrous for Roosevelt, who lost over half of his $80,000 investment, the equivalent of approximately $1.7 million today.</q></cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992163–164_68-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, pp. 163–164.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b> Catherine Forslund, "Edith Kermit Carow Roosevelt: The Victorian Modern First Lady" in <i>A Companion to First Ladies</i> (2016): 298–319.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992181–182_70-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, pp. 181–182.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b> <cite>Rice, Sir Cecil Spring (1929), Gwynn, S (ed.), <i>The Letters and Friendships</i>, London: Constable &amp; Co, p. 121</cite>.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992193–194_72-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, pp. 193–194.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b> Edward P. Kohn, "A necessary defeat: theodore roosevelt and the New York mayoral election of 1886." <i>New York History</i> 87.2 (2006): 204-227 <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23183358">online</a>.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992459–460_157-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, pp. 459–460.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-ProgHealth21_158-0">^</a></b> <cite>Engs, Ruth C. (2003). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mNeGQRBgd_MC"><i>The progressive era's health reform movement: a historical dictionary</i></a>. Westport, CT: Praeger. pp. 20–22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-275-97932-6"><bdi>0-275-97932-6</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150407023133/http://books.google.com/books?id=mNeGQRBgd_MC">Archived</a> from the original on April 7, 2015. Retrieved October 17, 2015.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b> Bakari, Mohamed El-Kamel. "Mapping the 'Anthropocentric-ecocentric' Dualism in the History of American Presidency: The Good, the Bad, and the Ambivalent." Journal of Studies in Social Sciences 14, no. 2 (2016).
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992469–471_160-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, pp. 469–471.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b> Douglas Brinkley, <i>The Wilderness Warrior: Theodore Roosevelt and the Crusade for America</i> (2010)
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qgzmexCI734C&amp;pg=PA53"><i>Executing the Constitution: Putting the President Back Into the Constitution</i></a>. State University of New York Press. 2006. p. 53. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-8190-5"><bdi>978-0-7914-8190-5</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161119073515/https://books.google.com/books?id=qgzmexCI734C&amp;pg=PA53">Archived</a> from the original on November 19, 2016. Retrieved August 17, 2016.</cite>
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-Take_up_Your_Pen_163-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Take_up_Your_Pen_163-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Take_up_Your_Pen_163-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Dodds, Graham (2013). <i>Take up Your Pen</i>. University of Pennsylvania. p. 144. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4511-0"><bdi>978-0-8122-4511-0</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_164-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_164-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Dodds, Graham (2013). <i>Take up Your Pen</i>. University of Pennsylvania. p. 146. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4511-0"><bdi>978-0-8122-4511-0</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-executiveorders_165-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/data/orders.php">"Executive Orders"</a>. UCSB. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160820213947/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/data/orders.php">Archived</a> from the original on August 20, 2016. Retrieved August 17, 2016.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b> Morris (2001) pp. 495–496
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b> Gould, <i>Presidency</i> (2011) p. 239.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b> Theodore Roosevelt, <i>The Works of Theodore Roosevelt: National Edition vol 16: American Problems</i> (New York, 1926) p 84, speech of Aug 20, 1907.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b> Roosevelt to <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Moody">William Henry Moody</a>, Sept 21, 1907, in Elting E. Morison, ed., <i>The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt</i> (1952) 5:802.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b> William Michael Morgan, "The anti-Japanese origins of the Hawaiian Annexation treaty of 1897." <i>Diplomatic History</i> 6.1 (1982): 23–44.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b> James K. Eyre Jr, "Japan and the American Annexation of the Philippines." <i>Pacific Historical Review</i> 11.1 (1942): 55–71 <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3632998">online</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211021085938/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3632998">Archived</a> October 21, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b> Michael J. Green, <i>By More Than Providence: Grand Strategy and American Power in the Asia Pacific Since 1783</i> (2019) pp. 78–113.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b> Charles E. Neu, <i>An Uncertain Friendship: Theodore Roosevelt and Japan, 1906–1909</i> (1967) pp. 310–319.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b> Matsumura Masayoshi, "Theodore Roosevelt and the Portsmouth Peace Conference: The Riddle and Ripple of his Forbearance." in <i>Rethinking the Russo-Japanese War, 1904–5</i> (Global Oriental, 2008) pp. 50–60.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b> Kissinger, pp. 41–42
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b> Neu, pp. 263–280
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b> Thomas A. Bailey, "The Root-Takahira Agreement of 1908." <i>Pacific historical review</i> 9.1 (1940): 19–35. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3634124">online</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211023051400/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3634124">Archived</a> October 23, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands1997614–616_178-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBrands1997">Brands 1997</a>, pp. 614–616.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b> Walter LaFeber, "The 'Lion in the Path': The US Emergence as a World Power." <i>Political Science Quarterly</i> 101.5 (1986): 705-718 <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2150973">online</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211023062833/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2150973">Archived</a> October 23, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992382–383_180-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, pp. 382–383.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992450–451_181-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, pp. 450–451.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992387–388_182-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, pp. 387–388.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992399–400_183-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, pp. 399–400.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992397–398_184-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, pp. 397–398.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands1997615–616_185-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBrands1997">Brands 1997</a>, pp. 615–616.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992384_186-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, p. 384.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands1997464_187-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBrands1997">Brands 1997</a>, p. 464.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands1997527_188-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBrands1997">Brands 1997</a>, p. 527.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands1997482–486_189-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBrands1997">Brands 1997</a>, pp. 482–486.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambers1974209–210_190-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFChambers1974">Chambers 1974</a>, pp. 209–210.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambers1974213–214_191-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFChambers1974">Chambers 1974</a>, pp. 213–214.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambers1974215_192-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFChambers1974">Chambers 1974</a>, p. 215.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands1997570_193-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBrands1997">Brands 1997</a>, p. 570.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a></b> Serge Ricard, "The State of Theodore Roosevelt Studies" <a href="http://h-diplo.org/essays/PDF/E116.pdf">"H-Diplo Essay #116", October 24, 2014</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141027133122/http://h-diplo.org/essays/PDF/E116.pdf">Archived</a> October 27, 2014, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a></b> <a href="https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/teddy-roosevelt-travels-to-panama">November 6, 1906 Teddy Roosevelt travels to Panama</a><i>history.com</i>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a></b> <a href="https://www.history.navy.mil/our-collections/photography/us-navy-ships/battleships/louisiana-bb-19.html">USS Louisiana (BB-19)</a> <i>US Navy</i>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-american_chronicle_197-0">^</a></b> <cite>Rouse, Robert (March 15, 2006). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080913094418/http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/6883">"Happy Anniversary to the first scheduled presidential press conference—93 years young!"</a>. American Chronicle. Archived from <a href="http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/6883">the original</a> on September 13, 2008.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a></b> <cite>Weinberg, Arthur; Weinberg, Lila Shaffer (1961). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HXMFrIZ68gwC&amp;pg=PA59"><i>The Muckrakers</i></a>. University of Illinois Press. pp. 58–66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06986-4"><bdi>978-0-252-06986-4</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160427212030/https://books.google.com/books?id=HXMFrIZ68gwC&amp;pg=PA59">Archived</a> from the original on April 27, 2016. Retrieved October 17, 2015.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands1997633–634_199-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBrands1997">Brands 1997</a>, pp. 633–634.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992436–437_200-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, pp. 436–437.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992437–438_201-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992437–438_201-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, pp. 437–438.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands1997501–503_202-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBrands1997">Brands 1997</a>, pp. 501–503.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands1997504_203-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBrands1997">Brands 1997</a>, p. 504.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands1997507_204-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBrands1997">Brands 1997</a>, p. 507.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambers1974215–216_205-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFChambers1974">Chambers 1974</a>, pp. 215–216.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambers1974216_206-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambers1974216_206-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFChambers1974">Chambers 1974</a>, p. 216.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambers1974216–217_207-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambers1974216–217_207-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFChambers1974">Chambers 1974</a>, pp. 216–217.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands1997513–514_208-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBrands1997">Brands 1997</a>, pp. 513–514.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambers1974217–218_209-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFChambers1974">Chambers 1974</a>, pp. 217–218.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a></b> <cite>Gould, Lewis L. (2012). <a href="https://archive.org/details/theodoreroosevel00goul"><i>Theodore Roosevelt</i></a>. Oxford UP. p. <a href="https://archive.org/details/theodoreroosevel00goul/page/2">2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-979701-1"><bdi>978-0-19-979701-1</bdi></a>.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Obit_211-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1912/04/16/100530255.pdf">"Major Archibald Butt"</a> (PDF). <i>The New York Times</i>. April 16, 1912. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181023061916/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1912/04/16/100530255.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on October 23, 2018. Retrieved June 2, 2018.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992463–464_212-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, pp. 463–464.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a></b> Ricard, ed. <i>A companion to Theodore Roosevelt</i> (2011) pp. 160–166.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambers1974219_214-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFChambers1974">Chambers 1974</a>, p. 219.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a></b> Leroy G. Dorsey, "Preaching Morality in Modern America: Theodore Roosevelt's Rhetorical Progressivism." in <i>Rhetoric and Reform in the Progressive Era, A Rhe­torical History of the United States: Significant Moments in American Public Discourse,</i> ed. J. Michael Hogan, (Michigan State University Press, 2003), vol 6 pp 49-83.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a></b> Joshua D. Hawley, <i>Theodore Roosevelt: Preacher of Righteousness</i> (2008), p. xvii. <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Theodore-Roosevelt-Joshua-David-Hawley/dp/0300120109">excerpt</a>. <a href="/wiki/Josh_Hawley">Josh Hawley</a> in 2019 became a Republican senator with intense moralistic rhetoric.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a></b> See also <i>The Independent</i> (Feb. 6, 1908) <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Independent/RjAPAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22justified+by+the+advocacy+of+a+system+of+morality%22&amp;pg=PA275&amp;printsec=frontcover">p. 274 online</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a></b> Roosevelt, 
"Special message to Congress, January 31, 1908," in Elting E. Morison, ed., <i>The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt</i> (Harvard UP, 1952) vol 5 pp. 1580, 1587; online version at <a href="https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/message-congress-workers-compensation">UC Santa Barbara, “The American Presidency Project”</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992483–485_219-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, pp. 483–485.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands1997626_220-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBrands1997">Brands 1997</a>, p. 626.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992488–489_221-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, pp. 488–489.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a></b> <cite>Solvick, Stanley D. (1963). "William Howard Taft and the Payne-Aldrich Tariff". <i>The Mississippi Valley Historical Review</i>. <b>50</b> (3): 424–442. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1902605">10.2307/1902605</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1902605">1902605</a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-Science1908_223-0">^</a></b> <cite>"President Roosevelt's African Trip". <i>Science</i>. <b>28</b> (729): 876–877. December 18, 1908. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1908Sci....28..876.">1908Sci....28..876.</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.28.729.876">10.1126/science.28.729.876</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1635075">1635075</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)">PMID</a> <a href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17743798">17743798</a>.</cite>
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-SIA_224-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SIA_224-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite><a href="http://siarchives.si.edu/collections/siris_sic_193">"Roosevelt African Expedition Collects for SI"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution_Archives">Smithsonian Institution Archives</a>. <a href="https://www.webcitation.org/6BICnW9uH?url=http://siarchives.si.edu/collections/siris_sic_193">Archived</a> from the original on October 9, 2012. Retrieved April 10, 2012.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a></b> <cite>Cevasco, George A. &amp; Harmond, Richard P. (2009). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mTSIPaCr2DYC&amp;pg=PA444"><i>Modern American Environmentalists: A Biographical Encyclopedia</i></a>. JHU Press. p. 444. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-9524-1"><bdi>978-0-8018-9524-1</bdi></a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151116092353/https://books.google.com/books?id=mTSIPaCr2DYC&amp;pg=PA444">Archived</a> from the original on November 16, 2015. Retrieved October 17, 2015.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Toole200567_226-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFO'Toole2005">O'Toole 2005</a>, p. 67.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a></b> <cite>Roosevelt, Theodore (1910). <a href="https://archive.org/details/africangametrail01roos"><i>African Game Trails</i></a>. New York, C. Scribner's sons.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992505_228-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, p. 505.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992505–509_229-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, pp. 505–509.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992511_230-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, p. 511.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992506–507_231-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, pp. 506–507.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992503,_511_232-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, pp. 503, 511.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://airandspace.si.edu/multimedia-gallery/si-93-9672jpg">"Theodore Roosevelt – First Presidential Flight, 1910"</a>. <i>National Air and Space Museum</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210524142502/https://airandspace.si.edu/multimedia-gallery/si-93-9672jpg">Archived</a> from the original on May 24, 2021. Retrieved June 17, 2022.</cite>
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands1997665–666_234-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBrands1997">Brands 1997</a>, pp. 665–666.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992502–503_235-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, pp. 502–503.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a></b> Stanley D. Solvick, "The Conservative as Progressive: William Howard Taft and the Politics of the Square Deal" <i>Northwest Ohio Quarterly</i> (1967) 39#3 pp. 38–48.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a></b> Roosevelt to <a href="/wiki/George_Otto_Trevelyan">George Otto Trevelyan</a>, October 1, 1911, <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161206040012/http://www.theodoreroosevelt.org/site/c.elKSIdOWIiJ8H/b.9294915/k.C9B7/Index_R.htm">in Albert Bushnell Hart, ed., <i> Theodore Roosevelt Cyclopedia</i> (1941) p. 499.</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992512–513_238-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, pp. 512–513.
</li>
<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands1997675_239-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands1997675_239-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFBrands1997">Brands 1997</a>, p. 675.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992515–516_240-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, pp. 515–516.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992517_241-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, p. 517.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands1997683_242-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBrands1997">Brands 1997</a>, p. 683.
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<li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992518_243-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1992518_243-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1992">Miller 1992</a>, p. 518.
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<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands1997372_387-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFBrands1997">Brands 1997</a>, p. 372.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-388">^</a></b> David Nasaw, <i>Carnegie</i> (2006) pp. 650–652, 729–738.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-389">^</a></b> <cite>Ernsberger, Richard Jr. (October 2018). "A Fool for Peace". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_American_History">American History</a></i>. <b>53</b> (4)</cite>; an interview with Nasaw.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-390">^</a></b> Nasaw, <i>Carnegie</i> p. 675.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-391">^</a></b> <cite>Domek, Tom; Hayes, Robert E. (2006). <i>Mt. Rushmore and Keystone</i>. Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-392">^</a></b> <cite>Fite, Gibert C. (2003). <i>Mount Rushmore</i>. Mount Rushmore History Association. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9646798-5-X"><bdi>0-9646798-5-X</bdi></a>.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-393">^</a></b> Mears, The Medal of Honor, 153–154
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-394">^</a></b> Mears, The Medal of Honor, 154
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-395">^</a></b> Mears, The Medal of Honor, 155
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-396">^</a></b> <cite>Dorr, Robert F. (July 1, 2015). <a href="https://www.defensemedianetwork.com/stories/theodore-roosevelts-medal-of-honor/">"Theodore Roosevelt's Medal of Honor"</a>. Defense Media Network. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180213080429/https://www.defensemedianetwork.com/stories/theodore-roosevelts-medal-of-honor/">Archived</a> from the original on February 13, 2018. Retrieved February 12, 2018.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-397">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150618202114/http://arago.si.edu/index.asp?con=1&amp;cmd=1&amp;tid=2041381">"Up 1900s Celebrate The Century Issues"</a>. Smithsonian National Postal Museum. January 1, 1998. Archived from <a href="http://arago.si.edu/index.asp?con=1&amp;cmd=1&amp;tid=2041381">the original</a> on June 18, 2015. Retrieved June 18, 2015.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-398">^</a></b> <cite>Kelly, Erin St. John (September 25, 2008). <a href="https://www.law.columbia.edu/news/archive/presidents-roosevelt-awarded-posthumous-jds">"Presidents Roosevelt Awarded Posthumous J.D.s"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Columbia_Law_School">Columbia Law School</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200926064309/https://www.law.columbia.edu/news/archive/presidents-roosevelt-awarded-posthumous-jds">Archived</a> from the original on September 26, 2020. Retrieved September 28, 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-399">^</a></b> <cite>Fung, Brian (September 24, 2012). <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2012/09/what-does-teddy-roosevelts-big-stick-line-really-mean-anyway/262579/">"What Does Teddy Roosevelt's 'Big Stick' Line Really Mean, Anyway?"</a>. <i>The Atlantic</i>. Washington, DC: Emerson Collective. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200726060142/https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2012/09/what-does-teddy-roosevelts-big-stick-line-really-mean-anyway/262579/">Archived</a> from the original on July 26, 2020. Retrieved June 10, 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeuchtenburg201530_400-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFLeuchtenburg2015">Leuchtenburg 2015</a>, p. 30.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-401">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://ctva.biz/US/Western/MyFriendFlicka.htm">"My Friend Flicka"</a>. Classic Television Archives. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110121120755/http://ctva.biz/US/Western/MyFriendFlicka.htm">Archived</a> from the original on January 21, 2011. Retrieved March 18, 2009.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-402">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0629868/">"Law of the Plainsman"</a>. imdb.com. December 3, 1959. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170209221459/http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0629868/">Archived</a> from the original on February 9, 2017. Retrieved May 22, 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECullinane2017_403-0">^</a></b> <a href="#CITEREFCullinane2017">Cullinane 2017</a>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-404">^</a></b> <cite>Chi, Paul (December 12, 2014). <a href="https://variety.com/2014/scene/news/robin-williams-ben-stiller-night-at-the-museum-premiere-1201378034/">"Ben Stiller, 'Night at the Museum' Cast Honor Robin Williams at Premiere"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Variety_(magazine)">Variety</a></i>. Retrieved October 24, 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-405">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/lists/hollywood-best-presidents-movies-and-tv/morgan-freeman-as-tom-beck/">"24 of Hollywood's Best Presidents in Movies and TV"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hollywood_Reporter">The Hollywood Reporter</a></i>. February 21, 2022. Retrieved October 24, 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-406">^</a></b> <cite>Fleming, Mike Jr. (September 26, 2017). <a href="https://deadline.com/2017/09/leonardo-dicaprio-martin-scorsese-teddy-roosevelt-movie-paramount-1202177329/">"Leonardo DiCaprio &amp; Martin Scorsese Ride Again On Teddy Roosevelt Pic At Paramount"</a>. <i>Deadline.com</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150629041922/http://deadline.com/2017/09/leonardo-dicaprio-martin-scorsese-teddy-roosevelt-movie-paramount-1202177329/">Archived</a> from the original on June 29, 2015. Retrieved September 27, 2017.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-407">^</a></b> <cite>Gurwin, Gabe (June 20, 2016). <a href="https://www.digitaltrends.com/gaming/civilization-vi-roosevelt-culture/">"Teddy Roosevelt will kill you with culture in 'Civilization VI'"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Digital_Trends">Digital Trends</a></i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220308164606/https://www.digitaltrends.com/gaming/civilization-vi-roosevelt-culture/">Archived</a> from the original on March 8, 2022. Retrieved March 8, 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-408">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/national-parks/theodore-roosevelt-national-park">"Theodore Roosevelt National Park"</a>. Travel. <i>National Geographic</i>. November 5, 2009. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180817161229/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/national-parks/theodore-roosevelt-national-park/">Archived</a> from the original on August 17, 2018. Retrieved August 17, 2018.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-MPC-object_409-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id=188693">"(188693) Roosevelt"</a>. <i>Minor Planet Center</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210308120054/https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id=188693">Archived</a> from the original on March 8, 2021. Retrieved November 21, 2019.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-MPC-Circulars-Archive_410-0">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/ECS/MPCArchive/MPCArchive_TBL.html">"MPC/MPO/MPS Archive"</a>. <i>Minor Planet Center</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101007190852/https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/ECS/MPCArchive/MPCArchive_TBL.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 7, 2010. Retrieved November 21, 2019.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-411">^</a></b> <a href="https://www.scribd.com/book/380583976/Race-to-the-Top-of-the-World-Richard-Byrd-and-the-First-Flight-to-the-North-Pole">Race to the Top of the World: Richard Byrd and the First Flight to the North Pole</a>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-412">^</a></b> <cite>Sutton, Benjamin (January 20, 2022). <a href="https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2022/01/20/theodore-roosevelt-statue-amnh-removed">"Controversial statue of Theodore Roosevelt removed from American Museum of Natural History"</a>. <i>The Art Newspaper</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220121040700/https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2022/01/20/theodore-roosevelt-statue-amnh-removed">Archived</a> from the original on January 21, 2022. Retrieved January 25, 2022.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-pogrebin_413-0">^</a></b> <cite>Pogrebin, Robin (June 21, 2020). <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/21/arts/design/roosevelt-statue-to-be-removed-from-museum-of-natural-history.html">"Roosevelt Statue to Be Removed From Museum of Natural History"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200621231116/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/21/arts/design/roosevelt-statue-to-be-removed-from-museum-of-natural-history.html">Archived</a> from the original on June 21, 2020. Retrieved June 21, 2020.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-414">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130603142019/http://vvl.lib.msu.edu/list.php?view_keywords=speaker_roosevelt,%20theodore"><i>Vincent Voice Library</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/Michigan_State_University">Michigan State University</a>, archived from <a href="http://vvl.lib.msu.edu/list.php?view_keywords=speaker_roosevelt,%20theodore">the original</a> (audio clips) on June 3, 2013, retrieved July 17, 2012</cite>.
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-415">^</a></b> <cite><a href="http://www.lib.msu.edu/uri-res/N2L?urn:x-msulib::vvl:DB512">"MSU"</a>. Retrieved September 14, 2010.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-416">^</a></b> <cite><a>Roosevelt, Theodore</a> (1913a). Youngman, Elmer H (ed.). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qLYJAAAAIAAJ"><i>Progressive Principles</i></a>. New York: Progressive National Service. p. 215. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201222104526/https://books.google.com/books?id=qLYJAAAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on December 22, 2020. Retrieved April 14, 2009.</cite>
</li>
<li><b><a href="#cite_ref-417">^</a></b> <cite><a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=roosevelt+in+hoxsey%27s+plane&amp;tbm=isch#imgrc=_">"Some rare photos of flight with Arch Hoxsey"</a>.</cite>
</li>
</ol></div> 
<h2>Print sources</h2>
<h3>Full biographies</h3>
<div>
<ul><li><cite><a href="/wiki/H._W._Brands">Brands, Henry William</a> (1997), <a href="https://archive.org/details/trlastromantic00bran"><i>TR: The Last Romantic</i></a> (full biography), New York: Basic Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-06958-3"><bdi>978-0-465-06958-3</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/36954615">36954615</a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Chessman, G Wallace (1965), <i>Governor Theodore Roosevelt: The Albany Apprenticeship, 1898–1900</i></cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/John_Milton_Cooper">Cooper, John Milton</a> (1983), <a href="https://archive.org/details/warriorpries00coop"><i>The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt</i></a> (dual scholarly biography), <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-94751-1"><bdi>978-0-674-94751-1</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Dalton, Kathleen (2002), <a href="https://archive.org/details/theodoreroosevel00dalt"><i>Theodore Roosevelt: A Strenuous Life</i></a> (full scholarly biography), <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-679-76733-9"><bdi>0-679-76733-9</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Gould, Lewis L (2012), <a href="https://archive.org/details/theodoreroosevel00goul"><i>Theodore Roosevelt</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-979701-1"><bdi>978-0-19-979701-1</bdi></a></cite>, 105 pp, very short biography by leading scholar.</li>
<li><cite>Harbaugh, William Henry (1963), <a href="https://archive.org/details/powerandresponsi012652mbp"><i>The Life and Times of Theodore Roosevelt</i></a> (full scholarly biography), Farrar, Straus And Cudahy</cite>.; also titled <i>Power and responsibility; the life and times of Theodore Roosevelt</i> <a href="https://archive.org/details/powerresponsibil00harb">online</a></li>
<li><cite>Miller, Nathan (1992), <a href="https://archive.org/details/theodoreroosevel00mill"><i>Theodore Roosevelt: A Life</i></a>, William Morrow &amp; Co, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780688067847"><bdi>9780688067847</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Morris_(writer)">Morris, Edmund</a> (1979), <a href="https://archive.org/details/riseoftheodorero00morr"><i>The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt</i></a>, vol. 1. To 1901, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780698107830"><bdi>9780698107830</bdi></a></cite>.
<ul><li><cite>Morris, Edmund (2001), <a href="https://archive.org/details/theodorerex00edmu"><i>Theodore Rex</i></a>, vol. 2. To 1909</cite></li>
<li><cite>Morris, Edmund (2010), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ouQVJQ1C7PIC"><i>Colonel Roosevelt</i></a>, vol. 3, Random House, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-60415-0"><bdi>978-0-679-60415-0</bdi></a>, <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220313192039/https://books.google.com/books?id=ouQVJQ1C7PIC">archived</a> from the original on March 13, 2022, retrieved December 12, 2016</cite></li></ul></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Henry_F._Pringle">Pringle, Henry F</a> (1931), <a href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_0156889439"><i>Theodore Roosevelt</i></a> (full scholarly biography)</cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Pringle, Henry F (1956), <a href="https://archive.org/details/theodoreroosevel00prin"><i>Theodore Roosevelt</i></a> (2nd ed.), New York, Harcourt, Brace</cite></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Carleton_Putnam">Putnam, Carleton</a> (1958), <a href="https://archive.org/details/theodoreroosevel0000putn"><i>Theodore Roosevelt</i></a> (biography), vol. I: The Formative Years</cite>, only volume published, to age 28.</li>
<li><cite>Samuels, Peggy (1997), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1v7PSGbzhDwC"><i>Teddy Roosevelt at San Juan: The Making of a President</i></a>, Texas A&amp;M UP, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89096-771-3"><bdi>978-0-89096-771-3</bdi></a>, <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150407081231/http://books.google.com/books?id=1v7PSGbzhDwC">archived</a> from the original on April 7, 2015, retrieved October 17, 2015</cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Thayer, William Roscoe (1919), <a href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.168636"><i>Theodore Roosevelt: an intimate biography</i></a>, Houghton Mifflin</cite>.</li></ul>
</div>
<h3>Personality and activities</h3>
<div>
<ul><li><cite>Bishop, Joseph Bucklin (2007), <i>Theodore Roosevelt's Letters to His Children</i>, Wildside Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-434-48394-2"><bdi>978-1-434-48394-2</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>DiSilvestro, Roger (2011), <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110326164721/http://www.walkerbooks.com/books/catalog.php?key=884"><i>Theodore Roosevelt in the Badlands: A Young Politician's Quest in the American West</i></a>, Walker &amp; Co, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8027-1721-4"><bdi>978-0-8027-1721-4</bdi></a>, archived from <a href="http://www.walkerbooks.com/books/catalog.php?key=884">the original</a> on March 26, 2011</cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Fehn, Bruce (2005), "Theodore Roosevelt and American Masculinity", <i>Magazine of History</i>, <b>19</b> (2): 52–59, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmaghis%2F19.2.52">10.1093/maghis/19.2.52</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)">ISSN</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0882-228X">0882-228X</a></cite> Provides a lesson plan on TR as the historical figure who most exemplifies the quality of masculinity.</li>
<li><cite>Gluck, Sherwin (1999), <i>TR's Summer White House, Oyster Bay</i></cite>. Chronicles the events of TR's presidency during the summers of his two terms.</li>
<li><cite>Greenberg, David (2011), "Beyond the Bully Pulpit", <i>Wilson Quarterly</i>, <b>35</b> (3): 22–29</cite>. The president's use of publicity, rhetoric and force of personality.</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Candice_Millard">Millard, Candice</a> (2005), <a href="/wiki/The_River_of_Doubt:_Theodore_Roosevelt%27s_Darkest_Journey"><i>The River of Doubt: Theodore Roosevelt's Darkest Journey</i></a></cite>; his deadly 1913–14 trip to the Amazon.</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/David_McCullough">McCullough, David</a> (1981), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nuzmvrqPvdIC"><i>Mornings on Horseback: The Story of an Extraordinary Family, a Vanished Way of Life and the Unique Child Who Became Theodore Roosevelt</i></a>, Simon &amp; Schuster, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-1830-6"><bdi>978-0-7432-1830-6</bdi></a>, <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150407082109/http://books.google.com/books?id=nuzmvrqPvdIC">archived</a> from the original on April 7, 2015, retrieved October 17, 2015</cite>, best seller; to 1886.</li>
<li><cite>——— (2001) [1981], <a href="/wiki/Mornings_on_Horseback,_The_Story_of_an_Extraordinary_Family,_a_Vanished_Way_of_Life,_and_the_Unique_Child_Who_Became_Theodore_Roosevelt"><i>Mornings on Horseback, The Story of an Extraordinary Family, a Vanished Way of Life, and the Unique Child Who Became Theodore Roosevelt</i></a> (popular biography)</cite>, to 1884.</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Patricia_O%27Toole">O'Toole, Patricia</a> (2005), <a href="https://archive.org/details/whentrumpetscall00otoo"><i>When Trumpets Call: Theodore Roosevelt after the White House</i></a>, Simon &amp; Schuster, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-86477-0"><bdi>0-684-86477-0</bdi></a></cite>. 494 pp.</li>
<li><cite>Reisner, Christian F. (1922), <i>Roosevelt's Religion</i>, The Abingdon Press</cite></li>
<li><cite>Renehan, Edward J (1998), <i>The Lion's Pride: Theodore Roosevelt and His Family in Peace and War</i>, Oxford University Press</cite>, examines TR and his family during the World War I period.</li>
<li><cite>Testi, Arnaldo (1995), "The Gender of Reform Politics: Theodore Roosevelt and the Culture of Masculinity", <i>Journal of American History</i>, <b>81</b> (4): 1509–1533, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2081647">10.2307/2081647</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/2081647">2081647</a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Thompson, J Lee (2010), <i>Theodore Roosevelt Abroad: Nature, Empire, and the Journey of an American President</i>, Palgrave Macmillan, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-10277-4"><bdi>978-0-230-10277-4</bdi></a></cite>, 240 pp. TR in Africa &amp; Europe, 1909–10</li>
<li>Wagenknecht, Edward. <i>The seven worlds of Theodore Roosevelt</i> (1958) The seven worlds are those of action, thought, human relations, family, spiritual values, public affairs, and war and peace. <a href="https://archive.org/details/sevenworldsofthe00wage/page/n5/mode/2up">online</a></li>
<li><cite>Watts, Sarah (2003), <i>Rough Rider in the White House: Theodore Roosevelt and the Politics of Desire</i></cite>. 289 pp.</li>
<li><cite>Yarbrough, Jean M (2012), <i>Theodore Roosevelt and the American Political Tradition</i>, University Press of Kansas</cite>, 337 pp; TR's political thought and its significance for republican self-government.</li></ul>
</div>
<h3>Domestic policies</h3>
<div>
<ul><li><cite><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Brinkley">Brinkley, Douglas</a> (2009). <a href="https://archive.org/details/wildernesswarrio00brin_0"><i>The Wilderness Warrior: Theodore Roosevelt and the Crusade for America</i></a>. New York: HarperCollins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780060565282"><bdi>9780060565282</bdi></a>.</cite><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304093826/http://strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pubs/parameters/Articles/2012summer/Individual%20Book%20Reviews/BrinkleyDouglas_TheWilderness_br.pdf">online review</a>; <a href="http://aoucospubs.org/doi/full/10.1525/auk.2011.128.3.595">another online review</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200303143951/http://aoucospubs.org/doi/full/10.1525/auk.2011.128.3.595">Archived</a> March 3, 2020, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li>Cutright, P.R. (1985) <i>Theodore Roosevelt: The making of a Modern Conservationist</i> (U of Illinois Press.)</li>
<li><cite>Dorsey, Leroy G (1997), "The Frontier Myth and Teddy Roosevelt's Fight for Conservation", in Gerster, Patrick; Cords, Nicholas (eds.), <a href="https://archive.org/details/mythamerica0000unse"><i>Myth America: A Historical Anthology</i></a>, vol. II, St. James, NY: Brandywine Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-881089-97-5"><bdi>1-881089-97-5</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Gould, Lewis L (2011), <i>The Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt</i> (2nd ed.)</cite>, standard history of his domestic and foreign policy as president. <a href="https://archive.org/details/presidencyoftheo0000goul_k0b9">online</a></li>
<li><cite>Keller, Morton, ed. (1967), <i>Theodore Roosevelt: A Profile</i> (excerpts from TR and from historians)</cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Murphey, William (March 2013), "Theodore Roosevelt and the Bureau of Corporation: Executive-Corporate Cooperation and the Advancement of the Regulatory State", <i>American Nineteenth Century History</i>, <b>14</b> (1): 73–111, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14664658.2013.774983">10.1080/14664658.2013.774983</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146629376">146629376</a></cite>.</li>
<li>Redekop, Benjamin. (2015). "Embodying the Story: The Conservation Leadership of Theodore Roosevelt". <i>Leadership</i> (2015) DOI:10.1177/1742715014546875 <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160114045519/http://cnu.edu/leadershipstudies/faculty/pdf/redekop-embodying_the_story_theodore_roosevelts_conservation_leadership.pdf">online</a></li>
<li><cite>Swanson, Ryan A (2011), "'I Never Was a Champion at Anything': Theodore Roosevelt's Complex and Contradictory Record as America's 'Sports President'", <i>Journal of Sport History</i>, <b>38</b> (3): 425–446, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.5406%2Fjsporthistory.38.3.425">10.5406/jsporthistory.38.3.425</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159307371">159307371</a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Zacks, Richard (2012), <i>Island of Vice: Theodore Roosevelt's Doomed Quest to Clean Up Sin-Loving New York</i></cite>.</li></ul>
</div>
<h3>Politics</h3>
<div>
<ul><li><cite><a href="/wiki/John_Morton_Blum">Blum, John Morton</a> (1954), <i>The Republican Roosevelt</i>, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/310975">310975</a></cite>. How TR did politics.</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/James_Chace">Chace, James</a> (2004), <a href="https://archive.org/details/1912wilsonroosev00chac"><i>1912: Wilson, Roosevelt, Taft, and Debs: The Election That Changed the Country</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-0394-4"><bdi>978-0-7432-0394-4</bdi></a></cite>, 323 pp.</li>
<li><cite>Chambers, John W. (1974), Woodward, C. Vann (ed.), <i>Responses of the Presidents to Charges of Misconduct</i>, New York, New York: Delacorte Press, pp. 207–237, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-440-05923-2"><bdi>0-440-05923-2</bdi></a></cite></li>
<li>Cowan, Geoffrey. <i>Let the People Rule: Theodore Roosevelt and the Birth of the Presidential Primary</i> (WW Norton, 2016).</li>
<li>Gable, John A. <i>The Bull Moose Years</i> (Kennikat Press Corp., 1978) 300pp on Roosevelt.</li>
<li><cite>Gould, Lewis L (2008), <i>Four Hats in the Ring: The 1912 Election and the Birth of Modern American Politics</i> (by a leading scholar), <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-1564-3"><bdi>978-0-7006-1564-3</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Haverkamp, Michael (2001), <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080305235428/http://publications.ohiohistory.org/ohstemplate.cfm?action=detail&amp;Page=0110121.html&amp;StartPage=121&amp;EndPage=&amp;volume=110&amp;notes=&amp;newtitle=Volume%20110%20Page%20121">"Rossevelt and Taft: How the Republican Vote Split in Ohio in 1912"</a>, <i>Ohio History</i>, <b>110</b> (1): 121–135, archived from <a href="http://publications.ohiohistory.org/ohstemplate.cfm?action=detail&amp;Page=0110121.html&amp;StartPage=121&amp;EndPage=&amp;volume=110&amp;notes=&amp;newtitle=Volume%20110%20Page%20121">the original</a> on March 5, 2008</cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Kohn, Edward P (Spring 2006), "A Necessary Defeat: Theodore Roosevelt and the New York Mayoral Election of 1886", <i>New York History</i>, <b>87</b>: 205–227</cite>.</li>
<li><cite>——— (2006), "Crossing the Rubicon: Theodore Roosevelt, Henry Cabot Lodge, and the 1884 Republican National Convention", <i>Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era</i>, <b>5</b> (1): 18–45, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs1537781400002851">10.1017/s1537781400002851</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)">hdl</a>:<a href="//hdl.handle.net/11693%2F48372">11693/48372</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163282993">163282993</a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Leuchtenburg, William E. (2015), <i>The American President: From Teddy Roosevelt to Bill Clinton</i>, Oxford University Press</cite></li>
<li><cite>Milkis, Sidney M (2009), <i>Theodore Roosevelt, the Progressive Party, and the Transformation of American Democracy</i>, Lawrence: University Press of Kansas</cite>. 361 pp.</li>
<li><cite>Mowry, George E (1939), "Theodore Roosevelt and the Election of 1910", <i>The Mississippi Valley Historical Review</i>, <b>25</b> (4): 523–534, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1892499">10.2307/1892499</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1892499">1892499</a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>——— (1946), <i>Theodore Roosevelt and the Progressive Movement</i></cite>. Focus on 1912; <a href="https://archive.org/details/theodoreroosevel00mowr">online free</a></li>
<li><cite>——— (1954), <i>The Era of Theodore Roosevelt and the Birth of Modern America, 1900–1912</i> (general survey of era)</cite>. <a href="https://archive.org/details/eraoftheodoreroo007107mbp">online free</a></li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Jim_Powell_(historian)">Powell, Jim</a> (2006), <i>Bully Boy: The Truth About Theodore Roosevelt's Legacy</i>, Crown Forum, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-307-23722-2"><bdi>0-307-23722-2</bdi></a></cite>. Attacks TR policies from conservative/libertarian perspective.</li>
<li><cite>Ruddy, Daniel (2016), <i>Theodore the Great: Conservative Crusader</i>, Washington, D.C.: Regnery History, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62157-441-5"><bdi>978-1-62157-441-5</bdi></a></cite></li></ul>
</div>
<h3>Foreign policy, military and naval issues</h3>
<div>
<ul><li><cite>Beale, Howard K (1956), <i>Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power</i> (standard history of his foreign policy)</cite>. <a href="https://archive.org/details/theodoreroosevel0000beal">online</a></li>
<li><cite>Hattendorf, John B., and William P. Leeman (2020), <i>Forging the Trident: Theodore Roosevelt and the United States Navy</i></cite>. <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Forging-Trident-Theodore-Roosevelt-United/dp/1682475344/">excerpt</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211023121557/https://www.amazon.com/Forging-Trident-Theodore-Roosevelt-United/dp/1682475344">Archived</a> October 23, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li><cite>Hendrix, Henry J (2009), <i>Theodore Roosevelt's Naval Diplomacy: The US Navy &amp; the Birth of the American Century</i></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Holmes, James R (2006), <i>Theodore Roosevelt and World Order: Police Power in International Relations</i></cite>. 328 pp.</li>
<li><cite>Jones, Gregg (2012), <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0451229045/ref=sib_dp_pt#reader-link"><i>Honor in the Dust: Theodore Roosevelt, War in the Philippines, and the Rise and Fall of America's Imperial Dream</i></a>, <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210308022034/https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0451229045/ref=sib_dp_pt#reader-link">archived</a> from the original on March 8, 2021, retrieved September 16, 2017</cite></li>
<li>Kuehn, John T. "Theodore Roosevelt's Naval Diplomacy: The U.S. Navy and the Birth of the American Century," <i>Naval War College Review</i> (2010) 53#3 <a href="https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol63/iss3/21">online</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211024152514/https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol63/iss3/21/">Archived</a> October 24, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li>Livermore, Seward W. "Theodore Roosevelt, the American Navy, and the Venezuelan Crisis of 1902–1903." <i>American Historical Review</i> 51.3 (1946): 452–471. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1840109">online</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211021081256/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1840109">Archived</a> October 21, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li><cite>Marks III, Frederick W (1979), <i>Velvet on Iron: The Diplomacy of Theodore Roosevelt</i></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>McCullough, David (1977), <a href="/wiki/The_Path_between_the_Seas:_The_Creation_of_the_Panama_Canal,_1870%E2%80%931914"><i>The Path between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870–1914</i></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Mears, Dwight S. (2018). <i>The Medal of Honor: The Evolution of America's Highest Military Decoration</i>. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-2665-6"><bdi>978-0-7006-2665-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)">OCLC</a> <a href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/1032014828">1032014828</a>.</cite></li>
<li>Nester, William R. <i>Theodore Roosevelt and the Art of American Power: An American for All Time</i> (Rowman &amp; Littlefield, 2019). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220622164240/https://www.amazon.com/Theodore-Roosevelt-Art-American-Power/dp/1498596754/">Archived</a> June 22, 2022, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li>Neu, Charles E. "Theodore Roosevelt and American Involvement in the Far East, 1901–1909." <i>Pacific Historical Review</i> 35.4 (1966): 433–449. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3636977">online</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211022022402/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3636977">Archived</a> October 22, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li>O'Gara, Gordon Carpenter. <i>Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of the Modern Navy.</i> (Princeton UP, 1943). <a href="https://archive.org/details/theodoreroosevel00ogar">online</a></li>
<li><cite>Oyos, Matthew (2011), "Courage, Careers, and Comrades: Theodore Roosevelt and the United States Army Officer Corps", <i>Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era</i>, <b>10</b> (1): 23–58, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs1537781410000022">10.1017/s1537781410000022</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:155074242">155074242</a></cite>.</li>
<li>Oyos, Matthew M. <i>In Command: Theodore Roosevelt and the American Military</i> (2018) <a href="http://www.miwsr.com/2019-004.aspx">online review</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190121232956/http://www.miwsr.com/2019-004.aspx">Archived</a> January 21, 2019, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li>Pietrusza, David (2018). <i>TR's Last War: Theodore Roosevelt, the Great War, and a Journey of Triumph and Tragedy</i></li>
<li><cite>Ricard, Serge (2006), "The Roosevelt Corollary", <i>Presidential Studies Quarterly</i>, <b>36</b> (1): 17–26, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1741-5705.2006.00283.x">10.1111/j.1741-5705.2006.00283.x</a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>——— (2008), "Theodore Roosevelt: Imperialist or Global Strategist in the New Expansionist Age?", <i>Diplomacy and Statecraft</i>, <b>19</b> (4): 639–657, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09592290802564379">10.1080/09592290802564379</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154317468">154317468</a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>Rofe, J Simon (2008), "'Under the Influence of Mahan': Theodore and Franklin Roosevelt and their Understanding of American National Interest", <i>Diplomacy and Statecraft</i>, <b>19</b> (4): 732–745, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09592290802564536">10.1080/09592290802564536</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154454947">154454947</a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>———; Thompson, John M (2011), "Internationalists in Isolationist times – Theodore and Franklin Roosevelt and a Rooseveltian Maxim", <i>Journal of Transatlantic Studies</i>, <b>9</b> (1): 46–62, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14794012.2011.550773">10.1080/14794012.2011.550773</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143650928">143650928</a></cite>.</li>
<li>Thompson, John M. <i>Great Power Rising: Theodore Roosevelt and the Politics of US Foreign Policy</i> (Oxford UP, 2019).</li>
<li><cite>Tilchin, William N (1997), <i>Theodore Roosevelt and the British Empire: A Study in Presidential Statecraft</i></cite></li>
<li><cite>Tilchin, William N; Neu, Charles E, eds. (2006), <i>Artists of Power: Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, and Their Enduring Impact on US Foreign Policy</i>, Praeger</cite>. 196 pp.</li>
<li>Turk, Richard W. <i>The Ambiguous Relationship: Theodore Roosevelt and Alfred Thayer Mahan</i> (1987) <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article-abstract/93/5/1413/70734">online review</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211022023003/https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article-abstract/93/5/1413/70734">Archived</a> October 22, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul>
</div>
<h3>Historiography and memory</h3>
<div>
<ul><li>Bakari, Mohamed El-Kamel. "Mapping the 'Anthropocentric-ecocentric'Dualism in the History of American Presidency: The Good, the Bad, and the Ambivalent." <i>Journal of Studies in Social Sciences</i> 14, no. 2 (2016).</li>
<li>Cullinane, M. Patrick, ed. <i>Remembering Theodore Roosevelt: Reminiscences of his Contemporaries</i> (2021) <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Remembering-Theodore-Roosevelt-Reminiscences-Contemporaries/dp/3030692957/">excerpt</a></li>
<li>Cullinane, M. Patrick. “The Memory of Theodore Roosevelt through Motion Pictures” in <i>A Companion to Theodore Roosevelt,</i> ed. Serge Ricard (Wiley Blackwell, 2011), 502-520.</li>
<li><cite>Cullinane, Michael Patrick (2017). <i>Theodore Roosevelt's Ghost: The History and Memory of an American Icon</i>. LSU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-6672-7"><bdi>978-0-8071-6672-7</bdi></a>.</cite></li>
<li>Cunliffe, Marcus. "Theodore Roosevelt, President of the United States 1901–1908" <i>History Today</i> (Sept 1955) 4#9 pp. 592–601, online.</li>
<li><cite>Dalton, Kathleen (2017). "Changing interpretations of Theodore Roosevelt and the Progressive era". In Nichols, Christopher M.; Unger, Nancy C. (eds.). <i>A Companion to the Gilded Age and Progressive Era</i>. pp. 296–307.</cite></li>
<li>Gable, John. “The Man in the Arena of History: The Historiography of Theodore Roosevelt” in <i>Theodore Roosevelt: Many-Sided American,</i> eds. Natalie Naylor, Douglas Brinkley and John Gable (Interlaken, NY: Hearts of the Lakes, 1992), 613–643.</li>
<li><cite>Grantham, Dewey W. Jr. (January 1961). "Theodore Roosevelt in American Historical Writing, 1945–1960". <i>Mid-America</i>. <b>43</b> (1): 3–35.</cite></li>
<li>Hull, Katy. "Hero, Champion of Social Justice, Benign Friend: Theodore Roosevelt in American Memory." <i>European journal of American studies</i> 13.13-2 (2018). <a href="https://journals.openedition.org/ejas/13403">online</a></li>
<li>Ricard, Serge. "The State of Theodore Roosevelt Studies" <a href="http://h-diplo.org/essays/PDF/E116.pdf"><i>H-Diplo</i> Essay No. 116 24 October 2014 online</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141027133122/http://h-diplo.org/essays/PDF/E116.pdf">Archived</a> October 27, 2014, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li><cite>Ricard, Serge, ed. (2011). <i>A Companion to Theodore Roosevelt</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-3140-0"><bdi>978-1-4443-3140-0</bdi></a>.</cite>, excerpt and text search, 28 new essays by scholars; focus on historiography.</li>
<li><cite>Tilchin, William (Summer 1989). "The Rising Star of Theodore Roosevelt's Diplomacy: Major Studies from Beale to the Present". <i>Theodore Roosevelt Association Journal</i>. <b>15</b> (3): 2–24.</cite></li></ul>
</div>
<h3>Unpublished PhD dissertations</h3>
<p>These are available online at academic libraries.
</p>
<ul><li>Bartley, Shirley. "The Man In The Arena: A Rhetorical Analysis Of Theodore Roosevelt'S Inventional Stance, 1910-1912" (Temple University ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1984. 8410181.</li>
<li>Collin, Richard H. "The Image Of Theodore Roosevelt In American History And Thought, 1885-1965" (New York University Proquest Dissertations Publishing, 1966. 7001489).</li>
<li>Faltyn, Timothy W. "An active-positive leader: Applying James Barber to Theodore Roosevelt's life" (Oklahoma State University ProQuest Dissertations Publishing,  1999. 9942434).</li>
<li>Gable, John Allen. "The Bull Moose Years: Theodore Roosevelt And The Progressive Party, 1912-1916. (Volumes I And Ii)" (Brown University Proquest Dissertations Publishing, 1972. 7302265).</li>
<li>Heth, Jennifer Dawn. "Imagining TR: Commemorations and representations of Theodore Roosevelt in twentieth-century America" (Texas A&amp;M University ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2014. 3717739)</li>
<li>Levine, Stephen Lee. "Race, culture, and art: Theodore Roosevelt and the nationalist aesthetic" (Kent State University ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2001. 3034424).</li>
<li>Mellor, Nathan B. "The leader as mediator: Theodore Roosevelt at Portsmouth—Ronald Reagan at Reykjavik" (Pepperdine University, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2007. 3296771).</li>
<li>Moore, A. Gregory. "The Dilemma Of Stereotypes: Theodore Roosevelt And China, 1901-1909" (Kent State University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1978. 7904808).</li>
<li>Reed, Marvin Elijah, Jr. "Theodore Roosevelt: The Search For Community In The Urban Age" (Tulane University, Graduate Program In Biomedical Sciences Proquest Dissertations Publishing, 1971. 7214199).</li>
<li>Reter, Ronald Francis. "The Real Versus The Rhetorical Theodore Roosevelt In Foreign Policy-Making" (University Of Georgia Proquest Dissertations Publishing, 1973. 7331949).</li></ul>
<h3>Primary sources</h3>
<div>
<ul><li>Auchincloss, Louis, ed. <i>Theodore Roosevelt: Letters and Speeches</i> (2004)</li>
<li>Brands, H. W. <i>The selected letters of Theodore Roosevelt</i> (2001) <a href="https://archive.org/details/selectedletterso00roos">online</a></li>
<li>O'Toole, Patricia ed. <i>In the Words of Theodore Roosevelt : Quotations from the Man in the Arena</i> (Cornell University Press, 2012)</li>
<li>Hart, Albert Bushnell, and Herbert Ronald Ferleger, <i>Theodore Roosevelt Cyclopedia</i> (1941) <a href="https://archive.org/details/theodoreroosevel0000albe">online</a>, short excerpts.</li>
<li>Morison, Elting E. ed. <i>The letters of Theodore Roosevelt</i> (8 vol Harvard UP, 1951-1954); <a href="https://archive.org/details/lettersoftheodor0007elti">vol 7 online covers 1909-1912</a></li>
<li><i>The Complete Works of Theodore Roosevelt </i> (2017) 4500 pages in Kindle format <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Complete-Works-Theodore-Roosevelt-ebook/dp/B0746NN8D3/">online for $1 at Amazon</a></li>
<li>Kohn, Edward P., ed. <i>A Most Glorious Ride: The Diaries of Theodore Roosevelt, 1877–1886</i> (State University of New York Press, 2015), 284 pp.</li>
<li><cite><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Bucklin_Bishop">Bishop, Joseph Bucklin</a>, ed. (1920), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KPMEAAAAYAAJ"><i>Theodore Roosevelt and His Time Shown in His Own Letters vol. 1</i></a>, <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201222105040/https://books.google.com/books?id=KPMEAAAAYAAJ">archived</a> from the original on December 22, 2020, retrieved September 5, 2020</cite>; <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eWcaAAAAYAAJ">vol 2</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160501203826/https://books.google.com/books?id=eWcaAAAAYAAJ">Archived</a> May 1, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li><cite>Roosevelt, Theodore; Roosevelt, Kermit (1926), <a href="https://archive.org/details/East_Of_The_Sun_And_West_Of_The_Moon_"><i>East of the Sun and West of the Moon</i></a>, New York: Scribner</cite></li>
<li><cite><a>Roosevelt, Theodore</a> (1889), <a href="https://archive.org/stream/winningwest16roosgoog"><i>The Winning of the West</i></a>, vol. I, New York and London: G. P. Putnam's Sons</cite></li>
<li><cite>——— (1913), <a href="https://archive.org/details/theodorerooseve05roosgoog"><i>Autobiography</i></a>, New York: <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers">Macmillan</a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>——— (1916), <a href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.273195/"><i>Fear God and Take Your Own Part</i></a>, New York: George H. Doran, <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)">LCCN</a> <a href="//lccn.loc.gov/16003624">16003624</a></cite></li>
<li><cite>——— (1917), <a href="https://archive.org/details/foesourownhouse00roosgoog"><i>The Foes of Our Own Household</i></a>, New York: George H. Doran, <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)">LCCN</a> <a href="//lccn.loc.gov/17025965">17025965</a></cite></li>
<li><cite>——— (1926), <i>The Works</i> (National ed.)</cite>, 20 vol.; 18,000 pages containing most of TR's speeches, books and essays, but not his letters.</li>
<li><cite>——— (1941), Hart, Albert Bushnell; Ferleger, Herbert Ronald (eds.), <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Cyclopedia"><i>Theodore Roosevelt Cyclopedia</i></a></cite>, Roosevelt's opinions on many issues; online version at <a href="https://www.theodoreroosevelt.org/">Theodore Roosevelt</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210510072726/https://www.theodoreroosevelt.org/">Archived</a> May 10, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li>
<li><cite>——— (1951–1954), Morison, Elting E; Blum, John Morton; <a href="/wiki/Alfred_D._Chandler_Jr.">Chandler, Alfred D jr</a> (eds.), <i>The Letters</i> (annotated ed.)</cite>, 8 vols. Very large collection. <a href="https://archive.org/details/eraoftheodoreroo007107mbp">vol 1 1868–1898 online</a></li>
<li><cite>——— (1967), Harbaugh, William (ed.), <i>The Writings</i> (one-volume selection of speeches and essays)</cite>. <a href="https://archive.org/details/writingsoftheodo00roos">online</a></li>
<li><cite>——— (1968), Roosevelt, Archibald (ed.), <i>Theodore Roosevelt on Race, Riots, Reds, Crime</i>, Probe</cite></li>
<li><cite>——— (1999) [1882], <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/9104"><i>The Naval War of 1812 Or the History of the United States Navy during the Last War with Great Britain to Which Is Appended an Account of the Battle of New Orleans</i></a>, New York: The Modern Library, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-375-75419-9"><bdi>0-375-75419-9</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>——— (2001), Brands, HW (ed.), <i>The Selected Letters</i></cite> <a href="https://archive.org/details/selectedletterso00roos">online</a></li>
<li><cite>——— (2004), Auchincloss, Louis (ed.), <i>Theodore Roosevelt, The Rough Riders and an Autobiography</i>, <a href="/wiki/Library_of_America">Library of America</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-931082-65-5"><bdi>978-1-931082-65-5</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>——— (2004), Auchincloss, Louis (ed.), <a href="https://archive.org/details/lettersspeeches00roos"><i>Letters and Speeches</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/Library_of_America">Library of America</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-931082-66-2"><bdi>978-1-931082-66-2</bdi></a></cite>.</li>
<li><cite>———. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/browse/authors/r#a729">"Books and speeches"</a>. Project Gutenberg. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924051814/http://www.gutenberg.org/browse/authors/r#a729">Archived</a> from the original on September 24, 2015. Retrieved October 5, 2010.</cite></li></ul>
</div>
<h2>External links</h2>
<div>
<p></p>
</div>
<h3>Organizations</h3>
<ul><li><a href="http://www.boone-crockett.org/">Boone and Crockett Club</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.theodoreroosevelt.org/">Theodore Roosevelt Association</a></li></ul>
<h3>Libraries and collections</h3>
<ul><li><a href="http://www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org/">Theodore Roosevelt Center</a> at <a href="/wiki/Dickinson_State_University">Dickinson State University</a></li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180606131421/http://www.hcl.harvard.edu/libraries/houghton/collections/roosevelt.cfm">Theodore Roosevelt Collection</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/Houghton_Library">Houghton Library</a>, Harvard University</li>
<li><a href="http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/ft848q64g">Julian L. Street Papers on Theodore Roosevelt</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/Seeley_G._Mudd_Manuscript_Library">Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library</a>, <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University">Princeton University</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.smu.edu/libraries/digitalcollections/bud">Doris A. and Lawrence H. Budner Collection on Theodore Roosevelt</a> at the DeGolyer Library, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Methodist_University">Southern Methodist University</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.historicjournalism.com/theodore-roosevelt.html">Theodore Roosevelt's journalism at The Archive of American Journalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170814084741/http://www.amnh.org/explore/science-topics/theodore-roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt American Museum of Natural History</a></li>
<li><a href="https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/theodore-roosevelt">Works by Theodore Roosevelt in eBook form</a> at <a href="/wiki/Standard_Ebooks">Standard Ebooks</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/729">Works by Theodore Roosevelt</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li>
<li><a href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Roosevelt%2C%20Theodore%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Theodore%20Roosevelt%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Roosevelt%2C%20Theodore%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Theodore%20Roosevelt%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Roosevelt%2C%20T%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Theodore%20Roosevelt%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Roosevelt%2C%20Theodore%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Theodore%20Roosevelt%22%29%20OR%20%28%221858-1919%22%20AND%20Roosevelt%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Theodore Roosevelt</a> at <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive">Internet Archive</a></li>
<li><a href="https://librivox.org/author/1471">Works by Theodore Roosevelt</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) </li>
<li><a href="https://www.loc.gov/collections/theodore-roosevelt-papers/about-this-collection/Thedore">Roosevelt Papers</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress">Library of Congress</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/scrc/findingaids/view.php?eadid=ICU.SPCL.ROOSEVELT">Guide to the Herbert R. Strauss Collection of Theodore Roosevelt Papers 1884–1919</a> at the <a href="https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/scrc/">University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center</a></li></ul>
<h3>Media</h3>
<ul><li><a href="https://archive.org/details/theoroos1912">Theodore Roosevelt Speech Edison Recordings Campaign - 1912</a>, audio recording</li>
<li><a href="http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/r/theodore_roosevelt/index.html">Theodore Roosevelt</a> collected news and commentary at <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times">The New York Times</a></i></li>
<li><a href="http://www.c-span.org/video/?151618-1/life-portrait-theodore-roosevelt">"Life Portrait of Theodore Roosevelt"</a>, from <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/American_Presidents:_Life_Portraits">American Presidents: Life Portraits</a></i>, September 3, 1999</li>
<li><a href="http://www.c-span.org/video/?165366-1/writings-theodore-roosevelt">"Writings of Theodore Roosevelt"</a> from <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/American_Writers:_A_Journey_Through_History">American Writers: A Journey Through History</a></i></li></ul>
<h3>Other</h3>
<ul><li><a href="http://www.theodore-roosevelt.com/">Almanac of Theodore Roosevelt</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/troosevelt/index.html">Theodore Roosevelt: A Resource Guide</a> – <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress">Library of Congress</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/laureate/470">Theodore Roosevelt</a> on Nobelprize.org <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q33866#P8024"></a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0740485/">Theodore Roosevelt</a> at <a href="/wiki/IMDb">IMDb</a></li></ul>
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 Contents

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 * (Top)
 * 1 Early life and family
 + 1.1 Education
 + 1.2 Naval history and strategy
 + 1.3 First marriage and widowerhood
 * 2 Early political career
 + 2.1 State Assemblyman
 + 2.2 Presidential election of 1884
 * 3 Cattle rancher in Dakota
 * 4 Second marriage
 * 5 Reentering public life
 + 5.1 Civil Service Commission
 + 5.2 New York City Police Commissioner
 * 6 Emergence as a national figure
 + 6.1 Assistant Secretary of the Navy
 + 6.2 War in Cuba
 + 6.3 Governor of New York
 + 6.4 Vice presidency (1901)
 * 7 Presidency (1901–1909)
 + 7.1 Domestic policies: The Square Deal
 o 7.1.1 Trust busting and regulation
 o 7.1.2 Coal strike
 o 7.1.3 Prosecuted misconduct
 o 7.1.4 Railroads
 o 7.1.5 Pure food and drugs
 o 7.1.6 Conservation
 o 7.1.7 Business panic of 1907
 + 7.2 Foreign policy
 o 7.2.1 Japan
 o 7.2.2 Europe
 o 7.2.3 Latin America and Panama Canal
 + 7.3 Media
 + 7.4 Election of 1904
 + 7.5 Second term
 o 7.5.1 Rhetoric of righteousness
 * 8 Post-presidency (1909–1919)
 + 8.1 Election of 1908
 + 8.2 Africa and Europe (1909–1910)
 + 8.3 Republican Party schism
 o 8.3.1 Battling Taft over arbitration treaties
 + 8.4 Election of 1912
 o 8.4.1 Republican primaries and convention
 o 8.4.2 Roosevelt denounces the election
 o 8.4.3 The Progressive ("Bull Moose") Party
 o 8.4.4 Assassination attempt
 o 8.4.5 Democratic victory
 + 8.5 South American expedition (1913–1914)
 + 8.6 Final years
 o 8.6.1 World War I
 o 8.6.2 League of Nations
 o 8.6.3 Final political activities
 * 9 Death
 * 10 Writer
 * 11 Character and beliefs
 + 11.1 Strenuous life
 + 11.2 Warrior
 + 11.3 Religion
 * 12 Political positions
 + 12.1 Foreign policy beliefs
 * 13 Legacy
 + 13.1 Persona and masculinity
 + 13.2 Relations with Andrew Carnegie
 + 13.3 Memorials and cultural depictions
 * 14 Audiovisual media
 * 15 See also
 * 16 Notes
 * 17 References
 * 18 Print sources
 + 18.1 Full biographies
 + 18.2 Personality and activities
 + 18.3 Domestic policies
 + 18.4 Politics
 + 18.5 Foreign policy, military and naval issues
 + 18.6 Historiography and memory
 + 18.7 Unpublished PhD dissertations
 + 18.8 Primary sources
 * 19 External links
 + 19.1 Organizations
 + 19.2 Libraries and collections
 + 19.3 Media
 + 19.4 Other
 Toggle the table of contents

 Theodore Roosevelt

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 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 This article is about the president of the United States. For other people with the same name, see Theodore Roosevelt (disambiguation).

 Theodore Roosevelt 
 Portrait by Pach Bros., c. 1904 
  
 26th President of the United States 
 In office  
 September 14, 1901 – March 4, 1909 
  * None (1901–1905)[a] 
 Vice President  * Charles W. Fairbanks 
  (1905–1909) 
 Preceded by  William McKinley 
 Succeeded by William Howard Taft 
 25th Vice President of the United States 
 In office  
 March 4, 1901 – September 14, 1901 
 President  William McKinley 
 Preceded by  Garret Hobart 
 Succeeded by Charles W. Fairbanks 
 33rd Governor of New York 
 In office  
 January 1, 1899 – December 31, 1900 
 Lieutenant  Timothy L. Woodruff 
 Preceded by  Frank S. Black 
 Succeeded by Benjamin Barker Odell Jr. 
 Assistant Secretary of the Navy 
 In office  
 April 19, 1897 – May 10, 1898 
 President  William McKinley 
 Preceded by  William McAdoo 
 Succeeded by Charles Herbert Allen 
 President of the New York City Board of Police Commissioners 
 In office  
 May 6, 1895 – April 19, 1897 
 Appointed by William Lafayette Strong 
 Preceded by  James J. Martin 
 Succeeded by Frank Moss 
 Commissioner of the United States Civil Service Commission 
 In office  
 May 7, 1889[1] – May 6, 1895 
 Appointed by Benjamin Harrison 
 Preceded by  John H. Oberly[2] 
 Succeeded by John B. Harlow[3] 
 Minority Leader of the New York State Assembly 
 In office  
 January 1, 1883 – December 31, 1883 
 Preceded by  Thomas G. Alvord 
 Succeeded by Frank Rice 
 Member of the New York State Assembly 
 from the 21st district 
 In office  
 January 1, 1882 – December 31, 1884 
 Preceded by  William J. Trimble 
 Succeeded by Henry A. Barnum 
  
 Personal details 
  Theodore Roosevelt Jr. 
 Born  October 27, 1858 
  New York City, U.S. 
 Died  January 6, 1919 (aged 60) 
  Oyster Bay, New York, U.S. 
 Resting place Youngs Memorial Cemetery, Oyster Bay 
 Political party Republican (1880–1912, 1916–1919) 
 Other political Progressive "Bull Moose" (1912–1916) 
 affiliations  
  * Alice Lee 
  ​ 
 Spouses  ​(m. 1880 ; died 1884 )​ 
  * Edith Carow 
  ​ 
  ​(m. 1886 )​ 
  * Alice 
  * Theodore III 
 Children  * Kermit 
  * Ethel 
  * Archibald 
  * Quentin 
 Parents  * Theodore Roosevelt Sr. 
  * Martha Bulloch Roosevelt 
 Relatives  Roosevelt family 
 Education  * Harvard University (AB) 
  * Columbia Law School 
  * Author 
  * conservationist 
  * explorer 
  * historian 
 Occupation  * naturalist 
  * police commissioner 
  * politician 
  * soldier 
  * sportsman 
 Civilian awards Nobel Peace Prize (1906) 
 Signature  
 Military service 
 Branch/service United States Army 
 Years of service * 1882–1886 (New York National Guard)
  * 1898 
 Rank  Colonel 
 Commands  1st U.S. Volunteer Cavalry 
  * Spanish–American War 
 Battles/wars  + Battle of Las Guasimas 
  + Battle of San Juan Hill 
 Military awards Medal of Honor ( posthumous , 2001) 
 Theodore Roosevelt's voice 
 Roosevelt giving a speech during his third presidential campaign
 Recorded 1912 
  
 
 This article is part of 
 a series about 
 Theodore Roosevelt 
 
 * Political positions 
 * Electoral history 
 * Early life 
 * Family 
 * The Naval War of 1812 
 * Rough Riders 
 + Battle of San Juan Hill 
 * 1886 New York City mayoral election 
 33rd Governor of New York 
 * Governorship 
 * "The Strenuous Life" 
 25th Vice President of the United States
 * 1900 McKinley-Roosevelt campaign 
 * "Speak softly and carry a big stick" 
 26th President of the United States 
 * Presidency 
 + Timeline 
 First term 
 * McKinley assassination 
 * 1st inauguration 
 * Square Deal 
 * West Wing 
 * Coal strike 
 * Booker T. Washington dinner 
 * Venezuela crisis 
 + Roosevelt Corollary 
 Second term 
 * 1904 campaign 
 + Election 
 * 2nd inauguration 
 * Conservation 
 * Antiquities Act 
 * Forest Service 
 * Pure Food and Drug Act 
 * FDA 
 * Swift & Co. v. United States 
 * Meat Inspection Act 
 * Treaty of Portsmouth 
 * Nobel Prize 
 * FBI 
 * Panama Canal 
 * Great White Fleet 
 * 1912 election 
 * Republican Convention 
 * Progressive Party 
 + Convention 
 * New Nationalism 
 * Assassination attempt 
 Post Presidency 
 * African Expedition 
 * River of Doubt Expedition 
 * "Citizenship in a Republic" 
 * WWI volunteers 
 * Legacy 
 * Memorials 
 * Depictions 
 * v 
 * t 
 * e 
 

 Theodore Roosevelt Jr. (/ ˈ r oʊ z ə v ɛ l t / ROH -zə-velt;[b] October 27, 1858 – January 6, 1919), often referred to as Teddy or by his initials, T. R., was an American politician, statesman, soldier, conservationist, naturalist, historian, and writer who served as the 26th president of the United States from 1901 to 1909. He previously served as the 25th vice president under President William McKinley from March to September 1901 and as the 33rd governor of New York from 1899 to 1900. Assuming the presidency after McKinley's assassination, Roosevelt emerged as a leader of the Republican Party and became a driving force for anti-trust and Progressive policies.

 A sickly child with debilitating asthma, he overcame his health problems as he grew by embracing a strenuous lifestyle. Roosevelt integrated his exuberant personality and a vast range of interests and achievements into a "cowboy" persona defined by robust masculinity. He was home-schooled and began a lifelong naturalist avocation before attending Harvard College. His book The Naval War of 1812 (1882) established his reputation as a learned historian and popular writer. Upon entering politics, Roosevelt became the leader of the reform faction of Republicans in New York's state legislature. His first wife and mother died on the same night, devastating him psychologically. He recuperated by buying and operating a cattle ranch in the Dakotas. Roosevelt served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President McKinley, and in 1898 helped plan the highly successful naval war against Spain. He resigned to help form and lead the Rough Riders, a unit that fought the Spanish army in Cuba to great publicity. Returning a war hero, Roosevelt was elected governor of New York in 1898. The New York state party leadership disliked his ambitious agenda and convinced McKinley to choose him as his running mate in the 1900 election. Roosevelt campaigned vigorously and the McKinley–Roosevelt ticket won a landslide victory based on a platform of victory, peace, and prosperity.

 Roosevelt assumed the presidency at age 42, and remains the youngest person to become president of the United States. As a leader of the progressive movement he championed his "Square Deal" domestic policies. It called for fairness for all citizens, breaking of bad trusts, regulation of railroads, and pure food and drugs. Roosevelt prioritized conservation and established national parks, forests, and monuments to preserve the nation's natural resources. In foreign policy, he focused on Central America, where he began construction of the Panama Canal. Roosevelt expanded the Navy and sent the Great White Fleet on a world tour to project American naval power. His successful efforts to broker the end of the Russo-Japanese War won him the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize. Roosevelt was elected to a full term in 1904 and promoted policies more to the left, despite growing opposition from Republican leaders. During his presidency, he groomed his close ally William Howard Taft to succeed him in the 1908 presidential election.

 Roosevelt grew frustrated with Taft's conservatism and belatedly tried to win the 1912 Republican nomination for president. He failed, walked out, and founded the new Progressive Party. He ran in the 1912 presidential election and the split allowed the Democratic nominee Woodrow Wilson to win the election. Following the defeat, Roosevelt led a two-year expedition to the Amazon basin where he nearly died of tropical disease. During World War I, he criticized Wilson for keeping the country out of the war, and his offer to lead volunteers to France was rejected. Roosevelt considered running for president again in 1920, but his health continued to deteriorate and he died in 1919. Polls of historians and political scientists rank him as one of the greatest presidents in American history.

 Early life and family

 Theodore Roosevelt at age 11

 Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was born on October 27, 1858, at 28 East 20th Street in Manhattan, New York City.[5] He was the second of four children born to socialite Martha Stewart Bulloch and businessman and philanthropist Theodore Roosevelt Sr. He had an older sister (Anna), a younger brother (Elliott) and a younger sister (Corinne).[6] Elliott was later the father of Anna Eleanor Roosevelt who married Theodore's distant cousin, Franklin Delano Roosevelt. His paternal grandfather was of Dutch descent;[7] his other ancestry included primarily Scottish and Scots-Irish, English[8] and smaller amounts of German, Welsh, and French.[9] Theodore Sr. was the fifth son of businessman Cornelius Van Schaack "C. V. S." Roosevelt and Margaret Barnhill as well as a brother of Robert Roosevelt and James A. Roosevelt. Theodore's fourth cousin, James Roosevelt I, who was also a businessman, was the father of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Martha was the younger daughter of Major James Stephens Bulloch and Martha P. "Patsy" Stewart.[10] Through the Van Schaacks, Roosevelt was a descendant of the Schuyler family.[11]

 Roosevelt's youth was largely shaped by his poor health and debilitating asthma. He repeatedly experienced sudden nighttime asthma attacks that caused the experience of being smothered to death, which terrified both Theodore and his parents. Doctors had no cure.[12] Nevertheless, he was energetic and mischievously inquisitive.[13] His lifelong interest in zoology began at age seven when he saw a dead seal at a local market; after obtaining the seal's head, Roosevelt and two cousins formed what they called the "Roosevelt Museum of Natural History". Having learned the rudiments of taxidermy, he filled his makeshift museum with animals that he killed or caught; he then studied the animals and prepared them for exhibition. At age nine, he recorded his observation of insects in a paper entitled "The Natural History of Insects".[14]

 Roosevelt's father significantly influenced him. His father was a prominent leader in New York's cultural affairs; he helped to found the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and had been especially active in mobilizing support for the Union during the American Civil War, even though his in-laws included Confederate leaders. Roosevelt said, "My father, Theodore Roosevelt, was the best man I ever knew. He combined strength and courage with gentleness, tenderness, and great unselfishness. He would not tolerate in us children selfishness or cruelty, idleness, cowardice, or untruthfulness."

 6-year-old Theodore and 5-year-old Elliott watch Lincoln's funeral procession from the second-floor window of their grandfather's mansion (at top left, facing the camera), Manhattan, April 25, 1865.

 Family trips abroad, including tours of Europe in 1869 and 1870, and Egypt in 1872, shaped his cosmopolitan perspective.[15] Hiking with his family in the Alps in 1869, Roosevelt found that he could keep pace with his father. He had discovered the significant benefits of physical exertion to minimize his asthma and bolster his spirits.[16] Roosevelt began a heavy regime of exercise. After being manhandled by two older boys on a camping trip, he found a boxing coach to teach him to fight and strengthen his body.[17][18]

 A 6-year-old Roosevelt witnessed the funeral procession of Abraham Lincoln from his grandfather's mansion in Union Square, New York City where he was photographed in the window along with his brother Elliott, as confirmed by his second wife, Edith, who was also present.[19]

 Education

 Roosevelt was homeschooled, mostly by tutors and his parents.[20] Biographer H. W. Brands argued that "The most obvious drawback to his home schooling was uneven coverage of the various areas of human knowledge."[21] He was solid in geography and bright in history, biology, French, and German; however, he struggled in mathematics and the classical languages. When he entered Harvard College on September 27, 1876, his father advised: "Take care of your morals first, your health next, and finally your studies."[22] His father's sudden death on February 9, 1878, devastated Roosevelt, but he eventually recovered and doubled his activities.[23]

 He did well in science, philosophy, and rhetoric courses but continued to struggle in Latin and Greek. He studied biology intently and was already an accomplished naturalist and a published ornithologist. He read prodigiously with an almost photographic memory.[24] While at Harvard, Roosevelt participated in rowing and boxing; he was once runner-up in an intramural boxing tournament.[25] Roosevelt was a member of the Alpha Delta Phi literary society (later the Fly Club), the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity, and the prestigious Porcellian Club; he was also an editor of The Harvard Advocate. In 1880, Roosevelt graduated Phi Beta Kappa (22nd of 177) from Harvard with an A.B. magna cum laude. Biographer Henry F. Pringle states:

 Roosevelt, attempting to analyze his college career and weigh the benefits he had received, felt that he had obtained little from Harvard. He had been depressed by the formalistic treatment of many subjects, by the rigidity, the attention to minutiae that were important in themselves, but which somehow were never linked up with the whole.[26]

 Roosevelt's birthplace at 28 East 20th Street in Manhattan, New York City

 After his father's death, Roosevelt had inherited $65,000 (equivalent to $1,825,155 in 2021), enough wealth on which he could live comfortably for the rest of his life.[27] Roosevelt gave up his earlier plan of studying natural science and decided to attend Columbia Law School instead, moving back into his family's home in New York City. Although Roosevelt was an able law student, he often found law to be irrational. He spent much of his time writing a book on the War of 1812.[28]

 Determined to enter politics, Roosevelt began attending meetings at Morton Hall, the 59th Street headquarters of New York's 21st District Republican Association. Though Roosevelt's father had been a prominent member of the Republican Party, the younger Roosevelt made an unorthodox career choice for someone of his class, as most of Roosevelt's peers refrained from becoming too closely involved in politics. Roosevelt found allies in the local Republican Party and defeated an incumbent Republican state assemblyman tied to the political machine of Senator Roscoe Conkling closely. After his election victory, Roosevelt decided to drop out of law school, later saying, "I intended to be one of the governing class."[29]

 Naval history and strategy

 While at Harvard, Roosevelt began a systematic study of the role played by the United States Navy in the War of 1812.[30][31] Assisted by two uncles, he scrutinized original source materials and official U.S. Navy records, ultimately publishing The Naval War of 1812 in 1882. The book contained drawings of individual and combined ship maneuvers, charts depicting the differences in iron throw weights of cannon shot between rival forces, and analyses of the differences and similarities between British and American leadership down to the ship-to-ship level. Upon release, The Naval War of 1812 was praised for its scholarship and style and it remains a standard study of the war.[32]

 With the publication of The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660–1783 in 1890, Navy Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan was hailed as the world's outstanding naval theorist by the leaders of Europe immediately. Roosevelt paid very close attention to Mahan's emphasis that only a nation with the world's most powerful fleet could dominate the world's oceans, exert its diplomacy to the fullest, and defend its own borders.[33][34] He incorporated Mahan's ideas into his views on naval strategy for the remainder of his career.[35][36]

 First marriage and widowerhood

 In 1880, Roosevelt married socialite Alice Hathaway Lee.[37][38] Their daughter, Alice Lee Roosevelt, was born on February 12, 1884. Two days later, the new mother died of undiagnosed kidney failure that the pregnancy masked. In his diary, Roosevelt wrote a large "X" on the page and then, "The light has gone out of my life." His mother, Martha, had died of typhoid fever eleven hours earlier at 3:00 a.m., in the same house on 57th Street in Manhattan. Distraught, Roosevelt left baby Alice in the care of his sister Bamie while he grieved; he assumed custody of Alice when she was three.[39]

 After the deaths of his wife and mother, Roosevelt focused on his work, specifically by re-energizing a legislative investigation into corruption of the New York City government, which arose from a concurrent bill proposing that power be centralized in the mayor's office.[40] For the rest of his life, he rarely spoke about his wife Alice and did not write about her in his autobiography.[41]

 Early political career

 State Assemblyman

 Roosevelt as New York State Assemblyman, 1883

 Roosevelt was a member of the New York State Assembly (New York Co., 21st D.) in 1882, 1883, and 1884.[42] He began making his mark immediately and in handling in corporate corruption issues specifically.[42] He blocked a corrupt effort of financier Jay Gould to lower his taxes. Roosevelt also exposed the suspected collusion of Gould and Judge Theodore Westbrook and argued for and received approval for an investigation to proceed, aiming for the judge to be impeached. Although the investigation committee rejected the proposed impeachment, Roosevelt had exposed the potential corruption in Albany and assumed a high and positive political profile in multiple New York publications.[43]

 Roosevelt's anti-corruption efforts helped him win re-election in 1882 by a margin greater than two-to-one, an achievement made even more impressive by the victory that Democratic gubernatorial candidate Grover Cleveland won in Roosevelt's district.[44] With Conkling's Stalwart faction of the Republican Party in disarray following the assassination of President James Garfield, Roosevelt won election as the Republican party leader in the state assembly. He allied with Governor Cleveland to win passage of a civil service reform bill.[45] Roosevelt won re-election a second time and sought the office of Speaker of the New York State Assembly, but Titus Sheard obtained the position in a 41 to 29 vote of the GOP caucus instead.[46][47] In his final term, Roosevelt served as Chairman of the Committee on Affairs of Cities, during which he wrote more bills than any other legislator.[48]

 Presidential election of 1884

 See also: 1884 United States presidential election

 With numerous presidential hopefuls from whom to choose, Roosevelt supported Senator George F. Edmunds of Vermont, a colorless reformer. The state GOP preferred the incumbent president, New York City's Chester Arthur, known for passing the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act. Roosevelt fought for and succeeded in influencing the Manhattan delegates at the state convention in Utica. He then took control of the state convention, bargaining through the night and outmaneuvering the supporters of Arthur and James G. Blaine; consequently, he gained a national reputation as a key politician in his state.[49]

 Roosevelt attended the 1884 GOP National Convention in Chicago and gave a speech convincing delegates to nominate African American John R. Lynch, an Edmunds supporter, to be the temporary chair. Roosevelt fought alongside the Mugwump reformers against Blaine. However Blaine gained support from Arthur's and Edmunds's delegates, and won the nomination on the fourth ballot. In a crucial moment of his budding political career, Roosevelt resisted the demand of his fellow Mugwumps that he bolt from Blaine. He bragged about his one small success: "We achieved a victory in getting up a combination to beat the Blaine nominee for temporary chairman... To do this needed a mixture of skill, boldness and energy... to get the different factions to come in... to defeat the common foe."[50] He was also impressed by an invitation to speak before an audience of ten thousand, the largest crowd he had addressed up to that date. Having gotten a taste of national politics, Roosevelt felt less aspiration for advocacy on the state level; he then retired to his new "Chimney Butte Ranch" on the Little Missouri River.[51] Roosevelt refused to join other Mugwumps in supporting Grover Cleveland, the governor of New York and the Democratic nominee in the general election. He debated the pros and cons of staying loyal with his political friend, Henry Cabot Lodge. After Blaine won the nomination, Roosevelt had said carelessly that he would give "hearty support to any decent Democrat". He distanced himself from the promise, saying that it had not been meant "for publication".[52] When a reporter asked if he would support Blaine, Roosevelt replied, "That question I decline to answer. It is a subject I do not care to talk about."[53] In the end, he realized that he had to support Blaine to maintain his role in the GOP and he did so in a press release on July 19.[54] Having lost the support of many reformers, Roosevelt decided to retire from politics and move to North Dakota.[55]

 Cattle rancher in Dakota

 Theodore Roosevelt as Badlands hunter in 1885. New York studio photo.

 Roosevelt first visited the Dakota Territory in 1883 to hunt bison.[56] Exhilarated by the western lifestyle and with the cattle business booming in the territory, Roosevelt invested $14,000 in hopes of becoming a prosperous cattle rancher. For the next several years, he shuttled between his home in New York and his ranch in Dakota.[57]

 Following the 1884 United States presidential election, Roosevelt built a ranch named Elkhorn, which was 35 mi (56 km) north of the boomtown of Medora, North Dakota. Roosevelt learned to ride western style, rope, and hunt on the banks of the Little Missouri. Though he earned the respect of the authentic cowboys, they were not overly impressed.[58] However, he identified with the herdsman of history, a man he said possesses "few of the emasculated, milk-and-water moralities admired by the pseudo-philanthropists; but he does possess, to a very high degree, the stern, manly qualities that are invaluable to a nation".[59][60] He reoriented and began writing about frontier life for national magazines; he also published three books: Hunting Trips of a Ranchman, Ranch Life and the Hunting-Trail, and The Wilderness Hunter.[61]

 Roosevelt successfully led efforts to organize ranchers there to address the problems of overgrazing and other shared concerns, which resulted in the formation of the Little Missouri Stockmen's Association. He felt compelled to promote conservation and was able to form the Boone and Crockett Club, whose primary goal was the conservation of large game animals and their habitats.[62] In 1886, Roosevelt served as a deputy sheriff in Billings County, North Dakota. During this time he and two ranch hands hunted down three boat thieves.[63]

 The uniquely severe U.S. winter of 1886–1887 wiped out his herd of cattle and those of his competitors and over half of his $80,000 investment.[64][65] He ended his ranching life and returned to New York, where he escaped the damaging label of an ineffectual intellectual.[66]

 Second marriage

 On December 2, 1886, Roosevelt married his childhood friend, Edith Kermit Carow.[67] Roosevelt felt deeply troubled that his second marriage had taken place very quickly after the death of his first wife and he also faced resistance from his sisters.[68] Nonetheless, the couple married at St George's, Hanover Square in London, England.[69] The couple had five children: Theodore "Ted" III in 1887, Kermit in 1889, Ethel in 1891, Archibald in 1894, and Quentin in 1897. They also raised Roosevelt's daughter from his first marriage, Alice, who often clashed with her stepmother.[70]

 Reentering public life

 Upon Roosevelt's return to New York in 1886, Republican leaders quickly approached him about running for mayor of New York City in the 1886 election.[71] Roosevelt accepted the nomination despite having little hope of winning the race against United Labor Party candidate Henry George and Democratic candidate Abram Hewitt. Roosevelt campaigned hard for the position, but Hewitt won with 41% (90,552 votes), taking the votes of many Republicans who feared George's radical policies.[72][73] George was held to 31% (68,110 votes), and Roosevelt took third place with 27% (60,435 votes). Fearing that his political career might never recover, Roosevelt turned his attention to writing The Winning of the West, a historical work tracking the westward movement of Americans; the book was a great success for Roosevelt, earning favorable reviews and selling numerous[ clarification needed ] copies.[74]

 Civil Service Commission

 After Benjamin Harrison unexpectedly defeated Blaine for the presidential nomination at the 1888 Republican National Convention, Roosevelt gave stump speeches in the Midwest in support of Harrison.[75] On the insistence of Henry Cabot Lodge, President Harrison appointed Roosevelt to the United States Civil Service Commission, where he served until 1895.[76] While many of his predecessors had approached the office as a sinecure,[77] Roosevelt vigorously fought the spoilsmen and demanded enforcement of civil service laws.[78] The Sun then described Roosevelt as "irrepressible, belligerent, and enthusiastic".[79] Roosevelt frequently clashed with Postmaster General John Wanamaker, who handed out numerous patronage positions to Harrison supporters, and Roosevelt's attempt to force out several postal workers damaged Harrison politically.[80] Despite Roosevelt's support for Harrison's reelection bid in the presidential election of 1892, the eventual winner, Grover Cleveland, reappointed him to the same post.[81] Roosevelt's close friend and biographer, Joseph Bucklin Bishop, described his assault on the spoils system:

 The very citadel of spoils politics, the hitherto impregnable fortress that had existed unshaken since it was erected on the foundation laid by Andrew Jackson, was tottering to its fall under the assaults of this audacious and irrepressible young man... Whatever may have been the feelings of the (fellow Republican party) President (Harrison)—and there is little doubt that he had no idea when he appointed Roosevelt that he would prove to be so veritable a bull in a china shop—he refused to remove him and stood by him firmly till the end of his term.[79]

 New York City Police Commissioner

 In 1894, a group of reform Republicans approached Roosevelt about running for Mayor of New York again; he declined, mostly due to his wife's resistance to being removed from the Washington social set. Soon after he declined, he realized that he had missed an opportunity to reinvigorate a dormant political career. He retreated to the Dakotas for a time; his wife Edith regretted her role in the decision and vowed that there would be no repeat of it.[82]

 William Lafayette Strong, a reform-minded Republican, won the 1894 mayoral election and offered Roosevelt a position on the board of the New York City Police Commissioners.[75][83] Roosevelt became president of the board of commissioners and radically reformed the police force. Roosevelt implemented regular inspections of firearms and annual physical exams, appointed recruits based on their physical and mental qualifications rather than political affiliation, established Meritorious Service Medals, and closed corrupt police hostelries. During his tenure, a Municipal Lodging House was established by the Board of Charities, and Roosevelt required officers to register with the Board; he also had telephones installed in station houses.[84]

 In 1894, Roosevelt met Jacob Riis, the muckraking Evening Sun newspaper journalist who was opening the eyes of New Yorkers to the terrible conditions of the city's millions of poor immigrants with such books as How the Other Half Lives. Riis described how his book affected Roosevelt:

 When Roosevelt read [my] book, he came... No one ever helped as he did. For two years we were brothers in (New York City's crime-ridden) Mulberry Street. When he left I had seen its golden age... There is very little ease where Theodore Roosevelt leads, as we all of us found out. The lawbreaker found it out who predicted scornfully that he would "knuckle down to politics the way they all did", and lived to respect him, though he swore at him, as the one of them all who was stronger than pull... that was what made the age golden, that for the first time a moral purpose came into the street. In the light of it everything was transformed.[85]

 Roosevelt made a habit of walking officers' beats late at night and early in the morning to make sure that they were on duty.[86] He made a concerted effort to uniformly enforce New York's Sunday closing law; in this, he ran up against boss Tom Platt as well as Tammany Hall—he was notified that the Police Commission was being legislated out of existence. His crackdowns led to protests and demonstrations. Invited to one large demonstration, not only did he surprisingly accept, he delighted in the insults, caricatures, and lampoons directed at him, and earned some surprising good will.[87] Roosevelt chose to defer rather than split with his party.[88] As Governor of New York State, he would later sign an act replacing the Police Commission with a single Police Commissioner.[89]

 Emergence as a national figure

 Assistant Secretary of the Navy

 The Asiatic Squadron destroying the Spanish fleet in the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1, 1898

 In the 1896 presidential election, Roosevelt backed Speaker of the House Thomas Brackett Reed for the Republican nomination, but William McKinley won the nomination and defeated William Jennings Bryan in the general election.[90] Roosevelt strongly opposed Bryan's free silver platform, viewing many of Bryan's followers as dangerous fanatics. He gave scores of campaign speeches for McKinley.[91] Urged by Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, President McKinley appointed Roosevelt as the Assistant Secretary of the Navy in 1897.[92] Secretary of the Navy John D. Long was more concerned about formalities than functions, was in poor health, and left many major decisions to Roosevelt. Influenced by Alfred Thayer Mahan, Roosevelt called for a build-up in the country's naval strength, particularly the construction of battleships.[93] Roosevelt also began pressing his national security views regarding the Pacific and the Caribbean on McKinley, and was particularly adamant that Spain be ejected from Cuba.[94] He explained his priorities to one of the Navy's planners in late 1897:

 I would regard war with Spain from two viewpoints: first, the advisability on the grounds both of humanity and self-interest of interfering on behalf of the Cubans, and of taking one more step toward the complete freeing of America from European dominion; second, the benefit done our people by giving them something to think of which is not material gain, and especially the benefit done our military forces by trying both the Navy and Army in actual practice.[95]

 On February 15, 1898, USS Maine, an armored cruiser, exploded in the harbor of Havana, Cuba, killing hundreds of crew members. While Roosevelt and many other Americans blamed Spain for the explosion, McKinley sought a diplomatic solution.[96] Without approval from Long or McKinley, Roosevelt sent out orders to several naval vessels, directing them to prepare for war.[96][97] George Dewey, who had received an appointment to lead the Asiatic Squadron with the backing of Roosevelt, later credited his victory at the Battle of Manila Bay to Roosevelt's orders.[98] After finally giving up hope of a peaceful solution, McKinley asked Congress to declare war upon Spain, beginning the Spanish–American War.[99]

 War in Cuba

 Main article: Rough Riders
 Colonel Theodore Roosevelt

 With the beginning of the Spanish–American War in late April 1898, Roosevelt resigned from his post as Assistant Secretary of the Navy. Along with Army Colonel Leonard Wood, he formed the First U.S. Volunteer Cavalry Regiment.[100] His wife and many of his friends begged Roosevelt to remain in his post in Washington, but Roosevelt was determined to see battle. When the newspapers reported the formation of the new regiment, Roosevelt and Wood were flooded with applications from all over the country.[101] Referred to by the press as the "Rough Riders", the regiment was one of many temporary units active only for the duration of the war.[102]

 The regiment trained for several weeks in San Antonio, Texas, and in his autobiography, Roosevelt wrote that his prior experience with the New York National Guard had been invaluable, in that it enabled him to immediately begin teaching his men basic soldiering skills.[103] The Rough Riders used some standard issue gear and some of their own design, purchased with gift money. Diversity characterized the regiment, which included Ivy Leaguers, professional and amateur athletes, upscale gentlemen, cowboys, frontiersmen, Native Americans, hunters, miners, prospectors, former soldiers, tradesmen, and sheriffs. The Rough Riders were part of the cavalry division commanded by former Confederate general Joseph Wheeler, which itself was one of three divisions in the V Corps under Lieutenant General William Rufus Shafter. Roosevelt and his men landed in Daiquirí, Cuba, on June 23, 1898, and marched to Siboney. Wheeler sent parts of the 1st and 10th Regular Cavalry on the lower road northwest and sent the "Rough Riders" on the parallel road running along a ridge up from the beach. To throw off his infantry rival, Wheeler left one regiment of his Cavalry Division, the 9th, at Siboney so that he could claim that his move north was only a limited reconnaissance if things went wrong. Roosevelt was promoted to colonel and took command of the regiment when Wood was put in command of the brigade. The Rough Riders had a short, minor skirmish known as the Battle of Las Guasimas; they fought their way through Spanish resistance and, together with the Regulars, forced the Spaniards to abandon their positions.[104]

 Colonel Roosevelt and the Rough Riders after capturing Kettle Hill in Cuba in July 1898, along with members of the 3rd Volunteers and the regular Army black 10th Cavalry

 Under Roosevelt's leadership, the Rough Riders became famous for the charge up Kettle Hill on July 1, 1898, while supporting the regulars. Roosevelt had the only horse, and rode back and forth between rifle pits at the forefront of the advance up Kettle Hill, an advance that he urged despite the absence of any orders from superiors. He was forced to walk up the last part of Kettle Hill because his horse had been entangled in barbed wire. The victories came at a cost of 200 killed and 1,000 wounded.[105]

 In August, Roosevelt and other officers demanded that the soldiers be returned home. Roosevelt always recalled the Battle of Kettle Hill (part of the San Juan Heights) as "the great day of my life" and "my crowded hour". In 2001, Roosevelt was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions;[106] he had been nominated during the war, but Army officials, annoyed at his grabbing the headlines, blocked it.[107] After returning to civilian life, Roosevelt preferred to be known as "Colonel Roosevelt" or "The Colonel", though "Teddy" remained much more popular with the public, even though Roosevelt openly despised that moniker. Men working closely with Roosevelt customarily called him "Colonel" or "Theodore".[108][ page needed ] Henceforth, political cartoons of Roosevelt usually depicted him in his Rough Rider garb.[ citation needed ]

 Governor of New York

 After leaving Cuba in August 1898, the Rough Riders were transported to a camp at Montauk Point, Long Island, where Roosevelt and his men were briefly quarantined due to the War Department's fear of spreading yellow fever.[109] Shortly after Roosevelt's return to the United States, Republican Congressman Lemuel E. Quigg, a lieutenant of party boss Tom Platt, asked Roosevelt to run in the 1898 gubernatorial election. Prospering politically from the Platt machine, Roosevelt's gradual rise to power was marked by the pragmatic decisions of New York machine boss T. C. "Tom" Platt, who served as a U.S. senator from the state.[110][111] The demonstrated willingness of Platt to compromise with the GOP progressive wing led by Roosevelt and Benjamin B. Odell, Jr., resulted, over time, in their growth of political strength at the expense of the "easy boss," whose machine faced collapse in 1903 at the hands of Odell.[112] Platt disliked Roosevelt personally, feared that Roosevelt would oppose Platt's interests in office, and was reluctant to propel Roosevelt to the forefront of national politics. However, Platt also needed a strong candidate due to the unpopularity of the incumbent Republican governor, Frank S. Black. Roosevelt agreed to become the nominee and to try not to "make war" with the Republican establishment once in office. Roosevelt defeated Black in the Republican caucus by a vote of 753 to 218, and faced Democrat Augustus Van Wyck, a well-respected judge, in the general election.[113] Roosevelt campaigned vigorously on his war record, winning the election by a margin of just one percent.[114]

 As governor, Roosevelt learned much about ongoing economic issues and political techniques that later proved valuable in his presidency. He studied the problems of trusts, monopolies, labor relations, and conservation. Chessman argues that Roosevelt's program "rested firmly upon the concept of the square deal by a neutral state". The rules for the Square Deal were "honesty in public affairs, an equitable sharing of privilege and responsibility, and subordination of party and local concerns to the interests of the state at large".[115]

 By holding twice-daily press conferences—which was an innovation—Roosevelt remained connected with his middle-class political base.[116] Roosevelt successfully pushed the Ford Franchise-Tax bill, which taxed public franchises granted by the state and controlled by corporations, declaring that "a corporation which derives its powers from the State, should pay to the State a just percentage of its earnings as a return for the privileges it enjoys".[117] He rejected "boss" Thomas C. Platt's worries that this approached Bryanite Socialism, explaining that without it, New York voters might get angry and adopt public ownership of streetcar lines and other franchises.[118]

 The New York state government affected many interests, and the power to make appointments to policy-making positions was a key role for the governor. Platt insisted that he be consulted on major appointments; Roosevelt appeared to comply, but then made his own decisions. Historians marvel that Roosevelt managed to appoint so many first-rate men with Platt's approval. He even enlisted Platt's help in securing reform, such as in the spring of 1899, when Platt pressured state senators to vote for a civil service bill that the secretary of the Civil Service Reform Association called "superior to any civil service statute heretofore secured in America".[119]

 G. Wallace Chessman argues that as governor, Roosevelt developed the principles that shaped his presidency, especially insistence upon the public responsibility of large corporations, publicity as a first remedy for trusts, regulation of railroad rates, mediation of the conflict of capital and labor, conservation of natural resources and protection of the less fortunate members of society.[115] Roosevelt sought to position himself against the excesses of large corporations on the one hand and radical movements on the other.[120]

 As the chief executive of the most populous state in the union, Roosevelt was widely considered a potential future presidential candidate, and supporters such as William Allen White encouraged him to run for president.[121] Roosevelt had no interest in challenging McKinley for the Republican nomination in 1900, and was denied his preferred post of Secretary of War. As his term progressed, Roosevelt pondered a 1904 presidential run, but was uncertain about whether he should seek re-election as governor in 1900.[122]

 Vice presidency (1901)

 Main article: 1900 United States presidential election

 In November 1899, Vice President Garret Hobart died of heart failure, leaving an open spot on the 1900 Republican national ticket. Though Henry Cabot Lodge and others urged him to run for vice president in 1900, Roosevelt was reluctant to take the powerless position and issued a public statement saying that he would not accept the nomination.[123] Additionally, Roosevelt was informed by President McKinley and campaign manager Mark Hanna that he was not being considered for the role of vice president due to his actions prior to the Spanish–American War[ clarification needed ]. Eager to be rid of Roosevelt, Platt nonetheless began a newspaper campaign in favor of Roosevelt's nomination for the vice presidency.[124] Roosevelt attended the 1900 Republican National Convention as a state delegate and struck a bargain with Platt: Roosevelt would accept the nomination for vice president if the convention offered it to him, but would otherwise serve another term as governor. Platt asked Pennsylvania party boss Matthew Quay to lead the campaign for Roosevelt's nomination, and Quay outmaneuvered Hanna at the convention to put Roosevelt on the ticket.[125] Roosevelt won the nomination unanimously.[126]

 Roosevelt's vice-presidential campaigning proved highly energetic and an equal match for Democratic presidential nominee William Jennings Bryan's famous barnstorming style of campaigning. In a whirlwind campaign that displayed his energy to the public, Roosevelt made 480 stops in 23 states. He denounced the radicalism of Bryan, contrasting it with the heroism of the soldiers and sailors who fought and won the war against Spain. Bryan had strongly supported the war itself, but he denounced the annexation of the Philippines as imperialism, which would spoil America's innocence. Roosevelt countered that it was best for the Filipinos to have stability and the Americans to have a proud place in the world. With the nation basking in peace and prosperity, the voters gave McKinley an even larger victory than that which he had achieved in 1896.[127][128]

 After the campaign, Roosevelt took office as vice president in March 1901. The office of vice president was a powerless sinecure and did not suit Roosevelt's aggressive temperament.[129] Roosevelt's six months as vice president were uneventful and boring for a man of action. He had no power; he presided over the Senate for a mere four days before it adjourned.[130] On September 2, 1901, Roosevelt first publicized an aphorism that thrilled his supporters: "Speak softly and carry a big stick, and you will go far."[131]

 Presidency (1901–1909)

 Main article: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt
 Official White House Portrait by John Singer Sargent

 On September 6, 1901, President McKinley was attending the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York when he was shot by anarchist Leon Czolgosz. Roosevelt was vacationing in Isle La Motte, Vermont,[132] and traveled to Buffalo to visit McKinley in the hospital. It appeared that McKinley would recover, so Roosevelt resumed his vacation in the Adirondack Mountains.[133] When McKinley's condition worsened, Roosevelt again rushed back to Buffalo. McKinley died on September 14, and Roosevelt was informed while he was in North Creek; he continued on to Buffalo and was sworn in as the nation's 26th president at the Ansley Wilcox House.[134]

 McKinley's supporters were nervous about the new president, and Ohio Senator Mark Hanna was particularly bitter that the man he had opposed so vigorously at the convention had succeeded McKinley. Roosevelt assured party leaders that he intended to adhere to McKinley's policies, and he retained McKinley's Cabinet. Nonetheless, Roosevelt sought to position himself as the party's undisputed leader, seeking to bolster the role of the president and position himself for the 1904 election.[135] The vice presidency remained vacant, as there was no constitutional provision for filling an intra-term vacancy in that office (prior to the 25th Amendment in 1967).

 Shortly after taking office, Roosevelt invited Booker T. Washington to dinner at the White House. This sparked a bitter, and at times vicious, reaction among whites across the heavily segregated South.[136] Roosevelt reacted with astonishment and protest, saying that he looked forward to many future dinners with Washington. Upon further reflection, Roosevelt wanted to ensure that this had no effect on political support in the white South, and further dinner invitations to Washington were avoided;[137] their next meeting was scheduled as typical business at 10:00 a.m. instead.[138]

 Domestic policies: The Square Deal

 Further information: Square Deal

 Trust busting and regulation

 For his aggressive use of the 1890 Sherman Antitrust Act, compared to his predecessors, Roosevelt was hailed as the "trust-buster"; but in reality he was more of a trust regulator.[139] Roosevelt viewed big business as a necessary part of the American economy, and sought only to prosecute the "bad trusts" that restrained trade and charged unfair prices.[140] He brought 44 antitrust suits, breaking up the Northern Securities Company, the largest railroad monopoly; and regulating Standard Oil, the largest oil company.[141][139] Presidents Benjamin Harrison, Grover Cleveland, and William McKinley combined had prosecuted only 18 antitrust violations under the Sherman Antitrust Act.[139]

 Bolstered by his party's winning large majorities in the 1902 elections, Roosevelt proposed the creation of the United States Department of Commerce and Labor, which would include the Bureau of Corporations. While Congress was receptive to the Department of Commerce and Labor, it was more skeptical of the antitrust powers that Roosevelt sought to endow within the Bureau of Corporations. Roosevelt successfully appealed to the public to pressure Congress, and Congress overwhelmingly voted to pass Roosevelt's version of the bill.[142]

 In a moment of frustration, House Speaker Joseph Gurney Cannon commented on Roosevelt's desire for executive branch control in domestic policy-making: "That fellow at the other end of the avenue wants everything from the birth of Christ to the death of the devil." Biographer Brands states, "Even his friends occasionally wondered whether there wasn't any custom or practice too minor for him to try to regulate, update or otherwise improve."[143] In fact, Roosevelt's willingness to exercise his power included attempted rule changes in the game of football; at the U.S. Naval Academy, he sought to force retention of martial arts classes and to revise disciplinary rules. He even ordered changes made in the minting of a coin whose design he disliked, and ordered the Government Printing Office to adopt simplified spellings for a core list of 300 words, according to reformers on the Simplified Spelling Board. He was forced to rescind the latter after substantial ridicule from the press and a resolution of protest from the U.S. House of Representatives.[144]

 Coal strike

 Main article: Coal strike of 1902

 In May 1902, anthracite coal miners went on strike, threatening a national energy shortage. After threatening the coal operators with intervention by federal troops, Roosevelt won their agreement to dispute arbitration by a commission, which succeeded in stopping the strike. The accord with J. P. Morgan resulted in the miners getting more pay for fewer hours, but with no union recognition.[145][146] Roosevelt said, "My action on labor should always be considered in connection with my action as regards capital, and both are reducible to my favorite formula—a square deal for every man."[147] Roosevelt was the first president to help settle a labor dispute.[148]

 Prosecuted misconduct

 During Roosevelt's second year in office it was discovered there was corruption in the Indian Service, the Land Office, and the Post Office Department. Roosevelt investigated and prosecuted corrupt Indian agents who had cheated the Creeks and various Native American tribes out of land parcels. Land fraud and speculation were found involving Oregon federal timberlands. In November 1902, Roosevelt and Secretary Ethan A. Hitchcock forced Binger Hermann, the General Land Office Commissioner, to resign from office. On November 6, 1903 Francis J. Heney was appointed special prosecutor and obtained 146 indictments involving an Oregon Land Office bribery ring. U.S. Senator John H. Mitchell was indicted for bribery to expedite illegal land patents, found guilty in July 1905, and sentenced to six months in prison.[149] More corruption was found in the Postal Department, that brought on the indictments of 44 government employees on charges of bribery and fraud.[150] Historians generally agree that Roosevelt moved "quickly and decisively" to prosecute misconduct in his administration.[151]

 Railroads

 Main article: Hepburn Act

 Merchants complained that some railroad rates were too high. In the 1906 Hepburn Act, Roosevelt sought to give the Interstate Commerce Commission the power to regulate rates, but the Senate, led by conservative Nelson Aldrich, fought back. Roosevelt worked with the Democratic Senator Benjamin Tillman to pass the bill. Roosevelt and Aldrich ultimately reached a compromise that gave the ICC the power to replace existing rates with "just-and-reasonable" maximum rates, but allowed railroads to appeal to the federal courts on what was "reasonable".[152][153] In addition to rate-setting, the Hepburn Act also granted the ICC regulatory power over pipeline fees, storage contracts, and several other aspects of railroad operations.[154]

 Pure food and drugs

 Roosevelt responded to public anger over the abuses in the food packing industry by pushing Congress to pass the Meat Inspection Act of 1906 and the Pure Food and Drug Act. Though conservatives initially opposed the bill, Upton Sinclair's The Jungle, published in 1906, helped galvanize support for reform.[155] The Meat Inspection Act of 1906 banned misleading labels and preservatives that contained harmful chemicals. The Pure Food and Drug Act banned food and drugs that were impure or falsely labeled from being made, sold, and shipped. Roosevelt also served as honorary president of the American School Hygiene Association from 1907 to 1908, and in 1909 he convened the first White House Conference on the Care of Dependent Children.[156]

 Conservation

 Main article: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt § Conservation
 Roosevelt driving through a sequoia tree tunnel

 Of all Roosevelt's achievements, he was proudest of his work in the conservation of natural resources and extending federal protection to land and wildlife.[157] Roosevelt worked closely with Interior Secretary James Rudolph Garfield and Chief of the United States Forest Service Gifford Pinchot to enact a series of conservation programs that often met with resistance from Western members of Congress, such as Charles William Fulton.[158] Nonetheless, Roosevelt established the United States Forest Service, signed into law the creation of five National Parks, and signed the 1906 Antiquities Act, under which he proclaimed 18 new U.S. National Monuments. He also established the first 51 bird reserves, four game preserves, and 150 National Forests. The area of the United States that he placed under public protection totals approximately 230 million acres (930,000 square kilometers).[159]

 Roosevelt extensively used executive orders on a number of occasions to protect forest and wildlife lands during his tenure as president.[160] By the end of his second term in office, Roosevelt used executive orders to establish 150 million acres (600,000 square kilometers) of reserved forestry land.[161] Roosevelt was unapologetic about his extensive use of executive orders to protect the environment, despite the perception in Congress that he was encroaching on too many lands.[161] Eventually, Senator Charles Fulton (R-OR) attached an amendment to an agricultural appropriations bill that effectively prevented the president from reserving any further land.[161] Before signing that bill into law, Roosevelt used executive orders to establish an additional 21 forest reserves, waiting until the last minute to sign the bill into law.[162] In total, Roosevelt used executive orders to establish 121 forest reserves in 31 states.[162] Prior to Roosevelt, only one president had issued over 200 executive orders, Grover Cleveland (253). The first 25 presidents issued a total of 1,262 executive orders; Roosevelt issued 1,081.[163]

 Business panic of 1907

 Further information: Panic of 1907

 In 1907, Roosevelt faced the greatest domestic economic crisis since the Panic of 1893. Wall Street's stock market entered a slump in early 1907, and many investors blamed Roosevelt's regulatory policies for the decline in stock prices.[164] Roosevelt helped calm the crisis by meeting on November 4, 1907, with the leaders of U.S. Steel and approving their plan to purchase a Tennessee steel company near bankruptcy—its failure would ruin a major New York bank. He thus approved the growth of one of the largest and most hated trusts, while the public announcement calmed the markets.[165]

 Roosevelt exploded in anger at the super-rich for the economic malfeasance, calling them "malefactors of great wealth." in a major speech in August entitled, "The Puritan Spirit and the Regulation of Corporations." Trying to restore confidence, he blamed the crisis primarily on Europe, but then, after saluting the unbending rectitude of the Puritans, he went on:[166]

 It may well be that the determination of the government...to punish certain malefactors of great wealth, has been responsible for something of the trouble; at least to the extent of having caused these men to combine to bring about as much financial stress as possible, in order to discredit the policy of the government and thereby secure a reversal of that policy, so that they may enjoy unmolested the fruits of their own evil-doing.

 Regarding the very wealthy, Roosevelt privately scorned. "their entire unfitness to govern the country, and ... the lasting damage they do by much of what they think are the legitimate big business operations of the day."[167]

 Foreign policy

 Main article: Foreign policy of the Theodore Roosevelt administration

 Japan

 The American annexation of Hawaii in 1898 was stimulated in part by fear that otherwise Japan would dominate or seize the Hawaiian Republic.[168] Similarly, Germany was the alternative to American takeover of the Philippines in 1900, and Tokyo strongly preferred the U.S. to take over. As the U.S. became a naval world power, it needed to find a way to avoid a military confrontation in the Pacific with Japan.[169]

 In the 1890s, Roosevelt had been an ardent imperialist and vigorously defended the permanent acquisition of the Philippines in the 1900 campaign. After the local insurrection ended in 1902, Roosevelt wished to have a strong U.S. presence in the region as a symbol of democratic values, but he did not envision any new acquisitions. One of Roosevelt's priorities during his presidency and afterwards, was the maintenance of friendly relations with Japan.[170][171] From 1904 to 1905 Japan and Russia were at war. Both sides asked Roosevelt to mediate a peace conference, held successfully in Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Roosevelt won the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts.[172]

 Though he proclaimed that the United States would be neutral during the Russo-Japanese War, Roosevelt secretly favored the Imperial Japan to emerge victorious against the Russian Empire. He wanted the influence of the Russians to weaken in order to take them out in the Pacific diplomatic equation, with the Japanese emerging to their spot as the Russian replacement.[173]

 In California, anti-Japanese hostility was growing, and Tokyo protested. Roosevelt negotiated a "Gentleman's Agreement" in 1907. It ended explicit discrimination against the Japanese, and Japan agreed not to allow unskilled immigrants into the United States.[174] The Great White Fleet of American battleships visited Japan in 1908 during its round-the-world tour. Roosevelt intended to emphasize the superiority of the American fleet over the smaller Japanese navy, but instead of resentment the visitors arrived to a joyous welcome by Japanese elite as well as the general public. This good-will facilitated the Root–Takahira Agreement of November 1908 which reaffirmed the status quo of Japanese control of Korea and American control of the Philippines.[175] [176]

 Europe

 Success in the war against Spain and the new empire, plus having the largest economy in the world, meant that the United States had emerged as a world power.[177] Roosevelt searched for ways to win recognition for the position abroad.[178]

 Roosevelt also played a major role in mediating the First Moroccan Crisis by calling the Algeciras Conference, which averted war between France and Germany.[179]

 Roosevelt's presidency saw the strengthening of ties with Great Britain. The Great Rapprochement had begun with British support of the United States during the Spanish–American War, and it continued as Britain withdrew its fleet from the Caribbean in favor of focusing on the rising German naval threat.[180] In 1901, Britain and the United States signed the Hay–Pauncefote Treaty, abrogating the Clayton–Bulwer Treaty, which had prevented the United States from constructing a canal connecting the Pacific and the Atlantic Ocean.[181] The long-standing Alaska boundary dispute was settled on terms favorable to the United States, as Great Britain was unwilling to alienate the United States over what it considered to be a secondary issue. As Roosevelt later put it, the resolution of the Alaskan boundary dispute "settled the last serious trouble between the British Empire and ourselves."[182]

 Latin America and Panama Canal

 As president, he primarily focused the nation's overseas ambitions on the Caribbean, especially locations that had a bearing on the defense of his pet project, the Panama Canal.[183] Roosevelt also increased the size of the navy, and by the end of his second term the United States had more battleships than any other country besides Britain. The Panama Canal, when it opened in 1914, allowed the U.S. Navy to rapidly move back and forth from the Pacific to the Caribbean to European waters.[184]

 In December 1902, the Germans, British, and Italians blockaded the ports of Venezuela in order to force the repayment of delinquent loans. Roosevelt was particularly concerned with the motives of German Emperor Wilhelm II. He succeeded in getting the three nations to agree to arbitration by tribunal at The Hague, and successfully defused the crisis.[185] The latitude granted to the Europeans by the arbiters was in part responsible for the "Roosevelt Corollary" to the Monroe Doctrine, which the President issued in 1904: "Chronic wrongdoing or an impotence which results in a general loosening of the ties of civilized society, may in America, as elsewhere, ultimately require intervention by some civilized nation, and in the Western Hemisphere, the adherence of the United States to the Monroe doctrine may force the United States, however reluctantly, in flagrant cases of such wrongdoing or impotence, to the exercise of an international police power."[186]

 The U.S.'s intentions to influence the area (especially the Panama Canal construction and control) led to the separation of Panama from Colombia in 1903.

 The pursuit of an isthmus canal in Central America during this period focused on two possible routes—Nicaragua and Panama, which was then a rebellious district within Colombia. Roosevelt convinced Congress to approve the Panamanian alternative, and a treaty was approved, only to be rejected by the Colombian government. When the Panamanians learned of this, a rebellion followed, was supported by Roosevelt, and succeeded. A treaty with the new Panama government for construction of the canal was then reached in 1903.[187] Roosevelt received criticism for paying the bankrupt Panama Canal Company and the New Panama Canal Company $40,000,000 (equivalent to $12.06 billion in 2021) for the rights and equipment to build the canal.[151] Critics charged that an American investor syndicate allegedly divided the large payment among themselves. There was also controversy over whether a French company engineer influenced Roosevelt in choosing the Panama route for the canal over the Nicaragua route. Roosevelt denied charges of corruption concerning the canal in a January 8, 1906, message to Congress. In January 1909, Roosevelt, in an unprecedented move, brought criminal libel charges against the New York World and the Indianapolis News known as the "Roosevelt-Panama Libel Cases".[188] Both cases were dismissed by U.S. District Courts, and on January 3, 1911, the U.S. Supreme Court, upon federal appeal, upheld the lower courts' rulings.[189] Historians are sharply critical of Roosevelt's criminal prosecutions of the World and the News, but are divided on whether actual corruption in acquiring and building the Panama Canal took place.[190]

 In 1906, following a disputed election, an insurrection ensued in Cuba; Roosevelt sent Taft, the Secretary of War, to monitor the situation; he was convinced that he had the authority to unilaterally authorize Taft to deploy Marines if necessary, without congressional approval.[191]

 Examining the work of numerous scholars, Ricard (2014) reports that:

 The most striking evolution in the twenty-first-century historiography of Theodore Roosevelt is the switch from a partial arraignment of the imperialist to a quasi-unanimous celebration of the master diplomatist.... [Recent works] have underlined cogently Roosevelt's exceptional statesmanship in the construction of the nascent twentieth-century "special relationship". ...The twenty-sixth president's reputation as a brilliant diplomatist and real politician has undeniably reached new heights in the twenty-first century...yet, his Philippine policy still prompts criticism.[192]

 On November 6, 1906, Roosevelt was the first president to depart the continental United States on an official diplomatic trip. Roosevelt made a 17-day trip to Panama and Puerto Rico. Roosevelt checked on the progress of the Canal's construction and talked to workers about the importance of the project. In Puerto Rico, he recommended that Puerto Ricans become U.S. citizens.[193][194]

 Media

 1903 cartoon: "Go Away, Little Man, and Don't Bother Me". Roosevelt intimidating Colombia to acquire the Panama Canal Zone.

 Building on McKinley's effective use of the press, Roosevelt made the White House the center of news every day, providing interviews and photo opportunities. After noticing the reporters huddled outside the White House in the rain one day, he gave them their own room inside, effectively inventing the presidential press briefing. The grateful press, with unprecedented access to the White House, rewarded Roosevelt with ample coverage.[195]

 Roosevelt normally enjoyed very close relationships with the press, which he used to keep in daily contact with his middle-class base. While out of office, he made a living as a writer and magazine editor. He loved talking with intellectuals, authors, and writers. He drew the line, however, at exposé-oriented scandal-mongering journalists who, during his term, sent magazine subscriptions soaring by their attacks on corrupt politicians, mayors, and corporations. Roosevelt himself was not usually a target, but a speech of his from 1906 coined the term "muckraker" for unscrupulous journalists making wild charges. "The liar", he said, "is no whit better than the thief, and if his mendacity takes the form of slander he may be worse than most thieves."[196]

 The press did briefly target Roosevelt in one instance. After 1904, he was periodically criticized for the manner in which he facilitated the construction of the Panama Canal. According to biographer Brands, Roosevelt, near the end of his term, demanded that the U.S. Justice Department bring charges of criminal libel against Joseph Pulitzer's New York World. The publication had accused him of "deliberate misstatements of fact" in defense of family members who were criticized as a result of the Panama affair. Though an indictment was obtained, the case was ultimately dismissed in federal court—it was not a federal offense, but one enforceable in state courts. The Justice Department had predicted that result, and had also advised Roosevelt accordingly.[197]

 Election of 1904

 Main article: 1904 United States presidential election
 1904 election results

 The control and management of the Republican Party lay in the hands of Ohio Senator and Republican Party chairman Mark Hanna until McKinley's death. Roosevelt and Hanna frequently cooperated during Roosevelt's first term, but Hanna left open the possibility of a challenge to Roosevelt for the 1904 Republican nomination. Roosevelt and Ohio's other Senator, Joseph B. Foraker, forced Hanna's hand by calling for Ohio's state Republican convention to endorse Roosevelt for the 1904 nomination.[198] Unwilling to break with the president, Hanna was forced to publicly endorse Roosevelt. Hanna and Pennsylvania Senator Matthew Quay both died in early 1904, and with the waning of Thomas Platt's power, Roosevelt faced little effective opposition for the 1904 nomination.[199] In deference to Hanna's conservative loyalists, Roosevelt at first offered the party chairmanship to Cornelius Bliss, but he declined. Roosevelt turned to his own man, George B. Cortelyou of New York, the first Secretary of Commerce and Labor. To buttress his hold on the party's nomination, Roosevelt made it clear that anyone opposing Cortelyou would be considered to be opposing the President.[200] The President secured his own nomination, but his preferred vice-presidential running mate, Robert R. Hitt, was not nominated.[201] Senator Charles Warren Fairbanks of Indiana, a favorite of conservatives, gained the nomination.[199]

 While Roosevelt followed the tradition of incumbents in not actively campaigning on the stump, he sought to control the campaign's message through specific instructions to Cortelyou. He also attempted to manage the press's release of White House statements by forming the Ananias Club. Any journalist who repeated a statement made by the president without approval was penalized by restriction of further access.[202]

 The Democratic Party's nominee in 1904 was Alton Brooks Parker. Democratic newspapers charged that Republicans were extorting large campaign contributions from corporations, putting ultimate responsibility on Roosevelt, himself.[203] Roosevelt denied corruption while at the same time he ordered Cortelyou to return $100,000 (equivalent to $3 million in 2021) of a campaign contribution from Standard Oil.[204] Parker said that Roosevelt was accepting corporate donations to keep damaging information from the Bureau of Corporations from going public.[204] Roosevelt strongly denied Parker's charge and responded that he would "go into the Presidency unhampered by any pledge, promise, or understanding of any kind, sort, or description...".[205] Allegations from Parker and the Democrats, however, had little impact on the election, as Roosevelt promised to give every American a "square deal".[205] Roosevelt won 56% of the popular vote, and Parker received 38%; Roosevelt also won the Electoral College vote, 336 to 140. Before his inauguration ceremony, Roosevelt declared that he would not serve another term.[206] Democrats afterwards would continue to charge Roosevelt and the Republicans of being influenced by corporate donations during Roosevelt's second term.[207]

 Second term

 As his second term progressed, Roosevelt moved to the left of his Republican Party base and called for a series of reforms, most of which Congress failed to pass.[208] In his last year in office, he was assisted by his friend Archibald Butt (who later perished in the sinking of RMS Titanic).[209] Roosevelt's influence waned as he approached the end of his second term, as his promise to forego a third term made him a lame duck and his concentration of power provoked a backlash from many Congressmen.[210] He sought a national incorporation law (at a time when all corporations had state charters), called for a federal income tax (despite the Supreme Court's ruling in Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co.), and an inheritance tax. In the area of labor legislation, Roosevelt called for limits on the use of court injunctions against labor unions during strikes; injunctions were a powerful weapon that mostly helped business. He wanted an employee liability law for industrial injuries (pre-empting state laws) and an eight-hour work day for federal employees. In other areas he also sought a postal savings system (to provide competition for local banks), and he asked for campaign reform laws.[211]

 The election of 1904 continued to be a source of contention between Republicans and Democrats. A Congressional investigation in 1905 revealed that corporate executives donated tens of thousands of dollars in 1904 to the Republican National Committee. In 1908, a month before the general presidential election, Governor Charles N. Haskell of Oklahoma, former Democratic Treasurer, said that Senators beholden to Standard Oil lobbied Roosevelt, in the summer of 1904, to authorize the leasing of Indian oil lands by Standard Oil subsidiaries. He said Roosevelt overruled his Secretary of the Interior Ethan A. Hitchcock and granted a pipeline franchise to run through the Osage lands to the Prairie Oil and Gas Company. The New York Sun made a similar accusation and said that Standard Oil, a refinery who financially benefited from the pipeline, had contributed $150,000 to the Republicans in 1904 (equivalent to $4.5 million in 2021) after Roosevelt's alleged reversal allowing the pipeline franchise. Roosevelt branded Haskell's allegation as "a lie, pure and simple" and obtained a denial from Treasury Secretary Shaw that Roosevelt had neither coerced Shaw nor overruled him.[212]

 Rhetoric of righteousness

 Roosevelt's rhetoric was characterized by an intense moralism of personal righteousness.[213][214][215] The tone was typified by his denunciation of "predatory wealth" in a message he sent Congress in January 1908 calling for passage of new labor laws:

 Predatory wealth--of the wealth accumulated on a giant scale by all forms of iniquity, ranging from the oppression of wageworkers to unfair and unwholesome methods of crushing out competition, and to defrauding the public by stock jobbing and the manipulation of securities. Certain wealthy men of this stamp, whose conduct should be abhorrent to every man of ordinarily decent conscience, and who commit the hideous wrong of teaching our young men that phenomenal business success must ordinarily be based on dishonesty, have during the last few months made it apparent that they have banded together to work for a reaction. Their endeavor is to overthrow and discredit all who honestly administer the law, to prevent any additional legislation which would check and restrain them, and to secure if possible a freedom from all restraint which will permit every unscrupulous wrongdoer to do what he wishes unchecked provided he has enough money....The methods by which the Standard Oil people and those engaged in the other combinations of which I have spoken above have achieved great fortunes can only be justified by the advocacy of a system of morality which would also justify every form of criminality on the part of a labor union, and every form of violence, corruption, and fraud, from murder to bribery and ballot box stuffing in politics.[216]

 Post-presidency (1909–1919)

 Election of 1908

 Main article: 1908 United States presidential election
 Roosevelt shortly after leaving office, October 1910

 Roosevelt enjoyed being president and was still relatively youthful, but felt that a limited number of terms provided a check against dictatorship. Roosevelt ultimately decided to stick to his 1904 pledge not to run for a third term. He personally favored Secretary of State Elihu Root as his successor, but Root's ill health made him an unsuitable candidate. New York Governor Charles Evans Hughes loomed as a potentially strong candidate and shared Roosevelt's progressivism, but Roosevelt disliked him and considered him to be too independent. Instead, Roosevelt settled on his Secretary of War, William Howard Taft, who had ably served under Presidents Harrison, McKinley, and Roosevelt in various positions. Roosevelt and Taft had been friends since 1890, and Taft had consistently supported President Roosevelt's policies.[217] Roosevelt was determined to install the successor of his choice, and wrote the following to Taft: "Dear Will: Do you want any action about those federal officials? I will break their necks with the utmost cheerfulness if you say the word!". Just weeks later he branded as "false and malicious" the charge that he was using the offices at his disposal to favor Taft.[218] At the 1908 Republican convention, many chanted for "four years more" of a Roosevelt presidency, but Taft won the nomination after Henry Cabot Lodge made it clear that Roosevelt was not interested in a third term.[219]

 In the 1908 election, Taft easily defeated the Democratic nominee, three-time candidate William Jennings Bryan. Taft promoted a progressivism that stressed the rule of law; he preferred that judges rather than administrators or politicians make the basic decisions about fairness. Taft usually proved to be a less adroit politician than Roosevelt and lacked the energy and personal magnetism, along with the publicity devices, the dedicated supporters, and the broad base of public support that made Roosevelt so formidable. When Roosevelt realized that lowering the tariff would risk creating severe tensions inside the Republican Party by pitting producers (manufacturers, industrial workers, and farmers) against merchants and consumers, he stopped talking about the issue. Taft ignored the risks and tackled the tariff boldly, encouraging reformers to fight for lower rates, and then cutting deals with conservative leaders that kept overall rates high. The resulting Payne-Aldrich tariff of 1909, signed into law early in President Taft's tenure, was too high for most reformers, and Taft's handling of the tariff alienated all sides. While the crisis was building inside the Party, Roosevelt was touring Africa and Europe, to allow Taft space to be his own man.[220]

 Africa and Europe (1909–1910)

 Roosevelt standing next to the elephant he shot on safari

 In March 1909, the ex-president left the country for the Smithsonian-Roosevelt African Expedition, a safari in east and central Africa.[221] Roosevelt's party landed in Mombasa, East Africa (now Kenya) and traveled to the Belgian Congo (now Democratic Republic of the Congo) before following the Nile River to Khartoum in modern Sudan. Well-financed by Andrew Carnegie and by his own writings, Roosevelt's large party hunted for specimens for the Smithsonian Institution and for the American Museum of Natural History in New York.[222] The group, led by the hunter-tracker R.J. Cunninghame, included scientists from the Smithsonian, and was joined from time to time by Frederick Selous, the famous big game hunter and explorer. Participants on the expedition included Kermit Roosevelt, Edgar Alexander Mearns, Edmund Heller, and John Alden Loring.[223]

 The team killed or trapped 11,400 animals,[222] from insects and moles to hippopotamuses and elephants. The 1,000 large animals included 512 big game animals, including six rare white rhinos. Tons of salted carcases and skins were shipped to Washington; it took years to mount them all, and the Smithsonian shared duplicate specimens with other museums. Regarding the large number of animals taken, Roosevelt said, "I can be condemned only if the existence of the National Museum, the American Museum of Natural History, and all similar zoological institutions are to be condemned".[224] He wrote a detailed account of the safari in the book African Game Trails, recounting the excitement of the chase, the people he met, and the flora and fauna he collected in the name of science.[225]

 After his safari, Roosevelt traveled north to embark on a tour of Europe. Stopping first in Egypt, he commented favorably on British rule of the region, giving his opinion that Egypt was not yet ready for independence.[226] He refused a meeting with the Pope due to a dispute over a group of Methodists active in Rome. He met with Emperor Franz Joseph of Austria-Hungary, Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, King George V of Great Britain, and other European leaders. In Oslo, Norway, Roosevelt delivered a speech calling for limitations on naval armaments, a strengthening of the Permanent Court of Arbitration, and the creation of a "League of Peace" among the world powers.[227] He also delivered the Romanes Lecture at Oxford, in which he denounced those who sought parallels between the evolution of animal life and the development of society.[228] Though Roosevelt attempted to avoid domestic politics, he quietly met with Gifford Pinchot, who related his own disappointment with the Taft Administration.[229] Pinchot had been forced to resign as head of the forest service after clashing with Taft's Interior Secretary, Richard Ballinger, who had prioritized development over conservation. Roosevelt returned to the United States in June 1910.[230]

 In October 1910, Roosevelt became the first U.S. president to fly in an airplane, staying aloft for four minutes in a Wright Brothers-designed craft near St. Louis.[231]

 Republican Party schism

 Roosevelt had attempted to refashion Taft into a copy of himself, but he recoiled as Taft began to display his individuality. He was offended on election night when Taft indicated that his success had been possible not just through the efforts of Roosevelt, but also Taft's half-brother Charles. Roosevelt was further alienated when Taft, intent on becoming his own man, did not consult him about cabinet appointments.[232] Roosevelt and other progressives were ideologically dissatisfied over Taft's conservation policies and his handling of the tariff when he concentrated more power in the hands of conservative party leaders in Congress.[233] Stanley Solvick argues that as president Taft abided by the goals and procedures of the "Square Deal" promoted by Roosevelt in his first term. The problem was that Roosevelt and the more radical progressives had moved on to more aggressive goals, such as curbing the judiciary, which Taft rejected.[234] Regarding radicalism and liberalism, Roosevelt wrote a British friend in 1911:

 Fundamentally it is the radical liberal with whom I sympathize. He is at least working toward the end for which I think we should all of us strive; and when he adds sanity in moderation to courage and enthusiasm for high ideals he develops into the kind of statesman whom alone I can wholeheartedly support.[235]

 Roosevelt urged progressives to take control of the Republican Party at the state and local level and to avoid splitting the party in a way that would hand the presidency to the Democrats in 1912. To that end Roosevelt publicly expressed optimism about the Taft Administration after meeting with the president in June 1910.[236]

 In August 1910, Roosevelt escalated the rivalry with a speech at Osawatomie, Kansas, which was the most radical of his career. It marked his public break with Taft and the conservative Republicans. Advocating a program he called the "New Nationalism", Roosevelt emphasized the priority of labor over capital interests, and the need to control corporate creation and combination. He called for a ban on corporate political contributions.[237] Returning to New York, Roosevelt began a battle to take control of the state Republican party from William Barnes Jr., Tom Platt's successor as the state party boss. Taft had pledged his support to Roosevelt in this endeavor, and Roosevelt was outraged when Taft's support failed to materialize at the 1910 state convention.[238] Roosevelt campaigned for the Republicans in the 1910 elections, in which the Democrats gained control of the House for the first time since 1892. Among the newly elected Democrats was New York state senator Franklin Delano Roosevelt, who argued that he represented his distant cousin's policies better than his Republican opponent.[239]

 The Republican progressives interpreted the 1910 defeats as a compelling argument for the complete reorganization of the party in 1911.[240] Senator Robert M. La Follette of Wisconsin joined with Pinchot, William White, and California Governor Hiram Johnson to create the National Progressive Republican League; their objectives were to defeat the power of political bossism at the state level and to replace Taft at the national level.[241] Despite his skepticism of La Follette's new league, Roosevelt expressed general support for progressive principles. Between January and April 1911, Roosevelt wrote a series of articles for The Outlook, defending what he called "the great movement of our day, the progressive nationalist movement against special privilege, and in favor of an honest and efficient political and industrial democracy".[242] With Roosevelt apparently uninterested in running in 1912, La Follette declared his own candidacy in June 1911.[241] Roosevelt continually criticized Taft after the 1910 elections, and the break between the two men became final after the Justice Department filed an antitrust lawsuit against US Steel in September 1911; Roosevelt was humiliated by this suit because he had personally approved of an acquisition that the Justice Department was now challenging. However, Roosevelt was still unwilling to run against Taft in 1912; he instead hoped to run in 1916 against whichever Democrat beat Taft in 1912.[243]

 Battling Taft over arbitration treaties

 Taft was world leader for arbitration as a guarantee of world peace. In 1911 he and his Secretary of State Philander C. Knox negotiated major treaties with Great Britain and France providing that differences be arbitrated. Disputes had to be submitted to the Hague Court or other tribunal. These were signed in August 1911 but had to be ratified by a two-thirds vote of the Senate. Neither Taft or Knox consulted with leaders of the Senate during the negotiating process. By then many Republicans were opposed to Taft, and the president felt that lobbying too hard for the treaties might cause their defeat. He made some speeches supporting the treaties in October, but the Senate added amendments Taft could not accept, killing the agreements.[244]

 The arbitration issue revealed a deep philosophical dispute among American progressives. One faction, led by Taft looked to legal arbitration as the best alternative to warfare. Taft was a constitutional lawyer with a deep understanding of the legal issues.[245] Taft's political base was the conservative business community that largely supported peace movements before 1914. However, he failed to mobilize that base. The businessmen believed that economic rivalries were the cause of war, and that extensive trade led to an interdependent world that would make war a very expensive and useless anachronism.[246]

 However, an opposing faction of progressives, led by Roosevelt, ridiculed arbitration as foolhardy idealism, and insisted on the realism of warfare as the only solution to serious international disputes. Roosevelt worked with his close friend Senator Henry Cabot Lodge to impose those amendments that ruined the goals of the treaties. Lodge's motivation was that he complained the treaties impinged too much on senatorial prerogatives.[247] Roosevelt, however, was acting to sabotage Taft's campaign promises.[248] At a deeper level, Roosevelt truly believed that arbitration was a naïve solution and the great issues had to be decided by warfare. The Rooseveltian approach incorporated a near-mystical faith of the ennobling nature of war. It endorsed jingoistic nationalism as opposed to the businessmen's calculation of profit and national interest.[249][250]

 Election of 1912

 Main articles: 1912 United States presidential election and Progressive Party (United States, 1912)

 Republican primaries and convention

 In November 1911, a group of Ohio Republicans endorsed Roosevelt for the party's nomination for president; the endorsers included James R. Garfield and Dan Hanna. This endorsement was made by leaders of President Taft's home state. Roosevelt conspicuously declined to make a statement—requested by Garfield—that he would flatly refuse a nomination. Soon thereafter, Roosevelt said, "I am really sorry for Taft... I am sure he means well, but he means well feebly, and he does not know how! He is utterly unfit for leadership and this is a time when we need leadership." In January 1912, Roosevelt declared "if the people make a draft on me I shall not decline to serve".[251] Later that year, Roosevelt spoke before the Constitutional Convention in Ohio, openly identifying as a progressive and endorsing progressive reforms—even endorsing popular review of state judicial decisions.[252] In reaction to Roosevelt's proposals for popular overrule of court decisions, Taft said, "Such extremists are not progressives—they are political emotionalists or neurotics".[253]

 Punch in May 1912 depicts no-holds-barred fight between Taft and Roosevelt.

 Roosevelt began to envision himself as the savior of the Republican Party from defeat in the upcoming presidential election. In February 1912, Roosevelt announced in Boston, "I will accept the nomination for president if it is tendered to me. I hope that so far as possible the people may be given the chance through direct primaries to express who shall be the nominee.[254][255] Elihu Root and Henry Cabot Lodge thought that division of the party would lead to its defeat in the next election, while Taft believed that he would be defeated either in the Republican primary or in the general election.[256]

 The 1912 primaries represented the first extensive use of the presidential primary, a reform achievement of the progressive movement.[257] The Republican primaries in the South, where party regulars dominated, went for Taft, as did results in New York, Indiana, Michigan, Kentucky, and Massachusetts. Meanwhile, Roosevelt won in Illinois, Minnesota, Nebraska, South Dakota, California, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. The greatest primary fight came in Ohio, Taft's base. Both the Taft and Roosevelt campaigns worked furiously, and La Follette joined in. Each team sent in big name speakers. Roosevelt's train went 1,800 miles back and forth in the one state, where he made 75 speeches. Taft's train went 3,000 miles criss-crossing Ohio and he made over 100 speeches.Roosevelt swept the state, convincing Roosevelt that he should intensify his campaigning, and letting Taft know he should work from the White House not the stump.[258] Only a third of the states held primaries; elsewhere the state organization chose the delegations to the national convention and they favored Taft. The final credentials of the state delegates at the national convention were determined by the national committee, which was controlled by Taft men.[259][260]

 Prior to the 1912 Republican National Convention in Chicago, Roosevelt expressed doubt about his prospects for victory, noting that Taft had more delegates and control of the credentials committee. His only hope was to convince party leaders that the nomination of Taft would hand the election to the Democrats, but party leaders were determined not to cede their leadership to Roosevelt.[261] The credentials committee awarded 235 contested delegates to Taft and 19 to Roosevelt. Taft won the nomination on the first ballot with 561 votes against 107 for Roosevelt and 41 for La Follette. Of the Roosevelt delegates, 344 refused to vote so they would not be committed to the Republican ticket.[262][263] Black delegates from the South played a key role: they voted heavily for Taft and put him over the top.[264] La Follette hoped that a deadlocked convention would result in his own nomination, and refused to release his delegates to support Roosevelt.[262]

 Roosevelt denounces the election

 According to Lewis L. Gould, in 1912

 Roosevelt saw Taft as the agent of "the forces of reaction and of political crookedness".... Roosevelt had become the most dangerous man in American history, said Taft, "because of his hold upon the less intelligent voters and the discontented." The Republican National Committee, dominated by the Taft forces, awarded 235 delegates to the president and 19 to Roosevelt, thereby ensuring Taft's renomination. Roosevelt believed himself entitled to 72 delegates from Arizona, California, Texas and Washington that had been given to Taft. Firm in his conviction that the nomination was being stolen from him, Roosevelt ....told cheering supporters that there was "a great moral issue" at stake and he should have "sixty to eighty lawfully elected delegates" added to his total....Roosevelt ended his speech declaring: "Fearless of the future; unheeding of our individual fates; with unflinching hearts and undimmed eyes; we stand at Armageddon, and we battle for the Lord!"[265]

 The Progressive ("Bull Moose") Party

 See also: New Nationalism (Theodore Roosevelt) and Progressive Party (United States, 1912)
 "The right of the people to rule"
 Excerpts from a speech given by Theodore Roosevelt at Carnegie Hall, March 12, 1912. Recorded August 1912 by Thomas Edison. Duration 4:07.
 Problems playing this file? See media help.

 Once his defeat at the Republican convention appeared probable, Roosevelt announced that he would "accept the progressive nomination on a progressive platform and I shall fight to the end, win or lose". At the same time, Roosevelt prophetically said, "My feeling is that the Democrats will probably win if they nominate a progressive".[266]

 Roosevelt left the Republican Party and created the Progressive Party, structuring it as a permanent organization that would field complete tickets at the presidential and state level. The new party included many reformers, including Jane Addams. Although many Republican politicians had announced for Roosevelt before Taft won the nomination, he was stunned to discover that very few incumbent politicians followed him into the new party. The main exception was California, where the Progressive faction took control of the Republican Party. Loyalty to the old party was a powerful factor for incumbents; only five senators now supported Roosevelt.[267][268] Roosevelt's daughter Alice had a White House marriage to Congressman Nicholas Longworth, who represented Taft's base in Cincinnati. Roosevelt reassured him in 1912 that of course he had to endorse Taft. However, Alice was her father's biggest cheerleader—the public conflict between spouses ruined the marriage.[269]

 1912 editorial cartoon showing George Perkins (left, with checkbook symbolizing control of money) and Amos Pinchot (wielding an endorsement from Roosevelt campaign manager, Senator Joseph M. Dixon) in battle for Progressive party control

 The leadership of the new party included a wide range of reformers. Jane Addams campaigned vigorously for the new party as a breakthrough in social reform.[270] Gifford Pinchot represented the environmentalists and anti-trust crusaders. Publisher Frank Munsey provided much of the cash.[271] George W. Perkins, a leading Wall Street financier and senior partner of J.P. Morgan bank came from the efficiency movement. He handled the new party's finances efficiently, but was deeply distrusted by many reformers.[272]

 The new party was popularly known as the "Bull Moose Party" after Roosevelt told reporters, "I'm as fit as a bull moose".[273] At the 1912 Progressive National Convention, Roosevelt cried out, "We stand at Armageddon and we battle for the Lord." Governor Hiram Johnson controlled the California party, forcing out the Taft supporters. He was nominated as Roosevelt's running mate.[274]

 Roosevelt's platform echoed his radical 1907–1908 proposals, calling for vigorous government intervention to protect the people from selfish interests:

 To destroy this invisible Government, to dissolve the unholy alliance between corrupt business and corrupt politics is the first task of the statesmanship of the day.[275][276] This country belongs to the people. Its resources, its business, its laws, its institutions, should be utilized, maintained, or altered in whatever manner will best promote the general interest. This assertion is explicit... Mr. Wilson must know that every monopoly in the United States opposes the Progressive party... I challenge him... to name the monopoly that did support the Progressive party, whether... the Sugar Trust, the US Steel Trust, the Harvester Trust, the Standard Oil Trust, the Tobacco Trust, or any other... Ours was the only program to which they objected, and they supported either Mr. Wilson or Mr. Taft.[277]

 Though many Progressive party activists in the North opposed the steady loss of civil rights for blacks, Roosevelt ran a "lily-white" campaign in the South. Rival all-white and all-black delegations from four southern states arrived at the Progressive national convention, and Roosevelt decided to seat the all-white delegations.[278][279][280] Nevertheless, he won few votes outside a few traditional Republican strongholds. Out of 1,100 counties in the South, Roosevelt won two counties in Alabama, one in Arkansas, seven in North Carolina, three in Georgia, 17 in Tennessee, two in Texas, one in Virginia, and none in Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, or South Carolina.[281]

 Assassination attempt

 Main article: Attempted assassination of Theodore Roosevelt
 Theodore Roosevelt's medical x-ray on October 14, 1912, after the assassination attempt, showing the bullet that would remain inside his body for life
 The bullet-damaged speech and eyeglass case on display at the Theodore Roosevelt Birthplace in Manhattan, New York City

 On October 14, 1912, while arriving at a campaign event in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, Roosevelt was shot from seven feet away in front of the Gilpatrick Hotel by a delusional saloonkeeper named John Flammang Schrank, who believed that the ghost of assassinated president William McKinley had directed him to kill Roosevelt.[282][283] The bullet lodged in his chest after penetrating his steel eyeglass case and passing through a 50-page-thick single-folded copy of the speech titled "Progressive Cause Greater Than Any Individual", which he was carrying in his jacket.[284] Schrank was immediately disarmed (by Czech immigrant Frank Bukovsky), captured, and might have been lynched had Roosevelt not shouted for Schrank to remain unharmed.[285][286] Roosevelt assured the crowd he was all right, then ordered police to take charge of Schrank and to make sure no violence was done to him.[287]

 As an experienced hunter and anatomist, Roosevelt correctly concluded that since he was not coughing blood, the bullet had not reached his lung. He declined suggestions to go to the hospital immediately and instead delivered a 90 minute speech with blood seeping into his shirt.[288][ unreliable source? ] His opening comments to the gathered crowd were, "Ladies and gentlemen, I don't know whether you fully understand that I have just been shot, but it takes more than that to kill a Bull Moose."[289][ unreliable source? ] Only after finishing his address did he accept medical attention.

 Subsequent probes and an x-ray showed that the bullet had lodged in Roosevelt's chest muscle, but did not penetrate the pleura. Doctors concluded that it would be less dangerous to leave it in place than to attempt to remove it, and Roosevelt carried the bullet with him for the rest of his life.[290][291] Both Taft and Democratic nominee Woodrow Wilson suspended their own campaigning until Roosevelt recovered and resumed his. When asked if the shooting would affect his election campaign, he said to the reporter "I'm fit as a bull moose." The bull moose became a symbol of both Roosevelt and the Progressive Party, and it often was referred to as simply the Bull Moose Party. He spent two weeks recuperating before returning to the campaign trail. He later wrote a friend about the bullet inside him, "I do not mind it any more than if it were in my waistcoat pocket."[292]

 Democratic victory

 After the Democrats nominated Governor Woodrow Wilson of New Jersey, Roosevelt did not expect to win the general election, as Wilson had compiled a record attractive to many progressive Democrats who might have otherwise considered voting for Roosevelt.[293] Roosevelt still campaigned vigorously, and the election developed into a two-person contest despite Taft's quiet presence in the race. Roosevelt respected Wilson, but the two differed on various issues; Wilson opposed any federal intervention regarding women's suffrage or child labor (he viewed these as state issues), and attacked Roosevelt's tolerance of large businesses.[294]

 Roosevelt won 4.1 million votes (27%), compared to Taft's 3.5 million (23%) and Wilson's gained 6.3 million (42%). Wilson scored a massive landslide in the Electoral College, with 435 electoral votes; Roosevelt won 88 electoral votes, while Taft won 8. Pennsylvania was the only eastern state won by Roosevelt; in the Midwest, he carried Michigan, Minnesota, and South Dakota; in the West, California, and Washington.[295] Wilson's victory was the first for a Democrat since Cleveland in 1892. It was the party's best performance in the Electoral College since 1852. Roosevelt, meanwhile, garnered a higher share of the popular vote than any other third-party presidential candidate in history and won the most states of any third-party candidate after the Civil War.[296]

 South American expedition (1913–1914)

 Main article: Roosevelt–Rondon Scientific Expedition

 In 1907 a friend of Roosevelt's, John Augustine Zahm, a professor at the University of Notre Dame, invited Roosevelt to help plan a research expedition to South America. Now was the time to escape politics. To finance it, Roosevelt obtained support from the American Museum of Natural History in return for promising to bring back many new animal specimens. Roosevelt's popular book, Through the Brazilian Wilderness[297] describes his expedition into the Brazilian jungle in 1913 as a member of the Roosevelt-Rondon Scientific Expedition, co-named after its leader, Brazilian explorer Cândido Rondon.

 From left to right (seated): fr. John Augustine Zahm, Cândido Rondon, Kermit Roosevelt, Cherrie, Miller, four Brazilians, Roosevelt, Fiala. Only Roosevelt, Kermit, Cherrie, Rondon, and the Brazilians traveled down the River of Doubt.

 Once in South America, a new, far more ambitious goal was added: to find the headwaters of the Rio da Duvida (Portuguese for "River of Doubt"), and trace it north to the Madeira and thence to the Amazon River. It was later renamed Roosevelt River in honor of the former president. Roosevelt's crew consisted of his son Kermit, Colonel Rondon, naturalist George Kruck Cherrie (sent by the American Museum of Natural History), Brazilian Lieutenant João Lira, team physician Dr. José Antonio Cajazeira, and 16 skilled paddlers and porters. Roosevelt also identified Leo Miller (another AMNH recommendation), Anthony Fiala, Frank Harper, and Jacob Sigg as crew members.[298] The initial expedition started somewhat tenuously on December 9, 1913, at the height of the rainy season. The trip down the River of Doubt started on February 27, 1914.[299]

 During the trip down the river, Roosevelt suffered a minor leg wound after he jumped into the river to try to prevent two canoes from smashing against the rocks. The flesh wound he received, however, soon gave him tropical fever that resembled the malaria he had contracted while in Cuba fifteen years before.[300] Because the bullet lodged in his chest from the assassination attempt in 1912 was never removed, his health worsened from the infection.[301] This weakened Roosevelt so greatly that six weeks into the adventure, he had to be attended to day and night by the expedition's physician and his son Kermit. By then, he could not walk because of the infection in his injured leg and an infirmity in the other, which was due to a traffic accident a decade earlier. Roosevelt was riddled with chest pains, fighting a fever that soared to 103 °F (39 °C) and at times made him delirious, at one point constantly reciting the first two lines of Samuel Taylor Coleridge's poem "Kubla Khan": "In Xanadu did Kubla Khan / A stately pleasure dome decree". Regarding his condition as a threat to the survival of the others, Roosevelt insisted he be left behind to allow the poorly provisioned expedition to proceed as rapidly as it could, preparing to commit suicide with an overdose of morphine. Only an appeal by his son persuaded him to continue.[299]

 Despite Roosevelt's continued decline and loss of over 50 pounds (23 kg), Colonel Rondon reduced the pace of the expedition to allow for his commission's mapmaking and other geographical tasks, which required regular stops to fix the expedition's position by sun-based survey. Upon Roosevelt's return to New York, friends and family were startled by his physical appearance and fatigue. Roosevelt wrote, perhaps prophetically, to a friend that the trip had cut his life short by ten years. For the rest of his few remaining years, he would be plagued by flare-ups of malaria and leg inflammations so severe as to require surgery.[302] Before Roosevelt had even completed his sea voyage home, critics raised doubts over his claims of exploring and navigating a completely uncharted river over 625 miles (1,006 km) long. When he had recovered sufficiently, he addressed a standing-room-only convention organized in Washington, D.C., by the National Geographic Society and satisfactorily defended his claims.[299][ page needed ]

 Final years

 See also: Roosevelt's World War I volunteers
 Former President Theodore Roosevelt in Allentown, Pennsylvania, 1914

 Roosevelt returned to the United States in May 1914. Though he was outraged by the Wilson Administration's conclusion of a treaty that expressed "sincere regret" for the way in which the United States had acquired the Panama Canal Zone, he was impressed by many of the reforms passed under Wilson. Roosevelt made several campaign appearances for the Progressives, but the 1914 elections were a disaster for the fledgling third party.[303] Roosevelt began to envision another campaign for president, this time with himself at the head of the Republican Party, but conservative party leaders remained opposed to Roosevelt.[304] In hopes of engineering a joint nomination, the Progressives scheduled the 1916 Progressive National Convention at the same time as the 1916 Republican National Convention. When the Republicans nominated Charles Evans Hughes, Roosevelt declined the Progressive nomination and urged his Progressive followers to support the Republican candidate.[305] Though Roosevelt had long disliked Hughes, he disliked Wilson even more, and he campaigned energetically for the Republican nominee. However, Wilson won the 1916 election by a narrow margin.[306] The Progressives disappeared as a party following the 1916 election, and Roosevelt and many of his followers permanently re-joined the Republican Party.[307]

 World War I

 When the First World War began in 1914, Roosevelt strongly supported the Allies and demanded a harsher policy against Germany, especially regarding submarine warfare. Roosevelt angrily denounced the foreign policy of President Wilson, calling it a failure regarding the atrocities in Belgium and the violations of American rights.[308] In 1916, while campaigning for Hughes, Roosevelt repeatedly denounced Irish-Americans and German-Americans whom he described as unpatriotic, saying they put the interests of Ireland and Germany ahead of America's by supporting neutrality. He insisted that one had to be 100% American, not a "hyphenated American" who juggled multiple loyalties. In March 1917, Congress gave Roosevelt the authority to raise a maximum of four divisions similar to the Rough Riders, and Major Frederick Russell Burnham was put in charge of both the general organization and recruitment.[309][310] However, President Wilson announced to the press that he would not send Roosevelt and his volunteers to France, but instead would send an American Expeditionary Force under the command of General John J. Pershing.[311] Roosevelt never forgave Wilson, and quickly published The Foes of Our Own Household, an indictment of the sitting president.[312][313][314] Roosevelt's youngest son, Quentin, a pilot with the American forces in France, was killed when shot down behind German lines on July 14, 1918, at the age of 20. It is said that Quentin's death distressed Roosevelt so much that he never recovered from his loss.[315]

 League of Nations

 Further information: League to Enforce Peace

 Roosevelt was an early supporter of the modern view that there needs to be a global order. In his Nobel prize address of 1910, he said, "it would be a master stroke if those great Powers honestly bent on peace would form a League of Peace, not only to keep the peace among themselves, but to prevent, by force if necessary, its being broken by others."[316] It would have executive power such as the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 lacked. He called for American participation.

 When World War I broke out, Roosevelt proposed "a World League for the Peace of Righteousness", in September 1914, which would preserve sovereignty but limit armaments and require arbitration. He added that it should be "solemnly covenanted that if any nations refused to abide by the decisions of such a court, then others draw the sword in behalf of peace and justice."[317][318] In 1915 he outlined this plan more specifically, urging that nations guarantee their entire military force, if necessary, against any nation that refused to carry out arbitration decrees or violated rights of other nations. Though Roosevelt had some concerns about the impact on United States sovereignty, he insisted that such a league would only work if the United States participated as one of the "joint guarantors".[319] Roosevelt referred to this plan in a 1918 speech as "the most feasible for...a league of nations."[320][321] By this time Wilson was strongly hostile to Roosevelt and Lodge, and developed his own plans for a rather different League of Nations. It became reality along Wilson's lines at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. Roosevelt denounced Wilson's approach but died before it was adopted at Paris. However, Lodge was willing to accept it with serious reservations. In the end, on March 19, 1920, Wilson had Democratic Senators vote against the League with the Lodge Reservations and the United States never joined the League of Nations.[322]

 Final political activities

 Roosevelt's attacks on Wilson helped the Republicans win control of Congress in the midterm elections of 1918. He declined a request from New York Republicans to run for another gubernatorial term, but attacked Wilson's Fourteen Points, calling instead for the unconditional surrender of Germany. Though his health was uncertain, he was seen as a leading contender for the 1920 Republican nomination, but insisted that, "If they take me, they'll have to take me without a single modification of the things that I have always stood for! [323] He wrote William Allen White, "I wish to do everything in my power to make the Republican Party the Party of sane, constructive radicalism, just as it was under Lincoln." Accordingly, he told the 1918 state convention of the Maine Republican Party that he stood for old-age pensions, insurance for sickness and unemployment, construction of public housing for low-income families, the reduction of working hours, aid to farmers, and more regulation of large corporations.[323]

 While his political profile remained high, Roosevelt's physical condition continued to deteriorate throughout 1918 due to the long-term effects of jungle diseases. He was hospitalized for seven weeks late in the year and never fully recovered.[324]

 Death

 Theodore and Edith Roosevelt's Grave at Youngs Memorial Cemetery

 On the night of January 5, 1919, Roosevelt suffered breathing problems. After receiving treatment from his physician, Dr. George W. Faller, he felt better and went to bed. Roosevelt's last words were "Please put out that light, James" to his family servant James E. Amos. Between 4:00 and 4:15 the next morning, Roosevelt, at the age of 60, died in his sleep at Sagamore Hill after a blood clot detached from a vein and traveled to his lungs.[301]

 Upon receiving word of his death, his son Archibald telegraphed his siblings: "The old lion is dead."[315] Woodrow Wilson's vice president, Thomas R. Marshall, said that "Death had to take Roosevelt sleeping, for if he had been awake, there would have been a fight."[325] Following a private farewell service in the North Room at Sagamore Hill, a simple funeral was held at Christ Episcopal Church in Oyster Bay.[326] Vice President Thomas R. Marshall, Charles Evans Hughes, Warren G. Harding, Henry Cabot Lodge, and William Howard Taft were among the mourners.[326] The snow-covered procession route to Youngs Memorial Cemetery was lined with spectators and a squad of mounted policemen who had ridden from New York City.[327] Roosevelt was buried on a hillside overlooking Oyster Bay.[328]

 Writer

 Main article: Theodore Roosevelt bibliography
 Address to the Boys Progressive League
 A speech by Roosevelt as a former President
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 Part of the Works of Theodore Roosevelt

 Roosevelt was a prolific author, writing with passion on subjects ranging from foreign policy to the importance of the national park system. Roosevelt was also an avid reader of poetry. Poet Robert Frost said that Roosevelt "was our kind. He quoted poetry to me. He knew poetry."[329]

 As an editor of The Outlook, Roosevelt had weekly access to a large, educated national audience. In all, Roosevelt wrote about 18 books (each in several editions), including his autobiography,[330] The Rough Riders,[331] History of the Naval War of 1812,[332] and others on subjects such as ranching, explorations, and wildlife. His most ambitious book was the four volume narrative The Winning of the West, focused on the American frontier in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Roosevelt said that the American character—indeed a new "American race" (ethnic group) had emerged from the heroic wilderness hunters and Indian fighters, acting on the frontier with little government help.[333] Roosevelt also published an account of his 1909–10 African expedition entitled African Game Trails.

 In 1907, Roosevelt became embroiled in a widely publicized literary debate known as the nature fakers controversy. A few years earlier, naturalist John Burroughs had published an article entitled "Real and Sham Natural History" in the Atlantic Monthly, attacking popular writers of the day such as Ernest Thompson Seton, Charles G. D. Roberts, and William J. Long for their fantastical representations of wildlife. Roosevelt agreed with Burroughs's criticisms, and published several essays of his own denouncing the booming genre of "naturalistic" animal stories as "yellow journalism of the woods". It was the President himself who popularized the negative term "nature faker" to describe writers who depicted their animal characters with excessive anthropomorphism.[334]

 Character and beliefs

 Sagamore Hill, Roosevelt's Long Island estate

 Roosevelt intensely disliked being called "Teddy", despite the widespread public association with said moniker, and was quick to point out this to those who referred to him as such, though it would become widely used by newspapers during his political career.

 He was an active Freemason[335] and member of the Sons of the American Revolution.[336]

 British scholar Marcus Cunliffe evaluates the liberal argument that Roosevelt was an opportunist, exhibitionist, and imperialist. Cunliffe praises TR's versatility, his respect for law, and his sincerity. He argues that Roosevelt's foreign policy was better than his detractors allege. Cunliffe calls him "a big man in several respects," ranking him below Washington, Lincoln, and Jefferson, and on the same level as Franklin D. Roosevelt.[337]

 Strenuous life

 Roosevelt had a lifelong interest in pursuing what he called, in an 1899 speech, "The Strenuous Life". To this end, he exercised regularly and took up boxing, tennis, hiking, rowing, polo, and horseback riding. He also continued his habit of skinny-dipping in the Potomac River during the winter.[338][339] As governor of New York, he boxed with sparring partners several times each week, a practice he regularly continued as president until being hit so hard in the face he became blind in his left eye (a fact not made public until many years later). As president, he practiced judo for two 2-month periods in 1902 and 1904, not attaining any rank.[340] Roosevelt began to believe in the utility of jiu-jitsu training after training with Yoshitsugu Yamashita. Concerned that the United States would lose its military supremacy to rising powers like Japan, Roosevelt began to advocate for jiu-jitsu training for American soldiers.[341] Feminists annoyed by the posturing of men like Roosevelt, insisted that women were just as capable of learning jiu-jitsu. To prove their point, Martha Blow Wadsworth and Maria Louise ("Hallie") Davis Elkins hired Fude Yamashita, a highly skilled jiu-jitsu instructor and the wife of Yoshitsugu Yamashita, to teach a jiu-jitsu class for women and girls in Washington, DC in 1904. Women had already begun training in boxing in the United States as a means of personal and political empowerment. Jiu-jitsu training thus soon also became popular with American women, coinciding with the origins of a women's self-defense movement.[342]

 Roosevelt was an enthusiastic singlestick player and, according to Harper's Weekly, showed up at a White House reception with his arm bandaged after a bout with General Leonard Wood in 1905.[343] Roosevelt was an avid reader, reading tens of thousands of books, at a rate of several per day in multiple languages. Along with Thomas Jefferson, Roosevelt was the most well-read of all American presidents.[344]

 Warrior

 "The Man of the Hour" Roosevelt as Warrior in 1898 and Peacemaker in 1905 settling war between Russia and Japan

 Historians have often emphasized Roosevelt's warrior persona.[345] He took aggressive positions regarding war with Spain in 1898, Colombia in 1903,[346] and especially with Germany, from 1915 to 1917. As a demonstration of American naval might, he sent the "Great White Fleet" around the world in 1907–1909.[347] The implicit threat of the "big stick" of military power provided leverage to "speak softly" and quietly resolve conflict in numerous cases.[348] He boasted in his autobiography:

 When I left the Presidency I finished seven and a half years of administration, during which not one shot had been fired against a foreign foe. We were at absolute peace, and there was no nation in the world with whom a war cloud threatened, no nation in the world whom we had wronged, or from whom we had anything to fear. The cruise of the battle fleet was not the least of the causes which ensured so peaceful an outlook.[349]

 Richard D. White Jr states, "Roosevelt's warrior spirit framed his views of national politics, [and] international relations."[350]

 Historian Howard K. Beale has argued:

 He and his associates came close to seeking war for its own sake. Ignorant of modern war, Roosevelt romanticized war. ... Like many young men tamed by civilization into law-abiding but adventurous living, he needed an outlet for the pent-up primordial man in him and found it in fighting and killing, vicariously or directly, in hunting or in war. Indeed he had a fairly good time in war when war came. ... There was something dull and effeminate about peace. ... He gloried in war, was thrilled by military history, and placed warlike qualities high in his scale of values. Without consciously desiring it, he thought a little war now and then stimulated admirable qualities in men. Certainly preparedness for war did.[351]

 Religion

 Roosevelt attended church regularly and was a lifelong adherent of the Reformed Church in America, the American affiliate of the Dutch Reformed Church. He often praised moral behavior but apparently never made a spiritual confession of his own faith. After the 1885 death of his wife, he almost never mentioned Jesus Christ in public or private. Dr. Benjamin J. Wetzel says, "There is little in Roosevelt suggestive of grace, mercy, or redemption."[352][353] His rejection of dogma and spirituality, says biographer William Harbaugh, led to a broad tolerance. He campaigned among Protestants, Catholics and Jews, and appointed them to office. He was suspicious of Mormons until they renounced polygamy.[354]

 In 1907, concerning the proposed motto "In God We Trust" on money, he wrote, "It seems to me eminently unwise to cheapen such a motto by use on coins, just as it would be to cheapen it by use on postage stamps, or in advertisements." Roosevelt talked a great deal about religion. Biographer Edmund Morris states:

 When consoling bereaved people, he would awkwardly invoke 'unseen and unknown powers.' Aside from a few clichés of Protestant rhetoric, the gospel he preached had always been political and pragmatic. He was inspired less by the Passion of Christ than by the Golden Rule—that appeal to reason amounting, in his mind, to a worldly rather than heavenly law.[355]

 Roosevelt publicly encouraged church attendance and was a conscientious churchgoer himself. When gas rationing was introduced during the First World War, he walked the three miles from his home at Sagamore Hill to the local church and back, even after a serious operation had made it difficult for him to travel by foot.[356] It was said that Roosevelt "allowed no engagement to keep him from going to church," and he remained a fervent advocate of the Bible throughout his adult life.[357] According to Christian F. Reisner, "Religion was as natural to Mr. Roosevelt as breathing,"[358] and when the travel library for Roosevelt's famous Smithsonian-sponsored African expedition was being assembled, the Bible was, according to his sister, "the first book selected."[359] In an address delivered to the Long Island Bible Society in 1901, Roosevelt declared that:

 Every thinking man, when he thinks, realizes what a very large number of people tend to forget, that the teachings of the Bible are so interwoven and entwined with our whole civic and social life that it would be literally—I do not mean figuratively, I mean literally—impossible for us to figure to ourselves what that life would be if these teachings were removed. We would lose almost all the standards by which we now judge both public and private morals; all the standards toward which we, with more or less of resolution, strive to raise ourselves. Almost every man who has by his lifework added to the sum of human achievement of which the race is proud, has based his lifework largely upon the teachings of the Bible ... Among the greatest men a disproportionately large number have been diligent and close students of the Bible at first hand.[359]

 Political positions

 Main article: Political positions of Theodore Roosevelt

 When he assumed the presidency, Roosevelt reassured many conservatives, stating that "the mechanism of modern business is so delicate that extreme care must be taken not to interfere with it in a spirit of rashness or ignorance."[360] The following year, Roosevelt asserted the president's independence from business interests by opposing the merger which created the Northern Securities Company, and many were surprised that any president, much less an unelected one, would challenge powerful banker J.P. Morgan.[361] In his last two years as president, Roosevelt became increasingly distrustful of big business, despite its close ties to the Republican Party.[362] Roosevelt sought to replace the 19th-century laissez-faire economic environment with a new economic model which included a larger regulatory role for the federal government. He believed that 19th-century entrepreneurs had risked their fortunes on innovations and new businesses, and that these capitalists had been rightly rewarded. By contrast, he believed that 20th-century capitalists risked little but nonetheless reaped huge and, given the lack of risk, unjust, economic rewards. Without a redistribution of wealth away from the upper class, Roosevelt feared that the country would turn to radicals or fall to revolution.[363] His Square Deal domestic program had three main goals: conservation of natural resources, control of corporations, and consumer protection.[364] The Square Deal evolved into his program of "New Nationalism", which emphasized the priority of labor over capital interests and a need to more effectively control corporate creation and combination, and proposed a ban on corporate political contributions.[237]

 Foreign policy beliefs

 In the analysis by Henry Kissinger, Roosevelt was the first president to develop the guideline that it was the duty of the United States to make its enormous power and potential influence felt globally. The idea of being a passive "city on the hill" model that others could look up to, he rejected. Roosevelt, trained in biology, was a social Darwinist who believed in survival of the fittest. The international world in his view was a realm of violence and conflict. The United States had all the economic and geographical potential to be the fittest nation on the globe.[365] The United States had a duty to act decisively. For example, in terms of the Monroe Doctrine, America had to prevent European incursions in the Western Hemisphere. But there was more, as he expressed in his famous Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine: the U.S. had to be the policeman of the region because unruly, corrupt smaller nations had to be controlled, and if United States did not do it, European powers would in fact intervene and develop their own base of power in the hemisphere in contravention to the Monroe Doctrine.[366]

 Roosevelt was a realist and a conservative.[367] He deplored many of the increasingly popular idealistic liberal themes, such as were promoted by William Jennings Bryan, the anti-imperialists, and Woodrow Wilson. Kissinger says he rejected the efficacy of international law. Roosevelt argued that if a country could not protect its own interests, the international community could not help very much. He ridiculed disarmament proposals that were increasingly common. He saw no likelihood of an international power capable of checking wrongdoing on a major scale. As for world government:

 I regard the Wilson–Bryan attitude of trusting to fantastic peace treaties, too impossible promises, to all kinds of scraps of paper without any backing in efficient force, as abhorrent. It is infinitely better for a nation and for the world to have the Frederick the Great and Bismarck tradition as regards foreign policy than to have the Bryan or Bryan–Wilson attitude as a permanent national attitude.... A milk-and-water righteousness unbacked by force is...as wicked as and even more mischievous than force divorced from righteousness.[368]

 On his international outlook, Roosevelt favored spheres of influence, whereby one great power would generally prevail, such as the United States in the Western Hemisphere or Great Britain in the Indian subcontinent. Japan fit that role and he approved. However he had deep distrust of both Germany and Russia.[369]

 Legacy

 Historians credit Roosevelt for changing the nation's political system by permanently placing the "bully pulpit" of the presidency at center stage and making character as important as the issues. His accomplishments include trust busting and conservationism. He is a hero to liberals and progressives for his proposals in 1907–1912 that presaged the modern welfare state of the New Deal Era, including direct federal taxation, labor reforms, and more direct democracy, while conservationists admire Roosevelt for putting the environment and selflessness towards future generations on the national agenda, and conservatives and nationalists respect his commitment to law and order, civic duty, and military values, as well as his personality of individual self-responsibility and hardiness. Dalton says, "Today he is heralded as the architect of the modern presidency, as a world leader who boldly reshaped the office to meet the needs of the new century and redefined America's place in the world."[370]

 Liberals and socialists have also criticized him for his interventionist and imperialist approach to nations he considered "uncivilized". Conservatives and libertarians reject his vision of the welfare state and emphasis on the superiority of government over private action. Historians typically rank Roosevelt among the top five presidents in American history.[371][372]

 Persona and masculinity

 1910 cartoon showing Roosevelt's many roles from 1899 to 1910

 Dalton says Roosevelt is remembered as "one of the most picturesque personalities who has ever enlivened the landscape".[373] His friend, historian Henry Adams, proclaimed: "Roosevelt, more than any other man... showed the singular primitive quality that belongs to ultimate matter—the quality that medieval theology assigned to God—he was pure act."[374]

 Roosevelt's biographers have stressed his personality. Henry F. Pringle, who won the Pulitzer Prize in biography for his Theodore Roosevelt (1931) stated: "The Theodore Roosevelt of later years was the most adolescent of men... Failure to receive the Medal of Honor for his exploits [in Cuba] had been a grief as real as any of those which swamp childhood in despair. 'You must always remember,' wrote Cecil Spring Rice in 1904, 'that the President is about six.'"[375]

 Cooper compared him with Woodrow Wilson and argued that both of them played the roles of warrior and priest.[376] Dalton stressed Roosevelt's strenuous life.[377] Sarah Watts examined the desires of the "Rough Rider in the White House".[378] Brands calls Roosevelt "the last romantic", arguing that his romantic concept of life emerged from his belief that "physical bravery was the highest virtue and war the ultimate test of bravery".[379]

 Roosevelt as the exemplar of American masculinity has become a major theme.[380][381] As president, he repeatedly warned men that they were becoming too office-bound, too complacent, too comfortable with physical ease and moral laxity, and were failing in their duties to propagate the race and exhibit masculine vigor.[382] French historian Serge Ricard says, "the ebullient apostle of the Strenuous Life offers ideal material for a detailed psycho-historical analysis of aggressive manhood in the changing socio-cultural environment of his era; McKinley, Taft, or Wilson would perhaps inadequately serve that purpose".[383] He promoted competitive sports like boxing and jiu-jitsu for physically strengthening American men.[341] He also believed that organizations like the Boy Scouts of America, founded in 1910, could help mold and strengthen the character of American boys.[384] Brands shows that heroic displays of bravery were essential to Roosevelt's image and mission:

 What makes the hero a hero is the romantic notion that he stands above the tawdry give and take of everyday politics, occupying an ethereal realm where partisanship gives way to patriotism, and division to unity, and where the nation regains its lost innocence, and the people their shared sense of purpose.[385]

 Relations with Andrew Carnegie

 According to David Nasaw, after 1898, when the United States entered a war with Spain, industrialist Andrew Carnegie increasingly devoted his energy to supporting pacifism. He sold his steel company and now had the time and the dollars to make an impact. Carnegie strongly opposed the war with Spain and the subsequent imperialistic American takeover of the Philippines. When Roosevelt became president in 1901, Carnegie and Roosevelt were in frequent contact. They exchanged letters, communicated through mutual friends such as Secretary of State John Hay, and met in person. Carnegie offered a steady stream of advice on foreign policy, especially on arbitration. Carnegie hoped that Roosevelt would turn the Philippines free, not realizing he was more of an imperialist and believer in warrior virtues than President McKinley had been. He saluted Roosevelt for forcing Germany and Britain to arbitrate their conflict with Venezuela in 1903, and especially for becoming the mediator who negotiated an end to the war between Russia and Japan in 1907–1908. Roosevelt relied on Carnegie for financing his expedition to Africa in 1909. In return he asked the ex-president to mediate the growing conflict between the two cousins who ruled Britain and Germany. Roosevelt started to do so but the scheme collapsed when king Edward VII suddenly died.[386][387] Nasaw argues that Roosevelt systematically deceived and manipulated Carnegie, and held the elderly man in contempt. Nasaw quotes a private letter Roosevelt wrote to Whitelaw Reid in 1905:[388]

 [I have] tried hard to like Carnegie, but it is pretty difficult. There is no type of man for whom I feel a more contemptuous abhorrence than for the one who makes a God of mere money-making and at the same time is always yelling out that kind of utterly stupid condemnation of war which in almost every case springs from a combination of defective physical courage, of unmanly shrinking from pain and effort, and of hopelessly twisted ideals. All the suffering from Spanish war comes far short of the suffering, preventable and non-preventable, among the operators of the Carnegie steel works, and among the small investors, during the time that Carnegie was making his fortune....It is as noxious folly to denounce war per se as it is to denounce business per se. Unrighteous war is a hideous evil; but I am not at all sure that it is worse evil than business unrighteousness.

 Memorials and cultural depictions

 Main articles: Memorials to Theodore Roosevelt and Cultural depictions of Theodore Roosevelt
 Theodore Roosevelt on Mount Rushmore (second from right)
 A close-up of Roosevelt's face

 Roosevelt was included with Presidents George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln at the Mount Rushmore Memorial, designed in 1927 with the approval of Republican President Calvin Coolidge.[389][390]

 For his gallantry at San Juan Hill, Roosevelt's commanders recommended him for the Medal of Honor. However, the initial recommendation lacked any eyewitnesses, and the effort was eventually tainted by Roosevelt's own lobbying of the War Department.[391] In the late 1990s, Roosevelt's supporters again recommended the award, which was denied by the Secretary of the Army on basis that the decorations board determined "Roosevelt's bravery in battle did not rise to the level that would justify the Medal of Honor and, indeed, it did not rise to the level of men who fought in that engagement."[392] Nevertheless, politicians apparently convinced the secretary to reconsider the award a third time and reverse himself, leading to the charge that it was a "politically motivated award."[393] On January 16, 2001, President Bill Clinton awarded Theodore Roosevelt the Medal of Honor posthumously for his charge on San Juan Hill.[106] He is the only president to have received the Medal of Honor.[394]

 The United States Navy named two ships for Roosevelt: the USS Theodore Roosevelt (SSBN-600) , a submarine that was in commission from 1961 to 1982, and the USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71) , an aircraft carrier that has been on active duty in the Atlantic Fleet since 1986.

 On November 18, 1956, the United States Postal Service released a 6¢ Liberty Issue postage stamp honoring Roosevelt. A 32¢ stamp was issued on February 3, 1998, as part of the Celebrate the Century stamp sheet series.[395] In 2008, Columbia Law School awarded Roosevelt a Juris Doctor degree, posthumously making him a member of the class of 1882.[396]

 Roosevelt's "Speak Softly and Carry a Big Stick" ideology is still quoted by politicians and columnists in different countries—not only in English, but also in translations to various other languages.[397] Another lasting, popular legacy of Roosevelt is the stuffed toy bears—teddy bears—named after him following an incident on a hunting trip in Mississippi in 1902.[398]

 Roosevelt has been portrayed in films and television series such as Brighty of the Grand Canyon, The Wind and the Lion, Rough Riders, My Friend Flicka,[399] and Law of the Plainsman.[400] Robin Williams portrayed Roosevelt in the form of a wax mannequin that comes to life in Night at the Museum and its sequels Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian and Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb.[401][402][403] In 2017, it was announced that Leonardo DiCaprio will portray Roosevelt in a biopic to be directed by Martin Scorsese.[404] Additionally, Roosevelt appears as the leader of the American civilization in the 2016 Firaxis Games-developed video game Civilization VI.[405]

 Theodore Roosevelt National Park in the state of North Dakota is named after him.[406] The America the Beautiful Quarters series features Roosevelt riding a horse on the national park's quarter.

 Asteroid 188693 Roosevelt, discovered by astronomers with the Catalina Sky Survey in 2005, was named after him.[407] The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on November 8, 2019 (M.P.C. 118221 ).[408] Robert Peary named the Roosevelt Range and Roosevelt Land after him.[409]

 For eighty years, an equestrian statue of the former president, sitting above a Native American and an African American, stood in front of New York's American Museum of Natural History. In January 2022, after years of lobbying by activists, the statue was removed. Museum president Ellen V. Futter said the decision did not reflect a judgment about Roosevelt but was driven by the sculpture's "hierarchical composition".[410][411]

 Audiovisual media

 * Theodore Roosevelt was one of the first presidents whose voice was recorded for posterity. Several of his recorded speeches survive.[412] A 4.6-minute voice recording,[413] which preserves Roosevelt's lower timbre ranges particularly well for its time, is among those available from the Michigan State University libraries (this is the 1912 recording of The Right of the People to Rule, recorded by Thomas Edison at Carnegie Hall). The audio clip sponsored by the Authentic History Center includes his defense[414] of the Progressive Party in 1912, wherein he proclaims it the "party of the people" – in contrast with the other major parties.
 Parade for the school children of San Francisco, down Van Ness Avenue
 Collection of film clips of Roosevelt
 * Roosevelt goes for a ride in Arch Hoxsey's plane in October 1910[415]
 Theodore Roosevelt and pilot Hoxsey at St. Louis, October 11, 1910

 See also

 * Electoral history of Theodore Roosevelt
 * First inauguration of Theodore Roosevelt
 * List of famous big game hunters
 * Second inauguration of Theodore Roosevelt
 * Theodore Roosevelt Digital Library
 * Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps
 * Teddy bear
 * SS President Roosevelt (1921)
 * SS President Roosevelt (1944)
 * SS Roosevelt (1905)

 Notes

 1. ^ He was vice president under William McKinley and became president upon McKinley's assassination on September 14, 1901. This was prior to the adoption of the Twenty-fifth Amendment in 1967, and a vacancy in the office of vice president was not filled until the next election and inauguration.
 2. ^ His last name is, according to Roosevelt himself, "pronounced as if it was spelled 'Rosavelt.' That is in three syllables. The first syllable as if it was 'Rose. ' " [4]

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 Print sources

 Main articles: Bibliography of Theodore Roosevelt and Books Written by Theodore Roosevelt

 Full biographies

 * Brands, Henry William (1997), TR: The Last Romantic (full biography), New York: Basic Books, ISBN 978-0-465-06958-3, OCLC 36954615.
 * Chessman, G Wallace (1965), Governor Theodore Roosevelt: The Albany Apprenticeship, 1898–1900
 * Cooper, John Milton (1983), The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt (dual scholarly biography), ISBN 978-0-674-94751-1.
 * Dalton, Kathleen (2002), Theodore Roosevelt: A Strenuous Life (full scholarly biography), ISBN 0-679-76733-9.
 * Gould, Lewis L (2012), Theodore Roosevelt, ISBN 978-0-19-979701-1, 105 pp, very short biography by leading scholar.
 * Harbaugh, William Henry (1963), The Life and Times of Theodore Roosevelt (full scholarly biography), Farrar, Straus And Cudahy.; also titled Power and responsibility; the life and times of Theodore Roosevelt online
 * Miller, Nathan (1992), Theodore Roosevelt: A Life, William Morrow & Co, ISBN 9780688067847.
 * Morris, Edmund (1979), The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt, vol. 1. To 1901, ISBN 9780698107830.
 + Morris, Edmund (2001), Theodore Rex, vol. 2. To 1909
 + Morris, Edmund (2010), Colonel Roosevelt, vol. 3, Random House, ISBN 978-0-679-60415-0, archived from the original on March 13, 2022 , retrieved December 12, 2016
 * Pringle, Henry F (1931), Theodore Roosevelt (full scholarly biography).
 * Pringle, Henry F (1956), Theodore Roosevelt (2nd ed.), New York, Harcourt, Brace
 * Putnam, Carleton (1958), Theodore Roosevelt (biography), vol. I: The Formative Years, only volume published, to age 28.
 * Samuels, Peggy (1997), Teddy Roosevelt at San Juan: The Making of a President, Texas A&M UP, ISBN 978-0-89096-771-3, archived from the original on April 7, 2015 , retrieved October 17, 2015 .
 * Thayer, William Roscoe (1919), Theodore Roosevelt: an intimate biography, Houghton Mifflin.

 Personality and activities

 * Bishop, Joseph Bucklin (2007), Theodore Roosevelt's Letters to His Children, Wildside Press, ISBN 978-1-434-48394-2.
 * DiSilvestro, Roger (2011), Theodore Roosevelt in the Badlands: A Young Politician's Quest in the American West, Walker & Co, ISBN 978-0-8027-1721-4, archived from the original on March 26, 2011.
 * Fehn, Bruce (2005), "Theodore Roosevelt and American Masculinity", Magazine of History, 19 (2): 52–59, doi:10.1093/maghis/19.2.52, ISSN 0882-228X Provides a lesson plan on TR as the historical figure who most exemplifies the quality of masculinity.
 * Gluck, Sherwin (1999), TR's Summer White House, Oyster Bay. Chronicles the events of TR's presidency during the summers of his two terms.
 * Greenberg, David (2011), "Beyond the Bully Pulpit", Wilson Quarterly, 35 (3): 22–29. The president's use of publicity, rhetoric and force of personality.
 * Millard, Candice (2005), The River of Doubt: Theodore Roosevelt's Darkest Journey; his deadly 1913–14 trip to the Amazon.
 * McCullough, David (1981), Mornings on Horseback: The Story of an Extraordinary Family, a Vanished Way of Life and the Unique Child Who Became Theodore Roosevelt, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 978-0-7432-1830-6, archived from the original on April 7, 2015 , retrieved October 17, 2015 , best seller; to 1886.
 * ——— (2001) [1981], Mornings on Horseback, The Story of an Extraordinary Family, a Vanished Way of Life, and the Unique Child Who Became Theodore Roosevelt (popular biography), to 1884.
 * O'Toole, Patricia (2005), When Trumpets Call: Theodore Roosevelt after the White House, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0-684-86477-0. 494 pp.
 * Reisner, Christian F. (1922), Roosevelt's Religion, The Abingdon Press
 * Renehan, Edward J (1998), The Lion's Pride: Theodore Roosevelt and His Family in Peace and War, Oxford University Press, examines TR and his family during the World War I period.
 * Testi, Arnaldo (1995), "The Gender of Reform Politics: Theodore Roosevelt and the Culture of Masculinity", Journal of American History, 81 (4): 1509–1533, doi:10.2307/2081647, JSTOR 2081647.
 * Thompson, J Lee (2010), Theodore Roosevelt Abroad: Nature, Empire, and the Journey of an American President, Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-230-10277-4, 240 pp. TR in Africa & Europe, 1909–10
 * Wagenknecht, Edward. The seven worlds of Theodore Roosevelt (1958) The seven worlds are those of action, thought, human relations, family, spiritual values, public affairs, and war and peace. online
 * Watts, Sarah (2003), Rough Rider in the White House: Theodore Roosevelt and the Politics of Desire. 289 pp.
 * Yarbrough, Jean M (2012), Theodore Roosevelt and the American Political Tradition, University Press of Kansas, 337 pp; TR's political thought and its significance for republican self-government.

 Domestic policies

 * Brinkley, Douglas (2009). The Wilderness Warrior: Theodore Roosevelt and the Crusade for America. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 9780060565282.online review; another online review Archived March 3, 2020, at the Wayback Machine
 * Cutright, P.R. (1985) Theodore Roosevelt: The making of a Modern Conservationist (U of Illinois Press.)
 * Dorsey, Leroy G (1997), "The Frontier Myth and Teddy Roosevelt's Fight for Conservation", in Gerster, Patrick; Cords, Nicholas (eds.), Myth America: A Historical Anthology, vol. II, St. James, NY: Brandywine Press, ISBN 1-881089-97-5.
 * Gould, Lewis L (2011), The Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt (2nd ed.), standard history of his domestic and foreign policy as president. online
 * Keller, Morton, ed. (1967), Theodore Roosevelt: A Profile (excerpts from TR and from historians).
 * Murphey, William (March 2013), "Theodore Roosevelt and the Bureau of Corporation: Executive-Corporate Cooperation and the Advancement of the Regulatory State", American Nineteenth Century History, 14 (1): 73–111, doi:10.1080/14664658.2013.774983, S2CID 146629376.
 * Redekop, Benjamin. (2015). "Embodying the Story: The Conservation Leadership of Theodore Roosevelt". Leadership (2015) DOI:10.1177/1742715014546875 online
 * Swanson, Ryan A (2011), "'I Never Was a Champion at Anything': Theodore Roosevelt's Complex and Contradictory Record as America's 'Sports President'", Journal of Sport History, 38 (3): 425–446, doi:10.5406/jsporthistory.38.3.425, S2CID 159307371.
 * Zacks, Richard (2012), Island of Vice: Theodore Roosevelt's Doomed Quest to Clean Up Sin-Loving New York.

 Politics

 * Blum, John Morton (1954), The Republican Roosevelt, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, OCLC 310975. How TR did politics.
 * Chace, James (2004), 1912: Wilson, Roosevelt, Taft, and Debs: The Election That Changed the Country, ISBN 978-0-7432-0394-4, 323 pp.
 * Chambers, John W. (1974), Woodward, C. Vann (ed.), Responses of the Presidents to Charges of Misconduct, New York, New York: Delacorte Press, pp. 207–237, ISBN 0-440-05923-2
 * Cowan, Geoffrey. Let the People Rule: Theodore Roosevelt and the Birth of the Presidential Primary (WW Norton, 2016).
 * Gable, John A. The Bull Moose Years (Kennikat Press Corp., 1978) 300pp on Roosevelt.
 * Gould, Lewis L (2008), Four Hats in the Ring: The 1912 Election and the Birth of Modern American Politics (by a leading scholar), ISBN 978-0-7006-1564-3.
 * Haverkamp, Michael (2001), "Rossevelt and Taft: How the Republican Vote Split in Ohio in 1912", Ohio History, 110 (1): 121–135, archived from the original on March 5, 2008.
 * Kohn, Edward P (Spring 2006), "A Necessary Defeat: Theodore Roosevelt and the New York Mayoral Election of 1886", New York History, 87: 205–227.
 * ——— (2006), "Crossing the Rubicon: Theodore Roosevelt, Henry Cabot Lodge, and the 1884 Republican National Convention", Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era, 5 (1): 18–45, doi:10.1017/s1537781400002851, hdl:11693/48372, S2CID 163282993.
 * Leuchtenburg, William E. (2015), The American President: From Teddy Roosevelt to Bill Clinton, Oxford University Press
 * Milkis, Sidney M (2009), Theodore Roosevelt, the Progressive Party, and the Transformation of American Democracy, Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. 361 pp.
 * Mowry, George E (1939), "Theodore Roosevelt and the Election of 1910", The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 25 (4): 523–534, doi:10.2307/1892499, JSTOR 1892499.
 * ——— (1946), Theodore Roosevelt and the Progressive Movement. Focus on 1912; online free
 * ——— (1954), The Era of Theodore Roosevelt and the Birth of Modern America, 1900–1912 (general survey of era). online free
 * Powell, Jim (2006), Bully Boy: The Truth About Theodore Roosevelt's Legacy, Crown Forum, ISBN 0-307-23722-2. Attacks TR policies from conservative/libertarian perspective.
 * Ruddy, Daniel (2016), Theodore the Great: Conservative Crusader, Washington, D.C.: Regnery History, ISBN 978-1-62157-441-5

 Foreign policy, military and naval issues

 * Beale, Howard K (1956), Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power (standard history of his foreign policy). online
 * Hattendorf, John B., and William P. Leeman (2020), Forging the Trident: Theodore Roosevelt and the United States Navy. excerpt Archived October 23, 2021, at the Wayback Machine
 * Hendrix, Henry J (2009), Theodore Roosevelt's Naval Diplomacy: The US Navy & the Birth of the American Century.
 * Holmes, James R (2006), Theodore Roosevelt and World Order: Police Power in International Relations. 328 pp.
 * Jones, Gregg (2012), Honor in the Dust: Theodore Roosevelt, War in the Philippines, and the Rise and Fall of America's Imperial Dream, archived from the original on March 8, 2021 , retrieved September 16, 2017
 * Kuehn, John T. "Theodore Roosevelt's Naval Diplomacy: The U.S. Navy and the Birth of the American Century," Naval War College Review (2010) 53#3 online Archived October 24, 2021, at the Wayback Machine
 * Livermore, Seward W. "Theodore Roosevelt, the American Navy, and the Venezuelan Crisis of 1902–1903." American Historical Review 51.3 (1946): 452–471. online Archived October 21, 2021, at the Wayback Machine
 * Marks III, Frederick W (1979), Velvet on Iron: The Diplomacy of Theodore Roosevelt.
 * McCullough, David (1977), The Path between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870–1914.
 * Mears, Dwight S. (2018). The Medal of Honor: The Evolution of America's Highest Military Decoration. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-2665-6. OCLC 1032014828.
 * Nester, William R. Theodore Roosevelt and the Art of American Power: An American for All Time (Rowman & Littlefield, 2019). Archived June 22, 2022, at the Wayback Machine
 * Neu, Charles E. "Theodore Roosevelt and American Involvement in the Far East, 1901–1909." Pacific Historical Review 35.4 (1966): 433–449. online Archived October 22, 2021, at the Wayback Machine
 * O'Gara, Gordon Carpenter. Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of the Modern Navy. (Princeton UP, 1943). online
 * Oyos, Matthew (2011), "Courage, Careers, and Comrades: Theodore Roosevelt and the United States Army Officer Corps", Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era, 10 (1): 23–58, doi:10.1017/s1537781410000022, S2CID 155074242.
 * Oyos, Matthew M. In Command: Theodore Roosevelt and the American Military (2018) online review Archived January 21, 2019, at the Wayback Machine
 * Pietrusza, David (2018). TR's Last War: Theodore Roosevelt, the Great War, and a Journey of Triumph and Tragedy
 * Ricard, Serge (2006), "The Roosevelt Corollary", Presidential Studies Quarterly, 36 (1): 17–26, doi:10.1111/j.1741-5705.2006.00283.x.
 * ——— (2008), "Theodore Roosevelt: Imperialist or Global Strategist in the New Expansionist Age?", Diplomacy and Statecraft, 19 (4): 639–657, doi:10.1080/09592290802564379, S2CID 154317468.
 * Rofe, J Simon (2008), "'Under the Influence of Mahan': Theodore and Franklin Roosevelt and their Understanding of American National Interest", Diplomacy and Statecraft, 19 (4): 732–745, doi:10.1080/09592290802564536, S2CID 154454947.
 * ———; Thompson, John M (2011), "Internationalists in Isolationist times – Theodore and Franklin Roosevelt and a Rooseveltian Maxim", Journal of Transatlantic Studies, 9 (1): 46–62, doi:10.1080/14794012.2011.550773, S2CID 143650928.
 * Thompson, John M. Great Power Rising: Theodore Roosevelt and the Politics of US Foreign Policy (Oxford UP, 2019).
 * Tilchin, William N (1997), Theodore Roosevelt and the British Empire: A Study in Presidential Statecraft
 * Tilchin, William N; Neu, Charles E, eds. (2006), Artists of Power: Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, and Their Enduring Impact on US Foreign Policy, Praeger. 196 pp.
 * Turk, Richard W. The Ambiguous Relationship: Theodore Roosevelt and Alfred Thayer Mahan (1987) online review Archived October 22, 2021, at the Wayback Machine

 Historiography and memory

 * Bakari, Mohamed El-Kamel. "Mapping the 'Anthropocentric-ecocentric'Dualism in the History of American Presidency: The Good, the Bad, and the Ambivalent." Journal of Studies in Social Sciences 14, no. 2 (2016).
 * Cullinane, M. Patrick, ed. Remembering Theodore Roosevelt: Reminiscences of his Contemporaries (2021) excerpt
 * Cullinane, M. Patrick. “The Memory of Theodore Roosevelt through Motion Pictures” in A Companion to Theodore Roosevelt, ed. Serge Ricard (Wiley Blackwell, 2011), 502-520.
 * Cullinane, Michael Patrick (2017). Theodore Roosevelt's Ghost: The History and Memory of an American Icon. LSU Press. ISBN 978-0-8071-6672-7.
 * Cunliffe, Marcus. "Theodore Roosevelt, President of the United States 1901–1908" History Today (Sept 1955) 4#9 pp. 592–601, online.
 * Dalton, Kathleen (2017). "Changing interpretations of Theodore Roosevelt and the Progressive era". In Nichols, Christopher M.; Unger, Nancy C. (eds.). A Companion to the Gilded Age and Progressive Era. pp. 296–307.
 * Gable, John. “The Man in the Arena of History: The Historiography of Theodore Roosevelt” in Theodore Roosevelt: Many-Sided American, eds. Natalie Naylor, Douglas Brinkley and John Gable (Interlaken, NY: Hearts of the Lakes, 1992), 613–643.
 * Grantham, Dewey W. Jr. (January 1961). "Theodore Roosevelt in American Historical Writing, 1945–1960". Mid-America. 43 (1): 3–35.
 * Hull, Katy. "Hero, Champion of Social Justice, Benign Friend: Theodore Roosevelt in American Memory." European journal of American studies 13.13-2 (2018). online
 * Ricard, Serge. "The State of Theodore Roosevelt Studies" H-Diplo Essay No. 116 24 October 2014 online Archived October 27, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
 * Ricard, Serge, ed. (2011). A Companion to Theodore Roosevelt. ISBN 978-1-4443-3140-0., excerpt and text search, 28 new essays by scholars; focus on historiography.
 * Tilchin, William (Summer 1989). "The Rising Star of Theodore Roosevelt's Diplomacy: Major Studies from Beale to the Present". Theodore Roosevelt Association Journal. 15 (3): 2–24.

 Unpublished PhD dissertations

 These are available online at academic libraries.

 * Bartley, Shirley. "The Man In The Arena: A Rhetorical Analysis Of Theodore Roosevelt'S Inventional Stance, 1910-1912" (Temple University ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1984. 8410181.
 * Collin, Richard H. "The Image Of Theodore Roosevelt In American History And Thought, 1885-1965" (New York University Proquest Dissertations Publishing, 1966. 7001489).
 * Faltyn, Timothy W. "An active-positive leader: Applying James Barber to Theodore Roosevelt's life" (Oklahoma State University ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1999. 9942434).
 * Gable, John Allen. "The Bull Moose Years: Theodore Roosevelt And The Progressive Party, 1912-1916. (Volumes I And Ii)" (Brown University Proquest Dissertations Publishing, 1972. 7302265).
 * Heth, Jennifer Dawn. "Imagining TR: Commemorations and representations of Theodore Roosevelt in twentieth-century America" (Texas A&M University ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2014. 3717739)
 * Levine, Stephen Lee. "Race, culture, and art: Theodore Roosevelt and the nationalist aesthetic" (Kent State University ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2001. 3034424).
 * Mellor, Nathan B. "The leader as mediator: Theodore Roosevelt at Portsmouth—Ronald Reagan at Reykjavik" (Pepperdine University, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2007. 3296771).
 * Moore, A. Gregory. "The Dilemma Of Stereotypes: Theodore Roosevelt And China, 1901-1909" (Kent State University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1978. 7904808).
 * Reed, Marvin Elijah, Jr. "Theodore Roosevelt: The Search For Community In The Urban Age" (Tulane University, Graduate Program In Biomedical Sciences Proquest Dissertations Publishing, 1971. 7214199).
 * Reter, Ronald Francis. "The Real Versus The Rhetorical Theodore Roosevelt In Foreign Policy-Making" (University Of Georgia Proquest Dissertations Publishing, 1973. 7331949).

 Primary sources

 * Auchincloss, Louis, ed. Theodore Roosevelt: Letters and Speeches (2004)
 * Brands, H. W. The selected letters of Theodore Roosevelt (2001) online
 * O'Toole, Patricia ed. In the Words of Theodore Roosevelt : Quotations from the Man in the Arena (Cornell University Press, 2012)
 * Hart, Albert Bushnell, and Herbert Ronald Ferleger, Theodore Roosevelt Cyclopedia (1941) online, short excerpts.
 * Morison, Elting E. ed. The letters of Theodore Roosevelt (8 vol Harvard UP, 1951-1954); vol 7 online covers 1909-1912
 * The Complete Works of Theodore Roosevelt (2017) 4500 pages in Kindle format online for $1 at Amazon
 * Kohn, Edward P., ed. A Most Glorious Ride: The Diaries of Theodore Roosevelt, 1877–1886 (State University of New York Press, 2015), 284 pp.
 * Bishop, Joseph Bucklin, ed. (1920), Theodore Roosevelt and His Time Shown in His Own Letters vol. 1, archived from the original on December 22, 2020 , retrieved September 5, 2020 ; vol 2 Archived May 1, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
 * Roosevelt, Theodore; Roosevelt, Kermit (1926), East of the Sun and West of the Moon, New York: Scribner
 * Roosevelt, Theodore (1889), The Winning of the West, vol. I, New York and London: G. P. Putnam's Sons
 * ——— (1913), Autobiography, New York: Macmillan.
 * ——— (1916), Fear God and Take Your Own Part, New York: George H. Doran, LCCN 16003624
 * ——— (1917), The Foes of Our Own Household, New York: George H. Doran, LCCN 17025965
 * ——— (1926), The Works (National ed.), 20 vol.; 18,000 pages containing most of TR's speeches, books and essays, but not his letters.
 * ——— (1941), Hart, Albert Bushnell; Ferleger, Herbert Ronald (eds.), Theodore Roosevelt Cyclopedia, Roosevelt's opinions on many issues; online version at Theodore Roosevelt Archived May 10, 2021, at the Wayback Machine.
 * ——— (1951–1954), Morison, Elting E; Blum, John Morton; Chandler, Alfred D jr (eds.), The Letters (annotated ed.), 8 vols. Very large collection. vol 1 1868–1898 online
 * ——— (1967), Harbaugh, William (ed.), The Writings (one-volume selection of speeches and essays). online
 * ——— (1968), Roosevelt, Archibald (ed.), Theodore Roosevelt on Race, Riots, Reds, Crime, Probe
 * ——— (1999) [1882], The Naval War of 1812 Or the History of the United States Navy during the Last War with Great Britain to Which Is Appended an Account of the Battle of New Orleans, New York: The Modern Library, ISBN 0-375-75419-9.
 * ——— (2001), Brands, HW (ed.), The Selected Letters online
 * ——— (2004), Auchincloss, Louis (ed.), Theodore Roosevelt, The Rough Riders and an Autobiography, Library of America, ISBN 978-1-931082-65-5.
 * ——— (2004), Auchincloss, Louis (ed.), Letters and Speeches, Library of America, ISBN 978-1-931082-66-2.
 * ———. "Books and speeches". Project Gutenberg. Archived from the original on September 24, 2015 . Retrieved October 5, 2010 .

 External links

 Theodore Roosevelt at Wikipedia's sister projects
 * Definitions from Wiktionary
 * Media from Commons
 * Quotations from Wikiquote
 * Texts from Wikisource
 Wikisource has the text of the 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Roosevelt, Theodore".

 Organizations

 * Boone and Crockett Club
 * Theodore Roosevelt Association

 Libraries and collections

 * Theodore Roosevelt Center at Dickinson State University
 * Theodore Roosevelt Collection, at the Houghton Library, Harvard University
 * Julian L. Street Papers on Theodore Roosevelt, at the Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University
 * Doris A. and Lawrence H. Budner Collection on Theodore Roosevelt at the DeGolyer Library, Southern Methodist University
 * Theodore Roosevelt's journalism at The Archive of American Journalism
 * Theodore Roosevelt American Museum of Natural History
 * Works by Theodore Roosevelt in eBook form at Standard Ebooks
 * Works by Theodore Roosevelt at Project Gutenberg
 * Works by or about Theodore Roosevelt at Internet Archive
 * Works by Theodore Roosevelt at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
 * Roosevelt Papers, at the Library of Congress
 * Guide to the Herbert R. Strauss Collection of Theodore Roosevelt Papers 1884–1919 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center

 Media

 * Theodore Roosevelt Speech Edison Recordings Campaign - 1912, audio recording
 * Theodore Roosevelt collected news and commentary at The New York Times
 * "Life Portrait of Theodore Roosevelt", from C-SPAN's American Presidents: Life Portraits, September 3, 1999
 * "Writings of Theodore Roosevelt" from C-SPAN's American Writers: A Journey Through History

 Other

 * Almanac of Theodore Roosevelt
 * Theodore Roosevelt: A Resource Guide – Library of Congress
 * Theodore Roosevelt on Nobelprize.org
 * Theodore Roosevelt at IMDb
 * v 
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 Theodore Roosevelt 
 * 26th President of the United States (1901–1909)
 * 25th Vice President of the United States (1901)
 * 33rd Governor of New York (1899–1900) 
 * Assistant Secretary of the Navy (1897–1898) 
 * New York City Police Commissioner (1895–1897) 
  * First inauguration  
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  + United States Forest Service , 
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  + Roosevelt Arch  
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 Presidency * Kinkaid Act  
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 culture + Roosevelt in Africa, 1910 documentary 
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  + Theodore Roosevelt, 2022 miniseries 
  * Political positions  
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  * Theodore Roosevelt IV (grandson) 
  * Cornelius V. S. Roosevelt III (grandson) 
  * Quentin Roosevelt II (grandson) 
  * Kermit Roosevelt Jr. (grandson) 
  * Joseph Willard Roosevelt (grandson) 
 Family * Edith Roosevelt Derby (granddaughter) 
  * Theodora Roosevelt (granddaughter) 
  * Theodore Roosevelt Sr. (father) 
  * Martha Bulloch Roosevelt (mother) 
  * Anna Bamie Roosevelt (sister) 
  * Elliott Bulloch Roosevelt (brother) 
  * Corinne Roosevelt (sister) 
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  * James Alfred Roosevelt (uncle) 
  * Robert Barnhill Roosevelt 
  * Anna Eleanor Roosevelt (niece) 
  * Gracie Hall Roosevelt (nephew) 
  * Pete (dog)  
 * ← William McKinley 
 * William Howard Taft → 
 * ← Garret Hobart 
 * Charles W. Fairbanks → 
 * Category 
 
 Offices and distinctions  
 New York State Assembly  
 Preceded by Member of the New York Assembly Succeeded by 
 William J. Trimble from the 21st district Henry A. Barnum 
 1882–1884  
 Preceded by Minority Leader of the New York Assembly Succeeded by 
 Thomas G. Alvord 1883 Frank Rice 
 Civic offices  
 Unknown Superintendent of the New York City Police Department Succeeded by 
 Last known title holder: 1895–1897 John McCullagh 
 William Farrar Smith  
 Government offices  
 Preceded by Assistant Secretary of the Navy Succeeded by 
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 Party political offices  
 Preceded by Republican nominee for Governor of New York Succeeded by 
 Frank S. Black 1898 Benjamin Odell 
 Preceded by Republican nominee for Vice President of the United States Succeeded by 
 Garret Hobart 1900 Charles W. Fairbanks 
 Preceded by Republican nominee for President of the United States Succeeded by 
 William McKinley 1904 William Howard Taft 
 New political party Progressive nominee for President of the United States Party dissolved 
 1912  
 Political offices  
 Preceded by Governor of New York Succeeded by 
 Frank S. Black 1899–1900 Benjamin Barker Odell Jr.
 Preceded by Vice President of the United States Succeeded by 
 Garret Hobart 1901 Charles W. Fairbanks 
 Preceded by President of the United States Succeeded by 
 William McKinley 1901–1909 William Howard Taft 
 Awards and achievements  
 Preceded by Laureate of the Nobel Peace Prize Succeeded by 
 Bertha von Suttner 1906 Ernesto Teodoro Moneta 
  Louis Renault 
   
 
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  * Carey   
  * M. Cuomo   
  * Pataki   
  * Spitzer   
  * Paterson   
  * A. Cuomo   
  * Hochul   
  * Van Cortlandt   
  * S. Van Rensselaer   
  * J. Van Rensselaer   
  * Broome   
  * Tayler   
  * Clinton   
  * Tayler   
  * Swift   
  * Tayler   
  * Root   
  * Tallmadge   
  * Pitcher   
  * P. Livingston   
  * Dayan   
  * Throop   
  * Stebbins   
  * Oliver   
  * E. Livingston   
  * Tracy   
  * Bradish   
  * Dickinson   
  * Gardiner   
  * Lester   
  * Fish   
  * Patterson   
  * Church   
  * Raymond   
  * Selden   
  * Campbell   
  * Floyd-Jones   
  * Alvord   
  * Woodford   
  * Beach   
  * Robinson   
  * Dorsheimer   
  * Hoskins   
  * Hill   
  * McCarthy   
  * Jones   
  * Sheehan   
  * Saxton   
  * Woodruff   
  * Higgins   
 Lieutenant * Bruce   
 governors * Raines   
  * Chanler   
  * White   
  * Cobb   
  * Conway   
  * Glynn   
  * Wagner   
  * Schoeneck   
  * Walker   
  * Wood   
  * Lusk   
  * Lunn   
  * Lowman   
  * Corning   
  * Lehman   
  * Bray   
  * Poletti   
  * Hanley   
  * Wallace   
  * Hanley   
  * Moore   
  * Wicks   
  * Mahoney   
  * DeLuca   
  * Wilson   
  * Anderson   
  * Krupsak   
  * M. Cuomo   
  * DelBello   
  * Anderson   
  * Lundine   
  * McCaughey   
  * Donohue   
  * Paterson   
  * Bruno   
  * Skelos   
  * Smith   
  * Espada   
  * Ravitch   
  * Duffy   
  * Hochul   
  * Stewart-Cousins   
  * Benjamin   
  * Stewart-Cousins   
  * Delgado   
 * Italics indicate acting officeholders   
     
 * v    
 * t    
 * e    
 United States Secretaries of the Navy   
  * Stoddert   
  * Smith   
  * Hamilton   
  * Jones   
  * Crowninshield   
  * S Thompson   
  * Southard   
  * Branch   
  * L. Woodbury   
  * Dickerson   
  * Paulding   
  * Badger   
  * Upshur   
  * Henshaw   
  * Gilmer   
  * Mason   
  * Bancroft   
  * Mason   
  * Preston   
  * Graham   
  * Kennedy   
  * Dobbin   
  * Toucey   
  Cabinet-level * Welles   
  * Borie   
  * Robeson   
  * R Thompson   
  * Goff   
  * Hunt   
  * Chandler   
  * Whitney   
  * Tracy   
  * Herbert   
  * Long   
  * Moody   
  * Morton   
  * Bonaparte   
  * Metcalf   
 Secretaries * Newberry   
  * Meyer   
  * Daniels   
  * Denby   
  * Wilbur   
  * Adams   
  * Swanson   
  * Edison   
  * Knox   
  * Forrestal   
  * Sullivan   
  * Matthews   
  * Kimball   
  * Anderson   
  * Thomas   
  * T. Gates   
  * Franke   
  * Connally   
  * Korth   
  * Nitze   
  * Ignatius   
  * Chafee   
  * Warner   
  * Middendorf   
  Dept. of Defense * Claytor   
  * Hidalgo   
  * Lehman   
  * Webb   
  * Ball   
  * Garrett   
  * O'Keefe   
  * Dalton   
  * Danzig   
  * England   
  * Winter   
  * Mabus   
  * Spencer   
  * Braithwaite   
  * Del Toro   
     
  * Forrestal   
  * Bard   
  * A. Gates   
  * Sullivan   
  * Kenney   
  * Kimball   
  * Whitehair   
  * Thomas   
  * T. Gates   
  * Franke   
  * Bantz   
  * Fay   
  * BeLieu   
  * Baldwin   
  * Baird   
  * Warner   
 Under * Sanders   
 Secretaries * Middendorf   
  * Potter   
  * Macdonald   
  * Woolsey   
  * Murray   
  * Goodrich   
  * Garrett   
  * Howard   
  * Danzig   
  * Hultin   
  * Pirie   
  * Livingstone   
  * Aviles   
  * Work   
  * Davidson   
  * Modly   
  * Raven   
  * Fox   
  * Faxon   
  * Soley   
  * McAdoo   
  * T. Roosevelt Sr.   
  * Allen   
  * Hackett   
  * Darling   
  * Newberry   
  * Satterlee   
  * Winthrop   
  * F. Roosevelt   
  Pre–1954 * G. Woodbury   
  * T. Roosevelt Jr.   
  * Robinson   
  * Jahncke   
  * H. Roosevelt   
  * Edison   
 Assistant * Compton   
 Secretaries * Bard   
  * Hensel   
  * Kenney   
  * Andrews   
  * Koehler   
  * Askins   
  * Fogler   
  * Financial Management and Comptroller   
  * Installations and Environment   
  * Manpower and Reserve Affairs   
  * Research, Development and Acquisitions   
  * General Counsel of the Navy   
  Post–1954 * defunct:   
  + Air   
  + Installations and Logistics   
  + Material   
  + Research and Development   
  + Research, Engineering and Systems   
  + Shipbuilding and Logistics   
     
     
 * v    
 * t    
 * e    
 Republican Party    
 * History    
 + National Union Party    
 + Third Party System    
 + Fourth Party System    
 + Fifth Party System    
 + Sixth Party System    
  * 1856 (Philadelphia): Frémont/Dayton   
  * 1860 (Chicago): Lincoln/Hamlin   
  * 1864 (Baltimore): Lincoln/Johnson   
  * 1868 (Chicago): Grant/Colfax   
  * 1872 (Philadelphia): Grant/Wilson   
  * 1876 (Cincinnati): Hayes/Wheeler   
  * 1880 (Chicago): Garfield/Arthur   
  * 1884 (Chicago): Blaine/Logan   
  * 1888 (Chicago): Harrison/Morton   
  * 1892 (Minneapolis): Harrison/Reid   
  * 1896 (Saint Louis): McKinley/Hobart   
  * 1900 (Philadelphia): McKinley/Roosevelt   
  * 1904 (Chicago): Roosevelt/Fairbanks   
  * 1908 (Chicago): Taft/Sherman   
  * 1912 (Chicago): Taft/Sherman/Butler   
  * 1916 (Chicago): Hughes/Fairbanks   
  * 1920 (Chicago): Harding/Coolidge   
  * 1924 (Cleveland): Coolidge/Dawes   
  * 1928 (Kansas City): Hoover/Curtis   
 Presidential * 1932 (Chicago): Hoover/Curtis   
 tickets * 1936 (Cleveland): Landon/Knox   
 and * 1940 (Philadelphia): Willkie/McNary   
 national * 1944 (Chicago): Dewey/Bricker   
 conventions * 1948 (Philadelphia): Dewey/Warren   
  * 1952 (Chicago): Eisenhower/Nixon   
  * 1956 (San Francisco): Eisenhower/Nixon   
  * 1960 (Chicago): Nixon/Lodge   
  * 1964 (San Francisco): Goldwater/Miller   
  * 1968 (Miami Beach): Nixon/Agnew   
  * 1972 (Miami Beach): Nixon/Agnew   
  * 1976 (Kansas City): Ford/Dole   
  * 1980 (Detroit): Reagan/G. H. W. Bush   
  * 1984 (Dallas): Reagan/G. H. W. Bush   
  * 1988 (New Orleans): G. H. W. Bush/Quayle   
  * 1992 (Houston): G. H. W. Bush/Quayle   
  * 1996 (San Diego): Dole/Kemp   
  * 2000 (Philadelphia): G. W. Bush/Cheney   
  * 2004 (New York): G. W. Bush/Cheney   
  * 2008 (St. Paul): McCain/Palin   
  * 2012 (Tampa): Romney/Ryan   
  * 2016 (Cleveland): Trump/Pence   
  * 2020 (Charlotte/other locations): Trump/Pence   
  * 2024 (Milwaukee)   
  * Lincoln (1861–1865)   
  * Johnson (1865–1868)   
  * Grant (1869–1877)   
  * Hayes (1877–1881)   
  * Garfield (1881)   
  * Arthur (1881–1885)   
  * Harrison (1889–1893)   
  * McKinley (1897–1901)   
  * Roosevelt (1901–1909)   
 Presidential * Taft (1909–1913)   
 administrations * Harding (1921–1923)   
  * Coolidge (1923–1929)   
  * Hoover (1929–1933)   
  * Eisenhower (1953–1961)   
  * Nixon (1969–1974)   
  * Ford (1974–1977)   
  * Reagan (1981–1989)   
  * G. H. W. Bush (1989–1993)   
  * G. W. Bush (2001–2009)   
  * Trump (2017–2021)   
  * J. P. Hale (1859–1862)   
  * Anthony (1862–1884)   
  * Sherman (1884–1885)   
  * Edmunds (1885–1891)   
  * Sherman (1891–1897)   
  * Allison (1897–1908)   
  * E. Hale (1908–1911)   
  * Cullom (1911–1913)   
  * Gallinger (1913–1918)   
  * Lodge (1918–1924)   
  * Curtis (1924–1929)   
  * Watson (1929–1933)   
 U.S. Senate * McNary (1933–1940)   
 leaders * Austin (1940–1941)   
 and * McNary (1941–1944)   
 conference * White (1944–1949)   
 chairs * Wherry (1949–1952)   
  * Bridges (1952–1953)   
  * Taft (1953)   
  * Knowland (1953–1959)   
  * Dirksen (1959–1969)   
  * Scott (1969–1977)   
  * Baker (1977–1979)   
  * Stevens (1979–1980)   
  * Baker (1980–1985)   
  * Dole (1985–1996)   
  * Lott (1996–2003)   
  * Frist (2003–2007)   
  * McConnell (2007–)   
  * Pennington (1860–1861)   
  * Grow (1861–1863)   
  * Colfax (1863–1869)   
  * Pomeroy (1869)   
  * Blaine (1869–1875)   
  * McCrary (1875–1877)   
  * Hale (1877–1879)   
  * Frye (1879–1881)   
  * Keifer (1881–1883)   
  * Cannon (1883–1889)   
  * Reed (1889–1891)   
  * T. J. Henderson (1891–1895)   
 U.S. House * Reed (1895–1899)   
 leaders * D. B. Henderson (1899–1903)   
 and * Cannon (1903–1911)   
 conference * Mann (1911–1919)   
 chairs * Gillett (1919–1925)   
  * Longworth (1925–1931)   
  * Snell (1931–1939)   
  * Martin (1939–1959)   
  * Halleck (1959–1965)   
  * Ford (1965–1973)   
  * Rhodes (1973–1981)   
  * Michel (1981–1995)   
  * Gingrich (1995–1999)   
  * Hastert (1999–2007)   
  * Boehner (2007–2015)   
  * Ryan (2015–2019)   
  * McCarthy (2019–)   
  * Morgan   
  * Raymond   
  * Ward   
  * Claflin   
  * Morgan   
  * Chandler   
  * Cameron   
  * Jewell   
  * Sabin   
  * Jones   
  * Quay   
  * Clarkson   
  * Campbell   
  * Carter   
  * Hanna   
  * Payne   
  * Cortelyou   
  * New   
  * Hitchcock   
  * Hill   
  * Rosewater   
  * Hilles   
  * Wilcox   
  * Hays   
  * Adams   
  * Butler   
  * Work   
  * Huston   
  * Fess   
  * Sanders   
  * Fletcher   
  * Hamilton   
  * Martin   
  * Walsh   
  Chairs * Spangler   
  * Brownell   
  * Reece   
  * Scott   
 RNC * Gabrielson   
  * Summerfield   
  * Roberts   
  * Hall   
  * Alcorn   
  * T. Morton   
  * Miller   
  * Burch   
  * Bliss   
  * R. Morton   
  * Dole   
  * Bush   
  * Smith   
  * Brock   
  * Richards   
  * Laxalt/Fahrenkopf   
  * Fahrenkopf   
  * Atwater   
  * Yeutter   
  * Bond   
  * Barbour   
  * Nicholson   
  * Gilmore   
  * Racicot   
  * Gillespie   
  * Mehlman   
  * Martínez/Duncan   
  * Duncan   
  * Steele   
  * Priebus   
  * McDaniel   
  * 2009   
  * 2011   
  * 2013   
  Chair elections * 2015   
  * 2017   
  * 2019   
  * 2021   
  * 2023   
     
  * Alabama   
  * Alaska   
  * Arizona   
  * Arkansas   
  * California   
  * Colorado   
  * Connecticut   
  * Delaware   
  * Florida   
  * Georgia   
  * Hawaii   
  * Idaho   
  * Illinois   
  * Indiana   
  * Iowa   
  * Kansas   
  * Kentucky   
  * Louisiana   
  * Maine   
  * Maryland   
  * Massachusetts   
  * Michigan   
  * Minnesota   
  * Mississippi   
  State * Missouri   
  * Montana   
  * Nebraska   
 Parties by * Nevada   
 state and * New Hampshire   
 territory * New Jersey   
  * New Mexico   
  * New York   
  * North Carolina   
  * North Dakota   
  * Ohio   
  * Oklahoma   
  * Oregon   
  * Pennsylvania   
  * Rhode Island   
  * South Carolina   
  * South Dakota   
  * Tennessee   
  * Texas   
  * Utah   
  * Vermont   
  * Virginia   
  * Washington   
  * West Virginia   
  * Wisconsin   
  * Wyoming   
  * American Samoa   
  * District of Columbia   
  Territory * Guam   
  * Northern Mariana Islands   
  * Puerto Rico   
  * Virgin Islands   
     
  * National Republican Congressional Committee   
  Fundraising * National Republican Redistricting Trust   
  groups * National Republican Senatorial Committee   
  * Republican Governors Association   
  * College Republicans   
  + Chairmen   
  * Congressional Hispanic Conference   
  * Log Cabin Republicans   
  Sectional * Republican Jewish Coalition   
  groups * Republican National Hispanic Assembly   
  * Republicans Abroad   
  * Teen Age Republicans   
 Affiliated * Young Republicans   
 organizations * Republicans Overseas   
  * Republican Main Street Partnership   
  * Republican Majority for Choice   
  * Republican Liberty Caucus   
  * Republican National Coalition for Life   
  Factional * Republican Study Committee   
  groups * Republican Governance Group   
  * ConservAmerica   
  * Liberty Caucus   
  * Freedom Caucus   
  * Ripon Society   
  * The Wish List   
     
  * Primaries   
  * Debates   
 Related * Bibliography   
  * International Democrat Union   
  * Timeline of modern American conservatism   
  * Trumpism   
     
 * v    
 * t    
 * e    
 Historical left-wing third party U.S. presidential tickets   
 This group includes only pre-1996 parties that fielded a candidate that won greater 0.1% of the popular vote in at least one presidential election  
    * Peter Cooper/Samuel F. Cary (1876) 
   Greenback * James B. Weaver/Barzillai J. Chambers (1880) 
    * Benjamin Butler/Absolom M. West (1884) 
 Presidential   Union Labor * Alson Streeter/Charles E. Cunningham (1888) 
 tickets that   Populist * James B. Weaver/James G. Field (1892) 
 won at least   * William Jennings Bryan/Thomas E. Watson (1896)
 one percent of   * Eugene V. Debs/Ben Hanford (1904 and 1908) 
 the national   * Eugene V. Debs/Emil Seidel (1912) 
 popular vote   Socialist * Allan L. Benson/George R. Kirkpatrick (1916) 
 (Candidate(s) /   * Eugene V. Debs/Seymour Stedman (1920) 
 Running Mate(s))   * Norman Thomas/James H. Maurer (1932) 
   Progressive (1912) * Theodore Roosevelt/Hiram Johnson (1912) 
   Progressive (1924) * Robert M. La Follette/Burton K. Wheeler (1924)
   Progressive (1948) * Henry A. Wallace/Glen H. Taylor (1948) 
     
    * Socialist Labor Party of America 
    * Social Democratic Party of America 
    * Independence Party 
    * Farmer–Labor Party 
 Other notable   * Communist Party USA 
 left-wing parties   * Socialist Workers Party 
    * Liberty Party 
    * People's Party 
    * Citizens Party 
    * New Alliance Party 
 * Third party performances in presidential elections   
 * Labor history of the United States   
 * Liberalism in the United States   
 * Progressivism in the United States   
 * Socialism in the United States   
     
 * v    
 * t    
 * e    
 Cabinet of President Theodore Roosevelt (1901–1909)   
  * John Hay (1901–1905)   
 Secretary of State * Elihu Root (1905–1909)   
  * Robert Bacon (1909)   
  * Lyman J. Gage (1901–1902)   
 Secretary of the Treasury * L. M. Shaw (1902–1907)   
  * George B. Cortelyou (1907–1909)  
  * Elihu Root (1901–1904)   
 Secretary of War * William Howard Taft (1904–1908)  
  * Luke Edward Wright (1908–1909)   
  * Philander C. Knox (1901–1904)   
 Attorney General * William Henry Moody (1904–1906)  
  * Charles Joseph Bonaparte (1906–1909)  
  * Charles Emory Smith (1901–1902)  
  * Henry Clay Payne (1902–1904)   
 Postmaster General * Robert Wynne (1904–1905)   
  * George B. Cortelyou (1905–1907)  
  * George von Lengerke Meyer (1907–1909)  
  * John Davis Long (1901–1902)   
  * William Henry Moody (1902–1904)  
 Secretary of the Navy * Paul Morton (1904–1905)   
  * Charles Joseph Bonaparte (1905–1906)  
  * Victor H. Metcalf (1906–1908)   
  * Truman Handy Newberry (1908–1909)  
 Secretary of the Interior * Ethan A. Hitchcock (1901–1907)   
  * James Rudolph Garfield (1907–1909)  
 Secretary of Agriculture * James Wilson (1901–1909)   
  * George B. Cortelyou (1903–1904)  
 Secretary of Commerce and Labor * Victor H. Metcalf (1904–1906)   
  * Oscar Straus (1906–1909)   
     
 * v    
 * t    
 * e    
 Laureates of the Nobel Peace Prize   
  * 1901: Henry Dunant / Frédéric Passy   
  * 1902: Élie Ducommun / Charles Gobat   
  * 1903: Randal Cremer   
  * 1904: Institut de Droit International   
  * 1905: Bertha von Suttner   
  * 1906: Theodore Roosevelt   
  * 1907: Ernesto Moneta / Louis Renault   
  * 1908: Klas Arnoldson / Fredrik Bajer   
  * 1909: A. M. F. Beernaert / Paul Estournelles de Constant  
  * 1910: International Peace Bureau   
  * 1911: Tobias Asser / Alfred Fried   
  * 1912: Elihu Root   
 1901–1925 * 1913: Henri La Fontaine   
  * 1914   
  * 1915   
  * 1916   
  * 1917: International Committee of the Red Cross  
  * 1918   
  * 1919: Woodrow Wilson   
  * 1920: Léon Bourgeois   
  * 1921: Hjalmar Branting / Christian Lange   
  * 1922: Fridtjof Nansen   
  * 1923   
  * 1924   
  * 1925: Austen Chamberlain / Charles Dawes   
  * 1926: Aristide Briand / Gustav Stresemann   
  * 1927: Ferdinand Buisson / Ludwig Quidde   
  * 1928   
  * 1929: Frank B. Kellogg   
  * 1930: Nathan Söderblom   
  * 1931: Jane Addams / Nicholas Butler   
  * 1932   
  * 1933: Norman Angell   
  * 1934: Arthur Henderson   
  * 1935: Carl von Ossietzky   
  * 1936: Carlos Saavedra Lamas   
  * 1937: Robert Cecil   
 1926–1950 * 1938: Nansen International Office for Refugees  
  * 1939   
  * 1940   
  * 1941   
  * 1942   
  * 1943   
  * 1944: International Committee of the Red Cross  
  * 1945: Cordell Hull   
  * 1946: Emily Balch / John Mott   
  * 1947: Friends Service Council / American Friends Service Committee  
  * 1948   
  * 1949: John Boyd Orr   
  * 1950: Ralph Bunche   
  * 1951: Léon Jouhaux   
  * 1952: Albert Schweitzer   
  * 1953: George C. Marshall   
  * 1954: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees  
  * 1955   
  * 1956   
  * 1957: Lester B. Pearson   
  * 1958: Georges Pire   
  * 1959: Philip Noel-Baker   
  * 1960: Albert Luthuli   
  * 1961: Dag Hammarskjöld   
  * 1962: Linus Pauling   
 1951–1975 * 1963: International Committee of the Red Cross / League of Red Cross Societies  
  * 1964: Martin Luther King Jr.   
  * 1965: UNICEF   
  * 1966   
  * 1967   
  * 1968: René Cassin   
  * 1969: International Labour Organization   
  * 1970: Norman Borlaug   
  * 1971: Willy Brandt   
  * 1972   
  * 1973: Lê Đức Thọ (declined award) / Henry Kissinger  
  * 1974: Seán MacBride / Eisaku Satō   
  * 1975: Andrei Sakharov   
  * 1976: Betty Williams / Mairead Corrigan   
  * 1977: Amnesty International   
  * 1978: Anwar Sadat / Menachem Begin   
  * 1979: Mother Teresa   
  * 1980: Adolfo Pérez Esquivel   
  * 1981: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees  
  * 1982: Alva Myrdal / Alfonso García Robles   
  * 1983: Lech Wałęsa   
  * 1984: Desmond Tutu   
  * 1985: International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War  
  * 1986: Elie Wiesel   
  * 1987: Óscar Arias   
 1976–2000 * 1988: UN Peacekeeping Forces   
  * 1989: Tenzin Gyatso (14th Dalai Lama)   
  * 1990: Mikhail Gorbachev   
  * 1991: Aung San Suu Kyi   
  * 1992: Rigoberta Menchú   
  * 1993: Nelson Mandela / F. W. de Klerk   
  * 1994: Shimon Peres / Yitzhak Rabin / Yasser Arafat  
  * 1995: Pugwash Conferences / Joseph Rotblat   
  * 1996: Carlos Belo / José Ramos-Horta   
  * 1997: International Campaign to Ban Landmines / Jody Williams  
  * 1998: John Hume / David Trimble   
  * 1999: Médecins Sans Frontières   
  * 2000: Kim Dae-jung   
  * 2001 : United Nations / Kofi Annan   
  * 2002 : Jimmy Carter   
  * 2003 : Shirin Ebadi   
  * 2004 : Wangari Maathai   
  * 2005 : International Atomic Energy Agency / Mohamed ElBaradei  
  * 2006 : Grameen Bank / Muhammad Yunus   
  * 2007 : Al Gore / Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change  
  * 2008 : Martti Ahtisaari   
  * 2009 : Barack Obama   
  * 2010 : Liu Xiaobo   
  * 2011 : Ellen Johnson Sirleaf / Leymah Gbowee / Tawakkol Karman  
 2001–present * 2012 : European Union   
  * 2013 : Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons  
  * 2014 : Kailash Satyarthi / Malala Yousafzai   
  * 2015 : Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet   
  * 2016 : Juan Manuel Santos   
  * 2017 : International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons  
  * 2018 : Denis Mukwege / Nadia Murad   
  * 2019 : Abiy Ahmed   
  * 2020 : World Food Programme   
  * 2021 : Maria Ressa / Dmitry Muratov   
  * 2022 : Ales Bialiatski / Memorial / Center for Civil Liberties  
  * 2023 : to be announced   
     
 * v    
 * t    
 * e    
 1906 Nobel Prize laureates   
 Chemistry  * Henri Moissan (France)  
 Literature (1906)  * Giosuè Carducci (Italy)  
 Peace  * Theodore Roosevelt (United States)  
 Physics  * J. J. Thomson (Great Britain)  
 Physiology or Medicine * Camillo Golgi (Italy)  
   * Santiago Ramón y Cajal (Spain)  
 Nobel Prize recipients 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911   
     
 * v    
 * t    
 * e    
 Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees   
 * John Adams    
 * John Quincy Adams   
 * Jane Addams    
 * Louis Agassiz    
 * Susan B. Anthony   
 * John James Audubon   
 * George Bancroft    
 * Clara Barton    
 * Henry Ward Beecher   
 * Alexander Graham Bell   
 * Daniel Boone    
 * Edwin Booth    
 * Louis Brandeis    
 * Phillips Brooks    
 * William Cullen Bryant   
 * Luther Burbank    
 * Andrew Carnegie    
 * George Washington Carver   
 * William Ellery Channing   
 * Rufus Choate    
 * Henry Clay    
 * Grover Cleveland   
 * James Fenimore Cooper   
 * Peter Cooper    
 * Charlotte Cushman   
 * James Buchanan Eads   
 * Thomas Alva Edison   
 * Jonathan Edwards   
 * Ralph Waldo Emerson   
 * David Farragut    
 * Stephen Foster    
 * Benjamin Franklin   
 * Robert Fulton    
 * Josiah W. Gibbs    
 * William C. Gorgas   
 * Ulysses S. Grant   
 * Asa Gray    
 * Alexander Hamilton   
 * Nathaniel Hawthorne   
 * Joseph Henry    
 * Patrick Henry    
 * Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr.   
 * Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.   
 * Mark Hopkins    
 * Elias Howe    
 * Washington Irving   
 * Andrew Jackson    
 * Thomas J. Jackson   
 * Thomas Jefferson   
 * John Paul Jones    
 * James Kent    
 * Sidney Lanier    
 * Robert E. Lee    
 * Abraham Lincoln    
 * Henry Wadsworth Longfellow   
 * James Russell Lowell   
 * Mary Lyon    
 * Edward MacDowell   
 * James Madison    
 * Horace Mann    
 * John Marshall    
 * Matthew Fontaine Maury   
 * Albert A. Michelson   
 * Maria Mitchell    
 * James Monroe    
 * Samuel F. B. Morse   
 * William T. G. Morton   
 * John Lothrop Motley   
 * Simon Newcomb    
 * Thomas Paine    
 * Alice Freeman Palmer   
 * Francis Parkman    
 * George Peabody    
 * William Penn    
 * Edgar Allan Poe    
 * Walter Reed    
 * Franklin D. Roosevelt   
 * Theodore Roosevelt   
 * Augustus Saint-Gaudens   
 * William Tecumseh Sherman   
 * John Philip Sousa   
 * Joseph Story    
 * Harriet Beecher Stowe   
 * Gilbert Stuart    
 * Sylvanus Thayer    
 * Henry David Thoreau   
 * Mark Twain    
 * Lillian Wald    
 * Booker T. Washington   
 * George Washington   
 * Daniel Webster    
 * George Westinghouse   
 * James McNeill Whistler   
 * Walt Whitman    
 * Eli Whitney    
 * John Greenleaf Whittier   
 * Emma Willard    
 * Frances Willard    
 * Roger Williams    
 * Woodrow Wilson    
 * Orville Wright    
 * Wilbur Wright    
     
 * v    
 * t    
 * e    
 Presidents of the American Historical Association   
  * Andrew Dickson White (1884–1885)  
  * George Bancroft (1886)   
  * Justin Winsor (1887)   
  * William Frederick Poole (1888)  
  * Charles Kendall Adams (1889)  
  * John Jay (1890)   
  * William Wirt Henry (1891)  
 1884–1900 * James Burrill Angell (1892–1893)  
  * Henry Adams (1893–1894)   
  * George Frisbie Hoar (1895)  
  * Richard Salter Storrs (1896)  
  * James Schouler (1897)   
  * George Park Fisher (1898)  
  * James Ford Rhodes (1899)   
  * Edward Eggleston (1900)   
  * Charles Francis Adams Jr. (1901)  
  * Alfred Thayer Mahan (1902)  
  * Henry Charles Lea (1903)   
  * Goldwin Smith (1904)   
  * John Bach McMaster (1905)  
  * Simeon Eben Baldwin (1906)  
  * J. Franklin Jameson (1907)  
  * George Burton Adams (1908)  
  * Albert Bushnell Hart (1909)  
  * Frederick Jackson Turner (1910)  
  * William Milligan Sloane (1911)  
 1901–1925 * Theodore Roosevelt (1912)  
  * William Archibald Dunning (1913)  
  * Andrew C. McLaughlin (1914)  
  * H. Morse Stephens (1915)   
  * George Lincoln Burr (1916)  
  * Worthington C. Ford (1917)  
  * William Roscoe Thayer (1918–1919)  
  * Edward Channing (1920)   
  * Jean Jules Jusserand (1921)  
  * Charles Homer Haskins (1922)  
  * Edward Potts Cheyney (1923)  
  * Woodrow Wilson (1924)   
  * Charles McLean Andrews (1924–1925)  
  * Dana Carleton Munro (1926)  
  * Henry Osborn Taylor (1927)  
  * James Henry Breasted (1928)  
  * James Harvey Robinson (1929)  
  * Evarts Boutell Greene (1930)  
  * Carl L. Becker (1931)   
  * Herbert Eugene Bolton (1932)  
  * Charles A. Beard (1933)   
  * William Dodd (1934)   
  * Michael Rostovtzeff (1935)  
  * Charles Howard McIlwain (1936)  
  * Guy Stanton Ford (1937)   
 1926–1950 * Laurence M. Larson (1938)  
  * William Scott Ferguson (1939)  
  * Max Farrand (1940)   
  * James Westfall Thompson (1941)  
  * Arthur M. Schlesinger Sr. (1942)  
  * Nellie Neilson (1943)   
  * William Linn Westermann (1944)  
  * Carlton J. H. Hayes (1945)  
  * Sidney Bradshaw Fay (1946)  
  * Thomas J. Wertenbaker (1947)  
  * Kenneth Scott Latourette (1948)  
  * Conyers Read (1949)   
  * Samuel Eliot Morison (1950)  
  * Robert Livingston Schuyler (1951)  
  * James G. Randall (1952)   
  * Louis R. Gottschalk (1953)  
  * Merle Curti (1954)   
  * Lynn Thorndike (1955)   
  * Dexter Perkins (1956)   
  * William L. Langer (1957)   
  * Walter Prescott Webb (1958)  
  * Allan Nevins (1959)   
  * Bernadotte Everly Schmitt (1960)  
  * Samuel Flagg Bemis (1961)  
  * Carl Bridenbaugh (1962)   
 1951–1975 * Crane Brinton (1963)   
  * Julian P. Boyd (1964)   
  * Frederic C. Lane (1965)   
  * Roy Franklin Nichols (1966)  
  * Hajo Holborn (1967)   
  * John K. Fairbank (1968)   
  * C. Vann Woodward (1969)   
  * Robert Roswell Palmer (1970)  
  * David M. Potter (1971)   
  * Joseph Strayer (1971)   
  * Thomas C. Cochran (1972)   
  * Lynn Townsend White Jr. (1973)  
  * Lewis Hanke (1974)   
  * Gordon Wright (1975)   
  * Richard B. Morris (1976)   
  * Charles Gibson (1977)   
  * William J. Bouwsma (1978)  
  * John Hope Franklin (1979)  
  * David H. Pinkney (1980)   
  * Bernard Bailyn (1981)   
  * Gordon A. Craig (1982)   
  * Philip D. Curtin (1983)   
  * Arthur S. Link (1984)   
  * William H. McNeill (1985)  
  * Carl Neumann Degler (1986)  
  * Natalie Zemon Davis (1987)  
 1976–2000 * Akira Iriye (1988)   
  * Louis R. Harlan (1989)   
  * David Herlihy (1990)   
  * William Leuchtenburg (1991)  
  * Frederic Wakeman (1992)   
  * Louise A. Tilly (1993)   
  * Thomas C. Holt (1994)   
  * John Henry Coatsworth (1995)  
  * Caroline Walker Bynum (1996)  
  * Joyce Appleby (1997)   
  * Joseph C. Miller (1998)   
  * Robert Darnton (1999)   
  * Eric Foner (2000)   
  * Wm. Roger Louis (2001)   
  * Lynn Hunt (2002)   
  * James M. McPherson (2003)  
  * Jonathan Spence (2004)   
  * James J. Sheehan (2005)   
  * Linda K. Kerber (2006)   
  * Barbara Weinstein (2007)   
  * Gabrielle M. Spiegel (2008)  
  * Laurel Thatcher Ulrich (2009)  
  * Barbara D. Metcalf (2010)  
  * Anthony Grafton (2011)   
 2001–present * William Cronon (2012)   
  * Kenneth Pomeranz (2013)   
  * Jan E. Goldstein (2014)   
  * Vicki L. Ruiz (2015)   
  * Patrick Manning (2016)   
  * Tyler E. Stovall (2017)   
  * Mary Beth Norton (2018)   
  * J. R. McNeill (2019)   
  * Mary Lindemann (2020)   
  * Jacqueline Jones (2021)   
  * James H. Sweet (2022)   
  * Edward Muir (2023)   
     
 Rough Riders    
  * Leonard Wood   
  * Theodore Roosevelt   
  * Alexander Oswald Brodie   
  * James H. McClintock   
  * Buckey O'Neill   
  * Seth Bullock   
 Officers * John Campbell Greenway   
  * John Avery McIlhenny   
  * Allyn K. Capron Jr.   
  * Allyn K. Capron Sr.   
  * George Curry   
  * Woodbury Kane   
  * Thomas H. Rynning   
  * George G. McMurtry   
  * Chris Madsen   
  * Hamilton Fish   
  * Thomas Grindell   
  * Henry Barrett   
  * Billy McGinty   
 Enlisted men * Juan Alamia   
  * Frank Frantz   
  * Craig Wadsworth   
  * Henry Nash   
  * Ben Daniels   
  * Frank Knox   
  * Robert Wrenn   
  * Spanish–American War   
 Engagements * Battle of Las Guasimas   
  * Battle of San Juan Hill   
  * Siege of Santiago   
  * Rough Riders Memorial   
  * Buckey O'Neill Cabin   
 Memorials * Bucky O'Neill Monument   
  * The Bronco Buster   
  * Theodore Roosevelt Monument Assemblage   
  * The Rough Riders (1927 film)   
 Film * Teddy, the Rough Rider (1940 film)   
  * Rough Riders (1997 mini-series)   
  * Buckhorn Saloon   
  * Arizona Rangers   
  * Three Guardsmen   
 See also * Canyon Diablo Train Robbery   
  * Tiburón Island Tragedy   
  * Roosevelt's World War I volunteers   
  * The Lost Battalion   
     
 * v    
 * t    
 * e    
 Teddy bears    
  * Applause (defunct)   
  * Build-A-Bear Workshop   
  * Chad Valley   
  * Dakin (defunct)   
  * J. K. Farnell (defunct)   
  * Gund   
 Manufacturers * Ideal Toy Company   
  * Margarete Steiff GmbH   
  * Merrythought   
  * Teddy Atelier Stursberg   
  * Teddy-Hermann   
  * Ty Inc.   
  * Vermont Teddy Bear Company   
  * AG Bear   
  * Beanie Babies   
  * Boyds Bears   
  * Care Bears   
  * Coffee Bean Bears   
 Types * Forever Friends   
  * Furskin Bears   
  * Gund Snuffles   
  * Holiday Beanie Babies   
  * Me to You Bears   
  * Punkinhead   
  * WereBears   
  * Dorset Teddy Bear Museum   
 Museums * Teddy bear museum   
  * Teddy Bear Museum of Naples   
  * Aloysius   
  * Archibald Ormsby-Gore   
  * Bamse   
  * Benjamin Bear   
  * Berlino   
  * Big Ted & Little Ted   
  * Bobo (The Simpsons)   
  * Corduroy   
  * Costco bear   
  * Duffy the Disney Bear   
  * Fozzie Bear   
  * Freddy Fazbear   
  * Grizzly Teddy   
  * Harrods Christmas Bears   
  * Hyde   
  * Lotso   
  * Microsoft Bear   
  * Misha   
  * Uszatek   
 Fictional * Monokuma   
 teddies * Mr Whoppit   
  * Nassur   
  * Nev   
  * Paddington Bear   
  * Pink teddy bear (Breaking Bad)   
  * Pooky   
  * Pudsey Bear   
  * Roger (Guilty Gear)   
  * Rilakkuma   
  * Rupert   
  * Rupert (Family Guy)   
  * Smokey   
  * Snuggle Bear   
  * Sooty   
  * SuperTed   
  * Teddy (The Forgotten Toys)   
  * Teddy (Mr. Bean)   
  * Teddy Ruxpin   
  * Winnie-the-Pooh   
  + Disney version   
  * Yogi Bear   
  * A.I. Artificial Intelligence   
  * The Adventures of Teddy Ruxpin   
  * Bananas in Pyjamas   
  * Bear Behaving Badly   
  * Becky and Barnaby Bear   
  * Boonie Bears   
  * C Bear and Jamal   
  * Charley and Mimmo   
  * Corduroy   
  * Colargol   
  * Adventures of the Gummi Bears   
  * Hey Mister, Let's Play!   
  * Issi Noho   
  * Kooky   
  * Little Bear   
  + movie   
  * Misery Bear   
  * Old Bear Stories   
 Film and * Paddington (TV series)   
 television * Paddington (Paddington 2)   
  * The Pit   
  * Rilakkuma and Kaoru   
  * Rosebud (The Simpsons)   
  * The Secret World of Benjamin Bear   
  * Special Agent Oso   
  * SuperTed   
  * The Tangerine Bear   
  * Ted (Ted 2)   
  * Teddy   
  * Teddy Bear   
  * Teddybears   
  * The Teddy Bear Master   
  * The 'Teddy' Bears   
  * Teddy Edward   
  * Teddy Trucks   
  * Unicorn Wars   
  * The Upstairs Downstairs Bears   
  * The Yogi Bear Show   
  * A Pocket for Corduroy   
  * Corduroy   
  * Hyde & Closer   
  * Little Bear   
  * Old Bear and Friends   
  * The Berenstain Bears   
 Books * Polar the Titanic Bear   
  * Supertoys Last All Summer Long   
  * The Toyminator   
  * Undertown   
  * Uppo-Nalle   
  * Winkie   
  * Winnie-the-Pooh   
  * "(Let Me Be Your) Teddy Bear"   
  * "Psycho Teddy"   
 Music * "Teddy Bears' Picnic"   
  * "The Teddy Bear Song"   
  * "Itsumademo... Teddy Bear"   
  * Ah Diddums   
  * Among the Sleep   
  * Bear with Me   
  * Build-A-Bear Workshop   
 Video games * Fatty Bear's Birthday Surprise   
  * Hubert the Teddy Bear: Winter Games   
  * Opération Teddy Bear   
  * Teddy Together   
  * Naughty Bear   
  * Gummy bears   
 Snacks * Teddy Grahams   
  * Tiny Teddy   
  * Peter Bull   
  * Round and Round the Garden   
  * SGUL Teddy Bear Hospital   
  * Richard Steiff   
  * Stuffed toys   
 Related * Sudanese blasphemy case   
  * Teddybear Airdrop Minsk 2012   
  * Teddy bear parachuting   
  * Teddy Bear Review   
  * Teddy bear toss   
  * Teddy bears of the Gobelins   
  * Theodore Roosevelt   
     
 * v    
 * t    
 * e    
 Eleanor Roosevelt   
 * Chairwoman, Presidential Commission on the Status of Women (1961–1962)   
 * 34th First Lady of the United States (1933–1945)   
   * United States delegate, United Nations General Assembly (1946–1952) 
   * United Nations Commission on Human Rights (1947–1953, Chairperson 1946–1951) 
 United Nations  * Universal Declaration of Human Rights  
   + Drafting committee  
   * Human Rights Day  
   * "My Day" daily newspaper column, 1935–1962  
   * Co-Chair, Office of Civilian Defense  
   * Marian Anderson Lincoln Memorial Concert  
   * Tuskegee Airmen flight  
 First Lady of  * Arthurdale and Eleanor, West Virginia  
 the United States  * American Youth Congress  
   + National Youth Administration  
   * Black Cabinet  
   * 1940 Democratic National Convention speech  
   * Women in Defense  
   * Freedom House  
   * First Lady of New York  
 Other events  * Presidential Commission on the Status of Women  
   + National Organization for Women  
   * Encampment for Citizenship  
   * Val-Kill National Historic Site  
   + Val-Kill Industries  
 Life and homes  * Campobello home  
   + Franklin D. Roosevelt's paralytic illness  
   * Hyde Park home and gravesite  
   * Roosevelt Institute  
   + Roosevelt Institute Campus Network  
   * Roosevelt Study Center  
   * Eleanor Roosevelt Monument  
   * Eleanor Roosevelt Award for Human Rights  
   * Statue at the Franklin Roosevelt Memorial  
   * Eleanor Roosevelt College  
   * USS Roosevelt  
 Legacy  * Marian Anderson: the Lincoln Memorial Concert (1939 film)  
   * Sunrise at Campobello (1958 play, 1960 film)  
   * The Eleanor Roosevelt Story (1965 film)  
   * Eleanor and Franklin (1971 biography)  
   * Eleanor: The Years Alone (1972 biography)  
   * Eleanor and Franklin (1976 film)  
   * Eleanor and Franklin: The White House Years (1977 film)  
   * Backstairs at the White House (1979 miniseries)  
   * The Roosevelts (2014 documentary)  
   * The First Lady (2022 TV series)  
   * United Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights  
   * International Bill of Human Rights  
 Related  + International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 
   + International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights  
   * Morgenthau Plan  
   * Lorena Hickok  
   * Franklin D. Roosevelt (husband  
   * presidency 1933–1941  
   * presidency 1941–1945)  
   * Anna Eleanor Roosevelt (daughter)  
   * James Roosevelt II (son)  
   * Elliott Roosevelt (son)  
   * Franklin D. Roosevelt Jr. (son)  
   * John Roosevelt II (son)  
   * Eleanor Roosevelt Seagraves (granddaughter)  
   * Curtis Roosevelt (grandson)  
   * Sara Delano Roosevelt (granddaughter)  
 Roosevelt family  * Franklin Delano Roosevelt III (grandson)  
   * John Roosevelt Boettiger (grandson)  
   * James Roosevelt III (grandson)  
   * Elliott Bulloch Roosevelt (father)  
   * Anna Hall Roosevelt (mother)  
   * Hall Roosevelt (brother)  
   * Theodore Roosevelt Sr. (grandfather)  
   * Martha Stewart Bulloch (grandmother)  
   * Theodore Roosevelt (uncle  
   * presidency)  
   * Bamie Roosevelt (aunt)  
   * Fala (family dog)  
     
 * v    
 * t    
 * e    
 (← 1896) 1900 United States presidential election (→ 1904)   
 Republican Party  Nominees * President: William McKinley (incumbent)  
 (Convention)  * Vice President: Theodore Roosevelt  
     
   Nominees * President: William Jennings Bryan  
 Democratic Party  * Vice President: Adlai Stevenson I  
 (Convention)  Other candidates * George Dewey  
     
 Third party and independent candidates   
 Prohibition Party * Nominee: John G. Woolley   
  * VP nominee: Henry B. Metcalf  
 Social Democratic Party * Nominee: Eugene V. Debs   
  * VP nominee: Job Harriman   
 Populist Party * Nominee: Wharton Barker   
  * VP nominee: Ignatius L. Donnelly  
 Socialist Labor Party * Nominee: Joseph F. Malloney   
  * VP nominee: Valentine Remmel  
     
 * Other 1900 elections: House   
 * Senate   
     
 * v    
 * t    
 * e    
 (← 1900) 1904 United States presidential election (→ 1908)   
   Nominees * President: Theodore Roosevelt (incumbent) 
 Republican Party  * Vice President: Charles W. Fairbanks 
 (Convention)  Other candidates * Mark Hanna  
     
   Nominees * President: Alton B. Parker  
 Democratic Party  * Vice President: Henry G. Davis 
 (Convention)  Other candidates * William Randolph Hearst  
     
 Third party and independent candidates   
 Socialist Party * Nominee: Eugene V. Debs   
  * VP nominee: Ben Hanford   
 Prohibition Party * Nominee: Silas C. Swallow   
  * VP nominee: George Washington Carroll  
 Populist Party * Nominee: Thomas E. Watson   
  * VP nominee: Thomas Tibbles  
 Socialist Labor Party * Nominee: Charles Hunter Corregan  
  * VP nominee: William Wesley Cox  
     
 * Other 1904 elections: House   
 * Senate   
     
  * v    
  * t    
  * e    
 (← 1908) 1912 United States presidential election (→ 1916)   
   Nominees * President: Woodrow Wilson  
   * Vice President: Thomas R. Marshall 
   * Champ Clark  
 Democratic Party  * Judson Harmon  
 (Convention)  Other candidates * Oscar Underwood  
   * Thomas R. Marshall  
   * Eugene Foss  
     
   * President: William Howard Taft (incumbent) 
   Nominees * Vice President: James S. Sherman (incumbent; nominated but died before election) 
 Republican Party  * Nicholas Murray Butler  
 (Convention)  Other candidates * Theodore Roosevelt  
   * Robert M. La Follette  
     
 Progressive Party Nominees * President: Theodore Roosevelt  
 (Convention)  * Vice President: Hiram Johnson  
     
   Nominees * President: Eugene V. Debs  
 Socialist Party  * Vice President: Emil Seidel  
     
 Third party and independent candidates   
 Prohibition Party * Nominee: Eugene W. Chafin  
  * VP nominee: Aaron S. Watkins  
 Socialist Labor Party * Nominee: Arthur E. Reimer  
  * VP nominee: August Gillhaus  
     
  * Other 1912 elections: House   
  * Senate   
     
 
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 * 
Theodore Roosevelt        Portrait by Pach Bros., c. 1904         26th President of the United States     In office September 14, 1901 – March 4, 1909    Vice President   
  None (1901–1905) [a]  
   Charles W. Fairbanks (1905–1909)   
    Preceded by  William McKinley    Succeeded by  William Howard Taft    25th Vice President of the United States     In office March 4, 1901 – September 14, 1901   President William McKinley   Preceded by  Garret Hobart    Succeeded by Charles W. Fairbanks   33rd Governor of New York     In office January 1, 1899 – December 31, 1900    Lieutenant   Timothy L. Woodruff    Preceded by  Frank S. Black    Succeeded by  Benjamin Barker Odell Jr.     Assistant Secretary of the Navy     In office April 19, 1897 – May 10, 1898   President William McKinley   Preceded by  William McAdoo    Succeeded by  Charles Herbert Allen     President of the New York City Board of Police Commissioners     In office May 6, 1895 – April 19, 1897   Appointed by  William Lafayette Strong    Preceded by James J. Martin   Succeeded by  Frank Moss    Commissioner of the United States Civil Service Commission     In office May 7, 1889 [1]  – May 6, 1895   Appointed by  Benjamin Harrison    Preceded by John H. Oberly [2]     Succeeded by John B. Harlow [3]     Minority Leader of the New York State Assembly     In office January 1, 1883 – December 31, 1883   Preceded by  Thomas G. Alvord    Succeeded by  Frank Rice    Member of the New York State Assembly from the 21st district    In office January 1, 1882 – December 31, 1884   Preceded by William J. Trimble   Succeeded by  Henry A. Barnum    Personal details   Born  Theodore Roosevelt Jr. October 27, 1858New York City, U.S.   Died January 6, 1919 (aged 60) Oyster Bay, New York, U.S.   Resting place  Youngs Memorial Cemetery, Oyster Bay   Political party  Republican (1880–1912, 1916–1919)   Other politicalaffiliations  Progressive "Bull Moose" (1912–1916)   Spouses        Alice Lee  
 ​ ​ (m. ; died  ) ​       Edith Carow   
 ​ ​ (m.  ) ​        Children  
  Alice 
 Theodore III 
 Kermit 
 Ethel 
 Archibald 
 Quentin  
    Parents     Theodore Roosevelt Sr.   Martha Bulloch Roosevelt       Relatives  Roosevelt family    Education     Harvard University (AB)  Columbia Law School       Occupation    Author conservationist explorer historian naturalist police commissioner politician soldier sportsman      Civilian awards  Nobel Peace Prize (1906)   Signature       Military service   Branch/service  United States Army    Years of service    1882–1886 (New York National Guard) 1898      Rank  Colonel    Commands  1st U.S. Volunteer Cavalry    Battles/wars  
  Spanish–American War
  Battle of Las Guasimas 
 Battle of San Juan Hill    
    Military awards  Medal of Honor (posthumous, 2001)     Roosevelt giving a speech during his third presidential campaign Recorded 1912         
 Theodore Roosevelt Jr. (  ROH-zə-velt ; [b]  October 27, 1858 – January 6, 1919), often referred to as Teddy or by his initials, T. R., was an American politician, statesman, soldier, conservationist, naturalist, historian, and writer who served as the 26th president of the United States from 1901 to 1909. He previously served as the 25th vice president under President William McKinley from March to September 1901 and as the 33rd governor of New York from 1899 to 1900. Assuming the presidency after McKinley's assassination, Roosevelt emerged as a leader of the Republican Party and became a driving force for anti-trust and Progressive policies.
 A sickly child with debilitating asthma, he overcame his health problems as he grew by embracing a strenuous lifestyle. Roosevelt integrated his exuberant personality and a vast range of interests and achievements into a "cowboy" persona defined by robust masculinity. He was home-schooled and began a lifelong naturalist avocation before attending Harvard College. His book  The Naval War of 1812  (1882) established his reputation as a learned historian and popular writer. Upon entering politics, Roosevelt became the leader of the reform faction of Republicans in New York's state legislature. His first wife and mother died on the same night, devastating him psychologically. He recuperated by buying and operating a cattle ranch in the Dakotas. Roosevelt served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President McKinley, and in 1898 helped plan the highly successful naval war against Spain. He resigned to help form and lead the Rough Riders, a unit that fought the Spanish army in Cuba to great publicity. Returning a war hero, Roosevelt was elected governor of New York in 1898. The New York state party leadership disliked his ambitious agenda and convinced McKinley to choose him as his running mate in the 1900 election. Roosevelt campaigned vigorously and the McKinley–Roosevelt ticket won a landslide victory based on a platform of victory, peace, and prosperity.
 Roosevelt assumed the presidency at age 42, and remains the youngest person to become president of the United States. As a leader of the progressive movement he championed his "Square Deal" domestic policies. It called for fairness for all citizens, breaking of bad trusts, regulation of railroads, and pure food and drugs. Roosevelt prioritized conservation and established national parks, forests, and monuments to preserve the nation's natural resources. In foreign policy, he focused on Central America, where he began construction of the Panama Canal. Roosevelt expanded the Navy and sent the Great White Fleet on a world tour to project American naval power. His successful efforts to broker the end of the Russo-Japanese War won him the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize. Roosevelt was elected to a full term in 1904 and promoted policies more to the left, despite growing opposition from Republican leaders. During his presidency, he groomed his close ally William Howard Taft to succeed him in the 1908 presidential election.
 Roosevelt grew frustrated with Taft's conservatism and belatedly tried to win the 1912 Republican nomination for president. He failed, walked out, and founded the new Progressive Party. He ran in the 1912 presidential election and the split allowed the Democratic nominee Woodrow Wilson to win the election. Following the defeat, Roosevelt led a two-year expedition to the Amazon basin where he nearly died of tropical disease. During World War I, he criticized Wilson for keeping the country out of the war, and his offer to lead volunteers to France was rejected. Roosevelt considered running for president again in 1920, but his health continued to deteriorate and he died in 1919. Polls of historians and political scientists rank him as one of the greatest presidents in American history.
Early life and family
      Theodore Roosevelt at age 11   
Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was born on October 27, 1858, at 28 East 20th Street in Manhattan, New York City. [5]  He was the second of four children born to socialite Martha Stewart Bulloch and businessman and philanthropist Theodore Roosevelt Sr. He had an older sister (Anna), a younger brother (Elliott) and a younger sister (Corinne). [6]  Elliott was later the father of Anna Eleanor Roosevelt who married Theodore's distant cousin, Franklin Delano Roosevelt. His paternal grandfather was of Dutch descent; [7]  his other ancestry included primarily Scottish and Scots-Irish, English [8]  and smaller amounts of German, Welsh, and French. [9]  Theodore Sr. was the fifth son of businessman Cornelius Van Schaack "C. V. S." Roosevelt and Margaret Barnhill as well as a brother of Robert Roosevelt and James A. Roosevelt. Theodore's fourth cousin, James Roosevelt I, who was also a businessman, was the father of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Martha was the younger daughter of Major James Stephens Bulloch and Martha P. "Patsy" Stewart. [10]  Through the Van Schaacks, Roosevelt was a descendant of the Schuyler family. [11] 
 Roosevelt's youth was largely shaped by his poor health and debilitating asthma. He repeatedly experienced sudden nighttime asthma attacks that caused the experience of being smothered to death, which terrified both Theodore and his parents. Doctors had no cure. [12]  Nevertheless, he was energetic and mischievously inquisitive. [13]  His lifelong interest in zoology began at age seven when he saw a dead seal at a local market; after obtaining the seal's head, Roosevelt and two cousins formed what they called the "Roosevelt Museum of Natural History". Having learned the rudiments of taxidermy, he filled his makeshift museum with animals that he killed or caught; he then studied the animals and prepared them for exhibition. At age nine, he recorded his observation of insects in a paper entitled "The Natural History of Insects". [14] 
 Roosevelt's father significantly influenced him. His father was a prominent leader in New York's cultural affairs; he helped to found the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and had been especially active in mobilizing support for the Union during the American Civil War, even though his in-laws included Confederate leaders. Roosevelt said, "My father, Theodore Roosevelt, was the best man I ever knew. He combined strength and courage with gentleness, tenderness, and great unselfishness. He would not tolerate in us children selfishness or cruelty, idleness, cowardice, or untruthfulness."
      6-year-old Theodore and 5-year-old Elliott watch Lincoln's funeral procession from the second-floor window of their grandfather's mansion (at top left, facing the camera), Manhattan, April 25, 1865.    Family trips abroad, including tours of Europe in 1869 and 1870, and Egypt in 1872, shaped his cosmopolitan perspective. [15]  Hiking with his family in the Alps in 1869, Roosevelt found that he could keep pace with his father. He had discovered the significant benefits of physical exertion to minimize his asthma and bolster his spirits. [16]  Roosevelt began a heavy regime of exercise. After being manhandled by two older boys on a camping trip, he found a boxing coach to teach him to fight and strengthen his body. [17]   [18] 
 A 6-year-old Roosevelt witnessed the funeral procession of Abraham Lincoln from his grandfather's mansion in Union Square, New York City where he was photographed in the window along with his brother Elliott, as confirmed by his second wife, Edith, who was also present. [19] 
Education
Roosevelt was homeschooled, mostly by tutors and his parents. [20]  Biographer H. W. Brands argued that "The most obvious drawback to his home schooling was uneven coverage of the various areas of human knowledge." [21]  He was solid in geography and bright in history, biology, French, and German; however, he struggled in mathematics and the classical languages. When he entered Harvard College on September 27, 1876, his father advised: "Take care of your morals first, your health next, and finally your studies." [22]  His father's sudden death on February 9, 1878, devastated Roosevelt, but he eventually recovered and doubled his activities. [23] 
 He did well in science, philosophy, and rhetoric courses but continued to struggle in Latin and Greek. He studied biology intently and was already an accomplished naturalist and a published ornithologist. He read prodigiously with an almost photographic memory. [24]  While at Harvard, Roosevelt participated in rowing and boxing; he was once runner-up in an intramural boxing tournament. [25]  Roosevelt was a member of the Alpha Delta Phi literary society (later the Fly Club), the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity, and the prestigious Porcellian Club; he was also an editor of  The Harvard Advocate . In 1880, Roosevelt graduated Phi Beta Kappa (22nd of 177) from Harvard with an A.B.  magna cum laude . Biographer Henry F. Pringle states:
 Roosevelt, attempting to analyze his college career and weigh the benefits he had received, felt that he had obtained little from Harvard. He had been depressed by the formalistic treatment of many subjects, by the rigidity, the attention to minutiae that were important in themselves, but which somehow were never linked up with the whole. [26]   
     
After his father's death, Roosevelt had inherited $65,000 (equivalent to $1,825,155 in 2021), enough wealth on which he could live comfortably for the rest of his life. [27]  Roosevelt gave up his earlier plan of studying natural science and decided to attend Columbia Law School instead, moving back into his family's home in New York City. Although Roosevelt was an able law student, he often found law to be irrational. He spent much of his time writing a book on the War of 1812. [28] 
 Determined to enter politics, Roosevelt began attending meetings at Morton Hall, the 59th Street headquarters of New York's 21st District Republican Association. Though Roosevelt's father had been a prominent member of the Republican Party, the younger Roosevelt made an unorthodox career choice for someone of his class, as most of Roosevelt's peers refrained from becoming too closely involved in politics. Roosevelt found allies in the local Republican Party and defeated an incumbent Republican state assemblyman tied to the political machine of Senator Roscoe Conkling closely. After his election victory, Roosevelt decided to drop out of law school, later saying, "I intended to be one of the governing class." [29] 
Naval history and strategy
While at Harvard, Roosevelt began a systematic study of the role played by the United States Navy in the War of 1812. [30]   [31]  Assisted by two uncles, he scrutinized original source materials and official U.S. Navy records, ultimately publishing  The Naval War of 1812  in 1882. The book contained drawings of individual and combined ship maneuvers, charts depicting the differences in iron throw weights of cannon shot between rival forces, and analyses of the differences and similarities between British and American leadership down to the ship-to-ship level. Upon release, The Naval War of 1812 was praised for its scholarship and style and it remains a standard study of the war. [32] 
 With the publication of  The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660–1783 in 1890, Navy Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan was hailed as the world's outstanding naval theorist by the leaders of Europe immediately. Roosevelt paid very close attention to Mahan's emphasis that only a nation with the world's most powerful fleet could dominate the world's oceans, exert its diplomacy to the fullest, and defend its own borders. [33]   [34]  He incorporated Mahan's ideas into his views on naval strategy for the remainder of his career. [35]   [36] 
First marriage and widowerhood
In 1880, Roosevelt married socialite Alice Hathaway Lee. [37]   [38]  Their daughter, Alice Lee Roosevelt, was born on February 12, 1884. Two days later, the new mother died of undiagnosed kidney failure that the pregnancy masked. In his diary, Roosevelt wrote a large "X" on the page and then, "The light has gone out of my life." His mother, Martha, had died of typhoid fever eleven hours earlier at 3:00 a.m., in the same house on 57th Street in Manhattan. Distraught, Roosevelt left baby Alice in the care of his sister Bamie while he grieved; he assumed custody of Alice when she was three. [39] 
 After the deaths of his wife and mother, Roosevelt focused on his work, specifically by re-energizing a legislative investigation into corruption of the New York City government, which arose from a concurrent bill proposing that power be centralized in the mayor's office. [40]  For the rest of his life, he rarely spoke about his wife Alice and did not write about her in his autobiography. [41] 
Early political career
State Assemblyman
      Roosevelt as New York State Assemblyman, 1883  
Roosevelt was a member of the New York State Assembly (New York Co., 21st D.) in 1882, 1883, and 1884. [42]  He began making his mark immediately and in handling in corporate corruption issues specifically. [42]  He blocked a corrupt effort of financier Jay Gould to lower his taxes. Roosevelt also exposed the suspected collusion of Gould and Judge Theodore Westbrook and argued for and received approval for an investigation to proceed, aiming for the judge to be impeached. Although the investigation committee rejected the proposed impeachment, Roosevelt had exposed the potential corruption in Albany and assumed a high and positive political profile in multiple New York publications. [43] 
 Roosevelt's anti-corruption efforts helped him win re-election in 1882 by a margin greater than two-to-one, an achievement made even more impressive by the victory that Democratic gubernatorial candidate Grover Cleveland won in Roosevelt's district. [44]  With Conkling's Stalwart faction of the Republican Party in disarray following the assassination of President James Garfield, Roosevelt won election as the Republican party leader in the state assembly. He allied with Governor Cleveland to win passage of a civil service reform bill. [45]  Roosevelt won re-election a second time and sought the office of Speaker of the New York State Assembly, but Titus Sheard obtained the position in a 41 to 29 vote of the GOP caucus instead. [46]   [47]  In his final term, Roosevelt served as Chairman of the Committee on Affairs of Cities, during which he wrote more bills than any other legislator. [48] 
Presidential election of 1884
With numerous presidential hopefuls from whom to choose, Roosevelt supported Senator George F. Edmunds of Vermont, a colorless reformer. The state GOP preferred the incumbent president, New York City's Chester Arthur, known for passing the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act. Roosevelt fought for and succeeded in influencing the Manhattan delegates at the state convention in Utica. He then took control of the state convention, bargaining through the night and outmaneuvering the supporters of Arthur and James G. Blaine; consequently, he gained a national reputation as a key politician in his state. [49] 
 Roosevelt attended the 1884 GOP National Convention in Chicago and gave a speech convincing delegates to nominate African American John R. Lynch, an Edmunds supporter, to be the temporary chair. Roosevelt fought alongside the Mugwump reformers against Blaine. However Blaine gained support from Arthur's and Edmunds's delegates, and won the nomination on the fourth ballot. In a crucial moment of his budding political career, Roosevelt resisted the demand of his fellow Mugwumps that he bolt from Blaine. He bragged about his one small success: "We achieved a victory in getting up a combination to beat the Blaine nominee for temporary chairman... To do this needed a mixture of skill, boldness and energy... to get the different factions to come in... to defeat the common foe." [50]  He was also impressed by an invitation to speak before an audience of ten thousand, the largest crowd he had addressed up to that date. Having gotten a taste of national politics, Roosevelt felt less aspiration for advocacy on the state level; he then retired to his new "Chimney Butte Ranch" on the Little Missouri River. [51]  Roosevelt refused to join other Mugwumps in supporting Grover Cleveland, the governor of New York and the Democratic nominee in the general election. He debated the pros and cons of staying loyal with his political friend, Henry Cabot Lodge. After Blaine won the nomination, Roosevelt had said carelessly that he would give "hearty support to any decent Democrat". He distanced himself from the promise, saying that it had not been meant "for publication". [52]  When a reporter asked if he would support Blaine, Roosevelt replied, "That question I decline to answer. It is a subject I do not care to talk about." [53]  In the end, he realized that he had to support Blaine to maintain his role in the GOP and he did so in a press release on July 19. [54]  Having lost the support of many reformers, Roosevelt decided to retire from politics and move to North Dakota. [55] 
Cattle rancher in Dakota
      Theodore Roosevelt as Badlands hunter in 1885. New York studio photo.  
Roosevelt first visited the Dakota Territory in 1883 to hunt bison. [56]  Exhilarated by the western lifestyle and with the cattle business booming in the territory, Roosevelt invested $14,000 in hopes of becoming a prosperous cattle rancher. For the next several years, he shuttled between his home in New York and his ranch in Dakota. [57] 
 Following the 1884 United States presidential election, Roosevelt built a ranch named Elkhorn, which was 35 mi (56 km) north of the boomtown of Medora, North Dakota. Roosevelt learned to ride western style, rope, and hunt on the banks of the Little Missouri. Though he earned the respect of the authentic cowboys, they were not overly impressed. [58]  However, he identified with the herdsman of history, a man he said possesses "few of the emasculated, milk-and-water moralities admired by the pseudo-philanthropists; but he does possess, to a very high degree, the stern, manly qualities that are invaluable to a nation". [59]   [60]  He reoriented and began writing about frontier life for national magazines; he also published three books: Hunting Trips of a Ranchman, Ranch Life and the Hunting-Trail, and The Wilderness Hunter. [61] 
 Roosevelt successfully led efforts to organize ranchers there to address the problems of overgrazing and other shared concerns, which resulted in the formation of the Little Missouri Stockmen's Association. He felt compelled to promote conservation and was able to form the Boone and Crockett Club, whose primary goal was the conservation of large game animals and their habitats. [62]  In 1886, Roosevelt served as a deputy sheriff in Billings County, North Dakota. During this time he and two ranch hands hunted down three boat thieves. [63] 
 The uniquely severe U.S. winter of 1886–1887 wiped out his herd of cattle and those of his competitors and over half of his $80,000 investment. [64]   [65]  He ended his ranching life and returned to New York, where he escaped the damaging label of an ineffectual intellectual. [66] 
Second marriage
On December 2, 1886, Roosevelt married his childhood friend, Edith Kermit Carow. [67]  Roosevelt felt deeply troubled that his second marriage had taken place very quickly after the death of his first wife and he also faced resistance from his sisters. [68]  Nonetheless, the couple married at St George's, Hanover Square in London, England. [69]  The couple had five children: Theodore "Ted" III in 1887, Kermit in 1889, Ethel in 1891, Archibald in 1894, and Quentin in 1897. They also raised Roosevelt's daughter from his first marriage, Alice, who often clashed with her stepmother. [70] 
Reentering public life
Upon Roosevelt's return to New York in 1886, Republican leaders quickly approached him about running for mayor of New York City in the 1886 election. [71]  Roosevelt accepted the nomination despite having little hope of winning the race against United Labor Party candidate Henry George and Democratic candidate Abram Hewitt. Roosevelt campaigned hard for the position, but Hewitt won with 41% (90,552 votes), taking the votes of many Republicans who feared George's radical policies. [72]   [73]  George was held to 31% (68,110 votes), and Roosevelt took third place with 27% (60,435 votes). Fearing that his political career might never recover, Roosevelt turned his attention to writing The Winning of the West, a historical work tracking the westward movement of Americans; the book was a great success for Roosevelt, earning favorable reviews and selling numerous[ clarification needed ] copies. [74] 
Civil Service Commission
After Benjamin Harrison unexpectedly defeated Blaine for the presidential nomination at the 1888 Republican National Convention, Roosevelt gave stump speeches in the Midwest in support of Harrison. [75]  On the insistence of Henry Cabot Lodge, President Harrison appointed Roosevelt to the United States Civil Service Commission, where he served until 1895. [76]  While many of his predecessors had approached the office as a sinecure, [77]  Roosevelt vigorously fought the spoilsmen and demanded enforcement of civil service laws. [78]   The Sun  then described Roosevelt as "irrepressible, belligerent, and enthusiastic". [79]  Roosevelt frequently clashed with Postmaster General John Wanamaker, who handed out numerous patronage positions to Harrison supporters, and Roosevelt's attempt to force out several postal workers damaged Harrison politically. [80]  Despite Roosevelt's support for Harrison's reelection bid in the presidential election of 1892, the eventual winner, Grover Cleveland, reappointed him to the same post. [81]  Roosevelt's close friend and biographer, Joseph Bucklin Bishop, described his assault on the spoils system:
  The very citadel of spoils politics, the hitherto impregnable fortress that had existed unshaken since it was erected on the foundation laid by Andrew Jackson, was tottering to its fall under the assaults of this audacious and irrepressible young man... Whatever may have been the feelings of the (fellow Republican party) President (Harrison)—and there is little doubt that he had no idea when he appointed Roosevelt that he would prove to be so veritable a bull in a china shop—he refused to remove him and stood by him firmly till the end of his term. [79]   
New York City Police Commissioner
In 1894, a group of reform Republicans approached Roosevelt about running for Mayor of New York again; he declined, mostly due to his wife's resistance to being removed from the Washington social set. Soon after he declined, he realized that he had missed an opportunity to reinvigorate a dormant political career. He retreated to the Dakotas for a time; his wife Edith regretted her role in the decision and vowed that there would be no repeat of it. [82] 
  William Lafayette Strong, a reform-minded Republican, won the 1894 mayoral election and offered Roosevelt a position on the board of the New York City Police Commissioners. [75]   [83]  Roosevelt became president of the board of commissioners and radically reformed the police force. Roosevelt implemented regular inspections of firearms and annual physical exams, appointed recruits based on their physical and mental qualifications rather than political affiliation, established Meritorious Service Medals, and closed corrupt police hostelries. During his tenure, a Municipal Lodging House was established by the Board of Charities, and Roosevelt required officers to register with the Board; he also had telephones installed in station houses. [84] 
 In 1894, Roosevelt met Jacob Riis, the muckraking  Evening Sun  newspaper journalist who was opening the eyes of New Yorkers to the terrible conditions of the city's millions of poor immigrants with such books as  How the Other Half Lives. Riis described how his book affected Roosevelt:
 When Roosevelt read [my] book, he came... No one ever helped as he did. For two years we were brothers in (New York City's crime-ridden) Mulberry Street. When he left I had seen its golden age... There is very little ease where Theodore Roosevelt leads, as we all of us found out. The lawbreaker found it out who predicted scornfully that he would "knuckle down to politics the way they all did", and lived to respect him, though he swore at him, as the one of them all who was stronger than pull... that was what made the age golden, that for the first time a moral purpose came into the street. In the light of it everything was transformed. [85]   
Roosevelt made a habit of walking officers' beats late at night and early in the morning to make sure that they were on duty. [86]  He made a concerted effort to uniformly enforce New York's Sunday closing law; in this, he ran up against boss Tom Platt as well as Tammany Hall—he was notified that the Police Commission was being legislated out of existence. His crackdowns led to protests and demonstrations. Invited to one large demonstration, not only did he surprisingly accept, he delighted in the insults, caricatures, and lampoons directed at him, and earned some surprising good will. [87]  Roosevelt chose to defer rather than split with his party. [88]  As Governor of New York State, he would later sign an act replacing the Police Commission with a single Police Commissioner. [89] 
Emergence as a national figure
Assistant Secretary of the Navy
     
In the 1896 presidential election, Roosevelt backed Speaker of the House Thomas Brackett Reed for the Republican nomination, but William McKinley won the nomination and defeated William Jennings Bryan in the general election. [90]  Roosevelt strongly opposed Bryan's free silver platform, viewing many of Bryan's followers as dangerous fanatics. He gave scores of campaign speeches for McKinley. [91]  Urged by Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, President McKinley appointed Roosevelt as the Assistant Secretary of the Navy in 1897. [92]  Secretary of the Navy John D. Long was more concerned about formalities than functions, was in poor health, and left many major decisions to Roosevelt. Influenced by Alfred Thayer Mahan, Roosevelt called for a build-up in the country's naval strength, particularly the construction of battleships. [93]  Roosevelt also began pressing his national security views regarding the Pacific and the Caribbean on McKinley, and was particularly adamant that Spain be ejected from Cuba. [94]  He explained his priorities to one of the Navy's planners in late 1897:
 I would regard war with Spain from two viewpoints: first, the advisability on the grounds both of humanity and self-interest of interfering on behalf of the Cubans, and of taking one more step toward the complete freeing of America from European dominion; second, the benefit done our people by giving them something to think of which is not material gain, and especially the benefit done our military forces by trying both the Navy and Army in actual practice. [95]   
On February 15, 1898, USS Maine , an armored cruiser, exploded in the harbor of Havana, Cuba, killing hundreds of crew members. While Roosevelt and many other Americans blamed Spain for the explosion, McKinley sought a diplomatic solution. [96]  Without approval from Long or McKinley, Roosevelt sent out orders to several naval vessels, directing them to prepare for war. [96]   [97]  George Dewey, who had received an appointment to lead the Asiatic Squadron with the backing of Roosevelt, later credited his victory at the Battle of Manila Bay to Roosevelt's orders. [98]  After finally giving up hope of a peaceful solution, McKinley asked Congress to declare war upon Spain, beginning the Spanish–American War. [99] 
War in Cuba
      Colonel Theodore Roosevelt  
With the beginning of the Spanish–American War in late April 1898, Roosevelt resigned from his post as Assistant Secretary of the Navy. Along with Army Colonel Leonard Wood, he formed the First U.S. Volunteer Cavalry Regiment. [100]  His wife and many of his friends begged Roosevelt to remain in his post in Washington, but Roosevelt was determined to see battle. When the newspapers reported the formation of the new regiment, Roosevelt and Wood were flooded with applications from all over the country. [101]  Referred to by the press as the "Rough Riders", the regiment was one of many temporary units active only for the duration of the war. [102] 
 The regiment trained for several weeks in San Antonio, Texas, and in his autobiography, Roosevelt wrote that his prior experience with the New York National Guard had been invaluable, in that it enabled him to immediately begin teaching his men basic soldiering skills. [103]  The Rough Riders used some standard issue gear and some of their own design, purchased with gift money. Diversity characterized the regiment, which included Ivy Leaguers, professional and amateur athletes, upscale gentlemen, cowboys, frontiersmen, Native Americans, hunters, miners, prospectors, former soldiers, tradesmen, and sheriffs. The Rough Riders were part of the cavalry division commanded by former Confederate general Joseph Wheeler, which itself was one of three divisions in the V Corps under Lieutenant General William Rufus Shafter. Roosevelt and his men landed in Daiquirí, Cuba, on June 23, 1898, and marched to Siboney. Wheeler sent parts of the 1st and 10th Regular Cavalry on the lower road northwest and sent the "Rough Riders" on the parallel road running along a ridge up from the beach. To throw off his infantry rival, Wheeler left one regiment of his Cavalry Division, the 9th, at Siboney so that he could claim that his move north was only a limited reconnaissance if things went wrong. Roosevelt was promoted to colonel and took command of the regiment when Wood was put in command of the brigade. The Rough Riders had a short, minor skirmish known as the Battle of Las Guasimas; they fought their way through Spanish resistance and, together with the Regulars, forced the Spaniards to abandon their positions. [104] 
      Colonel Roosevelt and the Rough Riders after capturing Kettle Hill in Cuba in July 1898, along with members of the 3rd Volunteers and the regular Army black 10th Cavalry   
Under Roosevelt's leadership, the Rough Riders became famous for the charge up Kettle Hill on July 1, 1898, while supporting the regulars. Roosevelt had the only horse, and rode back and forth between rifle pits at the forefront of the advance up Kettle Hill, an advance that he urged despite the absence of any orders from superiors. He was forced to walk up the last part of Kettle Hill because his horse had been entangled in barbed wire. The victories came at a cost of 200 killed and 1,000 wounded. [105] 
 In August, Roosevelt and other officers demanded that the soldiers be returned home. Roosevelt always recalled the Battle of Kettle Hill (part of the San Juan Heights) as "the great day of my life" and "my crowded hour". In 2001, Roosevelt was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions; [106]  he had been nominated during the war, but Army officials, annoyed at his grabbing the headlines, blocked it. [107]  After returning to civilian life, Roosevelt preferred to be known as "Colonel Roosevelt" or "The Colonel", though "Teddy" remained much more popular with the public, even though Roosevelt openly despised that moniker. Men working closely with Roosevelt customarily called him "Colonel" or "Theodore". [108]  [ page needed ] Henceforth, political cartoons of Roosevelt usually depicted him in his Rough Rider garb.[ citation needed ]
Governor of New York
After leaving Cuba in August 1898, the Rough Riders were transported to a camp at Montauk Point, Long Island, where Roosevelt and his men were briefly quarantined due to the War Department's fear of spreading yellow fever. [109]  Shortly after Roosevelt's return to the United States, Republican Congressman Lemuel E. Quigg, a lieutenant of party boss Tom Platt, asked Roosevelt to run in the 1898 gubernatorial election. Prospering politically from the Platt machine, Roosevelt's gradual rise to power was marked by the pragmatic decisions of New York machine boss T. C. "Tom" Platt, who served as a U.S. senator from the state. [110]   [111]  The demonstrated willingness of Platt to compromise with the GOP progressive wing led by Roosevelt and Benjamin B. Odell, Jr., resulted, over time, in their growth of political strength at the expense of the "easy boss," whose machine faced collapse in 1903 at the hands of Odell. [112] 
Platt disliked Roosevelt personally, feared that Roosevelt would oppose Platt's interests in office, and was reluctant to propel Roosevelt to the forefront of national politics. However, Platt also needed a strong candidate due to the unpopularity of the incumbent Republican governor, Frank S. Black. Roosevelt agreed to become the nominee and to try not to "make war" with the Republican establishment once in office. Roosevelt defeated Black in the Republican caucus by a vote of 753 to 218, and faced Democrat Augustus Van Wyck, a well-respected judge, in the general election. [113]  Roosevelt campaigned vigorously on his war record, winning the election by a margin of just one percent. [114] 
 As governor, Roosevelt learned much about ongoing economic issues and political techniques that later proved valuable in his presidency. He studied the problems of trusts, monopolies, labor relations, and conservation. Chessman argues that Roosevelt's program "rested firmly upon the concept of the square deal by a neutral state". The rules for the Square Deal were "honesty in public affairs, an equitable sharing of privilege and responsibility, and subordination of party and local concerns to the interests of the state at large". [115] 
 By holding twice-daily press conferences—which was an innovation—Roosevelt remained connected with his middle-class political base. [116]  Roosevelt successfully pushed the Ford Franchise-Tax bill, which taxed public franchises granted by the state and controlled by corporations, declaring that "a corporation which derives its powers from the State, should pay to the State a just percentage of its earnings as a return for the privileges it enjoys". [117]  He rejected "boss" Thomas C. Platt's worries that this approached Bryanite Socialism, explaining that without it, New York voters might get angry and adopt public ownership of streetcar lines and other franchises. [118] 
 The New York state government affected many interests, and the power to make appointments to policy-making positions was a key role for the governor. Platt insisted that he be consulted on major appointments; Roosevelt appeared to comply, but then made his own decisions. Historians marvel that Roosevelt managed to appoint so many first-rate men with Platt's approval. He even enlisted Platt's help in securing reform, such as in the spring of 1899, when Platt pressured state senators to vote for a civil service bill that the secretary of the Civil Service Reform Association called "superior to any civil service statute heretofore secured in America". [119] 
 G. Wallace Chessman argues that as governor, Roosevelt developed the principles that shaped his presidency, especially insistence upon the public responsibility of large corporations, publicity as a first remedy for trusts, regulation of railroad rates, mediation of the conflict of capital and labor, conservation of natural resources and protection of the less fortunate members of society. [115]  Roosevelt sought to position himself against the excesses of large corporations on the one hand and radical movements on the other. [120] 
 As the chief executive of the most populous state in the union, Roosevelt was widely considered a potential future presidential candidate, and supporters such as William Allen White encouraged him to run for president. [121]  Roosevelt had no interest in challenging McKinley for the Republican nomination in 1900, and was denied his preferred post of Secretary of War. As his term progressed, Roosevelt pondered a 1904 presidential run, but was uncertain about whether he should seek re-election as governor in 1900. [122] 
Vice presidency (1901)
In November 1899, Vice President Garret Hobart died of heart failure, leaving an open spot on the 1900 Republican national ticket. Though Henry Cabot Lodge and others urged him to run for vice president in 1900, Roosevelt was reluctant to take the powerless position and issued a public statement saying that he would not accept the nomination. [123]  Additionally, Roosevelt was informed by President McKinley and campaign manager Mark Hanna that he was not being considered for the role of vice president due to his actions prior to the Spanish–American War[ clarification needed ]. Eager to be rid of Roosevelt, Platt nonetheless began a newspaper campaign in favor of Roosevelt's nomination for the vice presidency. [124]  Roosevelt attended the 1900 Republican National Convention as a state delegate and struck a bargain with Platt: Roosevelt would accept the nomination for vice president if the convention offered it to him, but would otherwise serve another term as governor. Platt asked Pennsylvania party boss Matthew Quay to lead the campaign for Roosevelt's nomination, and Quay outmaneuvered Hanna at the convention to put Roosevelt on the ticket. [125]  Roosevelt won the nomination unanimously. [126] 
 Roosevelt's vice-presidential campaigning proved highly energetic and an equal match for Democratic presidential nominee William Jennings Bryan's famous barnstorming style of campaigning. In a whirlwind campaign that displayed his energy to the public, Roosevelt made 480 stops in 23 states. He denounced the radicalism of Bryan, contrasting it with the heroism of the soldiers and sailors who fought and won the war against Spain. Bryan had strongly supported the war itself, but he denounced the annexation of the Philippines as imperialism, which would spoil America's innocence. Roosevelt countered that it was best for the Filipinos to have stability and the Americans to have a proud place in the world. With the nation basking in peace and prosperity, the voters gave McKinley an even larger victory than that which he had achieved in 1896. [127]   [128] 
 After the campaign, Roosevelt took office as vice president in March 1901. The office of vice president was a powerless sinecure and did not suit Roosevelt's aggressive temperament. [129]  Roosevelt's six months as vice president were uneventful and boring for a man of action. He had no power; he presided over the Senate for a mere four days before it adjourned. [130]  On September 2, 1901, Roosevelt first publicized an aphorism that thrilled his supporters: "Speak softly and carry a big stick, and you will go far."  [131] 
Presidency (1901–1909)
     
On September 6, 1901, President McKinley was attending the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York when he was shot by anarchist Leon Czolgosz. Roosevelt was vacationing in Isle La Motte, Vermont, [132]  and traveled to Buffalo to visit McKinley in the hospital. It appeared that McKinley would recover, so Roosevelt resumed his vacation in the Adirondack Mountains. [133]  When McKinley's condition worsened, Roosevelt again rushed back to Buffalo. McKinley died on September 14, and Roosevelt was informed while he was in North Creek; he continued on to Buffalo and was sworn in as the nation's 26th president at the Ansley Wilcox House. [134] 
 McKinley's supporters were nervous about the new president, and Ohio Senator Mark Hanna was particularly bitter that the man he had opposed so vigorously at the convention had succeeded McKinley. Roosevelt assured party leaders that he intended to adhere to McKinley's policies, and he retained McKinley's Cabinet. Nonetheless, Roosevelt sought to position himself as the party's undisputed leader, seeking to bolster the role of the president and position himself for the 1904 election. [135]  The vice presidency remained vacant, as there was no constitutional provision for filling an intra-term vacancy in that office (prior to the 25th Amendment in 1967).
 Shortly after taking office, Roosevelt invited Booker T. Washington to dinner at the White House. This sparked a bitter, and at times vicious, reaction among whites across the heavily segregated South. [136]  Roosevelt reacted with astonishment and protest, saying that he looked forward to many future dinners with Washington. Upon further reflection, Roosevelt wanted to ensure that this had no effect on political support in the white South, and further dinner invitations to Washington were avoided; [137]  their next meeting was scheduled as typical business at 10:00 a.m. instead. [138] 
Domestic policies: The Square Deal
Trust busting and regulation
For his aggressive use of the 1890 Sherman Antitrust Act, compared to his predecessors, Roosevelt was hailed as the "trust-buster"; but in reality he was more of a trust regulator. [139]  Roosevelt viewed big business as a necessary part of the American economy, and sought only to prosecute the "bad trusts" that restrained trade and charged unfair prices. [140]  He brought 44 antitrust suits, breaking up the Northern Securities Company, the largest railroad monopoly; and regulating Standard Oil, the largest oil company. [141]   [139]  Presidents Benjamin Harrison, Grover Cleveland, and William McKinley combined had prosecuted only 18 antitrust violations under the Sherman Antitrust Act. [139] 
 Bolstered by his party's winning large majorities in the 1902 elections, Roosevelt proposed the creation of the United States Department of Commerce and Labor, which would include the Bureau of Corporations. While Congress was receptive to the Department of Commerce and Labor, it was more skeptical of the antitrust powers that Roosevelt sought to endow within the Bureau of Corporations. Roosevelt successfully appealed to the public to pressure Congress, and Congress overwhelmingly voted to pass Roosevelt's version of the bill. [142] 
 In a moment of frustration, House Speaker Joseph Gurney Cannon commented on Roosevelt's desire for executive branch control in domestic policy-making: "That fellow at the other end of the avenue wants everything from the birth of Christ to the death of the devil." Biographer Brands states, "Even his friends occasionally wondered whether there wasn't any custom or practice too minor for him to try to regulate, update or otherwise improve." [143]  In fact, Roosevelt's willingness to exercise his power included attempted rule changes in the game of football; at the U.S. Naval Academy, he sought to force retention of martial arts classes and to revise disciplinary rules. He even ordered changes made in the minting of a coin whose design he disliked, and ordered the Government Printing Office to adopt simplified spellings for a core list of 300 words, according to reformers on the Simplified Spelling Board. He was forced to rescind the latter after substantial ridicule from the press and a resolution of protest from the U.S. House of Representatives. [144] 
Coal strike
In May 1902, anthracite coal miners went on strike, threatening a national energy shortage. After threatening the coal operators with intervention by federal troops, Roosevelt won their agreement to dispute arbitration by a commission, which succeeded in stopping the strike. The accord with J. P. Morgan resulted in the miners getting more pay for fewer hours, but with no union recognition. [145]   [146]  Roosevelt said, "My action on labor should always be considered in connection with my action as regards capital, and both are reducible to my favorite formula—a square deal for every man." [147]  Roosevelt was the first president to help settle a labor dispute. [148] 
Prosecuted misconduct
During Roosevelt's second year in office it was discovered there was corruption in the Indian Service, the Land Office, and the Post Office Department. Roosevelt investigated and prosecuted corrupt Indian agents who had cheated the Creeks and various Native American tribes out of land parcels. Land fraud and speculation were found involving Oregon federal timberlands. In November 1902, Roosevelt and Secretary Ethan A. Hitchcock forced Binger Hermann, the General Land Office Commissioner, to resign from office. On November 6, 1903 Francis J. Heney was appointed special prosecutor and obtained 146 indictments involving an Oregon Land Office bribery ring. U.S. Senator John H. Mitchell was indicted for bribery to expedite illegal land patents, found guilty in July 1905, and sentenced to six months in prison. [149]  More corruption was found in the Postal Department, that brought on the indictments of 44 government employees on charges of bribery and fraud. [150]  Historians generally agree that Roosevelt moved "quickly and decisively" to prosecute misconduct in his administration. [151] 
Railroads
Merchants complained that some railroad rates were too high. In the 1906 Hepburn Act, Roosevelt sought to give the Interstate Commerce Commission the power to regulate rates, but the Senate, led by conservative Nelson Aldrich, fought back. Roosevelt worked with the Democratic Senator Benjamin Tillman to pass the bill. Roosevelt and Aldrich ultimately reached a compromise that gave the ICC the power to replace existing rates with "just-and-reasonable" maximum rates, but allowed railroads to appeal to the federal courts on what was "reasonable". [152]   [153]  In addition to rate-setting, the Hepburn Act also granted the ICC regulatory power over pipeline fees, storage contracts, and several other aspects of railroad operations. [154] 
Pure food and drugs
Roosevelt responded to public anger over the abuses in the food packing industry by pushing Congress to pass the Meat Inspection Act of 1906 and the Pure Food and Drug Act. Though conservatives initially opposed the bill, Upton Sinclair's  The Jungle , published in 1906, helped galvanize support for reform. [155]  The Meat Inspection Act of 1906 banned misleading labels and preservatives that contained harmful chemicals. The Pure Food and Drug Act banned food and drugs that were impure or falsely labeled from being made, sold, and shipped. Roosevelt also served as honorary president of the American School Hygiene Association from 1907 to 1908, and in 1909 he convened the first White House Conference on the Care of Dependent Children. [156] 
Conservation
     
Of all Roosevelt's achievements, he was proudest of his work in the conservation of natural resources and extending federal protection to land and wildlife. [157]  Roosevelt worked closely with Interior Secretary James Rudolph Garfield and Chief of the United States Forest Service Gifford Pinchot to enact a series of conservation programs that often met with resistance from Western members of Congress, such as Charles William Fulton. [158]  Nonetheless, Roosevelt established the United States Forest Service, signed into law the creation of five National Parks, and signed the 1906 Antiquities Act, under which he proclaimed 18 new U.S. National Monuments. He also established the first 51 bird reserves, four game preserves, and 150 National Forests. The area of the United States that he placed under public protection totals approximately 230 million acres (930,000 square kilometers). [159] 
 Roosevelt extensively used executive orders on a number of occasions to protect forest and wildlife lands during his tenure as president. [160]  By the end of his second term in office, Roosevelt used executive orders to establish 150 million acres (600,000 square kilometers) of reserved forestry land. [161]  Roosevelt was unapologetic about his extensive use of executive orders to protect the environment, despite the perception in Congress that he was encroaching on too many lands. [161]  Eventually, Senator Charles Fulton (R-OR) attached an amendment to an agricultural appropriations bill that effectively prevented the president from reserving any further land. [161]  Before signing that bill into law, Roosevelt used executive orders to establish an additional 21 forest reserves, waiting until the last minute to sign the bill into law. [162]  In total, Roosevelt used executive orders to establish 121 forest reserves in 31 states. [162]  Prior to Roosevelt, only one president had issued over 200 executive orders, Grover Cleveland (253). The first 25 presidents issued a total of 1,262 executive orders; Roosevelt issued 1,081. [163] 
Business panic of 1907
In 1907, Roosevelt faced the greatest domestic economic crisis since the Panic of 1893. Wall Street's stock market entered a slump in early 1907, and many investors blamed Roosevelt's regulatory policies for the decline in stock prices. [164]  Roosevelt helped calm the crisis by meeting on November 4, 1907, with the leaders of U.S. Steel and approving their plan to purchase a Tennessee steel company near bankruptcy—its failure would ruin a major New York bank. He thus approved the growth of one of the largest and most hated trusts, while the public announcement calmed the markets. [165] 
 
Roosevelt exploded in anger at the super-rich for the economic malfeasance, calling them "malefactors of great wealth." in a major speech in August entitled, "The Puritan Spirit and the Regulation of Corporations." Trying to restore confidence, he blamed the crisis primarily on Europe, but then, after saluting the unbending rectitude of the Puritans, he went on: [166]    It may well be that the determination of the government...to punish certain malefactors of great wealth, has been responsible for something of the trouble; at least to the extent of having caused these men to combine to bring about as much financial stress as possible, in order to discredit the policy of the government and thereby secure a reversal of that policy, so that they may enjoy unmolested the fruits of their own evil-doing. 
Regarding the very wealthy, Roosevelt privately scorned. "their entire unfitness to govern the country, and ... the lasting damage they do by much of what they think are the legitimate big business operations of the day." [167] 
Foreign policy
Japan
The American annexation of Hawaii in 1898 was stimulated in part by fear that otherwise Japan would dominate or seize the Hawaiian Republic. [168]  Similarly, Germany was the alternative to American takeover of the Philippines in 1900, and Tokyo strongly preferred the U.S. to take over. As the U.S. became a naval world power, it needed to find a way to avoid a military confrontation in the Pacific with Japan. [169] 
 In the 1890s, Roosevelt had been an ardent imperialist and vigorously defended the permanent acquisition of the Philippines in the 1900 campaign. After the local insurrection ended in 1902, Roosevelt wished to have a strong U.S. presence in the region as a symbol of democratic values, but he did not envision any new acquisitions. One of Roosevelt's priorities during his presidency and afterwards, was the maintenance of friendly relations with Japan. [170]   [171]  From 1904 to 1905 Japan and Russia were at war. Both sides asked Roosevelt to mediate a peace conference, held successfully in Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Roosevelt won the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts. [172] 
 Though he proclaimed that the United States would be neutral during the Russo-Japanese War, Roosevelt secretly favored the Imperial Japan to emerge victorious against the Russian Empire. He wanted the influence of the Russians to weaken in order to take them out in the Pacific diplomatic equation, with the Japanese emerging to their spot as the Russian replacement. [173] 
 In California, anti-Japanese hostility was growing, and Tokyo protested. Roosevelt negotiated a "Gentleman's Agreement" in 1907. It ended explicit discrimination against the Japanese, and Japan agreed not to allow unskilled immigrants into the United States. [174]  The Great White Fleet of American battleships visited Japan in 1908 during its round-the-world tour. Roosevelt intended to emphasize the superiority of the American fleet over the smaller Japanese navy, but instead of resentment the visitors arrived to a joyous welcome by Japanese elite as well as the general public. This good-will facilitated the Root–Takahira Agreement of November 1908 which reaffirmed the status quo of Japanese control of Korea and American control of the Philippines. [175] 
 [176] 
Europe
Success in the war against Spain and the new empire, plus having the largest economy in the world, meant that the United States had emerged as a world power. [177]  Roosevelt searched for ways to win recognition for the position abroad. [178] 
 Roosevelt also played a major role in mediating the First Moroccan Crisis by calling the Algeciras Conference, which averted war between France and Germany. [179] 
 Roosevelt's presidency saw the strengthening of ties with Great Britain. The Great Rapprochement had begun with British support of the United States during the Spanish–American War, and it continued as Britain withdrew its fleet from the Caribbean in favor of focusing on the rising German naval threat. [180]  In 1901, Britain and the United States signed the Hay–Pauncefote Treaty, abrogating the Clayton–Bulwer Treaty, which had prevented the United States from constructing a canal connecting the Pacific and the Atlantic Ocean. [181]  The long-standing Alaska boundary dispute was settled on terms favorable to the United States, as Great Britain was unwilling to alienate the United States over what it considered to be a secondary issue. As Roosevelt later put it, the resolution of the Alaskan boundary dispute "settled the last serious trouble between the British Empire and ourselves." [182] 
Latin America and Panama Canal
As president, he primarily focused the nation's overseas ambitions on the Caribbean, especially locations that had a bearing on the defense of his pet project, the Panama Canal. [183]  Roosevelt also increased the size of the navy, and by the end of his second term the United States had more battleships than any other country besides Britain. The Panama Canal, when it opened in 1914, allowed the U.S. Navy to rapidly move back and forth from the Pacific to the Caribbean to European waters. [184] 
 In December 1902, the Germans, British, and Italians blockaded the ports of Venezuela in order to force the repayment of delinquent loans. Roosevelt was particularly concerned with the motives of German Emperor Wilhelm II. He succeeded in getting the three nations to agree to arbitration by tribunal at The Hague, and successfully defused the crisis. [185]  The latitude granted to the Europeans by the arbiters was in part responsible for the "Roosevelt Corollary" to the Monroe Doctrine, which the President issued in 1904: "Chronic wrongdoing or an impotence which results in a general loosening of the ties of civilized society, may in America, as elsewhere, ultimately require intervention by some civilized nation, and in the Western Hemisphere, the adherence of the United States to the Monroe doctrine may force the United States, however reluctantly, in flagrant cases of such wrongdoing or impotence, to the exercise of an international police power." [186] 
     
The pursuit of an isthmus canal in Central America during this period focused on two possible routes—Nicaragua and Panama, which was then a rebellious district within Colombia. Roosevelt convinced Congress to approve the Panamanian alternative, and a treaty was approved, only to be rejected by the Colombian government. When the Panamanians learned of this, a rebellion followed, was supported by Roosevelt, and succeeded. A treaty with the new Panama government for construction of the canal was then reached in 1903. [187]  Roosevelt received criticism for paying the bankrupt Panama Canal Company and the New Panama Canal Company $40,000,000 (equivalent to $12.06 billion in 2021) for the rights and equipment to build the canal. [151]  Critics charged that an American investor syndicate allegedly divided the large payment among themselves. There was also controversy over whether a French company engineer influenced Roosevelt in choosing the Panama route for the canal over the Nicaragua route. Roosevelt denied charges of corruption concerning the canal in a January 8, 1906, message to Congress. In January 1909, Roosevelt, in an unprecedented move, brought criminal libel charges against the  New York World  and the  Indianapolis News  known as the "Roosevelt-Panama Libel Cases". [188]  Both cases were dismissed by U.S. District Courts, and on January 3, 1911, the U.S. Supreme Court, upon federal appeal, upheld the lower courts' rulings. [189]  Historians are sharply critical of Roosevelt's criminal prosecutions of the World and the News, but are divided on whether actual corruption in acquiring and building the Panama Canal took place. [190] 
 In 1906, following a disputed election, an insurrection ensued in Cuba; Roosevelt sent Taft, the Secretary of War, to monitor the situation; he was convinced that he had the authority to unilaterally authorize Taft to deploy Marines if necessary, without congressional approval. [191] 
 Examining the work of numerous scholars, Ricard (2014) reports that:
 The most striking evolution in the twenty-first-century historiography of Theodore Roosevelt is the switch from a partial arraignment of the imperialist to a quasi-unanimous celebration of the master diplomatist.... [Recent works] have underlined cogently Roosevelt's exceptional statesmanship in the construction of the nascent twentieth-century "special relationship". ...The twenty-sixth president's reputation as a brilliant diplomatist and real politician has undeniably reached new heights in the twenty-first century...yet, his Philippine policy still prompts criticism. [192]   
On November 6, 1906, Roosevelt was the first president to depart the continental United States on an official diplomatic trip. Roosevelt made a 17-day trip to Panama and Puerto Rico. Roosevelt checked on the progress of the Canal's construction and talked to workers about the importance of the project. In Puerto Rico, he recommended that Puerto Ricans become U.S. citizens. [193]   [194] 
Media
     
Building on McKinley's effective use of the press, Roosevelt made the White House the center of news every day, providing interviews and photo opportunities. After noticing the reporters huddled outside the White House in the rain one day, he gave them their own room inside, effectively inventing the presidential press briefing. The grateful press, with unprecedented access to the White House, rewarded Roosevelt with ample coverage. [195] 
 Roosevelt normally enjoyed very close relationships with the press, which he used to keep in daily contact with his middle-class base. While out of office, he made a living as a writer and magazine editor. He loved talking with intellectuals, authors, and writers. He drew the line, however, at exposé-oriented scandal-mongering journalists who, during his term, sent magazine subscriptions soaring by their attacks on corrupt politicians, mayors, and corporations. Roosevelt himself was not usually a target, but a speech of his from 1906 coined the term "muckraker" for unscrupulous journalists making wild charges. "The liar", he said, "is no whit better than the thief, and if his mendacity takes the form of slander he may be worse than most thieves." [196] 
 The press did briefly target Roosevelt in one instance. After 1904, he was periodically criticized for the manner in which he facilitated the construction of the Panama Canal. According to biographer Brands, Roosevelt, near the end of his term, demanded that the U.S. Justice Department bring charges of criminal libel against Joseph Pulitzer's New York World. The publication had accused him of "deliberate misstatements of fact" in defense of family members who were criticized as a result of the Panama affair. Though an indictment was obtained, the case was ultimately dismissed in federal court—it was not a federal offense, but one enforceable in state courts. The Justice Department had predicted that result, and had also advised Roosevelt accordingly. [197] 
Election of 1904
     
The control and management of the Republican Party lay in the hands of Ohio Senator and Republican Party chairman Mark Hanna until McKinley's death. Roosevelt and Hanna frequently cooperated during Roosevelt's first term, but Hanna left open the possibility of a challenge to Roosevelt for the 1904 Republican nomination. Roosevelt and Ohio's other Senator, Joseph B. Foraker, forced Hanna's hand by calling for Ohio's state Republican convention to endorse Roosevelt for the 1904 nomination. [198]  Unwilling to break with the president, Hanna was forced to publicly endorse Roosevelt. Hanna and Pennsylvania Senator Matthew Quay both died in early 1904, and with the waning of Thomas Platt's power, Roosevelt faced little effective opposition for the 1904 nomination. [199]  In deference to Hanna's conservative loyalists, Roosevelt at first offered the party chairmanship to Cornelius Bliss, but he declined. Roosevelt turned to his own man, George B. Cortelyou of New York, the first Secretary of Commerce and Labor. To buttress his hold on the party's nomination, Roosevelt made it clear that anyone opposing Cortelyou would be considered to be opposing the President. [200]  The President secured his own nomination, but his preferred vice-presidential running mate, Robert R. Hitt, was not nominated. [201]  Senator Charles Warren Fairbanks of Indiana, a favorite of conservatives, gained the nomination. [199] 
 While Roosevelt followed the tradition of incumbents in not actively campaigning on the stump, he sought to control the campaign's message through specific instructions to Cortelyou. He also attempted to manage the press's release of White House statements by forming the Ananias Club. Any journalist who repeated a statement made by the president without approval was penalized by restriction of further access. [202] 
 The Democratic Party's nominee in 1904 was Alton Brooks Parker. Democratic newspapers charged that Republicans were extorting large campaign contributions from corporations, putting ultimate responsibility on Roosevelt, himself. [203]  Roosevelt denied corruption while at the same time he ordered Cortelyou to return $100,000 (equivalent to $3 million in 2021) of a campaign contribution from Standard Oil. [204]  Parker said that Roosevelt was accepting corporate donations to keep damaging information from the Bureau of Corporations from going public. [204]  Roosevelt strongly denied Parker's charge and responded that he would "go into the Presidency unhampered by any pledge, promise, or understanding of any kind, sort, or description...". [205]  Allegations from Parker and the Democrats, however, had little impact on the election, as Roosevelt promised to give every American a "square deal". [205]  Roosevelt won 56% of the popular vote, and Parker received 38%; Roosevelt also won the Electoral College vote, 336 to 140. Before his inauguration ceremony, Roosevelt declared that he would not serve another term. [206]  Democrats afterwards would continue to charge Roosevelt and the Republicans of being influenced by corporate donations during Roosevelt's second term. [207] 
Second term
As his second term progressed, Roosevelt moved to the left of his Republican Party base and called for a series of reforms, most of which Congress failed to pass. [208]  In his last year in office, he was assisted by his friend Archibald Butt (who later perished in the sinking of RMS Titanic ). [209]  Roosevelt's influence waned as he approached the end of his second term, as his promise to forego a third term made him a lame duck and his concentration of power provoked a backlash from many Congressmen. [210]  He sought a national incorporation law (at a time when all corporations had state charters), called for a federal income tax (despite the Supreme Court's ruling in  Pollock v. Farmers' Loan &amp; Trust Co. ), and an inheritance tax. In the area of labor legislation, Roosevelt called for limits on the use of court injunctions against labor unions during strikes; injunctions were a powerful weapon that mostly helped business. He wanted an employee liability law for industrial injuries (pre-empting state laws) and an eight-hour work day for federal employees. In other areas he also sought a postal savings system (to provide competition for local banks), and he asked for campaign reform laws. [211] 
 The election of 1904 continued to be a source of contention between Republicans and Democrats. A Congressional investigation in 1905 revealed that corporate executives donated tens of thousands of dollars in 1904 to the Republican National Committee. In 1908, a month before the general presidential election, Governor Charles N. Haskell of Oklahoma, former Democratic Treasurer, said that Senators beholden to Standard Oil lobbied Roosevelt, in the summer of 1904, to authorize the leasing of Indian oil lands by Standard Oil subsidiaries. He said Roosevelt overruled his Secretary of the Interior Ethan A. Hitchcock and granted a pipeline franchise to run through the Osage lands to the Prairie Oil and Gas Company. The New York Sun made a similar accusation and said that Standard Oil, a refinery who financially benefited from the pipeline, had contributed $150,000 to the Republicans in 1904 (equivalent to $4.5 million in 2021) after Roosevelt's alleged reversal allowing the pipeline franchise. Roosevelt branded Haskell's allegation as "a lie, pure and simple" and obtained a denial from Treasury Secretary Shaw that Roosevelt had neither coerced Shaw nor overruled him. [212] 
Rhetoric of righteousness 
Roosevelt's rhetoric was characterized by an intense moralism of personal righteousness. [213]   [214]   [215]  The tone was typified by his denunciation of "predatory wealth" in a message he sent Congress in January 1908 calling for passage of new labor laws:   Predatory wealth--of the wealth accumulated on a giant scale by all forms of iniquity, ranging from the oppression of wageworkers to unfair and unwholesome methods of crushing out competition, and to defrauding the public by stock jobbing and the manipulation of securities. Certain wealthy men of this stamp, whose conduct should be abhorrent to every man of ordinarily decent conscience, and who commit the hideous wrong of teaching our young men that phenomenal business success must ordinarily be based on dishonesty, have during the last few months made it apparent that they have banded together to work for a reaction. Their endeavor is to overthrow and discredit all who honestly administer the law, to prevent any additional legislation which would check and restrain them, and to secure if possible a freedom from all restraint which will permit every unscrupulous wrongdoer to do what he wishes unchecked provided he has enough money....The methods by which the Standard Oil people and those engaged in the other combinations of which I have spoken above have achieved great fortunes can only be justified by the advocacy of a system of morality which would also justify every form of criminality on the part of a labor union, and every form of violence, corruption, and fraud, from murder to bribery and ballot box stuffing in politics. [216]   
Post-presidency (1909–1919)
Election of 1908
      Roosevelt shortly after leaving office, October 1910  
Roosevelt enjoyed being president and was still relatively youthful, but felt that a limited number of terms provided a check against dictatorship. Roosevelt ultimately decided to stick to his 1904 pledge not to run for a third term. He personally favored Secretary of State Elihu Root as his successor, but Root's ill health made him an unsuitable candidate. New York Governor Charles Evans Hughes loomed as a potentially strong candidate and shared Roosevelt's progressivism, but Roosevelt disliked him and considered him to be too independent. Instead, Roosevelt settled on his Secretary of War, William Howard Taft, who had ably served under Presidents Harrison, McKinley, and Roosevelt in various positions. Roosevelt and Taft had been friends since 1890, and Taft had consistently supported President Roosevelt's policies. [217]  Roosevelt was determined to install the successor of his choice, and wrote the following to Taft: "Dear Will: Do you want any action about those federal officials? I will break their necks with the utmost cheerfulness if you say the word!". Just weeks later he branded as "false and malicious" the charge that he was using the offices at his disposal to favor Taft. [218]  At the 1908 Republican convention, many chanted for "four years more" of a Roosevelt presidency, but Taft won the nomination after Henry Cabot Lodge made it clear that Roosevelt was not interested in a third term. [219] 
 In the 1908 election, Taft easily defeated the Democratic nominee, three-time candidate William Jennings Bryan. Taft promoted a progressivism that stressed the rule of law; he preferred that judges rather than administrators or politicians make the basic decisions about fairness. Taft usually proved to be a less adroit politician than Roosevelt and lacked the energy and personal magnetism, along with the publicity devices, the dedicated supporters, and the broad base of public support that made Roosevelt so formidable. When Roosevelt realized that lowering the tariff would risk creating severe tensions inside the Republican Party by pitting producers (manufacturers, industrial workers, and farmers) against merchants and consumers, he stopped talking about the issue. Taft ignored the risks and tackled the tariff boldly, encouraging reformers to fight for lower rates, and then cutting deals with conservative leaders that kept overall rates high. The resulting Payne-Aldrich tariff of 1909, signed into law early in President Taft's tenure, was too high for most reformers, and Taft's handling of the tariff alienated all sides. While the crisis was building inside the Party, Roosevelt was touring Africa and Europe, to allow Taft space to be his own man. [220] 
Africa and Europe (1909–1910)
      Roosevelt standing next to the elephant he shot on safari  
In March 1909, the ex-president left the country for the Smithsonian-Roosevelt African Expedition, a safari in east and central Africa. [221]  Roosevelt's party landed in Mombasa, East Africa (now Kenya) and traveled to the Belgian Congo (now Democratic Republic of the Congo) before following the Nile River to Khartoum in modern Sudan. Well-financed by Andrew Carnegie and by his own writings, Roosevelt's large party hunted for specimens for the Smithsonian Institution and for the American Museum of Natural History in New York. [222]  The group, led by the hunter-tracker R.J. Cunninghame, included scientists from the Smithsonian, and was joined from time to time by Frederick Selous, the famous big game hunter and explorer. Participants on the expedition included Kermit Roosevelt, Edgar Alexander Mearns, Edmund Heller, and John Alden Loring. [223] 
 The team killed or trapped 11,400 animals, [222]  from insects and moles to hippopotamuses and elephants. The 1,000 large animals included 512 big game animals, including six rare white rhinos. Tons of salted carcases and skins were shipped to Washington; it took years to mount them all, and the Smithsonian shared duplicate specimens with other museums. Regarding the large number of animals taken, Roosevelt said, "I can be condemned only if the existence of the National Museum, the American Museum of Natural History, and all similar zoological institutions are to be condemned". [224]  He wrote a detailed account of the safari in the book African Game Trails, recounting the excitement of the chase, the people he met, and the flora and fauna he collected in the name of science. [225] 
 After his safari, Roosevelt traveled north to embark on a tour of Europe. Stopping first in Egypt, he commented favorably on British rule of the region, giving his opinion that Egypt was not yet ready for independence. [226]  He refused a meeting with the Pope due to a dispute over a group of Methodists active in Rome. He met with Emperor Franz Joseph of Austria-Hungary, Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, King George V of Great Britain, and other European leaders. In Oslo, Norway, Roosevelt delivered a speech calling for limitations on naval armaments, a strengthening of the Permanent Court of Arbitration, and the creation of a "League of Peace" among the world powers. [227]  He also delivered the Romanes Lecture at Oxford, in which he denounced those who sought parallels between the evolution of animal life and the development of society. [228]  Though Roosevelt attempted to avoid domestic politics, he quietly met with Gifford Pinchot, who related his own disappointment with the Taft Administration. [229]  Pinchot had been forced to resign as head of the forest service after clashing with Taft's Interior Secretary, Richard Ballinger, who had prioritized development over conservation. Roosevelt returned to the United States in June 1910. [230] 
 In October 1910, Roosevelt became the first U.S. president to fly in an airplane, staying aloft for four minutes in a Wright Brothers-designed craft near St. Louis. [231] 
Republican Party schism
Roosevelt had attempted to refashion Taft into a copy of himself, but he recoiled as Taft began to display his individuality. He was offended on election night when Taft indicated that his success had been possible not just through the efforts of Roosevelt, but also Taft's half-brother Charles. Roosevelt was further alienated when Taft, intent on becoming his own man, did not consult him about cabinet appointments. [232]  Roosevelt and other progressives were ideologically dissatisfied over Taft's conservation policies and his handling of the tariff when he concentrated more power in the hands of conservative party leaders in Congress. [233]  Stanley Solvick argues that as president Taft abided by the goals and procedures of the "Square Deal" promoted by Roosevelt in his first term. The problem was that Roosevelt and the more radical progressives had moved on to more aggressive goals, such as curbing the judiciary, which Taft rejected. [234]  Regarding radicalism and liberalism, Roosevelt wrote a British friend in 1911:
 Fundamentally it is the radical liberal with whom I sympathize. He is at least working toward the end for which I think we should all of us strive; and when he adds sanity in moderation to courage and enthusiasm for high ideals he develops into the kind of statesman whom alone I can wholeheartedly support. [235]   
Roosevelt urged progressives to take control of the Republican Party at the state and local level and to avoid splitting the party in a way that would hand the presidency to the Democrats in 1912. To that end Roosevelt publicly expressed optimism about the Taft Administration after meeting with the president in June 1910. [236] 
 In August 1910, Roosevelt escalated the rivalry with a speech at Osawatomie, Kansas, which was the most radical of his career. It marked his public break with Taft and the conservative Republicans. Advocating a program he called the "New Nationalism", Roosevelt emphasized the priority of labor over capital interests, and the need to control corporate creation and combination. He called for a ban on corporate political contributions. [237]  Returning to New York, Roosevelt began a battle to take control of the state Republican party from William Barnes Jr., Tom Platt's successor as the state party boss. Taft had pledged his support to Roosevelt in this endeavor, and Roosevelt was outraged when Taft's support failed to materialize at the 1910 state convention. [238]  Roosevelt campaigned for the Republicans in the 1910 elections, in which the Democrats gained control of the House for the first time since 1892. Among the newly elected Democrats was New York state senator Franklin Delano Roosevelt, who argued that he represented his distant cousin's policies better than his Republican opponent. [239] 
 The Republican progressives interpreted the 1910 defeats as a compelling argument for the complete reorganization of the party in 1911. [240]  Senator Robert M. La Follette of Wisconsin joined with Pinchot, William White, and California Governor Hiram Johnson to create the National Progressive Republican League; their objectives were to defeat the power of political bossism at the state level and to replace Taft at the national level. [241]  Despite his skepticism of La Follette's new league, Roosevelt expressed general support for progressive principles. Between January and April 1911, Roosevelt wrote a series of articles for The Outlook, defending what he called "the great movement of our day, the progressive nationalist movement against special privilege, and in favor of an honest and efficient political and industrial democracy". [242]  With Roosevelt apparently uninterested in running in 1912, La Follette declared his own candidacy in June 1911. [241]  Roosevelt continually criticized Taft after the 1910 elections, and the break between the two men became final after the Justice Department filed an antitrust lawsuit against US Steel in September 1911; Roosevelt was humiliated by this suit because he had personally approved of an acquisition that the Justice Department was now challenging. However, Roosevelt was still unwilling to run against Taft in 1912; he instead hoped to run in 1916 against whichever Democrat beat Taft in 1912. [243] 
Battling Taft over arbitration treaties
Taft was world leader for arbitration as a guarantee of world peace. In 1911 he and his Secretary of State Philander C. Knox negotiated major treaties with Great Britain and France providing that differences be arbitrated. Disputes had to be submitted to the Hague Court or other tribunal. These were signed in August 1911 but had to be ratified by a two-thirds vote of the Senate. Neither Taft or Knox consulted with leaders of the Senate during the negotiating process. By then many Republicans were opposed to Taft, and the president felt that lobbying too hard for the treaties might cause their defeat. He made some speeches supporting the treaties in October, but the Senate added amendments Taft could not accept, killing the agreements. [244] 
 The arbitration issue revealed a deep philosophical dispute among American progressives. One faction, led by Taft looked to legal arbitration as the best alternative to warfare. Taft was a constitutional lawyer with a deep understanding of the legal issues. [245]  Taft's political base was the conservative business community that largely supported peace movements before 1914. However, he failed to mobilize that base. The businessmen believed that economic rivalries were the cause of war, and that extensive trade led to an interdependent world that would make war a very expensive and useless anachronism. [246] 
 However, an opposing faction of progressives, led by Roosevelt, ridiculed arbitration as foolhardy idealism, and insisted on the realism of warfare as the only solution to serious international disputes. Roosevelt worked with his close friend Senator Henry Cabot Lodge to impose those amendments that ruined the goals of the treaties. Lodge's motivation was that he complained the treaties impinged too much on senatorial prerogatives. [247]  Roosevelt, however, was acting to sabotage Taft's campaign promises. [248]  At a deeper level, Roosevelt truly believed that arbitration was a naïve solution and the great issues had to be decided by warfare. The Rooseveltian approach incorporated a near-mystical faith of the ennobling nature of war. It endorsed jingoistic nationalism as opposed to the businessmen's calculation of profit and national interest. [249]   [250] 
Election of 1912
Republican primaries and convention
In November 1911, a group of Ohio Republicans endorsed Roosevelt for the party's nomination for president; the endorsers included James R. Garfield and Dan Hanna. This endorsement was made by leaders of President Taft's home state. Roosevelt conspicuously declined to make a statement—requested by Garfield—that he would flatly refuse a nomination. Soon thereafter, Roosevelt said, "I am really sorry for Taft... I am sure he means well, but he means well feebly, and he does not know how! He is utterly unfit for leadership and this is a time when we need leadership." In January 1912, Roosevelt declared "if the people make a draft on me I shall not decline to serve". [251]  Later that year, Roosevelt spoke before the Constitutional Convention in Ohio, openly identifying as a progressive and endorsing progressive reforms—even endorsing popular review of state judicial decisions. [252]  In reaction to Roosevelt's proposals for popular overrule of court decisions, Taft said, "Such extremists are not progressives—they are political emotionalists or neurotics". [253] 
       Punch in May 1912 depicts no-holds-barred fight between Taft and Roosevelt.  
Roosevelt began to envision himself as the savior of the Republican Party from defeat in the upcoming presidential election. In February 1912, Roosevelt announced in Boston, "I will accept the nomination for president if it is tendered to me. I hope that so far as possible the people may be given the chance through direct primaries to express who shall be the nominee. [254]   [255]  Elihu Root and Henry Cabot Lodge thought that division of the party would lead to its defeat in the next election, while Taft believed that he would be defeated either in the Republican primary or in the general election. [256] 
 The 1912 primaries represented the first extensive use of the presidential primary, a reform achievement of the progressive movement. [257]  The Republican primaries in the South, where party regulars dominated, went for Taft, as did results in New York, Indiana, Michigan, Kentucky, and Massachusetts. Meanwhile, Roosevelt won in Illinois, Minnesota, Nebraska, South Dakota, California, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. The greatest primary fight came in Ohio, Taft's base. Both the Taft and Roosevelt campaigns worked furiously, and La Follette joined in. Each team sent in big name speakers. Roosevelt's train went 1,800 miles back and forth in the one state, where he made 75 speeches. Taft's train went 3,000 miles criss-crossing Ohio and he made over 100 speeches.Roosevelt swept the state, convincing Roosevelt that he should intensify his campaigning, and letting Taft know he should work from the White House not the stump. [258]  Only a third of the states held primaries; elsewhere the state organization chose the delegations to the national convention and they favored Taft. The final credentials of the state delegates at the national convention were determined by the national committee, which was controlled by Taft men. [259]   [260] 
 Prior to the 1912 Republican National Convention in Chicago, Roosevelt expressed doubt about his prospects for victory, noting that Taft had more delegates and control of the credentials committee. His only hope was to convince party leaders that the nomination of Taft would hand the election to the Democrats, but party leaders were determined not to cede their leadership to Roosevelt. [261]  The credentials committee awarded 235 contested delegates to Taft and 19 to Roosevelt. Taft won the nomination on the first ballot with 561 votes against 107 for Roosevelt and 41 for La Follette. Of the Roosevelt delegates, 344 refused to vote so they would not be committed to the Republican ticket. [262]   [263]  Black delegates from the South played a key role: they voted heavily for Taft and put him over the top. [264]  La Follette hoped that a deadlocked convention would result in his own nomination, and refused to release his delegates to support Roosevelt. [262] 
Roosevelt denounces the election 
According to Lewis L. Gould, in 1912    Roosevelt saw Taft as the agent of "the forces of reaction and of political crookedness".... Roosevelt had become the most dangerous man in American history, said Taft, "because of his hold upon the less intelligent voters and the discontented." The Republican National Committee, dominated by the Taft forces, awarded 235 delegates to the president and 19 to Roosevelt, thereby ensuring Taft's renomination. Roosevelt believed himself entitled to 72 delegates from Arizona, California, Texas and Washington that had been given to Taft. Firm in his conviction that the nomination was being stolen from him, Roosevelt ....told cheering supporters that there was "a great moral issue" at stake and he should have "sixty to eighty lawfully elected delegates" added to his total....Roosevelt ended his speech declaring: "Fearless of the future; unheeding of our individual fates; with unflinching hearts and undimmed eyes; we stand at Armageddon, and we battle for the Lord!" [265] 
 
The Progressive ("Bull Moose") Party
   
Excerpts from a speech given by Theodore Roosevelt at Carnegie Hall, March 12, 1912. Recorded August 1912 by Thomas Edison. Duration 4:07.  
Once his defeat at the Republican convention appeared probable, Roosevelt announced that he would "accept the progressive nomination on a progressive platform and I shall fight to the end, win or lose". At the same time, Roosevelt prophetically said, "My feeling is that the Democrats will probably win if they nominate a progressive". [266] 
 Roosevelt left the Republican Party and created the Progressive Party, structuring it as a permanent organization that would field complete tickets at the presidential and state level. The new party included many reformers, including Jane Addams. Although many Republican politicians had announced for Roosevelt before Taft won the nomination, he was stunned to discover that very few incumbent politicians followed him into the new party. The main exception was California, where the Progressive faction took control of the Republican Party. Loyalty to the old party was a powerful factor for incumbents; only five senators now supported Roosevelt. [267]   [268]  Roosevelt's daughter Alice had a White House marriage to Congressman Nicholas Longworth, who represented Taft's base in Cincinnati. Roosevelt reassured him in 1912 that of course he had to endorse Taft. However, Alice was her father's biggest cheerleader—the public conflict between spouses ruined the marriage. [269] 
      1912 editorial cartoon showing George Perkins (left, with checkbook symbolizing control of money) and Amos Pinchot (wielding an endorsement from Roosevelt campaign manager, Senator Joseph M. Dixon) in battle for Progressive party control  
The leadership of the new party included a wide range of reformers. Jane Addams campaigned vigorously for the new party as a breakthrough in social reform. [270]  Gifford Pinchot represented the environmentalists and anti-trust crusaders. Publisher Frank Munsey provided much of the cash. [271]  George W. Perkins, a leading Wall Street financier and senior partner of J.P. Morgan bank came from the efficiency movement. He handled the new party's finances efficiently, but was deeply distrusted by many reformers. [272] 
 The new party was popularly known as the "Bull Moose Party" after Roosevelt told reporters, "I'm as fit as a bull moose". [273]  At the 1912 Progressive National Convention, Roosevelt cried out, "We stand at Armageddon and we battle for the Lord." Governor Hiram Johnson controlled the California party, forcing out the Taft supporters. He was nominated as Roosevelt's running mate. [274] 
 Roosevelt's platform echoed his radical 1907–1908 proposals, calling for vigorous government intervention to protect the people from selfish interests:
 To destroy this invisible Government, to dissolve the unholy alliance between corrupt business and corrupt politics is the first task of the statesmanship of the day. [275]   [276]  This country belongs to the people. Its resources, its business, its laws, its institutions, should be utilized, maintained, or altered in whatever manner will best promote the general interest. This assertion is explicit... Mr. Wilson must know that every monopoly in the United States opposes the Progressive party... I challenge him... to name the monopoly that did support the Progressive party, whether... the Sugar Trust, the US Steel Trust, the Harvester Trust, the Standard Oil Trust, the Tobacco Trust, or any other... Ours was the only program to which they objected, and they supported either Mr. Wilson or Mr. Taft. [277]   
Though many Progressive party activists in the North opposed the steady loss of civil rights for blacks, Roosevelt ran a "lily-white" campaign in the South. Rival all-white and all-black delegations from four southern states arrived at the Progressive national convention, and Roosevelt decided to seat the all-white delegations. [278]   [279]   [280]  Nevertheless, he won few votes outside a few traditional Republican strongholds. Out of 1,100 counties in the South, Roosevelt won two counties in Alabama, one in Arkansas, seven in North Carolina, three in Georgia, 17 in Tennessee, two in Texas, one in Virginia, and none in Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, or South Carolina. [281] 
Assassination attempt
      Theodore Roosevelt's medical x-ray on October 14, 1912, after the assassination attempt, showing the bullet that would remain inside his body for life  
     
On October 14, 1912, while arriving at a campaign event in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, Roosevelt was shot from seven feet away in front of the Gilpatrick Hotel by a delusional saloonkeeper named John Flammang Schrank, who believed that the ghost of assassinated president William McKinley had directed him to kill Roosevelt. [282]   [283]  The bullet lodged in his chest after penetrating his steel eyeglass case and passing through a 50-page-thick single-folded copy of the speech titled "Progressive Cause Greater Than Any Individual", which he was carrying in his jacket. [284]  Schrank was immediately disarmed (by Czech immigrant Frank Bukovsky), captured, and might have been lynched had Roosevelt not shouted for Schrank to remain unharmed. [285]   [286]  Roosevelt assured the crowd he was all right, then ordered police to take charge of Schrank and to make sure no violence was done to him. [287] 
 As an experienced hunter and anatomist, Roosevelt correctly concluded that since he was not coughing blood, the bullet had not reached his lung. He declined suggestions to go to the hospital immediately and instead delivered a 90 minute speech with blood seeping into his shirt. [288]  [ unreliable source? ] His opening comments to the gathered crowd were, "Ladies and gentlemen, I don't know whether you fully understand that I have just been shot, but it takes more than that to kill a Bull Moose." [289]  [ unreliable source? ] Only after finishing his address did he accept medical attention.
 Subsequent probes and an x-ray showed that the bullet had lodged in Roosevelt's chest muscle, but did not penetrate the pleura. Doctors concluded that it would be less dangerous to leave it in place than to attempt to remove it, and Roosevelt carried the bullet with him for the rest of his life. [290]   [291]  Both Taft and Democratic nominee Woodrow Wilson suspended their own campaigning until Roosevelt recovered and resumed his. When asked if the shooting would affect his election campaign, he said to the reporter "I'm fit as a bull moose." The bull moose became a symbol of both Roosevelt and the Progressive Party, and it often was referred to as simply the Bull Moose Party. He spent two weeks recuperating before returning to the campaign trail. He later wrote a friend about the bullet inside him, "I do not mind it any more than if it were in my waistcoat pocket." [292] 
Democratic victory
After the Democrats nominated Governor Woodrow Wilson of New Jersey, Roosevelt did not expect to win the general election, as Wilson had compiled a record attractive to many progressive Democrats who might have otherwise considered voting for Roosevelt. [293]  Roosevelt still campaigned vigorously, and the election developed into a two-person contest despite Taft's quiet presence in the race. Roosevelt respected Wilson, but the two differed on various issues; Wilson opposed any federal intervention regarding women's suffrage or child labor (he viewed these as state issues), and attacked Roosevelt's tolerance of large businesses. [294] 
 Roosevelt won 4.1 million votes (27%), compared to Taft's 3.5 million (23%) and Wilson's gained 6.3 million (42%). Wilson scored a massive landslide in the Electoral College, with 435 electoral votes; Roosevelt won 88 electoral votes, while Taft won 8. Pennsylvania was the only eastern state won by Roosevelt; in the Midwest, he carried Michigan, Minnesota, and South Dakota; in the West, California, and Washington. [295]  Wilson's victory was the first for a Democrat since Cleveland in 1892. It was the party's best performance in the Electoral College since 1852. Roosevelt, meanwhile, garnered a higher share of the popular vote than any other third-party presidential candidate in history and won the most states of any third-party candidate after the Civil War. [296] 
South American expedition (1913–1914)
In 1907 a friend of Roosevelt's, John Augustine Zahm, a professor at the University of Notre Dame, invited Roosevelt to help plan a research expedition to South America. Now was the time to escape politics. To finance it, Roosevelt obtained support from the American Museum of Natural History in return for promising to bring back many new animal specimens. Roosevelt's popular book, Through the Brazilian Wilderness  [297]  describes his expedition into the Brazilian jungle in 1913 as a member of the Roosevelt-Rondon Scientific Expedition, co-named after its leader, Brazilian explorer Cândido Rondon.
      From left to right (seated): fr. John Augustine Zahm, Cândido Rondon, Kermit Roosevelt, Cherrie, Miller, four Brazilians, Roosevelt, Fiala. Only Roosevelt, Kermit, Cherrie, Rondon, and the Brazilians traveled down the River of Doubt.  
Once in South America, a new, far more ambitious goal was added: to find the headwaters of the Rio da Duvida (Portuguese for "River of Doubt"), and trace it north to the Madeira and thence to the Amazon River. It was later renamed Roosevelt River in honor of the former president. Roosevelt's crew consisted of his son Kermit, Colonel Rondon, naturalist George Kruck Cherrie (sent by the American Museum of Natural History), Brazilian Lieutenant João Lira, team physician Dr. José Antonio Cajazeira, and 16 skilled paddlers and porters. Roosevelt also identified Leo Miller (another AMNH recommendation), Anthony Fiala, Frank Harper, and Jacob Sigg as crew members. [298]  The initial expedition started somewhat tenuously on December 9, 1913, at the height of the rainy season. The trip down the River of Doubt started on February 27, 1914. [299] 
 During the trip down the river, Roosevelt suffered a minor leg wound after he jumped into the river to try to prevent two canoes from smashing against the rocks. The flesh wound he received, however, soon gave him tropical fever that resembled the malaria he had contracted while in Cuba fifteen years before. [300]  Because the bullet lodged in his chest from the assassination attempt in 1912 was never removed, his health worsened from the infection. [301]  This weakened Roosevelt so greatly that six weeks into the adventure, he had to be attended to day and night by the expedition's physician and his son Kermit. By then, he could not walk because of the infection in his injured leg and an infirmity in the other, which was due to a traffic accident a decade earlier. Roosevelt was riddled with chest pains, fighting a fever that soared to 103 °F (39 °C) and at times made him delirious, at one point constantly reciting the first two lines of Samuel Taylor Coleridge's poem "Kubla Khan": "In Xanadu did Kubla Khan / A stately pleasure dome decree". Regarding his condition as a threat to the survival of the others, Roosevelt insisted he be left behind to allow the poorly provisioned expedition to proceed as rapidly as it could, preparing to commit suicide with an overdose of morphine. Only an appeal by his son persuaded him to continue. [299] 
 Despite Roosevelt's continued decline and loss of over 50 pounds (23 kg), Colonel Rondon reduced the pace of the expedition to allow for his commission's mapmaking and other geographical tasks, which required regular stops to fix the expedition's position by sun-based survey. Upon Roosevelt's return to New York, friends and family were startled by his physical appearance and fatigue. Roosevelt wrote, perhaps prophetically, to a friend that the trip had cut his life short by ten years. For the rest of his few remaining years, he would be plagued by flare-ups of malaria and leg inflammations so severe as to require surgery. [302]  Before Roosevelt had even completed his sea voyage home, critics raised doubts over his claims of exploring and navigating a completely uncharted river over 625 miles (1,006 km) long. When he had recovered sufficiently, he addressed a standing-room-only convention organized in Washington, D.C., by the National Geographic Society and satisfactorily defended his claims. [299]  [ page needed ]
Final years
      Former President Theodore Roosevelt in Allentown, Pennsylvania, 1914  
Roosevelt returned to the United States in May 1914. Though he was outraged by the Wilson Administration's conclusion of a treaty that expressed "sincere regret" for the way in which the United States had acquired the Panama Canal Zone, he was impressed by many of the reforms passed under Wilson. Roosevelt made several campaign appearances for the Progressives, but the 1914 elections were a disaster for the fledgling third party. [303]  Roosevelt began to envision another campaign for president, this time with himself at the head of the Republican Party, but conservative party leaders remained opposed to Roosevelt. [304]  In hopes of engineering a joint nomination, the Progressives scheduled the 1916 Progressive National Convention at the same time as the 1916 Republican National Convention. When the Republicans nominated Charles Evans Hughes, Roosevelt declined the Progressive nomination and urged his Progressive followers to support the Republican candidate. [305]  Though Roosevelt had long disliked Hughes, he disliked Wilson even more, and he campaigned energetically for the Republican nominee. However, Wilson won the 1916 election by a narrow margin. [306]  The Progressives disappeared as a party following the 1916 election, and Roosevelt and many of his followers permanently re-joined the Republican Party. [307] 
World War I
When the First World War began in 1914, Roosevelt strongly supported the Allies and demanded a harsher policy against Germany, especially regarding submarine warfare. Roosevelt angrily denounced the foreign policy of President Wilson, calling it a failure regarding the atrocities in Belgium and the violations of American rights. [308]  In 1916, while campaigning for Hughes, Roosevelt repeatedly denounced Irish-Americans and German-Americans whom he described as unpatriotic, saying they put the interests of Ireland and Germany ahead of America's by supporting neutrality. He insisted that one had to be 100% American, not a "hyphenated American" who juggled multiple loyalties. In March 1917, Congress gave Roosevelt the authority to raise a maximum of four divisions similar to the Rough Riders, and Major Frederick Russell Burnham was put in charge of both the general organization and recruitment. [309]   [310]  However, President Wilson announced to the press that he would not send Roosevelt and his volunteers to France, but instead would send an American Expeditionary Force under the command of General John J. Pershing. [311]  Roosevelt never forgave Wilson, and quickly published The Foes of Our Own Household, an indictment of the sitting president. [312]   [313]   [314]  Roosevelt's youngest son, Quentin, a pilot with the American forces in France, was killed when shot down behind German lines on July 14, 1918, at the age of 20. It is said that Quentin's death distressed Roosevelt so much that he never recovered from his loss. [315] 
League of Nations
Roosevelt was an early supporter of the modern view that there needs to be a global order. In his Nobel prize address of 1910, he said, "it would be a master stroke if those great Powers honestly bent on peace would form a League of Peace, not only to keep the peace among themselves, but to prevent, by force if necessary, its being broken by others." [316]  It would have executive power such as the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 lacked. He called for American participation.
 When World War I broke out, Roosevelt proposed "a World League for the Peace of Righteousness", in September 1914, which would preserve sovereignty but limit armaments and require arbitration. He added that it should be "solemnly covenanted that if any nations refused to abide by the decisions of such a court, then others draw the sword in behalf of peace and justice." [317]   [318]  In 1915 he outlined this plan more specifically, urging that nations guarantee their entire military force, if necessary, against any nation that refused to carry out arbitration decrees or violated rights of other nations. Though Roosevelt had some concerns about the impact on United States sovereignty, he insisted that such a league would only work if the United States participated as one of the "joint guarantors". [319]  Roosevelt referred to this plan in a 1918 speech as "the most feasible for...a league of nations." [320]   [321]  By this time Wilson was strongly hostile to Roosevelt and Lodge, and developed his own plans for a rather different League of Nations. It became reality along Wilson's lines at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. Roosevelt denounced Wilson's approach but died before it was adopted at Paris. However, Lodge was willing to accept it with serious reservations. In the end, on March 19, 1920, Wilson had Democratic Senators vote against the League with the Lodge Reservations and the United States never joined the League of Nations. [322] 
Final political activities
Roosevelt's attacks on Wilson helped the Republicans win control of Congress in the midterm elections of 1918. He declined a request from New York Republicans to run for another gubernatorial term, but attacked Wilson's Fourteen Points, calling instead for the unconditional surrender of Germany. Though his health was uncertain, he was seen as a leading contender for the 1920 Republican nomination, but insisted that, "If they take me, they'll have to take me without a single modification of the things that I have always stood for!  [323]  He wrote William Allen White, "I wish to do everything in my power to make the Republican Party the Party of sane, constructive radicalism, just as it was under Lincoln." Accordingly, he told the 1918 state convention of the Maine Republican Party that he stood for old-age pensions, insurance for sickness and unemployment, construction of public housing for low-income families, the reduction of working hours, aid to farmers, and more regulation of large corporations. [323] 
 While his political profile remained high, Roosevelt's physical condition continued to deteriorate throughout 1918 due to the long-term effects of jungle diseases. He was hospitalized for seven weeks late in the year and never fully recovered. [324] 
Death
      Theodore and Edith Roosevelt's Grave at Youngs Memorial Cemetery  
On the night of January 5, 1919, Roosevelt suffered breathing problems. After receiving treatment from his physician, Dr. George W. Faller, he felt better and went to bed. Roosevelt's last words were "Please put out that light, James" to his family servant James E. Amos. Between 4:00 and 4:15 the next morning, Roosevelt, at the age of 60, died in his sleep at Sagamore Hill after a blood clot detached from a vein and traveled to his lungs. [301] 
 Upon receiving word of his death, his son Archibald telegraphed his siblings: "The old lion is dead." [315]  Woodrow Wilson's vice president, Thomas R. Marshall, said that "Death had to take Roosevelt sleeping, for if he had been awake, there would have been a fight." [325]  Following a private farewell service in the North Room at Sagamore Hill, a simple funeral was held at Christ Episcopal Church in Oyster Bay. [326]  Vice President Thomas R. Marshall, Charles Evans Hughes, Warren G. Harding, Henry Cabot Lodge, and William Howard Taft were among the mourners. [326]  The snow-covered procession route to Youngs Memorial Cemetery was lined with spectators and a squad of mounted policemen who had ridden from New York City. [327]  Roosevelt was buried on a hillside overlooking Oyster Bay. [328] 
Writer
   
A speech by Roosevelt as a former President  
      Part of the Works of Theodore Roosevelt   
Roosevelt was a prolific author, writing with passion on subjects ranging from foreign policy to the importance of the national park system. Roosevelt was also an avid reader of poetry. Poet Robert Frost said that Roosevelt "was our kind. He quoted poetry to me. He knew poetry." [329] 
 As an editor of  The Outlook , Roosevelt had weekly access to a large, educated national audience. In all, Roosevelt wrote about 18 books (each in several editions), including his autobiography, [330]  The Rough Riders, [331]  History of the Naval War of 1812, [332]  and others on subjects such as ranching, explorations, and wildlife. His most ambitious book was the four volume narrative The Winning of the West, focused on the American frontier in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Roosevelt said that the American character—indeed a new "American race" (ethnic group) had emerged from the heroic wilderness hunters and Indian fighters, acting on the frontier with little government help. [333]  Roosevelt also published an account of his 1909–10 African expedition entitled African Game Trails.
 In 1907, Roosevelt became embroiled in a widely publicized literary debate known as the nature fakers controversy. A few years earlier, naturalist John Burroughs had published an article entitled "Real and Sham Natural History" in the  Atlantic Monthly , attacking popular writers of the day such as Ernest Thompson Seton, Charles G. D. Roberts, and William J. Long for their fantastical representations of wildlife. Roosevelt agreed with Burroughs's criticisms, and published several essays of his own denouncing the booming genre of "naturalistic" animal stories as "yellow journalism of the woods". It was the President himself who popularized the negative term "nature faker" to describe writers who depicted their animal characters with excessive anthropomorphism. [334] 
Character and beliefs
     
Roosevelt intensely disliked being called "Teddy", despite the widespread public association with said moniker, and was quick to point out this to those who referred to him as such, though it would become widely used by newspapers during his political career.
 He was an active Freemason  [335]  and member of the Sons of the American Revolution. [336] 
 British scholar Marcus Cunliffe evaluates the liberal argument that Roosevelt was an opportunist, exhibitionist, and imperialist. Cunliffe praises TR's versatility, his respect for law, and his sincerity. He argues that Roosevelt's foreign policy was better than his detractors allege. Cunliffe calls him "a big man in several respects," ranking him below Washington, Lincoln, and Jefferson, and on the same level as Franklin D. Roosevelt. [337] 
Strenuous life
Roosevelt had a lifelong interest in pursuing what he called, in an 1899 speech, "The Strenuous Life". To this end, he exercised regularly and took up boxing, tennis, hiking, rowing, polo, and horseback riding. He also continued his habit of skinny-dipping in the Potomac River during the winter. [338]   [339]  As governor of New York, he boxed with sparring partners several times each week, a practice he regularly continued as president until being hit so hard in the face he became blind in his left eye (a fact not made public until many years later). As president, he practiced judo for two 2-month periods in 1902 and 1904, not attaining any rank. [340]  Roosevelt began to believe in the utility of jiu-jitsu training after training with Yoshitsugu Yamashita. Concerned that the United States would lose its military supremacy to rising powers like Japan, Roosevelt began to advocate for jiu-jitsu training for American soldiers. [341]  Feminists annoyed by the posturing of men like Roosevelt, insisted that women were just as capable of learning jiu-jitsu. To prove their point, Martha Blow Wadsworth and Maria Louise ("Hallie") Davis Elkins hired Fude Yamashita, a highly skilled jiu-jitsu instructor and the wife of Yoshitsugu Yamashita, to teach a jiu-jitsu class for women and girls in Washington, DC in 1904. Women had already begun training in boxing in the United States as a means of personal and political empowerment. Jiu-jitsu training thus soon also became popular with American women, coinciding with the origins of a women's self-defense movement. [342] 
 Roosevelt was an enthusiastic singlestick player and, according to  Harper's Weekly , showed up at a White House reception with his arm bandaged after a bout with General Leonard Wood in 1905. [343]  Roosevelt was an avid reader, reading tens of thousands of books, at a rate of several per day in multiple languages. Along with Thomas Jefferson, Roosevelt was the most well-read of all American presidents. [344] 
Warrior
      "The Man of the Hour" Roosevelt as Warrior in 1898 and Peacemaker in 1905 settling war between Russia and Japan  
Historians have often emphasized Roosevelt's warrior persona. [345]  He took aggressive positions regarding war with Spain in 1898, Colombia in 1903, [346]  and especially with Germany, from 1915 to 1917. As a demonstration of American naval might, he sent the "Great White Fleet" around the world in 1907–1909. [347]  The implicit threat of the "big stick" of military power provided leverage to "speak softly" and quietly resolve conflict in numerous cases. [348]  He boasted in his autobiography:
 When I left the Presidency I finished seven and a half years of administration, during which not one shot had been fired against a foreign foe. We were at absolute peace, and there was no nation in the world with whom a war cloud threatened, no nation in the world whom we had wronged, or from whom we had anything to fear. The cruise of the battle fleet was not the least of the causes which ensured so peaceful an outlook. [349]   
Richard D. White Jr states, "Roosevelt's warrior spirit framed his views of national politics, [and] international relations." [350] 
 Historian Howard K. Beale has argued:
 He and his associates came close to seeking war for its own sake. Ignorant of modern war, Roosevelt romanticized war. ... Like many young men tamed by civilization into law-abiding but adventurous living, he needed an outlet for the pent-up primordial man in him and found it in fighting and killing, vicariously or directly, in hunting or in war. Indeed he had a fairly good time in war when war came. ... There was something dull and effeminate about peace. ... He gloried in war, was thrilled by military history, and placed warlike qualities high in his scale of values. Without consciously desiring it, he thought a little war now and then stimulated admirable qualities in men. Certainly preparedness for war did. [351]   
Religion
Roosevelt attended church regularly and was a lifelong adherent of the Reformed Church in America, the American affiliate of the Dutch Reformed Church. He often praised moral behavior but apparently never made a spiritual confession of his own faith. After the 1885 death of his wife, he almost never mentioned Jesus Christ in public or private. Dr. Benjamin J. Wetzel says, "There is little in Roosevelt suggestive of grace, mercy, or redemption." [352]   [353]  His rejection of dogma and spirituality, says biographer William Harbaugh, led to a broad tolerance. He campaigned among Protestants, Catholics and Jews, and appointed them to office. He was suspicious of Mormons until they renounced polygamy. [354] 
 In 1907, concerning the proposed motto "In God We Trust" on money, he wrote, "It seems to me eminently unwise to cheapen such a motto by use on coins, just as it would be to cheapen it by use on postage stamps, or in advertisements." Roosevelt talked a great deal about religion. Biographer Edmund Morris states:
 When consoling bereaved people, he would awkwardly invoke 'unseen and unknown powers.' Aside from a few clichés of Protestant rhetoric, the gospel he preached had always been political and pragmatic. He was inspired less by the Passion of Christ than by the Golden Rule—that appeal to reason amounting, in his mind, to a worldly rather than heavenly law. [355]   
Roosevelt publicly encouraged church attendance and was a conscientious churchgoer himself. When gas rationing was introduced during the First World War, he walked the three miles from his home at Sagamore Hill to the local church and back, even after a serious operation had made it difficult for him to travel by foot. [356]  It was said that Roosevelt "allowed no engagement to keep him from going to church," and he remained a fervent advocate of the Bible throughout his adult life. [357]  According to Christian F. Reisner, "Religion was as natural to Mr. Roosevelt as breathing," [358]  and when the travel library for Roosevelt's famous Smithsonian-sponsored African expedition was being assembled, the Bible was, according to his sister, "the first book selected." [359]  In an address delivered to the Long Island Bible Society in 1901, Roosevelt declared that:
 Every thinking man, when he thinks, realizes what a very large number of people tend to forget, that the teachings of the Bible are so interwoven and entwined with our whole civic and social life that it would be literally—I do not mean figuratively, I mean literally—impossible for us to figure to ourselves what that life would be if these teachings were removed. We would lose almost all the standards by which we now judge both public and private morals; all the standards toward which we, with more or less of resolution, strive to raise ourselves. Almost every man who has by his lifework added to the sum of human achievement of which the race is proud, has based his lifework largely upon the teachings of the Bible ... Among the greatest men a disproportionately large number have been diligent and close students of the Bible at first hand. [359]   
Political positions
When he assumed the presidency, Roosevelt reassured many conservatives, stating that "the mechanism of modern business is so delicate that extreme care must be taken not to interfere with it in a spirit of rashness or ignorance." [360]  The following year, Roosevelt asserted the president's independence from business interests by opposing the merger which created the Northern Securities Company, and many were surprised that any president, much less an unelected one, would challenge powerful banker J.P. Morgan. [361]  In his last two years as president, Roosevelt became increasingly distrustful of big business, despite its close ties to the Republican Party. [362]  Roosevelt sought to replace the 19th-century  laissez-faire  economic environment with a new economic model which included a larger regulatory role for the federal government. He believed that 19th-century entrepreneurs had risked their fortunes on innovations and new businesses, and that these capitalists had been rightly rewarded. By contrast, he believed that 20th-century capitalists risked little but nonetheless reaped huge and, given the lack of risk, unjust, economic rewards. Without a redistribution of wealth away from the upper class, Roosevelt feared that the country would turn to radicals or fall to revolution. [363]  His Square Deal domestic program had three main goals: conservation of natural resources, control of corporations, and consumer protection. [364]  The Square Deal evolved into his program of "New Nationalism", which emphasized the priority of labor over capital interests and a need to more effectively control corporate creation and combination, and proposed a ban on corporate political contributions. [237] 
Foreign policy beliefs
In the analysis by Henry Kissinger, Roosevelt was the first president to develop the guideline that it was the duty of the United States to make its enormous power and potential influence felt globally. The idea of being a passive "city on the hill" model that others could look up to, he rejected. Roosevelt, trained in biology, was a social Darwinist who believed in survival of the fittest. The international world in his view was a realm of violence and conflict. The United States had all the economic and geographical potential to be the fittest nation on the globe. [365]  The United States had a duty to act decisively. For example, in terms of the Monroe Doctrine, America had to prevent European incursions in the Western Hemisphere. But there was more, as he expressed in his famous Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine: the U.S. had to be the policeman of the region because unruly, corrupt smaller nations had to be controlled, and if United States did not do it, European powers would in fact intervene and develop their own base of power in the hemisphere in contravention to the Monroe Doctrine. [366] 
 
Roosevelt was a realist and a conservative. [367]  He deplored many of the increasingly popular idealistic liberal themes, such as were promoted by William Jennings Bryan, the anti-imperialists, and Woodrow Wilson. Kissinger says he rejected the efficacy of international law. Roosevelt argued that if a country could not protect its own interests, the international community could not help very much. He ridiculed disarmament proposals that were increasingly common. He saw no likelihood of an international power capable of checking wrongdoing on a major scale. As for world government:   I regard the Wilson–Bryan attitude of trusting to fantastic peace treaties, too impossible promises, to all kinds of scraps of paper without any backing in efficient force, as abhorrent. It is infinitely better for a nation and for the world to have the Frederick the Great and Bismarck tradition as regards foreign policy than to have the Bryan or Bryan–Wilson attitude as a permanent national attitude.... A milk-and-water righteousness unbacked by force is...as wicked as and even more mischievous than force divorced from righteousness. [368]   
On his international outlook, Roosevelt favored spheres of influence, whereby one great power would generally prevail, such as the United States in the Western Hemisphere or Great Britain in the Indian subcontinent. Japan fit that role and he approved. However he had deep distrust of both Germany and Russia. [369] 
Legacy
Historians credit Roosevelt for changing the nation's political system by permanently placing the "bully pulpit" of the presidency at center stage and making character as important as the issues. His accomplishments include trust busting and conservationism. He is a hero to liberals and progressives for his proposals in 1907–1912 that presaged the modern welfare state of the New Deal Era, including direct federal taxation, labor reforms, and more direct democracy, while conservationists admire Roosevelt for putting the environment and selflessness towards future generations on the national agenda, and conservatives and nationalists respect his commitment to law and order, civic duty, and military values, as well as his personality of individual self-responsibility and hardiness. Dalton says, "Today he is heralded as the architect of the modern presidency, as a world leader who boldly reshaped the office to meet the needs of the new century and redefined America's place in the world." [370] 
 Liberals and socialists have also criticized him for his interventionist and imperialist approach to nations he considered "uncivilized". Conservatives and libertarians reject his vision of the welfare state and emphasis on the superiority of government over private action. Historians typically rank Roosevelt among the top five presidents in American history. [371]   [372] 
Persona and masculinity
      1910 cartoon showing Roosevelt's many roles from 1899 to 1910  
Dalton says Roosevelt is remembered as "one of the most picturesque personalities who has ever enlivened the landscape". [373]  His friend, historian Henry Adams, proclaimed: "Roosevelt, more than any other man... showed the singular primitive quality that belongs to ultimate matter—the quality that medieval theology assigned to God—he was pure act." [374] 
 Roosevelt's biographers have stressed his personality. Henry F. Pringle, who won the Pulitzer Prize in biography for his Theodore Roosevelt (1931) stated: "The Theodore Roosevelt of later years was the most adolescent of men... Failure to receive the Medal of Honor for his exploits [in Cuba] had been a grief as real as any of those which swamp childhood in despair. 'You must always remember,' wrote Cecil Spring Rice in 1904, 'that the President is about six.'" [375] 
 Cooper compared him with Woodrow Wilson and argued that both of them played the roles of warrior and priest. [376]  Dalton stressed Roosevelt's strenuous life. [377]  Sarah Watts examined the desires of the "Rough Rider in the White House". [378]  Brands calls Roosevelt "the last romantic", arguing that his romantic concept of life emerged from his belief that "physical bravery was the highest virtue and war the ultimate test of bravery". [379] 
 Roosevelt as the exemplar of American masculinity has become a major theme. [380]   [381]  As president, he repeatedly warned men that they were becoming too office-bound, too complacent, too comfortable with physical ease and moral laxity, and were failing in their duties to propagate the race and exhibit masculine vigor. [382]  French historian Serge Ricard says, "the ebullient apostle of the Strenuous Life offers ideal material for a detailed psycho-historical analysis of aggressive manhood in the changing socio-cultural environment of his era; McKinley, Taft, or Wilson would perhaps inadequately serve that purpose". [383]  He promoted competitive sports like boxing and jiu-jitsu for physically strengthening American men. [341]  He also believed that organizations like the Boy Scouts of America, founded in 1910, could help mold and strengthen the character of American boys. [384]  Brands shows that heroic displays of bravery were essential to Roosevelt's image and mission:
  What makes the hero a hero is the romantic notion that he stands above the tawdry give and take of everyday politics, occupying an ethereal realm where partisanship gives way to patriotism, and division to unity, and where the nation regains its lost innocence, and the people their shared sense of purpose. [385]   
Relations with Andrew Carnegie 
According to David Nasaw, after 1898, when the United States entered a war with Spain, industrialist Andrew Carnegie increasingly devoted his energy to supporting pacifism. He sold his steel company and now had the time and the dollars to make an impact. Carnegie strongly opposed the war with Spain and the subsequent imperialistic American takeover of the Philippines. When Roosevelt became president in 1901, Carnegie and Roosevelt were in frequent contact. They exchanged letters, communicated through mutual friends such as Secretary of State John Hay, and met in person. Carnegie offered a steady stream of advice on foreign policy, especially on arbitration. Carnegie hoped that Roosevelt would turn the Philippines free, not realizing he was more of an imperialist and believer in warrior virtues than President McKinley had been. He saluted Roosevelt for forcing Germany and Britain to arbitrate their conflict with Venezuela in 1903, and especially for becoming the mediator who negotiated an end to the war between Russia and Japan in 1907–1908. Roosevelt relied on Carnegie for financing his expedition to Africa in 1909. In return he asked the ex-president to mediate the growing conflict between the two cousins who ruled Britain and Germany. Roosevelt started to do so but the scheme collapsed when king Edward VII suddenly died. [386]   [387]  Nasaw argues that Roosevelt systematically deceived and manipulated Carnegie, and held the elderly man in contempt. Nasaw quotes a private letter Roosevelt wrote to Whitelaw Reid in 1905: [388]    [I have] tried hard to like Carnegie, but it is pretty difficult. There is no type of man for whom I feel a more contemptuous abhorrence than for the one who makes a God of mere money-making and at the same time is always yelling out that kind of utterly stupid condemnation of war which in almost every case springs from a combination of defective physical courage, of unmanly shrinking from pain and effort, and of hopelessly twisted ideals. All the suffering from Spanish war comes far short of the suffering, preventable and non-preventable, among the operators of the Carnegie steel works, and among the small investors, during the time that Carnegie was making his fortune....It is as noxious folly to denounce war per se as it is to denounce business per se. Unrighteous war is a hideous evil; but I am not at all sure that it is worse evil than business unrighteousness. 
Memorials and cultural depictions
      Theodore Roosevelt on Mount Rushmore (second from right)       A close-up of Roosevelt's face  
Roosevelt was included with Presidents George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln at the Mount Rushmore Memorial, designed in 1927 with the approval of Republican President Calvin Coolidge. [389]   [390] 
 For his gallantry at San Juan Hill, Roosevelt's commanders recommended him for the Medal of Honor. However, the initial recommendation lacked any eyewitnesses, and the effort was eventually tainted by Roosevelt's own lobbying of the War Department. [391]  In the late 1990s, Roosevelt's supporters again recommended the award, which was denied by the Secretary of the Army on basis that the decorations board determined "Roosevelt's bravery in battle did not rise to the level that would justify the Medal of Honor and, indeed, it did not rise to the level of men who fought in that engagement." [392]  Nevertheless, politicians apparently convinced the secretary to reconsider the award a third time and reverse himself, leading to the charge that it was a "politically motivated award." [393]  On January 16, 2001, President Bill Clinton awarded Theodore Roosevelt the Medal of Honor posthumously for his charge on San Juan Hill. [106]  He is the only president to have received the Medal of Honor. [394] 
 The United States Navy named two ships for Roosevelt: the USS Theodore Roosevelt (SSBN-600), a submarine that was in commission from 1961 to 1982, and the USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71), an aircraft carrier that has been on active duty in the Atlantic Fleet since 1986.
 On November 18, 1956, the United States Postal Service released a 6¢ Liberty Issue postage stamp honoring Roosevelt. A 32¢ stamp was issued on February 3, 1998, as part of the Celebrate the Century stamp sheet series. [395]  In 2008, Columbia Law School awarded Roosevelt a Juris Doctor degree, posthumously making him a member of the class of 1882. [396] 
 Roosevelt's "Speak Softly and Carry a Big Stick" ideology is still quoted by politicians and columnists in different countries—not only in English, but also in translations to various other languages. [397]  Another lasting, popular legacy of Roosevelt is the stuffed toy bears—teddy bears—named after him following an incident on a hunting trip in Mississippi in 1902. [398] 
 Roosevelt has been portrayed in films and television series such as  Brighty of the Grand Canyon ,  The Wind and the Lion ,  Rough Riders ,  My Friend Flicka , [399]   and Law of the Plainsman. [400]   Robin Williams portrayed Roosevelt in the form of a wax mannequin that comes to life in  Night at the Museum  and its sequels  Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian  and  Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb . [401]   [402]   [403]  In 2017, it was announced that Leonardo DiCaprio will portray Roosevelt in a biopic to be directed by Martin Scorsese. [404]  Additionally, Roosevelt appears as the leader of the American civilization in the 2016 Firaxis Games-developed video game  Civilization VI . [405] 
  Theodore Roosevelt National Park in the state of North Dakota is named after him. [406]  The America the Beautiful Quarters series features Roosevelt riding a horse on the national park's quarter.
 Asteroid 188693 Roosevelt, discovered by astronomers with the Catalina Sky Survey in 2005, was named after him. [407]  The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on November 8, 2019 (M.P.C. 118221). [408]  Robert Peary named the Roosevelt Range and Roosevelt Land after him. [409] 
 For eighty years, an equestrian statue of the former president, sitting above a Native American and an African American, stood in front of New York's American Museum of Natural History. In January 2022, after years of lobbying by activists, the statue was removed. Museum president Ellen V. Futter said the decision did not reflect a judgment about Roosevelt but was driven by the sculpture's "hierarchical composition". [410]   [411] 
Audiovisual media
 Theodore Roosevelt was one of the first presidents whose voice was recorded for posterity. Several of his recorded speeches survive. [412]  A 4.6-minute voice recording, [413]  which preserves Roosevelt's lower timbre ranges particularly well for its time, is among those available from the Michigan State University libraries (this is the 1912 recording of The Right of the People to Rule, recorded by Thomas Edison at Carnegie Hall). The audio clip sponsored by the Authentic History Center includes his defense [414]  of the Progressive Party in 1912, wherein he proclaims it the "party of the people" – in contrast with the other major parties. 
  Parade for the school children of San Francisco, down Van Ness Avenue   Collection of film clips of Roosevelt  
  Roosevelt goes for a ride in Arch Hoxsey's plane in October 1910 [415]   
      Theodore Roosevelt and pilot Hoxsey at St. Louis, October 11, 1910  
See also
  Electoral history of Theodore Roosevelt 
 First inauguration of Theodore Roosevelt 
 List of famous big game hunters 
 Second inauguration of Theodore Roosevelt 
 Theodore Roosevelt Digital Library 
 Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps 
 Teddy bear 
 SS President Roosevelt (1921) 
 SS President Roosevelt (1944) 
 SS Roosevelt (1905)   
Notes
 
  ^  He was vice president under William McKinley and became president upon McKinley's assassination on September 14, 1901. This was prior to the adoption of the Twenty-fifth Amendment in 1967, and a vacancy in the office of vice president was not filled until the next election and inauguration.
  ^  His last name is, according to Roosevelt himself, "pronounced as if it was spelled 'Rosavelt.' That is in three syllables. The first syllable as if it was 'Rose.'" [4] 
 
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  ^  Fite, Gibert C. (2003). Mount Rushmore. Mount Rushmore History Association. ISBN  0-9646798-5-X .
  ^  Mears, The Medal of Honor, 153–154
  ^  Mears, The Medal of Honor, 154
  ^  Mears, The Medal of Honor, 155
  ^  Dorr, Robert F. (July 1, 2015). "Theodore Roosevelt's Medal of Honor". Defense Media Network. Archived from the original on February 13, 2018. Retrieved February 12, 2018.
  ^   "Up 1900s Celebrate The Century Issues". Smithsonian National Postal Museum. January 1, 1998. Archived from the original on June 18, 2015. Retrieved June 18, 2015.
  ^  Kelly, Erin St. John (September 25, 2008). "Presidents Roosevelt Awarded Posthumous J.D.s".  Columbia Law School . Archived from the original on September 26, 2020. Retrieved September 28, 2020.
  ^  Fung, Brian (September 24, 2012). "What Does Teddy Roosevelt's 'Big Stick' Line Really Mean, Anyway?". The Atlantic. Washington, DC: Emerson Collective. Archived from the original on July 26, 2020. Retrieved June 10, 2020.
  ^  Leuchtenburg 2015, p. 30.
  ^   "My Friend Flicka". Classic Television Archives. Archived from the original on January 21, 2011. Retrieved March 18, 2009.
  ^   "Law of the Plainsman". imdb.com. December 3, 1959. Archived from the original on February 9, 2017. Retrieved May 22, 2017.
  ^  Cullinane 2017.
  ^  Chi, Paul (December 12, 2014). "Ben Stiller, 'Night at the Museum' Cast Honor Robin Williams at Premiere".  Variety . Retrieved October 24, 2022.
  ^   "24 of Hollywood's Best Presidents in Movies and TV".  The Hollywood Reporter . February 21, 2022. Retrieved October 24, 2022.
  ^  Fleming, Mike Jr. (September 26, 2017). "Leonardo DiCaprio &amp; Martin Scorsese Ride Again On Teddy Roosevelt Pic At Paramount". Deadline.com. Archived from the original on June 29, 2015. Retrieved September 27, 2017.
  ^  Gurwin, Gabe (June 20, 2016). "Teddy Roosevelt will kill you with culture in 'Civilization VI'".  Digital Trends . Archived from the original on March 8, 2022. Retrieved March 8, 2022.
  ^   "Theodore Roosevelt National Park". Travel. National Geographic. November 5, 2009. Archived from the original on August 17, 2018. Retrieved August 17, 2018.
  ^   "(188693) Roosevelt". Minor Planet Center. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021. Retrieved November 21, 2019.
  ^   "MPC/MPO/MPS Archive". Minor Planet Center. Archived from the original on October 7, 2010. Retrieved November 21, 2019.
  ^  Race to the Top of the World: Richard Byrd and the First Flight to the North Pole
  ^  Sutton, Benjamin (January 20, 2022). "Controversial statue of Theodore Roosevelt removed from American Museum of Natural History". The Art Newspaper. Archived from the original on January 21, 2022. Retrieved January 25, 2022.
  ^  Pogrebin, Robin (June 21, 2020). "Roosevelt Statue to Be Removed From Museum of Natural History". The New York Times. Archived from the original on June 21, 2020. Retrieved June 21, 2020.
  ^    Vincent Voice Library , Michigan State University, archived from the original (audio clips) on June 3, 2013, retrieved July 17, 2012.
  ^   "MSU". Retrieved September 14, 2010.
  ^   Roosevelt, Theodore (1913a). Youngman, Elmer H (ed.).  Progressive Principles . New York: Progressive National Service. p. 215. Archived from the original on December 22, 2020. Retrieved April 14, 2009.
  ^   "Some rare photos of flight with Arch Hoxsey".
  
Print sources
Full biographies
   Brands, Henry William (1997),  TR: The Last Romantic  (full biography), New York: Basic Books, ISBN  978-0-465-06958-3 , OCLC 36954615 .
 Chessman, G Wallace (1965), Governor Theodore Roosevelt: The Albany Apprenticeship, 1898–1900  
  Cooper, John Milton (1983),  The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt  (dual scholarly biography), ISBN  978-0-674-94751-1  .
 Dalton, Kathleen (2002),  Theodore Roosevelt: A Strenuous Life  (full scholarly biography), ISBN  0-679-76733-9  .
 Gould, Lewis L (2012),  Theodore Roosevelt , ISBN  978-0-19-979701-1  , 105 pp, very short biography by leading scholar.
 Harbaugh, William Henry (1963),  The Life and Times of Theodore Roosevelt  (full scholarly biography), Farrar, Straus And Cudahy.; also titled Power and responsibility; the life and times of Theodore Roosevelt online 
 Miller, Nathan (1992),  Theodore Roosevelt: A Life , William Morrow &amp; Co, ISBN  9780688067847  .
  Morris, Edmund (1979),  The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt , vol. 1. To 1901, ISBN  9780698107830  .
  Morris, Edmund (2001),  Theodore Rex , vol. 2. To 1909 
 Morris, Edmund (2010),  Colonel Roosevelt , vol. 3, Random House, ISBN  978-0-679-60415-0 , archived from the original on March 13, 2022, retrieved December 12, 2016   
  Pringle, Henry F (1931),  Theodore Roosevelt  (full scholarly biography).
 Pringle, Henry F (1956),  Theodore Roosevelt  (2nd ed.), New York, Harcourt, Brace 
  Putnam, Carleton (1958),  Theodore Roosevelt  (biography), vol. I: The Formative Years, only volume published, to age 28.
 Samuels, Peggy (1997),  Teddy Roosevelt at San Juan: The Making of a President , Texas A&amp;M UP, ISBN  978-0-89096-771-3 , archived from the original on April 7, 2015, retrieved October 17, 2015.
 Thayer, William Roscoe (1919),  Theodore Roosevelt: an intimate biography , Houghton Mifflin. 
Personality and activities
  Bishop, Joseph Bucklin (2007), Theodore Roosevelt's Letters to His Children, Wildside Press, ISBN  978-1-434-48394-2  .
 DiSilvestro, Roger (2011),  Theodore Roosevelt in the Badlands: A Young Politician's Quest in the American West , Walker &amp; Co, ISBN  978-0-8027-1721-4 , archived from the original on March 26, 2011.
 Fehn, Bruce (2005), "Theodore Roosevelt and American Masculinity", Magazine of History, 19 (2): 52–59, doi:10.1093/maghis/19.2.52, ISSN 0882-228X  Provides a lesson plan on TR as the historical figure who most exemplifies the quality of masculinity.
 Gluck, Sherwin (1999), TR's Summer White House, Oyster Bay . Chronicles the events of TR's presidency during the summers of his two terms.
 Greenberg, David (2011), "Beyond the Bully Pulpit", Wilson Quarterly, 35 (3): 22–29. The president's use of publicity, rhetoric and force of personality.
  Millard, Candice (2005),  The River of Doubt: Theodore Roosevelt's Darkest Journey  ; his deadly 1913–14 trip to the Amazon.
  McCullough, David (1981),  Mornings on Horseback: The Story of an Extraordinary Family, a Vanished Way of Life and the Unique Child Who Became Theodore Roosevelt , Simon &amp; Schuster, ISBN  978-0-7432-1830-6 , archived from the original on April 7, 2015, retrieved October 17, 2015, best seller; to 1886.
 ——— (2001) [1981],  Mornings on Horseback, The Story of an Extraordinary Family, a Vanished Way of Life, and the Unique Child Who Became Theodore Roosevelt  (popular biography), to 1884.
  O'Toole, Patricia (2005),  When Trumpets Call: Theodore Roosevelt after the White House , Simon &amp; Schuster, ISBN  0-684-86477-0  . 494 pp.
 Reisner, Christian F. (1922), Roosevelt's Religion, The Abingdon Press 
 Renehan, Edward J (1998), The Lion's Pride: Theodore Roosevelt and His Family in Peace and War, Oxford University Press, examines TR and his family during the World War I period.
 Testi, Arnaldo (1995), "The Gender of Reform Politics: Theodore Roosevelt and the Culture of Masculinity", Journal of American History, 81 (4): 1509–1533, doi:10.2307/2081647, JSTOR 2081647 .
 Thompson, J Lee (2010), Theodore Roosevelt Abroad: Nature, Empire, and the Journey of an American President, Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN  978-0-230-10277-4  , 240 pp. TR in Africa &amp; Europe, 1909–10
Wagenknecht, Edward. The seven worlds of Theodore Roosevelt (1958) The seven worlds are those of action, thought, human relations, family, spiritual values, public affairs, and war and peace. online 
 Watts, Sarah (2003), Rough Rider in the White House: Theodore Roosevelt and the Politics of Desire . 289 pp.
 Yarbrough, Jean M (2012), Theodore Roosevelt and the American Political Tradition, University Press of Kansas, 337 pp; TR's political thought and its significance for republican self-government. 
Domestic policies
   Brinkley, Douglas (2009).  The Wilderness Warrior: Theodore Roosevelt and the Crusade for America . New York: HarperCollins. ISBN  9780060565282 . online review; another online review Archived March 3, 2020, at the Wayback Machine 
Cutright, P.R. (1985) Theodore Roosevelt: The making of a Modern Conservationist (U of Illinois Press.)
 Dorsey, Leroy G (1997), "The Frontier Myth and Teddy Roosevelt's Fight for Conservation", in Gerster, Patrick; Cords, Nicholas (eds.),  Myth America: A Historical Anthology , vol. II, St. James, NY: Brandywine Press, ISBN  1-881089-97-5  .
 Gould, Lewis L (2011), The Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt (2nd ed.), standard history of his domestic and foreign policy as president. online 
 Keller, Morton, ed. (1967), Theodore Roosevelt: A Profile (excerpts from TR and from historians).
 Murphey, William (March 2013), "Theodore Roosevelt and the Bureau of Corporation: Executive-Corporate Cooperation and the Advancement of the Regulatory State", American Nineteenth Century History, 14 (1): 73–111, doi:10.1080/14664658.2013.774983, S2CID 146629376 .
Redekop, Benjamin. (2015). "Embodying the Story: The Conservation Leadership of Theodore Roosevelt". Leadership (2015) DOI:10.1177/1742715014546875 online 
 Swanson, Ryan A (2011), "'I Never Was a Champion at Anything': Theodore Roosevelt's Complex and Contradictory Record as America's 'Sports President'", Journal of Sport History, 38 (3): 425–446, doi:10.5406/jsporthistory.38.3.425, S2CID 159307371 .
 Zacks, Richard (2012), Island of Vice: Theodore Roosevelt's Doomed Quest to Clean Up Sin-Loving New York . 
Politics
   Blum, John Morton (1954), The Republican Roosevelt, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, OCLC 310975 . How TR did politics.
  Chace, James (2004),  1912: Wilson, Roosevelt, Taft, and Debs: The Election That Changed the Country , ISBN  978-0-7432-0394-4  , 323 pp.
 Chambers, John W. (1974), Woodward, C. Vann (ed.), Responses of the Presidents to Charges of Misconduct, New York, New York: Delacorte Press, pp. 207–237, ISBN  0-440-05923-2   
Cowan, Geoffrey. Let the People Rule: Theodore Roosevelt and the Birth of the Presidential Primary (WW Norton, 2016).
Gable, John A. The Bull Moose Years (Kennikat Press Corp., 1978) 300pp on Roosevelt.
 Gould, Lewis L (2008), Four Hats in the Ring: The 1912 Election and the Birth of Modern American Politics (by a leading scholar), ISBN  978-0-7006-1564-3  .
 Haverkamp, Michael (2001), "Rossevelt and Taft: How the Republican Vote Split in Ohio in 1912", Ohio History, 110 (1): 121–135, archived from the original on March 5, 2008.
 Kohn, Edward P (Spring 2006), "A Necessary Defeat: Theodore Roosevelt and the New York Mayoral Election of 1886", New York History, 87: 205–227.
 ——— (2006), "Crossing the Rubicon: Theodore Roosevelt, Henry Cabot Lodge, and the 1884 Republican National Convention", Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era, 5 (1): 18–45, doi:10.1017/s1537781400002851, hdl:11693/48372, S2CID 163282993 .
 Leuchtenburg, William E. (2015), The American President: From Teddy Roosevelt to Bill Clinton, Oxford University Press 
 Milkis, Sidney M (2009), Theodore Roosevelt, the Progressive Party, and the Transformation of American Democracy, Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. 361 pp.
 Mowry, George E (1939), "Theodore Roosevelt and the Election of 1910", The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 25 (4): 523–534, doi:10.2307/1892499, JSTOR 1892499 .
 ——— (1946), Theodore Roosevelt and the Progressive Movement . Focus on 1912; online free 
 ——— (1954), The Era of Theodore Roosevelt and the Birth of Modern America, 1900–1912 (general survey of era). online free 
  Powell, Jim (2006), Bully Boy: The Truth About Theodore Roosevelt's Legacy, Crown Forum, ISBN  0-307-23722-2  . Attacks TR policies from conservative/libertarian perspective.
 Ruddy, Daniel (2016), Theodore the Great: Conservative Crusader, Washington, D.C.: Regnery History, ISBN  978-1-62157-441-5    
Foreign policy, military and naval issues
  Beale, Howard K (1956), Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power (standard history of his foreign policy). online 
 Hattendorf, John B., and William P. Leeman (2020), Forging the Trident: Theodore Roosevelt and the United States Navy . excerpt Archived October 23, 2021, at the Wayback Machine 
 Hendrix, Henry J (2009), Theodore Roosevelt's Naval Diplomacy: The US Navy &amp; the Birth of the American Century .
 Holmes, James R (2006), Theodore Roosevelt and World Order: Police Power in International Relations . 328 pp.
 Jones, Gregg (2012),  Honor in the Dust: Theodore Roosevelt, War in the Philippines, and the Rise and Fall of America's Imperial Dream , archived from the original on March 8, 2021, retrieved September 16, 2017 
Kuehn, John T. "Theodore Roosevelt's Naval Diplomacy: The U.S. Navy and the Birth of the American Century," Naval War College Review (2010) 53#3 online Archived October 24, 2021, at the Wayback Machine 
Livermore, Seward W. "Theodore Roosevelt, the American Navy, and the Venezuelan Crisis of 1902–1903." American Historical Review 51.3 (1946): 452–471. online Archived October 21, 2021, at the Wayback Machine 
 Marks III, Frederick W (1979), Velvet on Iron: The Diplomacy of Theodore Roosevelt .
 McCullough, David (1977),  The Path between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870–1914  .
 Mears, Dwight S. (2018). The Medal of Honor: The Evolution of America's Highest Military Decoration. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. ISBN  978-0-7006-2665-6 . OCLC 1032014828. 
Nester, William R. Theodore Roosevelt and the Art of American Power: An American for All Time (Rowman &amp; Littlefield, 2019). Archived June 22, 2022, at the Wayback Machine 
Neu, Charles E. "Theodore Roosevelt and American Involvement in the Far East, 1901–1909." Pacific Historical Review 35.4 (1966): 433–449. online Archived October 22, 2021, at the Wayback Machine 
O'Gara, Gordon Carpenter. Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of the Modern Navy. (Princeton UP, 1943). online 
 Oyos, Matthew (2011), "Courage, Careers, and Comrades: Theodore Roosevelt and the United States Army Officer Corps", Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era, 10 (1): 23–58, doi:10.1017/s1537781410000022, S2CID 155074242 .
Oyos, Matthew M. In Command: Theodore Roosevelt and the American Military (2018) online review Archived January 21, 2019, at the Wayback Machine 
Pietrusza, David (2018). TR's Last War: Theodore Roosevelt, the Great War, and a Journey of Triumph and Tragedy 
 Ricard, Serge (2006), "The Roosevelt Corollary", Presidential Studies Quarterly, 36 (1): 17–26, doi:10.1111/j.1741-5705.2006.00283.x .
 ——— (2008), "Theodore Roosevelt: Imperialist or Global Strategist in the New Expansionist Age?", Diplomacy and Statecraft, 19 (4): 639–657, doi:10.1080/09592290802564379, S2CID 154317468 .
 Rofe, J Simon (2008), "'Under the Influence of Mahan': Theodore and Franklin Roosevelt and their Understanding of American National Interest", Diplomacy and Statecraft, 19 (4): 732–745, doi:10.1080/09592290802564536, S2CID 154454947 .
 ———; Thompson, John M (2011), "Internationalists in Isolationist times – Theodore and Franklin Roosevelt and a Rooseveltian Maxim", Journal of Transatlantic Studies, 9 (1): 46–62, doi:10.1080/14794012.2011.550773, S2CID 143650928 .
Thompson, John M. Great Power Rising: Theodore Roosevelt and the Politics of US Foreign Policy (Oxford UP, 2019).
 Tilchin, William N (1997), Theodore Roosevelt and the British Empire: A Study in Presidential Statecraft  
 Tilchin, William N; Neu, Charles E, eds. (2006), Artists of Power: Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, and Their Enduring Impact on US Foreign Policy, Praeger. 196 pp.
Turk, Richard W. The Ambiguous Relationship: Theodore Roosevelt and Alfred Thayer Mahan (1987) online review Archived October 22, 2021, at the Wayback Machine  
Historiography and memory
 Bakari, Mohamed El-Kamel. "Mapping the 'Anthropocentric-ecocentric'Dualism in the History of American Presidency: The Good, the Bad, and the Ambivalent." Journal of Studies in Social Sciences 14, no. 2 (2016).
Cullinane, M. Patrick, ed. Remembering Theodore Roosevelt: Reminiscences of his Contemporaries (2021) excerpt 
Cullinane, M. Patrick. “The Memory of Theodore Roosevelt through Motion Pictures” in A Companion to Theodore Roosevelt, ed. Serge Ricard (Wiley Blackwell, 2011), 502-520.
 Cullinane, Michael Patrick (2017). Theodore Roosevelt's Ghost: The History and Memory of an American Icon. LSU Press. ISBN  978-0-8071-6672-7 . 
Cunliffe, Marcus. "Theodore Roosevelt, President of the United States 1901–1908" History Today (Sept 1955) 4#9 pp. 592–601, online.
 Dalton, Kathleen (2017). "Changing interpretations of Theodore Roosevelt and the Progressive era". In Nichols, Christopher M.; Unger, Nancy C. (eds.). A Companion to the Gilded Age and Progressive Era. pp. 296–307. 
Gable, John. “The Man in the Arena of History: The Historiography of Theodore Roosevelt” in Theodore Roosevelt: Many-Sided American, eds. Natalie Naylor, Douglas Brinkley and John Gable (Interlaken, NY: Hearts of the Lakes, 1992), 613–643.
 Grantham, Dewey W. Jr. (January 1961). "Theodore Roosevelt in American Historical Writing, 1945–1960". Mid-America. 43 (1): 3–35. 
Hull, Katy. "Hero, Champion of Social Justice, Benign Friend: Theodore Roosevelt in American Memory." European journal of American studies 13.13-2 (2018). online 
Ricard, Serge. "The State of Theodore Roosevelt Studies"  H-Diplo Essay No. 116 24 October 2014 online Archived October 27, 2014, at the Wayback Machine 
 Ricard, Serge, ed. (2011). A Companion to Theodore Roosevelt. ISBN  978-1-4443-3140-0 ., excerpt and text search, 28 new essays by scholars; focus on historiography.
 Tilchin, William (Summer 1989). "The Rising Star of Theodore Roosevelt's Diplomacy: Major Studies from Beale to the Present". Theodore Roosevelt Association Journal. 15 (3): 2–24.  
Unpublished PhD dissertations
These are available online at academic libraries.
 Bartley, Shirley. "The Man In The Arena: A Rhetorical Analysis Of Theodore Roosevelt'S Inventional Stance, 1910-1912" (Temple University ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1984. 8410181.
Collin, Richard H. "The Image Of Theodore Roosevelt In American History And Thought, 1885-1965" (New York University Proquest Dissertations Publishing, 1966. 7001489).
Faltyn, Timothy W. "An active-positive leader: Applying James Barber to Theodore Roosevelt's life" (Oklahoma State University ProQuest Dissertations Publishing,  1999. 9942434).
Gable, John Allen. "The Bull Moose Years: Theodore Roosevelt And The Progressive Party, 1912-1916. (Volumes I And Ii)" (Brown University Proquest Dissertations Publishing, 1972. 7302265).
Heth, Jennifer Dawn. "Imagining TR: Commemorations and representations of Theodore Roosevelt in twentieth-century America" (Texas A&amp;M University ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2014. 3717739)
Levine, Stephen Lee. "Race, culture, and art: Theodore Roosevelt and the nationalist aesthetic" (Kent State University ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2001. 3034424).
Mellor, Nathan B. "The leader as mediator: Theodore Roosevelt at Portsmouth—Ronald Reagan at Reykjavik" (Pepperdine University, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2007. 3296771).
Moore, A. Gregory. "The Dilemma Of Stereotypes: Theodore Roosevelt And China, 1901-1909" (Kent State University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1978. 7904808).
Reed, Marvin Elijah, Jr. "Theodore Roosevelt: The Search For Community In The Urban Age" (Tulane University, Graduate Program In Biomedical Sciences Proquest Dissertations Publishing, 1971. 7214199).
Reter, Ronald Francis. "The Real Versus The Rhetorical Theodore Roosevelt In Foreign Policy-Making" (University Of Georgia Proquest Dissertations Publishing, 1973. 7331949). 
Primary sources
 Auchincloss, Louis, ed. Theodore Roosevelt: Letters and Speeches (2004)
Brands, H. W. The selected letters of Theodore Roosevelt (2001) online 
O'Toole, Patricia ed. In the Words of Theodore Roosevelt : Quotations from the Man in the Arena (Cornell University Press, 2012)
Hart, Albert Bushnell, and Herbert Ronald Ferleger, Theodore Roosevelt Cyclopedia (1941) online, short excerpts.
Morison, Elting E. ed. The letters of Theodore Roosevelt (8 vol Harvard UP, 1951-1954); vol 7 online covers 1909-1912 
 The Complete Works of Theodore Roosevelt  (2017) 4500 pages in Kindle format online for $1 at Amazon 
Kohn, Edward P., ed. A Most Glorious Ride: The Diaries of Theodore Roosevelt, 1877–1886 (State University of New York Press, 2015), 284 pp.
  Bishop, Joseph Bucklin, ed. (1920),  Theodore Roosevelt and His Time Shown in His Own Letters vol. 1 , archived from the original on December 22, 2020, retrieved September 5, 2020; vol 2 Archived May 1, 2016, at the Wayback Machine 
 Roosevelt, Theodore; Roosevelt, Kermit (1926),  East of the Sun and West of the Moon , New York: Scribner 
  Roosevelt, Theodore (1889),  The Winning of the West , vol. I, New York and London: G. P. Putnam's Sons 
 ——— (1913),  Autobiography , New York: Macmillan .
 ——— (1916),  Fear God and Take Your Own Part , New York: George H. Doran, LCCN 16003624  
 ——— (1917),  The Foes of Our Own Household , New York: George H. Doran, LCCN 17025965  
 ——— (1926), The Works (National ed.), 20 vol.; 18,000 pages containing most of TR's speeches, books and essays, but not his letters.
 ——— (1941), Hart, Albert Bushnell; Ferleger, Herbert Ronald (eds.),  Theodore Roosevelt Cyclopedia  , Roosevelt's opinions on many issues; online version at Theodore Roosevelt Archived May 10, 2021, at the Wayback Machine.
 ——— (1951–1954), Morison, Elting E; Blum, John Morton; Chandler, Alfred D jr (eds.), The Letters (annotated ed.), 8 vols. Very large collection. vol 1 1868–1898 online 
 ——— (1967), Harbaugh, William (ed.), The Writings (one-volume selection of speeches and essays). online 
 ——— (1968), Roosevelt, Archibald (ed.), Theodore Roosevelt on Race, Riots, Reds, Crime, Probe 
 ——— (1999) [1882],  The Naval War of 1812 Or the History of the United States Navy during the Last War with Great Britain to Which Is Appended an Account of the Battle of New Orleans , New York: The Modern Library, ISBN  0-375-75419-9  .
 ——— (2001), Brands, HW (ed.), The Selected Letters  online 
 ——— (2004), Auchincloss, Louis (ed.), Theodore Roosevelt, The Rough Riders and an Autobiography, Library of America, ISBN  978-1-931082-65-5  .
 ——— (2004), Auchincloss, Louis (ed.),  Letters and Speeches , Library of America, ISBN  978-1-931082-66-2  .
 ———. "Books and speeches". Project Gutenberg. Archived from the original on September 24, 2015. Retrieved October 5, 2010.  
External links
 
Organizations
  Boone and Crockett Club 
 Theodore Roosevelt Association  
Libraries and collections
  Theodore Roosevelt Center at Dickinson State University 
 Theodore Roosevelt Collection, at the Houghton Library, Harvard University
 Julian L. Street Papers on Theodore Roosevelt, at the Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University 
 Doris A. and Lawrence H. Budner Collection on Theodore Roosevelt at the DeGolyer Library, Southern Methodist University 
 Theodore Roosevelt's journalism at The Archive of American Journalism 
 Theodore Roosevelt American Museum of Natural History 
 Works by Theodore Roosevelt in eBook form at Standard Ebooks 
 Works by Theodore Roosevelt at Project Gutenberg 
 Works by or about Theodore Roosevelt at Internet Archive 
 Works by Theodore Roosevelt at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) 
 Roosevelt Papers, at the Library of Congress 
 Guide to the Herbert R. Strauss Collection of Theodore Roosevelt Papers 1884–1919 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center  
Media
  Theodore Roosevelt Speech Edison Recordings Campaign - 1912, audio recording
 Theodore Roosevelt collected news and commentary at  The New York Times  
 "Life Portrait of Theodore Roosevelt", from C-SPAN's  American Presidents: Life Portraits , September 3, 1999
 "Writings of Theodore Roosevelt" from C-SPAN's  American Writers: A Journey Through History   
Other
  Almanac of Theodore Roosevelt 
 Theodore Roosevelt: A Resource Guide – Library of Congress 
 Theodore Roosevelt on Nobelprize.org   
 Theodore Roosevelt at IMDb
Theodore Roosevelt - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Benjamin-Harrison-president-of-United-States
Benjamin Harrison | Biography, Presidency, Accomplishments, & Facts
2024-04-19
The Editors
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<dt>Born: </dt>
<dd>August 20, 1833, North Bend, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Ohio-state">Ohio</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States">U.S.</a></dd>
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</div><section><p><strong>Benjamin Harrison</strong> (born August 20, 1833, North Bend, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Ohio-state">Ohio</a>, U.S.—died March 13, 1901, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Indianapolis-Indiana">Indianapolis</a>, Indiana) was the 23rd <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/president-government-official">president</a> of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States">United States</a> (1889–93), a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/moderate">moderate</a> Republican who won an electoral majority while losing the popular vote by more than 100,000 to Democrat <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Grover-Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a>. Harrison signed into law the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Sherman-Antitrust-Act">Sherman Antitrust Act</a> (1890), the first legislation to prohibit business combinations in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/restraint-of-trade">restraint of trade</a>.</p></section> <section> <h2>Early life and career</h2> <p>Harrison was the son of John Scott Harrison, a farmer, and Elizabeth Irwin Harrison and grandson of the ninth president, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Henry-Harrison">William Henry Harrison</a> (elected 1840). In 1852 he graduated with distinction from <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Miami-University">Miami University</a> in Oxford, Ohio, and the following year he married Caroline Lavinia Scott (<a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Caroline-Harrison">Caroline Harrison</a>), with whom he had two children. In 1854, after two years studying law, Harrison moved to Indianapolis, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Indiana-state">Indiana</a>, to establish his own practice. Ignoring his father’s <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/contention">contention</a> that “none but knaves should ever enter the political arena,” Harrison found in Indianapolis an inviting arena for his political ambitions, especially in the newly formed <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Republican-Party">Republican Party</a>. He served in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Civil-War">Civil War</a> as an officer in the Union army, finally reaching the rank of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/brevet">brevet</a> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/brigadier-general">brigadier general</a>. Resuming his law practice after the war, Harrison supported the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Reconstruction-United-States-history">Reconstruction</a> policies of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Radical-Republican">Radical Republicans</a>. He failed to win the governorship of Indiana in 1876, but in 1881 he was elected to the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Senate-United-States-government">United States Senate</a>. As senator, Harrison defended the interests of homesteaders and Native Americans against the railroads, supported generous pensions for former soldiers, and fought for civil-service reform and a moderately protective tariff.</p><a href="https://www.britannica.com/quiz/us-presidential-history-quiz">
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</a> <p>Harrison was a kindly man of stout principle who possessed a keen intellect and a phenomenal memory. He could <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/captivate">captivate</a> an audience with stirring oratory and unhinge his opponents with a cold, discerning eye. On many occasions he willingly sacrificed valuable political support rather than abandon his convictions—as in 1882, when he opposed the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chinese-Exclusion-Act">Chinese Exclusion Act</a> on the ground that it would <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/abrogate">abrogate</a> rights guaranteed to the Chinese by the Burlingame Treaty of 1868. A deeply religious man—he was an elder in the Presbyterian church for 40 years—Harrison was known before, during, and after his years of public service as a man of <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/moral">moral</a> courage.</p> <p>Nominated for the presidency by the Republicans in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/United-States-presidential-election-of-1888">1888</a>, he lost the popular vote by 5,439,853 to <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Grover-Cleveland">Cleveland</a>’s 5,540,309 but won the election by outpolling Cleveland in the electoral college by 233 electoral votes to Cleveland’s 168. Harrison’s victory in the electoral college owed much to lavish spending by his campaign in the crucial swing states of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/New-York-state">New York</a> and Indiana. </p> </section> <section> <p>Harrison’s administration was marked by an innovative <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/foreign-policy">foreign policy</a> and expanding American influence abroad. His secretary of state, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/James-G-Blaine">James G. Blaine</a>, presided over the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/First-International-Conference-of-American-States">First International Conference of American States</a>, held in Washington, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Washington-DC">D.C.</a> (1889–90), which established the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pan-American-Union">International Union of American Republics</a> (later called the Pan-American Union) for the exchange of cultural and scientific information. In addition, Blaine successfully resisted pressure from Germany and Great Britain to abandon American interests in the tripartite protectorate over the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Samoa-archipelago-Pacific-Ocean">Samoan Islands</a> (1889), and he negotiated a treaty with Great Britain to refer to arbitration a long-standing controversy over the hunting of seals in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Bering-Sea">Bering Sea</a> (1892). The administration also concluded treaties of commercial <a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/reciprocity-international-trade">reciprocity</a> with a number of foreign governments. In February 1893, after an American-led coup toppled Queen <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Liliuokalani">Liliuokalani</a> in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Hawaii-state">Hawaiian Islands</a>, Harrison placed a treaty of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/annexation">annexation</a> before the Senate, but Democrats blocked ratification for the remainder of Harrison’s term.</p> <p>In 1890 Republicans controlled both houses of Congress, but an economic depression in the agrarian West and South led to pressure for legislation that <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/conservative">conservative</a> Republicans normally resisted. The result was an accommodation in which <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/conservatives">conservatives</a> gained the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/McKinley-Tariff-Act">McKinley Tariff Act</a> (1890), which substantially raised duties on most imports, but yielded to agrarians and reformers in measures such as the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Sherman-Antitrust-Act">Sherman Antitrust Act</a> (1890), which outlawed “every contract, combination…or <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/conspiracy">conspiracy</a> in restraint of trade or commerce,” and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Sherman-Silver-Purchase-Act">Sherman Silver Purchase Act</a> of the same year, which required the government to buy 4.5 million ounces of the metal every month. Farmers and debtors in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Free-Silver-Movement">Free Silver Movement</a> had long advocated a bimetallic (gold and silver) standard for the nation’s currency in the belief that an increase in the amount of money in circulation would raise crop prices and allow for easier debt repayment.</p><div>
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</div> <p>Although the treasury had a surplus at the inception of Harrison’s administration, the “Billion-Dollar Congress” spent such enormous sums on soldiers’ pensions and business subsidies that the surplus soon vanished. Many Americans, particularly farmers, viewed the Republican-controlled <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/White-House-Washington-DC">White House</a> and Congress as wasteful and too closely aligned with the nation’s wealthy elite. In the congressional elections of 1890, the Democrats recaptured the House of Representatives by a large majority, and during the remaining two years of his term Harrison had little, if any, influence on legislation. He was renominated at the party convention in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Minneapolis">Minneapolis</a> (1892), but growing <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/populist">populist</a> discontent and several major strikes late in his term—especially the violent steel strike at Homestead, Pennsylvania, in July 1892—largely accounted for his defeat by his old rival, Grover Cleveland, by an electoral vote of 145 to 277. Neither candidate campaigned much, owing in part to Mrs. Harrison’s declining health and her death midway through the campaign.</p> <p>Having retired to his law practice in Indianapolis, Harrison, at 62, married his deceased wife’s niece and caretaker, Mary Lord Dimmick; they had one daughter. He emerged briefly to serve as leading <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/counsel">counsel</a> for Venezuela in the arbitration of its boundary dispute with Great Britain (1898–99). Harrison was also in much demand as a public speaker, and his series of lectures delivered at <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Stanford-University">Stanford University</a> was published in 1901 as <em>Views of an Ex-President</em>. He died of pneumonia that year at his house in Indianapolis. He was the last Civil War general to serve as president.</p> </section> <section> <h2>Cabinet of Pres. Benjamin Harrison</h2> <p>The table provides a list of cabinet members in the administration of Pres. Benjamin Harrison.</p> </section><p></p></div></div>||||I|||| Search Britannica Click here to search
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 Home Politics, Law & Government World Leaders Presidents & Heads of States

 Benjamin Harrison

 president of United States
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 Last Updated: Apr 19, 2024 • Article History
 Table of Contents
 Benjamin Harrison
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 Born: August 20, 1833, North Bend, Ohio, U.S. (Show more)
 Died: March 13, 1901, Indianapolis, Indiana (aged 67) (Show more)
 Title / Office: presidency of the United States of America (1889-1893), United States United States Senate (1881-1887), United States (Show more)
 Political Affiliation: Republican Party (Show more)
 Notable Family Members: spouse Caroline Harrison (Show more)
 On the Web: The American Presidency Project - Benjamin Harrison Event Timeline (Apr. 19, 2024) (Show more)
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 Key events in the life of Benjamin Harrison.

 Benjamin Harrison (born August 20, 1833, North Bend, Ohio, U.S.—died March 13, 1901, Indianapolis, Indiana) was the 23rd president of the United States (1889–93), a moderate Republican who won an electoral majority while losing the popular vote by more than 100,000 to Democrat Grover Cleveland. Harrison signed into law the Sherman Antitrust Act (1890), the first legislation to prohibit business combinations in restraint of trade.

 Early life and career

 Harrison was the son of John Scott Harrison, a farmer, and Elizabeth Irwin Harrison and grandson of the ninth president, William Henry Harrison (elected 1840). In 1852 he graduated with distinction from Miami University in Oxford, Ohio, and the following year he married Caroline Lavinia Scott (Caroline Harrison), with whom he had two children. In 1854, after two years studying law, Harrison moved to Indianapolis, Indiana, to establish his own practice. Ignoring his father’s contention that “none but knaves should ever enter the political arena,” Harrison found in Indianapolis an inviting arena for his political ambitions, especially in the newly formed Republican Party. He served in the Civil War as an officer in the Union army, finally reaching the rank of brevet brigadier general. Resuming his law practice after the war, Harrison supported the Reconstruction policies of the Radical Republicans. He failed to win the governorship of Indiana in 1876, but in 1881 he was elected to the United States Senate. As senator, Harrison defended the interests of homesteaders and Native Americans against the railroads, supported generous pensions for former soldiers, and fought for civil-service reform and a moderately protective tariff.

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 U.S. Presidential History Quiz

 Benjamin Harrison

 Harrison was a kindly man of stout principle who possessed a keen intellect and a phenomenal memory. He could captivate an audience with stirring oratory and unhinge his opponents with a cold, discerning eye. On many occasions he willingly sacrificed valuable political support rather than abandon his convictions—as in 1882, when he opposed the Chinese Exclusion Act on the ground that it would abrogate rights guaranteed to the Chinese by the Burlingame Treaty of 1868. A deeply religious man—he was an elder in the Presbyterian church for 40 years—Harrison was known before, during, and after his years of public service as a man of moral courage.

 Nominated for the presidency by the Republicans in 1888, he lost the popular vote by 5,439,853 to Cleveland’s 5,540,309 but won the election by outpolling Cleveland in the electoral college by 233 electoral votes to Cleveland’s 168. Harrison’s victory in the electoral college owed much to lavish spending by his campaign in the crucial swing states of New York and Indiana.

 Presidency

 Harrison’s administration was marked by an innovative foreign policy and expanding American influence abroad. His secretary of state, James G. Blaine, presided over the First International Conference of American States, held in Washington, D.C. (1889–90), which established the International Union of American Republics (later called the Pan-American Union) for the exchange of cultural and scientific information. In addition, Blaine successfully resisted pressure from Germany and Great Britain to abandon American interests in the tripartite protectorate over the Samoan Islands (1889), and he negotiated a treaty with Great Britain to refer to arbitration a long-standing controversy over the hunting of seals in the Bering Sea (1892). The administration also concluded treaties of commercial reciprocity with a number of foreign governments. In February 1893, after an American-led coup toppled Queen Liliuokalani in the Hawaiian Islands, Harrison placed a treaty of annexation before the Senate, but Democrats blocked ratification for the remainder of Harrison’s term.

 In 1890 Republicans controlled both houses of Congress, but an economic depression in the agrarian West and South led to pressure for legislation that conservative Republicans normally resisted. The result was an accommodation in which conservatives gained the McKinley Tariff Act (1890), which substantially raised duties on most imports, but yielded to agrarians and reformers in measures such as the Sherman Antitrust Act (1890), which outlawed “every contract, combination…or conspiracy in restraint of trade or commerce,” and the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of the same year, which required the government to buy 4.5 million ounces of the metal every month. Farmers and debtors in the Free Silver Movement had long advocated a bimetallic (gold and silver) standard for the nation’s currency in the belief that an increase in the amount of money in circulation would raise crop prices and allow for easier debt repayment.

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 Cartoon reflecting the belief that U.S. President Benjamin Harrison and his commissioner of pensions handed out government surplus funds to Civil War pensioners too liberally.

 Although the treasury had a surplus at the inception of Harrison’s administration, the “Billion-Dollar Congress” spent such enormous sums on soldiers’ pensions and business subsidies that the surplus soon vanished. Many Americans, particularly farmers, viewed the Republican-controlled White House and Congress as wasteful and too closely aligned with the nation’s wealthy elite. In the congressional elections of 1890, the Democrats recaptured the House of Representatives by a large majority, and during the remaining two years of his term Harrison had little, if any, influence on legislation. He was renominated at the party convention in Minneapolis (1892), but growing populist discontent and several major strikes late in his term—especially the violent steel strike at Homestead, Pennsylvania, in July 1892—largely accounted for his defeat by his old rival, Grover Cleveland, by an electoral vote of 145 to 277. Neither candidate campaigned much, owing in part to Mrs. Harrison’s declining health and her death midway through the campaign.

 Having retired to his law practice in Indianapolis, Harrison, at 62, married his deceased wife’s niece and caretaker, Mary Lord Dimmick; they had one daughter. He emerged briefly to serve as leading counsel for Venezuela in the arbitration of its boundary dispute with Great Britain (1898–99). Harrison was also in much demand as a public speaker, and his series of lectures delivered at Stanford University was published in 1901 as Views of an Ex-President. He died of pneumonia that year at his house in Indianapolis. He was the last Civil War general to serve as president.

 Cabinet of Pres. Benjamin Harrison

 The table provides a list of cabinet members in the administration of Pres. Benjamin Harrison.

 Cabinet of President Benjamin Harrison
 March 4, 1889-March 3, 1893 
 State James G. Blaine 
  John Watson Foster (from June 29, 1892) 
 Treasury William Windom 
  Charles Foster (from February 24, 1891) 
 War Redfield Proctor 
  Stephen Benton Elkins (from December 24, 1891)
 Navy Benjamin Franklin Tracy 
 Attorney General William Henry Harrison Miller 
 Interior John Willock Noble 
 Agriculture Jeremiah McLain Rusk 
 
 This article was most recently revised and updated by Encyclopaedia Britannica .
Born: 
August 20, 1833, North Bend, Ohio, U.S. 
   Benjamin Harrison (born August 20, 1833, North Bend, Ohio, U.S.—died March 13, 1901, Indianapolis, Indiana) was the 23rd president of the United States (1889–93), a moderate Republican who won an electoral majority while losing the popular vote by more than 100,000 to Democrat Grover Cleveland. Harrison signed into law the Sherman Antitrust Act (1890), the first legislation to prohibit business combinations in restraint of trade.   Early life and career Harrison was the son of John Scott Harrison, a farmer, and Elizabeth Irwin Harrison and grandson of the ninth president, William Henry Harrison (elected 1840). In 1852 he graduated with distinction from Miami University in Oxford, Ohio, and the following year he married Caroline Lavinia Scott (Caroline Harrison), with whom he had two children. In 1854, after two years studying law, Harrison moved to Indianapolis, Indiana, to establish his own practice. Ignoring his father’s contention that “none but knaves should ever enter the political arena,” Harrison found in Indianapolis an inviting arena for his political ambitions, especially in the newly formed Republican Party. He served in the Civil War as an officer in the Union army, finally reaching the rank of brevet brigadier general. Resuming his law practice after the war, Harrison supported the Reconstruction policies of the Radical Republicans. He failed to win the governorship of Indiana in 1876, but in 1881 he was elected to the United States Senate. As senator, Harrison defended the interests of homesteaders and Native Americans against the railroads, supported generous pensions for former soldiers, and fought for civil-service reform and a moderately protective tariff. 
Britannica Quiz
U.S. Presidential History Quiz
 Harrison was a kindly man of stout principle who possessed a keen intellect and a phenomenal memory. He could captivate an audience with stirring oratory and unhinge his opponents with a cold, discerning eye. On many occasions he willingly sacrificed valuable political support rather than abandon his convictions—as in 1882, when he opposed the Chinese Exclusion Act on the ground that it would abrogate rights guaranteed to the Chinese by the Burlingame Treaty of 1868. A deeply religious man—he was an elder in the Presbyterian church for 40 years—Harrison was known before, during, and after his years of public service as a man of moral courage. Nominated for the presidency by the Republicans in 1888, he lost the popular vote by 5,439,853 to Cleveland’s 5,540,309 but won the election by outpolling Cleveland in the electoral college by 233 electoral votes to Cleveland’s 168. Harrison’s victory in the electoral college owed much to lavish spending by his campaign in the crucial swing states of New York and Indiana.    Harrison’s administration was marked by an innovative foreign policy and expanding American influence abroad. His secretary of state, James G. Blaine, presided over the First International Conference of American States, held in Washington, D.C. (1889–90), which established the International Union of American Republics (later called the Pan-American Union) for the exchange of cultural and scientific information. In addition, Blaine successfully resisted pressure from Germany and Great Britain to abandon American interests in the tripartite protectorate over the Samoan Islands (1889), and he negotiated a treaty with Great Britain to refer to arbitration a long-standing controversy over the hunting of seals in the Bering Sea (1892). The administration also concluded treaties of commercial reciprocity with a number of foreign governments. In February 1893, after an American-led coup toppled Queen Liliuokalani in the Hawaiian Islands, Harrison placed a treaty of annexation before the Senate, but Democrats blocked ratification for the remainder of Harrison’s term. In 1890 Republicans controlled both houses of Congress, but an economic depression in the agrarian West and South led to pressure for legislation that conservative Republicans normally resisted. The result was an accommodation in which conservatives gained the McKinley Tariff Act (1890), which substantially raised duties on most imports, but yielded to agrarians and reformers in measures such as the Sherman Antitrust Act (1890), which outlawed “every contract, combination…or conspiracy in restraint of trade or commerce,” and the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of the same year, which required the government to buy 4.5 million ounces of the metal every month. Farmers and debtors in the Free Silver Movement had long advocated a bimetallic (gold and silver) standard for the nation’s currency in the belief that an increase in the amount of money in circulation would raise crop prices and allow for easier debt repayment. 
 
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 Although the treasury had a surplus at the inception of Harrison’s administration, the “Billion-Dollar Congress” spent such enormous sums on soldiers’ pensions and business subsidies that the surplus soon vanished. Many Americans, particularly farmers, viewed the Republican-controlled White House and Congress as wasteful and too closely aligned with the nation’s wealthy elite. In the congressional elections of 1890, the Democrats recaptured the House of Representatives by a large majority, and during the remaining two years of his term Harrison had little, if any, influence on legislation. He was renominated at the party convention in Minneapolis (1892), but growing populist discontent and several major strikes late in his term—especially the violent steel strike at Homestead, Pennsylvania, in July 1892—largely accounted for his defeat by his old rival, Grover Cleveland, by an electoral vote of 145 to 277. Neither candidate campaigned much, owing in part to Mrs. Harrison’s declining health and her death midway through the campaign. Having retired to his law practice in Indianapolis, Harrison, at 62, married his deceased wife’s niece and caretaker, Mary Lord Dimmick; they had one daughter. He emerged briefly to serve as leading counsel for Venezuela in the arbitration of its boundary dispute with Great Britain (1898–99). Harrison was also in much demand as a public speaker, and his series of lectures delivered at Stanford University was published in 1901 as Views of an Ex-President. He died of pneumonia that year at his house in Indianapolis. He was the last Civil War general to serve as president.   Cabinet of Pres. Benjamin Harrison The table provides a list of cabinet members in the administration of Pres. Benjamin Harrison.
Benjamin Harrison | Biography, Presidency, Accomplishments, & Facts
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Benjamin-Harrison-president-of-United-States
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 Calvin Coolidge
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 Home Politics, Law & Government World Leaders Presidents & Heads of States

 Calvin Coolidge

 president of United States
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 Last Updated: Jan 5, 2023 • Article History
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 Coolidge, Calvin
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 Born: July 4, 1872 Plymouth Vermont ...(Show more) Died: January 5, 1933 (aged 60) Northampton Massachusetts ...(Show more) Title / Office: presidency of the United States of America (1923-1929) , United States vice president of the United States of America (1921-1923) , United States governor (1919-1920) , Massachusetts ...(Show more) Political Affiliation: Republican Party ...(Show more) Notable Family Members: spouse Grace Coolidge ...(Show more)
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 Top Questions

 Why is Calvin Coolidge important?

 Calvin Coolidge was the 30th president of the United States (1923–29). He acceded to the presidency after the death in office of Warren G. Harding, just as the Harding scandals were coming to light. He restored integrity to the executive branch of the federal government while continuing the conservative pro-business policies of his predecessor.

 What was Calvin Coolidge’s family like?

 Calvin Coolidge was the only son of John Calvin and Victoria Moor Coolidge. His father was a storekeeper, and his mother cultivated in him a love of nature and books. In 1905 he married Grace Anna Goodhue, a teacher at the Clarke Institute for the Deaf, with whom he had two sons.

 What was Calvin Coolidge’s occupation?

 Calvin Coolidge worked as a lawyer in Northampton, Massachusetts. A Republican, he entered politics as a city councilman in Northampton in 1898 and served in the Massachusetts state government before being elected governor in 1918. He was U.S. vice president under Warren G. Harding and assumed the presidency upon Harding’s death.

 How did Calvin Coolidge become famous?

 Calvin Coolidge captured national attention in 1919 during a strike by the Boston police. He refused to reinstate police officers who had been fired for striking, saying: “There is no right to strike against the public safety by anybody, anywhere, any time.” This led to Coolidge becoming Harding’s vice presidential running mate in 1920.

 What was Calvin Coolidge’s legacy?

 Calvin Coolidge inherited an administration mired in scandal. A model of personal rectitude, he rooted out the perpetrators and restored American trust in the executive branch. However, the essence of his presidency was its noninterference in and bolstering of American business and industry. These policies did nothing to avert the Great Depression, which followed.

 Summary

 Read a brief summary of this topic

 Calvin Coolidge, in full John Calvin Coolidge, (born July 4, 1872, Plymouth, Vermont, U.S.—died January 5, 1933, Northampton, Massachusetts), 30th president of the United States (1923–29). Coolidge acceded to the presidency after the death in office of Warren G. Harding, just as the Harding scandals were coming to light. He restored integrity to the executive branch of the federal government while continuing the conservative pro-business policies of his predecessor.

 Early life and career

 Coolidge, Calvin

 Coolidge, Calvin; Coolidge family

 Coolidge was the only son of John Calvin Coolidge and Victoria Moor Coolidge. His father, whose forebears had immigrated to America about 1630, was a storekeeper who instilled in his son the New England Puritan virtues—honesty, industry, thrift, taciturnity, and piety—while his mother cultivated in him a love of nature and books. A graduate of Amherst College, Coolidge began practicing law in 1897. In 1905 he married Grace Anna Goodhue, a teacher in the Clarke Institute for the Deaf, with whom he had two sons.

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 A Republican, Coolidge entered politics as a city councilman in Northampton, Massachusetts, in 1898. He was elected mayor of Northampton in 1909 and then served in the Massachusetts state government as senator (1911–15) and lieutenant governor (1915–18). Elected governor in 1918, Coolidge captured national attention the following year when he called out the state guard to quell violence and disorder resulting from a strike by the Boston police, who had formed a labour union to press their demands for better pay and working conditions. When labour leaders called on him to support their demands for reinstatement of police officers who had been fired for striking, Coolidge refused, summing up his reasoning in a single sentence that reverberated throughout the country: “There is no right to strike against the public safety by anybody, anywhere, any time.”

 That statement—combined with Coolidge’s strong stand against the Boston police at a time when many Americans viewed organized labour as too radical—catapulted Coolidge onto the Republican Party’s ticket in 1920 as Harding’s vice-presidential running mate. The personality of the taciturn Coolidge could not have provided a greater contrast to that of the gregarious Harding. In terms of policy, however, Harding and Coolidge were nearly identical. Both were members of the Old Guard Republicans, that conservative segment of the party that had remained with Pres. William Howard Taft in the 1912 election when Theodore Roosevelt left to form the Bull Moose Party. Promising the American people a “return to normalcy,” Harding and Coolidge achieved the greatest popular vote margin in presidential elections to that time, crushing the Democratic ticket of James Cox and Franklin Delano Roosevelt by 60 to 34 percent. The electoral vote was equally one-sided: 404 to 127.

 Presidency

 Acceding to the presidency upon Harding’s unexpected death (August 2, 1923), Coolidge took the oath of office from his father, a notary public, by the light of a kerosene lamp at 2:47 am on August 3 at the family home in Plymouth, Vermont. He inherited an administration mired in scandal. Cautiously, quietly, and skillfully, Coolidge rooted out the perpetrators and restored integrity to the executive branch. A model of personal rectitude himself, Coolidge convinced the American people that the presidency was once again in the hands of someone they could trust. The change of ambience in the White House did not miss the keen eye of Alice Roosevelt Longworth, daughter of Pres. Theodore Roosevelt, who said that the new White House was “as different as a New England front parlor is from a backroom in a speakeasy.”

 Calvin Coolidge

 At the Republican convention in 1924 Coolidge was nominated virtually without opposition. Running on the slogan “Keep Cool with Coolidge,” he won a landslide victory over conservative Democrat John W. Davis and Progressive Party candidate Robert La Follette, gaining about 54 percent of the popular vote to Davis’s 29 percent and La Follette’s nearly 17 percent; in the electoral college Coolidge received 382 votes to Davis’s 136 and La Follette’s 13. Coolidge’s inaugural address, the first inaugural address to be broadcast on national radio, focused principally on his vision of the role of the United States in the world.

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 Coolidge was famous for being a man of few but well-chosen words. Despite his reputation, “Silent Cal,” as he was called, had a keen sense of humour, and he could be talkative in private family settings. His wit was displayed in a characteristic exchange with a Washington, D.C., hostess, who told him, “You must talk to me, Mr. President. I made a bet today that I could get more than two words out of you.” Coolidge replied, “You lose.”

 Coolidge captured the prevailing sentiment of the American people in the 1920s when he said, “The chief business of the American people is business.” The essence of the Coolidge presidency was its noninterference in and bolstering of American business and industry. Government regulatory agencies, such as the Federal Trade Commission, now were staffed by people who sought to assist business expansion rather than to police business practices. Most Americans, identifying their own prosperity with the growth of corporate profits, welcomed this reversal of progressive reforms. They generally agreed with the assessment of Oliver Wendell Holmes, associate justice of the Supreme Court: “While I don’t expect anything very astonishing from [Coolidge] I don’t want anything very astonishing.”

 Key to the conservative, pro-business focus of the Coolidge administration was Secretary of the Treasury Andrew Mellon. A multimillionaire himself, Mellon believed strongly that reducing taxes for the rich was the best way to expand the nation’s wealth. He held that, as the rich invested funds that otherwise would have been taken away in taxes, new businesses would form and older enterprises would expand and that the result would be more jobs and greater national production. Under the leadership of Coolidge and Mellon, Congress sharply reduced income taxes and estate taxes.

 One form of business enterprise, however, received almost no help from the Coolidge administration: agriculture. Farmers constituted the one group of producers clearly not participating in the decade’s prosperity. Twice Congress passed the McNary-Haugen bill, calling for the federal government to purchase surplus crops. Twice (1927 and 1928) Coolidge vetoed it, and the economic woes of American farmers persisted well into the following decade. Coolidge also vetoed a bill offering a bonus to veterans of World War I; Congress overrode that veto in 1924.

 Kellogg-Briand Pact

 Reflecting its focus on internal economic growth, the Coolidge administration showed little interest in events outside the nation’s borders. Coolidge adamantly opposed U.S. membership in the League of Nations, though he did increase unofficial American involvement in the international organization. Ironically for such an inward-looking administration, two of its members received the Nobel Prize for Peace. In 1925, Vice President Charles G. Dawes won the prize for his program to help Germany meet its war debt obligations, and Secretary of State Frank B. Kellogg won it in 1929 for his role in negotiating the Kellogg-Briand Pact, a multinational agreement renouncing war as an instrument of national policy.

 Life after the presidency

 Coolidge, Calvin

 In 1928, announcing, “I do not choose to run,” Coolidge turned his back on what surely would have been another election victory and instead retired to Northampton. There he wrote a syndicated newspaper column, several magazine articles, and his autobiography (1929). And there, a little less than four years after leaving the White House, he died of a heart attack. After his death, as the country suffered through the worst economic crisis in its history, many came to view the Coolidge era as a time of inaction and complacency in the face of looming disaster. Although Coolidge’s personality continued to be the butt of jokes—upon hearing that Coolidge was dead, the writer Dorothy Parker quipped, “How can they tell?”—he was fondly remembered for his quiet New England virtues and for the renewed dignity and respect he brought to his office.

 Coolidge, Calvin; Coolidge, Grace

 Coolidge was survived by first lady Grace Coolidge, a woman whose outgoing personality contrasted sharply with that of her tight-lipped spouse. She lived another 24 years, during which time she devoted herself to the needs of the hearing-impaired.

 Cabinet of Pres. Calvin Coolidge

 The table provides a list of cabinet members in the administration of Pres. Calvin Coolidge.

 Cabinet of President Calvin Coolidge
 August 3, 1923–March 3, 1925 (Term 1) 
 State Charles Evans Hughes 
 Treasury Andrew W. Mellon 
 War John Wingate Weeks 
 Navy Edwin Denby 
 Curtis Dwight Wilbur (from March 18, 1924) 
 Attorney General Harry Micajah Daugherty
 Harlan Fiske Stone (from April 9, 1924) 
 Interior Hubert Work 
 Agriculture Henry Cantwell Wallace 
 Howard Mason Gore (from November 21, 1924) 
 Commerce Herbert Hoover 
 Labor James John Davis 
 March 4, 1925–March 3, 1929 (Term 2) 
 State Frank B. Kellogg 
 Treasury Andrew W. Mellon 
 War John Wingate Weeks 
 Dwight F. Davis (from October 14, 1925) 
 Navy Curtis Dwight Wilbur 
 Attorney General John Garibaldi Sargent 
 Interior Hubert Work 
 Roy Owen West (from January 21, 1929) 
 Agriculture William Marion Jardine 
 Commerce Herbert Hoover 
 William Fairfield Whiting (from December 11, 1928)
 Labor James John Davis 
 
 This article was most recently revised and updated by Adam Augustyn .
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 Alternate titles: Stephen Grover Cleveland
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 Grover Cleveland
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 Born: March 18, 1837 Caldwell New Jersey ...(Show more) Died: June 24, 1908 (aged 71) Princeton New Jersey ...(Show more) Title / Office: presidency of the United States of America (1893-1897) , United States presidency of the United States of America (1885-1889) , United States governor (1883-1885) , New York mayor (1881-1883) , Buffalo ...(Show more) Political Affiliation: Democratic Party ...(Show more) Awards And Honors: Hall of Fame (1935) ...(Show more)
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 Grover Cleveland, in full Stephen Grover Cleveland, (born March 18, 1837, Caldwell, New Jersey, U.S.—died June 24, 1908, Princeton, New Jersey), 22nd and 24th president of the United States (1885–89 and 1893–97) and the only president ever to serve two discontinuous terms. Cleveland distinguished himself as one of the few truly honest and principled politicians of the Gilded Age. His view of the president’s function as primarily to block legislative excesses made him quite popular during his first term, but that view cost him public support during his second term when he steadfastly denied a positive role for government in dealing with the worst economic collapse the nation had yet faced.

 Early life and career

 Cleveland was the son of Richard Falley Cleveland, an itinerant Presbyterian minister, and Ann Neal. The death of Grover Cleveland’s father in 1853 forced him to abandon school in order to support his mother and sisters. After clerking in a law firm in Buffalo, New York, he was admitted to the bar in 1859 and soon entered politics as a member of the Democratic Party. During the Civil War he was drafted but hired a substitute so that he could care for his mother—an altogether legal procedure but one that would make him vulnerable to political attack in the future. In 1863 he became assistant district attorney of Erie county, New York, and in 1870–73 he served as county sheriff. With this slight political background and only modest success as a lawyer, the apparently unambitious Buffalo attorney launched one of the most meteoric rises in American politics.

 In 1881, eight years after stepping down as sheriff, Cleveland was nominated for mayor by Buffalo Democrats who remembered his honest and efficient service in that office. He won the election easily. As Buffalo’s chief executive, he became known as the “veto mayor” for his rejection of spending measures he considered to be wasteful and corrupt. In 1882, without the support of the Tammany Hall Democratic machine in New York City, Cleveland received his party’s nomination for governor, and he went on to crush his Republican opponent by more than 200,000 votes.

 As governor of New York, Cleveland again used the veto frequently, even to turn down measures that enjoyed wide public support. His devotion to principle and his unstinting opposition to Tammany Hall soon earned him a national reputation—particularly among Americans disgusted with the frequent scandals of Gilded Age politics.

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 In the 1884 presidential election, the Democrats sought a candidate who would contrast sharply with Republican nominee James G. Blaine, a longtime Washington insider whose reputation for dishonesty and financial impropriety prompted the Republican Mugwump faction to bolt their party. Cleveland’s image was the opposite of Blaine’s, and he seemed likely to draw Mugwump votes to the Democratic ticket. As a result, Cleveland won the Democratic nomination with ease.

 During the campaign, Cleveland’s image as the clean alternative to the supposedly sullied Blaine suffered serious damage when Republicans charged that the Democratic candidate had fathered a child out of wedlock some 10 years earlier. As Republicans joyously chortled, “Ma, ma, where’s my pa?,” Cleveland remained undaunted, and he instructed Democratic leaders to “tell the truth.” The truth, as Cleveland admitted, was that he had had an affair with the child’s mother, Maria Halpin, and had agreed to provide financial support when she named him as the father, though he was uncertain whether the child was really his. Meanwhile, Democrats, trying to contrast Cleveland’s reputation with Blaine’s, chanted “Blaine Blaine, James G. Blaine, the continental liar from the state of Maine!” Late in the campaign, Blaine experienced an embarrassment of his own, when a supporter at a rally in New York City described the Democrats as the party of “rum, Romanism, and rebellion”—a swipe at the city’s Irish Catholics, many of whom Blaine hoped to lure into his camp. Although Blaine was present when the fateful words were spoken, he did nothing to dissociate himself from the remark. The general election was determined by electoral votes from New York state, which Blaine lost to Cleveland by fewer than 1,200 votes.

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 Presidency

 Grover Cleveland

 As president, Cleveland continued to act in the same negative capacity that had marked his tenures as mayor and governor. He nullified fraudulent grants to some 80 million acres (30 million hectares) of Western public lands and vetoed hundreds of pension bills that would have sent federal funds to undeserving Civil War veterans. Once again, Cleveland’s rejection of wasteful and corrupt measures endeared the president to citizens who admired his honesty and courage. He also received credit for two of the more significant measures enacted by the federal government in the 1880s: the Interstate Commerce Act (1887), which established the Interstate Commerce Commission, the first regulatory agency in the United States, and the Dawes General Allotment Act (1887), which redistributed Native American reservation land to individual tribe members.

 Cleveland, Grover: family

 In 1886 Cleveland, a lifelong bachelor, married Frances Folsom, the daughter of his former law partner. Frances Cleveland, 27 years younger than her husband, proved to be a very popular first lady. To all appearances the marriage was a happy one, though during the 1888 presidential campaign she was forced to publicly refute Republican-spread rumours that Cleveland had beaten her during drunken rages.

 campaign handkerchief; Cleveland, Grover; Thurman, Allen G.

 Cleveland ran for reelection in 1888. The major issue of the presidential campaign was the protective tariff. Cleveland opposed the high tariff, calling it unnecessary taxation imposed upon American consumers, while Republican candidate Benjamin Harrison defended protectionism. On election day, Cleveland won about 100,000 more popular votes than Harrison, evidence of the esteem in which the president was held and to the widespread desire for a lower tariff. Yet Harrison won the election by capturing a majority of votes in the electoral college (233 to 168), largely as a result of lavish campaign contributions from pro-tariff business interests in the crucial states of New York and Indiana.

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 Lyndon B. Johnson
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 Lyndon B. Johnson
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 * Introduction & Top Questions
 * Early life
 * Career in Congress
 * Vice presidency
 * Accession to the presidency
 * Election and the Vietnam War
 * Domestic problems
 * Last days
 * Cabinet of Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson
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 * Lyndon B. Johnson summary
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 * Why didn’t Lyndon B. Johnson seek another term as president?
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 Home Politics, Law & Government World Leaders Presidents & Heads of States

 Lyndon B. Johnson

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 Alternate titles: LBJ, Lyndon Baines Johnson
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 Born: August 27, 1908 Texas ...(Show more) Died: January 22, 1973 (aged 64) San Antonio Texas ...(Show more) Title / Office: presidency of the United States of America (1963-1969) , United States vice president of the United States of America (1961-1963) , United States vice president (1960-1963) , United States United States Senate (1949-1961) , United States House of Representatives (1937-1949) , United States ...(Show more) Political Affiliation: Democratic Party ...(Show more) Notable Family Members: spouse Lady Bird Johnson ...(Show more)
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 Who was Lyndon B. Johnson?

 Lyndon B. Johnson, frequently called LBJ, was an American politician and moderate Democrat who was president of the United States from 1963 to 1969. He was born on August 27, 1908, and died on January 22, 1973.

 How did Lyndon B. Johnson become president?

 Lyndon B. Johnson was elected vice president of the United States alongside President John F. Kennedy in 1960 and acceded to the presidency upon Kennedy's assassination in 1963. He was president from 1963 to 1969.

 What did Lyndon B. Johnson do as president?

 As president, Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act, the most comprehensive civil rights legislation since Reconstruction, into law; he also greatly expanded American involvement in the Vietnam War despite national opposition.

 Why didn’t Lyndon B. Johnson seek another term as president?

 By 1968, Lyndon B. Johnson knew he was unlikely to win another presidential election; his increase of American involvement in the Vietnam War, as well as rising American casualties in Vietnam, had made him deeply unpopular. After Senator Eugene McCarthy and Robert Kennedy declared their candidacies for the Democratic presidential nomination, Johnson announced that he would not seek another term and would, instead, retire.

 Summary

 Read a brief summary of this topic

 Lyndon B. Johnson: key events

 Lyndon B. Johnson, in full Lyndon Baines Johnson, also called LBJ, (born August 27, 1908, Gillespie county, Texas, U.S.—died January 22, 1973, San Antonio, Texas), 36th president of the United States (1963–69). A moderate Democrat and vigorous leader in the United States Senate, Johnson was elected vice president in 1960 and acceded to the presidency in 1963 upon the assassination of Pres. John F. Kennedy. During his administration he signed into law the Civil Rights Act (1964), the most comprehensive civil rights legislation since the Reconstruction era, initiated major social service programs, and bore the brunt of national opposition to his vast expansion of American involvement in the Vietnam War.

 (Read Lyndon Johnson’s Britannica entry on Sam Rayburn.)

 Early life

 Lyndon B. Johnson

 Johnson, the first of five children, was born in a three-room house in the hills of south-central Texas to Sam Ealy Johnson, Jr., a businessman and member of the Texas House of Representatives, and Rebekah Baines Johnson, who was a daughter of state legislator Joseph Baines and had studied at Baylor Female College (now the University of Mary Hardin-Baylor), Baylor University, and the University of Texas. Sam Johnson had earlier lost money in cotton speculation, and, despite his legislative career, the family often struggled to make a living. After graduating from high school in 1924, Johnson spent three years in a series of odd jobs before enrolling at Southwest Texas State Teachers College (now Texas State University) in San Marcos. While pursuing his studies there in 1928–29, he took a teaching job at a predominantly Mexican American school in Cotulla, Texas, where the extreme poverty of his students made a profound impression on him. Through his later work in state politics, Johnson developed close and enduring ties to the Mexican American community in Texas—a factor that would later help the Kennedy-Johnson ticket carry Texas in the presidential election of 1960.

 Career in Congress

 After graduating from college in 1930, Johnson won praise as a teacher of debate and public speaking at Sam Houston High School in Houston. That same year he participated in the congressional campaign of Democrat Richard Kleberg (son of the owner of the King Ranch, the largest ranch in the continental United States), and upon Kleberg’s election he accompanied the new congressman to Washington, D.C., in 1931 as his legislative assistant. While in Washington, Johnson worked tirelessly on behalf of Kleberg’s constituents and quickly developed a thorough grasp of congressional politics.

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 In 1934, in San Antonio, Texas, Johnson married Claudia Alta Taylor, known from childhood as “Lady Bird.” A recent graduate of the University of Texas, where she had finished near the top of her class, Lady Bird Johnson was a much-needed source of stability in her husband’s life as well as a shrewd judge of people.

 Lyndon B. Johnson: 1937 campaign poster

 In Washington, Johnson’s political career blossomed rapidly after he was befriended by fellow Texan Sam Rayburn, the powerful chairman of the Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce and later Democratic leader of the House of Representatives. Following two years as director of the National Youth Administration in Texas (1935–37), he ran successfully for a seat in the House as a supporter of the New Deal policies of Democratic Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt. He represented his district in the House for most of the next 12 years, interrupting his legislative duties for six months in 1941–42 to serve as lieutenant commander in the navy—thereby becoming the first member of Congress to serve on active duty in World War II. While on an observation mission over New Guinea, Johnson’s plane survived an attack by Japanese fighters, and Gen. Douglas MacArthur awarded Johnson the Silver Star for gallantry. Johnson proudly wore the decoration in his lapel for the rest of his life.

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 Johnson ran unsuccessfully for a seat in the United States Senate in a special election in 1941. Running again in 1948, he won the Democratic primary (which in Texas was tantamount to election) after a vicious campaign that included vote fraud on both sides. His extraordinarily slim margin of victory—87 votes out of 988,000 votes cast—earned him the nickname “Landslide Lyndon.” He remained in the Senate for 12 years, becoming Democratic whip in 1951 and minority leader in 1953. With the return of a Democratic majority in 1955, Johnson, age 46, became the youngest majority leader in that body’s history.

 During his years in the Senate, Johnson developed a talent for negotiating and reaching accommodation among divergent political factions. Despite a severe heart attack in 1955—which he would later describe as “the worst a man could have and still live”—Johnson became a vigorous and effective leader of his party. By methods sometimes tactful but often ruthless, he transformed the Senate Democrats into a remarkably disciplined and cohesive bloc. At the Democratic convention in 1956, Johnson received 80 votes as a favourite-son candidate for president. With an eye on the presidential nomination in 1960, he attempted to cultivate his reputation among supporters as a legislative statesman; during this time he engineered the passage of two civil rights measures, in 1957 and 1960, the first such legislation in the 20th century.

 Vice presidency

 At the Democratic convention in 1960, Johnson lost the presidential nomination to John F. Kennedy on the first ballot, 809 votes to 409. He then surprised many both inside and outside the party when he accepted Kennedy’s invitation to join the Democratic ticket as the vice presidential candidate. Overcoming his disappointment at not heading the ticket himself, he campaigned energetically, and many observers felt that without his presence Kennedy could not have carried Texas, Louisiana, and the Carolinas, states that were essential to his victory over the Republican candidate, Richard M. Nixon.

 Johnson was generally uncomfortable in his role as vice president. His legendary knowledge of Congress went largely unused, despite Kennedy’s failure to push through his own legislative program. Although he served on the National Security Council and was appointed chairman of some important committees—such as the National Aeronautics and Space Council, the Peace Corps Advisory Council, and the President’s Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity—Johnson regarded most of his assignments as busywork, and he was convinced that the president was ignoring him. His frustration was compounded by the apparent disdain with which he was regarded by some prominent members of the Kennedy administration—including the president’s brother, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, who later regarded LBJ, with his Texas drawl and crude, occasionally scatological sense of humour, as the “usurper” of Kennedy’s Camelot. Johnson, in turn, envied President Kennedy’s handsome appearance and his reputation for urbanity and sophisticated charm. Despite Johnson’s physically imposing presence (he stood six feet three inches [nearly two metres] tall and usually weighed more than 200 pounds [more than 90 kg]), he suffered from deep-seated feelings of inferiority, which his dealings with the Kennedys—the scions of the “Eastern establishment”—seemed to make all the more acute. As he frequently said, it was his curse to have hailed from “the wrong part of the country.”

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https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gerald-Ford
Gerald Ford | Biography, Presidency, Accomplishments, Foreign Policy, & Facts
2024-04-27
The Editors
<div><div>
<div>
<div>
<dl>
<dt>In full: </dt>
<dd>Gerald Rudolph Ford, Jr.</dd>
</dl>
</div>
<div>
<dl>
<dt>Original name: </dt>
<dd>Leslie Lynch King, Jr.</dd>
</dl>
</div>
<div>
<dl>
<dt>Died: </dt>
<dd>December 26, 2006, Rancho Mirage, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/California-state">California</a> (aged 93)</dd>
</dl>
</div>
</div><div>
<h2>
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<div><p>
	Top Questions
	</p><div><div><h3><p>Where was Gerald Ford educated?<em></em></p></h3></div><div><h3><p>What did Gerald Ford accomplish?<em></em></p></h3></div><div><h3><p>What were Gerald Ford’s jobs?<em></em></p></h3></div></div></div><section><p><strong>Gerald Ford</strong> (born July 14, 1913, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Omaha-city-Nebraska">Omaha</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Nebraska-state">Nebraska</a>, U.S.—died December 26, 2006, Rancho <a href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/Mirage">Mirage</a>, California) was the 38th <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/presidency-of-the-United-States-of-America">president</a> of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States">United States</a> (1974–77), who, as 40th <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/vice-president-of-the-United-States-of-America">vice president</a>, had succeeded to the presidency on the resignation of President <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Richard-Nixon">Richard Nixon</a>, under the process decreed by the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Twenty-fifth-Amendment">Twenty-fifth Amendment</a> to the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Constitution-of-the-United-States-of-America">Constitution</a>, and thereby became the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/nation-state">country’s</a> only chief executive who had not been elected either <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/president-government-official">president</a> or vice president.</p></section> <section><h2>Early life</h2> <p>While Gerald Ford was still an infant, his parents were divorced, and his mother moved to <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Grand-Rapids-Michigan">Grand Rapids</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Michigan">Michigan</a>, where she married Gerald R. Ford, Sr., who adopted the boy and gave him his name. After graduating from the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/University-of-Michigan">University of Michigan</a> (1935), where he was a star <a href="https://www.britannica.com/sports/American-football">football</a> player, Ford worked as an assistant coach while he earned a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/law">law</a> degree from <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Yale-University">Yale University</a> (1941). He joined the navy during <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-II">World War II</a> and served in the South Pacific, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/attaining">attaining</a> the rank of lieutenant commander and nearly losing his life in 1944 during a deadly <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/typhoon-weather">typhoon</a> that killed hundreds. In 1948, the year he won his first elective office, as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Republican-Party">Republican</a> congressman from Michigan, he married Elizabeth Anne Bloomer (<a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Betty-Ford">Betty Ford</a>), with whom he had four children—three sons (Michael, John, and Steven) and one daughter (Susan).</p></section> <section><h2>From congressman to vice president and president</h2> <div><figure><p><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/16/71316-050-7CF0E6E7/Richard-M-Nixon-Republican-Party-Gerald-R-1968.jpg"></a></p><figcaption><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/16/71316-050-7CF0E6E7/Richard-M-Nixon-Republican-Party-Gerald-R-1968.jpg">Richard M. Nixon and Gerald Ford</a><p></p></figcaption></figure></div><p>Ford served in Congress for 25 years. Well-liked and ideologically flexible, he won the role of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/House-of-Representatives-United-States-government">House</a> minority leader in 1965 and held this position until Nixon named him vice president in 1973. During his time in Congress, he had developed a reputation for honesty and openness. When Nixon’s vice president, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Spiro-Agnew">Spiro T. Agnew</a>, was forced to resign from office in disgrace, the president had no choice but to nominate the only Republican whom the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Democratic-Party">Democratic</a> leadership of Congress would approve, the <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/affable">affable</a> Jerry Ford.</p> <p>In 1974, when it became clear that Nixon would face criminal charges for his role in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Watergate-Scandal">Watergate scandal</a> and three articles of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/impeachment">impeachment</a> had been passed by the House Judiciary Committee, Nixon resigned, effective August 9. On that day, Ford took the oath of office and became president, stating, “Our long national nightmare is over.” He retained the foreign and domestic policy staffs of the Nixon administration, including Secretary of State <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Henry-Kissinger">Henry Kissinger</a>. (<em>See</em> primary source document: First Address to Congress and the Nation. <em>See also</em> Cabinet of President Gerald Ford.)</p><a href="https://www.britannica.com/quiz/pop-quiz-19-things-to-know-about-the-vietnam-war">
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</a> <div><figure><p><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/65/665-004-395436AF/Gerald-R-Ford-pardon-Richard-Nixon-White-September-16-1974.jpg"></a></p><figcaption><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/65/665-004-395436AF/Gerald-R-Ford-pardon-Richard-Nixon-White-September-16-1974.jpg">Gerald Ford, 1974</a><p></p></figcaption></figure></div><p>One of Ford’s early acts as president was the announcement of a conditional <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/amnesty">amnesty</a> program for those who had evaded the draft or deserted during the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Vietnam-War">Vietnam War</a>. The most attention-getting act of his years in office, and the move that for many destroyed his credibility, followed in the next month. On September 8, 1974, declaring that in the end “it is not the ultimate fate of Richard Nixon that most concerns me” but rather “the immediate future of this great country,” Ford pardoned Nixon “for all offenses against the United States” that he had committed “or may have committed” while in office. The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/pardon">pardon</a>, later <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/alleged">alleged</a> to have been the result of blackmail (that if Ford did not pardon him, Nixon would blacken the new president’s reputation by publicly claiming that Ford had promised a pardon in exchange for the presidency), effectively squelched any criminal prosecutions to which Nixon might have been liable. Afterward Ford voluntarily appeared before a subcommittee of the House of Representatives on October 17 to explain his reasoning—the first time a standing president had formally testified before a committee of Congress. In another startling move, Ford annoyed members of his own party by naming <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nelson-Rockefeller">Nelson A. Rockefeller</a>, both a party liberal and a representative of the so-called “Eastern establishment,” as his vice president.</p> <p>Ford’s administration attempted to <a href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/cope">cope</a> with the high rate of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/inflation-economics">inflation</a>, which he inherited from the Nixon administration, by slowing down the economy. The result was a very severe <a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/recession">recession</a> in 1974–75, which succeeded in lowering inflation but at the cost of an <a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/unemployment-rate">unemployment rate</a> that rose to nearly 9 percent. Despite his WIN (Whip Inflation Now) program, he could do little to stop the country’s economic problems. Ford’s relations with the Democrat-controlled Congress were perhaps typified by his more than 50 vetoes of legislation by the end of 1976; more than 40 were sustained. Legislative gridlock set in.</p><div>
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</div> <p>During the final days of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Vietnam-War">Vietnam War</a>, in March 1975, Ford ordered an airlift of some 237,000 anticommunist Vietnamese refugees from <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Da-Nang">Da Nang</a>, most of whom were taken to the United States. Two months later, after the seizure by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Cambodia">Cambodia</a> of the American <a href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/cargo">cargo</a> ship <em>Mayaguez</em>, Ford declared the event an “act of piracy” and sent the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-United-States-Marine-Corps">Marines</a> to seize the ship. They succeeded, but the rescue operation to save the 39-member crew resulted in the loss of 41 American lives and the wounding of 50 others. Moreover, U.S. relations with Thailand became strained because the U.S. strike had been launched from a base in Thailand against the wishes of the Thai government.</p> <p>Twice in September 1975, Ford was the target of assassination attempts. In the first instance, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/US-Secret-Service">Secret Service</a> agents intervened before shots were fired; in the second, the would-be assassin fired one shot at Ford but missed by several feet. In October he initially refused to consider loans to the city of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/New-York-state">New York</a>, then on the brink of fiscal collapse, and thereby prompted the newspaper headline “Ford to City: Drop Dead.” As the larger <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/implications">implications</a> became clear, he retreated from his earlier position.</p> <p>In a close contest at the Republican convention in August <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/United-States-presidential-election-of-1976">1976</a>, Ford won his party’s nomination, despite a serious challenge by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ronald-Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a>, the former governor of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/California-state">California</a>. That fall Ford became the first incumbent president to agree to public debates with a challenger—<a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jimmy-Carter">Jimmy Carter</a>, the Democratic nominee. Ford ran substantially behind from the beginning of the campaign, owing in large part to negative fallout from the Nixon pardon but also to the general public’s perception of his <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ineptitude">ineptitude</a>. His decisions in office had often seemed to be those of Kissinger and the others left over from the Nixon administration; sometimes, as those made during the <em>Mayaguez</em> incident, they seemed simply ill-considered. He misspoke on many occasions, notably declaring in a debate with Jimmy Carter, “There is no Soviet domination of Eastern Europe” and “I don’t believe that the Poles consider themselves dominated by the Soviet Union,” which journalist William F. Buckley, Jr., called “the ultimate Polish joke.” Even his physical pratfalls, such as hitting his head while deplaning, were well documented for the public. As journalist <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Osborne">John Osborne</a> summarized the situation, Ford was seen as</p> <blockquote><p>a loser, a bumbler, a misfit President who for some reason or other…was <a href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/prone">prone</a> to slip on airplane ramps, bump his head on helicopter entrances, entangle himself in the leashes of his family dogs, and fall from skis in front of television cameras that showed him asprawl in snow.</p></blockquote> <p>Ford was defeated in the November 1976 election by a popular vote of 40.8 million to 39.1 million and an electoral vote of 297 to 240.</p></section> </div></div>||||I|||| Search Britannica Click here to search
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 Gerald Ford

 president of the United States
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 Also known as: Gerald Rudolph Ford, Jr., Leslie Lynch King, Jr.
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 Last Updated: Apr 27, 2024 • Article History
 Table of Contents
 Gerald Ford
 See all media
 In full: Gerald Rudolph Ford, Jr. (Show more)
 Original name: Leslie Lynch King, Jr. (Show more)
 Born: July 14, 1913, Omaha, Nebraska, U.S. (Show more)
 Died: December 26, 2006, Rancho Mirage, California (aged 93) (Show more)
 Title / Office: presidency of the United States of America (1974-1977), United States vice president of the United States of America (1973-1974), United States House of Representatives (1948-1973), United States (Show more)
 Political Affiliation: Republican Party (Show more)
 Notable Family Members: spouse Betty Ford (Show more)
 See all related content →

 Recent News

 Apr. 26, 2024, 1:53 AM ET (Newsweek)
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 Apr. 11, 2024, 5:06 AM ET (CNN)
 David Hume Kennerly resigns from Gerald Ford foundation board over refusal to honor Liz Cheney with top award
 Top Questions

 Where was Gerald Ford educated?

 Gerald Ford graduated from the University of Michigan (1935), where he was a star gridiron-football player. He later earned a law degree from Yale University (1941).

 What did Gerald Ford accomplish?

 After becoming U.S. president, Gerald Ford announced a conditional amnesty program for those who had evaded the draft or deserted during the Vietnam War. Controversially, he pardoned former president Richard Nixon on September 8, 1974.

 What were Gerald Ford’s jobs?

 Gerald Ford joined the U.S. Navy during World War II and served in the South Pacific, attaining the rank of lieutenant commander. In 1948 he won his first elective office, as Republican congressman from Michigan, and held that position until Richard Nixon named him vice president in 1973. Ford became U.S. president on August 9, 1974.

 Study how Gerald Ford stewarded a post-Watergate United States amid economic inflation and high unemployment
 An overview of Gerald Ford. (more)
 See all videos for this article

 Gerald Ford: key events
 Key events in the life of Gerald R. Ford. (more)

 Gerald Ford (born July 14, 1913, Omaha, Nebraska, U.S.—died December 26, 2006, Rancho Mirage, California) was the 38th president of the United States (1974–77), who, as 40th vice president, had succeeded to the presidency on the resignation of President Richard Nixon, under the process decreed by the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the Constitution, and thereby became the country’s only chief executive who had not been elected either president or vice president.

 Early life

 Gerald Ford: football at the University of Michigan
 Gerald Ford as a member of the University of Michigan's football team, 1933. (more)

 Betty Ford
 Betty Ford, 1974. (more)

 While Gerald Ford was still an infant, his parents were divorced, and his mother moved to Grand Rapids, Michigan, where she married Gerald R. Ford, Sr., who adopted the boy and gave him his name. After graduating from the University of Michigan (1935), where he was a star football player, Ford worked as an assistant coach while he earned a law degree from Yale University (1941). He joined the navy during World War II and served in the South Pacific, attaining the rank of lieutenant commander and nearly losing his life in 1944 during a deadly typhoon that killed hundreds. In 1948, the year he won his first elective office, as Republican congressman from Michigan, he married Elizabeth Anne Bloomer (Betty Ford), with whom he had four children—three sons (Michael, John, and Steven) and one daughter (Susan).

 From congressman to vice president and president

 Richard M. Nixon and Gerald Ford
 Richard M. Nixon (right) accepting the Republican Party's U.S. presidential nomination in 1968. At left is Gerald Ford, the Republican leader of the House of Representatives. (more)

 Ford served in Congress for 25 years. Well-liked and ideologically flexible, he won the role of House minority leader in 1965 and held this position until Nixon named him vice president in 1973. During his time in Congress, he had developed a reputation for honesty and openness. When Nixon’s vice president, Spiro T. Agnew, was forced to resign from office in disgrace, the president had no choice but to nominate the only Republican whom the Democratic leadership of Congress would approve, the affable Jerry Ford.

 Gerald Ford
 Gerald Ford being sworn in as U.S. president, August 9, 1974. (more)

 Henry Kissinger and Gerald Ford
 Henry Kissinger with U.S. Pres. Gerald Ford at the White House, Washington, D.C. (more)

 In 1974, when it became clear that Nixon would face criminal charges for his role in the Watergate scandal and three articles of impeachment had been passed by the House Judiciary Committee, Nixon resigned, effective August 9. On that day, Ford took the oath of office and became president, stating, “Our long national nightmare is over.” He retained the foreign and domestic policy staffs of the Nixon administration, including Secretary of State Henry Kissinger. (See primary source document: First Address to Congress and the Nation. See also Cabinet of President Gerald Ford.)

 Britannica Quiz
 Pop Quiz: 19 Things to Know About the Vietnam War
 Cabinet of President Gerald R. Ford
 August 9, 1974–January 20, 1977 
 State Henry A. Kissinger 
 Treasury William Edward Simon 
 Defense James Rodney Schlesinger 
 Donald Henry Rumsfeld (from November 20, 1975) 
 Attorney General William Bart Saxbe 
 Edward Hirsch Levi (from February 7, 1975) 
 Interior Rogers Clark Ballard Morton, Jr.
 Stanley Knapp Hathaway (from June 13, 1975) 
 Thomas Savig Kleppe (from October 17, 1975) 
 Agriculture Earl Lauer Butz 
 John Albert Knebel (from November 4, 1976) 
 Commerce Frederick Baily Dent 
 Rogers Clark Ballard Morton, Jr. (from May 1, 1975)
 Elliot Lee Richardson (from February 2, 1976) 
 Labor Peter Joseph Brennan 
 John Thomas Dunlop (from March 18, 1975) 
 Willie Julian Usery, Jr. (from February 10, 1976) 
 Health, Education, and Welfare Caspar Willard Weinberger 
 Forrest David Matthews (from August 8, 1975) 
 Housing and Urban Development James Thomas Lynn 
 Carla Anderson Hills (from March 10, 1975) 
 Transportation Claude Stout Brinegar 
 William Thaddeus Coleman, Jr. (from March 7, 1975) 
 

 Gerald Ford, 1974
 U.S. Pres. Gerald Ford defending the pardon of Richard Nixon at a White House press conference, September 16, 1974. (more)

 One of Ford’s early acts as president was the announcement of a conditional amnesty program for those who had evaded the draft or deserted during the Vietnam War. The most attention-getting act of his years in office, and the move that for many destroyed his credibility, followed in the next month. On September 8, 1974, declaring that in the end “it is not the ultimate fate of Richard Nixon that most concerns me” but rather “the immediate future of this great country,” Ford pardoned Nixon “for all offenses against the United States” that he had committed “or may have committed” while in office. The pardon, later alleged to have been the result of blackmail (that if Ford did not pardon him, Nixon would blacken the new president’s reputation by publicly claiming that Ford had promised a pardon in exchange for the presidency), effectively squelched any criminal prosecutions to which Nixon might have been liable. Afterward Ford voluntarily appeared before a subcommittee of the House of Representatives on October 17 to explain his reasoning—the first time a standing president had formally testified before a committee of Congress. In another startling move, Ford annoyed members of his own party by naming Nelson A. Rockefeller, both a party liberal and a representative of the so-called “Eastern establishment,” as his vice president.

 Gerald Ford in the Oval Office, 1975
 Gerald Ford at his desk in the Oval Office, Washington, D.C., 1975. (more)

 Ford’s administration attempted to cope with the high rate of inflation, which he inherited from the Nixon administration, by slowing down the economy. The result was a very severe recession in 1974–75, which succeeded in lowering inflation but at the cost of an unemployment rate that rose to nearly 9 percent. Despite his WIN (Whip Inflation Now) program, he could do little to stop the country’s economic problems. Ford’s relations with the Democrat-controlled Congress were perhaps typified by his more than 50 vetoes of legislation by the end of 1976; more than 40 were sustained. Legislative gridlock set in.

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 During the final days of the Vietnam War, in March 1975, Ford ordered an airlift of some 237,000 anticommunist Vietnamese refugees from Da Nang, most of whom were taken to the United States. Two months later, after the seizure by Cambodia of the American cargo ship Mayaguez, Ford declared the event an “act of piracy” and sent the Marines to seize the ship. They succeeded, but the rescue operation to save the 39-member crew resulted in the loss of 41 American lives and the wounding of 50 others. Moreover, U.S. relations with Thailand became strained because the U.S. strike had been launched from a base in Thailand against the wishes of the Thai government.

 Twice in September 1975, Ford was the target of assassination attempts. In the first instance, Secret Service agents intervened before shots were fired; in the second, the would-be assassin fired one shot at Ford but missed by several feet. In October he initially refused to consider loans to the city of New York, then on the brink of fiscal collapse, and thereby prompted the newspaper headline “Ford to City: Drop Dead.” As the larger implications became clear, he retreated from his earlier position.

 Jimmy Carter and Gerald Ford
 Jimmy Carter (left) and U.S. Pres. Gerald Ford in the first of three televised debates during the 1976 presidential campaign. (more)

 Elizabeth II and Gerald Ford
 Queen Elizabeth II dancing with U.S. Pres. Gerald Ford during a state dinner in honour of the queen and Prince Philip at the White House, July 1976. (more)

 In a close contest at the Republican convention in August 1976, Ford won his party’s nomination, despite a serious challenge by Ronald Reagan, the former governor of California. That fall Ford became the first incumbent president to agree to public debates with a challenger—Jimmy Carter, the Democratic nominee. Ford ran substantially behind from the beginning of the campaign, owing in large part to negative fallout from the Nixon pardon but also to the general public’s perception of his ineptitude. His decisions in office had often seemed to be those of Kissinger and the others left over from the Nixon administration; sometimes, as those made during the Mayaguez incident, they seemed simply ill-considered. He misspoke on many occasions, notably declaring in a debate with Jimmy Carter, “There is no Soviet domination of Eastern Europe” and “I don’t believe that the Poles consider themselves dominated by the Soviet Union,” which journalist William F. Buckley, Jr., called “the ultimate Polish joke.” Even his physical pratfalls, such as hitting his head while deplaning, were well documented for the public. As journalist John Osborne summarized the situation, Ford was seen as

 a loser, a bumbler, a misfit President who for some reason or other…was prone to slip on airplane ramps, bump his head on helicopter entrances, entangle himself in the leashes of his family dogs, and fall from skis in front of television cameras that showed him asprawl in snow.

 American presidential election, 1976
 Results of the American presidential election, 1976. Source: Office of the Clerk of the U.S. House of Representatives. (more)

 Ford was defeated in the November 1976 election by a popular vote of 40.8 million to 39.1 million and an electoral vote of 297 to 240.

In full: 
Gerald Rudolph Ford, Jr.
Original name: 
Leslie Lynch King, Jr.
Died: 
December 26, 2006, Rancho Mirage, California (aged 93)
 
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	Top Questions
	    Where was Gerald Ford educated?       What did Gerald Ford accomplish?       What were Gerald Ford’s jobs?         Gerald Ford (born July 14, 1913, Omaha, Nebraska, U.S.—died December 26, 2006, Rancho Mirage, California) was the 38th president of the United States (1974–77), who, as 40th vice president, had succeeded to the presidency on the resignation of President Richard Nixon, under the process decreed by the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the Constitution, and thereby became the country’s only chief executive who had not been elected either president or vice president.   Early life While Gerald Ford was still an infant, his parents were divorced, and his mother moved to Grand Rapids, Michigan, where she married Gerald R. Ford, Sr., who adopted the boy and gave him his name. After graduating from the University of Michigan (1935), where he was a star football player, Ford worked as an assistant coach while he earned a law degree from Yale University (1941). He joined the navy during World War II and served in the South Pacific, attaining the rank of lieutenant commander and nearly losing his life in 1944 during a deadly typhoon that killed hundreds. In 1948, the year he won his first elective office, as Republican congressman from Michigan, he married Elizabeth Anne Bloomer (Betty Ford), with whom he had four children—three sons (Michael, John, and Steven) and one daughter (Susan).   From congressman to vice president and president        Richard M. Nixon and Gerald Ford      Ford served in Congress for 25 years. Well-liked and ideologically flexible, he won the role of House minority leader in 1965 and held this position until Nixon named him vice president in 1973. During his time in Congress, he had developed a reputation for honesty and openness. When Nixon’s vice president, Spiro T. Agnew, was forced to resign from office in disgrace, the president had no choice but to nominate the only Republican whom the Democratic leadership of Congress would approve, the affable Jerry Ford. In 1974, when it became clear that Nixon would face criminal charges for his role in the Watergate scandal and three articles of impeachment had been passed by the House Judiciary Committee, Nixon resigned, effective August 9. On that day, Ford took the oath of office and became president, stating, “Our long national nightmare is over.” He retained the foreign and domestic policy staffs of the Nixon administration, including Secretary of State Henry Kissinger. (See primary source document: First Address to Congress and the Nation. See also Cabinet of President Gerald Ford.) 
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Pop Quiz: 19 Things to Know About the Vietnam War
        Gerald Ford, 1974      One of Ford’s early acts as president was the announcement of a conditional amnesty program for those who had evaded the draft or deserted during the Vietnam War. The most attention-getting act of his years in office, and the move that for many destroyed his credibility, followed in the next month. On September 8, 1974, declaring that in the end “it is not the ultimate fate of Richard Nixon that most concerns me” but rather “the immediate future of this great country,” Ford pardoned Nixon “for all offenses against the United States” that he had committed “or may have committed” while in office. The pardon, later alleged to have been the result of blackmail (that if Ford did not pardon him, Nixon would blacken the new president’s reputation by publicly claiming that Ford had promised a pardon in exchange for the presidency), effectively squelched any criminal prosecutions to which Nixon might have been liable. Afterward Ford voluntarily appeared before a subcommittee of the House of Representatives on October 17 to explain his reasoning—the first time a standing president had formally testified before a committee of Congress. In another startling move, Ford annoyed members of his own party by naming Nelson A. Rockefeller, both a party liberal and a representative of the so-called “Eastern establishment,” as his vice president. Ford’s administration attempted to cope with the high rate of inflation, which he inherited from the Nixon administration, by slowing down the economy. The result was a very severe recession in 1974–75, which succeeded in lowering inflation but at the cost of an unemployment rate that rose to nearly 9 percent. Despite his WIN (Whip Inflation Now) program, he could do little to stop the country’s economic problems. Ford’s relations with the Democrat-controlled Congress were perhaps typified by his more than 50 vetoes of legislation by the end of 1976; more than 40 were sustained. Legislative gridlock set in. 
 
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 During the final days of the Vietnam War, in March 1975, Ford ordered an airlift of some 237,000 anticommunist Vietnamese refugees from Da Nang, most of whom were taken to the United States. Two months later, after the seizure by Cambodia of the American cargo ship Mayaguez, Ford declared the event an “act of piracy” and sent the Marines to seize the ship. They succeeded, but the rescue operation to save the 39-member crew resulted in the loss of 41 American lives and the wounding of 50 others. Moreover, U.S. relations with Thailand became strained because the U.S. strike had been launched from a base in Thailand against the wishes of the Thai government. Twice in September 1975, Ford was the target of assassination attempts. In the first instance, Secret Service agents intervened before shots were fired; in the second, the would-be assassin fired one shot at Ford but missed by several feet. In October he initially refused to consider loans to the city of New York, then on the brink of fiscal collapse, and thereby prompted the newspaper headline “Ford to City: Drop Dead.” As the larger implications became clear, he retreated from his earlier position. In a close contest at the Republican convention in August 1976, Ford won his party’s nomination, despite a serious challenge by Ronald Reagan, the former governor of California. That fall Ford became the first incumbent president to agree to public debates with a challenger—Jimmy Carter, the Democratic nominee. Ford ran substantially behind from the beginning of the campaign, owing in large part to negative fallout from the Nixon pardon but also to the general public’s perception of his ineptitude. His decisions in office had often seemed to be those of Kissinger and the others left over from the Nixon administration; sometimes, as those made during the Mayaguez incident, they seemed simply ill-considered. He misspoke on many occasions, notably declaring in a debate with Jimmy Carter, “There is no Soviet domination of Eastern Europe” and “I don’t believe that the Poles consider themselves dominated by the Soviet Union,” which journalist William F. Buckley, Jr., called “the ultimate Polish joke.” Even his physical pratfalls, such as hitting his head while deplaning, were well documented for the public. As journalist John Osborne summarized the situation, Ford was seen as  a loser, a bumbler, a misfit President who for some reason or other…was prone to slip on airplane ramps, bump his head on helicopter entrances, entangle himself in the leashes of his family dogs, and fall from skis in front of television cameras that showed him asprawl in snow.  Ford was defeated in the November 1976 election by a popular vote of 40.8 million to 39.1 million and an electoral vote of 297 to 240.
Gerald Ford | Biography, Presidency, Accomplishments, Foreign Policy, & Facts
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gerald-Ford
https://www.britannica.com/biography/McGeorge-Bundy
McGeorge Bundy | Biography, Facts, & Role in Vietnam War
1996-09-17
The Editors
<div><div>
<div>
<dl>
<dt>Died: </dt>
<dd>September 16, 1996, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Boston">Boston</a> (aged 77)</dd>
</dl>
</div><section><p><strong>McGeorge Bundy</strong>, (born March 30, 1919, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Boston">Boston</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a>, U.S.—died September 16, 1996, Boston), American public official and educator, one of the main architects of U.S. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/foreign-policy">foreign policy</a> in the administrations of presidents <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-F-Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Lyndon-B-Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a>.</p><p>Bundy’s father had served as assistant secretary of state under <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Henry-L-Stimson">Henry L. Stimson</a>, and his mother was the daughter of the lawyer-educator <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/A-Lawrence-Lowell">A. Lawrence Lowell</a>. A boyhood classmate of John F. Kennedy, Bundy graduated from Groton Preparatory School (1936) and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Yale-University">Yale University</a> (B.A., 1940) and began <a href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/postgraduate">postgraduate</a> study at <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Harvard-University">Harvard University</a> in 1941. During <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-II">World War II</a>, he served as an intelligence officer and participated in the planning of the invasions of Sicily and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/France">France</a>. After the war he worked closely with Stimson in preparing the latter’s memoirs, <em>On Active Service in Peace and War</em> (1948). In 1949 he joined the department of government at Harvard University, becoming dean of arts and sciences there in 1953.</p><a href="https://www.britannica.com/quiz/pop-quiz-19-things-to-know-about-the-vietnam-war">
<div>
<p>Britannica Quiz</p>
<p>Pop Quiz: 19 Things to Know About the Vietnam War</p>
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</a><p>Bundy supported Kennedy for president in 1960 and in 1961 was made special assistant for national security affairs, a post he retained in the Johnson administration. Under Johnson, Bundy was a forceful advocate of expanding the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States">United States’</a> involvement in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Vietnam-War">Vietnam War</a>. In February 1965, after visiting South Vietnam, he wrote a crucial <a href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/memorandum">memorandum</a> calling for a policy of “sustained reprisal,” including air strikes, against North Vietnam if it did not end its guerrilla war against the South Vietnamese government. Later, however, after he had left government service, he advised Johnson against further escalation of the war. He resigned in early 1966 to become president of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ford-Foundation">Ford Foundation</a>, a position he held until 1979. From 1979 to 1989 he was a professor of history at <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/New-York-University">New York University</a> (emeritus thereafter).</p><p>Bundy was the author of several books, including <em>The Strength of Government</em> (1968) and <em>Danger and Survival: Choices About the Bomb in the First Fifty Years</em> (1988).</p></section>
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 McGeorge Bundy
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 McGeorge Bundy
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 Category: History & Society
 Born: March 30, 1919, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S. (Show more)
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 McGeorge Bundy, (born March 30, 1919, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.—died September 16, 1996, Boston), American public official and educator, one of the main architects of U.S. foreign policy in the administrations of presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson.

 Bundy’s father had served as assistant secretary of state under Henry L. Stimson, and his mother was the daughter of the lawyer-educator A. Lawrence Lowell. A boyhood classmate of John F. Kennedy, Bundy graduated from Groton Preparatory School (1936) and Yale University (B.A., 1940) and began postgraduate study at Harvard University in 1941. During World War II, he served as an intelligence officer and participated in the planning of the invasions of Sicily and France. After the war he worked closely with Stimson in preparing the latter’s memoirs, On Active Service in Peace and War (1948). In 1949 he joined the department of government at Harvard University, becoming dean of arts and sciences there in 1953.

 Britannica Quiz
 Pop Quiz: 19 Things to Know About the Vietnam War

 McGeorge Bundy (centre right) conferring with John F. Kennedy, 1962.

 Bundy supported Kennedy for president in 1960 and in 1961 was made special assistant for national security affairs, a post he retained in the Johnson administration. Under Johnson, Bundy was a forceful advocate of expanding the United States’ involvement in the Vietnam War. In February 1965, after visiting South Vietnam, he wrote a crucial memorandum calling for a policy of “sustained reprisal,” including air strikes, against North Vietnam if it did not end its guerrilla war against the South Vietnamese government. Later, however, after he had left government service, he advised Johnson against further escalation of the war. He resigned in early 1966 to become president of the Ford Foundation, a position he held until 1979. From 1979 to 1989 he was a professor of history at New York University (emeritus thereafter).

 Bundy was the author of several books, including The Strength of Government (1968) and Danger and Survival: Choices About the Bomb in the First Fifty Years (1988).

 This article was most recently revised and updated by Jeff Wallenfeldt .
Died: 
September 16, 1996, Boston (aged 77)
   McGeorge Bundy, (born March 30, 1919, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.—died September 16, 1996, Boston), American public official and educator, one of the main architects of U.S. foreign policy in the administrations of presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson. Bundy’s father had served as assistant secretary of state under Henry L. Stimson, and his mother was the daughter of the lawyer-educator A. Lawrence Lowell. A boyhood classmate of John F. Kennedy, Bundy graduated from Groton Preparatory School (1936) and Yale University (B.A., 1940) and began postgraduate study at Harvard University in 1941. During World War II, he served as an intelligence officer and participated in the planning of the invasions of Sicily and France. After the war he worked closely with Stimson in preparing the latter’s memoirs, On Active Service in Peace and War (1948). In 1949 he joined the department of government at Harvard University, becoming dean of arts and sciences there in 1953. 
Britannica Quiz
Pop Quiz: 19 Things to Know About the Vietnam War
 Bundy supported Kennedy for president in 1960 and in 1961 was made special assistant for national security affairs, a post he retained in the Johnson administration. Under Johnson, Bundy was a forceful advocate of expanding the United States’ involvement in the Vietnam War. In February 1965, after visiting South Vietnam, he wrote a crucial memorandum calling for a policy of “sustained reprisal,” including air strikes, against North Vietnam if it did not end its guerrilla war against the South Vietnamese government. Later, however, after he had left government service, he advised Johnson against further escalation of the war. He resigned in early 1966 to become president of the Ford Foundation, a position he held until 1979. From 1979 to 1989 he was a professor of history at New York University (emeritus thereafter). Bundy was the author of several books, including The Strength of Government (1968) and Danger and Survival: Choices About the Bomb in the First Fifty Years (1988).
McGeorge Bundy | Biography, Facts, & Role in Vietnam War
https://www.britannica.com/biography/McGeorge-Bundy
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Dean-Rusk
Dean Rusk | Biography, Facts, & Role in Vietnam War
1998-07-20
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<p>Also known as: David Dean Rusk</p>
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<section><p><strong>Dean Rusk</strong>, (born February 9, 1909, Cherokee county, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Georgia-state">Georgia</a>, U.S.—died December 20, 1994, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Athens-Georgia">Athens</a>, Georgia), U.S. secretary of state during the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-F-Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Lyndon-B-Johnson">Lyndon Johnson</a> administrations who became a target of antiwar hostility as he consistently defended the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States">United States’</a> participation in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Vietnam-War">Vietnam War</a>.</p><p>After graduating from <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Davidson-College">Davidson College</a> in 1931, Rusk earned his <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/master-degree">master’s degree</a> at <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Saint-Johns-College-Annapolis-Maryland">St. John’s College</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/University-of-Oxford">Oxford</a>, as a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rhodes-Scholarship">Rhodes scholar</a>. From 1934 to 1940 he taught <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/political-science">political science</a> at <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mills-College">Mills College </a>in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Oakland-California">Oakland</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/California-state">California</a>, becoming dean of the faculty in 1938.</p><a href="https://www.britannica.com/quiz/pop-quiz-19-things-to-know-about-the-vietnam-war">
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</a><p>During <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-II">World War II</a> Rusk served Gen. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-W-Stilwell">Joseph W. Stilwell</a> as deputy chief of staff for the China-Burma-India theatre. After the war he held positions in both the state and war departments. In March 1950 he became assistant secretary of state for Far Eastern affairs, a position in which he was involved in U.S. prosecution of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Korean-War">Korean War</a>. Rusk supported the war, but he disagreed with Gen. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Douglas-MacArthur">Douglas MacArthur</a>’s <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/advocacy">advocacy</a> of expanding the fighting into China.</p><p>Rusk was president of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rockefeller-Foundation">Rockefeller Foundation</a> from 1952 to 1960. In 1961 he became secretary of state under President Kennedy. Within a year he faced crises in Cuba, Indochina, and Berlin. Rusk’s characteristically cool and <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/reticent">reticent</a> personality, however, contributed to the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/US-Department-of-State">State Department’s</a> reduced role in national policy making.</p><p>Rusk was retained as secretary of state in the Johnson administration following <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/assassination-of-John-F-Kennedy">Kennedy’s assassination</a>. From 1964 to 1968 he consistently defended the United States’ military involvement in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, making himself a target of growing antiwar <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sentiment">sentiment</a> in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/nation-state">country</a>. His longtime opposition to the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/diplomatic-recognition">diplomatic recognition</a> of communist China confirmed his image as an inflexible <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/stalwart">stalwart</a> of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Cold-War">Cold War</a>.</p><p>Rusk retired after leaving office in January 1969, but he subsequently accepted a professorship in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/international-law">international law</a> at the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/University-of-Georgia">University of Georgia</a>, which he held until his retirement in 1984.</p><div>
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 Dean Rusk
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 Dean Rusk

 United States secretary of state
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 Rusk, Dean
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 In full: David Dean Rusk (Show more)
 Born: February 9, 1909, Cherokee county, Georgia, U.S. (Show more)
 Died: December 20, 1994, Athens, Georgia (aged 85) (Show more)
 Political Affiliation: Democratic Party (Show more)
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 Dean Rusk, (born February 9, 1909, Cherokee county, Georgia, U.S.—died December 20, 1994, Athens, Georgia), U.S. secretary of state during the John F. Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson administrations who became a target of antiwar hostility as he consistently defended the United States’ participation in the Vietnam War.

 After graduating from Davidson College in 1931, Rusk earned his master’s degree at St. John’s College, Oxford, as a Rhodes scholar. From 1934 to 1940 he taught political science at Mills College in Oakland, California, becoming dean of the faculty in 1938.

 Britannica Quiz
 Pop Quiz: 19 Things to Know About the Vietnam War

 During World War II Rusk served Gen. Joseph W. Stilwell as deputy chief of staff for the China-Burma-India theatre. After the war he held positions in both the state and war departments. In March 1950 he became assistant secretary of state for Far Eastern affairs, a position in which he was involved in U.S. prosecution of the Korean War. Rusk supported the war, but he disagreed with Gen. Douglas MacArthur’s advocacy of expanding the fighting into China.

 Rusk was president of the Rockefeller Foundation from 1952 to 1960. In 1961 he became secretary of state under President Kennedy. Within a year he faced crises in Cuba, Indochina, and Berlin. Rusk’s characteristically cool and reticent personality, however, contributed to the State Department’s reduced role in national policy making.

 Rusk, Dean
 Dean Rusk, 1968. (more)

 Rusk was retained as secretary of state in the Johnson administration following Kennedy’s assassination. From 1964 to 1968 he consistently defended the United States’ military involvement in Vietnam, making himself a target of growing antiwar sentiment in the country. His longtime opposition to the diplomatic recognition of communist China confirmed his image as an inflexible stalwart of the Cold War.

 Rusk retired after leaving office in January 1969, but he subsequently accepted a professorship in international law at the University of Georgia, which he held until his retirement in 1984.

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 This article was most recently revised and updated by Jeff Wallenfeldt .
United States secretary of state
Also known as: David Dean Rusk
 
  Dean Rusk, (born February 9, 1909, Cherokee county, Georgia, U.S.—died December 20, 1994, Athens, Georgia), U.S. secretary of state during the John F. Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson administrations who became a target of antiwar hostility as he consistently defended the United States’ participation in the Vietnam War. After graduating from Davidson College in 1931, Rusk earned his master’s degree at St. John’s College, Oxford, as a Rhodes scholar. From 1934 to 1940 he taught political science at Mills College in Oakland, California, becoming dean of the faculty in 1938. 
Britannica Quiz
Pop Quiz: 19 Things to Know About the Vietnam War
 During World War II Rusk served Gen. Joseph W. Stilwell as deputy chief of staff for the China-Burma-India theatre. After the war he held positions in both the state and war departments. In March 1950 he became assistant secretary of state for Far Eastern affairs, a position in which he was involved in U.S. prosecution of the Korean War. Rusk supported the war, but he disagreed with Gen. Douglas MacArthur’s advocacy of expanding the fighting into China. Rusk was president of the Rockefeller Foundation from 1952 to 1960. In 1961 he became secretary of state under President Kennedy. Within a year he faced crises in Cuba, Indochina, and Berlin. Rusk’s characteristically cool and reticent personality, however, contributed to the State Department’s reduced role in national policy making. Rusk was retained as secretary of state in the Johnson administration following Kennedy’s assassination. From 1964 to 1968 he consistently defended the United States’ military involvement in Vietnam, making himself a target of growing antiwar sentiment in the country. His longtime opposition to the diplomatic recognition of communist China confirmed his image as an inflexible stalwart of the Cold War. Rusk retired after leaving office in January 1969, but he subsequently accepted a professorship in international law at the University of Georgia, which he held until his retirement in 1984. 
 
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Dean Rusk | Biography, Facts, & Role in Vietnam War
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Dean-Rusk
https://crossword-solver.io/clue/first-name-of-the-26th-president-of-the-usa/
First name of the 26th President of the USA
2015-04-25
None
<div><div><nav><ol><li><a href="https://crossword-solver.io/">Crossword Solver</a></li> <li></li> <li> </li></ol> </nav> <section><section> <div><h2>Search Answers</h2></div> <div> <h2>Search Crossword Answers</h2> </div> </section> <div> <p>Here is the answer for the crossword clue <strong>First name of the 26th President of the USA</strong> featured on
	<strong>April 25, 2015</strong>. We have found 40 possible answers
	for this clue in our database. Among them, one solution stands out with a
	<strong>94% match</strong>
	which has a length of 8 letters. We think the likely answer to this clue
	is .</p> <h2>Crossword Answer:</h2> <div> <p>You can click on thetiles to
	reveal letter by letter before uncovering the full solution.</p> </div> <div><section><h2>40 Potential Answers:</h2> <div><table><thead><tr><th>Rank</th><th>Answer</th><th>Length</th><th>Source</th><th>Date</th></tr></thead> <tbody><tr><td></td> <td><a href="https://crossword-solver.io/answer/theodore/">THEODORE</a> </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><a href="https://crossword-solver.io/answer/roosevelt/">ROOSEVELT</a> </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><a href="https://crossword-solver.io/answer/george/">GEORGE</a> </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> Mar 7, 2024 </td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><a href="https://crossword-solver.io/answer/fillmore/">FILLMORE</a> </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><a href="https://crossword-solver.io/answer/tyler/">TYLER</a> </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><a href="https://crossword-solver.io/answer/bush/">BUSH</a> </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><a href="https://crossword-solver.io/answer/reagan/">REAGAN</a> </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><a href="https://crossword-solver.io/answer/laborday/">LABORDAY</a> </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><a href="https://crossword-solver.io/answer/benbella/">BENBELLA</a> </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> Mar 13, 2024 </td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><a href="https://crossword-solver.io/answer/american/">AMERICAN</a> </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </div></section> <section><div><p></p><div><p>Stay up-to-date with our updates!</p> <p>Explore your favorite daily puzzles and get quick tips, find missing answers to
	complete your crossword.</p> </div></div> </section> <section><h2>Fresh Clues From Recent Puzzles</h2> <ul><li> </li><li> </li><li> </li><li> <a href="https://crossword-solver.io/crossword-answers/family-time">Family Time </a> </li><li> <a href="https://crossword-solver.io/crossword-answers/guardian-cryptic">The Guardian Cryptic </a> </li><li> </li><li> <a href="https://crossword-solver.io/crossword-answers/ny-times">New York Times </a> </li><li> </li><li> </li><li> </li><li> </li><li> <a href="https://crossword-solver.io/crossword-answers/puzzler">Puzzler </a> </li><li> </li><li> <a href="https://crossword-solver.io/crossword-answers/thomas-joseph">Thomas Joseph </a> </li><li> </li><li> </li><li> </li><li> </li><li> <a href="https://crossword-solver.io/crossword-answers/eugene-sheffer">Eugene Sheffer </a> </li><li> </li><li> </li><li> <a href="https://crossword-solver.io/crossword-answers/mirror-quiz">Mirror Quiz </a> </li><li> </li><li> </li><li> </li><li> </li><li> </li><li> </li><li> </li><li> <a href="https://crossword-solver.io/crossword-answers/two-speed">The Sun Two Speed </a> </li><li> <a href="https://crossword-solver.io/crossword-answers/puzzler">Puzzler </a> </li><li> <a href="https://crossword-solver.io/crossword-answers/tca-commuter">Commuter </a> </li><li> </li><li> </li><li> </li><li> </li><li> <a href="https://crossword-solver.io/crossword-answers/usa-today">USA Today </a> </li><li> </li><li> <a href="https://crossword-solver.io/crossword-answers/universal">Universal </a> </li><li> <a href="https://crossword-solver.io/crossword-answers/the-times-quick-cryptic">The Times Quick Cryptic </a> </li><li> </li><li> <a href="https://crossword-solver.io/crossword-answers/universal">Universal </a> </li><li> </li><li> <a href="https://crossword-solver.io/crossword-answers/ny-times">New York Times </a> </li><li> </li><li> </li><li> </li><li> <a href="https://crossword-solver.io/crossword-answers/mirror-quiz">Mirror Quiz </a> </li><li> </li><li> <a href="https://crossword-solver.io/crossword-answers/newsday-com">Newsday </a> </li></ul> </section> <section><h2>Your Crossword Clues FAQ Guide</h2> <section><h3></h3> <section><p>We found 40 solutions for First name of the 26th President of the USA. The top solutions are determined by popularity, ratings and frequency of searches. The most likely answer for the clue is THEODORE.</p> </section><h3></h3> <section><p>With crossword-solver.io you will find 40 solutions. We use historic puzzles to find the best matches for your question. We add many new clues on a daily basis.</p> </section><h3></h3> <section><p>With our crossword solver search engine you have access to over 7 million clues. You can narrow down the possible answers by specifying the number of letters it contains. We found more than 40 answers for First name of the 26th President of the USA.</p> </section></section> </section></div></div></section> </div></div>||||I|||| * Crossword Solver

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 First name of the 26th President of the USA

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 Here is the answer for the crossword clue First name of the 26th President of the USA featured on April 25, 2015. We have found 40 possible answers for this clue in our database. Among them, one solution stands out with a 94% match which has a length of 8 letters. We think the likely answer to this clue is THEODORE .

 Crossword Answer:

 1
 1 T
 2
 2 H
 3
 3 E
 4
 4 O
 5
 5 D
 6
 6 O
 7
 7 R
 8
 8 E

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 40 Potential Answers:

 Rank Answer Length Source Date 
 94% THEODORE First name of the 26th President of the USA (8) 
 4% ROOSEVELT 26th US president (9) (9) 
 4% GEORGE First President's first name (6) Commuter Mar 7, 2024 
 3% FILLMORE Millard ___, last Whig president of the USA (8) 
 3% TYLER John :10th. President of USA? (5) 
 3% BUSH What was the surname of the 41st president of the USA? (4) (4) 
 3% REAGAN 40th President of the USA (6) (6) 
 3% LABORDAY First Monday in September in the USA (8) 
 3% BENBELLA Ahmed -, first president of Algeria (8) Mirror Quiz Mar 13, 2024
 3% AMERICAN Of the USA (8) 
 
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 We found 40 solutions for First name of the 26th President of the USA. The top solutions are determined by popularity, ratings and frequency of searches. The most likely answer for the clue is THEODORE.

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 With crossword-solver.io you will find 40 solutions. We use historic puzzles to find the best matches for your question. We add many new clues on a daily basis.

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Crossword Solver           Search Answers   Search Crossword Answers    Here is the answer for the crossword clue First name of the 26th President of the USA featured on
	April 25, 2015. We have found 40 possible answers
	for this clue in our database. Among them, one solution stands out with a
	94% match
	which has a length of 8 letters. We think the likely answer to this clue
	is . Crossword Answer:  You can click on thetiles to
	reveal letter by letter before uncovering the full solution.    40 Potential Answers:     Rank Answer Length Source Date        THEODORE             ROOSEVELT             GEORGE       Mar 7, 2024       FILLMORE             TYLER             BUSH             REAGAN             LABORDAY             BENBELLA       Mar 13, 2024       AMERICAN                  Stay up-to-date with our updates! Explore your favorite daily puzzles and get quick tips, find missing answers to
	complete your crossword.     Fresh Clues From Recent Puzzles         Family Time    The Guardian Cryptic      New York Times            Puzzler      Thomas Joseph            Eugene Sheffer        Mirror Quiz                  The Sun Two Speed    Puzzler    Commuter            USA Today      Universal    The Times Quick Cryptic      Universal      New York Times          Mirror Quiz      Newsday      Your Crossword Clues FAQ Guide     We found 40 solutions for First name of the 26th President of the USA. The top solutions are determined by popularity, ratings and frequency of searches. The most likely answer for the clue is THEODORE.     With crossword-solver.io you will find 40 solutions. We use historic puzzles to find the best matches for your question. We add many new clues on a daily basis.     With our crossword solver search engine you have access to over 7 million clues. You can narrow down the possible answers by specifying the number of letters it contains. We found more than 40 answers for First name of the 26th President of the USA.
First name of the 26th President of the USA
https://crossword-solver.io/clue/first-name-of-the-26th-president-of-the-usa/
https://www.danword.com/crossword/Roosevelt_26th_president_of_the_USA
--- Roosevelt, 26th president of the USA - crossword puzzle clues & answers
2002-01-01
None
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 --- Roosevelt, 26th president of the USA

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 * R
 * E

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  We provide the likeliest answers for every crossword clue. Undoubtedly, there may be other solutions for --- Roosevelt, 26th president of the USA. If you discover one of these, please send it to us, and we'll add it to our database of clues and answers, so others can benefit from your research.
--- Roosevelt, 26th president of the USA - crossword puzzle clues & answers
https://www.danword.com/crossword/Roosevelt_26th_president_of_the_USA
https://www.nps.gov/sahi/index.htm
Sagamore Hill National Historic Site (U.S. National Park Service)
2022-09-01
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<h2>The Summer White House</h2>
<p>Sagamore Hill was the home of Theodore Roosevelt, 26th President of the United States, from 1885 until his death in 1919. During Roosevelt's time in office, his "Summer White House" was the focus of international attention. Explore 83 acres of natural surroundings and historic buildings and become inspired by the legacy of one of America's most popular presidents. </p>
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<p>Find information about purchasing tickets to see the inside of Theodore Roosevelt's home.</p>
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<p></p><h2>Visiting Cold Spring Harbor Beach </h2>
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<p>Sagamore Hill’s nature trail leads to scenic water views of a salt marsh and beach. Read on to learn about visiting this special area.</p>
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<p>Last updated: September 1, 2022</p>
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EXPLORE THEODORE ROOSEVELT'S HOME
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 The Summer White House      
       
 Sagamore Hill was the home of Theodore Roosevelt, 26th President of the United States, from 1885 until his death in 1919. During Roosevelt's time in office, his "Summer White House" was the focus of international attention. Explore 83 acres of natural surroundings and historic buildings and become inspired by the legacy of one of America's most popular presidents.
       
 Sagamore Hill Tours      
       
 Find information about purchasing tickets to see the inside of Theodore Roosevelt's home.     
       
 Visiting Sagamore Hill      
       
 Learn more about the current status of the park including public access and programs.     
       
 Visiting Cold Spring Harbor Beach      
       
 Sagamore Hill’s nature trail leads to scenic water views of a salt marsh and beach. Read on to learn about visiting this special area.    
       
 Take a Virtual Tour of TR's Home      
       
 Be an armchair explorer! Visit Sagamore Hill virtually through Google Arts & Culture.     
       
 Educators: Take a Virtual Field Trip      
       
 Download our curriculum-based virtual field trip lesson plan.     
       
 Read About The Roosevelt Family      
       
 Learn more about the dynamic family that called Sagamore Hill home.     
       
 Learn About Nature at Sagamore Hill      
       
 Read about wildlife, plants, and the natural setting around Theodore Roosevelt's Home.     
       
 Watch Park Films Online      
       
 Learn more about the Roosevelts and life at Sagamore Hill.     
       
 Visit our bookstore      
       
 Your purchase helps support Sagamore Hill's interpretive and educational programs.     
       
 

 Last updated: September 1, 2022

 EXPLORE THEODORE ROOSEVELT'S HOME

 See Theodore Roosevelt's Home Sagamore Hill Tours
 Learn about the 26th President Theodore Roosevelt
 More than a House! Things to Do
 Visiting with a Dog? Be Sure to B.A.R.K!

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 Oyster Bay , NY 11771

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The Summer White House
Sagamore Hill was the home of Theodore Roosevelt, 26th President of the United States, from 1885 until his death in 1919. During Roosevelt's time in office, his "Summer White House" was the focus of international attention. Explore 83 acres of natural surroundings and historic buildings and become inspired by the legacy of one of America's most popular presidents. 
  Sagamore Hill Tours
Find information about purchasing tickets to see the inside of Theodore Roosevelt's home.
  Visiting Cold Spring Harbor Beach 
Sagamore Hill’s nature trail leads to scenic water views of a salt marsh and beach. Read on to learn about visiting this special area.
  Visit our bookstore
Your purchase helps support Sagamore Hill's interpretive and educational programs.
Last updated: September 1, 2022
 
EXPLORE THEODORE ROOSEVELT'S HOME
Sagamore Hill National Historic Site (U.S. National Park Service)
https://www.nps.gov/sahi/index.htm
https://www.educationworld.com/a_lesson/edit/edit1011.shtml
Every-Day Edits: President Theodore Roosevelt
2012-11-10
None
<div><div>
<p>Hand out this printable student work sheet with the uncorrected text for students to find errors of capitalization, punctuation, spelling, or grammar.</p>
<ul><li></li>
<li></li>
<li>.</li>
</ul>
<p></p>
<p>Uncorrected Text</p>
<p>Theodore Roosevelt was born in New York city on October 27, 1858. He become the 26th prezident of the United States when president McKinley died. Roosevelt oversaw construction of the Panama Canal. He won the nobel Peace Prize for his role in bring the Russo-Japanese War to a peace full end. Did you know that the "Teddy bare" was named for Roosevelt. One of his favorite quotes was an old proverb: "Speak softly and carry a big stick.</p>
<p>Answer Key</p>
<p>Theodore Roosevelt was born in New York ity on October 27, 1858. He the 26th of the United States when resident McKinley died. Roosevelt oversaw construction of the Panama Canal. He won the obel Peace Prize for his role in the Russo-Japanese War to a end. Did you know that the "Teddy " was named for Roosevelt One of his favorite quotes was an old proverb: "Speak softly and carry a big stick.</p>
<p>Copyright © Education World</p>
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 Home >> Lesson Plans >> Every-Day Edits: President Theodore Roosevelt

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 President Theodore Roosevelt

 Hand out this printable student work sheet with the uncorrected text for students to find errors of capitalization, punctuation, spelling, or grammar.

 * Printable Student Handout Worksheet (Scroll down for Answer key.)
 * View all Every-Day Edit activities
 * Ideas for Using Every-Day Edit in the classroom .

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 Uncorrected Text

 Theodore Roosevelt was born in New York city on October 27, 1858. He become the 26th prezident of the United States when president McKinley died. Roosevelt oversaw construction of the Panama Canal. He won the nobel Peace Prize for his role in bring the Russo-Japanese War to a peace full end. Did you know that the "Teddy bare" was named for Roosevelt. One of his favorite quotes was an old proverb: "Speak softly and carry a big stick.

 Answer Key

 Theodore Roosevelt was born in New York C ity on October 27, 1858. He became the 26th president of the United States when P resident McKinley died. Roosevelt oversaw construction of the Panama Canal. He won the N obel Peace Prize for his role in bringing the Russo-Japanese War to a peaceful end. Did you know that the "Teddy bear " was named for Roosevelt ? One of his favorite quotes was an old proverb: "Speak softly and carry a big stick. "

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 125 Report Card Comments It's report card time and you face the prospect of writing constructive, insightful, and original comments on a couple dozen report cards or more. Here are 125 positive report card comments for you to use and adapt! Struggling Students? Check out our Needs Improvement Report Card Comments for even more comments! You've reached the end of another grading period, and what could be more daunting than the task of composing insightful, original, and unique comments about every child in your class? The following positive statements will help you tailor your comments to specific children and highlight their strengths. You can also use our statements to indicate a need for improvement. Turn the words around a bit, and you will transform each into a goal for a child to work toward. Sam cooperates consistently with others becomes Sam needs to cooperate more consistently with others, and Sally uses vivid language in writing may instead read With practice, Sally will learn to use vivid language in her writing. Make Jan seeks new challenges into a request for parental support by changing it to read Please encourage Jan to seek new challenges. Whether you are tweaking statements from this page or creating original ones, check out our Report Card Thesaurus [see bottom of the page] that contains a list of appropriate adjectives and adverbs. There you will find the right words to keep your comments fresh and accurate. We have organized our 125 report card comments by category. Read the entire list or click one of the category links below to jump to that list. AttitudeBehaviorCharacterCommunication SkillsGroup WorkInterests and TalentsParticipationSocial SkillsTime ManagementWork Habits Attitude The student: is an enthusiastic learner who seems to enjoy school. exhibits a positive outlook and attitude in the classroom. appears well rested and ready for each day's activities. shows enthusiasm for classroom activities. shows initiative and looks for new ways to get involved. uses instincts to deal with matters independently and in a positive way. strives to reach their full potential. is committed to doing their best. seeks new challenges. takes responsibility for their learning. Behavior The student: cooperates consistently with the teacher and other students. transitions easily between classroom activities without distraction. is courteous and shows good manners in the classroom. follows classroom rules. conducts themselves with maturity. responds appropriately when corrected. remains focused on the activity at hand. resists the urge to be distracted by other students. is kind and helpful to everyone in the classroom. sets an example of excellence in behavior and cooperation. Character The student: shows respect for teachers and peers. treats school property and the belongings of others with care and respect. is honest and trustworthy in dealings with others. displays good citizenship by assisting other students. joins in school community projects. is concerned about the feelings of peers. faithfully performs classroom tasks. can be depended on to do what they are asked to do. seeks responsibilities and follows through. is thoughtful in interactions with others. is kind, respectful and helpful when interacting with his/her peers is respectful of other students in our classroom and the school community demonstrates responsibility daily by caring for the materials in our classroom carefully and thoughtfully takes his/her classroom jobs seriously and demonstrates responsibility when completing them is always honest and can be counted on to recount information when asked is considerate when interacting with his/her teachers demonstrates his/her manners on a daily basis and is always respectful has incredible self-discipline and always gets his/her work done in a timely manner can be counted on to be one of the first students to begin working on the task that is given perseveres when faced with difficulty by asking questions and trying his/her best does not give up when facing a task that is difficult and always does his/her best is such a caring boy/girl and demonstrates concern for his/her peers demonstrates his/her caring nature when helping his/her peers when they need the assistance is a model citizen in our classroom is demonstrates his/her citizenship in our classroom by helping to keep it clean and taking care of the materials in it can always be counted on to cooperate with his/her peers is able to cooperate and work well with any of the other students in the class is exceptionally organized and takes care of his/her things is always enthusiastic when completing his/her work is agreeable and polite when working with others is thoughtful and kind in his/her interactions with others is creative when problem solving is very hardworking and always completes all of his/her work is patient and kind when working with his/her peers who need extra assistance trustworthy and can always be counted on to step in and help where needed Communication Skills The student: has a well-developed vocabulary. chooses words with care. expresses ideas clearly, both verbally and through writing. has a vibrant imagination and excels in creative writing. has found their voice through poetry writing. uses vivid language in writing. writes clearly and with purpose. writes with depth and insight. can make a logical and persuasive argument. listens to the comments and ideas of others without interrupting. Group Work The student: offers constructive suggestions to peers to enhance their work. accepts the recommendations of peers and acts on them when appropriate. is sensitive to the thoughts and opinions of others in the group. takes on various roles in the work group as needed or assigned. welcomes leadership roles in groups. shows fairness in distributing group tasks. plans and carries out group activities carefully. works democratically with peers. encourages other members of the group. helps to keep the work group focused and on task. Interests and Talents The student: has a well-developed sense of humor. holds many varied interests. has a keen interest that has been shared with the class. displays and talks about personal items from home when they relate to topics of study. provides background knowledge about topics of particular interest to them. has an impressive understanding and depth of knowledge about their interests. seeks additional information independently about classroom topics that pique interest. reads extensively for enjoyment. frequently discusses concepts about which they have read. is a gifted performer. is a talented artist. has a flair for dramatic reading and acting. enjoys sharing their musical talent with the class. Participation The student: listens attentively to the responses of others. follows directions. takes an active role in discussions. enhances group discussion through insightful comments. shares personal experiences and opinions with peers. responds to what has been read or discussed in class and as homework. asks for clarification when needed. regularly volunteers to assist in classroom activities. remains an active learner throughout the school day. Social Skills The student: makes friends quickly in the classroom. is well-liked by classmates. handles disagreements with peers appropriately. treats other students with fairness and understanding. is a valued member of the class. has compassion for peers and others. seems comfortable in new situations. enjoys conversation with friends during free periods. chooses to spend free time with friends. Time Management The student: tackles classroom assignments, tasks, and group work in an organized manner. uses class time wisely. arrives on time for school (and/or class) every day. is well-prepared for class each day. works at an appropriate pace, neither too quickly or slowly. completes assignments in the time allotted. paces work on long-term assignments. sets achievable goals with respect to time. completes make-up work in a timely fashion. Work Habits The student: is a conscientious, hard-working student. works independently. is a self-motivated student. consistently completes homework assignments. puts forth their best effort into homework assignments. exceeds expectations with the quality of their work. readily grasps new concepts and ideas. generates neat and careful work. checks work thoroughly before submitting it. stays on task with little supervision. displays self-discipline. avoids careless errors through attention to detail. uses free minutes of class time constructively. creates impressive home projects. Related: Needs Improvement Report Card Comments for even more comments! Student Certificates! Recognize positive attitudes and achievements with personalized student award certificates! Report Card Thesaurus Looking for some great adverbs and adjectives to bring to life the comments that you put on report cards? Go beyond the stale and repetitive With this list, your notes will always be creative and unique. Adjectives attentive, capable, careful, cheerful, confident, cooperative, courteous, creative, dynamic, eager, energetic, generous, hard-working, helpful, honest, imaginative, independent, industrious, motivated, organized, outgoing, pleasant, polite, resourceful, sincere, unique Adverbs always, commonly, consistently, daily, frequently, monthly, never, occasionally, often, rarely, regularly, typically, usually, weekly Copyright© 2022 Education World
 125 Report Card Comments
 Back to Geography Lesson Plan Where Did Foods Originate? (Foods of the New World and Old World) Subjects Arts & Humanities --Language Arts Educational Technology Science --Agriculture Social Studies --Economics --Geography --History ----U.S. History ----World History --Regions/Cultures Grade K-2 3-5 6-8 9-12 Advanced Brief Description Students explore how New World explorers helped change the Old World's diet (and vice versa). Objectives Students will learn about changes that occurred in the New World and Old World as a result of early exploration. use library and Internet sources to research food origins. (Older students only.) create a bulletin-board map illustrating the many foods that were shared as a result of exploration. Keywords Columbus, explorers, origin, food, timeline, plants, map, New World, Old World, colonies, colonial, crops, media literacy, products, consumer Materials Needed: library and/or Internet access (older students only) outline map of the world (You might print the map on a transparency; then use an overhead projector to project and trace a large outline map of the world onto white paper on a bulletin board.) magazines (optional) Lesson Plan The early explorers to the Americas were exposed to many things they had never seen before. Besides strange people and animals, they were exposed to many foods that were unknown in the Old World. In this lesson, you might post an outline map of the continents on a bulletin board. Have students use library and/or Internet resources (provided below) to research some of the edible items the first explorers saw for the first time in the New World. On the bulletin board, draw an arrow from the New World (the Americas) to the Old World (Europe, Asia, Africa) and post around it drawings or images (from magazines or clip art) of products discovered in the New World and taken back to the Old World. Soon, the explorers would introduce plants/foods from the Old World to the Americas. You might draw a second arrow on the board -- from the Old World to the New World -- and post appropriate drawings or images around it. Adapt the Lesson for Younger Students Younger students will not have the ability to research foods that originated in the New and Old World. You might adapt the lesson by sharing some of the food items in the Food Lists section below. Have students collect or draw pictures of those items for the bulletin board display. Resources In addition to library resources, students might use the following Internet sites as they research the geographic origins of some foods: Curry, Spice, and All Things Nice: Food Origins The Food Timeline Native Foods of the Americas A Harvest Gathered: Food in the New World We Are What We Eat Timeline (Note: This resource is an archived resource; the original page is no longer live and updated.) Food Lists Our research uncovered the Old and New World foods below. Students might find many of those and add them to the bulletin board display. Notice that some items appear on both lists -- beans, for example. There are many varieties of beans, some with New World origins and others with their origins in the Old World. In our research, we found sources that indicate onions originated in the New and sources that indicate onions originated in the Old World. Students might create a special question mark symbol to post next to any item for which contradictory sources can be found Note: The Food Timeline is a resource that documents many Old World products. This resource sets up a number of contradictions. For example: Many sources note that tomatoes originated in the New World; The Food Timeline indicates that tomatoes were introduced to the New World in 1781. The Food Timeline indicates that strawberries and raspberries were available in the 1st century in Europe; other sources identify them as New World commodities. Foods That Originated in the New World: artichokes, avocados, beans (kidney and lima), black walnuts, blueberries, cacao (cocoa/chocolate), cashews, cassava, chestnuts, corn (maize), crab apples, cranberries, gourds, hickory nuts, onions, papayas, peanuts, pecans, peppers (bell peppers, chili peppers), pineapples, plums, potatoes, pumpkins, raspberries, squash, strawberries, sunflowers, sweet potatoes, tobacco, tomatoes, turkey, vanilla, wild cherries, wild rice. Foods That Originated in the Old World: apples, bananas, beans (some varieties), beets, broccoli, carrots, cattle (beef), cauliflower, celery, cheese, cherries, chickens, chickpeas, cinnamon, coffee, cows, cucumbers, eggplant, garlic, ginger, grapes, honey (honey bees), lemons, lettuce, limes, mangos, oats, okra, olives, onions, oranges, pasta, peaches, pears, peas, pigs, radishes, rice, sheep, spinach, tea, watermelon, wheat, yams. Extension Activities Home-school connection. Have students and their parents search their food cupboards at home; ask each student to bring in two food items whose origin can be traced to a specific place (foreign if possible, domestic if not). Labels from those products will be sufficient, especially if the products are in breakable containers. Place those labels/items around a world map; use yarn to connect each label to the location of its origin on the map. Media literacy. Because students will research many sources, have them list the sources for the information they find about each food item. Have them place an asterisk or checkmark next to the food item each time they find that item in a different source. If students find a food in multiple sources, they might consider it "verified"; those foods they find in only one source might require additional research to verify. Assessment Invite students to agree or disagree with the following statement:The early explorers were surprised by many of the foods they saw in the New World. Have students write a paragraph in support of their opinion. Lesson Plan Source Education World Submitted By Gary Hopkins National Standards LANGUAGE ARTS: EnglishGRADES K - 12NL-ENG.K-12.2 Reading for UnderstandingNL-ENG.K-12.8 Developing Research SkillsNL-ENG.K-12.9 Multicultural UnderstandingNL-ENG.K-12.12 Applying Language Skills SOCIAL SCIENCES: EconomicsGRADES K - 4NSS-EC.K-4.1 Productive ResourcesNSS-EC.K-4.6 Gain from TradeGRADES 5 - 8NSS-EC.5-8.1 Productive ResourcesNSS-EC.5-8.6 Gain from TradeGRADES 9 - 12NSS-EC.9-12.1 Productive ResourcesNSS-EC.9-12.6 Gain from Trade SOCIAL SCIENCES: GeographyGRADES K - 12NSS-G.K-12.1 The World in Spatial TermsNSS-G.K-12.2 Places and Regions SOCIAL SCIENCES: U.S. HistoryGRADES K - 4NSS-USH.K-4.1 Living and Working together in Families and Communities, Now and Long AgoNSS-USH.K-4.3 The History of the United States: Democratic Principles and Values and the People from Many Cultures Who Contributed to Its Cultural, Economic, and Political HeritageNSS-USH.K-4.4 The History of Peoples of Many Cultures Around the WorldGRADES 5 - 12NSS-USH.5-12.1 Era 1: Three Worlds Meet (Beginnings to 1620)NSS-USH.5-12.2 Era 2: Colonization and Settlement (1585-1763)NSS-WH.5-12.6 Global Expansion and Encounter, 1450-1770 TECHNOLOGYGRADES K - 12NT.K-12.1 Basic Operations and ConceptsNT.K-12.5 Technology Research Tools Find many more great geography lesson ideas and resources in Education World's Geography Center. Click here to return to this week's World of Learning lesson plan page. Updated 10/11/12
 Where Did Foods Originate? (Foods of the New World and Old World)
 50 "Needs Improvement" Report Card Comments Having a tough time finding the right words to come up with "areas for improvement" comments on your students' report cards? Check out our helpful suggestions to find just the right one! The following statements will help you tailor your comments to specific children and highlight their areas for improvement. Be sure to check out our 125 Report Card Comments for positive comments! Needs Improvement- all topics is a hard worker, but has difficulty staying on task. has a difficult time staying on task and completing his/her work. needs to be more respectful and courteous to his/her classmates. needs to listen to directions fully so that he/she can learn to work more independently. is not demonstrating responsibility and needs to be consistently reminded of how to perform daily classroom tasks. works well alone, but needs to learn how to work better cooperatively with peers. does not have a positive attitude about school and the work that needs to be completed. struggles with completing his/her work in a timely manner. gives up easily when something is difficult and needs extensive encouragement to attempt the task. gets along with his/her classmates well, but is very disruptive during full group instruction. has a difficult time using the materials in the classroom in a respectful and appropriate manner. has a difficult time concentrating and gets distracted easily. is having a difficult time with math. Going over _____ at home would help considerably. is having a very difficult time understanding math concepts for his/her grade level. He/she would benefit from extra assistance. could benefit from spending time reading with an adult every day. is enthusiastic, but is not understanding ____. Additional work on these topics would be incredibly helpful. is having difficulty concentrating during math lessons and is not learning the material that is being taught because of that. understands math concepts when using manipulatives, but is having a difficult time learning to ____ without them. is a very enthusiastic reader. He/she needs to continue to work on _____ to make him/her a better reader. needs to practice reading at home every day to help make him/her a stronger reader. needs to practice his/her sight words so that he/she knows them on sight and can spell them. needs to work on his/her spelling. Practicing at home would be very beneficial. can read words fluently, but has a difficult time with comprehension. Reading with ______ every day would be helpful. could benefit from working on his/her handwriting. Slowing down and taking more time would help with this. is having difficulty writing stories. Encouraging him/her to tell stories at home would help with this. has a difficult time knowing when it is appropriate to share his/her thoughts. We are working on learning when it is a good time to share and when it is a good time to listen. needs to work on his/her time management skills. _______is able to complete his/her work, but spends too much time on other tasks and rarely completes his/her work. needs reminders about the daily classroom routine. Talking through the classroom routine at home would be helpful. is having a difficult time remembering the difference between short and long vowel sounds. Practicing these at home would be very helpful. is struggling with reading. He/she does not seem to enjoy it and does not want to do it. Choosing books that he/she like and reading them with him/her at home will help build a love of reading. frequently turns in incomplete homework or does not hand in any homework. Encouraging _______to complete his/her homework would be very helpful. does not take pride in his/her work. We are working to help him/her feel good about what he/she accomplishes. does not actively participate in small group activities. Active participation would be beneficial. has a difficult time remembering to go back and check his/her work. Because of this, there are often spelling and grammar mistakes in his/her work. does not much effort into his/her writing. As a result, his/her work is often messy and incomplete. is struggling to understand new concepts in science. Paying closer attention to the class discussions and the readings that we are doing would be beneficial. is reading significantly below grade level. Intervention is required. does not write a clear beginning, middle and end when writing a story. We are working to identify the parts of the stories that he/she is writing. is struggling to use new reading strategies to help him/her read higher level books. is wonderful at writing creative stories, but needs to work on writing nonfiction and using facts. has a difficult time understanding how to solve word problems. needs to slow down and go back and check his/her work to make sure that all answers are correct. is not completing math work that is on grade level. Intervention is required. is struggling to understand place value. is very enthusiastic about math, but struggles to understand basic concepts. has a difficult time remembering the value of different coins and how to count them. Practicing this at home would be helpful. would benefit from practicing math facts at home. is very engaged during whole group math instruction, but struggles to work independently. is able to correctly answer word problems, but is unable to explain how he/she got the answer. is having a difficult time comparing numbers. Related: 125 Report Card Comments for positive comments! Student Award Certificates! Recognize positive attitudes and achievements with personalized student award certificates! Copyright© 2020 Education World
 50 Needs Improvement Report Card Comments
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Hand out this printable student work sheet with the uncorrected text for students to find errors of capitalization, punctuation, spelling, or grammar.
  
 
.
 
Uncorrected Text
Theodore Roosevelt was born in New York city on October 27, 1858. He become the 26th prezident of the United States when president McKinley died. Roosevelt oversaw construction of the Panama Canal. He won the nobel Peace Prize for his role in bring the Russo-Japanese War to a peace full end. Did you know that the "Teddy bare" was named for Roosevelt. One of his favorite quotes was an old proverb: "Speak softly and carry a big stick.
Answer Key
Theodore Roosevelt was born in New York ity on October 27, 1858. He the 26th of the United States when resident McKinley died. Roosevelt oversaw construction of the Panama Canal. He won the obel Peace Prize for his role in the Russo-Japanese War to a end. Did you know that the "Teddy " was named for Roosevelt One of his favorite quotes was an old proverb: "Speak softly and carry a big stick.
Copyright © Education World
Every-Day Edits: President Theodore Roosevelt
https://www.educationworld.com/a_lesson/edit/edit1011.shtml
https://www.thoughtco.com/theodore-roosevelt-26th-president-united-states-105370
Learn About Theodore Roosevelt's Life and Presidency
2006-07-29
Martin Kelly
<div><div>
<p>
Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919) served as America's 26th president. He was known as a trust buster and progressive politician. His fascinating life included serving as a Rough Rider during the Spanish American War. When he decided to run for reelection, he created his own third party nicknamed the Bull Moose Party. 
</p>
<h2> Theodore Roosevelt's Childhood and Education </h2>
<p>
Born on October 27, 1858, in New York City, Roosevelt grew up very sickly with asthma and other illnesses. As he grew up, he exercised and boxed to try and build up his constitution. His family was wealthy traveling to Europe and Egypt in his youth. He received his earliest education from his aunt along with a series of other tutors before entering Harvard in 1876. Upon graduation, he went to Columbia Law School. He stayed there one year before dropping out to begin his political life.
</p>
<h2> Family Ties </h2>
<p>
Roosevelt was the son of Theodore Roosevelt, Sr., who was a wealthy merchant, and Martha "Mittie" Bulloch, a southerner from Georgia who was sympathetic to the Confederate cause. He had two sisters and a brother. He had two wives. He married his first wife, Alice Hathaway Lee, on October 27, 1880. She was the daughter of a banker. She died at the age of 22. His second wife was named <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/first-ladies-picture-gallery-4122825">Edith Kermit Carow</a>. She grew up next door to Theodore. They married on December 2, 1886. Roosevelt had one daughter named Alice by his first wife. She would get married in the White House while he was president. He had four sons and one daughter by his second wife.
</p>
<h2> Theodore Roosevelt's Career Before the Presidency </h2>
<p>
In 1882, Roosevelt became the youngest member of the New York State Assembly. In 1884 he moved to the Dakota territory and worked as a cattle rancher. From 1889-1895, Roosevelt was a U.S. Civil Service Commissioner. He was President of the New York City Police Board from 1895-97 and then Assistant Secretary of the Navy (1897-98). He resigned to join the military. He was elected Governor of New York (1898-1900) and Vice President from March-September 1901 when he succeeded to the presidency.
</p>
<h2> Military Service </h2>
<p>
Roosevelt joined the U.S. Volunteer Cavalry Regiment which became known as the Rough Riders to fight in the <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/spanish-american-war-essentials-104900">Spanish-American War</a>. He served from May-September, 1898 and quickly rose to colonel. On July 1, he and the Rough Riders had a major <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/spanish-american-war-battle-of-san-juan-hill-2360836">victory at San Juan</a> charging up Kettle Hill. He was part of the occupying force of Santiago.
</p>
<h2> Becoming the President </h2>
<p>
Roosevelt became president on September 14, 1901, when <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/william-mckinley-25th-president-united-states-105503">President McKinley</a> died after being shot on September 6, 1901. He was the youngest man to ever become president at the age of 42. In 1904, he was the obvious choice for the Republican nomination. Charles W. Fairbanks was his vice presidential nominee. He was opposed by Democrat Alton B. Parker. Both candidates agreed about the major issues and the campaign became one of personality. Roosevelt easily won with 336 out of 476 electoral votes.
</p>
<h2> Events and Accomplishments of Theodore Roosevelt’s Presidency </h2>
<p>
President Roosevelt served through most of the first decade of the 1900s. He was determined to build a canal across Panama. America aided Panama in gaining independence from Colombia. The U.S. then created a treaty with the newly independent Panama to gain the canal zone in exchange for $10 million-plus annual payments.
</p>
<p>
The <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/top-six-foreign-policy-doctrines-105473">Monroe Doctrine</a> is one of the keystones of American foreign policy. It says that the western hemisphere is off-limits to foreign encroachment. Roosevelt added the Roosevelt Corollary to the Doctrine. This stated that it was the responsibility of America to intervene with force if necessary in Latin America to enforce the Monroe Doctrine. This was part of what became known as 'Big Stick Diplomacy'.
</p>
<p>
From 1904-05, the Russo-Japanese War occurred. Roosevelt was the mediator of peace between the two countries. Due to this, he won the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize.
</p>
<p>
While in office, Roosevelt was known for his progressive policies. One of his nicknames was Trust Buster because his administration used existing antitrust laws to fight against corruption in the railroad, oil, and other industries. His policies concerning trusts and labor reform were part of what he called the "Square Deal."
</p>
<p>
<a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/upton-sinclair-quotes-741426">Upton Sinclair</a> wrote about the disgusting and unsanitary practices of the meat packing industry in his novel <em>The Jungle</em>. This resulted in the Meat Inspection and the Pure Food and Drug Acts in 1906. These laws required the government to inspect meat and protect consumers from food and drugs that might be dangerous.
</p>
<p>
Roosevelt was well-known for his conservation efforts. He was known as the Great Conservationist. During his time in office, over 125 million acres in national forests were set aside under public protection. He also established the first national wildlife refuge.
</p>
<p>
In 1907, Roosevelt made an agreement with Japan known as the Gentleman's Agreement whereby Japan agreed to slow the immigration of laborers to America and in exchange, the U.S. would not pass a law like the <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/chinese-exclusion-act-1773304">Chinese Exclusion Act</a>.
</p>
<h2> Post-Presidential Period </h2>
<p>
Roosevelt did not run in 1908 and retired to Oyster Bay, New York. He went on a safari to Africa where he collected specimens for the Smithsonian Institute. Even though he promised not to run again, he sought the Republican nomination in 1912. When he lost, he formed the <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/bull-moose-party-104836">Bull Moose Party</a>. His presence caused the vote to be split allowing <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/woodrow-wilson-fast-facts-105510">Woodrow Wilson</a> to win. Roosevelt was shot in 1912 by a would-be assassin but was not seriously injured. He died on January 6, 1919, of a coronary embolism.
</p>
<h2> Historical Significance </h2>
<p>
Roosevelt was a fiery individualist who embodied the American culture of the early 1900s. His conservationism and willingness to take on big business are examples of why he is considered to be one of the better presidents. His progressive policies set the stage for important reforms of the 20th century.
</p>
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 Humanities › History & Culture

 Theodore Roosevelt: Twenty-Sixth President of the United States

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 Martin Kelly
 Martin Kelly
 History Expert
 * M.A., History, University of Florida
 * B.A., History, University of Florida
 Martin Kelly, M.A., is a history teacher and curriculum developer. He is the author of "The Everything American Presidents Book" and "Colonial Life: Government."
 Learn about our Editorial Process
 Updated on March 09, 2019

 Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919) served as America's 26th president. He was known as a trust buster and progressive politician. His fascinating life included serving as a Rough Rider during the Spanish American War. When he decided to run for reelection, he created his own third party nicknamed the Bull Moose Party.

 Theodore Roosevelt's Childhood and Education

 Born on October 27, 1858, in New York City, Roosevelt grew up very sickly with asthma and other illnesses. As he grew up, he exercised and boxed to try and build up his constitution. His family was wealthy traveling to Europe and Egypt in his youth. He received his earliest education from his aunt along with a series of other tutors before entering Harvard in 1876. Upon graduation, he went to Columbia Law School. He stayed there one year before dropping out to begin his political life.

 Family Ties

 Roosevelt was the son of Theodore Roosevelt, Sr., who was a wealthy merchant, and Martha "Mittie" Bulloch, a southerner from Georgia who was sympathetic to the Confederate cause. He had two sisters and a brother. He had two wives. He married his first wife, Alice Hathaway Lee, on October 27, 1880. She was the daughter of a banker. She died at the age of 22. His second wife was named Edith Kermit Carow. She grew up next door to Theodore. They married on December 2, 1886. Roosevelt had one daughter named Alice by his first wife. She would get married in the White House while he was president. He had four sons and one daughter by his second wife.

 Theodore Roosevelt's Career Before the Presidency

 In 1882, Roosevelt became the youngest member of the New York State Assembly. In 1884 he moved to the Dakota territory and worked as a cattle rancher. From 1889-1895, Roosevelt was a U.S. Civil Service Commissioner. He was President of the New York City Police Board from 1895-97 and then Assistant Secretary of the Navy (1897-98). He resigned to join the military. He was elected Governor of New York (1898-1900) and Vice President from March-September 1901 when he succeeded to the presidency.

 Military Service

 Roosevelt joined the U.S. Volunteer Cavalry Regiment which became known as the Rough Riders to fight in the Spanish-American War. He served from May-September, 1898 and quickly rose to colonel. On July 1, he and the Rough Riders had a major victory at San Juan charging up Kettle Hill. He was part of the occupying force of Santiago.

 Becoming the President

 Roosevelt became president on September 14, 1901, when President McKinley died after being shot on September 6, 1901. He was the youngest man to ever become president at the age of 42. In 1904, he was the obvious choice for the Republican nomination. Charles W. Fairbanks was his vice presidential nominee. He was opposed by Democrat Alton B. Parker. Both candidates agreed about the major issues and the campaign became one of personality. Roosevelt easily won with 336 out of 476 electoral votes.

 Events and Accomplishments of Theodore Roosevelt’s Presidency

 President Roosevelt served through most of the first decade of the 1900s. He was determined to build a canal across Panama. America aided Panama in gaining independence from Colombia. The U.S. then created a treaty with the newly independent Panama to gain the canal zone in exchange for $10 million-plus annual payments.

 The Monroe Doctrine is one of the keystones of American foreign policy. It says that the western hemisphere is off-limits to foreign encroachment. Roosevelt added the Roosevelt Corollary to the Doctrine. This stated that it was the responsibility of America to intervene with force if necessary in Latin America to enforce the Monroe Doctrine. This was part of what became known as 'Big Stick Diplomacy'.

 From 1904-05, the Russo-Japanese War occurred. Roosevelt was the mediator of peace between the two countries. Due to this, he won the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize.

 While in office, Roosevelt was known for his progressive policies. One of his nicknames was Trust Buster because his administration used existing antitrust laws to fight against corruption in the railroad, oil, and other industries. His policies concerning trusts and labor reform were part of what he called the "Square Deal."

 Upton Sinclair wrote about the disgusting and unsanitary practices of the meat packing industry in his novel The Jungle. This resulted in the Meat Inspection and the Pure Food and Drug Acts in 1906. These laws required the government to inspect meat and protect consumers from food and drugs that might be dangerous.

 Roosevelt was well-known for his conservation efforts. He was known as the Great Conservationist. During his time in office, over 125 million acres in national forests were set aside under public protection. He also established the first national wildlife refuge.

 In 1907, Roosevelt made an agreement with Japan known as the Gentleman's Agreement whereby Japan agreed to slow the immigration of laborers to America and in exchange, the U.S. would not pass a law like the Chinese Exclusion Act.

 Post-Presidential Period

 Roosevelt did not run in 1908 and retired to Oyster Bay, New York. He went on a safari to Africa where he collected specimens for the Smithsonian Institute. Even though he promised not to run again, he sought the Republican nomination in 1912. When he lost, he formed the Bull Moose Party. His presence caused the vote to be split allowing Woodrow Wilson to win. Roosevelt was shot in 1912 by a would-be assassin but was not seriously injured. He died on January 6, 1919, of a coronary embolism.

 Historical Significance

 Roosevelt was a fiery individualist who embodied the American culture of the early 1900s. His conservationism and willingness to take on big business are examples of why he is considered to be one of the better presidents. His progressive policies set the stage for important reforms of the 20th century.

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 Kelly, Martin. "Theodore Roosevelt: Twenty-Sixth President of the United States." ThoughtCo, Feb. 16, 2021, thoughtco.com/theodore-roosevelt-26th-president-united-states-105370. Kelly, Martin. (2021, February 16). Theodore Roosevelt: Twenty-Sixth President of the United States. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/theodore-roosevelt-26th-president-united-states-105370 Kelly, Martin. "Theodore Roosevelt: Twenty-Sixth President of the United States." ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/theodore-roosevelt-26th-president-united-states-105370 (accessed February 6, 2023).
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Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919) served as America's 26th president. He was known as a trust buster and progressive politician. His fascinating life included serving as a Rough Rider during the Spanish American War. When he decided to run for reelection, he created his own third party nicknamed the Bull Moose Party. 
 Theodore Roosevelt's Childhood and Education 
Born on October 27, 1858, in New York City, Roosevelt grew up very sickly with asthma and other illnesses. As he grew up, he exercised and boxed to try and build up his constitution. His family was wealthy traveling to Europe and Egypt in his youth. He received his earliest education from his aunt along with a series of other tutors before entering Harvard in 1876. Upon graduation, he went to Columbia Law School. He stayed there one year before dropping out to begin his political life.
 Family Ties 
Roosevelt was the son of Theodore Roosevelt, Sr., who was a wealthy merchant, and Martha "Mittie" Bulloch, a southerner from Georgia who was sympathetic to the Confederate cause. He had two sisters and a brother. He had two wives. He married his first wife, Alice Hathaway Lee, on October 27, 1880. She was the daughter of a banker. She died at the age of 22. His second wife was named Edith Kermit Carow. She grew up next door to Theodore. They married on December 2, 1886. Roosevelt had one daughter named Alice by his first wife. She would get married in the White House while he was president. He had four sons and one daughter by his second wife.
 Theodore Roosevelt's Career Before the Presidency 
In 1882, Roosevelt became the youngest member of the New York State Assembly. In 1884 he moved to the Dakota territory and worked as a cattle rancher. From 1889-1895, Roosevelt was a U.S. Civil Service Commissioner. He was President of the New York City Police Board from 1895-97 and then Assistant Secretary of the Navy (1897-98). He resigned to join the military. He was elected Governor of New York (1898-1900) and Vice President from March-September 1901 when he succeeded to the presidency.
 Military Service 
Roosevelt joined the U.S. Volunteer Cavalry Regiment which became known as the Rough Riders to fight in the Spanish-American War. He served from May-September, 1898 and quickly rose to colonel. On July 1, he and the Rough Riders had a major victory at San Juan charging up Kettle Hill. He was part of the occupying force of Santiago.
 Becoming the President 
Roosevelt became president on September 14, 1901, when President McKinley died after being shot on September 6, 1901. He was the youngest man to ever become president at the age of 42. In 1904, he was the obvious choice for the Republican nomination. Charles W. Fairbanks was his vice presidential nominee. He was opposed by Democrat Alton B. Parker. Both candidates agreed about the major issues and the campaign became one of personality. Roosevelt easily won with 336 out of 476 electoral votes.
 Events and Accomplishments of Theodore Roosevelt’s Presidency 
President Roosevelt served through most of the first decade of the 1900s. He was determined to build a canal across Panama. America aided Panama in gaining independence from Colombia. The U.S. then created a treaty with the newly independent Panama to gain the canal zone in exchange for $10 million-plus annual payments.
The Monroe Doctrine is one of the keystones of American foreign policy. It says that the western hemisphere is off-limits to foreign encroachment. Roosevelt added the Roosevelt Corollary to the Doctrine. This stated that it was the responsibility of America to intervene with force if necessary in Latin America to enforce the Monroe Doctrine. This was part of what became known as 'Big Stick Diplomacy'.
From 1904-05, the Russo-Japanese War occurred. Roosevelt was the mediator of peace between the two countries. Due to this, he won the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize.
While in office, Roosevelt was known for his progressive policies. One of his nicknames was Trust Buster because his administration used existing antitrust laws to fight against corruption in the railroad, oil, and other industries. His policies concerning trusts and labor reform were part of what he called the "Square Deal."
Upton Sinclair wrote about the disgusting and unsanitary practices of the meat packing industry in his novel The Jungle. This resulted in the Meat Inspection and the Pure Food and Drug Acts in 1906. These laws required the government to inspect meat and protect consumers from food and drugs that might be dangerous.
Roosevelt was well-known for his conservation efforts. He was known as the Great Conservationist. During his time in office, over 125 million acres in national forests were set aside under public protection. He also established the first national wildlife refuge.
In 1907, Roosevelt made an agreement with Japan known as the Gentleman's Agreement whereby Japan agreed to slow the immigration of laborers to America and in exchange, the U.S. would not pass a law like the Chinese Exclusion Act.
 Post-Presidential Period 
Roosevelt did not run in 1908 and retired to Oyster Bay, New York. He went on a safari to Africa where he collected specimens for the Smithsonian Institute. Even though he promised not to run again, he sought the Republican nomination in 1912. When he lost, he formed the Bull Moose Party. His presence caused the vote to be split allowing Woodrow Wilson to win. Roosevelt was shot in 1912 by a would-be assassin but was not seriously injured. He died on January 6, 1919, of a coronary embolism.
 Historical Significance 
Roosevelt was a fiery individualist who embodied the American culture of the early 1900s. His conservationism and willingness to take on big business are examples of why he is considered to be one of the better presidents. His progressive policies set the stage for important reforms of the 20th century.
Learn About Theodore Roosevelt's Life and Presidency
https://www.thoughtco.com/theodore-roosevelt-26th-president-united-states-105370
https://www.ducksters.com/biography/uspresidents/theodoreroosevelt.php
Biography of President Theodore Roosevelt
2024-01-01
None
<div>
<br/>
<a href="https://www.ducksters.com/biography/">Biographies</a> &gt;&gt; <a href="https://www.ducksters.com/biography/uspresidents/">US Presidents</a>
<h2><p>President Theodore Roosevelt (Teddy)</p></h2>
<p>
Go here to watch a <a href="https://www.ducksters.com/videos/theodore-roosevelt.php">video about Theodore Roosevelt</a>.
</p><div>
<p>
<br/><i>Theodore Roosevelt</i><br/>by the Pach Brothers</p></div>
Theodore Roosevelt was the <b></b> of the United States.
<p>
<b></b> 1901-1909<br/>
<b> </b> Charles Warren Fairbanks<br/>
<b></b> Republican <br/>
<b></b> 42
</p><p>
<b></b> October 27, 1858 in New York, New York <br/>
<b></b> January 6, 1919 in Oyster Bay, New York
</p><p>
<b></b> Edith Kermit Carow Roosevelt <br/>
<b></b> Alice, Theodore, Ethel, Kermit, Archibald, Quentin<br/>
<b></b> Teddy, TR, The Trust Buster, Colonel
</p><p>
<b></b></p><p>
<b>What is Theodore Roosevelt most known for?</b></p><p>
Prior to becoming president, Roosevelt was famous for leading the Rough Riders in a battle at San Juan Hill in Cuba. While he was president he gained the nickname The Trust Buster for breaking up large companies called monopolies. His most famous quote is "Speak softly and carry a big stick".
</p><p>
<br/><i>Young Theodore Roosevelt</i>. Photo by Unknown</p>
<br/>
<b>Growing Up</b>
<p>
Theodore Roosevelt grew up in a wealthy family in <a href="https://www.ducksters.com/geography/us_states/new_york_history.php">New York</a>. He was a sickly, asthmatic child. His father suggested that he exercise and stay active in order to improve his health. This worked and Teddy became a strong young man who liked the outdoors and staying active.
</p><p>
Theodore went to Harvard University and then studied law at Columbia. He soon went into politics and won a seat on the New York state legislature. However, tragedy struck when his first wife and his mother passed away. Theodore was devastated and went to the American west to work on a ranch as a <a href="https://www.ducksters.com/history/westward_expansion/cowboys.php">cowboy</a>.
</p><b>Before He Became President</b>
<p>
Roosevelt returned to New York in 1886 and got married soon after. He began to work for the government again and held a variety of jobs over the next several years including the U.S. Civil Service Commission under President Benjamin Harrison, New York City Police Commissioner, and Assistant Secretary of the Navy.
</p><p>
In 1898 the <a href="https://www.ducksters.com/history/us_1800s/spanish-american_war.php">Spanish-American War</a> broke out. Roosevelt gathered a bunch of volunteers and formed a volunteer cavalry regiment that became known as the "Rough Riders". Roosevelt and the Rough Riders became famous war heroes for their charge up San Juan Hill in Cuba.
</p><p>
After the Spanish-American War, Roosevelt was elected governor of New York. He became known as a fierce fighter of corruption within the government. In 1900 he became Vice-President as running mate to <a href="https://www.ducksters.com/biography/uspresidents/williammckinley.php">President William McKinley</a>.
</p><p>
<b>Theodore Roosevelt's Presidency</b></p><p>
In September of 1901, President McKinley was assassinated and Roosevelt became president. As president, Roosevelt worked hard to improve the quality of life for the average American. He took on large corporations that had formed monopolies or trusts. These trusts enabled companies to keep wages low and prices high. Roosevelt broke up many of these trusts and earned the nickname "the trustbuster".
</p>Other major accomplishments:
<ul>
<li>He won the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts in negotiating peace between Russia and Japan.</li>
<li>He established the U.S. as the "police power" for the Western Hemisphere stating that the U.S. would protect threatened countries in North and South America. This was called his "Big Stick Diplomacy".</li>
<li>He helped to increase the government regulation and safety standards of food and medicine with the Meat Inspection Act and the Pure Food and Drug Act.</li>
<li>He worked on conservation by setting aside large areas of land out west for national forests and public use. </li>
<li>He saw to it that the Panama Canal was built, creating a short cut between the Atlantic and the Pacific Ocean.</li>
</ul>
<b>How did he die?</b>
<p>
Roosevelt died in 1919 when his health failed. His health was never quite the same after his youngest son, Quentin, died in World War I a year earlier.
</p><div><p>
<br/><i>Theodore Roosevelt</i><br/>by John Singer Sargent</p></div>
<p>
<b>Fun Facts about Theodore Roosevelt</b></p><ul>
<li>At 42 years, 10 months, 18 days old he was the youngest man to hold the office of president.</li>
<li>After sitting out a term, he ran for president again in 1912 for the Bull Moose Party. He made a strong showing, but did not win.</li>
<li>He didn't like the nickname Teddy, but preferred TR or Colonel.</li>
<li>When he traveled to visit the Panama Canal in 1906 he became the first U.S. president to leave the country while in office.</li>
<li>He was blind in his left eye due to an injury in a boxing match.</li>
<li>He was shot in 1912 while campaigning for president for the Bull Moose Party. He continued with his speech stating that "it takes more than that to kill a Bull Moose".</li>
</ul>
<b>Activities</b>
<p>
Take a ten question <a href="https://www.ducksters.com/biography/uspresidents/theodoreroosevelt_questions.php">quiz</a> about this page.</p><ul>
<li>Listen to a recorded reading of this page:</li>
<br/>
</ul>
<p>
<a href="https://www.ducksters.com/biography/">Biographies</a> &gt;&gt; <a href="https://www.ducksters.com/biography/uspresidents/">US Presidents</a></p><p>
<a href="https://www.ducksters.com/works_cited/us_presidents.php">Works Cited</a></p>
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 Biography

 President Theodore Roosevelt (Teddy)



 Go here to watch a video about Theodore Roosevelt.


 Theodore Roosevelt
 by the Pach Brothers
 Theodore Roosevelt was the 26th President of the United States.

 Served as President: 1901-1909
 Vice President: Charles Warren Fairbanks
 Party: Republican
 Age at inauguration: 42

 Born: October 27, 1858 in New York, New York
 Died: January 6, 1919 in Oyster Bay, New York

 Married: Edith Kermit Carow Roosevelt
 Children: Alice, Theodore, Ethel, Kermit, Archibald, Quentin
 Nickname: Teddy, TR, The Trust Buster, Colonel

 Biography:

 What is Theodore Roosevelt most known for?

 Prior to becoming president, Roosevelt was famous for leading the Rough Riders in a battle at San Juan Hill in Cuba. While he was president he gained the nickname The Trust Buster for breaking up large companies called monopolies. His most famous quote is "Speak softly and carry a big stick".


 Young Theodore Roosevelt. Photo by Unknown

 Growing Up

 Theodore Roosevelt grew up in a wealthy family in New York. He was a sickly, asthmatic child. His father suggested that he exercise and stay active in order to improve his health. This worked and Teddy became a strong young man who liked the outdoors and staying active.

 Theodore went to Harvard University and then studied law at Columbia. He soon went into politics and won a seat on the New York state legislature. However, tragedy struck when his first wife and his mother passed away. Theodore was devastated and went to the American west to work on a ranch as a cowboy.

 Before He Became President

 Roosevelt returned to New York in 1886 and got married soon after. He began to work for the government again and held a variety of jobs over the next several years including the U.S. Civil Service Commission under President Benjamin Harrison, New York City Police Commissioner, and Assistant Secretary of the Navy.

 In 1898 the Spanish-American War broke out. Roosevelt gathered a bunch of volunteers and formed a volunteer cavalry regiment that became known as the "Rough Riders". Roosevelt and the Rough Riders became famous war heroes for their charge up San Juan Hill in Cuba.

 After the Spanish-American War, Roosevelt was elected governor of New York. He became known as a fierce fighter of corruption within the government. In 1900 he became Vice-President as running mate to President William McKinley.

 Theodore Roosevelt's Presidency

 In September of 1901, President McKinley was assassinated and Roosevelt became president. As president, Roosevelt worked hard to improve the quality of life for the average American. He took on large corporations that had formed monopolies or trusts. These trusts enabled companies to keep wages low and prices high. Roosevelt broke up many of these trusts and earned the nickname "the trustbuster".

 Other major accomplishments:
 * He won the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts in negotiating peace between Russia and Japan.
 * He established the U.S. as the "police power" for the Western Hemisphere stating that the U.S. would protect threatened countries in North and South America. This was called his "Big Stick Diplomacy".
 * He helped to increase the government regulation and safety standards of food and medicine with the Meat Inspection Act and the Pure Food and Drug Act.
 * He worked on conservation by setting aside large areas of land out west for national forests and public use.
 * He saw to it that the Panama Canal was built, creating a short cut between the Atlantic and the Pacific Ocean.
 How did he die?

 Roosevelt died in 1919 when his health failed. His health was never quite the same after his youngest son, Quentin, died in World War I a year earlier.

 Theodore Roosevelt
 by John Singer Sargent


 Fun Facts about Theodore Roosevelt
 * At 42 years, 10 months, 18 days old he was the youngest man to hold the office of president.
 * After sitting out a term, he ran for president again in 1912 for the Bull Moose Party. He made a strong showing, but did not win.
 * He didn't like the nickname Teddy, but preferred TR or Colonel.
 * When he traveled to visit the Panama Canal in 1906 he became the first U.S. president to leave the country while in office.
 * He was blind in his left eye due to an injury in a boxing match.
 * He was shot in 1912 while campaigning for president for the Bull Moose Party. He continued with his speech stating that "it takes more than that to kill a Bull Moose".
 Activities

 Take a ten question quiz about this page.
 * Listen to a recorded reading of this page:

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 Biographies >> US Presidents

 Works Cited

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Biographies &gt;&gt; US Presidents
 President Theodore Roosevelt (Teddy) 
Go here to watch a video about Theodore Roosevelt.
 
 Theodore Roosevelt by the Pach Brothers 
Theodore Roosevelt was the   of the United States.
  1901-1909
  Charles Warren Fairbanks
  Republican 
  42
 
  October 27, 1858 in New York, New York 
  January 6, 1919 in Oyster Bay, New York
 
  Edith Kermit Carow Roosevelt 
  Alice, Theodore, Ethel, Kermit, Archibald, Quentin
  Teddy, TR, The Trust Buster, Colonel
 
   
What is Theodore Roosevelt most known for?  
Prior to becoming president, Roosevelt was famous for leading the Rough Riders in a battle at San Juan Hill in Cuba. While he was president he gained the nickname The Trust Buster for breaking up large companies called monopolies. His most famous quote is "Speak softly and carry a big stick".
 
 Young Theodore Roosevelt. Photo by Unknown
Growing Up
Theodore Roosevelt grew up in a wealthy family in New York. He was a sickly, asthmatic child. His father suggested that he exercise and stay active in order to improve his health. This worked and Teddy became a strong young man who liked the outdoors and staying active.
 
Theodore went to Harvard University and then studied law at Columbia. He soon went into politics and won a seat on the New York state legislature. However, tragedy struck when his first wife and his mother passed away. Theodore was devastated and went to the American west to work on a ranch as a cowboy.
 Before He Became President
Roosevelt returned to New York in 1886 and got married soon after. He began to work for the government again and held a variety of jobs over the next several years including the U.S. Civil Service Commission under President Benjamin Harrison, New York City Police Commissioner, and Assistant Secretary of the Navy.
 
In 1898 the Spanish-American War broke out. Roosevelt gathered a bunch of volunteers and formed a volunteer cavalry regiment that became known as the "Rough Riders". Roosevelt and the Rough Riders became famous war heroes for their charge up San Juan Hill in Cuba.
 
After the Spanish-American War, Roosevelt was elected governor of New York. He became known as a fierce fighter of corruption within the government. In 1900 he became Vice-President as running mate to President William McKinley.
 
Theodore Roosevelt's Presidency  
In September of 1901, President McKinley was assassinated and Roosevelt became president. As president, Roosevelt worked hard to improve the quality of life for the average American. He took on large corporations that had formed monopolies or trusts. These trusts enabled companies to keep wages low and prices high. Roosevelt broke up many of these trusts and earned the nickname "the trustbuster".
Other major accomplishments:
He won the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts in negotiating peace between Russia and Japan.
He established the U.S. as the "police power" for the Western Hemisphere stating that the U.S. would protect threatened countries in North and South America. This was called his "Big Stick Diplomacy".
He helped to increase the government regulation and safety standards of food and medicine with the Meat Inspection Act and the Pure Food and Drug Act.
He worked on conservation by setting aside large areas of land out west for national forests and public use. 
He saw to it that the Panama Canal was built, creating a short cut between the Atlantic and the Pacific Ocean.
How did he die?
Roosevelt died in 1919 when his health failed. His health was never quite the same after his youngest son, Quentin, died in World War I a year earlier.
  
 Theodore Roosevelt by John Singer Sargent 
Fun Facts about Theodore Roosevelt  
At 42 years, 10 months, 18 days old he was the youngest man to hold the office of president.
After sitting out a term, he ran for president again in 1912 for the Bull Moose Party. He made a strong showing, but did not win.
He didn't like the nickname Teddy, but preferred TR or Colonel.
When he traveled to visit the Panama Canal in 1906 he became the first U.S. president to leave the country while in office.
He was blind in his left eye due to an injury in a boxing match.
He was shot in 1912 while campaigning for president for the Bull Moose Party. He continued with his speech stating that "it takes more than that to kill a Bull Moose".
Activities
Take a ten question quiz about this page. 
Listen to a recorded reading of this page:
Biographies &gt;&gt; US Presidents  
Works Cited
Biography of President Theodore Roosevelt
https://www.ducksters.com/biography/uspresidents/theodoreroosevelt.php